Article

Symposium on Calendars Used in Asia and Oceania

11

western Melanesia in the area where the Lapita culture, the ancestors of contemporary

Akira GOTO*

The purpose of this paper is to discuss the prototype calendars of the voyagers who号（２０２２）

Research Papers of the Anthropological Institute Vol.11 (2022)『人類学研究所 研究論集』第settled in the islands of Oceania. In particular, it reviews the indigenous calendars of

Indigenous Calendar among Oceanic Seafarers

Austronesian groups in Oceania, was distributed. Specifically, the paper examines calendars from the Schouten Islands and the Manus and Massim regions of northeastern New
Guinea. These calendars are then compared to those of the western Micronesian islands ofKiribati and the Caroline Islands, which may have also been derived from the Lapita
culture. As a result, the paper demonstrates the importance of celestial bodies, especially
the Pleiades, to yam and breadfruit cultivation, as well as the importance of the Milky Way,
relative to monsoon variation and navigation.
Key Words
Oceania, Austronesia, Calendar, Pleiades, Milky Way, Yam, BreadfruitContents
I

Human Settlement of Oceanic Islands: From
Near Oceania to Remote Oceania
II Melanesia
1 Massim Area
2 Manus3 Wogeo, Schouten Islands

I

III

Micronesia
1 Kiribati
2 Carolinian Islands, Micronesia
IV Discussion
V Conclusion

Sundaland and Sahul, there was the present-day Maluku

Human Settlement of Oceanic Islands:
From Near Oceania to Remote Oceania

Sea, which was not connected to land. The humangroups that left Sundaland reached Sahul at least 50,000
years ago, with some estimates suggesting as much as

Human migration into Oceania is divided into two

70,000 years ago (Bellwood and Hiscock 2018).

stages. The first stage occurred during the late
Pleistocene, the most recent ice age. The lowering of the

The second stage began about 5,000 years ago withsea level during the ice age connected the islands ofthe southward migration of Austronesian language

Southeast Asia with the Eurasian Continent, resulting ingroups who likely originated around Taiwan. They

the formation of Sundaland. Present-day Australia andmigrated from the Philippine archipelago through thethe island of New Guinea formed a single land mass,islands of Indonesia, skirting the northern coast of New

which comprised the Sahul land mass. Between

Guinea, which had already been inhabited since the* Nanzan University621: Massim, 2: Manus Island, 3: Schouten Islands,
4: Kiribati, 5: Chuuk Island

Palaeolithic period, and from the Bismarck Archipelagothat their migration was not a mere adventure or escapesoutheastward through the islands of present-day

but a more deliberate one. They also must have pos-

Melanesia. These were the first human groups who

sessed technologies for boat building and navigation tosettled east of the Solomon Islands. This movement has

cross the vast ocean, and according to ethnographic

come to be recognized as belonging to the Lapita culture

data, one of the most important elements for navigation

because of their distinctive pottery. This population

was astronomy. Their indigenous astronomical knowl-

moved as far west as Tonga and Samoa roughly 3,000

edge served as the basis for their calendar, which aided

years ago (Bellwood and Hiscock 2018).

navigation.

This group, which had developed navigation technol-

In the following section, I will examine indigenous

ogy, remained in this area for more than a thousand

calendars from islands close to the Lapita homeland inyears, but the exact reason why is remains unknown

order to consider the prototype of calendar among these(Anderson 2018). Some say that it took time to develop

Oceanic

the navigation technology to travel to islands further

Melanesia, from Massim, Manus and Wogeo of theaway, and others say that they moved further east when

Schouten Islands, and two come from Micronesia,

El Nino occurred, for example, when the constant east-

Kiribati and the Caroline Islands (Fig. 1).

seafarers. Three

examples

come

from

erly winds (Anderson 2018). Although the exact reason
remains unclear, the first Polynesians migrated fromII Melanesia

Central Polynesia, including from the island of Tahiti, to

1 Massim Area

Hawai‘i in the north, Rapa Nui in the east, and New
Zealand in the south some 1,200 to 900 years ago.

The islands of the northeast coast of New Guinea

These Polynesians migrated from Central Polynesia

practiced a famous exchange system called the Kula: into Rapa Nui eastward along the equator and fromwhich two types of shell ornaments, necklaces andHawai‘i and New Zealand longitudinally. One of thearmbands, were exchanged in opposite directions

most interesting questions concerns why humans have

between the islands distributed in a ring. Their main

traveled to these uncharted islands. While there is no

crop is yams, and the surplus of yams harvest is the basis

definitive answer to this question, what is certain is thatof this ceremonial exchange (Austen 1939).

they did not migrate to islands rich in terms of flora andIn the Trobriand Islands to the north of Kula Ring,

fauna, and that they brought with them crops and live-

yams are harvested around June with the heliacal rise ofstock of Southeast Asian origin. These two facts suggest

Pleiades, and then yam houses are filled with yams for

63

Indigenous Calendar among Oceanic Seafarers

Fig. 1 Map of the Pacific and Areas Mentioned in this Paper

divisions: these two seasons are nuvid (east) fromFebruary to Septembery and yavat from September. to
February. Between these two seasons, the people recognized abalivis (equinox), literally meaning “dividers”
On Muyuw Island, gardening is defined by 13 individual stars. They are relatively evenly spaced in thesky, and their effect on gardening derives from beliefs
about their heliacal setting. Upon each stars’ setting, it
will induce a period of wind and rain followed bycalmer and sunnier weather. Ideally, a man cuts a garden
during the stormy period, but it should be just before thenext star sets, commencing planting with the next rain.
The people say that yams also follow a set seasonal11号（２０２２）

Research Papers of the Anthropological Institute Vol.11 (2022)『人類学研究所 研究論集』第(Damon 1982: 228).

schedule. Yams should be planted according to theFig. 2 Yam house filled with yams, Trobriands

Pleiades (gumeaw). After February, when in the early

demonstration (Fig. 2). This period corresponds to theevening the Pleiades are some 45 degrees above thebeginning of Southeastern trade wind. During this time,western horizon, it is considered too late to plant yams.

a young girl’s initiation ritual is performed, and thisWhen yams mature, they become yellow. This is theseasonal cycle and ritual are related to navigation andreason why the people think that the Pleiades urinate on

the building of voyaging canoes for the Kula exchangeyams, if they do not mature by the heliacal rising of the(Austen 1939). The preparations for ocean voyages

Pleiades in early June. This suggests that February

were made in October and November, after new year,

marks the point after which it is too late to plant yams. It

called Milamala. Then, in mid-December, the islanders

is interesting that garden magic in the east should besailed east or south from Trobriand on the northwest

performed at dawn whereas in the west it is performed at

winds. The return journey happened from February to

dusk. This is probably an artifact of east/west orienta-

mid-April, when the weather calmed. Therefore, astro-tion to space rather than reference to important temporal

nomical phenomena, crop cycles, wind shifts, annual

factors.

ceremonies, and ocean voyages are all interconnected in

2 Manus

Trobriand culture.
Information concerning calendar use in and around

The Manus islanders paid most attention to the night

the Trobriand Islands is very confusing, with the newsky in the evenings, observing the constellations overyear falling at different times of the year separated by

the eastern and western horizon. When stars are visible

nearly four months, even on main island, Kiriwina.

further up in the sky, they were less carefully regarded.

However, when new year stars at the evening rise of

The appearance of tjasa (the Pleiades) marked the

Pleiades around late October or November starts, it isbeginning of the year; tjasa is translated as yar (year) in

linked to the outbreak of the palolo worm in Indonesia

Pidgin English. Time is counted in days and nights, and(see Furusawa’s chapter).

the new moon and the Pleiades count the year. The

On Muyuw Island of the Woodlark Islands, which lie

Pleiades year starts with the appearance of the Pleiades,

east of Trobriands, bwelim is a concept that corresponds

which coincides with the beginning of northwest

to our understanding of a solar year. It is divided into

monsoon, and twelve lunar months make up one year,

four parts, and most people of these islands can specify

without the days being counted precisely (Hoeppe 2000:

with precision what stars rise during these parts and how

30–31).

the sun and moon interact within and between these

In October/November, when ai (northwest monsoon,64sky, and due to this affinity, the influence of the winds
on its motion was evident.
At the beginning of the northwest monsoon season(October/November), a bright patch is visible in thenorthwest direction, when the Milky Way is stretching
the northwest monsoon in early May, the Milky Way
stretches from the southwest to the northeast. At the endof both monsoon seasons, the Milky Way is visible inthose directions at night into which the monsoonal
winds would have blown atmospheric clouds.
In between the ai and kup seasons, the Milky Way
stretches from north to south. It was believed to obstruct
the winds, causing the calm transition periods between
ai and kup. Only when it was pushed on by the winds, itwould turn and let them pass through (Hoeppe 2000:
33).

Fig. 3 Manus Constellation: “Shark bites Sringrey”(Hoeppe 2000: Fig. 2)

3 Wogeo, Schouten Islands
rainy season) begins, it is believed that sharks

The island of Wogeo in the Schouten Islands lie off(Sagittarius) bites a stingray’s tail (Scorpio), and tjasa

the northeastern coast of New Guinea. The main crops(the Pleiades) rises in the eastern evening sky (Fig. 3).

of the island are taro, yams, breadfruit, banana, nuts

The Milky Way stretches from north-northwest to

such as the canarium almond, and coconut palm. The

south-southeast. During this time, the sea is becomes

islands do not produce major crops such as yams inrough, and there is an abundance of fish. Since these fish

Massim or breadfruit in the Caroline Islands, and there

constellations set in the sea, the amount of fish increases.

is no ritual development surrounding their harvests. On

At this time yam and taro are also planted.

the other hand, other foods have their own importance

In March/April, the Milky Way blocks the ai wind,

on Wogeo.

and tjasa sets in the western evening sky. Fish constella-

The islanders prefer bananas and canarium almonds

tions rise out of the sea, and now the amount of fish

to other crops, but these are not staple foods. Breadfruit

decreases. In May, kup (southeast-Monsoon, dry

can be harvested all year round, but the main harvest

season) begins, and the Milky Way stretches fromseason is May and June, when it is replaced by taro as

northeast to southwest. In June/July, fish constellations

the main food source. The sago palm is also of additional

are again seen in the sky, and at the same time, the har-importance, and the Tahitian walnut weaka is also avesting period of yam begins. In September, the Milkyfavorite, but not a staple (Hogbin 1938).

Way blocks the kup wind, and fish constellations set

The most important seasonal phenomenon on theonce again into the sea (Hoeppe 2000: 29).

island is the monsoon season, which lasts fromThe sun’s seasonal motion northward and southward

November to April or May and is considered to be thewas thought to be due to the actions of the ai (northwest)

rainy season because of the constant rainfall with noand kup (southeast) winds respectively. These werechange in temperature. During this time the monsoon

regarded as being responsible for the motion of alllasts from November to April (with the palolo worm

celestial objects, and this idea is illustrated by the Milkyappearance at the beginning of the monsoon). April andWay’s annual motion. The Milky Way was believed to

May are quiet months when Tahitian walnut isconsist of clouds similar to clouds during the daytime

harvested.

65

Indigenous Calendar among Oceanic Seafarers

from north-northwest to south-southeast. At the end of

号（２０２２）

Research Papers of the Anthropological Institute Vol.11 (2022)『人類学研究所 研究論集』第11

Trade winds blows from mid-May to September(February), dap (March) and bagiau (April) months,(breadfruit harvested in May and June, and canarium

when the wabu and kame almond harvest takes place,from April (wabu) and (wasek) in July and August. Thenfollowed by the harvest of wasek. This is the kama

quiet period lasts from September to October.

(trade wind season, early August), and after the kama,

Here, staple foods are taro and banana, which are

the yavara (the monsoon season) begins, and in theavailable all year round. This eliminates the need for the

middle of the yavara season, the bariat season comesyam storehouses found in other Melanesian islands.

around again. In July and August, they sail to the main

Taro can be harvested five months after planting, but if

island on the southeast trade winds and return in

it is in the ground, it can last up to eight months. The

September and October, which is said to be a quiet time

taro fields are only used in emergencies. When the(Hogbin 1938: 139).

islanders go on a trading voyage to the main islands
every few years, they cannot work on their farms, butIIIthey can use the taro after they return. The voyage to theMicronesia

1 Kiribati

main islands would start in July and the voyagers would
return in September or October (Hogbin 1938: 133).

For the Kiribati (or Gilbert) Islanders who live in the

Although seasonality in the subsistence cycle was not

middle in the Pacific, star observation was very impor-significant, the busiest time was from April to the end oftant for both navigation and maintaining calendars.

June to the beginning of July, when the canarium

They referred to their indigenous astronomers asalmonds are harvested. This is a time of year when

tiamorau. These astronomers conceived of a system ofrituals tend to be avoided. There is no set time for

imaginary lines drawn on the sky by means of whichrituals, but the major rituals involving almonds are held

they could estimate the altitude of stars. They thought ofbetween July and September. The most common time

the sky as the “roof of voyaging,” the ridgepole offor rituals is late October or early November, when thewhich was the meridian, a line running from the northfull moon is seen, and the palolo worm lays its eggs.

point on the horizon through the zenith to the south

The seasons can also be read from the changing

point. They referred to the horizon as te tatanga, “theposition of the Pleiades baras, when girls undergo an

roof-plate.”

initiation ceremony. The girls perform the baras losa-

The sky roof was supported on upright rafters, oka,losa ritual of washing the Pleiades. This is a ritual inthree on the east and three on the west (Fig. 4). One end

which young men and women bathe and apply pigment

rested on the horizon, the other on the ridgepole orto their faces on the night of the waxing and full moon

meridian. The northern pair met at a point 24 degrees

to pray for proper growth and to ward off illness. This

north of the celestial equator where the Pleiades crossed

ritual begins in Bariat, the northernmost village on thethe meridian. The southern pair had their apex at a point

island, and it is believed that “This is the time of year

where Antares culminated, 26 degrees south of thewhen the Pleiades hangs over this part of the sky atequator (Grimble 1972).

nightfall” (Hogbin 1938: 138).

The middle pair of rafters did not coincide with the

The islanders stand on the shore of Bariat and lookequator and met in the zenith as one would expect, but

out to sea, observing the Pleiades. If they do not need to

had their apex where the star Rigel culminated, 8turn their heads to the right or to the left to see thedegrees south of zenith (Fig. 5). This indicates that

Pleiades, they believe this month to be February. After a

Gilbert Islanders originated in an area 8 degrees to 10

month, the Pleiades will hang over the village of Dap atdegrees south of the equator where Rigel passed throughdusk, and the rituals will begin there. Other villages,

their zenith (Makemson 1941: 107).

such as Bagiau, also seem to have their own rituals

Between the horizon and the meridian, and also paral-

depending on the position of the Pleiades.

lel to the horizon, the Gilbert Islanders imagine three

To summarize, the rituals are performed during bariat

crossbeams or purlins, forming four equal zones

66

Indigenous Calendar among Oceanic Seafarers

Fig. 4 Imaginary “rafter” in the Sky, Kitibati (Grimble 1972: $$$$)

Fig. 5 Kitibati Image of the Stellar Calendar (Makemson 1948: Fig. 4)abFig. 6 Traditional Meeting House (a) and its Roof Structure (b)67号（２０２２）

Research Papers of the Anthropological Institute Vol.11 (2022)『人類学研究所 研究論集』第11(Grimble 1972). The purlins were numbered from theweather with southeast trade wind sets in (February 16

eastern horizon to the meridian and down from theto April 1); (6) and (7) refer to aibwea, the first glimmer

meridian to the western horizon (Fig. 6). Each of theof light before dawn and a favorable time to start voyage

four zones formed on either side and bounded by the(April 2 to April 24). The fair-weather season for navi-

purlins and the rafters were thought to be divided into

gation lasts from Tukabu n Auti (February 16 to Marchtwo parts, the eastern half being called te marena ni bon10) to Mannawawa (August 28 to September 19), from(the interval of days), and western half known as nika-

the culmination of the Pleiades after sunset to the culmi-

vere (sacred enclosure).

nation of Antares at the same hour (Grimble 1972: 225
note 1).

The year began late in November or early in
December with the first appearance of the Pleiades after

2 Carolinian Islands, Micronesia

sunset, at an altitude of 10 to 12 degrees. The Pleiades
season ended when Rimwimata, Antares, was visible inIn the Carolinian Islands, the heliacal rise of a star

the same position June 15–20, when the tannki season

usually marks the beginning of the sidereal month

began. In the meantime, the Pleiades had climbed thebearing its name. The temporal sequence of star names

successive purlins as seen in early evening and wasis largely the same in all of the islands, and it is a proof

finally disappearing in the west (Makemson 1941:

that the calendars are based on relative right ascensions

107–108).

of stars (Goodenough 1953: 25). However, the number

The Gilbert Islanders divide their year into twoof sidereal months varies among the islands and theseasons: “Te Auti,” which lasts from early December toseveral schools of navigation. In the western Central

early June, and “Te Rimwimata,” which lasts from early

Caroline Islands, one year consists of twelve months,

June to early December. Each of these seasons is subdi-

but in eastern islands (Polowat and Satawal), one year

vided into eight shorter periods called bong, whose

consists of fourteen or fifteen months.

duration is determined by observation of the successive

There is also variation in the stars used. In these

altitudes of the seasonal star at the hour after sunset. The

instances, the choice falls between two stars of similar

first bong of “Nei Auti” lasts from the beginning of theright ascension, and there is a calendar which includes

year, ririki, until the cluster is seen to stand at the alti-

them both. With the exception of Crux (which appears

tude of the first purlin just after sunset. The second bongas a month name on Namonuito and Pulowat in place of

begins when the cluster is just past the first purlin at the

Corvus), all the stars used have declinations that do notsame hour; the third when it is past the second purlin;

greatly exceed the limits set by extreme north and south

the fifth when it is to westward of the ridge-pole; and sopoints of the eclipse (Goodenough 1953: 25).

on. This continues until the passing of the third purlin

In the Carolinian star calendars, however, researchers

westward after sunset until the eighth bong. The same

have observed that the number of seasons in a year

method is used in counting the bong of the Rimwimata

deviate widely from ten to eighteen. The number of days

season, the star Antares being used instead of thein a season also differs. Goodenough noted that the

Pleiades, and then tanki season begins (Grimble 1972:

astrological calendar is based on the knowledge of the224).

navigators, who observe the stars in great detail, which

Each bong is named after some natural phenomena.

results in years being counted as more than twelve or

For example: (1) “Te Kunei” (late November tothirteen months (Goodenough 1953). If we ask them

December 8) is a common noddy (Anous stolidus)

about the name of a particular month, some will answer

which is a better indicator for navigation than any otherthe name of the star that rises in the early part of theseason; (2) to (3) refer to common flies that infest vil-month, and others will answer the name of the star thatlages during these periods; (4) and (5) refer to when therises in the latter part of the month. If the time lapse, theclimate becomes gradually favorable to ocean voyage,navigator’s constellation could become eighteen

when the cluster passes the meridian at sunset, the fairmonths, or the same month could be called by different

68Table 1 Constellations in Indigenous Calendar on Chuuk(modified from Goodenough 2002: Table 8)

Chuuk Island’s people believed they could only countappears to lie from north to south in March and April,

on a good bread crop if the spirit essences of the fruit

which is the time when the people pray for the good fruit

came from the south each year and settled on their trees,(Goodenough 2002: 194).

leading them to sawit, which is the form the first visible

The summoner began his work in the traditional starbudding of fruit. The Milky Way (anenimey, “path ofmonth of Seeta and persisted continually through thebreadfruit”), marked the route by which the spirit

next star month of Naa (roughly from April to mid-May,essences came to Chuuk from the south. The cycle ofPegasi) leading up to the appearance of fruit on therituals performed by the breadfruit summoner was nec-

breadfruit trees (i.e. toward the end of the efen season ofessary to assure that these spirit essences would comenortheast trade winds and the beginning of the raasand provide an abundant harvest (Table 1).

season of Southwestern winds). Then follow months of

When the ancestors of the Chuuk People came to

March (Equuli), April (Pegasi), May (Andromedae β),Suuk (Pulusuk) under the leadership of Load ofJune (Andromedae α), and July (Pleiades). One year

Breadfruit (Sowumey), they found Suuk to be a barren

consists of sixteen months, and the last month would

island where no fruit trees were able to survive. The lord

come right after June solstice when Pleiades make helia-ordered them to bring him the outrigger float (taam)

cal rise.

from their canoes. He planted these floats, which weremade of breadfruit wood. The float took root and grew

IV Discussion

into breadfruit trees. This is the origin of breadfruit
summoning ritual; the ritual reenacts this incident

The calendars of the Austronesian voyagers in(Goodenough 2002: 193).

Oceania may have a common element inherited from

The ritual is performed in a special meeting place by

their ancestors in Southeast Asia. For example, the cal-men only, secluded off by hoisting leaves and flowers ofendar is based on the Pleiades and Antares, and is likely

a certain plants. Outrigger floats are buried vertically tobased on the relationship between the Milky Way andcreate a scene that reenacts the origin myth. In front of

the monsoons. However, adaptations on individual

the meeting house, the outrigger float of a canoe wasislands are different, such as whether to observe theburied upright in the ground to represent the buriedstars in the morning or in the evening. One of theoutrigger over which Lord Breadfruit had performed thereasons for this is that they moved from the northern

69

Indigenous Calendar among Oceanic Seafarers

original ritual on Suuk Islan (Pulusuk). The Milky Way

constellation names depending on the person.

号（２０２２）

Research Papers of the Anthropological Institute Vol.11 (2022)『人類学研究所 研究論集』第11Fig. 7 Hypothesized Calendar at Proto-Polynesian Language Stage(Kirch and Green 2001: Fig. 9.5)

hemisphere to the southern hemisphere, nearly 60(1) A yearly system consisting of alternation of wet

degrees of latitude at different times and thus began toand dry seasons (*taqu). In Western Polynesia, *taqusee celestial objects differently.

referred to the season of the yams, but in Eastern

There are two important natural phenomena related to

Polynesia, where yams are no longer cultivated, it has

the Oceania calendar: the alternation of the wet and dry

become an abstract term referring to the season or year.

seasons, and the constant change of winds (trade winds).

(2) Two seasonal divisions based on the appearance

The wet and dry seasons are related to agriculture andof the Pleiades in the eastern sky in the evening

food gathering, while the wind is closely related to navi-(acronitic rise) and in the eastern sky at dawn (heliacal

gation. In addition, the outbreak of the palolo worm wasrise). It is noteworthy that the two seasons of theimportant. This worm is distributed from the islands off

Pleiades corresponded to the planting of yams at thethe northeast coast of New Guinea and reaches as far as

beginning of the rainy season, around November, andSamoa and Futuna in western Polynesia. The impor-the harvesting at the beginning of the dry season, aroundtance of this worm as a calendar index can be inferred

June.

from the fact that in Samoa, it is used as the name of the(3) A year consisted of twelve or thirteen months

month that marks the start of the new year. Even in thebased on the age of the moon. The lunar year was cor-

Cook Islands and Tahiti, where the palolo is not distrib-

rected for the solar year with an intercalary monthuted, the name paroro was retained as the name of the(Kirch and Green 2001: 273).

new year month or constellation.
Concerning the Lapita culture, which is believed to

The question of when the year begins may also be ahave been the ancestor of Austronesian culture through-subjective one. In general, the acoustic or heliacal riseout Oceania, Kirch and Green suggest the followingof the Pleiades was the focus of Oceania voyagers. Thisfeatures of the prototype calendar at Proto-Polynesianis because it is related to the solstice of the sun andStage (Fig. 7).

conversely corresponds to the rise of Antares. The

70

ries of ancestors are projected to the night sky. The

would have differed from island to island, as shown bychanging modes of the night sky are synchronous withthe fact that Hawai‘i and Tahiti in Polynesia andthe seasonal cycle, and therefore to identify constella-

Aotearoa (New Zealand) and Rapa Nui (Easter Island)tions in the visible pattern of stars makes it possible toare reversed. The concept of a “new year” itself needs toattribute to them meanings which are in accordance withbe questioned. The year was marked by the harvesting,seasonal change. The construction of causal analogies

reaping, or planting of important foods, as well as the

between the everyday experience and constellations,direction of the wind, which varied from island to island

makes them meaningful as agents which bring about(and from crop to crop).

seasonal change (Hoeppe 2000: 35). Additionally, night
sky is a mnemonic device to remember and reexperi-

The rising or setting points of the constellations,ence ancestors’ mythical history (Kelly 2017).

together with the changes in the sun’s rising and falling
points, form the basis of orientation and seasonal views.

Acknowledgments

At the same time, the direction of the Milky Way corre-

Part of this paper is supported by Nanzan University Pache

sponds to changes in the wind.

Research Subsidy I-A-2 for the 2021 academic year.

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