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The Executive Council of the International Advisory Board

Mr Mitsumasa Aoyama
Director, The Yufuku Gallery, Tokyo, Japan

Professor June Henton
Dean, College of Human Sciences, Auburn University,
USA

Lord Charles Bruce
Lord Lieutenant of Fife
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Scotland
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Professor Michael Hudson
President of The Institute for the Study of Long-Term
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Professor Donald E. Hall
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Lehigh University, USA
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and Chair of the Department of English

Professor Koichi Iwabuchi
Professor of Media and Cultural Studies & Director of
the Monash Asia Institute, Monash University, Australia

Professor Arthur Stockwin
Founding Director of the Nissan Institute forJapanese Studies & Emeritus Professor
The University of Oxford UK
Professor Chung-Ying Cheng
Professor of Philosophy, University of Hawai’i atManoa, USA
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Professor of English and Interdisciplinary Studies,
Osaka Jogakuin University, Osaka, Japan
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Former Professor of English at Nihon University,
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French National Center for Scientific Research(CNRS) & L’Ecole Normale Superieure, Paris, France
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The University of Redlands School of Business, USA

Professor Sue Jackson
Professor of Lifelong Learning and Gender & Pro-Vice
Master of Teaching and Learning, Birkbeck, Universityof London, UK
Professor Sir Geoffrey Lloyd
Senior Scholar in Residence, The Needham ResearchInstitute, Cambridge, UK
Fellow and Former Master, Darwin College, Universityof Cambridge
Fellow of the British Academy
Professor Keith Miller
Orthwein Endowed Professor for Lifelong Learning in
the Science, University of Missouri-St.Louis, USA
Professor Kuniko Miyanaga
Director, Human Potential Institute, Japan
Fellow, Reischauer Institute, Harvard University, USA
Professor Dennis McInerney
Chair Professor of Educational Psychology and CoDirector of the Assessment Research Centre
The Hong Kong Institute of Education, Hong Kong
SAR
Professor Brian Daizen Victoria
Professor of English
Fellow of the Oxford Centre for Buddhist Studies
Professor Michiko Nakano
Professor of English & Director of the Distance
Learning Center, Waseda University, Tokyo, Japan
Professor Thomas Brian MooneyProfessor of Philosophy
Head of School of Creative Arts and Humanities
Professor of Philosophy and Head of School of
Creative Arts and Humanities, Charles Darwin
University, Australia

Professor Baden Offord
Professor of Cultural Studies and Human Rights & CoDirector of the Centre for Peace and Social JusticeSouthern Cross University, Australia
Professor Frank S. Ravitch
Professor of Law & Walter H. Stowers Chair in Law
and Religion, Michigan State University College of Law
Professor Richard RothSenior Associate Dean, Medill School of Journalism,
Northwestern University, Qatar
Professor Monty P. Satiadarma
Clinical Psychologist and Lecturer in Psychology &Former Dean of the Department of Psychology and
Rector of the University, Tarumanugara University,
Indonesia
Mr Mohamed Salaheen
Director, The United Nations World Food Programme,Japan & Korea
Mr Lowell Sheppard
Asia Pacific Director, HOPE International
Development Agency, Canada/Japan
His Excellency Dr Drago Stambuk
Croatian Ambassador to Brazil, Brazil
Professor Mary Stuart
Vice-Chancellor, The University of Lincoln, UK
Professor Gary Swanson
Distinguished Journalist-in-Residence & Mildred S.
Hansen Endowed Chair, The University of Northern
Colorado, USA
Professor Jiro Takai
Secretary General of the Asian Association for Social
Psychology & Professor of Social Psychology
Graduate School of Education and Human
Development, Nagoya University, Japan
Professor Svetlana Ter Minasova
President of the Faculty of Foreign Languages andArea Studies, Lomonosov Moscow State University
Professor Yozo Yokota
Director of the Center for Human Rights Affairs, Japan
Former UN Special Rapporteur on Myanmar
Professor Kensaku Yoshida
Professor of English & Director of the Center for the
Teaching of Foreign Languages in General Education,
Sophia University, Tokyo, Japan

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Table of Contents
Independent State School Partnerships in England – Challenging
Boundaries and Embracing Differences
Margaret Hunnaball

pp. 1 - 9

Learning Management Guidelines of the General Education Curriculumthat Promotes Citizenship Skills of the 21st Century in Thailand
Nanthon Bunjongparu

pp. 11 - 18

Embodied Learning of Dance by GenZ and the Alphas as a Shift in
Traditional Dance Education
Maria Lucina Anonas De Santos

pp. 19 - 38

Reading Comprehension Proficiency of English Major Students
Thapanee Khemanuwong
Thanate Angsuwatanakul
Ekkapon Phairot
Duangporn Jarijitpaibul
Pimjai Promsuwan
Piriyaporn Uampittaya

pp. 39 - 47

Online Teaching Readiness of High School Teachers in Special Education
Jasmine P. Sibayan
Joan O. Pucya
Renaliza B. Juanbe

pp. 49 - 59

Awareness, Perception and Readiness of Faculty and Staff Toward Remote
Educational and Operational Services During the COVID-19 Pandemic
Carlos R. Morales
pp. 61 - 72
Healthy Lifestyle Education in the CLIL Classroom
Marshall Smith

pp. 73 - 84

Communities’ Cultural Capital for Sustainable Community Tourism
Development: A Case Study of Charoen Krung Road
Chada Triamvithaya
Rattana Sangchan
Sujinda Suksai
Qiuli Zheng

pp. 85 - 93

The Influence of Immersion Education in China on Students' English
Learning Motivation
Wan Qinpp. 95 - 108

The Effect of Internal Locus of Control on the Entrepreneurial Intention of
Vocational High School Students
Muhammad Kris Yuan Hidayatulloh
Eppy Yundra
I Gusti Putu Asto Buditjahjanto

pp. 109 - 114

Recalibrating Service-learning Program into Pure Online Activity
Jimi D. Caldea

pp. 115 - 126

Investigate the Difficulties of Indonesian Learner During Electronic
Portfolio
Rezza Dewintha

pp. 127 - 136

The Influence of Soft & Hard Skills on the Graduates Competence
Vocational High School Students
Muhammad Kris Yuan Hidayatulloh
Yeyen Afista

pp. 137 - 145

Study on the Use of Speech Recognition Function to Practice Speaking
English Using the Voice Translator “Pocketalk”
Harumi Kashiwagi
Min Kang
Kazuhiro Ohtsuki

pp. 147 - 154Content-Based Language Teaching in International Liberal Arts
Education
Mirzosaid Sultonov
Timothy Bunting
Julia Arskayapp. 155 - 162

REVAMP: Transforming Technology-enhanced Education to Cater for
Learners’ Dispositions
Pengiran Shaiffadzillah Pengiran Omarali

pp. 163 - 178

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Independent State School Partnerships in England – Challenging Boundaries andEmbracing Differences
Margaret Hunnaball, King’s College London, United Kingdom
The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2021
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Abstract
The UK Government’s Department for Education provides state-maintained primary andsecondary school places for young people in England. Some parents, however, choose private
education, sending their children to fee-paying independent schools, which are not subject tothe same government control. These typically have smaller classes and superior facilities tostate schools, and although they educate only 7% of all pupils, their alumni occupy a
proportionally higher number of seats in government and places at top UK universities.
Furthermore, many independent schools hold charitable status, bringing them significant tax
benefits, further extending their financial advantage. In 1997 the Labour government charged
independent schools with sharing their facilities and their teachers with local state-maintained
schools. The first ‘independent state school partnerships’ (ISSPs) were centrally funded thefollowing year, and by 2017 the Independent Schools Council reported that 88% of its
schools were involved in some form of partnership with schools in the maintained sector.
While private education divides the main UK political parties, ISSPs have received support
from both Labour and Conservative governments since their introduction. There has, though,been little research into their nature or their worth. This paper considers the findings of mystudy of three English ISSPs, exploring the relationships between schools and the ways they
are embracing differences between them. It explores the nature of joint working and what theheadteachers, teachers and pupils involved in them understand by the term partnership.
Keywords: Partnership, State-maintained School, Independent School, Mutual Benefit,
Relationships

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Introduction
In this paper I shall briefly outline the English education system and introduce independent
state school partnerships (known as ISSPs). Key terms collaboration and partnership will beconsidered and my reasons for studying successful partnerships. I will share some insights
gained from a review of school documents, semi-structured interviews, and observations ofpartnership activities to consider how ISSPs are crossing sectoral boundaries, by building
bridges and embracing differences between schools.
The UK Government’s Department for Education provides state-maintained primary andsecondary school places for young people in England. Some parents, however, choose private
education, sending their children to fee-paying independent schools, which are not subject tothe same government control. These typically have smaller classes and superior facilities tostate schools (Green et al, 2011), and although they educate only 7% of all pupils (ISC,2016), their alumni occupy a proportionally higher number of seats in government and places
at Oxford and Cambridge Universities (The Sutton Trust, 2017). Furthermore, many
independent schools hold charitable status (Fairbairn, 2017), bringing them significant tax
benefits, further extending their financial advantage, and exacerbating opposition to them.
ISSPs and Partnership Working
When New Labour came into power in 1997, independent schools feared losing theircharitable status, but in his drive to raise educational standards the then Prime Minister Tony
Blair chose ‘partnership not confrontation’ with them (Peel, 2015, p.8), and charged
independent schools with sharing both their facilities and their teachers with local schools(DfEE, 1997). This was not only to help raise standards, but as a contributing factor inindependent schools demonstrating public benefit, and so retaining their charitable status.
Twenty years later, the Independent Schools Council (ISC, 2017) reported that 88% of its
schools were involved in some form of partnership with schools in the maintained sector. In
2017, Lucas et al, conducted a ‘rapid review’ of ISSP activity and impact’, and they definedan ISSP as ‘any deliberate collaboration or association of two or more schools, whether
formal or informal, short or long-term, wide-ranging or focused’. Through my research I am
working on formulating a more grounded and specific definition of partnership in thiseducational cross-sector context.
While independent state school partnerships are widespread in England, they are underresearched, so my theoretical framing of successful partnership has focussed on English
National Health Service and policing partnerships. These were introduced by New Labour atthe same time as ISSPs, feature cross-sector working between public and privateorganisations, and have been researched more extensively. The literature revealed a numberof common features across successful partnerships. Key among these were: shared objectives(Hunter and Perkins, 2014); ‘mutual values and trust’ which Dhillon (2005, p.211)
considered to be the ‘social glue’ that hold organizations and individuals together’;‘transparent lines of communication within and between partner agencies’ (Carnwell andCarson, 2004:9); commitment (Johnstone et al,2009); resources, including all partners using‘their own resources jointly… for mutual benefit’ (Powell & Dowling, 2006:309); and the‘engagement of senior management’ (Perkins et al, 2010:105).
Potential barriers to partnership working can be found in ‘cultural differences’ (Hunter andPerkins, 2014:44), which can result in ‘cultural stereotyping between professionals’, and also

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Official Conference Proceedingsin ‘significant disparities in power’ (Wildridge et al, 2004:8), which can not only inhibit theestablishing of a partnership, but can destabilise its activities. All of these features andbarriers were considerations for me as I headed into my study.
Powell et al (2001:57) claim that partnerships ‘evolve over time’, so I chose to look at
established partnerships, whose structure and processes were more open to scrutiny thanthose more recently established, which may still be in the early ‘stimulating and rewarding’phase (Audit Commission, 1998:29). I conducted a qualitative study in two phases. In thefirst phase, I conducted documentary research and semi-structured interviews withheadteachers and partnership coordinators. This was followed by observations of partnership
activities, semi-structured interviews with staff involved in them, and pupil focus groups. In
total, I conducted forty-three semi-structured interviews and five pupil focus groups. Eachpartnership, school and participant has been anonymised through the use of pseudonyms in
my study.
Three English ISSPs
My research explored three partnerships, with different structures, different ways of working
and different levels of mutuality:
Leslie Independent State School Partnership, or LISSP, was established over 15 years ago,
and is what the DfE (2018) labels a ‘hub and spoke’ partnership, with secondary school‘spokes’. LISSP was initially funded by a DfE grant and when that ended Franklin School,
the independent school at the hub, took over the funding. Franklin School’s coordinatororganises and runs the partnership.
Maxwell Schools’ Association, or MSA, is another ‘hub and spoke’ partnership, this timewith a vast number of primary school ‘spokes’. The youngest of my partnerships, its work is
externally funded by the independent school’s central body. This partnership’s activities arealso directed by the independent school’s coordinator.
Finally, Napier Schools Together Group, or NSTG. Over twelve years old, this is what is
described by the DfE as a ‘broad area partnership’. Like LISSP, this was initially funded by a
DfE grant; but when funding stopped the NSTG schools decided to continue by putting inequal payments. The partnership employs a coordinator to run its programme of activities,
who is not affiliated to any of the schools,.
Table 1 shows the participants from my telling cases whose voices are heard in this paper:
Participant
Alan
Amber
Bobby
Carolyn
Dawn
Dylan
JazminKathryn
KieranMatthew

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ISSP
LISSP
MSA
NSTG
MSA
MSA
NSTG
NSTG
MSA
NSTG
LISSP

Role
State school headteacher
Independent school pupilState school coordinator
Independent school headteacher
State school teacher
State school former pupilState school pupilState school teaching assistantState school pupil
Independent school coordinator

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Mia
Patrick
Sasha
SharonOfficial Conference Proceedings

LISSP
State school coordinator
NSTG
Founding state school headteacher
NSTG
State school former pupil
LISSP
State school headteacher
Table 1: Participants

The Nature of Cross-Sector Working between Schools
It is clear from the literature that there are fundamental differences between state-maintained
and independent schools. State-maintained schools are funded by the government; budgets
are tight, with headteacher Alan, telling me that ‘there just isn't enough money in the system’.
By contrast, independent schools are funded by fees, and while not all have the gothic spires
associated with Eton College, they are more affluent than their state neighbours. Independent
schools also typically have smaller classes (Aldrich, 1996), and their teachers are more likely
to ‘be specialists in shortage subjects’ such as Latin or physics (Green et al., 2008, p.383).
Other studies have found that independent school facilities tend to be of a higher quality(Tapper, 2003) and they offer more extra-curricular opportunities (Benn, 2012). This meansthat if schools are to work together effectively, they must build bridges and embrace theirdifferences, ensuring that they do not reinforce inequalities.
The Lucas et al definition of ISSPs that I shared earlier described the partnerships in terms ofcollaboration, but I consider collaboration and partnership to be different things, the first an
act and the second a relationship. This reflects the meaning adopted by Carnwell and Carson(2004, p.4) who ‘distinguish between what something is (a partnership), and what one does
(collaborate or to work together in a joined-up way)’.
LISSP and NSTG are partnerships between secondary schools and my data revealed that their
participants saw cross-sector working as a relationship. In NSTG, all schools shared a clear
mission. They all made equal annual financial contributions and were involved in both
strategic and operational aspects of the partnership. Even in LISSP, where activities wereorganised and funded by the independent school, state partners felt they had influence overthe programme on offer. In my third ISSP, MSA, the independent school is secondary,working with local state primary schools. The independent school sets the annual
programme, arranges funding and also organises and runs the activities. The school’s
headteacher Carolyn, acknowledged that their working is collaboration. She told me that
schools were ‘collaborating together on something rather than a formal partnership’. MSA
was the youngest of my ISSPs, and relationships between partners were not as strong as in
LISSP or NSTG. This may be explained by Bourne’s (2017:41) finding that ‘Building strong
trusting relationships from scratch or developing existing relationships between independentand state-funded schools takes time’.
One of the aims of my research was to explore the meaning of partnership, as those involvedin ISSPs experience it. In both LISSP and NSTG there was an emphasis on schools being
equal partners. State head Sharon said LISSP was ‘a partnership of equals’, while founding
state school head Patrick emphasized that NSTG was ‘shared partnership… [schools] were
doing it together”. In exploring the meaning of partnership, I asked the pupils in my focus
groups for their views. Their responses reflected a remarkable understanding of therelationship between schools from the two sectors. The NSTG student leaders built on eachother’s contributions to collectively generate an insightful interpretation of partnership as: thecoming together of two or more parties for the mutual benefit of all (Dylan) on equal footing,

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so they… receive an equal amount (Kieran) [but where] they give as much as they can, rather
than an equal amount (Sasha).
The students were comfortable with some schools giving more than others, which happenedin their partnership through use of facilities or some teachers contributing to activities as partof their school commitments.
Distilling my data into a succinct meaning of partnership, I consider it to be ‘a relationship in
which parties work together as equals for mutual benefit’. Furthermore, I found that thestronger the relationship, the greater the equality and mutuality between partners.
Embracing Differences through Activities
To consider how schools embrace their differences I shall consider some of the activities that
I encountered in my fieldwork. As discussed earlier, independent schools typically havesuperior facilities, teachers with expertise in shortage subjects and, additionally, they do nothave to follow the National Curriculum (Aldrich, 1996). In my study, I encountered activities
that drew directly on these differences.
In some activities independent schools shared their facilities and resources with state school
pupils. LISSP organised a Spring Play, where partner schools each prepared an act, whichwere then drawn together in a production held in the independent school’s theatre. Stateschool coordinator, Mia, emphasised the impact the play had on the local community, ‘thosescheduled rehearsals where everybody’s together I think there is something so powerfulabout that because you realise it's not just about you and it's not just about your school’.
Mia’s headteacher, Sharon, told me that ‘being able to go into a theatre… that is really
important and that is part of their [pupils’] aspiration’. The Spring Play was also important to
the independent school, hosting coordinator Matthew described it as ‘a huge highlight of theyear’.
MSA ran a science day for year five girls from local state primary schools, held in the
independent school’s science laboratories, with its sixth formers acting as mentors. One of
the mentors, Amber, said that this activity gave ‘children who are still in primary school anexperience and an understanding of what you can do in science’. Both primary staff
participants spoke positively about being given access to ‘those brilliant labs’ (Dawn) and the‘equipment they have we may not have’ (Kathryn). Sharing facilities does not always involvethe independent schools acting as hosts, though, the NSTG summer school I observed washosted by a partner state school with modern buildings and sophisticated IT facilities.
Summer school coordinator, Bobby, told me that spreading events around the schools wasimportant because it ‘demonstrates to parents to students, to staff that it is a partnership andthey are, the state schools and the independent are actually working together’.
As I mentioned, independent schools do not have to follow the government’s prescribedcurriculum, and some partnership activities introduced state school pupils to new subjects
through sharing the specialisms of independent school teachers. Examples of this I saw wereLatin courses offered to secondary school pupils in LISSP, and a GCSE Astronomy course in
NSTG. These were subjects that were offered in the partnership independent schools but notin the state partners. NSTG pupil, Jazmin, told me that this allowed state school pupils to‘experience things that you never would be able to otherwise’.

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Further advantages associated with independent education include cultural capital and theimpact this has on university aspiration and application (Walford, 2003). Independent school
pupils dominate entrance into top universities, and their application support and advice
processes are typically regarded as better than those offered to state pupils (Benn, 2012). In
LISSP, I encountered a three-year programme for first generation university applicants, whowere given experiences aimed at enriching their cultural capital and raising their university
aspirations. This was delivered through activities such as workshops and theatre trips,
alongside university visits and support with applications. The state school coordinator from
Huxley High School claimed that ‘the programme gives great opportunities for students that
otherwise might not have the chances to develop cultural capital and really gain in depth
knowledge of university life’ (quoted in the Franklin School partnerships brochure).
In some activities I saw a more overtly two-way exchange of expertise between schools. In
NSTG masterclasses, state and independent school teachers worked collaboratively to planand deliver courses. In LISSP, one of the state school headteachers led a leadership skills
development course, with sessions for both independent and state school teachers. Schoolleaders from schools in both sectors were involved in delivering sessions on the course. In
this partnership, I also found shared governance with the head of a partner state school on the
independent school’s governing body and independent school governors in two state partner
schools.
Challenges of ISSP Working
While the meaning of partnership working focussed on equality and relationships, crosssector working was not without challenges. Wildridge et al (2004) warned that power
disparities could be barriers to effective partnership working, and in LISSP and MSA, thebalance of power was clearly with the independent schools. In LISSP, this power differential
was acknowledged. Strong relationships and trust enabled this differential to be known,
understood and accepted by state partners. The MSA partnership was still emerging, withrelationships less well formed, and there was some lingering mistrust from primary partners
about the independent school’s motives for offering them free activities. These outreachactivities could be regarded as ‘paternalistic patronage’ (Wilde et al, 2016:315), or a form of
bestowing opportunity to the less advantaged, seen by Kenway and Fahey (2015:95) as a ‘gift
economy’. While primary partners filled places on MSA activities, they were not prepared toenter into formal partnership with the independent secondary school, and only two primary
members of staff were willing to participate in my research.
Another challenge came from differences in political ideology. Peel (2015:4) claimed thatindependent schools polarise opinion, ‘extolled for their standards of excellence on one hand
and reviled for their social exclusiveness on the other’. Founding head Patrick told me thatsome state heads were hesitant about joining NSTG ‘from a philosophical and political pointof view’. This was recognised in the partnership’s third-year self-evaluation, which claimed
that some teachers ‘harboured suspicions or even antipathy to professionals in anothersector’, but went on to assert that they had ‘confronted those feelings and seen themsuperseded by understanding, appreciation and respect’. While this seems persuasive, it must
be noted that this was an internal evaluation, more likely to be positive in its tone. Patrick
attributed headteachers putting aside their political views, to the partnership being‘educational’ not ‘political’.

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Conclusion
While private education divides the main UK political parties, ISSPs have received support
from both Labour and Conservative governments since their introduction. They allow pupils
in both sectors to cross-border, each gaining glimpses of the world of the other, while thensafely returning to their own. While independent state school partnerships challenge thelimits of each sector’s boundaries, they do not, and cannot, mitigate the inequalities between
them. Across my three ISSPs, I met teachers and headteachers who pragmatically set aside
their personal politics to enable their pupils and teachers to benefit from joint activities.
Through building relationships and offering activities that bring mutual benefit, ISSPs are
helping these schools to embrace their differences.
Acknowledgements
This research project was funded by the Economic and Social Research Council. I would also
like to acknowledge the invaluable support and wisdom of my supervisors, Professor Meg
Maguire and Dr Jane Jones.

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References
Audit Commission (1998). A Fruitful Partnership: Effective Partnership Working. London:
Audit Commission
Benn, M. (2012). School Wars: the Battle for Britain’s Education. London: Verso.
Bourne, M. (2017). Independent State School Partnerships (ISSP) – impact of and lessons
learnt. Research report. London, DfE.
Carnwell, R. and Carson, A. (2004). The concepts of partnership and collaboration. In
Effective Practice in Health, Social Care and Criminal Justice: A Partnership
Approach. Eds Ros Carnwell and Julian Buchanan. Maidenhead : Open University
Press
Department for Education (2018). School partnership model diagrams. London: DfE.
Department for Education and Employment (1997), Excellence in Schools. White Paper.
London, DfEE.
Dhillon, J. K. (2005). The rhetoric and reality of partnership working. Journal of Further andHigher Education, vol 29, no3, August 2005, pp211-219.
Fairbairn, C. (2017). Charitable status and independent schools. London: House ofCommons Library.
Green, F., Machin, S., Murphy, R. and Zhu, Y. (2008). “Competition for Private and State
School Teachers”. Journal of Education and Work, volume 21 no5, pp383-404.
Green, F., S. Machin, R. Murphy and Zhu, Y. (2011). “The Changing Economic Advantage
from Private Schools”. Economica 79: 658-679.
Hunter, D. and Perkins, N. (2014). Theories and concepts of partnerships. In Partnershipworking in public health (pp. 19-52). Bristol: Policy Press at the University of Bristol.
Independent Schools Council (2016). 2016/17 key figures. London: ISC.
Independent Schools Council (2017), Celebrating Partnerships: Report of cross-sector work
between independent and state schools. Issue 2. London, ISC.
Johnstone, S., Ackers, P. & Wilkinson, A. (2009). The British partnership phenomenon: a ten
year review. Human Resource Management Journal, 19:3, 2009, pp260–79
Kenway, J. and J. C. Fahey. 2015. “The gift economy of elite schooling: the changing
contours and contradictions of privilege benefaction.” British Journal of Sociology of
Education 36 (1): 95-115. DOI:10.1080/01425692.2014.970268
Lucas, B., Stoll, L., Greany, T., Tsakalaki, A. and Nelson, R. (2017) Independent-State
School Partnerships: An initial review of evidence and current practices. London:
Eton College.

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Peel, M. (2015). The New Meritocracy: A History of UK Independent Schools 1979-2015.
London: Elliott and Thompson.
Perkins, N., Smith, K., Hunter, D. J., Babra, C. and Joyce, K. (2010). ‘What counts is whatworks’? New Labour and partnerships in public health. In Policy & Politics vol 38 no1 pp101-17.
Powell, M. and Dowling, B. (2006). New Labour’s Partnerships: Comparing Conceptual
Models with Existing forms. Social Policy & Society, 5:2, pp305-314
Powell, M., Exworthy, M. and Berney, L. (2001). Playing the game of partnership. In Social
Policy Review 13: Developments & debates: 2001, pp39-61. Bristol: Policy Press
The Sutton Trust. 2017. Mobility Manifesto 2017. London: The Sutton Trust
Walford, G. (2003). Introduction. In ed Geoffrey Walford, British Private Schools: Researchon Policy and Practice, pp1-8. London: Woburn Press.
Wildridge, V., Childs, S., Cawthra, L. and Madge, B. (2004). How to create successful
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Contact email: margaret.hunnaball@kcl.ac.uk

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Learning Management Guidelines of the General Education Curriculum that Promotes
Citizenship Skills of the 21st Century in Thailand
Nanthon Bunjongparu, Ramkhamhaeng University, Thailand
The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2021
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Abstract
This article introduces the guidelines for teaching and learning in the general education (GE)curriculum that corresponds to the 21st century skills of global citizenship of Thailand and isbeing implemented in an open university. This curriculum focuses on enhancing anddeveloping students’ knowledge, skills, and competencies all of which are meant to be used as‘soft skills’ in day-to-day lives in the era of post-globalization by designing the GE curriculumin accordance with the Thailand qualification framework for higher education (TQF:HEd). The
principle behind this is that the GE curriculum is implemented in undergraduate programs.
That is, 24 credits of GE courses are mandatory for all students, and in this regard, students
will gain extensive knowledge in social science, science, mathematics, and humanities, as wellas the 21st century skills of global citizenship. The GE curriculum is designed to expand
intellectual perspectives, promote cognitive skills and desirable attitudes towards life. In
addition, this curriculum elevates the learning management standards in the GE department inline with the concept of educational management 4.0 and in order to integrate and put suchconcept into practice, leading to the highest benefits for the students' lives in the digital era.
Keywords: Learning Management, General Education, Citizenship Skills of the 21stiafor
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Introduction
General Education Course it is the courses which aim at developing learners to have extensive
knowledge, a broader world view, an understanding of self-nature, others and society, andlogical thought. Learners are able to use language to communicate in the meaningful ways,
obtain morality, aware of the value of arts and culture of both Thailand and the international
community. Learners must be able to apply knowledge to life and live in society as well.
(Ministry of Education Thailand, 2015)
Objectives of general education courses in Thailand universities explain as follows: 1) toacquire broad knowledge in various disciplines, seeing the relationship and interdependence ofdifferent disciplines, 2) to acquire the knowledge and ability of utilizing effective language ineveryday communication, 3 ) to achieve such intelligence skills as thinking, analyzing,criticizing, initiatively loving progress, and seeing foresight with world view while being
yourself, 4) to know yourself, understand society, see social problems, be ready to takeresponsibility, solve your own and others’ problems appropriately and live happily in thesocieties 5) to be able to see the value and aesthetics in arts, culture and traditions. In addition
the concept of Paitoon Sinlarat ( Sinlarat, 2007), has mentioned and divided the objectives ofgeneral education courses into four major categories: 1) a wide knowledge purposes to provide
students with basic knowledge for further study of other subjects 2 ) the understanding
purposes; to provide students with a broader worldview, understanding of global andinternational society, and knowing as well as understanding both self and others 3) the utilizing
all knowledge and understanding purpose to allow learners to apply the knowledge that they
have acquired to be useful in their daily life 4) the cultural / moral / ethical appreciation purpose
to provide learners with knowledge and awareness of the value of arts and culture and skillful.
In order for the learners to think critically, learners need the ability to make decisions, solve
problems, as well as communicate. These needs are is consistent with general education
guidelines at Harvard university. Harvard University's Program in General Education provides
a broad foundation that enables students to make meaningful connections across disciplines.
Students are required to choose and take one course in each of four perspectives: Aesthetics &Culture; Ethics & Civics; Histories, Societies, Individuals; as well as Science & Technology
in Society. (Harvard college, 2019)
Twenty-first-century skills are abilities and attributes that can be taught and learned in order toenhance ways of thinking, learning, working and living in the world. Most frameworks seemto converge on a common set of 21st century skills or competences, namely: collaboration;communication; Information and Communication Technology (ICT) literacy; and social and/or
cultural competencies (including citizenship). Most frameworks also mention creativity,
critical thinking and problem solving. Across the various frameworks, it is acknowledged that
ICT is at the core of 21st century skills. (International Bureau of Education, 2019) All people,
regardless of their ages and gender, must have opportunities to gain the knowledge and skills
proposed, with an inclusive, equitable and lifelong learning focus. Lifelong learning
incorporates multiple and flexible learning pathways, entry and re-entry points at all ages, andstrengthened links between formal and non-formal structures, including formal accreditationof the knowledge, skills and competencies acquired through non-formal and informal
education. (Unesco, 2017)
Thailand Qualifications Framework (English: Thailand Qualifications Framework), popularly
abbreviated as TQF (TQF), is a framework used as a base for transferring credits of higher

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education institutions in Thailand. This framework has prepared using the method of teachingquality control by the Higher Education Commission. The Thai qualification standard
framework was built from the concept of the National Qualifications Framework of United
Kingdom in which is used for a quality control system, transferring credits of students at thesecondary and tertiary level. TQF's future goals are to enable students in ASEAN countries tobe able to transfer credits among ASEAN universities with the similar standards and its
qualities. Currently, there are three countries participating in the program, included Thailand,
Malaysia and Indonesia.
Methodology
This research used curriculum analysis and synthesis methods ( Levander & Mikkola, 2 0 0 9 )General Education in Thailand. There were 26 supervised universities, 57 public universities
and 7 2 private universities. Reseacher selected the sample universities for data analysis byusing the Times Higher Education or THE’s ranking scores, another famous world university
ranking agency from England. It is the largest university ranking today. Researcher used theresults that have been announced The World's Top University Rankings 2019. (Times Higher
Education World University Rankings, 2019)
Thai universities Ranked among the top universities in Asia:−
Mahidol University−
Chulalongkorn University−
Khon Kaen University−
Chiang Mai University−
Thammasat University−
Kasetsart University−
King Mongkut's Institute of Technology Ladkrabang
The selected issues for the data analysis of general education courses consisted of:1.
Subject group2.
Learning outcomes3.
21st century skills of global citizenshipTo clarify the definition of these three topics, each topic explained as follow:
Subject Group
It is a group of subjects within the general education courses in which each university in
Thailand has different subdivisions. For example, Kasetsart University (Thailand) is
categorized into Wellness, Entrepreneurship, Thai Citizen, Global Citizen, Language andCommunication, Aesthetics, etc.
Learning Outcomes
Learning outcomes is being set up that are defined in the general education course management.
The achievement of the study should be consistent with the course objectives and course groups
which are defined in the curriculum structure. For example, ChiangMai University has thefollowing learning outcomes according to the following subject groups:
GELO 1 is a person who learns,
GELO 2 is a co-creator of innovation and
GELO 3 is a responsible and strong citizen of the country and the world.

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21st Century Skills Of Global Citizenship
It is a collection of knowledge, skills, work habits and personality traits which are believed by
all societies and universities’ stakeholders such as educators, school reformers, college
professors, employers, and alumni that it is critical to success in today's world. In college andprofessional programs, contemporary and work basically 21st century skills can be applied inany field of study in all professional and civic education throughout the lifelong learning.
(Partnership for 21st Century Skills, 2010)
Results
Researchers analyzed data from general education courses and the analysis was performed,
showing the results in Table 1 as follows:
Table 1: the comparison of teaching and learning management in all three areas of Thai
universities.
University
Learning
21st century skills of global
Subject groupnameoutcomes
citizenship
Mahidol
1.Humanities
OutcomeHealth Literacy
University
2.Social Sciences
Based
Digital Literacy
3.Language
Education
Social and Humanity Literacy
4.Science and(OBE)
Communication Literacy
Mathematics
TQF
Science and Environmental Literacy
5.Health
Finance and Management Literacy
Recreation
Chulalongkorn
University

1.Interdisciplinary
2.social science
3.science
4.Humanities
5.Next-Gen 1
6.GenEd 21stCentury
7.Next-Gen 2

TQF (+5)
1.Want toknow andknow how tolearn
2.Leadership
3.Well-being
4.Public mind
5.Being-Thai

Leadership
Learning Society
Global Citizen
Thainess & Multicultural
Sustainable Development
Innovation& Entrepreneur
Well-being

KhonKaen
University

1.Language
2.Humanities and3.Social Sciences
4.Mathematics andScience

TQF,
KKU: QF

FE = Freshman Education
LA = Liberal Arts Education
EC = Education for Creativity

ChiangMai
University

1.Subject todeveloping learnerskills2.Course indeveloping
innovation skills asa co-creator

TQF
GELOs
GELO 1 is aperson who
learns.
GELO 2 is aco-creator ofinnovation.

Digital Literacy
Language Literacy
Health Literacy
Financial Literacy
Management Skills
Thinking Skills
Entrepreneurial Skills
Startup and Innovation

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University
nameSubject group
3.Courses fordeveloping strong
citizenship skills

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Learning
outcomes
GELO 3 is a
responsible
and strong
citizen of thecountry andthe world.

21st century skills of global
citizenship
Adaptability
Civic Literacy and Environmental
Concerns
Culture and Art
Volunteerism

Thammasat
University

1.Social Science
2.Humanities
3.Science andMathematics
4.Language

TQF

3 pillars
Global Mindset
Soft Skills
Spirit of Thammasat

Kasetsart
University

1.Wellness
2.Entrepreneurship
3.Thai Citizen and
Global Citizen
4.Language andCommunication
5.Aesthetics

Academic
results of the 8generaleducationsubjects ofKasetsart
University

Wellness
Entrepreneurship
Thai Citizen and Global Citizen
Language and Communication
Aesthetics

King
Mongkut's
Institute ofTechnology
Ladkrabang

1.Value of life
2.Way of society
3.The science of
thinking
4.The art ofmanipulation
5.Language andcommunication

TQF
KMITL
General
Education
Outcomes

Desired KMITL Graduate & 21stCentury Skills
1.Moral by identity Of the institute2.Have pride in being Thai
3.Knowledgeable
4.creative
5.cognitive skills Discretion / skill
Problem solving
6.volunteerism and leadership
7.IT competence
8.communication skills andPresentation

From Table 1, the analysis results are as follows:
Universities in Thailand, every university has a program of general education which is a skilldriven subject called soft skills. As shown in the table in the subject group, the courses mostly
have been classified as follows: humanities, social science, science, language, mathematics,
health, communication and aesthetics. Each of them has emphasized its own strengths insubjects such Chulalongkorn university :Next-Gen 1, GenEd 21st Century, Next-Gen 2, etc andKing Mongkut's Institute of Technology Ladkrabang: Value of life, Way of society, Thescience of thinking, The art of manipulation, etc.
As for the learning outcomes of each university, most of them use TQF to determine theirlearning outcomes. However, there are some universities that define general education learning
outcomes according to the university context. For example, Khon Kaen University has KKU:
QF, ChiangMai University has GELOs, Kasetsart University has Academic results of the 8general education. Even though we mentioned and shown examples of few universities, found

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their own learning outcomes based on its context, their learning outcomes in general education
subjects still must be aligned with TQF.
The universities in Thailand that provide teaching and learning general education. It will focus
on the moral and ethical expectations of students, and focus on the identity of each university.
Able to analyze the principles of teaching and learning into issues as follows,
Knowledge
To develop learners to have basic knowledge of digital technology, economics,
nanotechnology, business in trade, art creation, Innovation, knowledge of multiculturalism.
Concept
To develop learners ability to think critically, have creative thinking skills, ability to think forthe future, compare and strategic thinking. Develop critical thinking, problem solving, using
math and reasoning skills.
Skill
To develop learners with innovative skills according to their aptitude. Using science and thesocial sciences as a foundation for creating innovation, having the skills to learn to live withoneself, to build oneself, be a valuable citizen of society.
Attitude
The ability to discriminate ethical choices has an understanding of the global nature and its
belief-based significance for scientific and ethical reasons.
Conclusion
Table 2: shows guidelines for teaching and learning in the general education category in the
broader perspective of Thailand.
Measurement
21st century
Content used for
Teaching
and evaluation
skills of global
teaching general
methodmethods
citizenshipeducation
generalOnline learning
Digital Literacy Health Literacy
Humanities
education
Skill Exam
LeadershipSocial Sciences
category in
Entrepreneurship Language
the broader
Learning
Performance
Thai Citizen and Science andperspective of through assigned evaluation
Global Citizen
Mathematics
Thailandtasks
Language andWellness
Communication Entrepreneurship
Learning in class Authentic
Aesthetics
Thai Citizen andassessment
Innovation
Global Citizen
Digital Literacy Aesthetics
Communication Foreign
Civic Literacy
practice Foreign language
andlanguage
proficiency test Environmental
Concerns

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Learning
activities
through lectures,case studies andsimulations

The exam
actual situation

Class discussion

Observing theideas that
influence thebehavior of the
discussion.

Project-based or
problem-basedlearning

Results fromthe project orreflection
problems by
the learners

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From table 2, the analysis shows that most general education in Thailand has used onlineteaching and learning based and emphasizing the assessments and its outcomes on digital
literacy skills. This also demonstrates that they have combined global citizenship of 21st
century skills with digital literacy skills—also meant that if students achieve digital literacy
skills, they also accomplish in global citizenship.
The results of guidelines for teaching and learning in general education categories can besummarized as follows:1.
Must be a person with an interest in demographic change. Be reasonable, open-minded,
and always listen to the opinions of others. This is the subject of knowledge in understanding
world situations and understanding oneself.
2.
Must be a person with an interest in a post-globalized world, and pay attention to theenvironmental crisis, which is knowledge in developing innovation to improve the quality oflife and to solve various problems of the world in the 21st century
3.
Must be able to trade and have a code of ethics in trading with the scope of knowledge
in trading.
4.
Must be someone who knows the value of individualism and pluralism, respect therights freedoms of oneself and others, which is a matter of real knowledge of multiculturalismand democracy.
5.
Must be someone who knows how to digitize information, must know how to combine
technology. Which is about the knowledge of the use of technology and the integration oftechnology into one.

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References
Harvard University. (2019). Harvard college program in General Education. Retrieved fromhttps://oue.fas.harvard.edu/general-education
Lena M. Levander & Minna Mikkola. (2009). Core Curriculum Analysis: A Tool
for Educational Design, The Journal of Agricultural Education and Extension, 15:3, 275-286,
Ministry of Education Thailand. (2015). Criteria for Undergraduate Curriculum B.E. 2558.
Royal Gazette Volume 132, Special Section 295 Ngor. Page 12 November 2015.
Partnership for 21st Century Skills. (2010). Framework definition. From
http://www.p21.org/documents/ P21- Framework-Definitions.pdf)
Sinlarat, P. (2007). General Education Course: Principles and Methods. Edition 3. Bangkok:
Chulalongkorn University Press.
Times higher education. (2019). World University Rankings 2019. Retrieved fromhttps://www.timeshighereducation.com/world-university-rankings/2019/worldranking#!/page/0/length/25/sort_by/rank/sort_order/asc/cols/stats
Unesco. (2019). International Bureau of Education. Retrieved fromhttp://www.ibe.unesco.org/en/glossary-curriculum-terminology/t/twenty-first-centuryskills
Unesco. (2017). E2030: Education and Skills for the 21st Century. UNESCO OFFICE IN
SANTIAGO. Retrieved from http://www.unesco.org › new › FIELD › Santiago › pdf
Contact email: nanthon.bun@gmail.com

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Embodied Learning of Dance by GenZ and the Alphas as a Shift in Traditional Dance
Education
Maria Lucina Anonas De Santos, De La Salle–College of Saint Benilde, Philippines
The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2021
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Abstract
The learning of a craft such as classical ballet, which requires mindful, cognitive, andphysical coordination at the onset, runs contrary to the existing capabilities of GenZ (ages 1024) and the Alphas (ages 0-9), who are now the current students in the studio. Impacted bytechnology, their inherent urge to constantly experiment and communicate at a frenetic pacepose challenges in lesson retention, especially in a conventional setting as a dance studio,
where the mode of teaching is strictly transmissional. This paper investigated the efficacy ofadapting a traditional instructional method in today’s dance classroom. To develop ananalytical understanding of movements, worksheets were tailor made to reinforce the lessonsof weekly ballet classes. Anchored on studies that support the skills of coloring, tracing, andwriting as means to create neural pathways to the brain, worksheets were devised to visuallysimplify foundational movement concepts, as well as to enhance focus and concentration.
Findings indicated that learning objectives were reached in a shorter amount of time, whichallowed the dance teacher to seamlessly progress into more advanced lessons, quicker. The
shift from disembodied learning to embodied learning changed the relationship between thedance teacher and the student. No longer did the learning of dance remain simply
transmissional, or a form of mimicry, from a linear teacher to student stimulus responsemodel. The learning of dance became not only a physical response to the student’s
propensities; but also an intellectual and sensorial answer to his development as a dancer andhuman being.
Keywords: Learning Experiences, Student Learning, Learner Diversity

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The Problem and its Background
Generations Z (ages 10-24) and Alpha (ages 0-9) were born into a world where algorithms
keep them from focusing intently on learning traditional skills and art forms which require
intense concentration at a very young age. Their urge to click, scroll, and swipe at a frenetic
pace, with a view towards easy gratification, potentially reduces participation in physicalactivity (2019), specifically the learning of a highly disciplined craft such as classical ballet.
How does a teacher of dance therefore, adapt the traditional curriculum to accommodate
students raised by technology (Giguere, 2011)? Does a compromise on traditional dance
education exist?
Background of the Study
Compared to twenty (20) years ago, there are less dance students today who persevere in thecraft (2011), the decline largely due to the disinterest of the youth to learn an art form that
requires mindful, cognitive and physical coordination at the onset, which is to be sustained
for many years (Schulten, 2018).
The way children learn today has changed dramatically due to technology (Patel, 2017; Arya,2019). Over the last few years, researchers around the world have raised concerns about the
impact of smartphones and media multi–tasking on concentration. The ability to focus is notjust a value in itself, but functions as the gateway to higher forms of learning, especiallymemory, which in turn leads to deeper comprehension. There must be a solution to address
Generations Z and Alpha’s current eight (8) second attention span (Patel, 2017); a simple
quick–fix that prevails on his current propensities, to keep him in the studio, learning anddeveloping his love for dance, and inadvertently teaching him to process information that hewill need to survive onstage and in the world (*, 2011).
Aside from introducing the movement vocabulary in smaller chunks, there are other “old–school” solutions available to today’s dance teacher. Several studies support the skill ofwriting as a means to create neural pathways to the brain, as well as to develop eye–handcoordination and self–discipline (Macias, 2013; Nowak, 2017). Tracing words enables young
children to make accurate movements required for drawing and writing and other fine motor
movements, and greater advancements in retention and comprehension (Mattson &Kratochwill, 1970; Martina, 2017). And no less than Carl Jung, the founder of analytical
psychology, extolled the intellectual benefits of coloring, emphasizing that it engaged areasof the brain that enhanced focus and concentration (Mantzios and Giannou, 2018).
Perhaps combining both writing, tracing, and coloring in worksheets, tailor–made to
supplement the work at the studio, can likewise pique and enhance Gen Z and Alphas’learning of a highly regimented art form such as classical ballet. Inclusion of such inbeginning ballet classes would not only innovate the teaching of the craft, it would ultimately
ensure that the world will never be without its corps d’ ballet.
Review of Literature and Studies
This review is organized to first give readers a seminal understanding of the traditional
teaching style in a classical ballet construct and its disconnect to the current Generation Z and
Generation Alpha students, given their inability to focus and propensities toward visualmedia. This review then moves on to Generations Z and Alphas’ learning styles and how the

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activities of tracing and coloring can address their leanings toward a highly visual syntax andlikewise enhance their cognitive abilities toward lesson retention and comprehension. The
concept of inculcating both activities of tracing and coloring in worksheets aimed tostrengthen knowledge of beginning movement vocabulary is introduced as an exploratory
strategy, cognizant of the implications of the generational characteristics of today’s student
on the classical ballet teaching construct.
Classical Ballet Teaching Style vis-à-vis Today’s Student
Classical ballet technique is commonly taught through the use of authoritarian practices andlargely follows a transmissional model of teaching, whereby the student learns by imitating
movement vocabulary modelled by the teacher (Morris, 2003; Alterowitz, 2014). Methods oftraining have hardly changed since the middle of the last century; the standard being thatlessons are entirely teacher led. The construct of the ballet dancer as a docile subject
juxtaposed to an all–knowing instructor is impeded by the generational characteristics oftoday’s young dance students (Hamilton, 1998; Rossum 2004; Carmichael, 2018).
The classical ballet teaching construct operates within the Banking Concept in Education, aconcept originally explored by Brazilian philosopher, Paulo Freire in his 1968 book,“Pedagogy of the Oppressed.” The “banking” concept of education is a method of teaching
and learning where students simply store the information relayed to them by the teacher(Freire, Ramos, Shor, and Macedo, 2018). Paulo Freire developed this model in his attempt todescribe and critique the traditional education system. The name refers to the metaphor of
students as containers into which educators must put knowledge (Freire, Freire, Barr, andFreire, 2017).
Related to the aforementioned Banking Concept, the classical ballet teacher uses anauthoritarian teaching style, enforcing classical ballet precepts with rigorous control(Enghauser, 2003; Carmichael, 2018). The learning of such highly specialized craft invokes ahierarchical way of learning, modeling superordinate and subordinate positions in the dancestudio (Aceto, 2012).
Generation Z and Alphas’ Inability to Focus
Accustomed to constant stimuli from smartphone application and streaming platforms,
Generations Z (ages 10-24) and Alpha (ages 0-9) are now unable to concentrate in class. The
ubiquity of technology in their lives (2018) has shrunk their attention span to eight (8)seconds (Patel, 2017). Dance teachers, and all teachers for that matter, must communicate ina language that engages and communicates content to today’s student in understandable
ways. Clearly, Generation Z and Generation Alpha need to be communicated using new
syntax, with perhaps multi–modal approaches (Giguere, 2011).
Generation Z and Alphas’ Learning Style
In an era of information overload, Generations Z and Aphas’ messages have increasingly
become image–based, communicating with emojis, memes, and animated Graphics
Interchange Formats (GIF) (Arya, 2019), influenced greatly by the visual rather than theverbal (2019). Being born into a world of iPhones (The word of the year in 2010 when
Generation Alpha were first born was “app.” (2011)), YouTube (There are now 100 hours ofYouTube videos uploaded every minute (Welch, 2013)), and Instagram (where life is

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photographed and shared instantly and globally), Generation Z and Generation Alpha havebecome “Screenagers,” who multi–screen and multi–task (2019). They are kinesthetic, visual,and interactive learners (2018; Arya, 2019). Lessons do not “stick” unless they see them
(Knoll, Otani, Skeel, and Horn, 2016; 2018).
Visual Activities
Given the foregoing, utilizing the visual element in the dance studio therefore, could have agreater impact of catching their attention and sustaining it for the period of the lesson(Lachman).
Tracing Letters
Visual activities that require the simultaneous use of hands and eyes, such as tracing letters,
first introduced in pre–school, is a valuable eye–hand coordination exercise, as it calls for
uniting visual and motor skills (William, 2015). The eyes direct attention to a stimulus andhelp the brain understand where the body is located in space. This is the beginning of self–
perception. The hands simultaneously carry out a determined task based on the visual
information the eyes receive. This is the beginning of spatial–perception.
Tracing words enables children to make accurate movements required for drawing andwriting and other fine motor movements as well as developing retention and comprehension
skills (Mattson and Kratochwill, 1970). Tracing, which later on leads to writing, develops
complex cognitive abilities that integrates both thinking, sensation, and motor control(Nowak, 2017), skills greatly required not only on stage but in day–to–day life.
Dr. Jane Vincent, a researcher at London School of Economics and Political Science,
conducted a survey to assess the merits of digital note taking over pen and paper. Students
across ten European and Asian countries confirmed that digital technology was
fundamentally important to them for studying and for researching data, and presenting theirfinished work. The same students, however, consistently reported that their ability to retain
knowledge was far higher when using pen and paper. Creating handwritten notes provided
more internal ability to access information at a later stage (Promethean, 2019).
Coloring
Further building on developing eye–hand coordination, the activity of coloring, the act,
motion, and precise grip involved, aid in the development of the muscles of the fingers,
hands, and wrist, which later build into fine motor skills (Przybyla, et al., 2019). Furthermore,
the proprioceptive system comes into play when a child attempts to vary the amount ofpressure exerted to shade specified areas (Mantzios and Giannou, 2018). Physiologically, theact of coloring uses both left and right hemispheres of the brain, enhancing specific areas of
the cortical regions related to focus, problem–solving, and concentration (Bramão, Faísca,Forkstam, Reis, and Petersson, 2010; 2018).
Worksheets
To engage students more fully, today’s educators have resorted to creating worksheets tobuttress understanding of foundational concepts quicker (Lee, 2014). Again, using
Generation Z and Generation Alpha’s visual inclinations, worksheets with simple coloring

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and tracing activities, strengthen their learning out–of–class (Amran and Man, 2018).
Worksheets are geared towards personalized learning, targeting them precisely to the groupby assessing their progress and tailor making them towards the comprehension of the course
material (Lee, 2014; Ruecker, Shepherd, Estrem, and Brunk–Chavez, 2017).
The Need to Re-define the Pedagogy of Beginning Ballet Teaching
For Generation Z and Generation Alpha, having a seamless, online experience is more
important than learning movements that require focus and concentration at the onset.
Navigating the critical issues of the current generational demographic, calls for changes thatengender better teaching and learning in the dance studio (Stinson, 2010). There is a need to
explore practical teaching strategies in the classical ballet teaching construct that use
Generations Z and Generation Alphas’ strengths and weaknesses toward his mastery of
beginning dance skills and self–efficacy (Choi and Kim, 2014).
Challenged by the call to innovate the classical ballet teaching construct, worksheets
specifically designed and contextualized for use in the dance studio, provide brief, but
succinct, descriptions of basic, classic positions, foundational movements, as well as
explanations to proper etiquette essentials for dance practice. The factual illustrations tocolor, are aimed to help young students understand what they are learning, allowing them toadditionally analyze the movement concept, which in turn, increase their comprehension.
Re–defining the content of the classical ballet teaching construct by the introduction ofworksheets will transform the dance classroom into one that involves far more than dancetechnique and control, and the recognition that teachers need a wide range of teachingstrategies to motivate and engage the current body of students. Fully engaged students allow
the teacher to harness the students’ multiple intelligences (nonverbal spatial and musical,
linguistic and intrapersonal intelligences) required to the learning of a highly specialized art
form (Giguere, 2011; Choi and Kim, 2014; Arya, 2019).
Synthesis
As a function of generational markers, and the ubiquity of technology in their lives (2018),
children in classrooms today, have an attention span of eight (8) seconds (Patel, 2017), andsingularly approach all tasks from a visual perspective (Lachman). Considering the
aforementioned, the pedagogy of beginning ballet teaching is re–defined by introducing
worksheets aimed towards strengthening retention and comprehension of lessons. This study
explores innovating the classical ballet construct from a strictly transmissional model ofteaching and learning to shifting to a different paradigm: that of embodied knowing as
opposed to a disembodied knowing of foundational movement concepts.
Theoretical Framework
This study endeavored to examine the subject of generational diversity, and its impact on theclassical ballet teaching construct, through the lens of a pre–existing and well–establishedtheory.
In view of the foregoing, this study was anchored on the Strauss–Howe Generational Theory,
also known as the Fourth Turning Theory or simply the Fourth Turning, which was createdby authors, William Strauss and Neil Howe, which describes a theorized recurring generation

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cycle in American history (Strauss and Howe, 1992). According to the theory, historicalevents are associated with recurring generational personas (archetypes). Each generation
unleashes a new era, called a turning, which lasts around twenty to twenty two (20–22) years,
in which a new social, political, and economic climate exists, which in turn result to distinctly
dominant, behaviors and attitudes which define that particular era. A generation produces anaggregate persona of people born every 20 years such as Baby Boomers (born between 1946
to 1964), Generation X (born between 1965 and 1976), Millennials (born between 1977 and1994), Generation Z (born between 1994 and 2004), and Generation Apha (born from 2010 to2025) (Strauss and Howe, 1998).
The framework was contingent on the premise that a symbiotic relationship exists between
historical events and generational personas. Strauss–Howe’s Generational Theory was used
as a measure by the researcher to provide her with the schematic reminder that today’s
behaviors in any teaching–learning construct are radically influenced by crises and/or“triggering” world events (Strauss and Howe, 1998), and that such behaviors should be used
as a diving board to engender better teaching and learning.
Utilizing Strauss–Howe’s Generational Theory, and for the purposes of this study,
diagrammed below are Generations Z and Alphas’ characteristics in diagram form:

Figure 1: Generation Z and Generation Alpha Profiling Based on Strauss–Howe’s
Generational Theory
Conceptual Framework
This study postulated that by addressing today’s beginning ballet students’ visual learning
preference and eight (8) second attention span, with well–designed worksheets, students canbe more fully motivated and engaged, retaining and comprehending lessons quickly. This
study additionally hypothesized that well–designed worksheets can draw on students’continued interest. It was furthermore postulated that when instructional materials are well–matched to learning outcomes, that are both aligned to Generation Z and Generation Alphas’characteristics and preferences, an entirely new way of teaching and learning emerges. This

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study posited a shift from disembodied knowing to embodied knowing, which innovates the“old” transmissional model of the classical ballet teaching construct (Hamilton, 1998;
Rossum 2004; Carmichael, 2018).
The conceptual framework model follows.

Figure 2: Conceptual Framework of the Study. Diagram of Generations Z and Alphas’Characteristic Visual Preference for Learning and 8 Second Attention Span (Strength andWeakness), Subjected to Worksheets Aligned to His Strength and Weakness, to EnhanceComprehension, Retention, Fine Motor Skills, and Self–Confidence. Classical Ballet
Teaching Construct, Shifting from Disembodied Knowing to Embodied Knowing.
Statement of the Problem
Given Generation Z and Alphas’ visual learning preference and current eight (8) second
attention span, this study intended to explore the association between worksheet usage in thedance studio, to enhance Generation Z and Alphas’ comprehension skills as well as
supplement learning in beginning ballet classes. Specifically, the following questions wereaddressed:
1.
Does worksheet usage improve instruction in the classical ballet teaching construct?
2.
Do written instructional materials, such as worksheets, positively impact students’retention and comprehension in the dance studio?
3.
Do the worksheets supplement enhancement of fine motor skills?
4.
What are the implications of using worksheets in the classical ballet teaching
construct in the area of active learning and continued interest in dance?
Significance of the Study
Much of the prevailing research regarding the behavior of Generation Z and Generation
Alpha, takes a systemic perspective focusing as a whole, on their characteristics andpreferences and how those impact today’s classroom (2019). This study however, was

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ostensibly interested in how that same profile, can be aligned to the learning of a highly
specialized art form of classical ballet.
Insomuch as the lifeline of any art form is having a new generation to develop, the danceindustry and its teachers themselves, thus serve to gain from this research effort. Not having
students, interested or excited enough to continue training will ultimately result to not havingcorps d’ ballets in the future. Choosing expediency over hard work, Generation Z and
Generation Alpha are believed to abandon those art forms that require more time and effort(Schulten, 2018); they are choosing to learn badminton over tennis, street dance overclassical dance, the former are easier to acquire in the skills domain, while the latter require
more time, consistency, practice, and grit.
While increased technology has shifted many aspects of the learning environment in thedance studio, the use of worksheets as scaffolding to students’ learning of foundational
movement concepts, will inevitably impact the classical ballet teaching construct from one
that is strictly transmissional, to one that espouses embodied learning. The old pedagogy ischallenged in the area of efficacy and sustainability of the art form. The profile of the today’s
beginning ballet student requires the construct to deviate from the traditional and explore
alternative means to keep the youth within the confines of the dance studio, learning andhoning his craft towards professionalism. The new dance pedagogy will ultimately embrace
the academic concept of providing instruction based on individuals’ preferred learning styles(Rogowsky, Calhoun, and Tallal, 2015).
The findings on worksheet usage contextualized for beginning ballet classes, should beconsidered for educational policymaking that bolster the lesson retention and comprehensionof today’s beginning ballet students in a consequential and sustainable way. Worksheet usage
as instructional materials, can further create educational modules in tertiary level institutions,for aspiring dance teachers.
Moving away from the dance industry and its teachers as the unequivocal beneficiaries to thisstudy, the findings of this study could spur more concerted studies towards exploring thepedagogy of the classical ballet teaching construct as well as the methods and/or strategies in
keeping Generation Z and Generation Alpha engaged and motivated in the dance studio.
Definition of Terms
GENERATION Z, or Gen Z for short, is the demographic cohort succeeding the Millennials.
Born between 1994 and 2004, Generation Z has used digital technology since childhood andis comfortable with the Internet and social media, but is not necessarily digitally literate(Patel, 2017; 2018; Arya, 2019).
GENERATION ALPHA was born from 2010 through 2025, they are the first generation
entirely born within the 21st century. Technology for Generation Alpha is not something
separate from themselves, but rather, an extension of their own consciousness and identity(Patel, 2017; 2018; 2019).
LEARNING STYLE refers to individual preference for mode of instruction or study that ismost effective (Rogowsky, Calhoun, & Tallal, 2015).

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VISUAL LEARNING STYLE, often referred to as the spatial learning style, is a way oflearning in which information is associated with images. This learning style requires thatlearners first see what they are expected to know (Knoll, Otani, Skeel, & Horn, 2016).
CLASSICAL BALLET TEACHING CONSTRUCT refers to the traditional way of teaching
dance which is strictly transmissional modelling or mirrored guidance from the instructor(Hamilton, 1998; Rossum 2004; Carmichael, 2018).
LESSON RETENTION refers to the recall of learned information, stored in long–term
memory in such a way that it can be readily retrieved in response to standard prompts (Divoll
and Browning, 2010).
COMPREHENSION refers to the understanding of movement concepts and the ability todemonstrate such with accuracy and confidence (Mainwaring and Krasnow, 2010).
Scope and Delimitations
It was unfortunate that a lack of prior, research studies on this topic, could make thisendeavor exploratory rather than explanatory in research design (2019); a particular
limitation ascribed to the inevitable need for further research.
This study was limited to the worksheet usage of teachers in four (4) dance schools, École deBallet Manille, Alabang Country Club Ballet, ESS Ballet Jeunesse, and the Elizabeth Seton
School South Branch. The data collection and findings may or may not have necessarily lentthemselves applicable to other dance institutions. This specific study however, may bepertinent to all dance schools that have highly specialized syllabi comparable to theaforementioned schools.
This study was also restricted to the time frame given of one (1) year, from March 2017 toMarch 2018, which was manifestly not lengthy enough to measure the longitudinal effects ofworksheet usage, or to measure the phenomenon’s change or stability within the sample. It
would have been ideal to follow the progress of the same group of students over an extended
period of time, thereby pinpointing the actual rates of comprehension and retention within thetargeted population.
Research Methodology
This chapter elaborates on the research design, the participants, the sampling technique, theresearch instrument, the data gathering procedure, the treatment of the data, and ethicalconsiderations. Due to the nature of the research design, other methodology parts are notincluded.
Research Design
This is a qualitative research using case study model, testing whether worksheet usage can becontextualized in the classical ballet teaching construct, to simulate retention andcomprehension of foundational movement concepts. A focused group interview
methodology, is thereafter implemented to collate and analyze data on the perceptions of theparticipating teachers on the efficacy of worksheet usage toward retention andcomprehension skills of Generation Z and Generation Alpha students in beginning ballet

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classes. Sousa (2014) stated that qualitative research is a powerful process of naturalistic
inquiry that seeks in–depth understanding of current or prevailing status of events, things, or
social phenomena. It focuses on the "why" rather than the "what" of social phenomena andrelies on the direct experiences of human beings as meaning–making agents in their everyday
lives.
This phenomenological study was conducted in a span of one (1) year, disseminating sixty(60) worksheets that were matched to the learning outcomes of the beginning ballet syllabi
used in four (4) dance schools. Through focused group interviews and discussions, six (6)semi–structured questions zeroing on worksheet usage of Generation Z and Generation Alphain the classical ballet teaching construct, were asked of teachers of the four (4) dance schools.
The resulting data was organized according to prevalent themes, and analyzed furthermore in
the context of Strauss–Howe’s Generational Theory.
There were two (2) main foci in this study. First, determining whether worksheet usage canbe contextualized in a classical ballet teaching construct; and second, whether worksheet
usage can be a scaffolding tool on Generation Z and Generation Alpha beginning ballet
students’ learning.
Participants of the Study
Four (4), beginning ballet teachers, with at least, five (5) years of teaching experience prior tothis study, from École de Ballet Manille, Alabang Country Club Ballet, ESS Ballet Jeunesse,
and the Elizabeth Seton School South Branch, served as the participants of this study.
Sampling TechniqueSince majority of dance schools in the Metro do not have a predetermined educational
syllabus, prescriptive curriculum, or standardized method of instruction, the researcher
zeroed in on acquiring data from four (4) dance schools that have actual time–bound curricula
to test the validity of worksheet usage contextualized to the classical ballet teaching
construct. The study therefore utilized the non–random sampling technique.
Research Instrument
The research instrument used are sixty (60) worksheets, given to one hundred (100)beginning ballet students spread across four (4) dance schools in the Metro, in a period of one(1) year. These worksheets were specifically designed to support the learning outcomes of
beginning ballet syllabi. The worksheets had coloring and tracing activities which provide
brief, but succinct, descriptions of basic, classic positions, foundational movements, as well
as explanations to proper etiquette essentials or practices for beginning dance practice.
Semi–structured interviews or a pre–determined set of open questions that prompted
discussions, explored the participating teachers’ perceptions and contextual accounts onworksheet usage, which were the main data used to answer this study’s questions. These wereconversations with a purpose, otherwise known as in–depth interviews. These in–depth
interviews were held during two (2) mutually convenient free times, lasting two (2) hours
each time, the first held before worksheet usage in March 2017 and the second interview was
conducted after a year of worksheet usage, in March 2018.

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Validity and Reliability of the Instrument
An interview guide was prepared to triangulate the questions. This interview guide wasvalidated by a dance program chairman in Manila. Two (2) other instructors with supervisory
positions from another dance program located at a university in Quezon City, provided crossverification of the aforementioned six (6) interview questions.
The interview guide follows:
Interview
Session No.
1

Question
No.
1.1
1.2
1.3

Interview
Session No.
2

QuestionNo.
2.1

Questions
What is the usual profile of students in today’s beginningballet classes?
What bearing does the profile of today’s beginning ballet
students have on beginning ballet classes?
What is the estimated ratio of students remaining in the
training program in one (1) year?
Questions

Were the worksheets well–matched to the learning
outcomes of the beginning ballet syllabus?
2.2
Does worksheet usage change the classical ballet teaching
construct?
2.3
What is the estimated ratio of students remaining in the
training program in one (1) year, after worksheet usage?
Table 1: Semi – Structured Interview Questions

Data Gathering Technique
The researcher sought permission from the directors of École de Ballet Manille, Alabang
Country Club Ballet, ESS Ballet Jeunesse, and the Elizabeth Seton School South Branch, toinvolve their beginning ballet teachers in a worksheet usage study and thereafter holdinterview sessions with the aforesaid teachers at the beginning and end of one (1) year of
implementing the worksheet modules. The participating teachers were requested to engage infocused group interviews which consisted of a series of six (6) pre–determined questions
which were responded to in the same order. (Please see Table 1: Semi–Structured Interview
Questions.) The interviews were documented by video and audio recording, and transcribed
thereafter.
A thematic analysis was conducted on the transcriptions, extracting factors which showed arelationship between worksheet usage and achievement, first searching for themes, thenreviewing themes, and finally defining and naming themes.
It was hoped that the chosen method would result in compelling discussions on worksheet
usage as a plausible resource for teachers of Generation Z and Generation Alpha beginningballet students, as well as forging creative solutions to innovating the classical ballet teaching
construct.

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Presentation, Analysis, and Interpretation of Data
This chapter presents the data gathered, its analysis and interpretation. This study yielded thefollowing data:
Presentation and Analysis of Data
As per the participating teachers’ documents on file, following are brief descriptions of theparticipants’ profiles at the time of this study.
Participant No. 01 is female, forty-five (45) years of age, holds an undergraduate degree in
Literature, worked as an apprentice for a local dance company, and owns her own dancestudio. She is also affiliated with a renowned dance syllabus organization outside of thecountry. Participant No. 01 has been teaching beginning ballet classes for twenty three (23)years.
Participant No. 02 is female, thirty-five (35) years of age, holds an undergraduate degree inBusiness, and is a certified Pilates instructor. She apprenticed at a local dance company, owns
her own dance studio, and teaches at two (2) other dance schools. Participant No. 02 has beenteaching beginning ballet classes for twelve (12) years.
Participant No. 03, is female, thirty-one (31) years of age, holds an undergraduate degree inBusiness, worked as a professional dancer for a local dance company, and is currently headof the marketing division of a major fast food chain. Participant No. 03 teaches part–time fortwo other dance schools and has been teaching beginning ballet classes for nine (9) years.
Participant No. 04, is female, twenty-three (23) years of age, holds an undergraduate degreein Early Childhood Education, currently a preschool teacher in a renowned school in South of
the Metro, and is a dancer at a contemporary dance company. Participant No. 03 has beenteaching beginning ballet classes for five (5) years.
Theme 1: Inability of Today’s Beginning Ballet Students to Focus and Retain Lessons
Majority of this study’s participating teachers consistently replied that today’s beginningballet students, composed of Generation Z and Generation Alpha cohorts, are challenging tohandle due to their inability to focus (Patel, 2017; Arya, 2019). The difficulty of retaining
information is startling (Ruecker, et al, 2017). Despite a more developed visual ability(Lachman), beginning ballet students today, so accustomed to switching between short bursts
of information as displayed on social media, have acquired an inability to focus on or analyze
basic pieces of information required to execute the simplest movement vocabulary (Patel,
2017; Schulten, 2018; Arya, 2019).
Theme 2: A Need to Change the Old Way of Teaching Classical Ballet Due to theCurrent Student Profile
The participants alluded to the evident need for a specialized approach to educating today’s
Generations Z and Alpha students who have very pronounced learning proclivities (Knoll, etal, 2016; Patel, 2017; Schulten, 2018; Arya, 2019). The classical ballet teaching constructneeds revisions to include multi–sensory teaching techniques and interventions to help them

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progress through the required beginning ballet movement vocabulary as well as keeping themengaged in the dance studio (Morris, 2003; Aceto, 2012; Holmes, 2014).
Theme 3: The Ballet School Dropout Crisis
There is a drop–out crisis in beginning ballet classes which, if not properly addressed, will
impact a stage with no corps d’ ballet in the future (2011). Today’s Generations Z and Alphaare disinterested to learn a craft that requires mindful, cognitive and physical coordination at
the onset (Schulten, 2018), and involves years of focus, determination, consistency, andpractice (Patel, 2017; Arya, 2019). The proclivities of today’s students imply new ways ofteaching dance (Enghauser, 2003; Alterowitz, 2014; Choi and Kim, 2014).
Theme 4: Worksheet Usage Was Tailored to Content
Worksheets were thought to be well aimed at the Generations Z and Alpha target audience.
They were purposeful in their building of skills and recalling mechanics of basic movements.
They were “effective,” which means they adequately accomplished or produced the intended
or expected result and left a vivid or deep impression on the users (Lee, 2014; Martina, 2017;
Amran and Man, 2018).
Theme 5: The Viability of Worksheets in the Dance Studio Setting
Teaching materials, in this case, worksheets, tailored to the content in which they are being
used, supported student learning in the classical ballet teaching construct. Although
worksheet usage is more the territory of pre–school classes, application of them in a similar
teaching environment, fostered development of skills and sub–skills for both presentation andpractice purposes (Lee, 2014; Martina, 2017; Amran and Man, 2018). The classical ballet
teaching construct was not changed but enhanced, to successfully deliver learning outcomesof beginning ballet syllabi. Accommodation of such a teaching tool in the classical ballet
teaching construct although unheard of, provides a new framework for beginning balletclasses which can expedite coverage of the content, and ensure that students record key items.
Inclusion of simple coloring and tracing tasks not only abnegates student passivity; they
trigger focus and retention of lessons (Bramão, Faísca, Forkstam, Reis, and Petersson, 2010;
William, 2015; Przybyla, et al, 2019).
Theme 6: The Efficacy of Worksheet Usage to the Ratio of Retained Students
The estimated sixty one point seventy five percent (61.75%) drop out from beginning balletclasses, which seems to be atrocious by any standards (2011), are not thought to be so by theparticipants. They were in fact elated at the current retention rate when compared to otheryears. Although this study was admittedly not sufficiently robust to support more than themost general observations as to the impact of whether worksheet usage affect the retention
and comprehension of students in the dance studio, all four (4) participants unanimously
pointed to the implementation of the worksheets as a decisive factor in the retention of theircurrent students.
Data Analysis and Conclusions
The responses garnered from this study verbalized innermost reflections and autobiographicalnarratives of the participating teachers, on their experiences with Generations Z and Alpha, in

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their respective beginning ballet classes. The focused group discussions additionally revealed
valuations on the classical ballet teaching construct vis–à–vis the profile of today’s students.
These findings on worksheet usage contextualized for beginning ballet classes, should beconsidered for educational policymaking that bolster the lesson retention and comprehensionof today’s beginning ballet students in a consequential and sustainable way.
Through the participants’ responses, the researcher identified elements that were perceived as
significant behavioral learning changes of today’s Generation Z and Generation Alpha
beginning ballet students and a consequent call to enhance the classical ballet teaching
construct for inclusion of worksheets expressly created to support beginning ballet syllabi,
and instrumental to increased lesson retention and comprehension of the target audience.
Interpretation of Data through the Lens of Strauss–Howe’s Generational Theory
As mentioned previously, this study was anchored on Strauss–Howe’s Generational Theory
which elaborates on the notion that a generation produces an aggregate persona of people
born every 20 years (Strauss and Howe, 1992; Strauss and Howe, 1998), the point of thisstudy’s interest being, Generations Z and Alpha in beginning ballet classes. The participatingteachers supported the findings on Generations Z and Alphas’ inability to focus and retain
lessons as a function of the ubiquity of technology in their lives (Patel, 2017; Arya, 2019).
The current profile of today’s beginning ballet students however, suggests introduction of
innovative strategies (Mainwaring and Krasnow, 2010; Stinson, 2010) to produce learning
experiences matched to individuals' learning styles (Rogowsky, Calhoun, and Tallal, 2015;
Knoll, Otani, Skeel, and Horn, 2016).
The Implication of Reform in the Classical Ballet Teaching Construct
The classical ballet teaching construct, that being linear and mechanical, emanating fromteacher to students as mute receptors of information (Freire, Freire, and Freire, 2017; Freire,
Ramos, Shor, and Macedo, 2018), requires reform in the face of today’s students.
Generations Z and Alphas’ learning reflexes are a function of their great exposure totechnology (Patel, 2017; Arya, 2019). The existing construct therefore needs to optimize its
course content with more innovative channels of communication to reach them (Morris,
2003; Aceto, 2012; Holmes, 2014). The more natural solution would be to include interactive
tools and digital practices (Arya, 2019); but these have no place in the process of acquiringand honing physical skills and should not detract attention from the importance of traditional
pedagogy and a strong teacher–student bond. Considering the profile of today’s beginningballet students, what is necessary at this point, is to facilitate learning beyond studio walls(Branscombe, 2019). The inclusion of instructional materials as alternative channels ofteaching today’s Generations Z and Alphas, given their innate disadvantages to thrive in anormal classical ballet teaching construct, is initially proposed as a reform to the former.
Given the participating teachers’ frustrations in dealing with today’s generational cohorts aswell (Holmes, 2014), worksheets with tracing and coloring activities that extend the range ofvicarious learning experience (Mattson and Kratochwill, 1970; William, 2015; Amran andMan, 2018; Mantzios and Giannou, 2018), seem to be a welcome addition to the teaching–learning paradigm in today’s dance studio.

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The Implication of a Shift from Disembodied Learning to Embodied Learning
Related to the foregoing, there is an implied shift to embodied learning, integrating the mind
into the body’s sensorimotor systems (Bresler, 2004; Branscombe, 2019), from disembodied
learning, as a product of linear and mechanical teaching (Freire, Ramos, Shor, and Macedo,2018). Instead of merely expecting the student to receive and store information like robotic
receptacles; given the students’ profiling, teachers use vivid, teaching tools to effect cognition
integrating the body in the learning process (Trapp, 2008; Spector and Park, 2017).
Worksheet usage with coloring and tracing activities, which naturally unites both visual andmotor skills (William, 2015; Mantzios and Giannou, 2018), promote the abovementioned
embodied learning in the dance studio. The data, which illustrates positive correlation
between worksheet usage and lesson retention and comprehension of beginning ballet
students, conveys strong themes around facilitating a change in practice, and changing
philosophies and practices. A pedagogical change in the form of worksheet usage toward
embodied knowing, is a process that needs to be supported by a community of practice intent
on improving classical ballet learning across multiple cognitive domains.
The Turnover Rate of Beginning Ballet Classes
Interestingly, another positive outcome of worksheet usage was the retention of a higher
number of students in beginning ballet classes.
Based on gymnastics, cheerleading, dance, and martial arts industries, there is no such thing
as a “normal” dropout rate for any age group. There is, however, a minimum turnover ofapproximately twenty percent (20%) that almost every facility experiences in its recreational
programs (Giguere, 2011). Statistics show that overall retention is almost completelydependent upon the effort and energy that the owners and instructors put into the program(Holmes, 2020).
Based on this study’s findings however, the sixty one point seventy five percent (61.75%)
turnover rate, although falling far behind the aforementioned estimation of the twenty percent(20%) turnover rate mentioned in Guigere’s study, in 2011, was still thought of, to be
encouraging by the participants, in light of the optimistic effect of the inclusion of worksheets
contextualized for use in the classical ballet teaching construct as opposed to past years
without worksheet usage. There seems to be a positive correlation between worksheet usage
and students’ retention in the Philippine dance studio setting.

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Reading Comprehension Proficiency of English Major Students
Thapanee Khemanuwong, King Mongkut’s Institute of Technology Ladkrabang, Thailand
Thanate Angsuwatanakul, Rangsit University, Thailand
Ekkapon Phairot, Songkhla Rajabhat University, Thailand
Duangporn Jarijitpaibul, King Mongkut’s Institute of Technology Ladkrabang, Thailand
Pimjai Promsuwan, Songkhla Rajabhat University, Thailand
Piriyaporn Uampittaya, King Mongkut’s Institute of Technology Ladkrabang, Thailand
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Abstract
This study aims to investigate the reading comprehension ability of English major students
using the online Thai Reading Evaluation and Decoding System (Thai-READS) and to
examine educational levels and gender as predictors of EFL students’ reading comprehension
ability. The system comprises three components: the Encoder, the Reading Matrix and the
Decoder to map reading comprehension ability using a cross-reference of the Reading Matrix
and the Decoder. The participants consisted of 362 English major students from one public
university in Bangkok, Thailand. Descriptive statistics (i.e., percentage, mean, and standard
deviation) was used to describe students’ general reading performance while inferential
statistics (i.e., t-test and one-way ANOVA) was used to test the hypotheses. The main
findings revealed that a majority (59.94%) of the students performed satisfactorily at Band 4.
However, only a small number of students were categorized into Band 5 (25.16%) and Band
6 (3.04%). The findings from one-way ANOVA affirmed that there were statisticallysignificant differences in the Thai READS scores among all educational levels (Year 1–Year4), F (3, 358) = 20.42, p = 0.00). An independent-samples t-test was then conducted tocompare the scores for males and females. There was no significant difference in the scoresfor males (M = 44.0, SD = 7.07) and females (M = 42.80, SD = 5.95; t (353) = 1.49, p = 0.14,
two-tailed). Although the students' average reading performance was at Band 4, effective
teaching interventions need to be implemented to enhance their reading comprehension
ability.
Keywords: Thai Reading Comprehension Evaluation and Decoding System (Thai-READS),
Reading Comprehension, English as a foreign language (EFL)

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Introduction
Reading comprehension ability in the English language is a vital skill to be mastered by theuniversity students for academic and future occupational purposes (Hui, Saeed, &Khemanuwong, 2020). Despite its significance, Thai students have often experienced
considerable difficulties in reading (Chomchaiya & Dunworth, 2008). It has been evidenced
that without effective reading strategies and assessment− foreign language learners found it
problematic to overcome reading difficulties and achieve comprehension. In the Programme
for International Student Assessment (PISA) in 2018, Thai 15-year-old students’ averagescore (393 points) was lower than an average of 487 points in OECD countries (OECD,2018). This infers that reading comprehension among the Thai students would be at an
unsatisfactory level. The low performance of Thai high school students in their reading
achievement suggests that in advancing to the tertiary level, undergraduates would still needample guidance to improve their reading comprehension ability.
Moreover, Educational Testing Service (ETS), the world’s largest organization for
educational testing and assessment based in Princeton, New Jersey, USA. ETS has issued
reports on the results of TOEFL Internet Based Test. In TOEFL IBT, the details of sections
and total score means for Thailand in 2010, 2012, 2014, and 2017 are presented in Table 1.
Table 1: Results of TOEFL Internet-Based Test (IBT)
Years

Reading(30)

Listening(30)

Speaking(30)

Writing
(30)

Total
(120)

Rank

2010
2012
2014
2017

18
18
18
19

19
19
19
20

18
19
19
19

20
20
19
20

75
76
74
78

21
23
22
20

Total
Countries(Asia)
33
35
35
35

Source: ETS’s reports in four different years

As shown above, among the four English skills, reading seems to be the weakest skill for
Thai students. Most of the Thai undergraduates are reported to be experiencing difficulties in
employing reading strategies (Akkakoson & Setobol, 2009). In addition, Chomchaiya andDunworth (2008) found that while the students appeared to be motivated to improve theirreading comprehension ability, they have not yet fully developed their reading skills.
Like other EFL undergraduates, English major students are expected to process andcomprehend a large volume of texts in English from sources of journals and textbooks. As
supported by a study of Chairat (2016), the workplace required business reading andtranslation skills to perform their jobs. Due to this reason, it is undeniable that English
reading skills are important and highly expected by businesses and organizations. The starkfindings of the level of reading comprehension ability of Thai students further warrant acloser scrutiny into benchmarking English major undergraduates’ reading performance moreaccurately.
Literature Review
Schema Theory and Contextual Bias in Reading Comprehension Ability
As previously discussed, reading comprehension ability is a vital skill for English learners. In
the endeavour to identify students’ reading comprehension ability, the reading literature

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identifies schema as the basis for cognition and information processing (Axelrod, 1973).
Comprehension refers to the ability to perform reading tasks of going beyond the words,
understanding the ideas and the relationships between ideas conveyed in a text (McNamara,2007). The readers’ comprehension ability could be differentiated into high and low reading
performers depending on how well the readers could perform the comprehension tasks.
Readers are often guided by their previous experience and knowledge of the content area of atext in their attempt to comprehend the written text, which is regarded as content schemata(Khemanuwong, Kho, Mohamed, Ismail, Saeed, & Uampittaya, 2020). The schema theory
assumes that a written text does not carry meaning by itself (An, 2013). It rather gives a
direction to the readers in the retrieval and construction of meaning from their priorknowledge or schemata (Rumelhalt, 1980).
Apart from the readers’ ability to activate content schemata, students’ reading comprehension
ability mainly relies on how well readers could relate the text to their cultural schemata andculturally based clues (Floyd & Carrell, 1987). In test-taking, the literature has identified thepositive effects of addressing cultural schemata in improving test-takers’ reading
comprehension ability. Sasaki (2000) conducted a study on Japanese first-year university
students in answering cloze text to examine how cultural schemata could be activated toinfluence students’ comprehension and test-taking processes. Regarding the undergraduates’
effort to understand a text, the study suggested that the students who answered culturallyfamiliar version of the test could perform significantly better than those who received
culturally unfamiliar version of the test.
Hence, the present study is based on the widely accepted argument that readers performbetter with culturally familiar texts. We argue that when readers are given texts fitting to theircultural schema, contextual bias which could confuse or mislead readers’ comprehension
ability would be reduced. In our study, we employ the Thai-READS, which eliminated thecontextual bias in the instrument. By providing the test instrument designed to address thecontextual bias, the test-takers’ mastery could be enhanced (Khemanuwong, Mohamed, &Ismail, 2018).
Research Objectives
This study primarily aims to investigate the reading comprehension proficiency of English
major students which are assessed by the Thai-READS. More specifically, the study
addressed three research objectives (ROs) as follows:
RO1: To investigate general reading comprehension ability of English major students.
RO2: To determine a statistically significant difference in scores on reading comprehension
ability among English major students in different years of study.
RO3: To determine a statistically significant difference in scores on reading comprehension
ability between male and female English major students.
Research Questions
The following research questions (RQ) are guided to achieve the aims of the present study:
RQ1: What is general reading comprehension ability of the English major students measured
by the Thai-READS?
RQ2: Is there a statistically significant difference in mean scores on reading comprehension
ability among English major students in different years of study?

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RQ3: Is there a statistically significant difference in mean scores on reading comprehension
ability between male and female English major students?
Hypothesis
Null hypotheses (H0) for the two corresponding with the last two research questions areformulated as follows:
H01: There is no statistically significant difference in mean scores on reading comprehension
ability among English major students with different years of study.
H02: There is no statistically significant difference in mean scores on reading comprehension
ability between male and female English major students.
Research Methodology
The present study used quantitative research approach to determine reading comprehension
ability of English major students. In the SPSS program, some statistical techniques including
descriptive (i.e., mean, standard deviation, and percentage) and inferential statistics (i.e., ttest and one-way ANOVA) were used to analyse the data.
Participants
A total of 362 English major students of King Mongkut’s Institute of Technology
Ladkrabang (KMITL) participated in this study by purposive sampling. There were 85 males(23.48%) and 277 females (76.52%) participating in the present study. They were made up of
53 first-year students (14.64%), 52 second-year students (14.36%), 198 third-year students(54.70%) as well as 59 fourth-year students (16.30%).
Research Instrument
The online Thai-READS was employed to determine the English major students’ reading
comprehension ability. The Thai-READS eliminated the contextual bias to address
differences in cultural, background and worldly knowledge. According to Khemanuwong etal. (2018), the content validity of the Thai-READS was high with 0.92 of the index of item
objective congruence (IOC). Moreover, the Thai-READS had a high reliability of the testwith 0.91 in the KR-20 coefficient. According to Boopathiraj and Chellamani (2013),
questions in a test should indicate a level of difficulty. In the Thai-READS test, 60 MCQ
questions are distributed with three difficulty levels− easy (25%), average (50%) and difficult(25%), with three sub-skills of reading comprehension− literal, reorganization, andinferential, which are incorporated in Barrett’s taxonomy of reading comprehension (Lim,Eng, & Mohamed, 2014). As supported by the study of Hui, Saeed, and Khemanuwong (2020),
the Thai-READS is suitable to assess university students’ reading comprehension ability at any
levels. By administering the Thai-READS to the English major students, the analysis of thereading comprehension ability could provide insights on which specific sub-skills of reading
comprehension that the students would need to improve (Khemanuwong, Hui, Mohamed, Ismail,
Saeed, & Uampittaya, 2020).
Data Collection Procedure
Prior to the onset of data collection, we requested an official permission from the university
and the participants’ consent. The steps were taken to ensure an ethical consideration in

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conducting this research. Before the participants took the online test, we had a brieforientation session presenting the main purpose of the research. The participants were
informed that their information was kept confidential and anonymous. To conduct the test,
we have followed a guideline of time allocation in Mohamed et al.’s (2010) study which
provided 70 minutes for the test-takers to complete the online test.
Research Findings
RQ1 aimed to explore general reading comprehension ability among English major students.
As shown in Figure 1, it was found that most of the students (85.10%) showed theirperformance in English reading comprehension in Meet Standard group; 59.94% in Band 4
and 25.16% in Band 5. Furthermore, the results from quantitative data analysis using
descriptive statistics revealed students’ performance that there was three percent of thestudents clustered in Band 6 or as Above Standard achievers.
70.00%
59.94%

60.00%
50.00%
40.00%
25.16%

30.00%
20.00%

3.04%

10.00%
0.00%
BAND 4

BAND 5

BAND 6

Figure 1: Students’ Reading Comprehension Abilities in Different Bands
RQ2 aimed to determine whether there is a statistically significant difference in mean scoreson reading comprehension ability between male and female English major students. The
results in Table 2 showed that there was no statistically significant difference in mean scoreson reading comprehension ability between male and female English major students, t(353) =1.50, p = 0.14.
Table 2: Results of Independent Samples T-Test

ScoresEqual variances
assumedEqual variances
not assumed

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Levene’s Test for
Equality of Variances
F
Sig.
0.482
0.488

43

T-Test for Equality of Means
t
1.50

df
353

Sig. (2-tailed)
0.14

1.36

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Supporting the results in Table 1, the analysis of descriptive statistics in Table 3 indicatedthat mean scores of male students (M=44, SD=7.08) and female students (M=42.81,
SD=5.96) were not significantly different. Therefore, the first null hypothesis failed to be
rejected.
Table 3: Results of Mean Scores
MeanStandard Deviation
44.00
7.08
42.81
5.96

GenderMale
FemaleNumber of students
85
277

RQ3 examined if there is a statistically significant difference in mean scores on reading
comprehension ability among English major students in four different years of study. Before
using the one-way ANOVA, a preliminary assumption of homogeneity of variances wastested and the results showed that homogeneity of variances was not violated since p value
was greater than 0.05 as shown in Table 4.
Table 4: Results of Homogeneity of Variances
Levene Statistics
1.670

df1
3

df2
358

Sig
0.173

Table 5 reported the results of the one-way ANOVA and indicated that there was astatistically significant difference in mean scores on reading comprehension ability among
English major students in the four different years of study, F(3, 358) = 20.42, p = 0.00. Thus,
the second null hypothesis was rejected.
Table 5: Results of the ANOVA
Between groups
Within groups
Total

Sum ofSquares
2061.160
12043.933
14105.094

Mean of
Squares687.053
33.642

df
3
358
361

F

Sig.

20.4220.000

As illustrated in Table 6, the results of multiple comparison using Tukey HSD indicated thatmean scores between first-year and second-year students, between first-year and third-year
students, between first-year and fourth-year students, between second-year and third-year
students, between second-year and fourth-year students, as well as between third-year andfourth-year students showed significant differences since p values were less than 0.05.
However, it was also detected that mean scores of second-year and third-year students did notshow a significant difference.
Table 6: Results of Multiple Comparison Using Tukey HSD(I) Years

123(J) Years

2
3
4
3
4
4

Mean Difference(I-J)−3.65*−2.47*
3.59*
1.18
7.25*
6.06*

Note. *The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level.

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Standard Error

Sig.

1.13
0.90
1.10
0.90
1.10
0.86

0.00
0.03
0.00
0.56
0.00
0.00

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The results of the one-way ANOVA further pointed out the extent to which different pairs ofyear of study were different. As reported in Table 7, first-year students’ mean score(M=41.85, SD=6.52) was significantly lower than second-year students’ mean score(M=45.50, SD=5.25) and third-year students’ mean score (M=44.32, SD=5.97). However, thefirst-year students’ mean score (M=41.85, SD=6.52) was significantly greater than fourthyear students’ mean score (M=38.25, SD=4.94). Other than that, second-year students’ meanscore (M=45.50, SD=5.25) and third-year students’ mean score (M=44.32, SD=5.97) was not
significantly different. In contrast, second-year students’ mean score (M=45.50, SD=5.25)
was significantly greater than fourth-year students’ mean score (M=38.25, SD=4.94). Also, it
was found that third-year students’ mean score (M=44.32, SD=5.97) was significantly greaterthan fourth-year students’ mean score (M=38.25, SD=4.94).
Table 7: Results of Scores in Reading Comprehension
Years of Study
1234Overall

Mean
41.85
45.50
44.32
38.25
43.14

Standard Deviation
6.52
5.25
5.97
4.94
6.25

Number of Students
53
52
198
59
362

Conclusion and Suggestion
Generally, this study found that the English major students’ abilities in English reading
comprehension was in ‘Meet Standard’ group (M=43.14, SD=6.25) with Bands 4 and 5 asdetermined by Khemanuwong’s (2019) criterion. Besides that, the present study indicatedthat male and female English major students’ mean scores on reading comprehension were
not significantly different. The findings in the study are contradictory to Phakiti’s (2003)
assertion, which suggests that a significant outperformance of males may exist because of theuse of reading strategies and metacognitive strategies. Common interest in English is one of
the factors that can explain the phenomenon in the present study. Since the participantsstudied in English major, they are likely to have common interests in English. Therefore, theeffect of gender difference may not affect their abilities in English reading comprehension.
Interestingly, this study detected that the students’ different years of study showed asignificant effect on abilities in English reading comprehension. Language learners with more
years of study are expected to show better development in language learning. However,
fourth-year students in this study showed significant low performance as compared to other
different years of study. This is due to mastering of language skills in fourth year may not
focus on reading skills. Normally, the students in fourth year have professional practicum inworkplace. For this reason, it is suggested that lecturers implement teaching strategies which
could improve retention of reading comprehension among the English major undergraduates.
Moreover, future research should provide proofs with robust results to show better
understanding of whether years of study could consider a factor predicting abilities of reading
comprehension of students.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to show gratitude to the Faculty of Liberal Arts, King Mongkut's
Institute of Technology Ladkrabang and King Mongkut's Institute of Technology
Ladkrabang, which permitted this research to be conducted.

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References
Akkakoson, S., & Setobol, B. (2009). Thai EFL students’ use of strategies in reading English
texts. The Journal of KMUTNB, 19(3), 329-342.
An, S. (2013). Schema Theory in Reading. Theory & Practice in Language Studies, 3(1).
Axelrod, R. (1973). Schema theory: An information processing model of perception andcognition. The American Political Science Review, 67(4), 1248-1266.
Chairat, P. (2016). Communication Skills Used by English Major Graduates in the
Workplace: A Case Study. International Journal of Languages, Literature andLinguistics, 2(1), 38-43.
Chomchaiya, C., & Dunworth, K. (2008). Identification of learning barriers affecting English
reading comprehension instruction, as perceived by ESL undergraduates in Thailand.
Retrieved from https://ro.ecu.edu.au/ceducom/10
Floyd, P., & Carrell, P. L. (1987). Effects on ESL reading of teaching cultural content
schemata. Language Learning, 37(1), 89-108. doi:10.1111/j.14671770.1968.tb01313.x
Hui, K. S., Saeed, K. M., & Khemanuwong, T. (2020). Reading Comprehension Ability of
Future Engineers in Thailand. MEXTESOL Journal, 44(4), 1-21.
Khemanuwong, T. (2019). Benchmarking and profiling English reading comprehension
proficiency of Thai undergraduates (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Universiti
Sains Malaysia, Malaysia.
Khemanuwong, T., Mohamed, A. R., & Ismail, S. A. M. M. (2018). Developing a ThaiREADS encoder to gauge EFL reading proficiency of Thai undergraduate students.
Journal of Teaching and Learning English in Multicultural Contexts (TLEMC), 2(1),23-34. Retrieved from http://jurnal.unsil.ac.id/index.php/tlemc/article/view/487/303
Khemanuwong, T., Kho, S. H., Mohamed, A. R., Ismail, S. A. M. M., Saeed, K. M., &Uampittaya, P. (2020). Benchmarking Reading Comprehension Proficiency ofEngineering Undergraduates. Proceedings of the 2020 Panyapiwat International
Conference on Social Science and Management, Bangkok, Thailand, 3(2), 47-61.
Lim, C. K., Eng, L. S., & Mohamed, A. R. (2014). Benchmarking Year Five Students'
Reading Abilities. English Language Teaching, 7(5), 50-58.
McNamara, D. S. (2007). Reading comprehension strategies: Theories, interventions, andtechnologies. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.
Mohamed, A. R., Eng, L. S., & Ismail, S. A. M. M. (2010). Making Sense of Reading Scoreswith Reading Evaluation and Decoding System (READS). English Language
Teaching, 3(3), 35-46.

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Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (2018). Education at a glance
2018: OECD indicators. OECD. Retrieved from https://www.oecdilibrary.org/education/education-at-a-glance-2018_eag-2018-enY
Phakiti, A. (2003). A closer look at gender and strategy use in L2 reading. Language
Learning, 53(4), 649-702. doi:10.1046/j.1467-9922.2003.00239.x
Rumelhart, D. 1980. Schemata: The building blocks of cognition. In: R. J. Spiro, B. C. Bruce& W. F. Brewer. (Eds.). Theoretical issues in reading comprehension. Hillsdale, NJ:
Erlbaum
Sasaki, M. (2000). Effects of cultural schemata on students' test-taking processes for cloze
tests: a multiple data source approach. Language Testing, 17(1), 85-114.
Contact email: ekkapon.ph@skru.ac.thduangporn.ja@kmitl.ac.th

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Online Teaching Readiness of High School Teachers in Special Education
Jasmine P. Sibayan, Department of Education, Philippines
Joan O. Pucya, University of the Cordilleras, Philippines
Renaliza B. Juanbe, University of the Cordilleras, Philippines
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Abstract
The advent of technology in the 21st century transformed the educational landscape initiatinga shift from traditional face-to-face teaching to online teaching. Moving the classroom
experience to digital platform poses a challenge on the online teaching readiness of teachers,
more so in special education where the teachers’ intensive guidance and specialized skills arematched to the specific needs of learners with special needs. Hence, this study aimed todetermine the online teaching readiness of high school teachers in special education alongcourse design, course communication, time management, and technical competence. With
this, quantitative research design was employed and a questionnaire on faculty readiness toteach online was adapted and used. The results revealed that the level of online teachingreadiness of high school teachers in special education is high in all of the four areas of online
teaching competencies namely course design, course communication, time management, andtechnical competence. In this regard, the use of different modalities and other online
platforms in teaching online should be reemphasized and considered in order to improve andmaximize the online teaching competencies of high school teachers in special education.
Keywords: Special Education, Online Teaching, Readiness, Distance Learning, Faculty
Preparedness

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Introduction
The recent developments and innovations in technology initiated the shift of educational
trend to the prospect of online teaching. The movement of the classroom experience to online
platform poses challenges in the teaching-learning experiences of students and educators,
especially in special education. Hence, determining the online teaching readiness of teachers
in special education would help appraise the delivery of instruction in an online setting. This
study can help curriculum developers understand the needs of the teachers and create plans
and strategies that may help students with disabilities based on the online teaching specificneeds and requirements. Moreover, this can help educators make necessary adjustments intheir online teaching approaches in order to meet the needs of the learners. With this, learners
will benefit as well for their educational needs in the online environment would be addressed
through the teachers’ preparation and adjustment of teaching approaches.
Literature Review
Burdette et al. (2013) discovered that teachers in special education had difficulty describing
specialized instructional practices for students with disabilities in the online setting.
However, measures are taken by institutions to address concerns in delivering instruction to
the learners in the online setting.
In the Philippines, Magsambol (2020) states that online teaching for students with special
needs proves to be a challenge for even before the coronavirus pandemic, a 2019 study by thePhilippine Institute of Development Studies (PIDS) already revealed the challenges of
implementing the special education curriculum in the Philippines. Nonetheless, theDepartment of Education (DepEd) assured that its Basic Education Learning Continuity Plan
(BE-LCP) would address the specific needs of children with special needs through various
learning modalities to ensure the continuity of their learning (Malipot, 2020). With this, there
is a need to identify the teachers’ level of online teaching preparedness for they are going todeliver courses online and utilize learning management systems and online applications.
In the context of this study, online teaching readiness refers to the teachers’ mental andphysical preparation for e-teaching experience and their ability to facilitate courses within an
online environment (Hoppe, 2015). It is determined through the teachers’ online teachingcompetencies along the following areas: course design, course communication, time
management, and technical competence. Martin et al. (2019) defined the four online teachingcompetencies as follows: 1) course design is the pedagogical competency which involves
planning instruction with course objectives, instructional strategies, activities, andassessments that align to objectives; 2) course communication is the interpersonalcommunication and interaction between the teacher and students in online courses; 3) time
management is the ability to use one's time effectively or productively, especially at work;and 4) technical competence is the technical knowledge and proficiency in the use of current
technology.
Problem Statement
This study aimed to determine the level of online teaching readiness of high school teachers
in special education along the following areas of online teaching competencies: course
design, course communication, time management, and technical competence.

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MethodDescriptive quantitative research design was used to systematically analyze and measure theonline teaching readiness of high school teachers in special education in the new normalclassroom setup.
Materials
A 32-item questionnaire was adapted from the Faculty Readiness to Teach Online Instrument
by Martin et al. (2019). It has a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.92 which means that the items in thequestionnaire have relatively high consistency. It is composed of questions along the fourareas of online teaching competencies specifically, nine questions on course design, ten
questions on course communication, six questions on time management, and seven questions
on technical competence. This questionnaire was distributed through the use of electronic(Google form) and printed format.
Samples
Universal sampling was employed. With this, seventeen (17) high school teachers in special
education from three SPED schools were identified, specifically, ten (10) or 58.82% from theCity of San Fernando and seven (7) or 41.18% from Baguio City.
Site
The three SPED schools identified from the City of San Fernando and Baguio City were theonly private and public schools that provide special education program in the secondary level.
Other SPED schools from the said locality only provide special education program in theelementary level.
Procedures
Before the data gathering collection, letters of permission to conduct the study and invitation
to participate, and participant consent forms were given to the school heads and teachers of
the target institutions. These letters and forms contain details about the study that need to be
known to the participants.
During the data gathering collection, there was a consent form distributed informing theparticipants that the study does not have known risks, costs, nor monetary compensation, andis voluntary. They were also informed that they were given anonymity and should the data
published or disseminated; their individual information will not be disclosed. Furthermore,they were informed that the data gathered from the participants will solely be used for the
purpose of the study.
After the data gathering collection, numerical data collected from the rating scale andquestionnaire were both statistically treated, analysed, and interpreted. The researchers alsoorganized an informal interview with the participants of the study to further validate theresults of the study.

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Measurement
A 5-point Likert scale was used to allow the participants to express their agreement anddisagreement with the items provided in the questionnaire. The response of the participants
ranges from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (5).
Data Analysis
Weighted mean was used to identify the level of online teaching readiness of high school
teachers in special education along course design, course communication, time management,
and technical competence.
Table 1 presents the 5-point scale that was used to categorize and interpret the level of online
teaching readiness of high school teachers in special education along course design, course
communication, time management, and technical competence
Table 1: Level of Online Teaching Readiness of High School Teachers in Special Education
Statistical Range
Descriptor
Interpretation
The level of online teaching readiness of
4.21-5.00
Strongly Agreehigh school teachers in special
education is very high.
The level of online teaching readiness of
3.41-4.20
Agreehigh school teachers in special
education is high.
The level of online teaching readiness of
2.61-3.40
Neutralhigh school teachers in special
education is moderate.
The level of online teaching readiness of
1.81-2.60
Disagreehigh school teachers in special
education is low.
The level of online teaching readiness of
1.00-1.80
Strongly Disagreehigh school teachers in special
education is very low.
Validity and Reliability
Before the data gathering collection, the study proposal was evaluated and approved by the
Research Ethics Committee of the University of the Cordilleras as ethically accepted.
Furthermore, the reliability of the questionnaire adapted for the study has a Cronbach’s
reliability coefficient that is considered as highly consistent. After the data gatheringcollection, the process of triangulation was also utilized to further analyze and verify thefindings of the study. The researchers organized an informal interview with the participantsof the study.
Results and Discussion
This portion of the study presents analysis, interpretation, and discussion of the data collectedon the level of online teaching readiness of high school teachers in special education along
the four areas of online teaching competencies specifically, course design, course
communication, time management, and technical competence.

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Table 2 presents the analysis of the data on the over-all level of online teaching readiness ofhigh school teachers in special education.
Table 2: Over-All Level of Online Teaching Readiness of High School Teachers in Special
Education
Course Design
4.08
High
Course Communication
4.07
High
Time Management
3.90
High
Technical Competence
4.05
High
Overall general weighted mean
4.03
High
Generally, the level of online teaching readiness of the high school teachers in special
education is high (4.03). This implies that the teachers are mentally and physically preparedto facilitate online classes. Similarly, Ventayen (2017) noted that basic education teachers
under DepEd are ready for online teaching.
Table 3 presents the analysis of the data on the level of online teaching readiness of highschool teachers in special education along course design.
Table 3: Level of Online Teaching Readiness of High School Teachers in Special Education
along Course Design
Weighted
Descriptive
Items
mean
equivalent
I can create an online course orientation (e.g.,
4.29
Very highintroduction, getting started).
I can write measurable learning objectives.
4.18
High
I can design learning activities that provide students
opportunities for interaction (e.g. discussion forums,
3.94
High
wikis).
I can organize instructional materials into modules or
4.24
Very highunits.
I can create instructional videos (e.g. lecture video,
4.06
High
demonstrations, video tutorials).
I can use different teaching methods in the online
environment (e.g. brainstorming, collaborative
3.82
High
activities, discussions, presentations).
I can create online quizzes and tests.
4.12
High
I can create online assignments.
4.06
High
I can manage grades online.
4.06
High
General weighted mean
4.08
High
The results reveal that the high school teacher’s level of online teaching competencies alongcourse design is high (4.08). This implies that high school teachers in special education are
pedagogically competent in preparing instructional plans with objectives, instructional
strategies, activities, and assessments that are aligned to the course. These results support theideas shared the educational supervisor in charge with one of the participating SPED schools.
She cited that DepEd is implementing different modalities and one of which is online
distance learning wherein the teachers are given adequate webinars to further their knowledge
on how they will use online teaching as a modality to the students with disabilities who chose
online distance learning. In addition, the results also support the findings of Martin et al.

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Official Conference Proceedings(2019) wherein they found that teachers rated their course design competencies positively.
On the other hand, the results oppose the findings of Balmeo et al. (2014) wherein they notedthat there are problems in the availability and integration of technology in SPED schools in
the locality. However, recent developments, headed by DepEd, in order to alleviate similar
problems identified by Balmeo et al. (2014) are already being calibrated to further enhance
the competencies of teachers in delivering online distance learning (Deiparine, 2020; Lagua,
2020; Malipot, 2020).
Table 4 presents the analysis of the data on the level of online teaching readiness of highschool teachers in special education along course communication.
Table 4: Level of Online Teaching Readiness of High School Teachers in Special Education
along Course Communication
Weighted Descriptive
Items
equivalentmean
I am comfortable sending announcements/email
4.24
Very highreminders to course participants.
I am comfortable creating and moderating discussion
4.06
High
forums.
I am comfortable using email to communicate with the
4.12
High
learners.
I am comfortable responding to student questions
4.35
Very highpromptly (e.g., 24 to 48 hours).
I am comfortable providing feedback on assignments
4.18
High
(e.g., 7 days from submission).
I am comfortable using synchronous web-conferencing
tools (e.g., Adobe Connect, Zoom, Blackboard
3.88
High
Collaborate, Skype).
I am comfortable communicating expectations about
3.88
High
student behavior (e.g., netiquette).
I am comfortable communicating compliance
3.88
High
regarding academic integrity policies.
I am comfortable applying copyright law and fair use
4.00
High
guidelines when using copyrighted materials.
I am comfortable applying accessibility policies to
4.12
High
accommodate student needs.
General weighted mean
4.07
High
The results reveal that the high school teacher’s level of online teaching competencies alongcourse communication is high (4.07). This implies that high school teachers in special
education are prepared in personally communicating and interacting with their students inonline courses. The results support the current implementation of the modes ofcommunication used in the online distance learning in special education namely synchronousand asynchronous learning. Mulig and Rhame and University of Maryland Global Campus(as cited in Brecheisen, 2015) emphasized the significance of communication between theteachers and students in online education for communication yields clear expectations,answers and opportunity for discussion. This significance is supported by the current
communication practices being used by high school teachers in the participating SPED
schools. Printed and digital module formats are created by the teachers as a part of theasynchronous learning whereas extended communication in the forms of e-mail, text

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messages, and phone calls are used by the teachers to provide further guidance to the students
and parents. Other forms of synchronous learning such as video conferencing are as well
employed to assist the students and parents. Moreover, one of the teachers also stated that thestudents and parents are responsive with the current modes of communication used in online
distance learning.
Table 5 presents the analysis of the data on the level of online teaching readiness of highschool teachers in special education along time management.
Table 5: Level of Online Teaching Readiness of High School Teachers in Special Education
along Time Management
Descriptive
Items
Weighted meanequivalent
I am comfortable scheduling time to design
the course prior to delivery (e.g., a semester
3.88
High
before delivery).
I am comfortable scheduling weekly hours to
3.88
High
facilitate the online course.
I am comfortable using features in learning
management system in order to manage time
3.82
High
(e.g., online grading, rubrics, SpeedGrader,calendar).
I am comfortable using facilitation strategies
to manage time spent on course (e.g.,
3.76
High
discussion board moderators, collective
feedback, grading scales).
I am comfortable spending weekly hours to
4.00
High
grade assignments.
I am comfortable allocating time to learn
4.06
High
about new strategies or tools.
General weighted mean
3.90
High
The results reveal that the high school teacher’s level of online teaching competencies along
time management is high (3.90). This implies that the teachers exhibit a good sense ofplanning and organizing schedules in delivering the course. Varvel (as cited in Martin et al.,2019) claims that “competent faculty have adequate time-management skills so that lifestylecommitments do not interfere with the ability to instruct the course” (p. 99). The teachersschedule weekly activities prior to delivery and features in learning management systems are
utilized to manage course time. Moreover, facilitation strategies and new tools are utilized toregulate the time spent on activities.
Table 6 presents the analysis of the data on the level of online teaching readiness of highschool teachers in special education along technical competence.

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Table 6: Level of Online Teaching Readiness of High School Teachers in Special Education
along Technical Competence
Descriptive
Items
Weighted meanequivalent
I can complete basic computer operations(e.g., creating and editing documents,
4.47
Very highmanaging files and folders).
I can navigate within the course in the learning
management system (e.g., Moodle, Canvas,
3.88
High
Blackboard, etc.).
I can use course roster in the learning
3.71
High
management system to set up teams/groups.
I can use online collaborative tools (e.g.,
4.12
High
Google Drive, Dropbox).
I can create and edit videos (e.g., iMovie,
3.94
High
Movie Maker, Kaltura).
I can share open educational resources (e.g.,learning websites, Web resources, games and
4.06
High
simulations).
I can access online help desk/resources for
4.17
High
assistance.
General weighted mean
4.05
High
The results reveal that the high school teacher’s level of online teaching competencies along
technical competence is high (4.05). This implies that the teachers have adequate knowledge
and skills in utilizing technology for both synchronous and asynchronous sessions. Cagiltay
et al. (2019) claim that teachers’ use of technology has an impact to the educational
outcomes. Moreover, Martin et al. (2019) state that faculty are expected to handle web-based
courses since online gradebooks are becoming a norm. In line with this, the high school
teachers in special education are able to use computer operations and navigate within thelearning management systems such as Learning Resources Management and Development
System (LRMDS) and applications such as Google classroom, Zoom, and Kotobee.
Conclusion
This portion of the study presents the conclusion drawn and recommendations proposed by
the researchers. Looking through online teaching readiness of high school teachers in special
education showed that improvements may still be incorporated to achieve the maximum
online teaching readiness competencies of high school teachers in special education. In lightof the findings of the study, the following conclusion is drawn: the high school teachers inspecial education require different modalities in teaching online.
After a careful review of the conclusion, the following are recommended. Teachers arerecommended to use varied online platforms like Google Meet, Zoom meetings, and video
recording in teaching high school students in special education online to give more emphasis
in improving their mastery in online teaching. In addition, future researches arerecommended to look into other variables aside from the four components in online teaching
to produce a seminar toolkit related to online teaching readiness for high school teachers inspecial education. Certainly, being able to reveal the over-all level of online teachingreadiness along the four components of high school teachers in special education is vital in

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the 21st century learning as a reflection of our special education system’s adaptability in thechanging curriculum.
Acknowledgement
The researchers are profoundly indebted to God Almighty who made everything possible forthem. The researchers would also like to extend their gratitude to the three SPED schools thatwere identified for the study. The researchers would also like to thank Dr. Thelma D. Palaoag
and Dr. Ramir S. Austria for their guidance in every step of the research process. Lastly, theresearchers would like to express their appreciation to their family members who provided
them so much support, concern, and prayers. Maraming salamat po.

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References
Arinto, P. (2016). Issues and challenges in open and distance e-learning: Perspectives fromthe Philippines. International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning,
17(2), 162-180. Retrieved fromhttp://www.irrodl.org/index.php/irrodl/article/view/1913/
Balmeo, M. (2014). Integrating technology in teaching students with special needs in the
SPED schools in Baguio City. The IAFOR Journal of Education, 2(2), 149-178.
Retrieved from https://iafor.org/journal/iafor-journal-of-education/volume-2-issue2/article-5/
Brecheisen, K.M. (2015). Preparing K-12 teachers for online instruction (Doctoral
Dissertation). Retrieved fromhttps://etd.ohiolink.edu/!etd.send_file?accession=ashland1449060061&disposition=inline
Burdette, P. et al. (2013). K-12 online learning and students with disabilities: Perspectives
from state special education directors. Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks,
17(3), 65-72. DOI: 10.24059/olj.v17i3.327
Cagiltay, K. et al. (2019). Use of educational technology in special education: perceptions ofteachers. Participatory Educational Research, 6 (2), 189-205.
DOI.10.17275/per19.21.6.2
Crouse, T., Rice, M., &Mellard D. (2018). Learning to serve students with disabilities
online: Teachers’ perspectives. Journal of Online Learning Research, 4(2), 123-145.
Retrieved from https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1184994
Deiparine, C. (2020, October 2). Blended learning in NCR eyed to shift from printed
modules to full digital learning. PhilStar Global. Retrieved fromhttps://www.philstar.com/headlines/2020/10/02/2046738/blended-learning-ncr-eyedshift-printed-modules-full-digital-learning
Hoppe, D. (2015). Addressing faculty readiness for online teaching. Retrieved fromhttps://www.d2l.com/wp- content/uploads/2015/02/Addressing-FacultyReadiness_BestPracticesPaper_Final.pdf
Lagua, B.D. (2020, October 30). Teaching in the new normal. The Manila Times. Retrieved
from https://www.manilatimes.net/2020/10/30/business/columnists-business/teachingin-the-new-normal/788762/
Magsambol, B. (2020, June 9). Distance learning: A looming crisis for students with special
needs. Rappler. Retrieved from https://www.rappler.com/newsbreak/indepth/distance-learning-looming-crisis-students-with-special-needs
Malipot, M. (2020, October 30). DepEd calibrating learning delivery processes. Manila
Bulletin. Retrieved from https://mb.com.ph/2020/10/30/deped-calibrating-learningdelivery-processes/

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Malipot, M. (2020, October 30). DepEd pursues major innovations to ensure learning
continuity. Manila Bulletin. Retrieved from https://mb.com.ph/2020/10/30/depedpursues-major-innovations-to-ensurelearningcontinuity/#:~:text=Given%20this%2C%20Briones%20said%20that,smartifyi
ng%E2%80%9D%20learning%20spaces%20and%20resources.
Martin, F. et al. (2019). Examining faculty perception of their readiness to teach online.
Online Learning, 23(3), 97-119. DOI:10.24059/olj.v23i3.1555
Martin, F. et al. (2019). Examining faculty readiness to teach online: A comparison of US
and German educators. European Journal of Open, Distance and E-learning, 22(1),52-69. DOI:10.2478/eurodl-2019-0004
Ventayen, R. (2017). Technical competence refers to technical knowledge and proficiency inthe use of current technology. Journal of Education, Management and Social
Sciences, 2(1), 94-106. Retrieved fromhttps://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/Papers.cfm?abstract_id=3331115
Contact email: jasminesibayan@gmail.com
jopucya@gmail.com
renalizajuanbe@gmail.com

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Awareness, Perception and Readiness of Faculty and Staff Toward
Remote Educational and Operational Services During the COVID-19 Pandemic
Carlos R. Morales, TCC Connect Campus-Tarrant County College, United States
The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2021
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Abstract
The sudden transition from face-to-face instruction to remote teaching in the early days ofMarch 2020 created a new prototype for teaching, learning, and support for faculty and staff.
The disruption brought to the surface the readiness of faculty and staff, and the planning andefficacy of professional development programs. Millions of faculty and students worldwide
found themselves teaching and learning in a technology-mediated environment in a matter ofdays. Welcome videos midway through the semester, synchronous lectures, and multimedia
elements thrust faculty developers, instructional designers, and trainers into a new role:providing the faculty at their institutions 100 percent support in Emergency Remote Teaching(ERT). While the goal was to provide faculty with the knowledge, skills, and tools required tobe successful in a remote teaching environment, this new paradigm underscores the staff's
importance and the readiness of the faculty, academic and student affairs staff, systems,
support structures, and technological infrastructure. Training to always be ready should be aperennial and increasing endeavor. This abrupt change also brought to light the relevance of
training, support systems, and academic continuity planning at an institution serving morethan 100,000 students annually. The role that an online campus plays in the transition offaculty to remote educational and operational services during the COVID-19 pandemic is
examined in this paper.
Keywords: Remote Teaching, Faculty Training, Online Teaching, Online Learning,
Instructional Technology

iafor
The International Academic Forumwww.iafor.org

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Introduction
In the early days of 2020, the outbreak of a severe respiratory illness caused by novel
coronavirus (SARS-Co-V2), later called COVID-19, was declared a pandemic (World HealthOrganization [WHO], 2020). The disease prompted mobility restrictions and calls to shelterin place, effectively triggering the closure of higher education institutions. In a matter ofdays, and, in some cases, hours, face-to-face interactions came to a halt, and colleges anduniversities suddenly found themselves providing instruction remotely. The initial strategy todeliver instruction was named Emergency Remote Teaching (ERT; Hodges, Moore, Lockee,
Trust, & Bond, 2020), delivered via the internet and through a computer, similar to online
learning (Singh & Thurman, 2019). During the same period, institutions rushed to provide
faculty and students with tools and training to transition to this modality; instructional
technology was now front and center.
Instructional technology is a strategy that has aided faculty in reaching students and helping
them successfully acquire knowledge skills and instill critical thinking. To successfully
adopt, use, and model instructional technologies that foster an embracement of hybrid andonline learning, it is paramount to provide faculty with professional development
opportunities or training (Zhu & Liu, 2020). Higher education institutions have served as defacto training centers for their own faculty, while some institutions may have a bare-bones
unit that assists, supports, and trains faculty; other institutions have more sophisticatedstructures, such as Centers for Teaching and Learning, or an office of Academic Technology(Oblinger, 2006). The COVID-19 pandemic has triggered an acceleration (Bradley, Hirt,
Hudson, Northcote, & Smit, 2020) in the use, adoption, and implementation of digital tools
for teaching and servicing students, due to fears of spreading the virus and social distancing
requirements. The global health crisis has created fertile ground for digital learning to take aleading role, prompting the realignment of plans and activities to support a recovery that will
primarily take place in digital form (Baig, Hall, Jenkins, Lamarre, & McCarthy, 2020; Leng,
Khieng, & Water, 2020). The range of services varies from basic training and the discussionof general and contemporary academic issues to more specific topics on pedagogical andclassroom administration matters, including consultation, advice, course design, and theallocation of professional resources such as instructional designers, instructional
technologies, and course developers to support their teaching endeavors (Morales Irizarry,2006). The COVID-19 pandemic highlighted the need for faculty to receive continuous
training in the use of teaching and learning technologies (Trust & Whalen, 2020). The suddenchange from face-to-face instruction to a mode of delivery that is 100% mediated bytechnology took many by surprise and unprepared to handle the tasks and challenges at hand.
In addition, many faculty members found themselves with a limited set of tools and strategies
to support what would allow them to quickly pivot to what was initially proposed as atemporary mode of instruction, ERT (Pickett, 2020a, 2020b). In this context, it is important todefine online learning as the delivery of instruction mediated through the internet and the useof information and instructional technologies, which can occur in asynchronous orsynchronous mode (Singh & Thurman, 2019). While many institutions may have had astructure within academic affairs or information technology to promote and support the
adoption of instructional technology, along with plans on how to do it, not all of them hadthese elements aligned in a comprehensive manner in the case an emergency arose, which
prompted the case for business continuity or academic continuity plans (Morales, 2020). In
the next few pages, I will address areas of practice that many institutions left unattended
which then created a rush of activities of various scales to quickly provide faculty with what
they needed to be in a new medium which is emergency remote teaching.

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Awareness
While the topics of instructional technology, educational technology, online learning, andweb-assisted or hybrid courses are not new to us in higher education, it is well known thatthey have not been embraced at higher rates (Geilman, 2018). These attitudes may havecontributed to the difficulties experienced while transitioning from face-to-face teaching toemergency remote teaching during the early days of March 2020. Faculty have been aware of
the existence of these tools and, for a variety of reasons, have delayed their use andimplementation; institutions that are not grounded on a digital-first philosophy lacked plansto advance the adoption of these tools and practices. This situation continues to occur evenwhen students are more mobile, tech savvy and prone to using technologies for learning. A
few years back, the topic of web assisted, or hybrid courses was very active in the practice ofteaching as a strategy to address the needs and learning styles of students, increase student
success, and as a method to maximize limited physical space and create a culture of data
driven decision-making (Leng, Khieng, & Water, 2020).
While there is no shortage of tools to help faculty excel at teaching, what may have been
missing before this sudden change were the strategies to put training front and center forfaculty to adopt new tools and methods and to incorporate them to their repertoire, thus
creating a culture of innovation in the classroom. Video conferencing has existed for over 15
years in different formats. Tools such as Skype, Blackboard Collaborate, BigBlueButton,
Webex and, more recently, Zoom and Microsoft Teams (Buchal & Songsore, 2019) havemade possible connecting and communicating with students in a synchronous manner(Kudyba, 2020) that promotes additional and superior engagement and interaction withclassmates and content (Moore, 1989). Developments in the telecommunications sector havemade significant increases in bandwidth, making these types of communications possible
with increased reliability from practically any place. The adoption of mobile devices has
skyrocketed in the last decade and it is projected to reach to 13.8 billion in 2025, (Statista,2020), thus creating opportunities that foster the use of these devices for educational
purposes. What is new and different now is the number of digital devices that connect to theInternet that our own students own; this requires a different strategy for the delivery ofeducational content, acknowledging the limitations of bandwidth and screen size. Learning
Management Systems, in existence for over two decades, has also made this transition
possible by making content available on what is known as a web-assisted class allowing thefaculty member to provide content, but that students can use asynchronously. This was oneof the early ways to implement instructional technology (Pastrán Chirinos, Gil Olivera, &Cervantes Cerra, 2020). Early adopters thought this approach was convenient when
emergencies, such as absenteeism due to health, closures due to the weather, and otherspontaneous situations occurred, allowing for academic continuity (Morales, 2020). Online
learning provided the groundwork and a solid foundation to support the transition to ERT and
its subsequent growth after the pandemic (Lederman, 2020). Similarly, the pandemic has
solidified the stature and quality of online learning as a viable way for students to learn (Zhu
& Liu, 2020).

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Tarrrant County College conducted a survey on March 23, 2020 of faculty and students togauge their level of preparedness to teach or take an online course respectively (Table 1).
Faculty

Students
75% indicated they were
80% felt prepared toprepared to take an online
teach an online course
coursen=1,520
n=17,879
Table 1. Digital Readiness Survey
In addition, it is important to consider that after the COVID-19 pandemic, universities andhigher education will be different (Witze, 2020). During the past 14 months, many
institutions have made significant changes in the way they operate because of the sudden shift
to emergency remote teaching and the closure of physical facilities. These changes havepromoted the adoption and further implementation of technologies that have existed for quite
some time: automation, increased accessibility, artificial intelligence, and inclusivity(Sherwood, 2021). This period of redesigning how higher education institutions operate has
provided us with an opportunity to review, explore and re-engineer how we reach ourstudents, how we can increase access by making education more accessible and withincreased inclusivity through digitalization. The pandemic has accelerated these changes
which will lead to better models of higher education and, ultimately, for the delivery ofeducation. Faculty that is more experienced and skilled in the use of instructional
technologies is also more empathetic toward our students that are still multi-tasking andjuggling multiple responsibilities. The role of the faculty member is changing (PastranChirinos et al., 2020) from being the source of information to becoming a facilitator of
students’ knowledge acquisition. The paradigm of teaching has been permanently influenced
by the acceleration of change, the increased use of digital resources, the acceptance ofalternative teaching-learning schedules, and the best practices that have been developed as aresult of this global emergency (Bigatel, Ragan, Kennan, May, & Redmond, 2012). Online
learning has been the precursor of this change. Most of the practices, procedures, andstrategies employed during the pandemic have been widely embraced at a global scale. Thereis ample evidence of the benefits of the face-to-face teaching experience when the faculty
adopts new strategies and techniques.
Our role as champions for faculty work and success will be of continuous investment in
professional development as well as in being open to new ways of delivering instruction
through a wider array and repertoire of tools and teaching techniques (Gallardo-Alba,
Grüning, & Serrano-Solano, 2020; Shah, 2019), active learning (Huang et al, 2020), ready-toteach content (Geilman, 2018) and coaching of faculty for just-in-time training (Morales &Tapia, 2018). During this period of intense professional development for faculty, we included
several strategies that resulted in the creation of a workflow to facilitate the creation ofcontent by faculty. From PowerPoint to PDF documents, to resources located on the Web in
repositories like merlot.org, our instructional designers provided faculty with training,strategies, and support to create short video lectures to enhance the lectures they were
provided with during emergency remote teaching.
Throughout all this time, the global higher education community embarked on an extensive
experimentation approach on the best combination of strategies for faculty that werepreviously accustomed to face-to-face instruction to now embrace and adapt instructional
technologies. Tarrant County College and its online campus, TCC Connect, have

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implemented (Morales, 2018) a series of strategies that have placed the college in a
privileged position to facilitate a seamless transition of its face-to-face faculty to embark in
ERT. These activities are the result of the implementation of the newest campus as a fully
online operation.
Readiness of Faculty and Staff toward Remote Educational and Operational Services
To provide faculty with the information and knowledge they need to develop skills in ERT, a
set of professional development sessions were identified. Professional development has been
identified as a strategy that allows users to learn, practice and adopt new strategies,
techniques, and the understanding of how to incorporate technology for teaching and learning(Johnson, 2021).
Conceptualized as a faculty success strategy, the College academic administration recognized
the need to equip our faculty with online teaching strategies. Over the course of two weeks in
July 2020, a total of 43 sessions on various topics were offered to all faculty members at theinstitutions (Table 2).
Topic
Sessions
Attendees (n)Blackboard Basics
7
196
Accessible and Inclusive
3
152
Content and Copyright3
166
Peer Developed Courses
4
136
Table 2. Instructional technology training sessions
It was also important to provide the professoriate with the professional development theyneeded to be effective in remote teaching. To accomplish this, the team at the virtual campus
borrowed a page from online learning creating training in online pedagogy. Training sessions
on online pedagogy were made available to faculty for their knowledge and competency
development (Picciano, 2002). These aspects are paramount for the success of both students
and faculty members in any teaching endeavor that is heavily mediated by technology (Table
3).
Topic
Sessions
Attendees (n)Instructor Presence Online
4248
Reasonable Rigor
3
201
st
The 1 Day of Your Online 4
229
Class
10 Kinds of Instructor Videos 3
243
Table 3. Online pedagogy training sessions
Early on, it was identified that faculty needed training in teaching technologies and strategies
with content that now resided on servers instead of traditional formats, that is, physicalmaterials. A significant barrier was the quick conversion of content or its creation for over
10,000 sections for the entire college. To expedite and ease this burden on faculty, the virtual
campus had previously created 35 Peer Developed Courses in high enrollment subjects.
These are master courses are ready to teach and that were developed by subject matter
experts and instructional designers, which included all the components, lectures, activities,
and assessments (Morales, 2017). These courses were released to our colleagues in face-toface courses that now are being taught remotely. The approach was adopted by some faculty

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members and those that accepted the help. Professors found themselves relieved of the workand stress related with creating more than 7 weeks of content in the middle of a public healthemergency.
Research shows that training in the use of instructional technology tools, the pedagogy of
online learning, as well as online presence has been of great benefit as these increase thesuccess of faculty in the virtual classroom (Johnson, 2021; Morales 2017). The global crisis
of COVID-19 had created an express lane that had facilitated the transition to online andblended courses in subjects that before were not even considered make available in these
instructional modalities. (Beatty, 2006; Johnson 2021; Means et al., 2013; Tallent-Runnels, etal., 2006)
Student Services
Prior to the pandemic, the virtual campus was very active in developing solutions to reducethe distance between students and the institution. Previously, in 2018, several initiatives were
implemented to honor and capitalize on the benefits of online learning. A vital area of thecampus that maximizes information technologies for student success is Student Services byimplementing several initiatives and service units to support the endeavor. Online Advisingand Success Coaches were identified as areas of need to serve students. With the expectation
to create an environment for students to achieve learning outcomes and progress through theirdegree plans, a fully online advising unit across three time zones was created (Morales &Gantt, 2018). The virtual campus completed its transition to offer New Student Orientation
entirely online in the fall of 2018. The strategy reduced the dependency on physical meetings
for new students to receive their orientation. The orientation, delivered synchronously using
Blackboard, was made available to the entire college to serve the over 5,000 students that are
accepted every fall semester. Finally, in spring of 2019, the campus upgraded one of its mostimportant technological tools that permitted us to communicate with students, our Chat tool.
Recognizing developments in machine learning, a tool that incorporates artificial intelligence,
was selected. This tool is Ivy.ai, which provided the advisors with added flexibility, quick
response and to expand the creation of a knowledge base.
Perceptions
The COVID-19 Pandemic has brought to the surface the needs of faculty for more
opportunities to try teaching strategies enhanced by technologies that help them better reachstudents and for students to increase their performance. Before the pandemic, instructional
technology was used in several instances to complement teaching. It widely ranged in usage
and implementation, from web-assisted to blended learning to fully online (Seaman, Allen,& Seaman, 2018). However, it stayed as the foundation to deliver the entire activity ofteaching and learning (Geilman, 2018; Quinn, 2014), creating a limited view by some of thecapabilities of the tools. It is known that some academicians believed teaching withtechnology at various rates of inclusion would not allow for effective student learning
outcomes, but before the pandemic, and widely documented in the literature, that teachingwith technology resulted in no significant difference in the learning outcomes of students(Fendler, Ruff, & Shrikhande, 2018; National Research Center for Distance Education andTechnological Advancements [DETA], 2019; Russell, 2001; Stack, 2015).

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Lessons learned and Conclusions
The pandemic has triggered enormous acceleration in almost every industry, and higher
education is not exempt. The implementation of the above-mentioned units two years before
the pandemic affected College operations provided the framework and experience to quickly
transition to remote services. The experience the virtual campus staff had with technologies
such as web cameras, softphones, cloud services—already in existence at the college—andconducting sessions remotely, in what can be considered a best practice, allowed for theimmediate validation of the procedures, which were already in place within the College.
Teaching and learning at higher education institutions will be different (Witze, 2020). It isbelieved the world has advanced between 6 and 10 years in the adoption of digitaltechnologies (McKinsey & Company, 2020), but it has gone an equal amount of years ormore backwards in terms of equity and social mobility (Jack, 2020). Simultaneously, theglobal emergency created the conditions for us to pause and reflect on how we want todeliver education in the future, a future that seems to be dominated by digital learning and theneed for more equitable access. It is critical for higher education institutions to create
professional development opportunities for our faculty to equip them with the techniques,
tools, and knowledge to fully unleash the power of technology-mediated learning (Morales
Irizarry & Casanova Ocasio, 2020). Similarly, it is imperative that more and better ways toserve students via digital services be provided as these are the way where we can widen theaccess to increase educational attainment. Research indicates that blended learning is aseffective and valid as face-to-face instruction in delivering learning outcomes (Wang, Han, &Yang, 2015). After the COVID-19 pandemic, it is forecasted that offerings delivered using
blended learning approaches will increase; this will be in response to students’ needs andpreferences based on their learning styles.
The pandemic has accelerated the adoption of online learning in many countries, where
before it was not mainstream (Zhu & Liu, 2020). The COVID-19 pandemic has also createdan opportunity for us to realign priorities as we all embark in new ways of working (Kudyba,2020), the adoption of instructional technology for teaching and learning, and a newparadigm of teaching at higher education institutions.
On the other hand, the pandemic has accelerated the need to reflect so we can all redesign
philosophies, priorities, needs, and learning outcomes and competencies of our faculty so we
can be better prepared, plan for emergencies, and ensure a better academic continuity.
Incorporating global education and leveraging experts from other parts of the world andbringing them in through the Internet will be the norm. The past 14 months have been atesting bed regarding new ways of teaching, working, and doing things. Many of theinnovations that have flourished during the crisis are centered around digital technology andwill have become part of everyday life when the world returns to more ordinary times.
Technologists and policymakers face the challenge of ensuring these innovations do not
entrench inequality but instead broaden opportunity. This is truly an important chance forhumanity to not only bring new technology to bear but, for the first time, to do so in an
equitable way to serve our students.

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Healthy Lifestyle Education in the CLIL Classroom
Marshall Smith, Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Japan
The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2021
Official Conference Proceedings
Abstract
Scientific studies have shown that poor health can lead to lower academic achievement andpoor class attendance in school. Teachers report improvements in attendance, attention,
behavior, and levels of concentration in schools where healthy eating has become accepted
practice. Research also shows that healthy lifestyle habits during adolescence/pre-adult can
prevent many of the diseases and disabilities in adulthood and later. Health economists affirm
that people with a better education are more likely to choose a healthier lifestyle. Considering
this evidence, it is strongly suggested that education on how to have a healthy lifestyle be a
mandatory subject for all students – and the younger one learns, the better. However, given thetime and curriculum constraints of most schools, this is not an easy goal to achieve.
Accordingly, Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine (OUAVM) has
chosen to incorporate healthy lifestyle education as a content and language integrated learning(CLIL) course in the English program. CLIL, which has other definitions, is a teaching methodthat involves teaching students about a given subject in a foreign language. It has become theumbrella term for simultaneously learning a content-based subject, such as lifestyle health,through the medium of a foreign language, while concurrently improving one’s ability in theforeign language by using it to study the given subject. This paper shows how this integration
can be done practically by incorporating eight natural laws of health from the NEWSTART
Lifestyle program into a health course also categorized as an English III CLIL course at
OUAVM.
Keywords: Newstart, Healthy Lifestyle, Nutrition, Academic Achievement, Education, CLIL

iafor
The International Academic Forumwww.iafor.org

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Introduction
Research has shown that substandard health conditions can be associated with lower grades inschool for students and higher absenteeism (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2014;
Kim et al., 2016). Teachers have reported improvements among students in attending classes,
attention span, behavior, and levels of concentration in schools where students get a proper
nutrition intake on a regular basis (Adolphus et al., 2013). Studies also show the importance offorming healthy lifestyle habits early in life for helping to prevent many of the diseases anddisabilities in adulthood and later (Jones et al., 2019; Saffari et al., 2013). Health economists
argue that better educated people are more likely to choose healthier lifestyles (Li, 2014). And,
last but not least, the rising incidence of new viruses and other diseases, such as COVID-19,
has led us to realize the importance of a healthy lifestyle in providing stronger immunity against
such diseases (Zimmerman & Woolf, 2014).
As a health and nutrition educator, I’ve had a long-standing interest in such research on healthand the importance of its effects on academic performance. The outbreak of past diseases, but
especially the COVID-19 pandemic and fallout, have only reinforced the sense of urgency forbetter health education. The data keeps showing that better health leads to better academic
performance and, vice versa, poor health is associated with poor academic achievement andstudents missing more classes (Nyaradi, 2013).
A paper by Amy Ross (2010) looked at studies concerning nutrition and its relationship to brain
function, ability to learn, and social behavior. The studies showed that proper nutrition has adirect effect on student performance and behavior in school, and confirmed that nutrition has
a direct effect on neurotransmitters which are important in sending messages from the body tothe brain. Interestingly, obesity contributed to lower achievement in school.
The model below from Chrissy Carroll’s study in Today’s Dietitian shows this cyclicalrelationship between poor nutrition and educational outcomes (Carroll, 2014).

Figure 1: Cyclical Relationship between Poor Nutrition and Educational Outcomes

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With this evidence in hand, it is strongly suggested that healthy lifestyle education be a
mandatory subject for all students – the younger, the better. However, given time andcurriculum constraints, this is not an easy goal to achieve.
Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL)
For this reason, Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) plays an essential role.
CLIL is a teaching method that involves teaching students about a given subject in a foreign
language (van Kampen et al., 2016). It has become the umbrella term for simultaneously
learning a content-based subject, such as lifestyle health, through the medium of a foreign
language, while concurrently improving one’s ability in the foreign language by using it to
study the given subject. This dual achievement through a single action is aptly portrayed by
the idiom “kill two birds with one stone”. The term CLIL was coined by David Marsh,
University of Jyväskylä, Finland (1994): “CLIL refers to situations where subjects, or parts ofsubjects, are taught through a foreign language with dual-focused aims, namely the learning ofcontent and the simultaneous learning of a foreign language (Marsh, 2017).”
The concept of CLIL has also been described as ‘content-based instruction (CBI)’, ‘bilingual
education’, and a host of other terms; and, for English-specific learning, has been called‘English for Academic Purposes (EAP)’ or ‘English medium instruction (EMI)’ (Brown, 2018).
The advantages of such a dual approach include learning content while developing language
skills, being able to integrate language learning into a broader school curriculum, increasing
student motivation, fostering thinking and application skills among students who see theimportance of language in their areas of interest and real-life situations, and, overall, thepotential to create a more natural learning environment (Shraiber & Ovinova, 2017).
Accordingly, with Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine (OUAVM)
being a science university with no language degree program, CLIL becomes an essential toolfor ensuring language acquisition among students. OUAVM has incorporated healthy lifestyleeducation as a content and language integrated learning (CLIL) course in the English program
where the two subjects can be studied simultaneously.
The rest of this paper shows how this can be done practically by incorporating the eight lawsof health in the NEWSTART Lifestyle program into a health course also categorized as an
English III CLIL course.
Eight Natural Laws of Health (NEWSTART)The challenge of health today is to educate and motivate people to adopt a healthier lifestyle,and to help them realize that one can do more for their own health than any doctor, hospital or
technological advance (Berger, 2015). The scientific data confirms that the choices we make,hour by hour, day by day, largely determine the state of our health, the diseases we get, andoften even when we will die (American Heart Association, 2015).
But what are the right choices? One day a newspaper ad may promote a high carbohydrate diet,the next day a low carbohydrate diet, and another day a no-carbohydrate diet. Which is correct?
So much health information flowing through the media is overwhelming, confusing, and often
contradictory. People want information that is reliable, understandable, and scientifically sound.

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For these reasons, a course teaching time-tested health principles becomes essential, an
attractive course to show students how they can look and feel healthier, stay younger, and gaina clear understanding of how to manage their life for maximum health and wellbeing.
Accordingly, this paper shows how this can be done practically by incorporating the eightnatural laws of health in the NEWSTART Lifestyle program. NEWSTART is an acronym forthese eight natural laws as shown here: N stands for nutrition, E for exercise, W for water, S
for sunlight, T for temperance, A for air, R for rest, and T for trust (NEWSTART, 2021).
Following is a more in-depth look at each of these health guidelines.
1.

Nutrition

At a global level we see that the majority of deaths are attributed to the category of noncommunicable diseases (NCDs); these are chronic, long-term illnesses such as cardiovasculardiseases (including stroke), respiratory diseases, cancers and diabetes that collectively accountfor more than 70 percent of global deaths (Ritchie & Roser, 2018). Yet, research has shownthat these diseases are largely avoidable and caused by lifestyle. For example, changing to asimple diet during World War II caused a drop in heart disease and stroke (Esselstyn,2013). Most cancers could be prevented through lifestyle modification (Barnard, 2004).
Unfortunately, the average American diet consists of high-fat and low-fiber content (Prasad,2019).
The American Cancer Society guidelines for nutrition and cancer prevention advise us tochoose foods from plant sources (Kushi et al., 2012). Animal products are the largest source of
saturated fat and cholesterol, and have no fiber. So, we should limit our intake of high-fat foods,
particularly from animal sources. In fact, whole-grain breads, cereals or rice should be our main
source of energy (Jonnalagadda, 2011). This should be accompanied by at least 5 servings offruits and vegetables each day. Fruits and vegetables have been consistently shown to reduce
the risk of many lifestyle diseases (Harvard School of Public Health, 2021). And to ensure anadequate intake of fiber, protein and energy, legumes should be included in our diets as well.
The best diet turns out to be plant-based or vegetarian (Berger, 2018). In fact, more people –especially the well-heeled, actors and sports figures – are choosing a vegetarian, and evenvegan, lifestyle (Tanenbaum, 2018). With powerful evidence also showing the positiveenvironmental impact of a vegetarian lifestyle, in addition to the health benefits, it only
becomes that more essential for ensuring a healthier and safer future.
2.

Exercise

The good news is that greater vitality, better health and longer life can be ours through regular,
brisk physical activity. A sedentary lifestyle is a direct route to an earlier grave. Inactivity kills
us – literally (Kandola, 2018). It is said that everyone has two doctors: the right leg and the left
leg (Trevelyan, 1928). The more we use them, the healthier we will be. Exercise is the second
natural law of health that helps us feel good by maintaining a desirable weight, strengthening
the heart and bones, lowering blood pressure and the LDL cholesterol level, along with lifting
depression and relieving stress (Semeco, 2017). And it even slows down the aging process(University of Birmingham, 2018).
Everyone should choose an enjoyable exercise and participate in it regularly. Walking is theideal exercise. It’s inexpensive, safe, and nearly everyone can do it. You can select your own

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speed and you can stop when you want. As your fitness improves, you can gradually add speed
and time. Other good exercises are swimming, bicycling, gardening, and even golf – if you
don’t use a cart.
To be effective, active (aerobic) exercise should be brisk and continuous for at least 15 to 20
minutes. A daily program of 30 to 40 minutes of active exercise will give you maximum
benefits (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2018).
3.

Water

We all learn early in life that the body is around 45% to 75% water. Our kidneys process morethan 175 liters daily. And the body loses about 2.5 to 3 liters daily through the skin, lungs,
urine and feces. If this water isn’t replaced by drinking plenty of fresh water daily, our bodysystems suffer and manifest symptoms such as body odor, bad breath, and unpleasant-smelling
urine, and eventually more serious complications (Benelam & Wyness, 2010).
Beverages other than water, however, can pose special problems. Many have fat and sugar
calories that must be digested like food. Sugar in beverages requires extra water for metabolism.
Studies have demonstrated that caffeine and alcohol dehydrate the body because they work as
diuretics, contributing to fatigue, dry skin, indigestion and headaches (Stookey, 1999).
How much water should a person drink? Drink enough to keep the urine pale. Since the bodyloses 2.5 to 3 liters of water a day, and food provides 0.5 to 1 liter of water, we should try todrink 1.5 to 2 liters of water daily. Get into the habit of drinking water throughout the day(Benelam & Wyness, 2010).
4.

Sunlight

The fourth natural law is sunlight, which serves an essential role in killing germs, enhancing
skin and sleep, boosting the immune system, reducing pain from swollen arthritic joints,
relieving certain symptoms of PMS, lowering blood cholesterol levels, and even elevating
one’s mood, which helps alleviate depression problems. What’s more, sunlight on the skinhelps the body manufacture vitamin D (Grimes et al., 1996; Raman, 2018).
One must be careful, though, not to get too much. Sunburn destroys healthy, living tissue andis a major risk for skin cancer (Grey, 2018). Even too much of a good thing can often be
hazardous. Up to 30 minutes of sunshine a day is sufficient for most people (Nall, 2018).
5.

Temperance

Temperance can be defined as, first of all, abstinence - refraining from unhealthy practices likesmoking and alcohol abuse (Wikipedia, 2019), secondly, choosing foods in a more natural orwholesome state (less processing) like whole grain bread and brown (unpolished) rice, andthirdly, seeking for balance and moderation, even in important and healthy things like sunlightmentioned earlier.
There is the story about a woman who heard that carrots were rich in beta-carotene, which the
body turns into vitamin A and provides protection against certain cancers. So, she started
juicing 2 to 3 kilograms of carrots every day. When her skin started turning a sickly yellowish
color, her doctor told her she was getting too much beta-carotene.

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Too much of a good thing can be a bad thing when it comes to health. Common sense andmoderation will do more for your health than any health fad or “miracle cure”. Temperance isan important key to good health that we should learn to apply to all areas of our lives (Nation
Online, 2010).
6.

Air

Given that air is the backbone of life and all body functions, most people recognize that clean
and fresh air is vital to a vibrant life. Air is composed of about 21 percent oxygen, the rest
being nitrogen and other gases (Powell, 2018). Since the body operates on oxygen, a steady
fresh supply is vital for life. Oxygen is picked up in the lungs from the air we breathe, anddelivered to our bodies via the red blood cells. Well-oxygenated cells are healthy and contributeto overall well-being (Cedar, 2018).
Unfortunately, we have little control over the quality of the air we breathe each day dependingon where we live and levels of pollution; but, when possible, steps should be taken regarding
indoor air quality and ensuring it is refreshed regularly. Another “feel good” technique is tostop where you are and take a few slow, deep breaths several times a day (Harvard Mental
Health Letter, 2009). A final way to flush your body with oxygen is regular exercise mentioned
earlier.
7.

Rest

Life today has become fast-paced, demanding and exhausting, with people constantly on thego. Yet, the inability to sleep has become epidemic with many people resorting to sedatives
and tranquilizers. For other people, getting to sleep isn’t the problem, but making time for itwith their busy schedules.
Rest is the time for the body to renew itself by restoring energy, removing waste, repairing of
damaged cells, managing stress and strengthening the body’s immune system against disease(Besedovsky, 2019). Insufficient rest means this process is incomplete, leading to adverse
effects over time.
People need different amounts of rest, but the average adult does best on 7 to 8 hours of quality
sleep each night. Newborn babies sleep from 16 to 20 hours, while young children usually need
10 to 12 hours (Mental Health America, 2019).
Some tips for getting a good night’s sleep include going to bed and waking up the same timeeach day, avoiding caffeine, not using alcohol as a sedative, daily exercise and sun exposure(National Institutes of Health, 2015).
Your body is your most valuable possession. It may be tempting to skip sleep, but in the longrun that is counterproductive (Eugene & Masiak, 2015).
8.

Trust

Trust is the mental component of the eight natural laws of health. It refers to possessing a goodmental attitude and peace of mind with the ability to not worry too much. More and more
people are living longer, healthier lives, but surveys show they are feeling less and less satisfied
mentally, and the trust component is dropping (Yang, 2013).

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It’s been said that the condition of the mind affects health much more than many people realize.
Anger, fear, resentment and distrust can actually produce effects on the body that weaken its
immune system and open the door to disease. On the other hand, positive emotions like love,
joy, faith, and trust produce protective substances that strengthen the immune system andprotect the body from disease. Scientific research has actually demonstrated that people whotrust in God are healthier than people who don’t believe in God (Harrington, 2010).
Trust, thus becomes a vital component of good health and a rewarding life (Bhattacharya, 2003;
Mental Health Foundation, 2018).
Conclusion
Since it has been studied and reported that an unhealthy lifestyle leads to lifestyle diseases andrelated problems - more specifically to lower academic performance and achievement among
students - efforts must be made to improve their health, especially through education that leads
to lifestyle changes. However, given the time and curriculum constraints, this is not an easy
goal to achieve. For this reason, an English CLIL course in basic and practical health wasdeveloped at OUAVM to ensure that students get the double benefit of improving their healthand English skills simultaneously. Feedback has been positive of this approach, especiallywhen employing the eight laws of natural health that encourage students to make practical
healthy lifestyle changes for their future.

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Communities’ Cultural Capital for Sustainable Community Tourism Development: A Case
Study of Charoen Krung Road
Chada Triamvithaya, King Mongkut’s Institute of Technology Ladkrabang, Thailand
Rattana Sangchan, King Mongkut’s Institute of Technology Ladkrabang, Thailand
Sujinda Suksai, King Mongkut’s Institute of Technology Ladkrabang, Thailand
Qiuli Zheng, King Mongkut’s Institute of Technology Ladkrabang, Thailand
The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2021
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Abstract
This research aims to study the knowledge factors and sustainable community tourism
development in the area along the Chao Phraya River from Charoen Krung Road to Yaowarat
Road, the charming old district and a multicultural society in Bangkok, Thailand. Primary data
were collected from interviews of stakeholders or the people in the community in depth andwithin real-life context in a qualitative manner. The findings suggested that Thai, Thai Chinese,
Thai-Muslim, and Vietnamese people are able to live together, relying on the social capital on
two types of identities: 1) The multiculturalism society identity; and 2) The Chinese identitythat has five similar dialect languages, such as the Hokkien or Fujian, the Chaozhou, theCantonese, the Hakka and the Hainan. They have grouped together, built their trust among thecommunity members through cultural and traditional activities of the community. That is until
it becomes an important concept to create a multicultural social mechanism through religious
systems such as temples, shrines, and mosques to manage the members of the heritage
community. Furthermore, they can create strong mechanisms of a multicultural society andwill be able to develop into sustainable tourism. The results of the research contribute to a roleof the ownership in management in order to provide learning to the tourists visiting thecommunity and indicate an issue of retaining tradition from modernization with its seemingly
inevitable erosion of traditional societies.
Keywords: Multiculturalism Identity, The Strengthen Community, Social Capital, The East
Bank of Bangkok

iafor
The International Academic Forumwww.iafor.org

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Introduction
Charoen Krung Road with modern construction method is the first main road in Bangkok,
Thailand built during 1862- 1864 in the reign of King Mongkut ( Rama IV) . Charoen Krung
Road covers the area, starting from the old city centre in Rattanakosin Island,through Bangkok's Chinatown to the end in Bang Kho Laem district. Bangkok' s old town is
known as “ Rattakosin Island” located in the east bank of Bangkok along in the Chao Phraya
River bank in a heritage district of Bangkok. Presently, this district has become the historicaland architectural heritage. A common misperception about Charoen Krung is its Thai meaning
which is typically perceived as “New Road”. At that time all the streets or roads were officiallyunnamed. This new thoroughfare was first called “ Tha- non- mai” or “ New Road” by Thais.
Later King Mongkut named it as “ Charoen Krung” which means prosperous city. Charoen
Krung was behind embassies, warehouses, and residences in two paralleling sides of Chao
Phraya River. During this time the start of foreign ideas and modernization have been
introduced to the country and the Thailand government is interested to westernize the country
as a counterbalance to regional foreign encroachments in Chino, Vietnamese settlers andBurmese. This connects the Chinese community of “Sampeng” or “Yaowarat” with little India
community of “ Phahurat” and western community in “ Bang Rak area” . In August 1861,
Western consuls complained about a lack of roads in which they could transit sick people withhorse-drawn carriage. They requested the King to construct a new road on the east side of theriver behind consulates and business areas. The King Rama IV agreed with the request of theconstruction of new roads. The first road, which would serve the European district, was begun
in 1862 and officially opened to traffic in March 1864. Charoen Krung Road was one of the
major development in the city which transformed from the river of life to the road of theEuropeans’ life.
Rationale and Context
Community is important key for sustainable tourism development that could be controlled by
local people. That is to say, tourists visit, spend time and leave places in a short period of time
but local people permanently live in them. Because of that, local people are more aware of theimportance of conserving cultural treasures than tourists.
Sustainable tourism is a steady growing phenomenon in global tourism industry. The migrationof multiracial and multi-religious citizen such as Chinese, Burmese, Javanese, and Laotian, hasestablished an interesting mixed culture. Charoen Krung Road represents “ multicultural”
community with diverse ethnic groups, languages, cultures that show differences in the way oflife. However, people on the road live peacefully together in a form of multiculturalism.
Purpose of the Study
1.
To study the cultural costs of the community for the development of sustainable tourism
by the community, a case study of Chao Phraya River in the east of Bangkok, in Charoen Krungarea.
2.
To study a sustainable community-based tourism route in the area of Chao Phraya Riverin the east of Bangkok on Charoen Krung Road.

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Scope of Study Area
1.

Research Setting

The community area is along Chao Phraya River in the east of Bangkok. The research sitecovers the area from Wat Ratchasingkorn on Charoen Krung Road, Talad Noi Soi Wanit 1 and
2 of Sampeng, Yaowarat Road, Songwat Road, and Ratchawong Pier. The present study
explores information of temples, Chinese shrines, mosques, houses and old shops that tellstories in the community.
2.

Scope of the Study

This research focuses on a study of body of knowledge, way of life, traditions, and society
concerning the old community area. A variety of places on Charoen Krung Road includes
historic religious sites, temples, Chinese shrines, mosques, old houses and shops that tell stories
in the local community as well as food markets and local products that are unique to thecommunity area.
Data Collection
Primary Source of Data
1)
Observation Inventory: This method requires physical survey of Thai- Chinese
community and Thai people of various descent with a mixture of Thai- Chinese- Christian andMuslim cultures that are unique identities in the Thai society. In this particular study, a survey
on the old community was conducted to understand the way of life in the community andtourists’ behaviours.
2)
Questionnaire: Both demographic data and opinions in the questionnaire are used toobserve attitudes towards the community.
3)
In-depth Interview: Sessions were conducted to talk with tourists and owners of the oldancient mission house. The interviewees, for example, include “So Heng Tai”, the owner of a
vintage pastry shop, the owner of hand-made pillow shop, “Heng Seng” in Talad Noi market
community who is in charge of Sampeng or Yaowarat, Chinese shrine attendant, a mosqueattendant, a church attendant, a coffee shop owner, coffee shop customers, and board game
shop.
Secondary Source of Data
Secondary data basically comprises information from books, articles, journals that are relevantto the context of the study.
Outline of the Study
Charoen Krung Road has a story of life in terms of art and culture, the ways of the community
in the area. This eight- kilometre road is interesting place where many people are familiar
provokes the idea of happiness. There are different hidden stories with charm of viewing
people, multiculture that reflects the coexistence of the intercultural community harmoniously
through architecture, lifestyle in Bangkok city. Apart from creating a tourism dimension that
could attract tourists, a collection and transmission of time dimension of Charoen Krung Roadis also worthy for future generations to study and learn about the Thailand historic place.

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Literature Review
A peaceful coexistence in multicultural society with shared cultural skills on Charoen Krung
Road consists of people who have different languages, religions, ways of life, ethnic
consciousness. However, an understanding of different lifestyles bridges a gap of differences
between people so that people live as “brothers and relatives in the community”.
Local economic community-based sustainable tourism as guided and managed by thecommunity takes sustainability of the environment which includes society and culture into
account. Thus, the community has an ownership and the right to administer and create learning
for the visitors.
When Chao Phraya River is liked the artery, Charoen Krung Road is considered a vein that isparallel to the artery. The 150-year story of Charoen Krung Road is a reflection of theprosperity of Thailand. The two sides of Charoen Krung Road are lined with ancient, historic,
and religious sites and full of friendship among people with different nationalities residing in
Thailand. Business and trade run by Chinese people and foreign visitors contribute Charoen
Krung Road to be a very important district of Bangkok. Charoen Krung is the first road ofSiam accommodating the new economic zone, the new way of trade in the colonial era thatSiam signed in the Burney Treaty and the Bowring Treaty with Great Britain.
In the early Rattanakosin period, most of trading was done with China. There was also
Javanese. In the reign of King RAMA I, Thailand dealt junk trade of royal and private coffin
with Malay and Indian that is important and generates a lot of income for the country. This
junk ship was made by quality wood in Siam and featured in Chinese style by Chinese crews.
However, the Thai people were in charge of the Navy or the warehouse were the guards during
the construction in Thailand. Major exports were tin, ivory, wood, sugar, pepper, bird's nest,
animal bones, animal skin, cardamom and shellac while major imports were chinaware,stoneware, silver, silk, tea and paper. Until the reign of King Rama IV, Siam had more trading
contacts with Western nations that increased international diplomatic ties.
Sir. John Bowring, appointed ambassador Queen Victoria of Great Britain in order todeveloped relations with the royal court and negotiated a treaty with the Royal Court ofThailand in the year of 1854 during the reign of King Mongkut. Finally, Bowring treaty was
signed on 18th April. In the same year, the treaty resulted in the loss of Siamese sovereignty
and extraterritorial rights, but saved Siam from colonization. Later, the Bowring treaty signed
in 1855 and became the model for 14 other countries to enter into the same treaty. Thatfacilitated Thailand to cancel Inequality Treaty, which was completed in 1938. In the reign ofKing Rama V, the culture of living nightlife outside homes like Western life was new toSiamese society. An interesting aspect is that the culture was related to the modern pace of thecountry. Anna Leonowens postulated that the Siamese usually preferred to sleep during the day
like vacation. That was different from the culture of a western walk. A little more special night
activity was a temple fair which provided an opportunity for everyone to enjoy entertainment
outside their homes.
There was influenced by other countries to adopt a tenement on the road. For example, a modelof civilization in the city of Singapore was implemented. Lantern from shop house was initiallyused with an oil lamp, then switched to gas lights in the year of 1881 and that was the firstSiam Electric Company. The street lights therefore shifted to electric system instead. Since
then electric lighting made the road beautiful and safer for people to walk at night.

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In the reign of King Rama VI, Thailand had more contacts with foreigners in Europe andAmerica. An expansion of the metropolitan Bangkok started in Si Phraya area until the roadfalls including the areas of Silom, Bangrak, and Sathorn Road. The commercial area expanded
on both sides of Thanon Tok. Also, industrial areas expanded along the banks of the Chao
Phraya River. This area was called the western area (European section). Bangrak district was
like home and commercial operation for the westerner. As a result, this district showed a better
progressive growth in the past than other communities in that period.
The House Number One or Captain Bush Alley was next to Si Phraya Pier. The name of thealley came originally from the name of the English Captain John Bush, who previously resided
in the area. Captain Bush took over the government service of the foundation in Harbour
Department since the reign of King Rama IV. This captain was also an executive and a major
shareholder of Bangkok Dog which is now the shipyard on Chao Phraya River.
In addition, Charoen Krung Road during World War II became a Japanese society in Thailand
for a time that paid attention to identity. It was unique to be the centre of modern tradeprosperity. An interesting fact in the 17th century was that more Japanese products were soldin food categories in Thailand such as soy sauce, dried fish, and seaweed whereas Siam soldrice to Okinawa.
There had been more Japanese people living in Thailand. The cultural dimension of food haschanged. Culture of eating food could tell life stories. Changing the way of society from eating
food on town's waterfront to commercial buildings on both sides of roads. Food in different
cultures is not just for the purpose of survival. In contrast, food was defined with diverse
meanings and social implications. For instance, warm white rice porridge was cooked andnormally eaten as breakfast in the morning in a Thai- Chinese family. The meaning wasdifferent from rice porridge eaten with friends during the early hours until the night. Charoen
Krung used to be a famous place called “ Foodland” in Bangkok ( Chanthavanich, 2020) .
Individuals who wanted to buy butter, jam, sausage, ham, bacon, western bread or wanted tobuy spices, must go to Bang Rak. Other than that, Yaowarat and Phahurat were recommended
for Chinese cooking and Indian food respectively. The information indicated the real state ofCharoen Krung district where was full of attractive architecture and unique culture of historicplaces.
Discussion
Religious places with the beliefs of the community served as a fortress of the community camp.
At any homes, a child will be born. The dead must come to the shrine, come to the church,come to the mosque, perform religious ceremonies. Nowadays, a place of religion is the centre
that holds the minds of people in the community. Many places welcome people from outside
the community. In addition, there are activities for welcoming small groups of tourists, asorganized by government agencies and private sectors such as walking tours. These created an
impact on the people in the same community because normally people in the Sampeng
community, as before, had never been called as Chinese people, Thai guests, but used to callthem “Sampeng people” while having known each other for 50 years or more.

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Conclusion
The Concept of Sustainable Creative Indicator Development for Community-based
Tourism
Directions of sustainable community tourism for community management in the community
are emphasised to promote a role of ownership, the right of management for ensuring learningfor visitors. It is a meaning in a community-based tourism management that relates toparticipation of villagers. The cooperation of people in the community, which is supportive
host to promote conservation, includes a creation of consciousness and responsibility.
In the aspect of cultural resources, local intelligence for tourists is important for establishingperception and understanding of the way of life and cultures. People living in the area on
Charoen Krung Road of 8.6 kilometres are diverse in light of religions; Thai Buddhist, Chinese,
Islam, Catholic, and Christian. This difference is very interesting in terms of primary principles
from different culture sources with community cultural capital for developing sustainablecommunity tourism. This is essential to help bridging the social gap in four aspects: 1)
Community management based on the real way 2) Community management for the benefits oflife 3) Community management based on the truth, and 4) Community management based onpeace of mind. The four aspects are considered as the key of community development for thepeople in the community.
Models of management communities' cultural capital for sustainable community tourism
development in the case study of Charoen Krung Road consist of two models: 1) A model ofwelcoming tourists that aims to motivate local people to be aware and proud of being the partof the community that were clean and safe for tourists, and 2) A model of administration which
supports development of tourist attractions for setting up culture and history learning centre.
Suggestion
The study found that Charoen Krung Road had a variety of cultural learning resources related
to long history of a way of life. A multicultural diversity of people appeared in various placesof worship, including Buddhist temples, Chinese shrines, Islam mosques, Catholic andChristian churches among others, and they were professional sources of wisdom. The
community should be more educated about the needs of tourists and the management style ofcommunity tourism. In order for the community to understand the interests of tourists and theirroles and responsibilities and for the youth to learn about diverse local cultures in Charoen
Krung Road area, educational institutions should organize cultural learning activities in thecommunity.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to show a gratitude to the Language Department, Faculty of Liberal
Arts, King Mongkut’s Institute of Technology Ladkrabang and King Mongkut’s Institute ofTechnology Ladkrabang, which permitted this research to be conducted.

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วรศก

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๊ ส.์

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Contact email: chada.tr@kmitl.ac.th

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The Influence of Immersion Education in China on Students' English Learning Motivation
Wan Qin, University of Aberdeen, United Kingdom
The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2021
Official Conference Proceedings
Abstract
This study investigated the motivation of English learning among 40 high school students in
Huaibei City, Anhui Province, China. Half of the 40 students received traditional English
education and the other half received immersion education. The study compared the learning
motivations of the two groups and analyzed the differences between the two sets of data. In
addition, the research discussed the participants' attitudes and opinions on the two teaching
methods, and what differences between the two teaching methods they think. The study
collected the data needed for quantitative analysis through questionnaires, and obtained thedata needed for qualitative analysis through interviews. The data of questionnaires would beanalyzed by SPSS, while the data of interviews would identify the key paragraphs or sentences
through transcription. The data analysis showed that there was no significant difference in the
motivation of students under immersion education and traditional education, but the results of
the interviews showed that students who received immersion education were more likely tohave an interest in English learning, resulting in stronger internal motivation. The main reason
for this situation is that immersion education has distinct selection criteria in terms of teachers,
teaching activities and teaching materials, and these changes may have some positive effects
on learners. The self-satisfaction and sense of accomplishment that learners gain in this process
may provide continuous motivation for the next learning task.
Keywords: Immersion Education, Motivation, ESL

iafor
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Introduction
In China, traditional English education has obvious drawbacks. The most obvious flaw is theexcessive attention to student reading and listening. It means learners pay more attention to theEnglish content that can be reflected in the test, thus ignoring the practical application ofEnglish. For ensuring that their children could alleviate this problem and improve the quality ofteaching while learning English, the group with power and wealth in the society had invested
more funds and resources in English teaching, thus giving birth to bilingual education courses
in China, especially the most rapidly developed immersion course in recent years (Xiong &Feng, 2018).
Immersion education is a classic model in bilingual education and has been continuously
developed and improved worldwide for many years. Nowadays, the status of immersion
education in China is gradually rising, and more and more provinces are beginning to introduce
immersion courses. Basically, every major city in China has a school that uses immersion
courses (Feng, 2007; Hu, 2007; Cheng, 2012; Qiang & Siegel, 2012).
The motivation of students is an important factor of immersion education. It mainly refers to
why humans think and behave as they do (Dörnyei & Skehan, 2003, p. 614). Motivation may
become the reason that people decide to do something, affecting the time when people
maintain an activity or the difficulty of choosing an activity. After years of development inmotivation, researchers have gradually proposed some motivation models that can classify
learners' language learning motivation. There are three classic models, namely
self-determination theory, action control theory and Gardner's. Model. Self-determination
theory is the target model of this study.
Self-determination theory (SDT) is a classic model of motivation. It is an empirical theory ofhuman behavior and development, and its core is the social contextual factors that support orhinder personal development (Ryan & Deci, 2017). SDT may mean a theory related to humanpersonality and motivation, including the talent and psychological needs of individuals.
SDT primarily includes intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation and is related to thedegree of self-determination of learners' actions (Ryan & Deci, 2002). Intrinsic motivation isdefined as the willingness of learners to participate in tasks for their own benefit, and thiswillingness is usually enjoyed by learners and can be guided by interest and positive emotions(Oga-Baldwin, Nakata, Parker & Ryan, 2017). For L2 learners, the language learning process
may also be a process of self-growth. When learners find positive influences while learning thelanguage, this may give learners a lifelong interest in language learning (Oga-Baldwin, Nakata,
Parker & Ryan, 2017), so attracting learners to the foreign language learning process has
always been the goal of most teaching programs ( Garton, Copland & Burns, 2011).
In contrast, extrinsic motivation is influenced by external factors. According to the degree ofself-determination behavior, extrinsic motivation is mainly divided into four parts, integrated,
identified, introjected and external regulation (Tanaka & Kutsuki, 2018). The current
relationship between intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation and the internalization of
motivation are also included in the SDT study. Internalization refers to a process oftransforming extrinsic motivation into intrinsic motivation.
The main purpose of this study is to discover the impact of immersion education on student
learning motivation and the reasons for these effects based on the differences in learning

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motivation between traditional and immersive education. To a certain extent, this study canreveal the influence of immersion education on students' L2 learning motivation and its causes,and based on this result, make suggestions for the next adjustment of immersion education tostimulate students' active learning motivation and improve learning efficiency.
Methodology
There are 3 research questions in this study, which are proposed from both quantitative andqualitative aspects. Quantitative question is based on the background and the questions on thequestionnaire. The qualitative questions are formulated through subsequent interviews andtheir transcripts.
Research Questions
Quantitative research questions:
1. Is there any difference in the motivation of learners' English learning between immersion
and traditional education as self-reported by participants on the questionnaire?
Qualitative research questions:
1. What is the reason for the change of English motivation in immersion education? Is thischange reflected in intrinsic motivation or extrinsic motivation?
2. Do learners think these changes are positive or negative?
Participants
A total of 40 participants were surveyed and divided into two groups, each with 20 participants.
All participants are high school students or have taken the college entrance examination. They
are between the ages of 17 and 19 and have more than 10 years of English learning experience.
They are familiar with the current English teaching model in China. The difference between
the two groups of participants is that the English teaching methods used in their high school
English courses. One group of participants received the traditional English education, while theother group received an immersion course. Participants in the interview section selected 4
students who have the highest and lowest motivational characteristics from the two groups in
the questionnaire. After obtaining their consent, they conducted a short follow-up interview
through WeChat.
Data
Data comes from questionnaire investigations and face-to-face interviews. Specifically, forquestionnaires, there are 24 questions in them, of which the first two questions are related tothe participants' English learning, and the remaining 22 questions are related to learning
motivation. These questions are mainly aimed at the learning motivation of participants when
they learn English, and they focus on the self-determination theory (SDT) in the motivation
which means intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation. Among the questions related tolearning motivation, the first five questions are for intrinsic motivation, and the remaining 17
questions come from four different categories, integrated, identified, introjected and external
regulation in extrinsic motivation. The scale used in this survey was adapted from the language
learning fixed vector table (LLOS) developed by Noels (2000). Participants can specificallyindicate their level of recognition of the facts stated in the project when answering the items in

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For interviews, they were conducted with four participants, two accepting immersion
education and two accepting traditional English education. Each time only one participant wasinterviewed, the questions asked to each participant were the same. Because the participants'
English proficiency could not support their fluent expressions, all questions in the interview
process were translated into Mandarin, and participants also answered in Mandarin. Interview
questions were sent to the participants' mailboxes in advance, giving participants enough timeto think and prepare their views on the issue (Brown, 2014). The entire interview process wasrecorded with the consent of the participants. The recording was transcribed. Participantsreceived a copy of the transcript and had the right to revise their content.
Results
Quantitative Results
In the quantitative analysis section, all the answers in the questionnaire were divided into 5
levels by Likert scales, each level representing a score, which is very agree -5 points, agree -4
points, not sure -3 points, opposed - 2 points and strongly opposed -1 point. The scores of allquestionnaires in research question 1 will be summed in Excel to get the total score of eachparticipant, and these scores would be input into SPSS in different groups to get the relevant
data tables.
Question 1: Is there any difference in the motivation of learners' English learning
between immersion and traditional education as self-reported by participants on thequestionnaire?
Whether the two sets of data obtained by SPSS analysis are normally distributed before
analyzing whether the two sets of data in the questionnaire are different. In the analysis of data
distribution, the most intuitive way is to display the data of immersion education andtraditional education in the form of histograms and boxplots. Histograms can show how often
different scores appear in the data and how these scores are distributed. Boxplots can show themedian spread and interquartile range of scores, and whether there are outliers in the sample
data.
After running boxplots and histograms, the following figures 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 were obtained.
Figure 1 shows the boxplots of the two sets of data, Figures 2 and 3 are the histograms of thetwo sets of data, and Figures 4 and 5 are the related values.

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Figure 1: Boxplots
The boxplots show that the data of immersion education has a higher median than the data of
traditional education. The median of the immersion group is between 80 and 90, while themedian of the traditional group is close to 80. In addition, it can be seen from the figure thatoutliers exist in the data of the immersion group.

Figure 2: Immersion Histogram
The histogram of the immersion group generally shows a normal distribution, but the verticesof shape are relatively high, indicating that there may be some problems in the data's kurtosis,
such as the data between 80 and 90 is too concentrated.

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Figure 3: Traditional Histogram
The shape of the traditional group's histogram is not bell-shaped and perfectly symmetricalabout its mid-point. It can be clearly seen from the figure that the distribution of the entire
shape is biased to the right, indicating that there may be some problems with the skewness ofthe data. In order to further confirm the situation of these data, it is necessary to analyze thespecific values. These values are shown in the table in Figure 3.

Figure 4: Descriptives

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The table in Figure 4 shows that the value of skewness in the immersion group data is 0.140,
and the value of kurtosis is 0.856. Both values are between 1 and -1, indicating that the data for
the immersion group is a normal distribution. The value of skewness in the traditional groupdata is -0.682, and the value of kurtosis is 0.389, which is also between 1 and -1, indicating thatthe data of the traditional group is also normal distribution. Since both sets of data are small
samples (n=20), the values of skewness and kurtosis can be divided by corresponding standard
error to obtain standardize(z) in order to prevent the sample size influence the results. From
Figure 6, the standard error (skewness) = 0.512, standard error (kurtosis) = 0.992 of theimmersion group can be obtained. After calculation, it can be found that S/SE(s)=0.273,
S/SE(k)=0.862 in the immersion group. In the traditional group, S/SE(s)=-1.332,
S/SE(k)=0.392. The calculated standardize(z) of these data are < 1.96 and > -1.96, indicatingthat the data is normally distributed.

Figure 5: Tests of Normality
The two sets of data are normal distribution. To further confirm the results, the normality test
would be run in the next. Since both sets of data are small samples (n=20), it should choose to
run Shapiro-Wilk statistics to get the probability (p) values. In Figure 3, it shows thep(immersion)=0.795, p(traditional)=0.295. Both p values are >.05, then the two sets of data canbe considered to be normally distributed. This also means that the two sets of data areparametric data, which can be used for the parametric statistical test. Then the next two sets ofdata will be analyzed using the independent samples t-test.
SPSS performs the LEVENE test of equality of variances before using a t-test to analyze thedata. This step is equivalent to ensuring equal variances of the data, or equal standard deviationof data from the mean.

Figure 6: Independent Samples Test
Figure 6 is a data table obtained after running the independent samples t-test.

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Figure 7
In Figure 7, p = 0.367. it shows that p > .05. This means that the LEVENE test to be
non-significant, or variance for two populations cannot be significantly different.

Figure 8
According to Figure 8, p=0.208. It shows p>.05. It can be seen from the data that there is no
significant difference between the two sets of data, indicating that there is no statisticallysignificant difference in the motivation questionnaire scores for immersion and traditional
education. This difference may not occur or only happens occasionally, but it is not known thatthe effect is strong or weak (Muijs, 2010), and then further calculation of the effect size isrequired. First df=38, according to the formula, Cohen(d)=0.203 can be obtained. Comparing dwith Cohen’s (1988) guidelines, the effect size is small, which means the difference between
the two sets of data is slight.
After using SPSS to conduct a series of analyses on the data of the questionnaire survey, it canbe found that the impact of immersion education and traditional education on students' English
learning motivation is not obvious. Two different ways of education may occasionally give
students some changes in motivation, but there is no significant difference.
Qualitative Results
Question 2: What is the reason for the change of English motivation in immersion
education? Is this change reflected in intrinsic motivation or extrinsic motivation?
After analyzing the interview content of the participants, it is found that the change of learning
motivation mainly comes from three aspects, teachers, teaching activities and teachingmaterials. The most frequently cited factor in the interview results was the change in the

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teacher's occurrence in immersion education. First, teachers who use immersion education
generally have higher levels of English than traditional education teachers, because immersion
education requires teachers to use English as a medium of instruction. If teachers are notproficient in using English, it is difficult to fulfill this requirement. The impact of this factor
was mentioned in the answer of the immersion education respondent S (interview,
2019/07/14).
“The teacher’s English is very fluent. Although I may not understand what theteacher is saying at first, I will have a sense of admiration for the teacher. I willadmire her and want to learn from her. And I will force myself to listen to what theteacher is saying, and slowly understand a part."
Traditional education respondent Q also expressed similar views (interview, 2019/07/20).
"When the teacher speaks English well, I will think that this teacher is very powerfuland can certainly teach me. But if the teacher speaks English badly, I will feel that
this teacher is not professional at all. I may have learned it wrong. Then I definitely
don't want to spend time in her class."
It can be seen from the respondents' answers that the professional level of the teacher has asignificant influence on the learner. High-level teachers may stimulate learners to actively
learn English, and actively participate in the classroom, while teachers with lower levels may
make the learners resent, even give up learning in this language. This factor mainly changes thelearner's interest in learning English and attitude towards English, which affects the learner's
intrinsic motivation.
Secondly, respondents repeatedly mentioned that the focus of immersion teachers in class isvery different from that of traditional teachers. There is such a passage in the answer of theimmersion education respondent S (interview, 2019/07/14).
“When I was answered the question in class. The teacher stopped paying attention towhether there was a grammatical error in the sentence I said, or did I answer thecorrect answer. The teacher began to pay attention to whether I was fluent whenanswering the question, whether the answer was logical, and occasionally willcorrect my pronunciation."
Next is the immersion education respondent J's answer to this section (interview, 2019/07/18).
“The teacher is very interested in the communication between me and my classmates.
In the classroom, we often talk to each other. And the teacher sometimes shares theculture and knowledge of some English-speaking countries with us.”It can be seen from the two parts of the answer that the immersive teacher is more inclined to
improve the learner's thinking logic ability and the ability to communicate with others in
English. The traditional education respondent F said: “The teacher pays attention to whether
the grammar used to answer the questions is accurate, and whether the answers I give areconsistent with the textbooks (interview, 2019/07/21).” Traditional English teachers tend tocorrect the learner's grammatical errors to get the right answer, thus improving the learner's testscore. The change of teachers' focus may influence the learner's learning motivation to a certain
extent. For example, learners may change their motivation from improving their test scores to

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better communicating with others. It may change the learner's extrinsic motivation fromexternal regulation to integrated regulation, increasing the autonomy of learners' motivation tolearn.
Finally, respondents mentioned that the difference associated with teachers is that immersive
teachers are more inclined to encourage and praise students. The immersion education
respondent S mentioned in the answer (interview, 2019/07/14):“While there are many students in the class who have poor academic performance,
the teachers will often praise them, saying that these students have made significant
progress and should continue to work hard. Because these students have poor grades,
the teachers will encourage them from their attitudes. For example, when they arevery serious in their lectures or they are very timely in their homework. Teachers in
traditional classes may think this is a normal thing and a task that students shouldhave done."
This answer shows that immersive teachers and traditional teachers have distinct differences in
the way they treat learners. Immersion teachers may use encouragement as one of the mostcommon means of teaching and try to create psychological satisfaction for learners from all
aspects. Traditional teachers believe that it is necessary for learners to complete basic tasks anddoes not need to be praised. Different teaching methods may have different effects on students'
learning motivation. Some students may stimulate their interest in learning because they areencouraged. Some students may also study harder to avoid criticism.
The difference in teaching activities is also a part that has been mentioned many times by
respondents. Immersion education has different goals when it comes to teaching English. For
example, immersion education is more about improving students' ability to apply English.
Traditional education focuses on improving students' English test scores. English-related
forms of activity will vary. For example, the answer given by immersion education respondent
J in answering this part of the question is this (interview, 2019/07/18):"We often hold English-related activities, such as English Corner, tongue twister orguessing riddle. Last Christmas we also held an English drama contest, and students
specially rented costumes to improve the integrity of the show. And that English
manuscript has been backed up many times, fearing that it will affect theperformance of the show."
These immersive English activities described by respondent J are largely out of the classroom
and have nothing to do with textbooks and syllabuses. The main purpose of these activities is toenable students to apply English to the actual scene, thus stimulating students' interest in
English learning. The traditional education respondent F mentioned in the answer: “The schooloccasionally holds some English speech contests or English knowledge contests, and students
with good grades will sign up for the competition award (interview, 2019/07/21).” It is obviousthat the related activities in traditional English education are more focused on rankings, mainly
for students with a better English foundation. These activities with different purposes and theiraccompanying praise or affirmation may have an impact on the learner's English learning
motivation and change the motivation. Immersion education may be more inclined to improve
the learner's intrinsic motivation, so that students may be interested in English learning, while
traditional education may be more inclined to improve the learner's extrinsic motivation. Itmeans to allow students to obtain higher rankings in the competition to learn English very hard.

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In addition to teachers and activities, the textbook is one of the factors that make a difference
between the two English teaching models. In the analysis of interview recordings, it can befound that both immersion education and traditional education use English-language
textbooks. The difference lies mainly in the setting of textbook content. The immersion
education respondent S mentioned in her description of the textbook: "I feel that the subject
matter and design activities in the textbook are very similar to those appearing in foreign life,
which is quite interesting (interview, 2019/07/14). "Traditional education respondent Q said:"Our teaching materials should be based on the college entrance examination, the words inside
are college entrance examination vocabulary, and then the scenes and stories appearing in thebook are also written around those vocabulary (interview, 2019) /07/20).” The reason for these
two answers may be that many of the immersion education materials are imported directlyfrom abroad and modified for use, so the content of the textbook is closer to the life and modeof the English-speaking countries. Cultural differences may give students a greater interest in
this unfamiliar situation, while traditional textbooks serve the exam syllabus. The vocabulary
and knowledge that appear in the syllabus must be included in the textbook. It may change thestudent's extrinsic motivation. Students may change their motivation from they have to learn
from the textbooks for understanding the content of the exams to produce the interest for the
textbook itself. This is a process of transformation from external regulation to integrated
regulation. The three reasons cited by respondents are similar to the literature review ofimmersion education in this study. These changes in teachers and classrooms may also be said
to be a necessary condition for the successful implementation of immersion education.
Question 3: Do learners think these changes are positive or negative?
In the analysis of the interview content, the answers of the two respondents who received theimmersion education showed appreciation and approval of this kind of education. When it talks
to the three factors related to the motivational change in teachers, teaching activities andteaching materials in immersion education, the evaluations given by respondents all show
positive effects.
Respondents S and J mentioned the following paragraphs when answering questions related toimmersion teachers.
Respondent S: “I think she (teacher) is very cool when she speaks English, and I
want to be like her. I am very active in her class, and I will write English homework
firstly. I am also prepared to learn English at home when I am on vacation (interview,
2019/07/14)."
Respondent J: "Although I feel that my English is not very good, but the teacher
often praises me in class, for example, I am fluent in answering questions today, andI said an interesting idea. Sometimes I feel that I am still very talented in learning
English. I will be particularly enthusiastic and willing to take the time to learn thislanguage (interview, 2019/07/18)."
The influence of immersion teachers on students is mainly to praise students to stimulate
students' interest in learning. In the feedback of students, it is found that such a way may makestudents have stronger motivation to learn English, and students may have a sense ofsatisfaction when they have been achieved some difficult aims, which can be a driving force forstudents in the next learning process. In this way, the whole learning process forms a virtuous
circle, and students' motivation for English learning will become stronger and stronger.

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When talking about issues related to teaching activities and teaching materials, respondents S
and J mentioned that “Every time teacher hold an English activity in a class, everyone is very
happy. Even if we need to memorize a long English manuscript, we will not feel tired. And
every time after the event, everyone has a special sense of accomplishment (interview,
2019/07/14)." and "The activities and teaching materials are different from what I have learned
before. Now it is more interesting. Everyone is more motivated and willing to participate andlearn this language (interview, 2019/07/18).” These answers all prove that the changes inimmersion education in activities and teaching materials are relatively successful, turning theEnglish subject from a boring compulsory course to a more interesting one. Students began toseparate English learning from the exam outline and grades, and instead tried to apply it toreal-life scenes. These places of immersion education, which are different from traditional
education, may improve students' interest in English learning and have a positive impact on
students' learning motivation.
Conclusion
In general, immersion education may have a positive impact on the learner's motivation.
Especially it may stimulate learners' interest in language learning from several aspects, and letlearners actively complete language learning tasks, such as the English drama competition
mentioned in the interview. These effects of immersion education may slowly transform theexternal regulation of the learner's own extrinsic motivation into a more autonomous integrated
regulation or even into intrinsic motivation, allowing learners to enjoy the process of language
learning from the heart. However, it is also found that the situation of immersion education in
China is still not optimistic. On the one hand, because of its high tuition fees makes manyfamilies are discouraged, and on the other hand, because the examinations in China's education
system still occupy a very important position. The status of immersion education may notsignificantly improve student test scores. This also shows that immersion education needs along-term exploration and development process in China, especially how to adapt theimmersion curriculum to China's national conditions and adapt to the Chinese examination
system. From the current literature, the impact of immersion education on learner motivation isa slow and time-consuming process, so important factors such as the choice of teachers, the ageof learners and the location of the course require educators to further research and exploration.
From the research results, teachers may try adding some interesting English activities when
they are conducting English education or let students simulate some real situations in which
English can be used in the classroom, so that students might discover the fun of learning
English and increase their autonomy of language learning. In addition, teachers should
encourage students in the learning process so that students may feel satisfied and have stronger
motivation to learn English.

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References
Brown, J.D. (2014). Mixed Methods Research for TESOL. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University
Press.
Cheng, L. 2012. English Immersion Schools in China: Evidence From Students and Teachers.
Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development 33 (4): 379–391.
doi:10.1080/01434632.2012.661436
Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences, 2nd edition.
Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Dörnyei, Z., & Skehan, P. (2003). 18 Individual Differences in Second Language Learning.
The handbook of second language acquisition, 589.
Feng, A. 2007. “Introduction.” In Bilingual Education in China: Practices, Policies andConcepts, edited by A. Feng, 1–10. Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters.
Garton, S., Copland, F., & Burns, A. (2011). Investigating global practices in teaching
English to young learners. ELT Research papers, 11(1), 1-24.
Hu, G. 2007. “The Juggernaut of Chinese-English Bilingual Education.” In Bilingual
Education in China: Practices, Policies, and Concepts, edited by A. Feng, 94–126.
Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters.
Muijs, D. (2010). Doing quantitative research in education with SPSS. Sage.
Noels, K. A., Pelletier, L. G., Clément, R., & Vallerand, R. J. (2000). Why are you learning asecond language? Motivational orientations and self-determination theory. Language
learning, 50(1), 57-85.
Oga-Baldwin, W. Q., Nakata, Y., Parker, P., & Ryan, R. M. (2017). Motivating young
language learners: A longitudinal model of self-determined motivation in elementary
school foreign language classes. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 49, 140-150.
Ogden, J., & Lo, J. (2012). How meaningful are data from Likert scales? An evaluation of
how ratings are made and the role of the response shift in the socially disadvantaged.
Journal of health psychology, 17(3), 350-361.
Qiang, H., and L. Siegel. 2012. “Introduction of English Immersion in China: A Transplantwith Modifications.” International Education 41 (2): 6–18.
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2017). Self-determination theory: Basic psychological needs inmotivation, development, and wellness. Guilford Publications.
Tanaka, Y., & Kutsuki, A. (2018). Motivation for learning English in the immersion
environment of an international school in Japan. International Journal of Bilingual
Education and Bilingualism, 21(6), 729-743.

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Xiong, T., & Feng, A. (2018). Localizing immersion education: A case study of aninternational bilingual education program in south China. International Journal of
Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 1-14.

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The Effect of Internal Locus of Control on the Entrepreneurial Intention of Vocational
High School Students
Muhammad Kris Yuan Hidayatulloh, Universitas Negeri Surabaya, Indonesia
Eppy Yundra, Universitas Negeri Surabaya, Indonesia
I Gusti Putu Asto Buditjahjanto, Universitas Negeri Surabaya, Indonesia
The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2021
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Abstract
Internal locus of control is one of the factors that has contributed to the entrepreneurial
intentions of vocational high school students. This study aims to reveal empirically the
relationship between internal locus of control and entrepreneurial intentions of vocational
high school students. The population in this study were all 422 grade XII students ofVocational High School in the field of technology and engineering expertise in the City of
Jombang. The sample used was 180 students through random techniques. The data wascollected using the entrepreneurial intention scale and the internal locus of control scale. The
data analysis technique uses the product moment correlation analysis technique. The results
showed a significant positive relationship between internal locus of control andentrepreneurial intention, with a significance level (p) of 0.032. The internal locus of control
correlation coefficient is 0.513 for entrepreneurial intentions. It can be concluded from thisstudy that the internal locus of control of students can predict the level of student
entrepreneurial intention.
Keywords: Locus of Control, Entrepreneurial, Intent, Vocational

iafor
The International Academic Forumwww.iafor.org

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Introduction
Entrepreneurship has become very important in this modern era, both for the survival andsustainability of society. Entrepreneurship exists with the hope of becoming an economic
competition in the global market and providing job opportunities. Entrepreneurship can leadto higher returns and a meaningful career (Kuckertz & Wagner, 2010). A study found that
entrepreneurial development has succeeded in improving the welfare of the nation as awhole. The benefits generated from entrepreneurship can contribute to economic
development by improving the quality of life, offering new jobs, promoting sector
productivity, increasing economic growth, facilitating social mobility, and so on.
One of the first steps to starting an entrepreneur is having entrepreneurial intentions. The
entrepreneurial intention represents the individual's commitment to starting a business(Zapkau et al., 2015). Entrepreneurial intention can influence the emergence ofentrepreneurial behavior in the future. Individuals with entrepreneurial intentions believe they
can successfully start a new business. Entrepreneurial intention is an individual's intention tostart their business (Delialioglu & Yildirim, 2007). Entrepreneurial intent is described as theawareness and belief that individuals use to start new businesses in the near future. It is astate of conscious mind based on experience that directs attention to starting an independent
business (Do Paço et al., 2011). The commitment to starting new businesses and the tendency
to act as the main strength enable individuals to create new businesses. Entrepreneurial intent
can also be described as an individual's state of mind for starting a new business or creating
innovation in an existing organization (Remeikiene et al., 2013).
One of the factors that are believed to increase the intention and trust of individuals in
entrepreneurship is the internal locus of control. More extensive research on entrepreneurshiphas explored the significant positive effects of internal locus of control on entrepreneurial
intentions (Shane & Nicolaou, 2015). The results of several studies have found that internal
locus of control can act as a positive predictor of entrepreneurial intentions.
In addition, these findings also indicate that internal locus of control is very important forbuilding individual intention in entrepreneurship (Baldegger et al., 2017). Personality traits
such as locus of control play a decisive role in increasing entrepreneurial intentions, because
individuals with internal locus of control believe that they will succeed in entrepreneurship.
Internal locus of control is the individual's perception that an event depends on the behavior
or characteristics inherent in the individual (Zaidi & Mohsin, 2013). Every individual has fullcontrol over the results they get through ability, effort, or skill. Individual behavior will
determine events in his life. Every individual has their responsibility to succeed and fail in
learning. Individuals with internal locus of control also think that extraordinary experiences
are caused by stable behavior or individual characteristics (Sohrabi et al., 2016). Individuals
with internal locus of control believe that they can make changes through theirentrepreneurial behavior which is built through strong entrepreneurial intentions. This study
aims to reveal empirically the relationship between internal locus of control andentrepreneurial intentions of vocational high school (VHS) students. This study focuses on
several indicators of internal locus of control for vocational students who are approaching
graduation in technology and engineering competencies. These students have carried out
learning activities and practices in the industry, so that they are thought to haveentrepreneurial intentions based on one of the factors, namely internal locus of control.

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MethodThe design of this research is ex post facto by processing the research data without treating
the research subjects. The data in this study were collected using a questionnairequestionnaire instrument. The scaling model used is the Likert scale model. Entrepreneurial
intention is expressed by the entrepreneurial intention scale built by researchers based on thedimensions of entrepreneurial intention according to Van Gelderen, Brand, Van Praag,
Bodewes, Poutsma, and Van Gils (2008), namely: wishes, preferences, plans, and expectedbehavior. The population in this study were all students of class XII Vocational High Schoolin the field of technology and engineering expertise as many as 422 students in the City of
Jombang. The sample used was 180 students through random techniques. The data wascollected using the entrepreneurial intention scale and the internal locus of control scale. The
data analysis technique uses the product moment correlation analysis technique.
Result and Discussion
ResultTable 1 shows that the results of the analysis are in the value of r = 0.513, p = 0.032 (p<0.05), which means that the internal locus of control has a positive and significant
relationship with the entrepreneurial intentions of students at VHS in Jombang. These results
indicate that the proposed hypothesis is accepted, namely that the internal locus of control
can predict entrepreneurial intentions. Internal locus of control contributes 2.1% toentrepreneurial intentions. Meanwhile, the remaining 97.9% is influenced by other variables.
Tabel 1. Results of Correlation Analysis of Pearson product moment
VariableR
RsquareSig.
R
Internal locus control
0,513
0,021
P=0,032
0,513
Entrepreneurial Intent
Discussion
The results showed that internal locus of control had an effect on students' entrepreneurial
intentions. Previous findings indicate that entrepreneurial characteristics significantly
influence entrepreneurial intentions (Kusmintarti et al., 2016). Internal locus of control plays
a role in building entrepreneurial intentions and decisions to become entrepreneurs, this is inline with several previous studies which found that there is a positive relationship between
internal locus of control and entrepreneurial intention. (Brunel et al., 2017). Individuals withan internal locus of control believe that their decisions and actions can influence the successof their business (Karabulut, 2016). One study found that individuals who have an internal
locus of control tend to have greater entrepreneurial intentions (Ayodele & Olanrewaju,2013). These people believe that they can turn their entrepreneurial intentions into successful
entrepreneurial behavior. Successful entrepreneurs tend to focus more internally on managing
their company. Internal locus of control is one of the characteristics of entrepreneurship.
Internal locus of control can lead individuals to develop entrepreneurial intentions. Some
successful entrepreneurs claim that their success is due to the right decisions they have made(internal locus of control), not because of external factors such as fate and luck. Individuals
with internal locus of control tend to be more courageous in taking risks in building abusiness. Individuals believe they can control their environment because they have a clear

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vision of their new business. Internal locus of control can help individuals build social
networks to obtain information that supports their business. Individuals can actualize their
future business ideas after gathering and managing all the information obtained (Kusmintarti
et al., 2016).
Entrepreneurial intention tends to increase when individuals are given entrepreneurshipeducation that instills entrepreneurial characteristics of students such as internal locus ofcontrol. Individuals with internal locus of control believe that hard work makes it possible toachieve success in business (Kumar & Shukla, 2019). Internal locus of control is one of theimportant characteristics of entrepreneurship. Internal locus of control can increase anindividual's likelihood of becoming entrepreneurs (Goksel & Belgin, 2011). Individuals withinternal locus of control characteristics dare to take risks to start a business in the future(Phipps, 2012).
The implications of this study can provide insight, especially for vocational students,
regarding the sustainable use of current students' abilities, both the knowledge and skills
acquired from schools to foster entrepreneurial intentions. The findings obtained indicate theability and efforts of individuals in the learning process at school tend to determine individual
success in starting a business faster than external factors. Individuals who believe in theirabilities tend to have higher entrepreneurial intentions. The results of this study are also
useful for teachers. Apart from teaching vocational skills, teachers are also responsible for
guiding students to maximize the potential of students' vocational skills. Thus, students canstart the entrepreneurial process with maximum effort and results.
Conclusion
Internal locus of control can be a good predictor of student entrepreneurial intentions at VHS
in Jombang Regency. There is a significant positive relationship between internal locus ofcontrol and entrepreneurial intention (p = 0.032). Internal locus of control contributed 2.1
percent in explaining entrepreneurial intentions. Thus, the remaining 97.9 percent is
influenced by other variables outside the scope of this study. This research is limited to theanalysis of the influence of internal locus of control on entrepreneurial intentions so that
continuous research is needed to determine how much the contribution between variables isand determine a valid structural model for students' entrepreneurial intentions.

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References
Ayodele, & Olanrewaju, K. (2013). Demographics, Entrepreneurial Self-Efficacy and Locusof Control as Determinants of Adolescents’ Entrepreneurial Intention in Ogun State,
Nigeria. Journal of Educational Research and Studies, 1(2), 12–16.
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ar/pdf/JERS-13-020 Ayodele .pdf
Baldegger, U., Schroeder, S. H., & Furtner, M. R. (2017). The self-loving entrepreneur: Dualnarcissism and entrepreneurial intention. International Journal of Entrepreneurial
Venturing, 9(4), 373–391. https://doi.org/10.1504/IJEV.2017.088639
Brunel, O., Laviolette, E. M., & Radu-Lefebvre, M. (2017). Role Models and Entrepreneurial
Intention: The Moderating Effects of Experience, Locus of Control and Self-Esteem.
Journal of Enterprising Culture, 25(02), 149–177.
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Delialioglu, O., & Yildirim, Z. (2007). Students’ perceptions on effective dimensions ofinteractive learning in a blended learning environment. In Educational Technology
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Do Paço, A., Ferreira, J., Raposo, M., Rodrigues, R. G., & Dinis, A. (2011). Entrepreneurial
intention among secondary students: Findings from Portugal. International Journal of
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Goksel, A., & Belgin, A. (2011). Gender, Business Education, Family Background andPersonal Traits; a Multi-Dimensional Analysis of Their Effects on Entrepreneurial
Propensity: Findings. International Journal of Business and Social …, 2(13), 35–49.
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Karabulut, A. T. (2016). Personality Traits on Entrepreneurial Intention. Procedia - Social
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Kuckertz, A., & Wagner, M. (2010). The influence of sustainability orientation on
entrepreneurial intentions - Investigating the role of business experience. Journal ofBusiness Venturing, 25(5), 524–539. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusvent.2009.09.001
Kumar, R., & Shukla, S. (2019). Creativity, Proactive Personality and Entrepreneurial
Intentions: Examining the Mediating Role of Entrepreneurial Self-efficacy. Global
Business Review, 0972150919844395. https://doi.org/10.1177/0972150919844395
Kusmintarti, A., Thoyib, A., Maskie, G., & Ashar, K. (2016). Entrepreneurial characteristics
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Phipps, S. T. A. (2012). Contributors to an enterprising gender: Examining the influence of
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Remeikiene, R., Startiene, G., & Dumciuviene, D. (2013). Explaining Entrepreneurial
Intention of University Students: the Role of Entrepreneurial Education. Management,
Knowledge and Learning International Conference 2013, 299–307.
Shane, S., & Nicolaou, N. (2015). Creative personality, opportunity recognition and thetendency to start businesses: A study of their genetic predispositions. Journal ofBusiness Venturing, 30(3), 407–419. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusvent.2014.04.001
Sohrabi, S., Gherekhloo, J., Kamkar, B., Ghanbari, A., & Mohassel, M. H. R. (2016). The
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Van Gelderen, M., Brand, M., Van Praag, M., Bodewes, W., Poutsma, E., & Van Gils, A.
(2008). Explaining entrepreneurial intentions by means of the theory of planned
behaviour. Career Development International, 13(6), 538–559.
https://doi.org/10.1108/13620430810901688
Zaidi, I. H., & Mohsin, M. N. (2013). Locus of control in graduation students. International
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Zapkau, F. B., Schwens, C., Steinmetz, H., & Kabst, R. (2015). Disentangling the effect ofprior entrepreneurial exposure on entrepreneurial intention. Journal of BusinessResearch, 68(3), 639–653. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2014.08.007

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Recalibrating Service-learning Program into Pure Online Activity
Jimi D. Caldea, De la Salle University, Philippines
The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2021
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Abstract
COVID19 pandemic has forced Higher Educational Institutions to recalibrate their syllabus
into online learning. As De la Salle University (DLSU) prepares for online education, theCenter for Social Concern and Action-Service Learning Program also must recalibrate its
processes. To continuously remain relevant to society and its partner communities’ needs, it
pursues its Lasallian Mission and, at the same time, effectively carries out its educational
work. Relative to this challenge, service-learning, regarded to have effectively brought social
awareness and empathy to students that substantially develop the Lasallian core values offaith, service, and communion, deepening their resolve to contribute a life-changing action to
the plight of the poor and marginalized, must be conducted online, as well. While
apprehensions to E-Service-Learning were due to its being new to DLSU, literature showsthat it can be successfully done and can still deliver the traditional service-learning
objectives. The “Type IV Extreme E-Service-Learning: Instruction and Service 100%
Online”, identified by Waldner and colleagues, has been considered through an extensive
literature review. This paper presents the recalibrated service-learning processes to match thepure online education setup of DLSU. Employing L.T. Burns’ modules of the servicelearning program (preparation, action, reflection, and evaluation), I detailed the ESL process
flow and its corresponding work instructions for both students and faculty. It carefully
embedded the Lasallian Reflection Framework and Kolb’s model for experiential learning.
ESL successfully emerged in its consistency to deliver student learning, project effectiveness,
efficiency, Lasallian values, and program management.
Keywords: eService-learning, Lasallian Reflection Framework, De La Salle University

iafor
The International Academic Forumwww.iafor.org

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Introduction
On 27 August 2020, a Help Desk Announcement from the De La Salle University,
Office of the Vice-Chancellor for Academics, addressed to the Academic Community, said:“In line with government pronouncements regarding no in-person classes before January
2021, course offerings have three types: A. pure online (no in-person classes at all); B. hybrid(with in-person classes in one week); and C. predominantly in-person (eight days of in-personclasses in two non-consecutive weeks)…. in-person deployment in external establishments
shall remain suspended. Departments are urged to continue using online modes for suchactivities.”
As DLSU is set to proceed with its response to face-face education restrictions brought about
by the COVID19 pandemic, the Center for Social Concern and Action-Service Learning
Program (COSCA-SLP) has also recalibrated its processes. To remain relevant to society andits partner communities’ needs, COSCA-SLP pursues its Lasallian Mission and, at the sametime, effectively carries out its educational work (DLSP, 2009). With a firm belief that
service-learning effectively brought social awareness and empathy to students that
substantially develop the Lasallian core values of faith, service, and communion, deepening
their resolve to contribute a life-changing action to the plight of the poor and marginalized,
COSCA-SLP persists in learning and adapts to the “new normal”.
Service-learning, being a practical application of classroom knowledge and learning achievedby assigning students to work on community-based projects, is an effective teaching style
fostering interactive learning by integrating classroom activities into communities (Helms etal., 2015). Therefore, service learning’s presence in academics can enhance students’
academics, professional readiness, social orientation, community involvement, andcommitment to serving the community (Fiebig, 2014).
At the onset, COSCA-SLP apprehensively asked how it can continue service-learning in thistime of pandemic? How can it serve and learn when community visits are restricted? And if
ESL will continue to help respond or reach out to the poor and the marginalized? The EService-Learning (L. Waldner et al., 2010) was COSCA-SLP’s proposed replacement to its
traditional service-learning processes.
ESL, being a new framework and never been deployed in DLSU, was very positive andencouraging but very challenging, i.e., considering the course design and implementation
schedule and partner communities’ readiness in communication hardware and software.
These are critical to the success of online or e-service projects and student learning (Helms etal., 2015). ESL comes with the primary consideration that it must carefully adapt its
traditional SL foundation, the LRF, and its adapted SL definition. LRF serves as a guide for
all Lasallian formation and action programs, projects, and activities (Galgo, 2017); and theadapted SL definition, as course-based, reflective, reciprocal in partnership, and civic
education, where students serve to learn and learn to serve (Bringle & Hatcher, 1995).
Studies have established SL’s applicability in online courses in terms of project completion,client satisfaction, student satisfaction, interaction, and skill-building of the traditionalclassroom (Helms et al., 2015; L. Waldner et al., 2010). Accordingly, DLSU-SLP hasmodeled its strategies for implementing service-learning on the “extreme e-service-learning”
type of ESL, where both the course and service are conducted online (L. S. Waldner et al.,2012).

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Thus, the need to recalibrate the current syllabus to pure online activity must carefully
consider the new SL processes. It must adopt the learning activities and outcomes, active
learning and assignments, communication among SL stakeholders, active and collaborativeeducation, and reflection activities (Hathaway, 2013). Vibrant online collaborations anddiscussions among ESL stakeholders are the critical factors for its success (Shea & Pickett,2005), including interaction with content, collaboration, conversation, intrapersonal
interaction, and performance support (Northrup, 2002). Accordingly, COSCA-SLP embarked
on various preparatory activities to guarantee all necessary SL elements are in place in pureonline mode.
Although ESL in the United States has been in place for several years due to “onlinelearning” (L. Waldner et al., 2010a), DLSU’s adaption of ESL is not due to the demand foronline-learning but due to the conventional way or “face-to-face” restrictions to SL program.
In the Philippines, though we have some “distance learning” called “Open University
Program” in the Higher Educational Institutions that limits “face-to-face” contacts between
the faculty and the students, this, however, is not that patronized by Filipino students thatwould demand the conduct of ESL (Arimbuyutan et al., 2007).
ESL is encouraging because it can still deliver the expected outcomes; however,communication through the internet is acknowledged and is a big challenge in an online
classroom. Thus, meticulous preparation and comprehensive organizing of every online
course area in advance are vital (Bangert, 2018).
The process of creating the ESL comes with the primary consideration that it must carefully
adapt the traditional Service-Learning foundations: the Lasallian Reflection Framework andthe Kolb Model of Experiential Learning. Through extensive literature review, one of theemerging types of e-service-learning endeavors, the “Type IV (Extreme) E-Service-Learning:
Instruction and Service 100% Online” (L. Waldner et al., 2010b), was deemed to be the newprocess flow. ESL process flow includes the list of activities and their corresponding
requirements and work instructions for all stakeholders. It ensures to suit DLSU academic
online activities. It was then presented to the College of Business, Management andOrganization Department, who handles the Corporate Social Responsibility and Governance
Course for their comments, suggestions, and eventually integration in their pure online course
syllabus.
This paper employs Burns’ modules of the service-learning program (preparation, action,reflection, and evaluation) (Burns, 1998) and the Lasallian Reflection Framework (LRF) thatserves as a guide for all Lasallian formation and action programs, projects, and activities(Galgo, 2017) for recalibrating to ESL modality. This paper also faithfully framed its
processes to Kolb’s experiential learning model (McLeod, 2017). I detail the process flow
and all its corresponding work instructions for both students and faculty. I then present the
ESL students’ online evaluation process and results. ESL emerged successfully in its
consistency to deliver student learning, project effectiveness, and efficiency, Lasallian
values, program management.
LRF and Kolb’s Model of Experiential Learning“E”-Service-Learning” or “Electronic” or “Online”-Service-Learning is the type of ServiceLearning being adapted starting Terms 3, AY 2019-2020 at DLSU. ESL is just the result of

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the intersection of traditional service-learning and online learning (L. S. Waldner et al.,2012).
DLSU ESL process flow is literature-based and a best practice-based process. Although there
were identified challenges and limitations as reported by authors, this, however, has emerged
successful in delivering the expected outcomes of the traditional service-learning in terms ofstudent SL project output completion, partner communities and student satisfaction,interaction among stakeholders, and skills building, ESL is doable online (L. Waldner et al.,2010).
Authors have recommended that online courses assist SL that transforms learning while
fostering civic engagement (Rutti et al., 2016). When deploying SL in online courses, faculty
are encouraged to start with a small project, provide guidance for students, make strategies tocontact partner organizations (PO), be ready for sudden outcomes, and have a reflection as an
essential part of ESL activities (Strait & Sauer, 2004).
Bearing in mind the ESL best practices, the Lasallian formation component, which is one of
the DLSU-SLP components, must be likewise observed throughout the ESL processes. The
LRF, which is the pillar of any Lasallian formation in DLSU, is considerably embedded in
the ESL process flow. It has likewise emphasized the meaning of why LRF is in a circular
movement, i.e., from awareness building, analysis, and planning to a life-changing
deployment of actions, which is supposed to repeatedly operate up to the accomplishment of
the established objectives of community development intervention.
The LRF is embedded in the Service-Learning Process Flow, primarily because it is anchoredto DLSU’s core values of Faith, Zeal of Service, and Communion in Mission. It serves as a
guide for all Lasallian formation and action initiatives, programs, projects, and activities. The
Context of DLSU Service-Learning is deeply rooted in the Principles of Lasallian Educationin the Philippines and on the Principles of Lasallian Social Development, which, in summary,are all manifested in the Five Core Principles of Lasallian Schools, i.e., on the faith in thepresence of God, Concern for the Poor and Social Justice, Respect for All Persons, Quality
Education, and Inclusive Community. It is why the LRF is a must and non-negotiable in theService-Learning Process.
Another foundation of DLSU service-learning is Kolb’s model of experiential learning. It is
typically represented by a four-stage learning cycle in which the learner must undergo toachieve the learning, i.e., (1) Having A Concrete Experience where a new experience orsituation is encountered, followed by (2) Observation of And Reflection on that experience
which leads to (3) the Formation of Abstract Concepts or new idea which the person haslearned from their experience, which is then (4) used to test a hypothesis or Active
Experimentation where the learner applies their ideas to the world around them to see what
happens (McLeod, 2017). Learning here is an integrated process, with each stage being
mutually supportive of and feeding into the next. Effective learning only occurs when alearner executes all four stages of the model, i.e., no one stage of the cycle is effective as alearning procedure on its own (McLeod, 2017).
Creating DLSU ESL comes with the primary consideration that it must carefully adapt thetraditional Service-Learning foundations: the Lasallian Reflection Framework and the Kolb
Model of Experiential Learning.

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Before presenting the ESL process flow, the following are the traditional or face-to-faceservice-learning processes. The first stage is the “see and experience” or “masid-danas”
activity; the students go through community orientation through community tour anddialogue with the community’s people. It is crucial because the students can never effectively
proceed to the next stage if this is not undergone. In the second stage, in the “analysis andreflection” or “suri-nilay” activity, the students cognitively understand the context of thecommunity’s culture, environment, and problem crucial for their project proposal and forsuch to be impactful and life-changing. The third stage is the “commitment and action” or“taya-kilos” activity; the students implement and turnover their SL projects.
ESL Process Flow
Following the traditional service-learning process flow, the below table is the DLSU-ESL
process flow.
PhasesActivities

1.
Preparator 1.
SL facultyy Phasefamiliarization of eS-L
throughorientation
2.
Identify
standard
onlinetechnologies/platfor
ms to be used
3.
Assessmentofpartner
communities’
capacity for e-S-L
and select partnerthat is open to online
engagement
4.
Identificationof ESL Partner
Communities
5.
Training ofpartner communities
for ESL6.
Pre-testingthetechnology
before live sessions
2.
Orientatio 1.
Servicen Phase
Learning
Class
Orientation
using(See-Experience)
SynchronousandAsynchronous tools
a)
AVP
of
eService-Learning;andb)
AVP of the

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Work Instructions
1.
SLP orients the Academic departments
about ESL;2.
SLP Presents possible ways to carry out
SL for online courses; and3.
SLP proposes ESL process for T3, AY
2019-2020
1.
COSCA
Partners
NetworkandDevelopment Program (PNDP) prepares Partner
Community’s readiness to engage SLP throughan online setting

1.
SLP sends faculty, (1) the ESL, and (2)the Partner Community Orientation Videos;2.
Faculty will share these videos with theclass;
3.
ESL Project ideas will be crafted by
students based on these videos; and4.
Students will submit proposals to thefaculty for review and to SLP for evaluation andthen sharing with the class assigned PO’s

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Partner Community

3.
Service
Proper Phase(AnalysisReflection)

4.
Post
Service Phase(CommitmentAction)

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approval.

2.
ESL Project 1.
Students create ESL project plan using the
Identification
and “ESL Project Proposal Form” to be submitted to
Planning
faculty and SLP; and2.
SLPstakeholders
keep
their
communication line open for possible ESL
Project-related questions and consultations
1.
ESL Project 1.
Faculty shares with SLP updates ofUpdateReporting students’ ESL projects, who, in turn, forwards theand Feed Backing
same to the class’ PC for comments;
2.
Updating can be done asynchronously. It
can be prerecorded; and3.
SLP can send questions electronically
before the updating activity for the groups toanswer.
2.
ESL
1.
Faculty shares GDrive with SLP theExperiencegroups’ ESL Experience PowerPoint Presentation
Presentation
andGroup Reflection
1.
Submission
1.
Faculty shares the google drive with SLPof ESL Project the groups’ ESL Final Project Output and
Outputsand Individual Reflection Papers/Journals;
Reflection
2.
With the asynchronous setup, it is vital toPapers/Journals
establish deadlines, i.e., in agreement with the PO
for submission of the final ESL outputs; and3.
Students are provided with reflection
prompts that related to academic enhancement,
personal development, and Lasallian core values
formation.
2.
Administrati 1.
SLP shares with faculty the link of ESL
onof
Online evaluation google form for students to
Evaluationon accomplish; andStudents’2.
SLP discusses evaluation results andSatisfaction on ESL integrates them into the next academic term’s
processes.
3.
Facilitate
3.
A careful evaluation in assessing the
Project Turnover
quality of the completed ESL project should bedone before turning them over to Pos; and4.
SLP shares with PNDP the students’ ESL
outputs for turnover to class’ PO
Table 1. DLSU-ESL Process Flow

It has four phases, the same as DLSU traditional SL. As illustrated, recalibrating the servicelearning to the pure online course requires COSCA-SLP to prudently prepare and plot allschedules of the course delivery of topics, SL activities, and deliverables’ compliance, andPO availability and readiness to engage SL online. Online platforms for communication must
be somehow traditional and user-friendly for all stakeholders, especially for the PO.
Everyone agreed and are comfortable with Gmail, Gmeet, Messenger, Viber, and Zoom
Apps. Aside from capacity-building activity for the online setup to prepare some of the POs,

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connectivity support and devices were also extended. Like the traditional conduct of SL, thepreparatory phase is foremost to the success of SL.
ESL
The Orientation Phase (Masid-Danas1 Activity)
Generally, using synchronous and asynchronous tools, students are introduced to the SL’s
theoretical backgrounds, Lasallian contexts, definition and elements, process flow, and the
LRF through the prerecorded orientation video provided by COSCA-SLP. Another video isthe class’s assigned PO. It is where students are virtually immersed and exposed to theirassigned PO through a center orientation and community tour. The students, grouped into 5-8
students, virtually see and experience their PO’s mission-vision, programs, services, andneeds from this orientation video. These two videos are crucial because students can nevereffectively proceed to the next stage of the LRF if this is not undertaken. Directly borne outof these materials, they will create and present their ESL project proposal to evaluate andapprove the faculty, SLP, and the PO.
Relative to the ESL project proposal, the following are the suggested information needed:each group is expected to articulate the brief background of the PO; their identified need andits context or the surrounding circumstances that cause the problem for the PO; ESL project
proposal itself, i.e., aligned, and responsive to the identified need. Students must specificallydevelop a unique project name, description, objectives, set of activities, deliverables, and theitemized needed budget; the PO sector, students, wish to be their direct beneficiaries(community parents, elderly, women, kids, or the PO itself). They also must identify the
expected changes in their ESL projects to the PO; and the desired learning outcomes for themin terms of attitude, skills, knowledge, and values development.
The Service Proper Phase (Suri-Nilay2 Activity)
After the proposal stage, students work immediately on their approved ESL projects.
Students’ activity includes understanding the context of the community’s culture,environment, and problem cognitively, crucial for their ESL project preparations. It can maketheir ESL project more impactful and life-changing. During this time, constantcommunication and coordination among ESL stakeholders are playing a big part. It isessential along the way so that students’ projects can be done correctly.
Before the ESL projects’ turnover, each group would present their ESL project’s final output
and their whole ESL experience, from identifying needs to the group’s preparations (in termsof challenges, learnings, and recommendations). They reflect on such experience and direct
their attention to ESL’s relation and relevance with their academic formation. Another aspectof the reflection activity is for students to share their personal development and the Lasallian
values vis-à-vis the Lasallian core values of faith, service, and communion, they believe wereenhanced.

1

The commonly used name Lasallians would call the first stage of the LRF. It is the Filipino translation of the“See-Experience” words.
2
The commonly used name Lasallians would call the second stage of the LRF. It is the Filipino translation of
the “Analysis-Reflection” words.

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The Post Service Phase (Taya-Kilos3 Activity)
The last stage or activity of the LRF is the students’ implementation and turnover of their
ESL projects to the PO. The faculty collates all ESL final project outputs and students’ ESL
reflection journals and shares them with CSCA-SLP, who turnovers the final projects to eachclass’s assigned PO via Emails, for some information and educational materials, and via
courier services, for the collated goods and supplies.
A week before the end of the academic term, students and faculty are requested to accomplish
the online ESL Activity Evaluation Forms via Google Forms. SLP then collates and discusses
the evaluation results and considers some of them for integration to the next academic term’s
ESL processes.
The last stage of the LRF emphasized that students should still be mindful of their PO now
that their ESL project has been turned over already. It is stressed that Taya-Kilos is anotherform of Madid-Danas that can further explain or show the PO’s realities and problems foranother round of service activity and implementation strategy. Although it is no longer part ofthe class requirement, they are encouraged to be observant still of their PO’s needs assuggested by the LRF’s nature to continuously improve its social engagements until the PO’s
identified needs are fully addressed. We call the complete process of the cycle ofimprovement (Cole, 2016), where they determine the first ESL approach based on their
Masid-Danas, deploy their activity, evaluate and look for some learnings. Then they integrate
those learnings and recalibrate their original approach. It goes on and on up to the time PO’sneeds are entirely addressed.
Usually, ESL concludes in an ESL experience presentation and group reflection sharing thatcan be done either synchronously with COSCA-SLP and the PO via Zoom Meeting or
asynchronously via a prerecorded presentation. It is one of the significant components of thetotal grades of the students. The reflection aspect is essential to deem the ESL experience notfutile. Reflection activity is the only way that can make ESL enriching and meaningful.
Through reflection, students gain a deeper understanding of course content, a broader
appreciation of their discipline, and an enhanced sense of civic responsibility.
The reflection can extend learning beyond the online classroom. Service learning helps foster
the development of a sense of caring for others. It is also a means by which colleges anduniversities can promote the civic engagement of students. The reflection process allows
students to assess their service-learning achievements and determine their contributions to thecommunity and beyond (Helms et al., 2015).
ESL Evaluation Process
Students’ ESL performances are evaluated based on the ESL activities, i.e., the ESL project
proposal submission, project preparation, coordination with the PO, final output presentation
submission, and reflection journal submission. The faculty assess preparation activity basedon students’ eagerness towards the project, contributions, cooperation, coordination,communication, and documentation. It makes sure that everyone in the class is equallyparticipating in their ESL activity.
3

The commonly used name Lasallians would call the third stage of the LRF. It is the Filipino translation of the“Commitment-Action” words.

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The ESL program itself is also subjected to stakeholders’ evaluation in its consistency indelivering student learning, project effectiveness and efficiency, Lasallian values, andprogram management. It is performed online, through google form, towards the end of theacademic term, adapting the 4-point Likert-scale evaluation process, with scores ranging
from 1 (strongly disagree) to 4 (strongly agree).
ESL Evaluation Result
The student ESL online evaluation results had 55% of students under the Corporate Social
Responsibility and Governance Course for Term 1, AY 2020-2021. Based on the students’honest opinion, using the Likert scale, if they “Strongly Agree” to “Strongly Disagree” withthe statement. Generally, students “Strongly Agree” on the ESL evaluation relative to thefollowing questions on Student Learning: 75% said that the e-SL is relevant to the course
they are taking; 71% were able to see and understand the situation of the community/partnerorganization virtually; 73% were able to analyze and reflect on the symptoms and causes of
the community issue/problem being addressed; 76% said the online project activity with thecommunity/organization they did were appropriate and relevant to their own needs; 64% said
that they had proper and smooth coordination, communication, and cooperation with therepresentatives of the partner organization; 63% were able to implement their e-SL projectwith minimal technical/connectivity problem; 80% said that their class/group received clear,
relevant, and immediate communication from our Faculty in-charge for class online projectrelated concerns; and 75% said that they are happy and satisfied with their overall e-SL
experience.
Relative to the most important lessons students learned from ESL, where they were asked tomark at least three choices that apply to them, the following were the three choices that havethe highest marks: 83.6% marked on the “Understanding of Social Issues”; 75.8% marked on
the “Collaboration and Teamwork”; and 65.5% marked on Civic responsibility.
Relative to the most significant challenges they faced in their ESL experience, where they
were again asked to mark two choices that apply, the following were the three choices thathave the highest marks: 62.4% on the “Technological gaps/challenges”; 55.8% on the“Internet Connectivity”; and 48.8% on the “Limited Engagement.”Three open-ended questions were also asked from the students. The following are some ofthe highlights written in the Google Form: on how they were able to overcome challenges:“making sure to communicate well with my constituents to provide excellent output” and“committing to the whole process of the ESL project”; on what are the impact/benefits of their
ESL to the Partner Organization: “improved education opportunities” and “the kids (in thecommunity) became more knowledgeable about what COVID19 is, and they will practiceproper hygiene and sanitation during this time of pandemic”; and on their recommendations
on how to improve ESL in the future: “maybe make sure that each student group’s project is
not overlapping so that there will be a wide variety on the output for the partner
communities” and ”to broaden the range of possible partner organizations. Students can help
because there are many social issues the students are actively concerned with.”
Generally, I can say that students not only were able “to link theory to practice, which
deepens their understanding of course materials, they also enhanced their sense of civic
responsibility. The recalibrated Service-Learning Program designed to match the pure online
educational setup of DLSU has established itself to deliver the expected outcomes

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continuously. It has continued to reach out and extend various projects to our Partner
Organizations. ESL Student Online Evaluation results validated ESL; thus, it is deemed
effective and worth continuing as an option when education returns to its normal operation.
Conclusions
The blessings of ESL projects are undeniable among its stakeholders: students, faculty, theDLSU, and the POs. Though ESL is new to DLSU and apprehensions are unavoidable, the
COVID19 pandemic, ESL processes itself, and its known challenges did not prevent
COSCA-SLP from continuing its Lasallian mission and educational work. SLP took thesechallenges as enablers to further its resolve to be of service to the students and theiracademic, social, and values formation, and, more so, to the greater communities.
ESL-the marriage of online learning and service-learning (L. Waldner et al., 2010) appeared
to be continually reciprocal among its stakeholders in terms of their respective expected
outcomes: the students get to be service-driven and steeped in community service; the faculty
gets to be socially engaged, the University becomes more socially responsible; and the POs
get to be more empowered.
Though ESL was successful for DLSU, it also shared the same limitations and challenges
experienced by other foreign universities. These, however, are all noted and extensively
considered for integrations in our ESL processes, along with our efforts for continuous
quality improvement.
DLSU will continue to increase its capacity to ensure effective and meaningful ESL program
deliveries vis-à-vis training of faculty, POs, and even students. Bearing in mind theimportance of collating all ESL experience learnings to develop ESL pedagogy in the pureonline course, ESL’s success will remain.

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References
Arimbuyutan, R., Kim, S., Song, J.-G., & So, W. (2007). A Study on e-Learning for
Philippines. International Journal of Multimedia and Ubiquitous Engineering.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/229052306_A_Study_on_eLearning_for_Philippines
Bangert, A. W. (2018). The Seven Principles of Good Practice : A framework for evaluating
on- line teaching The Seven Principles of Good Practice : A framework for evaluating
online teaching. July 2004. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iheduc.2004.06.003
Bringle, R. G., & Hatcher, J. a. (1995). A service-learning curriculum for faculty. Michigan
Journal of Community Service Learning.
Burns, L. T. (1998). Make sure it’s service learning, not just community service. Education
Digest, 64(2), 38–41.
Cole, R. E. (2016). From Continuous Improvement to Continuous Innovation. February.
https://doi.org/10.1080/09544120200000001
DLSP. (2009). Guiding Principles for the Philippine Lasallian Family (2nd ed.). La Salle
Provinciate.
Fiebig, J. N. (2014). Learning Through Service : Developing an Intergenerational Project toEngage Students. 676–685. https://doi.org/10.1080/03601277.2013.873295
Galgo, A. B. (2017). The Lasallian Reflection Framework (LRF). 1–4.
Hathaway, K. L. (2013). An application of the seven principles of good practice to online
courses. Research in Higher Education Journal, 22, 1–12.
Helms, M. M., Rutti, R. M., Hervani, A. A., LaBonte, J., & Sarkarat, S. (2015).
Implementing and Evaluating Online Service Learning Projects. Journal of Educationfor Business, 90(7), 369–378. https://doi.org/10.1080/08832323.2015.1074150
McLeod, S. (2017). Kolb’s s learning styles and experiential learning cycle.
SimplyPsychology, 1–8. https://www.simplypsychology.org/learning-kolb.html
Northrup, P. T. (2002). Online learners’ preferences for interaction. The Quarterly Review
of Distance Education. 3.
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Rutti, R. M., LaBonte, J., Helms, M., Hervani, A., & Sarkarat, S. (2016). No The servicelearning projects: stakeholder benefits and potential class topics title. Education andTraining 58(4):422-438. https://doi.org/10.1108/ET-06-2015-0050

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Strait, J., & Sauer, T. (2004). Constructing Experiential Learning for Online Courses: The
Birth of E-Service. EDUCAUSE QUARTERLY. 27(1):62-65.
http://explore.bl.uk/primo_library/libweb/action/display.do?tabs=detailsTab&gathStat
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CRN145852973
Waldner, L., McGorry, S., & Widener, M. (2010a). Extreme e-service learning (XE-SL): Eservice learning in the 100% online course. Journal of Online Learning and Teaching,
6(4), 839.
Waldner, L., McGorry, S., & Widener, M. (2010b). Extreme e-service learning (XE-SL): Eservice learning in the 100% online course. Journal of Online Learning and Teaching.
Waldner, L. S., Mcgorry, S. Y., & Widener, M. C. (2012). E-Service-Learning: The
Evolution of Service-Learning to Engage a Growing Online Student Population.
Journal of Higher Education Outreach and Engagement, 16(2), 123–150.

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Investigate the Difficulties of Indonesian Learner During Electronic Portfolio
Rezza Dewintha, Poltekkes Kemenkes Pontianak, Indonesia
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Abstract
Normal learning stopped, project delayed, school shut down. The universe seemed to have ahalt because of Novel Coronavirus. On the other hand, students must continue their education
through online learning which was currently the best alternative as keeping schools opened but
safe for them. This study aimed to investigate how electronic portfolio as part of ICT tools
could be used to facilitate course during Covid-19. It concerned with researcher’s own teachingexperiences due to the growing demand for lecturers’ competence to integrate technology tosupport students’ learning. It was applied for one semester through CAR. This research drewon ethnographic case study. In generating data, the researcher applied some methods, involved
questionnaires, interviews, teacher’s teaching journal, and an analysis on online portfolio
entries. The research results showed that the online course during pandemic was good 52,4%;
Course timing was somewhat convenient 39,5%; the course materials was very useful 54,8%;
lecturer or instructor’s explanation was very clear 43,8%; lecture or instructor’s speed was theright amount 78,6%; the ability in answering students’ questions was very well 51,9%; andstudents’ voicing their opinion was very comfortable 43,3%. Therefore, it could stimulate
students to reflect on their experiences; also serves as the main key in providing information
on student learning progress; and they can still be active in informing the progress of theassignment, can receive feedback, and plan self-competency development based on the analysis
that has been made previously.
Keywords: Indonesian Learner, E-portfolio, Course during Pandemic

iafor
The International Academic Forumwww.iafor.org

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Introduction
Novel Coronavirus made a big change in every single factor in our life - education system too.
Since it happened, education sector is prepared to face teaching learning process. Then try tofind the best and safe method, to keep the school open moreover keep the students away fromthat virus. The higher education and university in Indonesia prepare a learning system which
fully support by the use of Information and Communication Technology (ICT). It could be aleading method to support teaching learning during pandemic.
Indonesia's diversity is the next challenge that must be faced by education units. Its vastterritory, separated by the ocean, again the areas that are in the vicinity of dense forests be achallenge for this country. Problem arises during applying the e-portfolio such as technicalproblems, difficulty connecting to the internet, lack of suitably located computer and various
shades of personal reaction to computer use1. The internet availability which can serve as asource of thousand materials, it could be a dream for some regions. The lack of investment andalso some problems faced when laying the necessary submarine cables due to Indonesia’s
geography as an archipelago. Those are not easy to be solved.
Now, look what happened, even with unequal conditions, the education unit must struggle tokeep the quality and competitiveness of institutions stable. Especially for vocational
institutions, for example Health Polytechnic, which must maintain the qualifications ofstudents, so that they remain skilled and professional in providing health services to the public.
Therefore, to keep this matter on track, lecturers must apply careful and detailed assessments.
So that it can measure the success of learning and also become a control function for students.
We believe that the use of electronic portfolios has been increasing rapidly especially inuniversities lately. In its application in the classroom, lecturers can design and develop learningand assessment activities. Lecturers can adjust the curriculum according to student needs whilelearning during the pandemic. Creating innovative learning activities while promoting
measurable assessments at the end of each lesson. From here, lecturers can see thedevelopments and obstacles that students have. This is a teaching and learning support for
students. Because from the electronic portfolio, lecturers can classify students who can learnwell, and those who experience obstacles.
Basically, the electronic portfolio is an appropriate home for such experimentation, for suchnew texts, and certainly for new exploration and understanding2. By applying it in learning cancreate disciplinary expertise and professional development which will create students who are
more skilled and professional according to the cognitive level that has been designed at the
beginning of learning. With its massive used in learning during pandemic, it will direct learning
towards educational leadership. Formerly it has been artistic compilations of documents forpresentations, but recently covered the collection, management and presentation of a far greater
diversity of material for increasing array or professions3. Long distances are an obstacle inlearning so that it can influence the lesson plan. The lectures have to change their teaching
1

Dornan, T., Carroll, C., & Parboosingh, J. (2002). An electronic learning portfolio for reflective continuing
professional development. Medical Education, 36(8), 767–769. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2923.2002.01278.x
2
Yancey, K. B. (1996). The electronic portfolio: Shifting paradigms. Computers and Composition, 13(2), 259–
262. doi:10.1016/s8755-4615(96)90014-6
3
Tochel, C., Haig, A., Hesketh, A., Cadzow, A., Beggs, K., Colthart, I., & Peacock, H. (2009). The
effectiveness of portfolios for post-graduate assessment and education: BEME Guide No 12. Medical Teacher,31(4), 299–318. doi:10.1080/01421590902883056

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approach to obtain student’s best results or let say change it to make them happy. There werea lot of training attended by lecturers in order to maximize and elaborate teaching strategies
and approach which will be treated in her/his class.
The number of students is not small, different learning attitudes and habits will affect thelearning process. Then it will give impact on learning outcomes. Therefore, electronic
portfolio’s function of being able to compile student work results in a sequence will make iteasier for lecturers to understand how students learn, at least be able to improve teaching
techniques based on the results of portfolios filled in by students. It allows for authentic
formative evaluation by providing students with the opportunity to learn while being evaluated4.
Authentic means real, valid, and reliable. Authentic assessment covers marking, measurement,
testing and evaluation of three (3) aspects, namely attitudes, skills, and knowledge. It has astrong relevance to a scientific approach in learning, because it is able to describe an increasein student learning outcomes, both in the context of observing, reasoning, trying and building
networks. Of course, it allows for the evaluation to be structured and criterion-based5. Again,
it focuses on difficult and contextual assignments, so that students can demonstrate theircompetence. Assessment with an electronic portfolio, considers student involvement as thesignificance. It can be assumed that students will perform better learning activities when theyknow how they will be assessed. It is in line with the its aim which often as an instrument withwhich to stimulate students to reflect on their experience6. Based on the explanation given, thepurpose of this study is how the electronic portfolio facilitate course during pandemic.
This study was conducted on a health campus with vocational education background.
Electronic evaluation portfolios may play a role in learning and evaluation in clinical settingsand may complement other traditional evaluation methods 7. The health education provided to
students requires a big effort, especially in pandemic situation like this. The distribution ofsubjects dominated by practical activities rather than theory presents its own challenges. This
makes lecturers and students work harder than usual. Interestingly, this assessment model
recapitulates history of individual experiences and performance colored by personal
interpretation8, simple and easy to use9. But concerns still arise among students who have directcontact with humans as their patients. For example, students in nursing, dental hygiene, andmidwifery. Detailed practical learning is hampered by the prevailing regulations, about notallowing face-to-face lectures. This forces lecturers to work more innovatively by utilizing all
media that can optimize learning. Such as self-recording which will then be uploaded on
YouTube, making it easier for students to watch recordings over and over again. In addition,
several lecturers made limited meeting schedules with several students in the laboratory. These
4

Des Marchais, J. E., & Vu, N. V. (1996). Developing and evaluating the student assessment system in the
preclinical problem-based curriculum at Sherbrooke. Academic Medicine, 71(3), 274–83.
doi:10.1097/00001888-199603000-00021
5
Tiwari A, Tang C: From Process to Outcome: The Effect of Portfolio Assessment on Student Learning. Nurs
Educ Today 2003, 23:269-277
6Driessen, E. W., van Tartwijk, J., Overeem, K., Vermunt, J. D., & van der Vleuten, C. P. M. (2005).
Conditions for successful reflective use of portfolios in undergraduate medical education. Medical Education,
39(12), 1230–1235. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2929.2005.02337.x
7Duque, G., Finkelstein, A., Roberts, A., Tabatabai, D., Gold, S. L., & Winer, L. R. (2006). Learning while
evaluating: the use of an electronic evaluation portfolio in a geriatric medicine clerkship. BMC Medical
Education, 6(1). doi:10.1186/1472-6920-6-4
8
Driessen, E. (2009). Portfolio critics: Do they have a point? Medical Teacher, 31(4), 279–
281. doi:10.1080/01421590902803104
9Torras, M. E., & Mayordomo, R. (2011). Teaching presence and regulation in an electronic portfolio.
Computers in Human Behavior, 27(6), 2284–2291. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2011.07.007

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meetings are regular, but still, students who are outside the region cannot attend due to the highcost.
There were 210 participants in this study which aimed to investigate how electronic portfolio
as part of ICT tools could be used to facilitate course during Covid-19. It concerned withresearcher’s own teaching experiences due to the growing demand for lecturers’ competence
to integrate technology to support students’ learning. It was applied for one semester throughclassroom action research. This research drew on ethnographic case study. In generating data,
the researcher applied some methods, involved questionnaires, interviews, teacher’s teaching
journal, and an analysis on online portfolio entries. Besides, portfolio becomes the key
instrument that fully services learning information 10 , it also contributes to self-regulated
learning (SRL)11. Because of that, with this method student can do self-assessment. Adding aself-assessment section in the electronic portfolio assessment will enrich the data. Lecturers
can do many things from this self-assessment. Students can report on work done, feedback
received, progress made and their plans for improving competence12. From this, lectures canclassify the students base on their report made in e-portfolio entries. Then give the, more
attention and help to students who need it.
In the questionnaires, there were some questions to gain student’s learning condition during
pandemic. The researcher only took the top 3 data from it. The first question was, “Overall,
how would you rate the course during pandemic?”. There were 110 students chose “Good”, 47
students chose “Very Good”, and 21 students chose “Fair”. From this statement, students enjoy
doing lectures boldly by applying electronic portfolios. Because actually by studying at home,the concentration decreases a little, and the assignments given are often forgotten. But with theapplication of e-portfolios, students who feel that learning remains focused, they can re-accesslearning, get feedback, and of course get more attention for those who experience difficulties
than other students. Students can feel responsive transparency. In conducting the middle test
or final test, they can see the advantages and disadvantages of the project they are working on.
Everything is recorded neatly and coherently. Portfolio assessment, either formative orsummative, was the norm amongst higher quality studies13.
Second question was, “How convenient was the time that course was held?”. Student’s
response was 83 students chose “Somewhat convenient”, 60 students chose “Very convenient”,
and 35 students chose “Extremely convenient”. The results of the interview showed thatstudents felt happy because the lecturer divided the types of lectures into several methods.
Among these are Synchronous, Asynchronous and Hybrid Learning. This of course helps
alleviate student problems as they really were at the beginning. Different internet connections
make it difficult for some students to have membership to do synchronous learning
continuously at each meeting. The unstable internet made it difficult for them to join Zoom
Meeting or Google Meet. Because as we know that lectures who using the e-portfolio faced
challenges regarding access to and reliability of technology and the amount of time and effort
10

Driessen, E. (2016). Do portfolios have a future? Advances in Health Sciences Education, 22(1), 221–228.
doi:10.1007/s10459-016-9679-4
11
Van der Gulden, R., Heeneman, S., Kramer, A. W. M., Laan, R. F. J. M., Scherpbier-de Haan, N. D., &Thoonen, B. P. A. (2020). How is self-regulated learning documented in e-portfolios of trainees? A content
analysis. BMC Medical Education, 20(1). doi:10.1186/s12909-020-02114-4
12Babovič, M., Fu, R.-H., & Monrouxe, L. V. (2019). Understanding how to enhance efficacy and effectivenessof feedback via e-portfolio: a realist synthesis protocol. BMJ Open, 9(5), e029173. doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2019029173
13
Buckley, S., Coleman, J., & Khan, K. (2010). Best evidence on the educational effects of undergraduate
portfolios. The Clinical Teacher, 7(3), 187–191. doi:10.1111/j.1743-498x.2010.00364.x

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involved in the process14. Therefore, Hybrid learning is a way out. Lecturers can record thelecture, which then the link will be shared with students. So, students who cannot join directlyin lectures can access learning videos at any time.
The third question was, "How useful was the course material?". This question was designed
because there are several materials that are made simpler. So that even with the explanation via
video, students can understand and achieve the desired competence. Certain material requires
students to make video recordings related to interactions with several patients when they
practice at the health center to see their communication style. But because of the pandemic,
students can replace these patients with their family members, so that role plays are carried out
in accordance with the learning objectives.

Figure 1. Chart of course material usefulness
The upcoming questions were, “How clearly did your lecturer or instructor explain the course
material (using LMS. eg Google Classroom, Edmodo, Others?)”. There were 92 students chose“Very clearly”, 58 students chose “Somewhat clearly” and 49 students chose “Extremely
clearly. The fifth question, “was the speed with which instructor presented the course material
too fast, too slow, or about right?”. This question is related to a different internet connection,
which in the future will cause a delay to the sound that is heard. So, if the explanation is too
fast, students will have difficulty understanding it. There were 165 students chose “The rightamount”, 29 students chose “too fast”, and the other 13 students chose “Much too fast”. In
connection with the previous question, “How well did your instructor answer student’s
questions?”. The response to this question can describe how the situation during the lecture
took place, whether the interaction occurred well between the lecture and students or not. The
activeness of asking students is also a benchmark for whether they pay attention to lectures,and whether the method of delivering the material works well. The response given was,109
students chose “very well”, 54 students chose “Extremely well”, and 41 students chose“Somewhat well”. A variety of purposes have been associated with the use of portfolios inteacher education, including a) documenting students’ work; b) providing opportunities forreflection; c) developing student understanding of relevant competency levels15.

14

Wetzel, K., & Strudler, N. (2006). Costs and benefits of electronic portfolios in teacher education: Student
voices. Journal of Computing in Teacher Education, 22(3), 99– 108.
15
Darling-Hammond, L. (2006). Powerful teacher education: Lessons from exemplary programs. San Francisco,
CA: Jossey-Bass

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The next question was, “How comfortable did you feel voicing your opinions in class?”. There
were 91 students chose “Very comfortable”, 77 students chose “Somewhat comfortable” and30 students chose “Extremely comfortable”. Feeling comfortable in the course during
pandemic also proves that learning is very friendly, which can combine teacher and studentcentered learning. Not being monotonous, or being impressed by the lecturer is everything incourse.
There were some obstacles faced by students during laboratory practice. Some argues that, “yes,I experienced some problems in practicing, starting from the tools and materials, I don’t
understand how to use it properly, and don’t understand the procedure also” (S17); “I got
many obstacles while doing a lab practice at home, inadequate facilities for example, and I
can’t understand while the lecturer teach me virtually about its steps” (M24); “It’s very hard.
Moreover, if you asked to do group practice, can you imagine how could it run well? We needto manage the other person, focus on the task, then your internet connection got trouble!”(S72); “What I hate doing a lab practice during pandemic is, you have to do 2 different tasks
in a day, but you just got once explanation from the instructors” (S116), and the last is, “Labpractice is hard, and the unstable internet connection make it harder”. Here are some
responses that are representative of the many other responses from students. This is what ishappening now, the main obstacle is the internet connection that is not stable and uneven ineach region. Besides that, the students' own ability to understand the material and explanations
given, task complexity and limitation, learners’ ability to use technology16 could be anotherobstacle arose course during pandemic.
The researcher designed the e-portfolio by herself. It was in excel format, consists of three (3)parts: students’ portfolio, self-assessment, and the guidance. Each student has to put her/his
photo on it, intended to make it easier for lecturers to recognize it. In this e-portfolio, there areseveral subsections that students must fill in. Each meeting, students must write down thelearning targets they want to achieve. This is written when they have heard the learning
objectives conveyed by the lecturer. After that, they wrote down and adjusted it to their current
condition - are they able to achieve the minimum target of learning or can even exceed thelimit? The next column is related to “What I've learned”, in this section the students write
down what they have learned at this meeting. Which will then be corrected by the lecturer, on
the teacher feedback. At this stage the lecturer writes down what needs to be added and whether
the student has succeeded in achieving learning objectives. This of course does not necessarily
rely on student opinion, but is evidenced by structured assignments and projects that are inaccordance with the material given. To measure learning achievement in accordance with the
rubric that has been set. Students will send it to Google Classroom, and then will be assessedby lecturer.

16

Oblender, T. (2002). A hybrid course model: One solution to the high online drop-out rate. Learning andLeading with Technology, 29(6), 42−46.

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Picture 2. Students’ Portfolio
Many people may doubt the use of self-assessment, because it is difficult to generalize theresults. Moreover, this is filled directly by students, who basically always want the best grades.
However, the use of self-assessment is actually very good so that students can recalculate whatthings they have done and where their shortcomings are. This method is also supported by peerreviewed on the tasks that have been done. In this table contains What should I prepare? ; Myfeeling ; My Expectation; and Score which is focused on before and after middle and final test.

Picture 3. Self-Assessment

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Lecturers must be able to create missed and fun learning. Lecturers must strive to create
learning tricks so that all learning objectives and other important things in the curriculum arewell conveyed. If we go back to contemplating our many shortcomings, we won't be able toget better. Like the availability of LMS, not all institutions have it. When an institution isdeciding which program should be used to create the electronic portfolio – cost is the overriding
factor17. But what about these limitations we can still give our best, and do our functions well
too. Therefore, creating an e-portfolio that can be accessed by anyone is a way out of all the
problems that exist on the course during the pandemic.
Conclusion
This study proved that e-portfolio can be used effectively for education and help to enhance its
quality in terms of its process and results18. The research results showed that the online course
during pandemic was good 52,4%; Course timing was somewhat convenient 39,5%; the course
materials was very useful 54,8%; lecturer or instructor’s explanation was very clear 43,8%;
lecture or instructor’s speed was the right amount 78,6%; the ability in answering students’questions was very well 51,9%; and students’ voicing their opinion was very comfortable
43,3%. Therefore, it could stimulate students to reflect on their experiences; also serves as themain key in providing information on student learning progress; and they can still be active in
informing the progress of the assignment, can receive feedback, and plan self-competency
development based on the analysis that has been made previously.
Acknowledgements
Thank you to the Politeknik Kesehatan Kemenkes Pontianak for providing the opportunity to
conduct this research and also providing financial support so that researchers can attend as
speakers at the conference.

17

Luera, G., Brunvand, S., & Marra, T. (2016). Challenges and Rewards of Implementing ePortfolios Through a
Bottom-Up Approach. International Journal of ePortfolios. Vol.6, No.2, 127-137, ISSN 2157-622X
18
Fuglík, V. (2014). Electronic Portfolio in Counselling and Guidance. Procedia - Social and Behavioral
Sciences, 159, 340–344. doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.12.384

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References
Babovič, M., Fu, R.-H., & Monrouxe, L. V. (2019). Understanding how to enhance efficacy
and effectiveness of feedback via e-portfolio: a realist synthesis protocol. BMJ Open,
9(5), e029173. doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2019-029173
Buckley, S., Coleman, J., & Khan, K. (2010). Best evidence on the educational effects ofundergraduate portfolios. The Clinical Teacher, 7(3), 187–191. doi:10.1111/j.1743498x.2010.00364.x
Darling-Hammond, L. (2006). Powerful teacher education: Lessons from exemplary
programs. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass
Des Marchais, J. E., & Vu, N. V. (1996). Developing and evaluating the student assessment
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Contact email: atapoltekkes@gmail.com

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The Influence of Soft & Hard Skills on the Graduates Competence Vocational HighSchool Students
Muhammad Kris Yuan Hidayatulloh, Universitas KH. A. Wahab Hasbullah, Indonesia
Yeyen Afista, Universitas Hasyim Asy’ari, Indonesia
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Abstract
Statistics Indonesia (BPS) released about unemployment in Indonesia in February 2020. The
highest open unemployment rate (TPT) occurred in residents with Vocational High School(SMK) graduates, reaching 8.63%, followed by Diploma I/II/III and high school (SMA) levels,
respectively 6.89% and 6.78%. This becomes very ironic because the aim of SMK is to produce
competent graduates who are ready to work in the industrial world (DUDI). Therefore, SMK
graduates are expected to have the competencies needed by DUDI. The purpose of this study
was to determine soft skills competencies, including the ability to communicate, adapt and hardskills competencies, namely technical skills such as drawing, calculating costs and others
required by the industry. This type of research is qualitative and the data collection techniqueis carried out by using questionnaires and focus group discussions with DUDI actors. Data
analysis uses Affinity diagrams (K-J method), which makes it easier to analyze data frombrainstorming. The results of this study can identify soft skill competencies: honest, thorough,able to solve, adaptable, able to work as a team, able to work under pressure while hard skill
competencies: survey, mapping, drawing, structure and construction cost estimation, andproject scheduling.
Keywords: Skills, Graduates, Competence, Vocational

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Introduction
In the current era, the industrial world has grown very rapidly. Because this requires aworkforce who is able to manage skillfully and with high knowledge. For this reason, theimportance of HR planning by an organization is to anticipate long-term losses due to the resultof workers who are not ready to face change and work demands (Benjamin, et al. , 2017).
Industrial era 4.0 all emphasizes the conditions of the digital economy, artificial intelligence(Artificial Intelligence), big data, robotic data, and others, otherwise known as disruptive
innovation. To fulfill this, the need for skilled human resources in their fields is needed,software engineering (RPL) is one of the most important parts of Industry 4.0, and the need forexperts in the field of digital technology is getting higher along with the development of thedigital and e-industry. commerce in Indonesia. Moreover, with the Internet of Things, the needfor IT personnel is very high (Ristekdikti, 2018).
Jombang is one of the cities that has become a trendsetter for young Indonesian startups, there
are 92 studio or startup companies and this number will increase with time or the developmentof the industry itself (BE-KRAF & PMK3, 2017). Vocational High School (SMK) is an
institution engaged in the field of Vocational Education and its purpose is to prepare
prospective middle class workers in the world of work, and to develop professional attitudes.
based on a survey conducted by the Central Statistics Agency (BPS) in 2018, the Open
Unemployment Rate (TPT) based on education is occupied by SMA / SMK graduates, namely
at 52.31 percent and this is very worrying, many industry players criticize the quality of thegraduates who Not ready to use, these things show that SMK is not in accordance with what is
expected by the industrial world and proves that the quality level of SMK is less relevant toindustry demands, besides not being absorbed by SMK graduates (BPS, 2018).
According to McMurchie in Agustin (2009) in the world of work not only choosing prospective
employees / workers who are smart in academic abilities (hard skills), but also must pay
attention to other skill values including honesty at work, having a high sense of responsibility,
being polite. polite in acting, disciplined, able to commit, have self-confidence, ethical, able towork together, have high creativity, communicate, and leadership (soft skills). Someone hashigh hard skills, but does not have soft skills, so the human resources that are created are not
optimal. SMK (SMK) graduates are not only required to master hard skills, but also must beable to have soft skills skills as a supporting tool for hard skills so that later they are able towork productively and with quality.
Based on the opinions of experts, the researchers used the measurement of soft skills as statedby Sharma in Wardani (2012), there are five indicators in measuring soft skills including:communication, ethics, motivation, leadership and problem solving. Meanwhile, based on the
results of interviews, the soft skills taught at school include: discipline, communication,
teamwork, critical thinking, leadership, responsibility, ethics, creative thinking,professionalism and morals.
Hard skills are a person's ability to master science and technology as well as technical skills
that have a close relationship with their field of knowledge. Hard skills are skills that aretechnical in nature, these skills are inherent and needed for certain professions, for example a
programmer is required to master techniques in programming using a certain language (Kadek,2012).

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According to the Ministry of Education and Culture (2017) competency skills (C3) taught in
Vocational High Schools with Software Engineering expertise include Software Modeling,
Database, Object-Oriented Programming, Web Programming and Mobile Devices, the latterbeing Creative Products and Entrepreneurship.
The purpose of this research is to find out the expectations of the information technology
industry and the reality of the hard skills and soft skills of software engineering SMK graduates,
to see the gap between the expectations and reality of the graduates' hard skills and soft skills
and to know which competencies are prioritized and need attention in improving the quality ofeducation in SMK .
MethodThe first thing to do is make observations at 3 state Vocational High Schools in the City of
Jombang, schools that contribute, namely SMKN 5, 11 and 12 Malang, observations are madeto obtain information about the soft skill components of RPL Department Vocational HighSchool graduates, as well as the Hardskill components that are taken. of the basic competencies
needed by the world of work in the field of information technology majoring in Software
Engineering.
Furthermore, designing a questionnaire in the form of a questionnaire grid, which is thendeveloped into items, then validated by the expert, the number of participating experts is 2
people, then the questionnaire is ready to be distributed in information technology companies
with software engineering expertise in the City of Jombang. After distributing thequestionnaire, data is obtained which is then processed and analyzed, after which a conclusion
can be drawn which is the answer to the problem formulation.
This type of research is used, namely evaluation, this research is made to answer questions andtest or prove a hypothesis. The research approach used is a quantitative approach which is thensupported by a qualitative approach. Quantitative is used in analyzing data, while qualitative isused as the basis for considering that symptoms in research are the processes used, namely
through studies on the behavior or activities of the actors who take part in it.
Result and Discussion
ResultIn table 1 is a table of the average expectations of IT companies with the soft skills ability of
SMK RPL graduates, the average reality in the competency field of SMK graduates, and thevalue of the gap that occurs between the expectations of IT companies and the reality of thecompetencies possessed by graduates. The average expectation shows the most expectedabilities, namely discipline, leadership and creative thinking, each percentage is 10.30%,
critical thinking percentage is 10.20%, communication percentage is 9.99%. for ethics andmorals each percentage was 9.89%, team cooperation the percentage was 9.78%, and for
responsibility and professionalism each had a percentage of 9.68%. Overall, the averagecompany expectation on the soft skills ability of SMK RPL graduates is 4.86, this indicatesthat the company's expectations indicate a very satisfied category. The average reality in thefield of soft skills skills of SMK RPL graduates shows that the ability to think creatively witha percentage of 12.02%, for the ability of responsibility it has a percentage of 10.87% whilemoral has a percentage of 10.30. Furthermore, namely discipline, critical thinking, ethics and

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professionalism, each of which has a percentage of 10.01%, teamwork and leadershiprespectively 9.16% and communication percentage of 8.44%. Overall the average reality in thesoft skills field of SMK RPL graduates is 3.50, this indicates that the reality in the field ofgraduates shows that the category of being satisfied has not met the expectations of thecompany which expects to be very satisfied. Communication skills show the highest GAP scorewith a score of 1.9, this shows that the level of company expectations for the capabilities ofcompany employees is very high, but it is not balanced with the reality in the field of company
employees, company employees are aware of the importance of communication skills but
employees are unable to demonstrate good communication skills, both with fellow employees
and superiors.
Tabel 1. Expectations, Realities and GAP Analysis on Soft Skills Variables

For the average reality in the field of hardt skills skills of SMK RPL graduates shows that theability of Web Programming and Mobile Devices with a percentage of 21.85%, then the abilityof Databases with a percentage of 20.87%, for Object Oriented Programming the percentage is
20.41% while Software and Creative Product Modeling and Entrepreneurship each had apercentage of 18.42%. Overall, the average reality in the hard skills field of SMK RPL
graduates is 3.50, this shows that the reality in the field of graduates shows that the categoryof being satisfied has not met the expectations of the company which expects to be verysatisfied.
In the hard skills variable, it can be seen that the ability of Creative Products andEntrepreneurship shows the highest GAP value with a value of 1.75, this shows that the levelof company expectations for the capabilities of company employees is very high, but it is notbalanced with the reality in the field of company employees, while the lowest GAP occurs in
the Web Programming and Mobile Devices indicator with a GAP value of 1.2, this shows thatthe gap in the ability of Web Programming and Mobile Devices is slight, meaning that
employees can implement the knowledge gained during schooling at SMK, this is evidenced
by the abilities that employees have. meet expectations although not 100% meet. The existenceof the GAP value on the hard skills variable indicates that the knowledge taught at SMK has
not met the criteria expected by the company, and for that vocational high schools in the future
to improve the learning system or manage knowledge of hard skills properly, so that in the
future there will be gaps in SMK graduates of the Device Engineering Department. Soft can be
minimized.

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Discussion
Based on the results of research on the soft skills variable, there are 10 indicators, these
indicators are the knowledge or abilities taught by Vocational High Schools with the field of
Software Engineering expertise, all indicators contained in the soft skills variable are thecompany's expectations of the abilities possessed by SMK graduates with the field of expertise.
Software Engineering expertise. Overall company expectations of the knowledge or soft skillsof SMK RPL graduates in the industrial world show high expectations, this is because theindustry's ability to think that success in companies is not only based on hard skills, but also
on soft skills. skills with a larger portion than the ability of hard skills.
For the reality in the field of the ten indicators of soft skills taught in Vocational High Schools
with Software Engineering expertise show satisfied competencies, this shows that SMK
graduates with Software Engineering expertise are able to implement competencies obtained
during school in SMK, the above statement is supported by research conducted by Yuminah etal. (2020) explains the results of the assessment using the Usual Criterion type with a decision
result of 55% of the employees' abilities on soft skills and 45% of their abilities are not good,the data uses an accuracy rate of 93%.
For the gap (GAP) in users of Software Engineering SMK graduates on the soft skills variable
based on the results of the research that has been done shows a low average result, this showsthat there is still a gap between expectations and perceptions of graduates, the existence of the
GAP value in the soft skills variable indicates that the knowledge taught at SMK has not met
the criteria expected by the company, and for that, vocational high schools in the future will
improve the learning system or manage soft skills knowledge properly, so that in the future thegap between SMK graduates in the Software Engineering Department can be minimized. Thisis supported by research by Nani et.al (2017) which explains that the User Assessment of
Alumni there is a low gap between expectations and perceptions of graduates such as
discipline, honesty, motivation, work ethic, ability to apply skills in work, work productivity,
problem solving, adapting to the work environment, communicating, being able to express
opinions or ideas, teamwork, social skills, being able to take advantage of information
technology, being able to self-development, openness in accepting criticism and suggestions,self-confidence. For the results of the science analysis that has been carried out, it can be seen
that, in the soft skills variable, it shows that in quadrant I the ability that IT companies reallyexpect, while the perception fulfills expectations, namely leadership abilities, it would be nicefor schools to be more able to explore and instill the spirit of leadership that graduates have. sothat in the future graduates can meet company expectations of the leadership abilities of IT
company employees who are graduates of SMK RPL. This is confirmed by research conductedby Widarto et.al. (2012) which states that the ability of the workforce needed by the industry,
namely the aspect of soft skills, including leadership skills, personality and motivation are themost dominant abilities as the main requirements needed in the industrial world. Furthermore
quadrant II, on disciplinary skills, critical thinking and creative thinking, indicators expectedby the company, and graduates are able to carry out their work or graduates are able toimplement the knowledge gained in SMK on IT companies disciplinary skills, teamwork andethics should be maintained, or even be improved again. The discipline indicators arestrengthened by the results of research by Liyas & Primadi (2017). Based on the results of thestudy, it is explained that the level of magnitude has an influence on the attributes or variablesof work discipline on the performance level of employees in the company with a percentage
value of 74.8%, because the percentage obtained is large. , then discipline deserves to be

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maintained and improved because the discipline ability of employees has a strong influence on
employee performance, so that later employees are expected to be able to show discipline
within.
Furthermore, quadrant III is an indicator that is not expected by the company, in addition tothat, the fact is that the ability of employees does not master the knowledge gained in SMK,
and also is not able to implement it in the company. Therefore, the indicators in this quadrant
should be reviewed or reconsidered, whether these indicators are improved or not, these
indicators are the ability to communicate and the ability to work together in teamwork.
Communication skills are in accordance with the research conducted by Putri & Hariawan(2015). Communication indicators in quadrant III, in his research, show the factors that do notreally matter to customers. In its implementation by the company it is normal or unsatisfactory.
There are two attributes included in quadrant III, namely communicating in the delivery of
information processes.Furthermore, quadrant IV is an indicator expected by IT companies, but
in reality in the field of graduate employees are able to implement the knowledge that has beenobtained in SMK, as for indicators of ethical ability, responsibility, professionalism and moral.
The company hopes that these abilities are not really expected by the company, but actually
the abilities possessed by employees of SMK RPL graduates are able to implement theirknowledge, therefore schools do not need to worry about the soft skills abilities of SMK
graduates, because employees already have good abilities. The evidence on ethical indicators
is in accordance with research conducted by Chandra (2011). Company ethical standards are
considered to be good mastery by employees, but in fact they consider these attributes lessimportant. Therefore, companies do not need to worry about this attribute because employees
already have a good competitive advantage. For the attributes of company ethics, employees
have mastered it well so that consistency is needed in maintaining it.
There are 5 indicators for the hard skills variable, these indicators are the knowledge or abilities
taught by SMK with the field of Software Engineering expertise, all indicators contained in thehard skills variable are the company's expectations of the abilities possessed by SMK RPL
graduates. Overall company expectations of the knowledge or hard skills of SMK RPL
graduates in the industrial world show high expectations, this is because the industry considers
hard skills as the main ability needed, but based on this research shows that the average
expectation of soft skills skills is greater. Rather than the ability of hard skills, this is supported
by Firdaus (2017) which states that the process of achieving success in the world of workrequires several factors. Academic ability is not enough. Non-academic ability is a fundamental
factor in success in the world of work. Hard skills and soft skills are a combination that must
be well integrated. Based on the results of the research for the realities of the field on the hardskills competency of SMK RPL graduates in the world of information technology industry, theten indicators of hard skills taught in Vocational High Schools with Software Engineeringexpertise show satisfied competencies, this shows that SMK graduates with Software
Engineering expertise have been able to implement competencies obtained during school in
SMK, this is confirmed by Sulistianingsih's opinion in the journal Agung Panji S, et.al (2015)
which states that mastery of high productive subjects shows that students master educational
and training materials that have been taught at school well.
Conclusion
The company hopes for the soft skills and hard skills competencies of SMK RPL graduateswith a very satisfied level of expectation and the reality in the field shows that the ability issatisfied but has not met expectations. The existence of a gap between company expectations

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and reality in the field of soft skills and hard skills of SMK RPL graduates, this occurs because
graduates do not master the knowledge and are not optimal in developing their skills. Abilities
that are prioritized are soft skills, namely leadership, whereas in hard skills there is no priority,
but schools need to pay attention to the soft skills variable, namely discipline, critical thinking
and creative thinking, while hard skills variables are databases and Web Programming andMobile Devices.

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References
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Aneka Tambang Tbk, Unit Geomin. 1 Ed. Bogor: Institut Pertanian Bogor.
Firdaus, I., 2017. Urgensi Soft Skills Dan Character Building Bagi Mahasiswa. Jurnal Tapis,
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Fitria, F. W. & Triana, D. D., 2017. Evaluasi Implementasi Standar Penilaian Pada Sekolah
Alam Bogor Berdasarkan Model Evaluasi Provus. Jurnal Evaluasi Pendidikan, 8(1).
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Penjualan (Studi Pada Tenaga Kerja Penjualan Pt. Bumiputera Wilayah Semarang)..
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Liyas, J. N. & Primadi, R., 2017. Pengaruh Disiplin Kerja Terhadap Kinerja Karyawan Pada
Bank Perkreditan Rakyat. Jurnal Lembaga Keuangan Dan Perbankan-, 2(1).
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Ristekdikti, 2018. Kreatif Dan Inovatif Diera Revolusi Industri 4.0. Jakarta: Ristekdikti.

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Rusady, F. B., 2016. Hubunganhard Skill, Softskill, Dan Pengalaman Kerja Dengankinerja
Karyawan. Yogyakarta: Universitas Sanata Dharma.
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Study on the Use of Speech Recognition Function to Practice Speaking English Using the
Voice Translator “Pocketalk”
Harumi Kashiwagi, Kobe University, JapanMin Kang, Kobe University, Japan
Kazuhiro Ohtsuki, Kobe University, Japan
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Abstract
Although some speech recognition software is highly developed, few studies have focused on
how this technology should be adapted for foreign language learners with various proficiency
levels, including Japanese students. Thus, this study explores the use of speech recognition to
support the practice of English speaking by using the voice translator “Pocketalk.” English
sentences spoken by 95 Japanese university students were identified by Pocketalk’s speech
recognition function. Afterward, a five-point Likert scale was used to measure the usefulnessof the activity with Pocketalk and the affective factors related to speaking English. The
results indicated that students tended not to distinctly pronounce the difference between the/n/ sound and the /m/ sound. In addition, when the end of the words such as “terribly” and“stooped” were not pronounced distinctly, they tended to be incorrectly recognized as“terrible” and “stupid.” Questionnaire results showed over 70% of the students expressed apositive attitude toward their interaction with Pocketalk, and over 90% of them paid more
attention to their pronunciation. Using its recognition function, we could identify how the
spoken sentences were actually recognized, which provided clues for correcting theirpronunciation. Regarding the affective factors, no significant relationship was found between
students’ responses to the usefulness of their interaction with Pocketalk and their nervousness
in speaking English or their negative feelings toward pronunciation. These results suggest apositive potential for Pocketalk’s speech recognition function regardless of their affective
factors.
Keywords: Speech Recognition, Voice Translator, Speaking Practice, Language Use

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Introduction
According to the English proficiency promotion plan for students by the Japanese Ministry of
Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (2015), comprehensive development of
the four core language skills: listening, speaking, reading, and writing is required more thanever in English education, and increasing emphasis is being placed on strengthening theability to output in English. However, it has been reported that many students feel that they
are not proficient at speaking English (Kashiwagi, Kang, & Ohtsuki, 2018). When examining
the English learning environment, students do not have much opportunity to use English
outside of English language classes; they need a practice environment where they can
become familiar with speaking English. Using speech recognition technology could be one
such way to facilitate their English-speaking practice, especially when natural opportunities
to practice are scarce.
Some speech recognition software or applications are highly developed, and they are very
accurate for native speakers; they often use their voice dictation functions to type documents
or emails. However, few studies have focused on how this technology could be adapted toforeign language learners of various proficiency levels, including Japanese students. Research
regarding to what extent foreign language learners’ speaking is accurately recognized isneeded. Further, it is also important to determine how foreign language learners perceive
speech recognition, as some learners with low English-speaking abilities may demonstrate
negative attitudes toward this technology.
Thus, this study explores the use of speech recognition to support the practice of English
speaking through the voice translator “Pocketalk” (Pocketalk Home Page, n.d.). Pocketalk isa two-way translation device that provides consistently accurate translations across 82
languages. To investigate the following research questions, we conducted an experiment inwhich English sentences spoken by Japanese university students were identified by the
speech recognition function of this translation device. Afterward, a feedback questionnaire
was administered measuring the usefulness of the activity with Pocketalk and the affective
factors related to speaking English.
1.
To what extent are the students’ spoken sentences recognized accurately, and which
words or parts of speech are not spoken accurately by the students?
2.
How do the students feel about the speech recognition function of Pocketalk topractice speaking English?
3.
Is there any significant relationship between students’ responses to the usefulness of
their interaction with Pocketalk and their nervousness in speaking English or their negative
feelings toward pronunciation?
The rest of this paper describes the existing literature and our experiment’s methodology. Itthen discusses the results, along with our conclusions, the study’s limitations, andrecommendations for additional research.
Literature Review
In recent years, speech recognition technology has evolved to enable native speakers to apply
its voice dictation function to type documents or emails. However, although speech
recognition technology has become highly developed, it is not yet sophisticated enough torecognize English speech by all levels of English language learners (Chapelle & Voss, 2016).

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According to Blake (2016), oral dictation activities in language learning can take advantageof speech recognition software, for example, through word recognition or short sentence
repetition. Further, according to McCrocklin (2016), the introduction of this technology helps
students become more autonomous in their pronunciation practice. Yoon and Zechner (2017)
proposed to combine human and automated scoring for the assessment of non-native speech,
and with advances in automatic speech recognition, more accurate feedback can be expected(O’Brien et al., 2018).
Building on the previous research reviewed above, we consider how we should adapt thistechnology to foreign language learners with various levels of proficiency, with a specificfocus on Japanese students.
ExperimentParticipantsParticipants were 95 first-year students who were learning English at a university in Japan.
They took a review quiz in their English language classes using Pocketalk, then theyanswered a post-practice questionnaire.
Procedures
We first provided students with 20 Japanese sentences and their English translations inadvance of the review quiz. The same exact sentences were used in the quiz. We instructed
them to practice speaking the English sentences without looking at the textual information.
The sentences were expressions related to “poor physical condition” and “illness and injury.”
Next, we administered the review quiz individually to each student. There were three
versions of the review quiz, and five sentences were provided in each version of the quiz.
Fifteen sentences in total among 20 sentences were used in the quiz. The sentences used ineach quiz and the number of participants taking each quiz are shown in Table 1. Students
were asked to translate the Japanese sentences into English. They orally answered eachquestion twice. The answer sentences spoken by the students were recognized by the speech
recognition function of Pocketalk. The device translated the student’s spoken English
sentence into English text through the voice-to-text translation function. Two doctoral
students who were international students checked whether the students’ recognized sentence
matched the correct given sentence. These doctoral students were not native speakers ofEnglish, however, they were highly advanced ESL (English as Second Language) speakers
who had sufficient English proficiency level to deal with international academic settings. We
calculated the percentage of correct answers based on whether the recognized sentence
matched the correct given sentence. For example, if a student missed one word in a sentence,that was not considered correct. After the quiz, a questionnaire was conducted to gather
students’ responses regarding the usefulness of the activity with Pocketalk, their nervousness
in speaking English, and their negative feelings toward pronunciation, shown in Table 2. The
values were scored using a five-point Likert scale (1= agree, 2= moderately agree, 3= neutral,
4= moderately disagree, and 5= disagree).

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Number ofparticipantsEnglish sentences
He might be depressed.
I have terribly stiff shoulders.

Percentage of
spoken sentences
recognized ascorrect answers
(%)
45
19

VersionYou grind your teeth so loudly.
31
1
My eyes are a bit irritated.
Your snoring disturbed my sleep.
I strained my back. It hurts so much.
Can you prescribe a Chinese herbal medicine?
VersionIt’s a throbbing pain.
31
2
Do you have medicine for hay fever?
She dresses neatly.
My eyes are itchy.
I want to fix my stooped shoulders.
VersionI toss and turn a lot in my sleep.
33
3
Don’t push yourself too hard.
Please give me a compress for mysprain.
Table 1: English Sentences of The Review Quiz

23
84
23
68
35
71
81
6
82
6
52
91
30

Results and Discussion
RQ1: To what extent are the students’ spoken sentences recognized accurately, andwhich words or parts of speech are not spoken accurately by the students?
First, we analyzed to what extent Pocketalk identified that the recognized spoken sentenceswere the correct given sentences by calculating the percentage of students’ spoken sentencesthat matched the correct given sentences. Table 1 shows the results of the 15 sentences thatwere provided in the three versions of the quiz. The percentages of the sentences recognized
as correct vary widely, from 6% to 91%. While four sentences among 15 were spoken
accurately by more than 80% of the students, the three sentences highlighted in yellow inTable 1 were spoken accurately by fewer than 20% of them.
Next, based on the observation of the doctoral students, we analyzed the recognized
sentences that fewer than 20% of the students answered correctly in more detail. The
sentence “I have terribly stiff shoulders” tended to be recognized as “I have terrible stiffshoulders.” The sentence “I want to fix my stooped shoulders” tended to be recognized as “Iwant to fix my stupid shoulders.” From these results, it appears that the end of the words“terribly” and “stooped” were not pronounced distinctly. Regarding the sentence “She dresses
neatly,” the students’ spoken sentences were often recognized as sentences that were moredissimilar than those for the previous three sentences, such as “She dresses me today,” “Shedresses in Italy,” or “She dresses nearly.” The results suggest that students tend not todistinctly pronounce the difference between the /n/ sound and the /m/ sound.

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Using the recognition function of Pocketalk, we could identify how the spoken sentenceswere actually recognized, which provides clues for correcting students’ pronunciation.
RQ2: How do the students feel about the speech recognition function of Pocketalk topractice speaking English?
Here, we investigated how the students felt about the speech recognition function of
Pocketalk to practice speaking English by using a post-practice questionnaire. Q1, Q2, andQ3 in Table 2 concern students’ interaction with Pocketalk, Q4 is regarding their nervousness
in using spoken English, and Q5 concerns their negative attitudes toward English
pronunciation.
Questionnaire items

Agree

Moderately
Agree

NeutralModeratelyDisagree

Q1: Pocketalk is useful
35
36
11
11
when I practice speaking(36.8%) (37.9%) (11.6%) (11.6%)
English for self-study.
Q2: Pocketalk helped me
63
26
4
pay more attention to my
2 (2.1%)(66.3%) (27.4%)(4.2%)
pronunciation.
Q3: I noticed the words
and phrases that I have
34
39
14
6 (6.3%)(35.8%) (41.1%) (14.7%)
trouble pronouncing byusing Pocketalk.
Q4: I feel nervous when I
46
33
7
use English in spoken
6 (6.3%)(48.4%) (34.7%)(7.4%)
communication.
Q5: I am not good at
35
36
11
12
(36.8%) (37.9%) (11.6%) (12.6%)
English pronunciation.
Table 2: Questionnaire Results. (n = 95)

Disagree2(2.1%)
0 (0%)
2(2.1%)
3(3.2%)
1(1.1%)

According to the results of Q1 in Table 2, a total of 71 students (74.7%) showed agreementwith Q1 (i.e., “Pocketalk is useful when I practice speaking English for self-study”), whichindicates that almost three-quarters of the students found this device useful. Further, 89
students (93.7%) showed agreement with Q2: Pocketalk helped almost all the students pay
attention to their pronunciation. Regarding Q3, 73 students (76.9%) showed agreement,
indicating that many students noticed their weak points in English pronunciation thanks to therecognized results of the device.
It is important to note that the correlation coefficient between Q1 and Q3 (rQ1Q3=0.40) in
Table 3 (addressed in the next section as part of RQ3) shows a weak relationship between
students’ responses regarding Pocketalk’s usefulness and their awareness of their English
pronunciation weaknesses with this device. In the review quiz, the students orally answeredeach question only twice, which was not enough to conclude whether there is any relationshipbetween them; however, noticing the weak points in pronunciation through interaction with
Pocketalk can be regarded as one of this device’s useful features.
The analysis of students’ responses supports the idea that students have a positive attitude
toward their interaction with Pocketalk. Particularly, its speech recognition function can show

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students not only whether the spoken sentence is correct but also where the error is in the
spoken sentence. This device has the potential to give students an idea of how theirpronunciation is actually perceived, which helps to make them aware of where theirdeficiencies are. This result is also consistent with the results of RQ1.
Meanwhile, from the results of Q1, 13 students (13.7%) showed a negative attitude toward
the usefulness of Pocketalk. Although further investigation is needed concerning their reasonsand factors contributing to the negative attitudes, other approaches for English speaking
practice need to be considered for these students.
RQ3: Is there any significant relationship between students’ responses to the usefulnessof their interaction with Pocketalk and their nervousness in speaking English or their
negative feelings toward pronunciation?
For RQ3, we investigated the relationship between students’ responses about Pocketalk’s
usefulness and their affective factors in speaking English. To analyze the relationships
between the variables, Spearman’s rank-order correlation coefficients on the questionnaire
data were determined; results are shown in Table 3.
Q1

Q2

Q3

Q1

―

Q2

0.16

―

Q3

0.40*

0.12

―

Q4

0.13

0.06

0.13

Q4

Q5

―

Q5
0.06
-0.13
0.17
0.45*
―
Table 3: Correlations among Questionnaire Items *p<.05
From the correlation coefficient between Q1 and Q4 (rQ1Q4=0.13) in Table 3, no statistical
relationship exists between students’ responses to the usefulness of Pocketalk and their
nervousness in speaking English. Additionally, the correlation coefficient between Q1 andQ5 (rQ1Q5=0.06) shows no statistical relationship between students’ responses to theusefulness of Pocketalk and their negative feelings toward pronunciation.
These results suggest that even if students get nervous when speaking English or havenegative feelings toward English pronunciation, it does not mean they also have a negative
attitude toward using Pocketalk. In addition, because of the weak relationship between Q4
and Q5 (rQ4Q5=0.45), it is suggested that students who become familiar with English
pronunciation by using Pocketalk can reduce nervousness regarding speaking English.
Limitations and Recommendations
Certain limitations of the current study should be mentioned. First, in this study, we could
observe how the sentences spoken by the students were actually recognized; however, further
investigation is needed to determine more details related to common pronunciation errors by
preparing more and varied sentences. Pocketalk saves the logs of the recognized results,
which can be downloaded as a CSV file. Using these logs, we could identify in more detail
how the spoken sentences were actually recognized and provide feedback for correcting
students’ pronunciation. Second, we found a weak relationship between students’ responses

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Official Conference Proceedingson the usefulness of Pocketalk and their awareness of their weak points in English
pronunciation through this device; however, the students orally answered each question only
twice, which did not provide sufficient data for analysis. Further studies are needed toinvestigate this relationship. Third, 13 students showed a negative attitude toward theusefulness of Pocketalk. Although further investigation is needed to determine the reasonsand factors behind this response, other approaches for English speaking practice should beconsidered for these students. Lastly, incorporating speech recognition into speaking practiceusually focuses on pronunciation, but it is also important to consider how we can incorporate
this function in other ways. We hope to consider some task-based activities with the speech
recognition function in the future.
Conclusion
This study explored the use of speech recognition to support the practice of English speaking
by using the voice translator Pocketalk. We conducted a study in which English sentences
spoken by 95 Japanese university students were identified by the speech recognition functionof this device. Afterward, a five-point Likert scale was used to measure the usefulness of theactivity with Pocketalk and the affective factors related to speaking English.
The results indicated that students tended not to distinctly pronounce the difference between
the /n/ sound and the /m/ sound. In addition, when the end of the words “terribly” and“stooped” were not pronounced distinctly, they tended to be recognized as “terrible” and“stupid.” Results from the questionnaire showed that more than 70% of the students
expressed a positive attitude toward their interaction with Pocketalk, and more than 90% ofthem paid more attention to their pronunciation from using the device. With its recognition
function, we could identify how the spoken sentences were actually recognized, which
provides clues for correcting their pronunciation. Regarding the affective factors, nosignificant relationship was found between students’ responses to the usefulness of theirinteraction with Pocketalk and their nervousness in speaking English or their negative
feelings toward pronunciation. These results suggest the potential to use its speech
recognition function in English classes regardless of students’ affective factors.
As a continuation of this study, we hope to prepare more sentences to identify how the
spoken sentences are actually recognized, using the aforementioned data logs. We also will
investigate further how we should incorporate the speech recognition function into speaking
practice by considering some task-based activities.
Acknowledgement
This work was supported by JSPS Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research Number
JP18K02822.

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References
Blake, R. (2016). Technology and the four skills. Language Learning & Technology, 20(2),129–142.
Chapelle, C. A., & Voss, E. (2016). 20 years of technology and language assessment in
Language Learning & Technology. Language Learning & Technology, 20(2), 116–
128.
Japan Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology. (2015). English
proficiency promotion plan for students. Retrieved fromhttps://www.mext.go.jp/a_menu/kokusai/gaikokugo/__icsFiles/afieldfile/2015/07/21/
1358906_01_1.pdf [in Japanese].
Kashiwagi, H., Kang, M., & Ohtsuki, K. (2018). A basic study on the conformity of Japanese
university students in language communication activities. Official Conference
Proceedings of The Asian Conference on Education & International Development
2018. Kobe, Japan (pp.299–309).
McCrocklin, S. M. (2016). Pronunciation learner autonomy: The potential of Automatic
Speech Recognition. System, 57, 25–42.
O’Brien, M. G., Derwing, T. M., Cucchiarini, C., Hardison, D. M., Mixdorff, H., Thomson, R.
L., … Levis, G. M. (2018). Directions for the future of technology in pronunciation
research and teaching. Journal of Second Language Pronunciation, 4(2), 182–207.
Pocketalk home page. (n.d). Retrieved January 11, 2021, from https://www.pocketalk.com/
Yoon, S.-Y., & Zechner, K. (2017). Combining human and automated scores for the
improved assessment of non-native speech. Speech Communication, 93, 43–52.
Contact email: kasiwagi@kobe-u.ac.jp

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Content-Based Language Teaching in International Liberal Arts Education
Mirzosaid Sultonov, Tohoku University of Community Service and Science, Japan
Timothy Bunting, Tohoku University of Community Service and Science, Japan
Julia Arskaya, Irkutsk State University, Russia
The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2021
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Abstract
The growing international interdependence has increased the importance of knowledge about
and proactive reaction to new global changes. Approaches to language teaching that focus on
aspects besides the language itself, such as CBLT, are becoming an ever more valuable tool.
In this research we define the important points that should be considered in the application ofContent-based Language Teaching (CBLT) in International Liberal Arts (ILA) education.
Based on our own experience of teaching and the analysing the arguments stated in theliterature, we suggest how to conduct CBLT lectures effectively, how to make CBLT lectures
active-learning style, and how to keep the students involved even outside of the class. In
particular, we explain the important points related to the general context or environment
where learning takes place, parts of the teaching under the full control of the teacher, parts
that could be partially controlled or affected by the teacher, and parts that are less controlled
by the teacher (learning out of class). Our research and shared experience contributes to thedevelopment of CBLT.
Keywords: Content-based Language Teaching, International Liberal Arts, Effective Teachingiafor
The International Academic Forumwww.iafor.org

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Introduction
In this research, the researchers attempt define the most important points that should beconsidered in the application of Content-based Language Teaching (CBLT) in International
Liberal Arts (ILA) education. The research team members have long-term experience ofteaching ILA courses in more than two countries in more than two languages. Based on ourown experience of teaching and analysing the arguments stated in the literature, we suggest
how to conduct CBLT lectures effectively, how to offer CBLT lectures in the active-learning
style, and how to keep students involved even outside of class.
Growing international interdependence has increased the importance of knowledge about andproactive reaction to new global changes. When it comes to preparing students for an everevolving global future, approaches to language teaching that focus on aspects besides thelanguage itself, such as CBLT, are becoming an ever more valuable tool. We hope ourresearch and shared experience contributes to the development of teaching in ILA education.
In this paper, instruction is separated into three areas; areas of teaching under the full controlof the teacher, areas that could be partially controlled or affected by the teacher, and areasthat are least controlled by the teacher (i.e. learning out of class). Ideas for improving theeffectiveness of instruction in each area will be proposed.
In the next section, we analyse the important arguments stated in the literature. After that, oursuggestions for effective implementation of CBLT lectures are proposed. At the end, weconclude the important points of this research.
Literature Review
In the current international climate, bilingual communication is not just desirable, but critical(Cammarata et al., 2016). Since the 1970s, there has been more of an attempt at having
students pick a target language up incidentally, rather than through classroom activities alone(Juan-Garau & Salazar-Noguera, 2015). Naturally, this places a huge demand on language
education providers the world over, and as a result English-medium instruction (EMI) is
becoming increasingly commonplace worldwide, including in Japan (Galloway & Rose,2015).
Cammarata et al. (2016) rightly doubt whether the learning of foreign languages alone isenough. The authors question the underlying goals of foreign language teaching in general,and instead propose placing an emphasis on developing critical thinking and advanced
literacy skills, stimulating development of high-order thinking skills, fostering intellectual
sensitivity, and nurturing student motivation and active participation in their learning
adventure (pp. 9-11). An example of this method of teaching that has seen some success iscontent-based language teaching (CBLT) that combines both language learning and thelearning of content, in way that is designed to have each element complement the other(Creese, 2005).
As opposed to the traditional L2 classroom in which the focus is almost solely on students
developing language skills in isolation, content-based approaches to language learning aim todevelop language, academic, and cognitive skills together (Oba, 2019), ‘to promote a
dynamic interplay between language and content’ (Lyster, 2018). This view sees language inless of a traditional foreign language learning sense, and ‘toward a view of language as a

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means with which to explore content, that is, the realization that both language and content
are two equally important instructional foci’ (Cammarata et al., 2016, p. 11).
In two of the researchers’ context, Japan, the governmental policy for English teachingeducation has corresponded to the growing demand for cultivating globalized citizens,particularly the youth (Oba, 2019). These views are reflected in the Japanese Ministry of
Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology revision of curriculum guidelines in2017 where the three primary goals include: 1) developing oneself, envisioning lifelong
learning; 2) increasing solid subject knowledge; and 3) acquiring cognitive, evaluative, andexpressive skills (Yasunaga, 2018).
CBLT is seen as a good option for English educational reforms in Japan following the 2017
revision of curriculum guidelines (Yasunaga, 2018). Here, theme-based language programs
can also be useful, centered on a theme that allows repeated opportunities for recycling
language, expanding domain knowledge, and increasing critical and reflective thinking. Suchprograms could easily be integrated into ILA instruction.
Effort to teach students in the classroom is going to be exerted, so being able to teach bothlanguage and content at the same time, with the added benefit of developing advanced criticalthinking skills, could be seen as a win-win for all. However, focusing on multiple aspects oflearning at the same time risks diminishing the outcomes of all. Especially when, as Oba(2019) describes, CBLT and other content-based programs have not been fully tested inJapanese settings, and there has not been sufficient development of content and language
integration, despite their apparent attractiveness.
The effectiveness of CBLT is seen as dependent upon program setting and the curriculum,
the characteristics of teachers involved, the characteristics of learners, and the availability ofresources (Butler, 2005; Andrade, 2014).
In the case of content-based courses, teachers and curriculum developers are in charge ofdeciding how much of an emphasis to put on language, and how much to put on content. Thiscan be thought of on a continuum from content-driven to language-driven approaches.
Approaches to language teaching at each end of the continuum have different titles in theliterature. For clarity, CBLT is when there is a more of a focus on learner acquisition of
language, whereas Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) places more of a focus
on content.
Careful consideration of the context and student aims must be taken during the needs analysis
when it comes to deciding to take an approach focusing on content, one focusing on
language, or one somewhere in the middle. In this paper, we leverage years of experience inteaching International Liberal Arts courses in Japanese and Russian universities in bothforeign and second languages to students from broad international contexts to propose amodel for effective implementation of CBLT.
Suggested Model
General Idea
We separate learning into three areas determined by the amount of control the teacher has in
the situation, namely, during the lecture when the teacher has full control over what goes on,

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when the teacher has partial control as the students partake in their own activities during classtime, and out of the class where the teacher has the least control (Fig. 1).

Figure 1: Important Points to Be Considered in CBLT.
Context
As with all instruction, context dictates approach. To gather a good understanding of thecontext, the first port of call should be a thorough needs analysis. When it comes to CBLT,
the needs analysis needs to consider the amount of emphasis to place on language and content
outcomes respectively, in addition to other important factors such as the medium of teaching
and the type of assessment that best fits the learners’ needs. To ensure the safety of thestudents due to COVID-19 or other such factors, the curriculum designer may be limited intheir options for the medium of teaching, but any medium, online, offline, or a hybrid, can beused for CBLT.
CBLT can be used in certain courses and in certain classes to increase the effect of learning,
not just in terms of language, but in terms of content acquisition as well. The focus of CBLT
on cognitive development of the students is an attractive proposition when it comes to ILA,
however students come with different backgrounds, and different abilities in the target
language, as well as with different levels of knowledge and interest in the topic or content tobe taught.
The teacher could be a native speaker of the students’ native language, a native speaker of thetarget language with or without language capability in the students’ native language, or a
non-native speaker of the target language with or without language capability in the students’native language. Depending on this make-up, the teachers may adjust their instruction to takeadvantage of their relative strengths in a certain context. At a minimum, to be able to learn
the content well enough some ability of the language of instruction is necessary. A CBLT
approach should be used at late A2 and higher levels of language capability, or additional
language lessons should be provided to allow for this.
How Can We Provide CBLT Lectures Effectively?
If the teacher has sufficient knowledge of both the students’ first language and the target
language, transitional classes that incorporate both languages may be more effective for the

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students. If the students’ language capability is not so high, or if the students lack confidence,
it is often better to discuss the topic in the target language, summarize in the native language
and then again address the topic in the target language.
Students should be encouraged to try discussing the content in their second language, withadditional support in their first language if required to increase their confidence. In cases
where the students’ command of the target language is not strong, excessive use of the target
language is best avoided to maintain student motivation. This is a balance that is best decided
by the teacher. In either situation, teachers should always respond to students in a positive
way while they are sharing their own opinions on the content to further stimulate use of thelanguage.
Even students with a good background in the target language may not be familiar with the
keywords for different topics. Furthermore, different teachers use different words. One good
way to address this is to ask students in advance to let the teacher explain the words theycannot understand during the lecture, or teachers can try many strategies such as repeatedlyusing paraphrasing, examples, synonyms, visualization, expressions or gestures.
Likewise, changing the speed of speech and repeating the points that are not easy for students
to understand increases uptake. Using similar content or content that repeats a lot of the same
type of phrasing further increases the chance for incidental learning of vocabulary. This iswhere theme-based learning can be an effective tool. In addition, providing a list of keywords
to be used in discussions in advance is very effective.
How to Make the CBLT Lecture Active-Learning Style?
No matter what the teacher does inside or outside class, whether the learner learns is entirely
up to them. Therefore, rather than teaching, the role of the teacher should be thought of as
facilitating learning through the establishment of a conducive environment. In CBLT-typeclasses, the teacher has a number of levers they can pull to ensure the proper environment isprovided. This is where active learning, where students are engaged and in control of theirlearning, comes into play.
The main levers the teacher can pull to provide a conducive environment for learning are in
the assessments and tasks used in class. Assessments should be decided in accordance with
the needs analysis, and in the case of CBLT, this could be based on language outcomes andcontent knowledge obtained during the class. At the same time the student interests, goals,
and motivation should be kept in mind when deciding what to assess and how to go about
assessing it.
Students could have better communication skills in the target foreign language, but lessaccuracy in grammar. In order to keep up student use of the target language, teachers have to
be careful to keep students attentive in class and not bore students with too much of a focus
on accuracy. This means when designing assessments and tasks to use in class, less of anemphasis should be placed on grammatical accuracy, and tasks and assessments should
provide ample opportunity for a focus on production in the target language, as well as
chances for fluency development.
Goal setting is an important area the teacher can employ to increase student motivation. By
providing students the opportunity to set clear goals for the class, both in terms of language

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and content acquisition, the teacher can encourage a positive attitude towards learning, andutilize the students own stated goals to motivate them further down the line if necessary.
In regards to tasks, teachers can increase student motivation by giving students agency intheir learning by giving them a choice on what to learn and in what way. The teacher cancurate a number of different resources for students to source content, or make the content
choice completely open for students. Likewise, the teacher can suggest a number of tasks forstudents to do to choose from, or leave it up to the students to do the learning as they wish,
given that the students are motivated, provided with proper support when necessary, and havesome understanding of how they learn well.
The tasks students perform in class should be decided according to these assessments as aform of external motivation. Tasks based on student interests, and tasks that involve an active
research element further incentivize students to be engaged even out of the class. To makethe class more interactive, frequent use of presentations, discussions, and questions are very
effective.
Teachers can choose tasks that force students to think deeply about their subject, such as
writing an essay on their opinion of a point, or tasks that focus entirely on reproduction oftarget language, such as shadowing. In the case of ILA, tasks that involve critical thinking
skills and expression of opinion should be encouraged. To increase student motivation,teachers can propose multiple tasks for students to choose from that have clear objectives andlanguage development incentives. In addition, teachers should be flexible to respond to how
the students themselves respond to the activities at hand.
For the success of the CBLT approach, we should choose themes that evoke broad public
discussion. This ensures a variety of content related to the topic is available, and means
students can get information in different forms from different sources. In public discussions,many socially significant questions are raised, which help to formulate questions fordiscussion in the class.
How to Keep the Students Involved Outside of the Class?
In the university setting, basically everything the students do throughout the course needs tocontribute towards their grade. In terms of keeping students involved outside of class, besides
setting tasks and assessments that provide external motivation, developing learner autonomy
that encourages internal motivation is essential. In order to do so, the teacher needs to provide
activities that students are able to do on their own, or with their peers, without the directsupervision of the teacher. If done successfully in class, it is then a natural progression forstudents to take this work outside the classroom. This can be as normal homework, or as partof the students’ grade.
This does require a level of responsibility from the teacher, however. Such tasks require theteacher to give clear expectations of what is expected of students, ample opportunity forpractice during class time, and they also require the teacher to be constantly available forsupport when necessary.

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Conclusion
Based on the recent literature findings and our own experience of teaching at the university
level, we stated some important features of effective ways of CBLT in ILA education. We
split the control of the teacher into three areas; where the teacher has full control, where they
have partial control, and where they have a minimal amount of control, to propose ideas ofeffective teaching in each area. We hope our research contributes to the development ofteaching CBLT.

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References
Andrade, M. (2014). Research notes on materials development for content-based language
learning. Sophia University Junior College Division Faculty Journal, 34, 1-17.
Butler, Y. G. (2005). Content-based instruction in EFL contexts: Considerations for effective
implementation. JALT Journal 27(2), 227-245.
Cammarata, L., Diane J. T., & Osborn T. A. (2016). Content-based instruction andcurricular reforms: Issues and goals. In L. Cammarata (Eds.), Content-based foreign
language teaching: Curriculum and pedagogy for developing advanced thinking andliteracy skills (pp. 1-21). New York: Routledge.
Creese, A. (2005). Is this content-based language teaching? Linguistics and Education, 16(2),188-204.
Galloway, N., & Rose, H. (2015). Introducing global Englishes. Abingdon: Routledge.
Juan-Garau, M., & Salazar-Noguera, J. (Eds.) (2015). Content-based language learning in
multilingual educational environments. Switzerland: Springer International
Publishing.
Lyster, R. (2018). Content-based language teaching. New York: Routledge.
Oba, T. (2019). Feasibility and effectiveness of integrating content and language in English
teaching in Japan. Gakuen, Showa Women's University Institute for Modern Culture,
942, 45-66.
Yasunaga, A. (2018). CBLT: Is it a better choice for implementing Japanʼs educational
reforms? The Journal of Humanities and Natural Sciences, 143, 43-61.

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REVAMP: Transforming Technology-enhanced Education to Cater for Learners’
Dispositions
Pengiran Shaiffadzillah Pengiran Omarali, Educational Technology Centre, Brunei
The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2021
Official Conference Proceedings
Abstract
The integration of technology into an education system is a precarious affair that prompts
educators and policy-makers to refer to various technology implementation guidelines
including but not limited to Technology Acceptance Models, Gilly Salmon’s 5 Stage model,
Puentedura’s SAMR model, or Koehler’s TPCK model; to name a few. The integration oftechnology involves the aspects of management systems, digital tools, the learners and thelearning process – creating an intricate nexus of exponentially evolving components requiring
21st century skills. The increasingly rapid development of technology contributes to digital
obsolescence; and the unquestioned belief (doxa) that learners are able to shift their use oftechnology for learning when predominantly their uses are for entertainment and social
purposes predisposes them to selective technology types (hysteresis). One challenge of
implementing new learning technologies is thus in identifying which tools or systematiccollections of tools are applicable to the target learners and their dispositions to using
technologies for learning. Concurrent to the body of literature focusing on online learningtechnologies, there is a prevalent trend in social science research that puts focus on thelearner. This paper proposes a new model, called the REVAMP model, to establishingeducational technologies that significantly contribute to transforming education to cater forlearners’ dispositions by providing systems and approaches that are (1) realistic, (2)engaging, (3) virtual, (4) adaptive, (5) multimodal, and (6) personalised.
Keywords: Digital Transformation, Technology-Enhanced Learning, Dispositions, REVAMP

iafor
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Introduction
The digital transformation of education is an increasingly deliberated discourse among
policy-makers, education agencies, educators and researchers alike; and has become adeveloping research interest rushed and expedited by the current global pandemic – Covid19. For the education sector, digital transformation occurs in the aspects of (1) education
management and (2) teaching and learning.
The education management aspect involves matters concerning policies, decision-making,legal, human resource, and the financial management constituents of integrating newtechnologies. Factors that attribute to education management include policies, big data anddata analytics, data protection and governance, decisions on return of investment and/or
equity, and research on the state-of-the-art that result in white papers and blue papers. In
educational research, these fundamental components of how educational agencies operate areoften overlooked in educational research as they are less relevant responsibilities of teachersand educators.
Areas where teachers and educators are more invested and involved in reside in the teaching
and learning, and for which digital transformation encompasses the selection and use oflearning management systems, standalone educational applications and software, digitalcurriculum content, technology-enhanced learning solutions and the pedagogical approaches
to delivering them; matters that are more exhaustively covered in the body of educational
research literature. Notable examples include but is not limited to Mishra and Koehler’s
TPCK Model (Koehler and Mishra, 2008), Puentedura’s SAMR Model (Puentedura 2010;2013) and Salmon’s 5-Stage Model (Salmon, 2013).
Regardless of the distinction between the two responsibilities undertaken by an education
agency, more so an agency that regulates education at a state level such as a Department or
Ministry of Education, the factors of education management is expectedly concomitant to thesuccess rate of teaching and learning that occur in schools, classes and lessons. Despite thisconcomitance, a large portion of research related to addressing the digital transformation of
education is not only far more inclined towards developing solutions to schools, classes andlessons, they are for the most part detached from these requisites that occur on the macrolevel. These requisites are the decisions made in ensuring cost-efficiency, resiliency,
reliability, longevity, sustainability and agility of newly introduced technology andtechnology systems, concerns that inherently educators and researchers may not be privy to.
Nevertheless, for many years’ state education agencies remain focused on assisting teachersand students to develop digital competency and inculcate the use of technologies to then
expect them to improve learning performance and learning experience, various experts havedeveloped fascinating models as mentioned earlier to guide teachers and educators on thecomponents that make a functional digital learning environment or ecosystem. These models
emphasise on learning platforms and processes that are interactive, authentic, conducive andattractive. They aim to further enhance or replace the learning dynamics that already have
proven success in the traditional classroom, such as groupwork, problem-based learning,
student-centred learning and so forth.
Given the context whereby the digital transformation of education is a binary of either
education management transformation or teaching and learning transformation, this early-

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stage research and consequently literature review paper elucidates on the creation of a digitaltransformation framework that considers both sides of the equation.
1.

Preliminary ResearchPrior to developing the framework based on preceding literature, this paper employed a metaanalysis consisting of a series of quantitative studies that were conducted since 2016 inmeasuring learners’ dispositions towards learning using technology (Omarali 2016; 2017a;
2018; Omarali and Motteram, 2017).
The studies all employed an online closed-ended questionnaire instrument that contained 26
5-point Likert-scale items that were found to reveal aspects that align with learners’ diverse
dispositions. In previous studies, the said instrument was used as part of a mixed-method
research with a qualitative data collection instrument (either interviews, focus groups or
Netnography), designed to be analysed using multivariate analysis such as Factor Analysis
and Correspondence Analysis with the objective of identifying the learners’ dispositions
toward their preferred method of online learning delivery. This paper flips the focus fromidentifying the learners’ dispositions to identifying the design of the online learning
ecosystem itself.
Data from all the referred studies were meta-analysed based on frequency descriptive
analysis. Combining 5 separate studies, the sample comprised of learners from multiple
demographics and countries, notably (1) postgraduate students (n=149), (2) technicalvocational education students (n=407), (3) online students (n=20 + n=16), and (4) middle
school students, and high school students (n=263). Every sample group attempted the same
26 items. Altogether, the sample for this paper is n=855. The meta-analysis unearthedthematic patterns on which a learning ecosystem can be described, viz. the level of learnerengagement (E), content multimodality (M), learning adaptiveness to learner dispositions(A), personalisable learning experience (P), and virtualisation (V) of the user interface for theprevious four themes.
Upon positioning these five themes against the requisites of education management, an
additional theme (Realistic Deployment (R)) was added to the five themes to represent
decision-making governed by policies, resources, data analytics, data protection, finance andother operations that would differentiate any digital transformation proposal from being
idealistic to being realistic and achievable. At this research juncture, the themes were referred
to as Aspects and the 26 items of the instrument reorganised based on the six Aspects –REVAMP (Table 1).
A majority of these items cut across several aspects but the purpose as temporary
placeholders in progressing towards a systematic literature review, the items were listed
under the aspect that they would align with the most. For this study, the items wererearranged according to the REVAMP framework.

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Aspect [Item]
Realistic (the deployment)
01. [Sufficient money to spend on what I need]

x
R
2.26

Engaging (the platform)
02. [Skip information that I don't like or find boring]
03. [Concentrate better when doing activities online]
04. [Online groups]
05. [Never get lost in the large amount of internet information]
06. [Am always calm and stress-free]
07. [Browsing the internet for information]
08. [Use it continuously throughout the day]09. [Interactive software]

E
4.11
3.45
3.03
1.68
2.76
4.01
3.81
3.24

Virtual (existing processes that are virtual)
10. [Am motivated to learn when using the internet]
11. [Consulting my teachers]
12. [Seek the opinions and advice of others]
13. [Watching how others do their work]
14. [Communicate with people easier online]

V
3.24
2.28
2.61
2.94
3.28

Adaptive
15. [Strong ICT skills due to the support I have]
16. [Do multiple things at the same time (multitask)]

A
2.10
2.52

Multimodal
17. [Reading printed books or notes]
18. [Mobile apps for activities and accessing notes]
19. [Online notes that are readable/ downloadable]
20. [Watching videos]
21. [Group work]

M
1.84
4.17
3.85
3.92
3.33

Personalised
22. [Firstly plan on how I will do my work]
23. [I first go to websites that I am most familiar with]
24. [Choose the easiest/ most convenient internet feature]
25. [Work at my own pace]
26. [Expect to quickly find the information I need]

P
3.44
3.20
3.98
3.08
3.19

Table 1: Mean Scores Per Item of REVAMP
Out of the 6 aspects, the Aspect ‘Realistic’ was least represented with only 1 item attributing
to it. This is in part because the 26 items were used in studies that collects the opinions oflearners, and as mentioned earlier in this presentation, learners and teachers would have more
idealistic expectations of what makes a successful learning system. Which is why a bettermeasure of the Realistic Aspect would be through using question items directed to policymakers.
The intention of this meta-analysis was to first and foremost discover if any patterns exist that
supports REVAMP based on responses to 26 items. In terms of educational research, this

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absolutely falls short of fulfilling the considerations in producing statistically significant
results. The statistical evidence to support this REVAMP framework is after all an earlystage research; a work-in-progress. At this juncture, conducting studies to understand, tomap, and to frame the digital transformation of education that considers both education
management and teaching and learning would benefit from a complementary systematic
review of the literature.
A literature review that supports the development of a framework to guide the digitaltransformation of education based on the six identified aspects is a good starting point todevelop further research studies with more in-depth data analyses of data from the end-user
stakeholders and the policy-maker stakeholders; using the same framework and datacollection instrument that befits the REVAMP model. As the research build towards a digital
education system that integrates inseparable singularity, the more prepared will stakeholders
be in making that large-scale transformation seamless, less disruptive, and fulfilling for all
involved.
2.

A Review of the Literature

In 2011, Selwyn stated that “digital technology is a key element in sustaining the longestablished links between the needs of a country’s economy and the nature of a country’s
education system”. Fast-forward several years, the World Economic Forum in their The
Future of Jobs Report 2018 predicted the loss of 75 million jobs by 2022 with the four main
drivers of change in the job market being ubiquitous high-speed mobile internet, artificial
intelligence, big data analytics and cloud technology (WEF, 2018). Nevertheless, the futureworld of work is not as bleak provided that societies transition into the new digital world,with digital technologies expected to create 133 million job opportunities. They key catalyst
for these jobs is an enhancement to the digital revolution - the 4th industrial revolution - andthe process to reaching this 4th industrial revolution is Digital Transformation.
2.1.

Digital Transformation and Education

However, despite the emphasis on digital transformation as the conduit to new professions,the main custodian of employable skills and knowledge - i.e. the education sector - rarelyaligns its decades of initiatives under the nuances of educational technology and technologyenhanced learning with digital transformation. Perhaps, teaching and learning are more often
handled at granular level that transformation occurs at ground-level in these microcosms ofschools, classes and lessons. What is evident from literature is that digital transformation israrely associated with education.
It wasn’t until the year 2008 that a journal article on digital transformation was firstpublished. And two years after in 2010, the phrase ‘digital transformation in education’ wasused by then US Secretary of Education Arne Duncan in his address during the State
Educational Technology Directors Association Education Forum. But other than these tworecorded references, the concept of digital transformation in education was hardly evermentioned, in comparison to for example – e-learning, online learning, technology-enhanced
learning or computer-assisted learning. These were the terms that resonated more, because
the idea of education and technology becoming an inseparable singularity was not a research
priority at the time, because technology in learning transpiring then did not yet immensely
contribute to creating a gap, a dissonance in performance and access to knowledge that isincreasingly digital.

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Hence, the digital transformation of education is nothing new. It is just that the movement
was never coined before as ‘digital transformation’. The body of literature that refers to theintegration of digital technology and internet technology into teaching and learning, into
schools and lessons, oftentimes refer to it as e-learning, computer-assisted learning andtechnology-enhanced learning or some phrase similar to these terminologies. Examples
include Mishra and Koehler’s TPCK Model since 2006; Ruben Puentedura’s SAMR Model
since 2010 which addresses transformative applications of information technology into
education; several educational technology acceptance models (TAM) dating back to 2002
with the study of TAM in evaluating the efficacy of internet-based education systems.
Faculty and educators have embraced Gilly Salmon’s five-stage model. Before the turn of the
21st century, Dr. Gilly Salmon was already researching on online technology in regard toonline learning environments, moderation of learning, computer-mediated communication.
Certainly, various experts have made great strides in preparing practitioners, whether it beteachers or policy-makers, on what makes digital technology effective in teaching andlearning.
These models of enhancing learning dynamics tend to have a top-level. For the TPCK, thecentral model TPCK is its top level. For the SAMR model, the Redefinition Stage is the top
level, but in order to reach it the system has to fulfil the stages of substitution, augmentationand modification. The same can be said for Salmon’s 5-step model, the top level is the 5th
Stage (the Development Step) and to arrive to that stage entails the fulfillment of the previous
4 stages in the model.
2017 was the year when the topic of digital transformation in education finally became one ofeducation sector’s main discussions. Whether the Industry 4.0 declaration in 2016 instigatedit or whether respective societies are being instinctively awakened by new observations of
how more dependent societies are to technology, the idea of transformation finally trickled
into educational research. In 2016, less than 10 published research papers were dedicated tothe topic. In 2017, 39 papers were published on digital transformation in education. In 2018,47 papers. In 2019, 84 papers. In 2020, more than 120 papers. Indeed, educational
researchers are more aware that education and technology will likely become an inseparable
singularity. However, ‘awareness’ is merely diagnostic data. What is more important ispredictive data – preparedness. Preparedness is a whole different proposition, and one thatwill benefit from a framework for both policy-makers and educators to work together towards
seamless transformation. The REVAMP Model, informed in the future with predictive data,intends to prepare education agencies handling both education management and teaching andlearning with an insight on digital transformation that caters for learners’ diverse dispositions
while in tandem realistic deployment of projects that constitutes the digital transformation.
2.2.

The REVAMP Framework

2.2.1. Keeping it Realistic
The first REVAMP Aspect is Realistic. It is easy to be fascinated by the idealistic features of
emerging technologies. Certainly, the affordances offered by gesture-interface, algorithmbased learner diagnosis, or augmented reality interaction are for example strong reasons for
deploying them in lessons. From the policy-maker perspective however, the reality of thesituation is that there exist limitations to how far idealistic solutions can be realised. The firstlimitation is resources, and resources can be further broken down into financial resources,
human resources, time resource and infrastructural resource.

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On financial resources, most emerging technologies are costly to deploy. The cost increases
based on the uniqueness the technology offers. For example, a Google Cardboard kit may
cost less when compared to an HTC Vive Pro headset. In reality, an HTC Vive Pro headset
offers far more features than a Google Cardboard, relative to their price points. On humanresources, superior emerging technologies tend to have more complex hardware, firmware
and codebases. In turn these complexities require considerable human resource as technicalsupport. Adding to this, to account for making different technologies work together insingularity, with the ability to be interconnected and interoperable, with technologies such as
API, SCORM, LTIs and Single-Sign On. Another variable is the end-of-life of technologies.
Any human resource dedicated to handling digital transformation have to be a few steps
ahead in terms of planning, migration, development and implementation of replacement
technologies, or even better, the prospect developing learning technologies in-house.
The second limitation is access. There exist pertinent concerns on inequity and inequality,
and many reports and literature have supported that digital technologies, when not
implemented properly, exacerbate inequity and inequality. Bridging the digital gap anddigital dissonance that emerging technologies bring should be considered as a main part of
the REVAMP framework. Limited access can be caused by an agency not having theresources mentioned, but also that an agency has less control of end-users’ access limitations
and ownership of required technologies. For example, High-Definition videos may be a moreengaging immersive experience, but do the user demographic all have access to devices that
accommodate high definition? Do the user demographic have secure economic resource tosustain the high bandwidths needed? Would the agency be willing to demand from users toequip themselves with technologies that they cannot afford? These are questions that the
REVAMP framework intends to address.
The third limitation is Return of Investment. Education agencies are expected to have the bestinterest of the students in mind. However, any agency that wants to remain systematicallyoperational would still want a well-run business. Implementing technologies requirebudgeting and financial commitments, and for organisations they regard the cost-benefit of
implementing or procuring or spending human resource to develop these technologies, interms of Return of Investment. Monetary returns asides, returns are rather in terms of having
students experiencing quality education which in turn produces graduates who have diverseand future-ready skillsets, which in turn contributes back to the education system with newknowledge and new innovation.
Currently, there is a dearth in research on the significance of maintaining the realistic
educational technology deployment. Even when referring to the models of what makes
successful technology-enhanced learning, the role of realistic solutions is often overlooked.
The search only unearthed 7 publications on realistic implementation of educational
technology (Fisher, 1996; Garba and Garba, 2008; Eggins, 2011, Hanlon, 2015; Xianmin etal., 2017).
2.2.2. Engaging
The second REVAMP aspect is Engaging, and specifically ‘engaging’ as an adjective forlearning rather than ‘engage’ as in the verb ‘to use’ because in the literature the verb engage
has been overly used as a synonym to the word ‘use’ when in fact engaging as an adjective
defines productive interaction, defines that the learner is engrossed, is absorbed in theinteraction, defines that it activates the learner’s cognition whether it be higher order

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thinking, metacognition, experiential learning, problem-solving, enquiry-based, discovery
learning, authentic learning, action learning, human-computer interaction, constructivist
learning, or any combination of these engagements.
Based on this definition, a scoping search of the literature since the advent of the Internet
found 20 articles dedicated to engaging learning systems (Hawkes et al; 1999; Kearner andMaakrun, 2020; Lawrence, 2011; McEvoy and Cowan, 2016; Oulaich, 2019). Thesecomprise of engaging interactions such as gesture-based interactions (Tootell et al., 2013),
gamification (Annetta et al., 2011; Lamprapoulos et al., 2019; Mageswaran Sanmugam et al.,2015; Sanmugam et al., 2015; Talbot et al., 2012), digital storytelling (Bromberg et al., 2013;
Sadik, 2008), e-learning tools (Cherner et al., 2019; Mehlhorn et al., 2011; Rohrbach et al.,2014; Uhomoibhi et al., 2019), and learning by play (Ernst et al., 2015, Levesque, 2006;
Stieler-Hunt, 2016).
A measure of engagement is when the type of content piques the interest and curiosity ofstudents, However, measuring this by observation can be deceptive. Moreover, activities
where students passively sit or watch or listen can be engaging but is passive engagement
itself productive? Students today have developed different and diverse patterns of attention
span, multitasking and memory retention, and it is thus the best interest of the REVAMP
framework to figure out if the technologies being deployed indeed align to these patterns.
2.2.3. Virtual
The third REVAMP Aspect is Virtual or Virtual-Ready. The virtualization of learning
experience and/or environment is subjective to what is considered virtual. A virtual learning
environment for example, is regarded as virtual presence even when that presence is reduced
to text-based representations such as posts in discussion forums and text comments on work
exercises (Omarali, 2017b). At the other end of the spectrum is virtual presence in the formof avatars in virtual worlds such as Secondlife, AltSpace VR, VRChat, Facebook Horizon,
and other similar platforms.
In between the two extremes exists virtual labs (Xin, 2008) where hands-on virtual practicals
can be simulated, and virtual tours where students acquire a virtual first-person point of view.
Webinars and teleconferences are often associated with virtual learning or virtual classrooms,
but considering that users represent their true form in online face-to-face communication,
webinars are no more virtual than the depiction of people on television. For digital presence
and experience to be virtual, the user has to be digitally represented as a virtual twin.
Likewise, the landscape has to be digitally represented as a virtual twin. On 1st March 2021,
the ECMWF announced a project called DestinationEarth which is a replica of planet Earth.
Virtual reality technology has been an exciting prospect that it is commonly portrayed on
television and movies since the 1980s. It is thus not surprising that a scoping review of theliterature on virtual reality itself found more than 900 papers, more than 100 of these were on
virtual reality and education (Pantelidis, 1991; Read and Sykes, 1999; among many others),
and more than 300 of these on virtual learning environments (Cunha et al., 2008; Farrell,
1999; 2001; Keller, 2005; Metes et al., 1995; among many others).

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2.2.4. Adaptive
The fourth REVAMP Aspect is Adaptive. A scoping search of the literature found more than
180 papers on adaptive learning whether it involves technology or no technology. Of the 180,32 papers associated adaptive learning with education technology. Of the 180, 51 papers
associated adaptive learning with technology-enhanced learning. Of the 180, 25 papers
associated adaptive learning with digital education.
In the traditional classroom, an observant teacher constantly assesses each learner’s
satisfaction and learning effectiveness through formative input, performance scores and theirlearning behaviour. This approach is called differentiated instruction whereby it involves “ateacher attending to the learning needs of a particular student or small groups of students,
rather than teaching a class as though all individuals in it were basically alike” (Tomlinson
and Allan, 2000, p. 170).
An alternative to teacher-based differentiation is having a digital learning system that adapts
to the preferences and abilities of the learners. An adaptive learning system is quicker informatively assessing learners, and the repetitive matching of similar learner types withlearning processes results in a profiling database that can be reused and referred for futurelearner cohorts. Ghorbani and Montazer (2015) has demonstrated through their Automatic
Learners’ Personality Identifying System (ALPIS) prototype that adaptive systems are more
systematic in their assessment of a learner’s current learning need. The experimental ALPIS
technology uses an intricate fuzzy inference algorithm that formulates profiles based onlearners’ patterns of engagement with the system.
The substitution of the teacher with digital technology however is not the easiest of tasks, forthe technologies that are comparable to teacher presence are either based on complex
algorithms that require technical expertise (e.g. ALPIS), or the still developing field ofartificial intelligence to replicate the expected humanistic sensitivity when teachers
subjectively and holistically assess their learners needs. These challenges however should not
thwart the option of adaptive learning management systems as according to Bayne and Ross
(2016) the technology of intelligent systems is a new frontier in teaching that should beembraced (p. 125). An adaptive learning system is expected to be an automated technologythat tailors the learning based on its impression of the learner, whereby “[the] gathered
information about learners can help system designer to develop a matching, relating andinferring mechanism with digital resource of learning object repository, and then generate thecontent, context and information that learners need” (Lin and Kuo, 2005, p. 2). The
realisation of adaptive learning technology has been enhanced with the advent of artificial
intelligence, business intelligence and data analytics in education management.
2.2.5. Multimodal
The fifth REVAMP Aspect is Multimodal or Multimodality. This paper’s scoping literature
review found that between 2015 to 2020, 22 papers on multimodality and digital learning
have been published. From the 22 pieces of literature, six were specific to technologyenhanced learning, and one was specific to educational technology. The literature revealed
that the multimodality of a learning system is represented through several forms. Mahfouz
and Ihmeideh (2009) conceptualise that, “in multimodal learning environments, learners exert
more control over the learning situation, and the multimodal synchronous interactions allow

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learners to combine text chat, audio chat and even graphics, thus working collectively at a
distance in a multimodal and multidimensional learning environment” (p. 210).
Firstly, multimodality can refer to content. There is the multimodality of how content isdelivered and in what format it is being offered. Studies on multimodal online notes included
the use of different multimedia, in particular verbal and non-verbal forms (Moreno andMayer, 2007), and the multiple formats of learning via text, video, audio, images andinteractive elements (Sankey et al., 2010). Secondly, multimodality can refer to the learningtechnology. This exists in the form of the various technologies that are used to interact withlearners and teachers. Studies include the use of different narrative approaches in gamified
learning environments (Dickey, 2006), the use of several communicative features such as
chat rooms, forums, audio and video conferencing to interact (Hampel and Hauck, 2006), thecombining of audio, text and graphics (Hampel, 2006), webcasting and online text-chat (Kingand Fricker, 2007), and the likely discipline-specific use of gestures, speech, facial
expressions and graphical inputs (Bunt and Romary, 2002).
Thirdly, there is the multimodality in instruction and pedagogy. Several studies include
having alternative instructions to reach a shared outcome or end objective (Whittington,2010), and the human-computer interaction based on multimodal instructions delivered by arobot (Wolf and Bugmann, 2006). This form of multimodality is the least researched, and it
may be due in large part to reliance in algorithms or artificial intelligence to deliver tailored
instructions.
2.2.6. Personalised
The sixth REVAMP Aspect is personalisability. A scoping review of the literature found 20
papers on personalisable digital learning, 11 papers on personalisable technology-enhanced
learning, and 6 papers on personalized educational technology
Personalised Learning is a relatively new concept that was first mentioned in 2006 in
conferences on learning technologies. Van Harmelen (2006) defines a Personalised Learning
Environment as “a single user’s e-Learning system that provides access to a variety oflearning resources, and that may provide access to learners and teachers who use other PLEs
and/or VLEs” (p. 815). The main difference between this system and pure VLEs is that theaffordances, artefacts and tools involved are selected and structured together by the learner tocreate his/her own system.
Attwell (2007) describes Personalised Learning Environment as a system that “comprised of
all the different tools we use in our everyday life for learning [and that] many of these tools
will be based on social software” (p. 4). The use of social software is prevalent in learners forsocial and entertainment purposes, which is why the idea of Personalised Learning
Environments has been an attractive proposition. However, not all studies advocate thesuitability of social software for learning. One main concern of using personalised learning
systems and why despite it being an attractive option it is still rarely prescribed as astandalone system over structured learning management systems is because of its association
with the use of social software.
Nevertheless, a study by Conole et al. (2008) argue that the perception of disruption haschanged and that learners are able to integrate these disruptive technologies into theirlearning without much disruption, so much so that learners professed of learning more

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effectively compared to using exclusively prescribed learning management systems which
was disliked by 9 out of 10 learners (Conole et al., 2008). Thus, personalisable systems havea strong advantage over non-personalisable systems as they seamlessly complement learners’
lifestyles.
Conclusion
This paper proposes a framework that accounts for both education management and teaching
and learning. Its six aspects represent solutions that are relevant to both sides of digitaltransformation on education. In addition, unlike existing models, the REVAMP frameworkhas no top-tier level. It follows a flat holocracy of six aspects of digital transformation that is
all-or-nothing. The REVAMP model draws from the agility and scalability of each of its six
aspects depending on the developing trends of learning technologies in the foreseeable andperhaps distant future. Educators and schools may have ideas on what makes successful
digital learning ecosystems, but the external variables and factors to implementing them,
particularly when it is a full-scale implementation, should account for factors that ensureteacher workload is not overburdened in the long-run with perennial training on newtechnologies, and teaching is not disrupted by abrupt changes in technologies due to digital
obsolescence.

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