Symposium on Calendars Used in Asia and Oceania

ArticleB. S. SHYLAJA*

Here, we attempt to analyze the evolution of the calendars over the last thousand years as

11

号（２０２２）

Research Papers of the Anthropological Institute Vol.11 (2022)『人類学研究所 研究論集』第Inscriptions and Evolution of the Calendars
in South East Asia

depicted by one of the most reliable sources—the stone inscriptions. These are found allover India as edicts, records of grants and donations and commemorative stones marking
heroic deeds. A large collection exists in the form of copper plates preserved by many families. The practice of creating such records extended to South and South East Asia as earlyas before the Common Era. The time is recorded very systematically and hence, these serve
as reliable time markers. The different methods of reckoning time help us to trace the modification from time to time, as also the influence of local systems and other calendars.
Keywords
Calendars, South East Asia, Luni-Solar Calendars, Śaka Count of Years,
Representation of Numerals, Influence of Other Calendars, Intercalary Months
Contents
I
II
III
IV
V
VI

I

Introduction
Stone Inscriptions
Depiction of dates in stone inscriptions
Comparison with inscriptions from South East Asia
Discussion
Conclusions

which are still being used as time markers even today.

Introduction

However, we cannot pinpoint the exact time frame when
the association with the stars became separated from theTime measurement has evolved at its own pace and intime measure.

its own space, though governed by the movement of thesame sun and moon. Marking the months by the sun’s

It may not be out of place to recall the names of theposition and the days of the month by the phase of themonths which are derived from the names of the stars

moon has been the practice in India for over 3000 years(almost) in conjunction with the full moon.

as is evident from astronomical and non-astronomical

The same 27 stars are used to reckon the position of

texts. The apparent motions of the sun and the moon

the sun. They are recognized as “male” stars meaning

through the ecliptic were perhaps the first to be identi-“rain star.” Agriculturists use this nomenclature as is

fied with the help of 27 stars (Pai and Shylaja, 2016).

evident in the calendars currently in use.

* Jawaharlal Nehru Planetarium, High Grounds, Bengaluru, India

36

Table 1. The names of the lunar months and the stars associated with the full moon
Name of monthstar nameidentifi cation

corres pondence

Caitra

Citrā

Spica

March–AprilVaiśākhViśākhāδ LibraApril–MayJyeṣṭhaJyeṣṭhaAntares

May–JuneĀṣadhaPurvaṣādha

σ SagittariiJune–JulyŚravana

AltairJuly–August

Purvābhādra

β Pegasus

August–SeptemberĀśvayujaAśvini

β Arieties

September–October

KārtikaKṛttika

Pleiades

October–November

Mārgaśira

Mṛgaśira

λ Orionis

November–December

Puṣya

Puṣya

δ Cancri

December–January

Māgha

Magha

Regulus

January–February

Phālguna

Uttara Phalguni

Denebola

February–March

Fig. 1. A typical calendar, in use today, for October 2021. The time units aremarked with arrows at the bottom

The evolution of the calendar has been discussed by

the solar month incorporated vertically. It may be seen

earlier investigators (Saha and Lahiri, 1992), whothat in this calendar of October 2021, the transition fromdiscuss the southern regions briefly. The notion of theVirgo (Kanya) to Libra (Tula) occurs on the 17th. The“rain” star is not included.

next column gives the lunar months and days. The

Figure 1 shows a typical calendar with the “rain stars”

month begins on the day after the new moon, and here,

marked for October which is currently in use in theit is on the 7th. This serial number gives the phase of thesouthern region.

moon. The next column gives the serial number of theWe can see the other details from the calendar.

stars (from the list of 27). The last wider column gives

Column 2 gives the day of the week. Column 3 gives thedetails of festivals/holidays and the like. We will see thatmonth and day according to the Muhammadan System.

the same system has been used for over 2000 years. A

Column 4 reckons the solar year count, with the name ofsmall box below provides information on the “rain” star37

Inscriptions and Evolution of the Calendars in South East AsiaŚrāvanaBhādrapada

(MALE–nakṣatra), and the sun in conjunction with theparallel counts of years are available. Kali era (with thestar Spica (Citrā) on the 10th and the 23rd with Arcturusepoch of ~BCE 3100) Saptarṣi era (epoch around the(Svāthi).

fifth century BCE) (Saha and Lahiri, 1992) or from thedate of coronation of the reigning king, Islamic calendar

The year count called Śālivāhana Śaka is a count号（２０２２）

Research Papers of the Anthropological Institute Vol.11 (2022)『人類学研究所 研究論集』第11counts are some examples.

from 78 CE. It is called the Śaka year and runs to a
4-digit number. For civilian purposes, another cycle of

These meticulous records of time have been used by

60 years called Samvatsara is used. The current

historians for various purposes. The genealogy of theSamvatsara is called Plava. There is another countkings, the expansion of culture and traditions, trade andcalled Vikrama Śaka with epoch 58 BCE.

commerce practices, studies related to linguistics have

As we will see later, the stone inscriptions reveal that

all flourished with this vast treasure of records of morethis scheme has been extended to the other regions ofthan 2000 years. Solar and lunar eclipses chosen as the

Asia and South East Asia.

date of inscription for grants and awards offered a very
good source for verification. The same eclipse recorded

II

from different geographical locations can be used forStone Inscriptions

correcting the errors and/or finding the missing links.

The stone inscriptions seen all over India and beyond

Such studies extended across the globe, for example,

are edicts for various purposes. The teachings of the

one record from India and another from China have

Buddha can be traced back to the third century BCE

yielded very interesting results related to the variation inextending from Afghanistan to Cambodia. (Shylaja,

the speed of rotation of the earth (Tanikawa et al., 2018).

2018) In subsequent years the deeds of award of a grant

Typical inscriptions are shown in Figure 2. It consists

for religious and social causes are found to be inscribed.

of approximately three parts. The act for which the

The commemorative inscriptions for heroic deeds likerecord is being made is inferred from the bottom

the death of a soldier in a war, or in the act of saving

panel—a war scene for a soldier, a scene of a fight withpeople from attack by wild animals also find a mention.

a wild animal (Fig. 2a) for a heroic deed, the upheld arm

Self-immolation acts like that of a saint trying to achieveof a lady (Fig. 2b) for the Sati event, fire and the act ofsalvation or the Sati (widow immolating herself with theself-immolation and so on. The next panel will have thedead body of the husband) are also recorded (Shylaja

depiction of the hero presumably being taken to heaven

and Geetha, 2016a).

by divine dancers and the one above him in the abode of

The awards of land for scholars immortalize them inGod. The inscription will be in the top portion at the eyethese inscriptions revealing some forgotten names. One

level of the beholder. Such stones have been discovered

such name is Shankaranarayan Joisaru whose work has

in big cities like Bengaluru as well as abandoned vil-been discovered recently (Shylaja and Seetharama,lages. The land grants will not have any drawings but2021).

only plain text as in Fig. 2c. They are usually found inopen spaces like the courtyards of temples.

The Archaeological Survey of India is currently publishing the records on inscriptions as new excavations

The copper plates are in the safe possession of fami-

unearth new records. Thus, the publications are classi-lies who revere them as inherited treasure. Theirfied as per the region and not necessarily in chronologi-

unwillingness to part with them had made them inacces-

cal order. In the same village, we find records spread

sible for study. In the last few decades, many enthusiasts

over several hundred years. Sometimes on the samecollected them by almost begging from door to door.

pillar of a temple, we find inscriptions that are decades

Thus, a small number are now available in museums andor even centuries apart.

archival study centers. Some have been recovered fromdemolished structures.

In all cases, one may see that the date is recorded in
the same convention as described with reference to the

The language used may be Sanskrit, Prakrit, Kannada

modern calendar depicted in Figure 1. In many cases

or any regional language. In the majority of cases, the38

c. Plain text of a grants/donations deeda. A war scene for a commemorative stoneFig. 2. Typical stone inscriptions

same sentences are written in two or three different lan-week. The other items of interest for astronomers are theguages. The text gives a very lengthy description thatmention of eclipse or of equal declination called

includes the heroic deeds and the genealogy of thevyatipāta (Shylaja and Geetha, 2016b). The winter/

donor (king) followed by the greatness of the donor,

summer solstice dates are recorded in terms of the phasedonee, (one who receives the donation) praising hisof the moon. Generally all of them will have a symbol ofscholarship and genealogy. The date can be anywhere in

the sun and the moon on the top. Epigraphists opine thatthe text, and therefore, one has to read the entire passage

it implies the sanctity of the grants/donations mentioned

which may run to several pages.

therein lasts as long as the sun and the moon.

The citation of the date begins with Śaka year/years
after coronation, the name of the samvatsara, themonth, the thithi (phase of the moon), and the day of the39

Inscriptions and Evolution of the Calendars in South East Asia

b. A hand held upright symbol for a lady

III

Samvatsara is kālayukti. The month is marge (full moon

Depiction of dates in stone inscriptions

near Betelguese, December) and the lunar eclipse. The
date is, therefore, December 3rd, 1378.

The date in the inscription is recorded in sentences;
tions, followed by numerals. As mentioned earlier, thesome errors, which arise due to the confusion on theyear count is counted from the year of the coronation ofname of the year which may be current or elapsed.

the King or Sālivāhana Śaka (epoch 78 CE) or (Vikrama

Many stones are often damaged so that all the details areŚaka 58 BCE). On rare occasions, the other systems are

not legible.

also written providing an excellent scheme for compari-

The scheme for assigning the name of Samvatsara–

son of calendars. The numbers are written in words

Phālguṇādi (beginning from Phālguṇa–Feb/March) or

coined specially. This scheme called Bhūta sankhya

Kārtikādi (beginning in October/November) appears to(bhūta = object, sankhya = number) is very common andhave changed over centuries. The month may be in thewas quite popular because it was foolproof. Number one

scheme of Amānta (ending with the new moon) or

11

is represented by the earth; eyes correspond to two, firepūrṇimānta (ending with full moon). The stone inscrip-

corresponds to three (there are three sacrificial fires);tions provide data for establishing the scheme as relevant

four is represented by Vedas (these are four sacredto that year and place. The parallel counts of years

scriptures) and so on. The digits are to be read from theinclude the Kaliyuga system, Chālukya Vikrama Śaka,right side, as we see in the example below. The name ofŚālivāhana Śaka, Buddha Nirvāṇa, Mahāvīra Nirvāṇa.

the Samvatsara in the cycle of 60 years is mentioned.

During the reign of Hyder Ali and Tippu Sultan, (in the

The name of the month, with the fortnight—Śukla

second half of the eighteenth century) we find the Hizri(bright, ending with full moon) and Kṛṣna (dark, ending

and Fasli counts also included in South India. Likewise,with the new moon) is mentioned. The phase of thethe ones in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries

moon is indicated as thithis.

include the count as per Common Era.

号（２０２２）

Research Papers of the Anthropological Institute Vol.11 (2022)

The mention of eclipses has, thus, helped in fixing『人類学研究所 研究論集』第the numbers are generally written in words or abbrevia-

Not all inscriptions may give the time of the day, but

Here is another example where the year could be

the sub-units of a thithi called yoga and karaṇa are

fixed with the help of other inscriptions citing an

given in some cases. In one or two examples we see theeclipse.

declaration of the ascendant (lagna, this term implies“After the sake years senses, eyes, arrows and moon,

the zodiacal constellation rising in the east at thathas passed, while the cyclic śōbhakrit was current, ininstant). If there are other celestial events such as

the month of Phālguņa, on the brilliant tenth thithi of theeclipses, solstices, planetary conjunctions, they are alsobright fortnight, in Pușyaka, Thursday in the auspicious

mentioned.

lagna Mithuna—at the divine order of the sage

We will understand this with a couple of examples.

Cārukirthi, the sun of the firmament of the Dēśigaņa,One of the earliest records gives (Epigraphia Indica(and) the moon in milk-ocean of the pontificate of theVol. 1 number 1) Śaka as 388 and the name of the month

town named Belagola—he, who was named Timmarāja,

is Māgha and the star is given as Svāthi. Thus the year isthe ornament of the family of Cāmunḍā, the son-in-law

388 +78 = 466 CE; the full moon near Regulus (Magha)of the glorious Rāyakuvara, the victorious son of king’s

occurs in June. Furthermore, the mention of conjunction

sister, the great queen named Pānḍyaka, the younger

with Svati (Arcturus) refines the date to June 7th.

brother of prince Pānḍya, consecrated and set up theAnother inscription (Epigraphia Carnatica Vol. X,

Jina named Bhujabalin, at the town of Enūru.”Hulikere no. 131) gives Śaka khadyaya shikhi Shashi,This is to be read as follows:

kalayukti, marge, parve, somagrahane. The numerals

After the śaka years (measured by the objects) senses

are kha dvaya (zero twice), śikhi (3), śaśi (1). They are(5), eyes (2), arrows (5) and moon (1), had passed, while

to be arranged from the right side so the number is 1300,

the cyclic śōbhakrit was current, in the month ofwhich corresponds to 1378 CE. The name of the

Phālguņa, on the brilliant tenth thithi of the bright fort-

40

March 17, 1605. This turned out to be a very valuable

Thursday in the auspicious lagna Mithuna—at theargument in assigning the description to the 1604

divine order of the sage Cārukirthi, the sun of the firma-

supernova seen as “a fire in the ocean of the Milky Way”

ment of the Dēśigaņa, (and) the moon in milk-ocean ofby translating the word nishakara as the camphor. The

the pontificate of the town named Belagola—he, who

epigraphists had translated it as the moon (Shylaja,

was named Timmarāja, the ornament of the family of2019).

Cāmunḍā, the son-in-law of the glorious Rāyakuvara,

The winter solstice or Uttarāyaṇa was an importantthe victorious son of his sister, the great queen named

event. The confusion in fixing its date arises because thePānḍyaka, the younger brother of prince Pānḍya, conse-

civilian calendar is lunar, and solar events like equinoxes

crated and set up the Jina named Bhujabalin, at the town

and solstices are expressed in the lunar system. The

of Enūru.’earlier scholars perhaps had very little scope to evaluate
the lunar system and would adopt the European system

The year is śaka 1525 and the name of Samvatsara as

to fix solstices. Here is an example (from Venkatasubbiah,śōbhakrit, the 37th in the list of 60.
The month was Phālguna (full moon of this month

1918) for Śaka 1052, Sādhāraṇa, the day of Makara

near the star β Leo or Denebola) corresponding to

Sankrānti (transit of the sun in to Capricorn). Various

February–March.

interpretations are possible as shown by the following
seven options.

Brilliant, bright fortnight, 10th day after the newi.

moon, the moon being near the star Pusyaka (d Cancri).

For Śaka 1047–December 23rd, 24th, 25th (and26th also?), 1125 AD.

It was a Thursday; Ascendant was Gemini (Mithuna).
ii.

This fixes the time to about 2 hours before sunset.

For Śaka 1048– December 23rd, 24th, 25th and26th, 1126 AD.

This fixes the year as 1603. However, we found fromiii. For Śaka 1049– December 24th, 25th and 26th,

other eclipse inscriptions of the same Sobhakrit that it

1127 AD.

refers to 1604. Therefore, here, the name may be that ofiv.

the elapsed year.

For Śaka 1050– December 23rd, 24th and 25th,
1128 AD.

A Samvatsara commences on the day after the newv.

moon around the vernal equinox and concludes on the

For Śaka 1051– December 23rd, 24th, 25th and26th, 1129 AD.

same new moon next year. śōbhakrit is the 37th in thevi. For Śaka 1052– December 23rd, 24th, 25th andlist (Shylaja, 1997).

26th, 1130 AD.

The inscription number Epigraphia Kannada Univervii. For Śaka 1053– December 24th, 25th and 26th,

sity Vol. V Part I, no. 345 gives śaka 1524 śubhakrit1131 AD.

māgha ba śivaratri—equivalent to February 23, 1603.
The inscription EKU Vol III Appendix no 87 gives

The tropical event can be any of these days of theanother record śaka 1526 Krōdhi Pușya ba 3 as Makarasame year—December 13th, 14th, 15th, 16th, 17th, orSankranti equivalent to December 28, 1604.

18th, 1130 AD. It has been found that there are not many

It may be seen that there is a disagreement in the

instances where tropical Sankrānti is used. This state-conversion of śaka to CE. It is noticed that some inscrip-

ment appears as a footnote by Venkatasubbaiah thetions mention the current śaka year and some the pastauthor (“I have not met with any instance of solar

one. Since we have to accommodate śōbhakritu (37) inmonths being made to begin with the tropicalbetween the two above, we can say śubhakrit (36) was

sankrānti.”). However thithi (phase of the moon) men-current between April 1602 to March 1603, and Krodhi

tioned therein fixes the date without any ambiguity.

(38) from April 1605 to March 1606.

We found that this scheme offers a possibility to extract

Therefore, we can take the duration of śōbhakrit as

the correction for precession also.

extending from April 1604 CE to March 1605 CE. Thus,

The mention of Uttarāyaṇa (winter solstice) along

the date of the inscription under study can be fixed aswith the lunar thithi thus clears up all confusion. If we

41

Inscriptions and Evolution of the Calendars in South East Asia

night, in (the nakșatra) Pușyaka (combined with)can trace a record of an eclipse, for the same year theMēṣādi (tropical Sankrānti of Sun into Aries), Simhādi

correct date can be fixed without error. There are very

(tropical Sankrānti of Sun into Leo).

few records citing the solar month and day in India (butcommon elsewhere, for example Cambodia). For号（２０２２）

Research Papers of the Anthropological Institute Vol.11 (2022)『人類学研究所 研究論集』第11

IV Comparison with inscriptions from South
East Asia

example, a record of 1178 AD gives “Simha” (Leo) as
the month and 27th solar day. The third year of reign ofThe calendar systems recorded in other countries

Kulōttunga Chōḷa III has been used to fix the year. The

follow the same system implying the strong influence ofdates may be,
A.D. 1178–August 21st, 22nd, & 23rd.

Sanskrit (Hindu) scholarship. The tradition of writing in

A.D. 1179–August 21st, 22nd, & 23rd.

two or more languages has continued in other countries

A.D. 1180–August 20th, 21st, 22nd, & 23rd.

as well.
The inscriptions from Nepal have been traced from

A.D. 1181–August 20th, 21st, 22nd, & 23rd
(Venkatasubbaiah, 1918).

about the third century BCE (Agarwal, 2010).

The ambiguity will be solved only when another

Salivahana Śaka is mentioned after the first century CE.

event like an eclipse is recorded with the same notation,

Most are administrative edicts with no special emphasis

preferably in the same year.

on the choice of events like eclipses for producing an

One of the greatest advantages of the Indian luni-

inscription. The phase of the moon and the lunar monthsolar calendar scheme is the introduction of intercalary

are available. The numerals are written in a different

months, whose rigid rules constitute a major part of thestyle—for example, 341 is written as 300 40 1. The day

astronomy texts. In the inscriptions, we find the mentionof the week is not mentioned, hinting that the usage wasof “Dvitīya” (meaning second) corresponding to an

not popular. Even on the mainland inscriptions of theextra intercalary month introduced for the said year,

days of the week appear much later, by about the sixth

which is of great help in assigning the date.

century or so.

As mentioned earlier, we have many inscriptions with

Asokan edicts constitute the content of the inscrip-

identical text in two languages. This is of great help intions in Sri Lanka, with the earliest record traced to 183

comparing the two schemes if they are different, forBCE. The year count from the nirvana (demise) of

example, one may have an Islamic calendar in Persian/

Buddha, named Buddha year by epigraphists (Muller,

Urdu.

1883), is followed in most of the inscriptions. There is

Here is an example from Epigraphia Carnatica Vol.

no mention of the day of the week. The lunar calendar

VII record no. 43 in Kannaḍa as well as in Persian. The

month and the phase are noted (Epigraphia Zelenica

Kannaḍa part gives Śālivāhana Śaka Varusha 1575,

Vols. II and III).

Vijaya Samvatsara, Bhādrapada śu 5, Thursday and

The inscriptions from Cambodia offer a wealth of

Svāti Nakṣatra leading to either August 18th, 1653 orinformation as shown by the mammoth study by Cedes

September 7th, 1643 as two options. The Persian(1968) and Majumdar (1953). Most of the inscriptions

inscription provided states AH 1064 which began fromare bilingual in Sanskrit and Khmer. They cover a

November 12th, 1652 AD and ended on November 2nd,

variety of topics and hence, have been exploited by lin-

1653 AD (Venkatasubbaiah, 1918 gives weight to Svāti

guistic experts, sociologists, and historians. The calen-nakṣatra and Thursday and this settles the date todar system found in these inscriptions follows the ŚakaAugust 18th, 1653).

count for the year as well as the luni-solar calendar

Thus, we find that the mention of moon phase or

system. Both the names of the zodiacal constellations

lunar thithis and/or eclipse events resolves all the ambi-

and the 27 stars find a place in these details. The astro-

guity associated with the different calendar systems

nomical details are flawless; the positions of the lunar

Chaitrādi (beginning with a new moon in March),node, planets and ascendants are recorded in both lan-Aświnādi (beginning with a new moon in September),guages so that the time can be fixed quite precisely. One

42example discussed exhaustively, points to a new name

(Katapayadi, which uses the syllables themselves tofor a planet that has been debated as a comet or the node

represent numbers, in some rare cases) are carried(Beer, 1967); the possibility of a pre-planetary nebula

forward from the mainland. The Buddha year count is,brightening also is discussed (Shylaja, 2017). Here ishowever, an exception since it is rarely found on theanother example in inscription number K 926 frommainland.
The dual-language system is used in these inscrip-

1995) as “Ketu and Jupiter being in Aries, Mercury andtions in all countries. This has an added advantage. It

the sun in Taurus, Venus in Gemini, Rahu in Scorpio,

can trace the cross-correlation with the local calendar, if

Saturn and Mars in Leo, moon in (naksatra) Hasta inany. Very little effort has gone into this area since thosethe year (l’anẽe ḉaka rẽvolue) marked by 5 senses, 4 onlanguages are on the verge of extinction.

a dice, 6 seasons and 10 waxing Jyeshta.” Here, Rahu is

In the oldest records we find the names of the days of

the ascending node and Ketu is the descending node.

the week are missing. They first appeared in about the

There are some examples where the Chinese names

fifth century but were not popular until about the ninthof the year are also recorded. For example, Śaka year

century. The numbers are specified as hinting at the961, equivalent to 1039 CE, is called the year of theexperimentation with a place value system. Therefore

tiger. In another inscription, 1514 CE is called the year

these inscriptions serve as the right sources to study theof the dog.

evolution of the numeral notation with a place value

A small number of records have been traced insystem as well as a dot for zero. With the help of inscrip-

Thailand—they resemble the ones from Cambodia

tions. the introduction of the notation of zero as a dot is(Prapandavidya, 2010).

traced to about the third century in the northeast region

The inscriptions from Myanmar, (Burma), use theof India (https://www.assamtimes.org/node/8091), thesasana year, which appears to be a combination of theseventh century in Cambodia (https://www.smithson-

Buddha year of epoch 544 BCE and the Śaka of 78 CE.

ianmag.com/history/origin-number-zero-180953392/)

This is called the dodorasa (do = 2 do = 2 rasa = 6) era

and the ninth century in Gwalior, India (https://gwalior-

in Myanmar, a mnemonic for 622 (which is given byplus.com/directory/chaturbhuj-temple/).

544 +78), the number of years deducted in the sāsana

It is interesting to see the process of assimilation ofyear 624 to introduce the new era. The calendar of thethe solar calendar. The introduction of the names of theNorth Indian Gupta dynastic era (c. CE 319–550),

zodiacal constellations for planetary positions is seen by

beginning in CE 319. The use of the Śaka calendar ofabout the seventh century in Cambodia. However, in

CE 78 is seen in many inscriptions. The Burmese

India, they are seen by about the eleventh century. There

Myanmar Era calendar which starts in CE 638, is known

are only a handful of examples of Sankramaṇa (transit

as the khachapanca (kha = 0, cha = 6, panca = 5) era, aof the sun from one zodiacal constellation to the next) inmnemonic for 560, as it was supposedly introduced by

the first millennium but their use to refer to the name ofeliminating 560 years from the Śaka era in AD 640 so

the month was not popular till about the eleventh or

the new era would begin, as had the dodorasa (Eade,

twelfth centuries.

1995).

Similarly, we also note that the names of the days of
the week appear by about the fifth century in a few isolated cases; by about the ninth century, they were

V Discussion

absorbed into the calendar. It is yet to be establishedA study of these inscriptions brings out several

how and when this (7-day week system) was assimilated

important aspects related to calendars and techniques of

into the calendar.

notation. The year count of Śaka has established unifor-

In the inscriptions later than the seventeenth century,

mity in all countries. The representation of numerals by

we see the influence of the Islamic calendar system. The

the Bhūta sankhya system and the place value system

rulers were introducing the Fasli or other counts along

43

Inscriptions and Evolution of the Calendars in South East Asia

Inscriptions du Cambodge Vol. 20 (translated by Eade,with the local tradition (Shylaja, 2021). These declaraReferences

tions in the dual system have been immensely helpful in
Agarval, Krishna Dev

dating them since the Islamic lunar calendar accumu-

2010

lates 11 days of offset year after year.

号（２０２２）

Research Papers of the Anthropological Institute Vol.11 (2022)『人類学研究所 研究論集』第11

Importance Nepalese Sanskrit Inscriptions, Rashtriya
Sanskrit Sansthan, New Delhi.

Beer, Arthur

VI

1967 Vistas in Astronomy, vol. 9, p. 202.

Conclusions

Cedes, George
1968 The Indianized States of Southeast Asia. Honolulu:

Stone inscriptions found all over South East Asia

University of Hawaii Press.

have been of great use for historians. We see that theEade, J. C.

details provided on these rocks lying in the open for

1995 The calendrical system of Main land South East Asia,

thousands of years offer a wealth of information on the

E. J. Brill, New York.

evolution of calendars. The inscriptions serve the

Epigraphia Carnatica volumes.

purpose of the mode of transmission of knowledge from

Epigraphia Kannada University volumes.

East to West and vice versa. Parallel development of

Epigraphia Zeylanika, Ed: Martin de Silva Wickramasinghe,
Archaeological Survey of Ceylon, Vol. II, 1928.

indigenous calendars is also traceable by the dual-lan-

Epigraphia Zeylanika, Ed: Martin de Silva Wickramasinghe,

guage method adopted in these records.

Archaeological Survey of Ceylon, Vol. III, 1928.

Eclipse records have proved very useful in addressing

Majumdar, R. C.

several uncertainties. In some cases, we have several

1953

records of the same eclipse from different geographical

Sanskrit Inscriptions of Kambuja, Asiatic Society
Monograph Series, vol. 8, Calcutta.

regions which is of great help in fixing the variation in

Muller, Edward
1883 Ancient Inscriptions of Ceylon, Trubner and Co, Lon

the rate of the rotation speed of the earth.

don.

Although they offer scope for detailed studies in otherPai, V. R. and Shylaja, B. S.

fields like the representation of numerals and zero, for2016 Current Science, vol. 111, p. 1556.

the study of the evolution of calendars they are the mostPrapandavidya, Chitrapat

reliable sources. The process of assimilation of ideas

2010

Saivism as recorded in inscriptions and old documents

like the days of the week, the zodiacal constellationfrom sixth century to early Ayodhya period, The

names for the month can be traced through these

Journal of Royal Society of Thailand, Vol. II, p. 44.
http://www.royin.go.th/royin2014/upload/246/Filesources. Later, historically, the influence of Persian/Upload/2553_4454.pdf

Arab methods can also be traced.

Saha, M. N. and Lahiri, L. C.
1992

Acknowledgments

Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, New
Delhi.

I wish to express my gratitude to Prof Y. Ohashi, who was a

Shylaja, B. S.

great inspiration for my studies. I initiated the conversation over2018 Proceedings of the Focus Meeting 5 of the International

email way back in 2005 and the discussions went on until about aAstronomical Union General Assembly, Cambridge

month prior to his demise. He had written that he was working on

University Press, pp. 176–178.

the Vietnamese calendar and had identified the Hindu influence

2019 Current Science, 116, 08, p. 1430.

there. I was able to meet him in National Astronomical

2021 Exploring the History of South Asian Astronomy,

Observatory, Japan, NAOJ in a meeting organised by Profs

Springer, pp. 653–672.

Tanikawa and Soma. During the short breaks he explained some

Shylaja, B. S. and Geetha Kydala, Ganesha

instruments of astronomy—a topic in which he was an expert—

2016a History of the Sky—On Stones, Infosys Foundation,with his meticulous drawings. For example a drawing—the map

Bangalore.

to reach Shibuya Planetarium from NAOJ.

2016b Records of Vyatipatha in stone inscriptions, Indian

I thank Profs Tanikawa and Soma for giving me the opportu-

Journal of History of Science, vol. 51, no. 2.1, pp. 206

nity to express my gratitude to Prof Ohashi and for this talk on the–216.

calendars from South East Asia.

Shylaja, B. S. and Seetharama, Javagal
2021 Ganitagannadi: Mirror of Mathematics—an astronomy

44

text of 1604 CE in Kannada, Navakarnataka

https://www.assamtimes.org/node/8091

Publications ISBN 978-81-953177-2-1.

https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/origin-number

Tanikawa, K., Soma, M., Shylaja, B. S. and Mayank, Vahia
2018-zero-180953392/

Proceedings of the 9th Conf on Oriental Astronomy,

https://isaw.nyu.edu/publications/inscriptions/campa/inscrip-‘Growth and Development of Astronomy and Astrotions/index.html

physics in India and the Asia-Pacific Region’, eds.

The Inscriptions in Thailand Database: sac.or.th/databases/
inscription The Inscriptions in Thailand Database: sac.or.th/1918

databases/inscription

Some Śaka dates in inscriptions, N. Subramniam & co,https://journals.library.ualberta.ca/hssa/index.php/hssa/article/

Mysore.

view/46/100

online sources
https://gwaliorplus.com/directory/chaturbhuj-temple/

45

Inscriptions and Evolution of the Calendars in South East Asia

Orchiston, W., Sule, A. and Vahia, M. N., pp. 81–87.
Venkatasubbaiah, A.