Bangladesh / Bhutan / Cambodia / India

14

2015

The Fourteenth Regular Report

Maldives / Mongolia / Nepal / New ZealandACCU Nara International Correspondent
The ACCU correspondents periodically send reports on cultural heritage protection activities in which they have been
recently involved. This is a collection of fourteen reports submitted by international correspondents in the Asia-Pacificregion.

The Fourteenth Regular Report
Contents
Bangladesh

1

Bhutan7

Cambodia

10

India

12

Indonesia

17

Kazakhstan

19

Malaysia23

Mst. Naheed Sultana
The Extraordinary Beauty of Khalaram Datar Temple and Its Conservation

Karma Tenzin
Archaeological Investigation of Wangditse Lhakhang under Thimphu Dzongkhag

Chan Vitharong
Antiquity Documentation in Stung Treng

Kunkuma Devi Kishore
Historic Temple Towns of Tamilnadu – an Insight into Srirangam, Tiruchirapally (1st)Dewi Puspito Rini
Conservation of Metal Artifacts with Natural Citric Acid

Gulnaz Kulmaganbetova
Archaeological Research in the Territory of Shakhristan "The ancient city of Taraz" (1st to 19th centuries)

A Ghafar Bin Ahmad
Acoustic Treatment at St. Mary’s Cathedral, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

Maldives

28

Mongolia

30

Nepal

38

New Zealand

41

Philippines

46

Sri Lanka

53

Uzbekistan

61

Shiura Jaufar
Detailed Survey of R. Meedhoo Ancient Mosque and Its Boundary for“Coral Stone Mosques of Maldives towards World Heritage List” Project

Munkhtulga Rinchinkhorol
Some Results of an Archaeological Excavation at the “Ikh Burkhan”
Complex in Eastern Mongolia in June 2012

Suresh Suras Shrestha
Nepal and The Silk Roads Serial World Heritage Nomination

Matthew Schmidt
Project Njord: Declaration of the 1926-1932 Norwegian Whalers’ Base, Price’s Inlet,
Rakiura/Stewart Island as an Archaeological Site
A Southland Coastal Heritage Inventory Project (“SCHIP”) Cultural Heritage Project

Louella Solmerano Revilla
Preserving the Historic Pipe Organs in the Philippines: A Cultural Necessity

Rasika Dissanayaka
Architecture in Ancient Sri Lanka (1st Part)

Akmal Ulmasov
Documentation of Architectural Monuments of Uzbekistan

Bangladesh
Bangladesh

The Extraordinary Beauty of Khalaram Datar Temple and Its Conservation
Mst. Naheed Sultana, Assistant Director and Archaeologist
Department of Archaeology, Ministry of Cultural Affairs, Government of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh
In the middle of Bangladesh there is a district by thename of Dhaka, which is an important administrative
region. Dhaka was treated as a centre of ancient humanhabitation from the pre-Mughal period. “In the preMuslim period the present Dacca district was includedin the administrative unit of Vanga, which at times used
to be identical with Samatata and Harikela. After the fallof the Mauryas, a king named Chandravarman ruled thisregion (Faridpur-Dacca) in about the 4th century A.D.”(Gazetteers Dacca 1969:43) Indeed, this city acquired agood reputation in the Mughal period. In 1660, during
the reign of Emperor Jahangir, Islam Khan, the viceroy ofBengal, shifted the capital from Rajmahal to Dhaka. He
named it Jahangirnagor instead of Dhaka, after Emperor
Jahangir.
Geographical location: The Dhaka district shares borders
with Gagipur and Tangail to the north, Munsigang andRajbari to the south, the district of Narayanganj to theeast and Manikganj to the west. The main rivers flowing
through this district are Padma, Kaliganga, Dhaleswari,
Issamoti, Shitalakkha and Buriganga. Numerous
smaller rivers including Banshi, Turagh, Balu, Elamjani,
Elishamari, Tulshikhali and many major lakes including
Belay, Shaldhar, Labandhar, Churain, Damsharan and
Kiranjir Beel also exist within the region.
Upazila Nawabganj:
From very ancient times, the southern region of the
Dhaka district enjoyed great prosperity. Mr. Manriquewrote: “Many strange nations resort to this city on
account of its vast trade and commerce in great varietyof commodities, which are produced in profusion in therich and fertile lands of this region.” (Gazetteers Dacca
1969:448) ‘Ganj’ means market place. From the beginningof the Mughal period, Dhaka, Narayonganj, Munshiganj
and Nawabganj became an extensive business centre,with both domestic and foreign merchants. Innumerable
splendid architectural buildings were built in this areain the Mughal and British periods. These buildings were1

built by the local Zaminders and business magnatesof this country, who were pompous and lived very
luxuriously. Nawabganj Upazila (Thana) in the Dhaka
district was a very prosperous zone from ancient times.
‘Nawab’ means ruler of a territory or governor of a
district, and ‘Ganj’ means market place. So this area wasextremely rich and famous from very ancient times. For
this reason, countless ancient gigantic buildings andbuilding complex were built in this area and some ofthem still survive, retaining their extraordinary beauty andair of prosperity. Khalaram Datar temple is one of them.
Khalaram Datar temple:
The mighty river Padma flows nearby this temple towards
the south, with the river Isamoti also flowing very near
the temple towards the north. Water was the main meansof travel and business in ancient times. Consequently,
ports, business centers and architectural monuments were
established on the banks of rivers or around the rivers,
although all the rivers have recently either deflected theircourse or silted up. Khalaram Datar temple is situated in
the village of Kalakopa of Upozila (Thana) Nawabganj
in the district of Dhaka. It was built in the early British
period. Locally its name is ‘Khalaram Datar temple’.
Khalaram is a man’s name and ‘Datar’ means ‘kind andbenevolent’. Local myths say that one rich and powerful
Zaminder named Khalaram Datar built this temple. He
had a good reputation for his work in the area of publicwelfare and is therefore known as a ‘bountiful person’.
Khalaram Datar temple is a Hindu temple. The temple
was in an extremely dilapidated condition. The temple
complex was overrun by jungle because of heavy rainfall
and damp weather of this country. The local people did
not come to this area because of its dark, ugly and fearful
appearance.
Architectural features of the temple:
Ground floor: This temple is built according to an almost
square ground plan and it is 21.36 m in length from northBangladesh

and encircled by the other eight rooms. Around the main
prayer chamber there is a circumambulatory passage. The
prayer chamber is square in shape (measuring 4.67 m x
4.67 m) and it has four entrances on four sides. The northand south entrances have two staircases to enter and theother two have no staircases. This chamber has been built
on a high platform quite different from the other rooms.
A dome has been built in this high chamber which iscalled a Shikhara (pinnacle) type dome. The dome wasfounded on four squinches. The Shikhara of this temple
is 10.68 m high from foundation level. A lotus appears on
top of the pinnacle and a pitcher is found at the top of
the lotus.

to south and 18.28 m in breadth from east to west. Its
height is 4.57 m from ground level to the parapet. The
wall thickness of the ground floor is 1 m to 1.52 m. There
are 15 rooms including a central chamber in the middleof the ground floor. The central chamber is 4.30 m x
4.51 m. There are four corridors around this chamber.
Of these, the east and west corridors are long and theother two are comparatively smaller. The central chamber
has four entrances and the other 15 rooms encircle thischamber.
Every outer wall of this temple has five entrances to themain chamber. Of these, three entrances are very close
and are situated in the middle of the wall, and the othertwo are situated near the end of the wall. The roofs of
the rooms are built in flat vaulted style.
There is a single staircase in the south-east corner andtwo staircases side by side in the north-east corner of thetemple to go to the first floor.
First floor:
The ground plan of the first floor is completely different
from the ground floor. Every room is separated fromone another. The central chamber was used as the main
prayer chamber. It is situated in the middle of the 1st floor

Outside the main prayer chamber there are four
rectangular rooms (4.72 m x 2.83 m) in the middle andfour square rooms (2.83 m x 2.52m ) in the four corners.
The roofs of these rooms are dochala (two segmented)
and chau-chala (four segmented), and the roofs havebeen built in the ancient Bengal hut shape.
There are many stories and fables about this temple
found among the local people. Yet the extraordinary
architectural design and dynamic ornamentation attracts
numerous visitors and tourists to this temple every day.
Ornamentations: The artistic workmanship of this temple
is of such excellence that the temple bears testimony to
the wonderful artistic skills of that time. The outer wallsof the ground floor and inner walls of the first floor are
highly ornamented with various kinds of floral motifs,
geometrical designs, leaf designs, and with its parapet fullof stucco art.

2

Bangladesh
Conservation method:
Since the establishment of the temple nobody has taken
responsibility for its repair or preservation. After a longtime, the Department of Archaeology undertook a survey
and submitted a report with a strong recommendation
for protecting the monument to the ministry concerned.
The Ministry of Cultural Affairs then declared it as a‘protected monument’ in accordance with the Antiquity
Act of 1968 (as amended in 1976). At that time it wasin a very dilapidated condition. After the declaration asprotected monument, first the Department of Archaeology
completed the proper documentation, and after that a
project has been undertaken regarding the preservationand conservation of this temple.

minimum of twice a day. After seven days this preparedmixture became ready to use on the plaster of both theinner and outer walls of the temple. The same method
was used for the binding material. Very experienced andskilled craftsman and masons were appointed to execute
this work. They completed the stucco and ornamentation
work very successfully.
Ziaul Haidar, Senior Draftsman, drafted all drawings ofthe temple under the supervision of Junior Architect
Mahfuj Alam. Abdur Razzaque, the conservator (SubAssistant Engineer) of this project is very experienced
and efficient, and carried out the conservation work
very successfully. During the conservation the author
supervised the work as an archaeologist.

Many Banyan trees and weeds had grown up around theground floor, the parapet wall, the top of the roof andthe pinnacle of the first floor. In short, the temple wasseverely damaged. All the trees and weeds have now
been removed by chemical treatment.
The original size of the bricks of this temple is 8 cm x
8 cm x 1.5 cm. However, modern bricks are not of thesame shape and size. So modern bricks have been used
after cutting and dressing. Lime, shurki (brick dust) andmolasses have been used as binding material, and lime,
shurki, molasses and catechu have been used as plaster.
Departmental chemists carried out a chemical test on boththbinding and plaster materials. After the examination,
they submitted a report ascertaining the proportions to
be used for both the plaster and binding materials. The
conservators used all materials according to their report.
First the lime, shurki, molasses and catechu were mixed
thoroughly in a reservoir with water according to therecommended proportion. The mixture was kept in thereservoir for about seven days and mixed manually a3

Before conservation:

Bangladesh

During conservation:

4

Bangladesh
After conservation:

5

Bangladesh

References:
1. East Pakistan District Gazetteer Dacca, 1969, East Pakistan Government, Dacca
2. Ancient Monuments in East Pakistan, Syed Mahamudul Hasan, 1970.
3. Dhakar Itihash (written in Bangla) Jatindra Mohon Roy, 2007
4. Dictionary of Archaeology, 1967, Philosophical Library, INS, New York5. Manchitre Banglar Itihash, 2011, A.K.M. Shanawaj and Masud Imran

6

Bhutan
BhutanArchaeological Investigation of Wangditse Lhakhang under Thimphu Dzongkhag
Karma Tenzin, Architect
Division for Conservation of Heritage Sites, Department of Culture, Ministry of Home and Cultural Affairs
1. Background
Wangditse Lhakhang is said to have been built by the
9th Desi, Druk Rabgye (1707-1719). The book “Views ofMedieval Bhutan” by Michael Aris, based on the diary anddrawings of Samuel Davis (1783), describes the lhakhang
as a villa of the then 18th Desi Jigme Sengye (1776-1788).
A sketch of the front view of the lhakhang shows a threestoried structure which has a jamthog roof with jabzhi
and sertog over it. The rabseys and windows depicted areapparently different from how it is now.
There is no record of any natural or man-made disasterclaiming the structure, but it is said that the lhakhang waspartly renovated at the time when a new tashichodzong
was built in the 1960s. According to the present caretaker,
the rabseys on the front were changed to the present
design during that time, converting the greater northernpart of the structure to two stories to house the height of
the Buddha statue installed there. The roofing was further
renovated in 2003 and restored to its present design witha three-tiered jabzhi roof.
Since the structure suffered substantial damage dueto the September 2011 earthquake, the Wangditse
Lhakhang is currently under renovation. However,while the renovation work was proceeding at the site,archaeological stone foundation wall remains werediscovered as anticipated from the Samuel Davis sketch
and the nature of the layout of the structure. Therefore,a team from the Archaeology Section under the Division
for Conservation of Heritage Sites, Department of Culture
was deputed to carry out a thorough investigation anddocumentation of the archaeological findings.
2. Lhakhang before renovation works
The lhakhang is a square three-storied building built withstone masonry and mud mortar. The thickness of thewalls varies from 1.5 to 2.4 m. The main entrance to thelhakhang is from the east. The main shrine room, marked
with red dotted lines (see Figs. 1 and 2), is a double
height room. The process of age, decay, weatheringand almost absolute lack of maintenance have gradually
weakened the structure and steadily worsened thecondition of various parts and elements of the lhakhang,such as masonry walls, timber kachens and joists, andflooring timber, as well as zhali, wall paintings andso on. The September 2011 earthquake caused further
substantial damage to the structure. Fig. 3a is the view ofthe lhakhang before renovation.
3. Archaeology investigation and discoveries
As mentioned earlier, while the renovation works
were proceeding at the site, some remains of the stone
foundation were discovered in a southwest and northwest
direction (see Figs. 4, 8, 9, 10, 11) surrounding the main
inner sanctum. Fig. 4 is a plan showing the part of the7existing walls saved during the renovation, the part of thewalls dismantled for the renovation and the old remainsof the stone foundation discovered during the excavation.
The nature of the layout of the old stone foundationthat was discovered, which perfectly connects with theexterior wall (highlighted in yellow) surrounding theinner sanctum or the main shrine room (highlighted inblue), clearly shows that there existed a circumambulation
room surrounding the main shrine room. Further,
the remains of the cham holes on the outer facing ofnorthern and western walls and the remains of the zhali
flooring (see Fig. 5) between the inner sanctum and theold remains of the foundation justifies the existence of theroom surrounding the shrine room. Moreover, one canalso draw the conclusion from the Samuel Davis Sketch(1783) (see Fig. 6), especially from the window openings,
that the lhakhang was bigger and more symmetrical thanthe present one.
In addition, one can also more or less conclude from thesketch that there existed one more story on top of thepresent one from the position and height of the openings
and the kemar band level. However, one can finallyconclude that there existed one more story, according tothe onsite evidence, as one can even now see the zhali
flooring and traces of kadens (see Fig. 7) on the roof
floor. Further the thickness of the wall at roof level is also
large.
Conclusion
Wangditse Lhakhang under Thimphu Dzongkhag, whichdates back to the 18th century, and said to have been
built by the 9th Desi, Druk Rabgye, is one of the mostimportant heritage sites in the country. The lhakhangsuffered substantial damage due to the September 2011
earthquake and is currently under renovation. The
proposal of the renovation works includes rebuilding theexterior southern and western walls, and to build similar,
additional walls in the north and east in line with thearchaeological findings and discoveries. The renovation
works are being executed by Thimphu Dzonkhag
facilitated by the Division for Conservation of Heritage
Sites under the Department of Culture, Ministry of Homeand Cultural Affairs.
Glossary
Wangditse = Name of the present site
Dzongkhag = District
Lhakhang = Temple
Thimphu = Name of place
Jamthog roof = Style of roofing
Jabzhi roof = Style of roofing
Sertog = P innacle placed on top of the roof of dzongs, monastries and royalbuildings.
Rabseys = Large window opening
Kachen = Large timber pillar
Zhali = Traditional flooring with rammed earth and pebbles
Kemar = Red band on top of dzongs and religious structures.
Kaden = Base of a kachen

BhutanFig. 1 Ground floor plan

Fig. 2 First floor plan

Fig. 3 Second floor plan

Fig. 3a North west view of lhakhang

Fig. 4 Plan showing existing walls, walls dismantled and old remains of stone
foundation

Fig. 5 -Shows the remains of Cham holes on the outer facing of northern walland the Zhali flooring at 1.45m below the present ground level (sector E)

8

BhutanFig. 6 -Sameul Davis Sketch (1783)

Fig. 7 Zhali flooring and shape of kaden on top of roof floor

Fig. 8 Old remains of stone foundation discovered on the western side
(2.8m thick wall)Fig. 9 Corner old remains of stone foundation discovered(at junction of west and north wall)Fig. 10 Corner old remains of stone foundation discovered(at junction of east and north wall)9Cambodia
Vitharong Chan, Vice-Chief of Antiquities Management Office
Department of Antiquities, General Department of Cultural Heritage, Ministry of Culture and Fine Arts
Introduction
Stung Treng is located in the northern part of Cambodia.
The geography of Stung Treng is characterised by the
confluence of three rivers: Mekong, Se Kong and Se San(Sre Pok). Due to this rich geographical feature, Khmer

Cambodia

Antiquity Documentation in Stung Treng

ancestors had built a number of religious monumental
structures nearby the banks of those rivers (Figs. 1 & 2).
We could find many archaeological sites in that area.
Scholars believe those major sites related to the early preAngkor period around the 6th and 7th centuries CE.

Fig. 1: Map of Stung Treng and archaeological sites.

Fig. 2: View from Se Kong to Stung Treng City.

Documentation work
The Ministry of Culture and Fine Arts issued a declaration
to local people who have kept cultural items to informthe officials in order to have the items inscribed in
the national inventory list. As part of the digitized
documentation of Khmer antiquities, Stung Treng is oneof the major provinces in the project. This work has
been accomplished through cooperation between the
Department of Antiquities and the Stung Treng Provincial
Department of Culture and Fine Arts. The work is being
carried out in situ in four major areas: Ba Deum, Kantuy
Ko, Ba Chong (including Phnom Theat) and Thala
Borivat.
With the in situ investigation, a numbers of movable
objects can be listed and inventoried under various
categories such as decorative lintels (Fig. 3), pedestals(in sets), sacred drainage outlets (Figs. 4 & 5), statues
and stone inscriptions. Identification of each object

is important to prove its authenticity. Therefore,
identification is included in the digital photography,
including the dimensions and provenance of each object(Fig. 6). For inscriptions, ink rubbings have also been
done as part of this documentation (Figs. 7 & 8). Those
artefacts can be dated back to the Bronze and Iron ages
towards the Angkor period (802-1432 CE). However, themost decorative lintels can be classified in the Sambor
Prei Kuk style (early 7th century CE).
As a result of this work, declaration of the objects’authentication and the form of national documentation
required have been done. This documentation will bevery useful for academicians and conservators in the
future, and will be able to answer questions on themonuments and history of Cambodia.
However, another goal of this project is to protect all
Khmer antiquities from illicit trafficking. To accomplish

10Cambodia
11

those objectives, there are many prerequisites that need
to be achieved, such as making a general digitizedrecord of Khmer antiquities throughout Cambodia, andmoving those valuable objects to safe and secure places.
Additionally, the various departments should urge local
people to participate in the action being taken to fightagainst illegal digging and the movement of items.
Furthermore, in this project, educating people who live
close to the heritage is the most important thing that canbe done to prevent illicit trafficking and protect Khmer
heritages. Khmer heritage can not be protected without
their cooperation.

Fig. 3: Decorative lintels from sites in Thala Borivat.

Fig. 4: Drainage outlet with Makara head, Ba Deum.

Fig. 5: Part of a drainage channel, Thala Borivat.

Fig. 6: In situ work.

Fig. 7: Inscription rubbing at a local residence.

Fig. 8: Inscription rubbing in situ.

Acknowledgements
This report would not have been possible without thecooperation of Mr Khan Mony, an expert from the
Department of Antiquities, and the staff of Stung Treng
Provincial Department of Culture and Fine Arts.

IndiaIndia

Historic Temple Towns of Tamilnadu – an insight into Srirangam, Tiruchirapally(This article is the first in a series where I intend to present excerpts from my research and study of the temple town of Srirangam in the State of Tamilnadu)
Kunkuma Devi Kishore, Architect and Conservation Consultant
Good Earth Office, Hyderabad, India
Historic urban areas, including cities, towns andhistoric centres, are a product of centuries of evolving
urbanization. They embody the values of traditional
urban cultures and are an expression of the diversity ofsocieties through the passage of time. These valuable
cultural resources are threatened, physically degradedand damaged by the impact of urban development –WASHINGTON CHARTER 1987
This first in a series is a brief introduction to the historic
towns of India and the temple towns of Tamil Nadu,
and the threats they face to their future existence. The
negative impact of urban development on historic cities
was an important subject of discussion in the international
arena in the 1980s. As early as 1987, the growing needto conserve them from urban decay and inner blight wasrecognized by ICOMOS, which deemed it necessary to
draw up an International Charter for Historic Towns and
Urban Areas.
With a history of more than five thousand years, thehistoric settlements in India have today also come into
the limelight for similar reasons. India is a country ofdiverse cultures. The regional variations in language,
religion, God forms, food habits, dress, festivals and fairs,
dance forms and music are so pronounced that they have
had a profound influence on the religious structures,
housing and settlement patterns. An amalgamation ofseveral diverse factors in varying proportions has givenrise to many typologies of historic towns. They are theproducts of a continuously evolving culture, influenced
largely by political developments, religious ideologies andgeographical features. A union of foreign influences andnative practices has rendered a unique identity to all theseurban areas. These urban settlements have traditionallybeen the focal points of creative developments in society,the places where people have met and where newideas and activities have been stimulated and sustained.
They have been heavily overlaid with centuries ofvarying cultures, nonetheless imbibing all of them with

One of the biggest threats to historic towns is demolition of historic housing
stock and construction of apartments

an existing cultural pattern, and continuously enriching
it. Apart from the above factors that have enriched theculture of an urban settlement, what renders it a unique
identity is the existence of different neighborhoods within
the same town, based on ethnic, occupational and caste
differentiations. Another defining character of these
settlements is the quality of life rendered to the people
in the past—housing design, hygiene and sanitation
conditions, traffic regulations and circulation, open spaces
for environmental quality and social interaction and thecare with which expansion of towns was undertaken.
What has evolved is a complex cultural matrix, amidst
the network of which lies an amalgamation of beauty andquality—a legacy of time.
There is a whole genre of them, in the form of living
cities, towns, and villages that are spread all over thecountry. We have king’s cities (Delhi, Jodhpur, Tanjore),God’s cities or temple towns (Ujjain, Puri, Kumbakonam),myth cities (Ayodya, Benaras, Mathura), trade centres(Agra, Pondicherry, Mattancheri), port towns (Kolkatta,
Kandla, Muziris), hill stations (Simla, Mussoorie, Ooty)
and a separate category of composite cities, which is a
judicial synthesis of many of these. The list of historicurban settlements in India is too large to be enumerated
here, and those mentioned above are only a piecemeal
example of the countless ones that have evolved
over five thousand years. These historic cities are aninvaluable living cultural resource. As an impact of theongoing urban development that has been around formore than one hundred years now, these cities are being
forced to gradually shed all their cultural values, heritage
components and enhanced quality of life, and eventuallyperish through urban decay and degradation of all theirfacets, thus losing their respective identities. The historic
towns are undergoing tremendous transformation at
both the macro and micro levels—the settlement andthe building levels. The traditional customs, beliefs andpractices are all changing, and a change in the wholesystem has triggered the steady loss of identity.

Slum developments along the historic fabric is another major threat

12IndiaMost historic cores are overcrowded and congested
today. The rich and influential have moved out into better
locales, leaving behind their cultural assets to rot away.
Those who remain try to create an atmosphere within—which their rich counterparts have created elsewhere—with the limited resources they have. As a result, an urban
core is transforming into a warehouse of commercial
enterprises that try to accommodate themselves into
spaces that were never designed for those purposes. Thishas brought in lots of traffic, congestion and pressure on
infrastructure. These structures have adapted themselves
meticulously to pressures in the past; however the impactof ever-changing modern developments has taken its toll.

The hygiene and sanitation conditions cannot get any
worse, and there is overall degradation in the quality oflife.

Houses and other public/private buildings encroach the historic monuments

The historic monuments are lost amidst the new developments on either side

The rich cultural resource now remains a mere physicalentity that has lost its potential to resist any alien elementthat brings with it destruction of its values and merits.
The tangible and intangible cultural resources associatedwith any historic city are being irreversibly destroyed
with every fresh phase of new developments. Thevery sensitive temple towns are no exception to thisdestructive pressure.

A conceptual sketch showing how temple towns evolve concentrically around atempleMap of Tamilnadu showing the important rivers along which
important historic towns are seen disbursed

A map of the Kaveri river delta that has the maximum concentration of historic temple towns
and other historic towns in Tamilnadu

13

IndiaA conceptual plan of the temple towns of Kanchipuram (multiple temples centric) and Madurai (mono temple centric

The state of Tamilnadu is popularly known as the ‘Land
of Temples’ in India. This geographical region has someof the oldest living historic settlements in the country.
They are very complex in nature and have been uniquely
influenced by a single nucleus—the temple—whether
they were royal, pilgrim or commercial centres. Some ofthem owed their inception and existence to the temples
built by the kings and their nobles of the Pallava, Chola,
Pandya, Vijayanagara and Nayak dynasties. Some ofthese cities were conceived as comprehensive wholes—asingular grand design—while many others have evolved
as a special settlement typology, and a unique historic
town/city over a period of one thousand five hundredyears under the varying influences of religion, myth,
politics, trade and commerce.
A study of these temple towns reveals much about therelationship between the physiographical features of theregion and the nature of the cities evolved. Tamilnadu
is bound by the Eastern Ghats to the west and the Bayof Bengal to the east, drained by four major rivers—
Palar (N), Kaveri (Centre), Vaigai and Tamarabarani (S).
The Kaveri delta, along with its many tributaries anddistributaries in the heart of Tamil country, has the largest
concentration of temple-centric settlements, which havebeen patronized widely by rulers of all dynasties over a
thousand years.
According to urban geographer Jan Pieper, a religious
town is composed of three architectural levels of
increasing perceptual complexity—the basic urban
elements, their arrangement according to rituals andactivities to achieve a spatial configuration, and theirrefinement through visual and perceptional systems ofspatial mediation. The previous article published in the
ACCU NARA International Correspondent Reports booklet
covered the ‘Role of Festivals in Shaping the Urban Spacesof the Temple Towns of Tamilnadu’- an essential study forunderstanding any religious town in India.
The plan of any temple town in Tamil Nadu corresponds
to the plan of its nucleus—the temple. In answer to thegateways of the temple are the gate towers of the town;
the spacious paths and corridors encompassing thetemple constitute the counterparts of the streets aroundthe royal castle; the fine alleys that lead to the temple

14

Indiaform the prototypes of the main crossways of the town;
while the girdle of the wall and the Pradakshina pada(circumambulatory pathway) is the boulevard goingaround the city where the presiding deity in its chariot
circumambulates and offers darshan (auspicious sight) toall devotees.

the significance and values of these rich cultural centres,
because their vulnerability is leading to the loss ofheritage. A study of the factors that weaken the symbiotic
relationship between the temple and the town, theirpattern of action and the resulting conditions should beanalyzed before undertaking conservation measures.

The pilgrims congregate in the mandapa (pillaredpavilion) of the temple that answers to the council houseof the city. Every temple is provided with reservoirs,
wells, tanks, drains, rest rooms, pillared halls, kitchen,and small supplementary temples at the corners of thecompound, which is well provisioned with granaries,
stalls and even markets. Here and there stands a mangoor banyan tree, even within the compound, but thetrees of the city are mainly represented by the imposing
and magnificent stone colonnades of the houses of thesurrounding settlement. Even as the royal castle is erectedon the bank of a large tank around which the city grows,
so in front of the temple is a small tank, the water ofwhich is held sacred.

The insensitiveness of the planners and development
authorities have led to lack of integration of new
proposals with the existing historic fabric. In the past
hundred years, there has not been a single attempt toframe coherent policies that would incorporate the newinto the old, without any negative impacts on either. A
lack of understanding of the evolution, functioning andtransformation of these settlements over a period of timeby the development and planning authorities has led toconsiderable damage and, in many cases, loss of heritage.
Today, many parts of the world have awakened to thisthought, and conservation, future development and use
decisions in their historic cities are carried out with regard
to their cultural significance and values. The ‘Value-based
approach is much talked about internationally and India
is also on the path to assessing its historic buildings andprecincts’ values and significance that guide conservationand development interventions.

These qualities render a complex nature and a unique
identity to the temple towns of Tamilnadu—one that has
to be understood fully before the introduction of any
contemporary element into it. The symbiotic relationshipshared between the temple and the settlement around
it, along with the dynamics of the whole system, is quite
well researched; however, what is lacking is the weavingof this knowledge and the traditional environment withthe larger growth patterns of the city.

15

It is important to understand the factors that contribute to

The temple town of Srirangam in Tamilnadu located in the
Kaveri delta, with its grand Sri Ranganathaswamy temple
complex (often referred to as the largest functioning temple
in the world) as the nucleus, is a perfect representative ofthe typology of temple towns in Tamilnadu, and the next
article will briefly cover what makes it so unique and themethodology followed for its study.

There are rules to be followed while constructing them that determines theirsizes, type of carving, shape and colours chosen to paintThe entrance gateways of the temple complex and the surrounding
settlement succeeding one anotherRow houses as historic housing stock in temple towns

Pillared pavilions as congregational spaces for rituals and festivals

IndiaTemple tanks and community tanks are common features in temple towns
and bear high religious and social significanceRow houses as historic housing stock in temple towns

The chariot procession is a major urban space/spatial disposition
determinant in any temple town

A building use plan of the temple town of Srirangam with the Sri Ranganathaswamy temple complex in the core16

Indonesia
Indonesia

Conservation of Metal Artifacts With Natural Citric Acid
Dewi Puspito Rini, Archaeologist
Heritage Conservation Office of Serang, Ministry of Education and Culture
After the discovery of metals in prehistoric times, thework of humans became easier than before. The tools for
hunting and farming that originally used stone and wood
were replaced with metal tools. The earliest type of metalfound in material artifacts was a kind of natural copper(native copper). This type of copper was not obtained
through mining copper ore. The technique was a very
simple process that involved only forging to obtain thedesired shape (Smith, 1957). At that time the annealing
technique was not yet known. It was a process of heatingor burning objects in order to make them more malleable,
so that the objects could be easily forged. This is possible
due to the soft nature of native copper. However, throughlong experience, humans finally discovered the techniqueof melting so that copper could be cast (Wheeler et al.,1978).

reasons, the use of natural materials to conserve metal
artifacts is recommended because the cost is relatively
low, and they are easy to obtain.
Citric acid, which is a kind of weak organic acid, can befound in the natural environment around us, especiallyin the leaves and fruits of plants of the genus Citrus(citrus family) such as lemons, limes, oranges, and othermembers of the citrus family. Citric acid is also present infruit juices such as pineapple, passionfruit, coconut water,
tomato, and cherry. In pineapple, especially, the acidcontent of citric acid is about 87%, which is higher thanthe others.

With the development of their intelligence, humans in
the past successfully combined copper with other metals
to produce bronze and brass. The discovery of a type ofmetal alloy produced better quality than copper. At thattime, metal technology developed in stages, from simple
technology to more advanced technology. The next stage
was the discovery of ferrous metals.
Besides the metal artifacts mentioned above, gold (Au)is also widely found in artifacts and decorations. Goldis a type of soft metal, which is easy to handle. It canbe pounded into very thin plates without having to
be heated. For artifact jewelry, gold is usually mixed
with other metals to form alloys. The metals that are
mixed with gold include copper, silver (Ag), or both ofthem. Gold mixed with copper creates a reddish goldcolor, while a mixture of silver and copper makes awhitish gold color. Not every area in the world had thesame metallurgical development as mentioned above.
Moreover, the timing of the presence of metal in eachregion has not been the same.

Lime and pineapple, some natural citric acid sources

The conservation team of the Archaeological Site Museumin Old Banten, which is one of several divisions underthe Heritage Conservation Office of Serang Indonesia, hasbeen trying to conserve the keris (dagger) using naturalingredients that contain citric acid. Indonesia’s keris has
been inscribed on the UNESCO Representative List of
the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity since 2008
(originally proclaimed in 2005). There are two kinds ofmetal that are used in making the keris, which are ironand steel. To make it lighter, the empu (keris expert)
always combines these basic ingredients with othermetals.

The damage that most often occurs to metal artifacts
is corrosion. The factors that influence and accelerate
the corrosion of metals are water, air, and soil. Metal
directly in contact with oxygen (in the air) will be
more susceptible to corrosion. The more humid theenvironment, meaning the more oxygen in it, the more
likely metal corrosion will occur.
There are several ways metal artifacts can be conserved,
and of course we have to choose the safest way for each
artifact. Citric acid is known as a powerful conservationmaterial for cleaning metal cultural heritage objects. In
this case, citric acid works as a chelating (towing) Fe 3+
ions in the rust, so that rust can be dissolved in citricacid. However, citric acid which is produced in a factory,
even in small quantities, will adversely affect objects,
environments, or even the conservator. Besides the safety

17

Rusty daggers were soaked in coconut water

The materials used to conserve the daggers at Old Banten
Site Museum were coconut water and lime juice. The

Indonesia

daggers were then rinsed with running water until they
were completely clear of the lime juice and coconut
water. Then the daggers were dried. The results werequite satisfactory. The rust that had originally been
attached to the daggers had disappeared.
Due to their value, it is important to be careful whenconserving cultural heritage objects. Therefore, the local
wisdom that has been left by our ancestors should be
explored and assessed for cultural heritage preservation
efforts.

The daggers were rubbed with lime

rusty daggers were soaked in coconut water for 24 hours.
After being soaked, the daggers were rubbed with lime ,and brushed gently using a toothbrush.

References:
Smith, Morton C. 1957. Metallurgy. New York: Harper &Brothers.
Wheeler, Tamara Stech, Robert Maddin, James Muhly.
1978. Ancient Metallurgy: Materials and Techniques.
Journal of Metal 31 (9): 16 - 18.

After the rust on the daggers had been cleaned off, theThe daggers, before and after conservation18

Kazakhstan
Kazakhstan

Archaeological Research in the Territory of Shakhristan "The ancient city of Taraz"(1st to 19th centuries)
Gulnaz Kulmaganbetova, Research AssociateKazarchaeology LLP
The process of studying the cultural property sites of the
Kazakh people has continued in Kazakhstan. Remarkably,
this process is not limited to archaeological excavations.
Scientific archaeological research is more often carriedout with the aim of preserving and presenting the cultural
heritage of the Kazakh people through preservation
and restoration. In the future, these monuments will be
used as objects for the development of tourism. Thus,
there has been a radical revision of attitudes towards
ancient monuments. Earlier archaeologists performed
excavations of archaeological sites which led to the totalor partial destruction of the monument in order to obtainhistorical information. Now project administrators are
required to perform archaeological excavations for further
preservation measures and presentation of the cultural
heritage of our nation.
A good example is the large-scale research work begunin the territory of the city of Taraz. Taraz city has acenturies-long history, and cultural layers starting fromthe first century BC lie under the modern buildings of thecity.

A program developed by the current regional
administration aims at improvement of the central partof the modern city. To achieve this, the dilapidated
bazaar buildings of the Soviet period were demolished.
Ancient cultural layers of the city were located under the
bazaar buildings. According to the approved project, it isplanned to build here an archaeological park illustrating
all stages of life of the ancient city.
Ancient Taraz stands on the banks of the Talas Riverin the central part of the modern city of Taraz in the
Zhambyl region, Kazakhstan.
Historically, the Talas Valley, with a favorable climate andvarious natural resources, has represented a convenientarea for development by humans. Monuments of Talas
Valley cover a large chronological range, from Neolithic
sites to the monuments of the 20th century.
The first ancient mentions of the city are found in therecords of the Chinese traveler, Zhang Qian, travelingthrough Central Asia along the Great Silk Road.
Mentions of the Battle of Talas—the battle involving

Location of Тaraz

19

Greek sources note that the city of Talas had economic
and political relations with major states—Byzantium,
Persia, India, and China—in an effort to control the GreatSilk Road.
The struggle between Persia and Byzantium for control
over the trade routes led to war and extra manpower
requirements. Byzantium was looking for allies to help
achieve victory over the Persians, and therefore sent
messengers to the Western Turkic Dizabulu Kagan,
Zemarh Cilicia. Simultaneously, Persia sent an embassy to
the Turks. But Dizabul sided with Byzantium.
The migration of significant numbers of the Sogdianaristocracy to Taraz in the year 580, as well as
suppression of the rebellion in Bukhara described by
Nershahi in his "History of Bukhara," indicates the serious
role played by Taraz in the political life of these regions.
The records of the philosopher Xuanzang, traveler of theTang Dynasty, who visited the land of the Western Turkic
Khanate, also contain information about the city of Taraz.
He characterizes Taraz, as a significant trading center"where merchants from different countries lived".
Tribes and peoples of the Western Turkic Khanate in thehistory of the Talas Valley played a significant role in thedefeat of the Persians, both on the side of Byzantium inthe west and the Arabs in the east, and in the processesof statehood formation and establishment of feudal
relations within the country.
The stele erected in memory of Kyultegin has an
inscription mentioning that the representatives of themilitary aristocracy from the Talas Valley were invited to
the funeral of Kyultegin.
In 766, the Talas Valley was occupied by Karluks. It thencame under the control of the Karakhanids during thereign of which Taraz became a major economic centerand capital city of the entire Karaganid state.
Further political developments in the Talas Valley weresuccessively associated with the Karakitais, Naimans,and Mongols, which had a detrimental impact on theeconomy and local cultural development.
William de Rubruk in his "Journey to the Eastern Parts"
mentioned the Mongol conquest of the Talas Valley andin particular the city of Taraz. Robbery and destructionof cities undermined the urban life of the Talas Valley.
Urban culture was in decline, and some city-settlements
ceased to exist.
Today, the traces of the ancient city of Taraz are fully
built-up, and only according to the information the 1930s
can one can imagine how the ruins of the ancient city
would have looked like.

Excavations of Taraz city were initiated in 1938 by theProfessor A.N. Bernshtam, who was in charge of the
Semirechensk archaeological expedition. Archaeologists
such as E.I. Ageev, T.N. Senigova, and M.S. Merschiev
have worked here in the past 60 years.

Kazakhstan

northern Huns led by Chzhichzhi-shanyu together with
Kangyui cavalry against the combined forces of Han
China and Usuns—are widespread in the literature.

The eventful life of the ancient city of Taraz is stillof interest to scientists. In this regard, archaeologicalresearch on the territory of Shakhristan and the ancient
city of Taraz was renewed.
Shakhristan covers the most extensive area of thesettlement of 420 m x 420 m. The walls of Shakhristan
are connected to the citadel on the northern side, and theremaining three sides of the western, eastern, southernparts of the Shakhristan have gates.
The aim of the Shakhristan excavations was to obtain
information about cultural and chronological belonging,stratigraphy, planigraphy and other features of themonument.
The overburden excavation works were solid. Culturaldeposits were cleared using round-pointed shovels withcross edges and brushes, knives and other stripping tools.
Accumulation of ceramics, debris of vessels, tools, jewelry
and other indicative artifacts were numbered, marked
on the plan and recorded in an inventory indicating thedepth of occurrence and other features. The main mass ofmaterials was packed with an indication of the conditionand place of occurrence. After being photographed,the finds were removed, and another layer of soil was
removed.
A few fragments of ceramics, wood embers and animalbones were found during cleaning, sometimes mixed
with modern waste such as fragments of glass, debris of
metal products and other materials.
Since the ancient city lies beneath asphalt, at the
beginning of the excavation the asphalt pavement wasdismantled using a front loader, and the ballast bed wasremoved.
The long side of the excavation was focused on an eastwest line. The total area of the excavation was 875 sq. m.
When the ballast and construction layers were removed,
debris of dishes was found, most of which was similar tothe ceramics from the cultural layer, fragments of metal
products, animal bones and other surface material.
A rounded spot with diameter of 1 m was revealed
near the eastern edge in the course of clearing the site.
Fragments of pottery, animal bones, and wood embers
were recorded in the pit filling.
Continuing the clearing at a distance of 4.3 m from theeastern edge, we found the contours of a building ofstone and baked bricks, which were found to be theremains of the complex construction. The long side of theconstruction’s walls is arranged in a north-south directionand extends beyond the excavation area to the south.
Looking ahead, it should be noted that perhaps we are20

Kazakhstan

dealing with a U-shaped or closed type complex. The
approximate area of the complex is 436.6 sq. m.
The outer wall is composed of 3-4 rows of granite stones
and has a width of 1.3-1.9 m. The height of the stone wallis 0.4 m. The stone wall consists of large flat processed
flagstones. Based on the thickness, it can be assumed thatthe wall also performed a defensive function. The internallongitudinal wall of the construction is located at a
distance of 2.5 m to the west from the first wall. The wallis built of burnt, laid flat bricks with sizes of 26 x 15 x 3
cm to 30 x 15 x 5 cm. These two longitudinal walls are
divided with clutches of stones and form a long structurewith four cell-type rooms. Room number 1 - 3.1 x 3 m,
has a subsquare shape. The northern edge is clean. In
the southwestern part of the room there is no brickwork.
Room number 2 – 2.1 x 2.5 m has a subrectangularshape, the long side being oriented east-west. Room
number 3 – 2 x 2.5 m has a subrectangular shape, thelong side being oriented east-west. Room number 4 - 2.07
x 2.5 m is similar to the previous ones. These rooms are
possibly part of a larger complex. In total, these rooms
occupy half of the two main 9.2 m longitudinal walls
and are located in the northern part of the structure.
The remaining southern part of the structure is free fromsettlements.
At a distance of 9.5 m to the west, there is a similar
structure with five cameras. The outer wall of thisstructure is also built of worked stones, and the widthof the walls range from 1.4 m to 1.6 m. The innerlongitudinal wall is built of burnt bricks, the dimensionsof which are 30 x 15 x 4 m. The rooms are separated
by one layer of masonry work and numbered fromthe northern edge. Room number 1 – 3.1 x 3.1 m, hasa subsquare shape; room number 2 - 2.4 x 3 m, has asubrectangular shape, the long side being oriented east
to west; room number 3 - 4 x 3 m, is of subrectangularshape, the long axis being oriented north-south; room
number 4 - 2.6x2.8m, has a subrectangular shape and isoriented east-west. Closer to the eastern part of this room
(possibly near the exit) in the middle, there is a fireplace
built of vertically embedded bricks extending 5 cm above21

the floor, with dimensions of 40 x 48 cm; room number 5- 2.6 x 2.8 m, has a subrectangular shape, and is oriented
east to west.
Burnt remains of a wooden ceiling (possibly the roof))
were found along the entire perimeter of the central
square of the structure.
Thus, we assume that possibly part of a madrassah fell
into the excavation grid and in the future we plan toexpand the excavation to outline the boundaries of thewhole structure.
Characteristics of Artifacts
Ceramics: In the course of research on Shakhristan, we
found a collection of archaeological fragments and intact
vessels were which were divided into two main groups
according to the method of manufacture: molded andeasel.
Easel ceramics are represented by the fragments of small
handled kettles, jars, lids fragments, khoum, etc. Easel
ceramics are lightly ornamented.
Molded tableware is represented by the debris of khoum,braziers, jugs, lamps, bowls, and lids.
Tools: Pebble tools of a spherical shape with a throughhole.
Numismatic finds are represented by coins. The culturaland chronological belonging of this category of finds has
not yet been determined.
Metal products are represented by:- strongly corroded bronzeware of amorphous form withuncertain functional purposes.
- copper handle depicting a stylized deer or similar
animal) formed on the casting mold.
Further researches on Shakhristan and other objectsof settlement will clarify the existing data and new
information about the historical and cultural processes
in the Talas Valley. This, in turn, will help to open otherunknown pages of history and ethnogenesis of the
Kazakhs and other Turkic ethnic groups.

Kazakhstan

Territory of Shakhristan, the ancient city of Taraz. Possible Madrassah: view
from the northTerritory of Shakhristan, the ancient city of Taraz. Possible Madrassah: view
from the east

Territory of Shakhristan, the ancient city of Taraz. Possible Madrassah: view
from the west

Territory of Shakhristan, the ancient city of Taraz. Possible Madrassah: stonewall

Territory of Shakhristan, the ancient city of Taraz. Possible Madrassah:
fireplace22

Malaysia
Malaysia

Acoustic Treatment at St. Mary’s Cathedral, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Professor Dr. A Ghafar Bin Ahmad, Professor
School of Housing, Building and Planning, Universiti Sains Malaysia
Introduction
Located strategically in the heart of Kuala Lumpur inproximity to prominent landmarks such as the Royal
Selangor Club, former High Court and the Sultan Abdul
Samad Building; St. Mary's Cathedral is a place of worshipfor Anglicans as well as a famous attraction for local andforeign tourists. In January 1990, the historic green fieldof the Royal Selangor Club located south of the church
was renamed Dataran Merdeka (Independence Square).
The field is a hotspot for the 31st of August Independence
Day Parade as well as a prime venue for celebrations all
year round. The intense level of activity in the vicinity has
affected the serenity of the church congregation. Services
held at St. Mary's Cathedral were often interrupted
by the sound of heavy traffic and loud music comingfrom the nearby Dataran Merdeka festivities, and as thechurch building had glass doors and windows and theacoustical lining and roof ceiling were not insulated
appropriately against noise pollution, in 2011 the churchcommittee hired a building contractor to carry out
conservation works, including acoustic treatment, at
St. Mary's Cathedral. The cost of acoustic conservation
works, amounting to RM500,000 (USD142,857), was fully
financed by the federal government under the auspicesof the Department of National Heritage. This reporthighlights the conservation of St. Mary’s Cathedral, mainly
its acoustic treatment.
Historical Background
The original building of St. Mary's Cathedral dates backin 1887, when it was situated on Jalan Bluff (Bluff Road)
at Bukit Aman hill, Kuala Lumpur. The wooden church
had a capacity of 95 people, mostly Anglicans. Due toa growing congregation, a new church building was
erected next to the green field of the Royal Selangor Club(The Padang or Parade Ground). The foundation stone
for the new St. Mary's Cathedral was laid by the British
Resident of Selangor, Sir WH Treacher, in 1894. A year
later in 1895, the church installed a pipe organ made by
Henry Willis, who was also the famous organ maker for
St. Paul's Cathedral and the Royal Albert Hall in London,
England.
Architectural Background
Built in 1894, St. Mary’s Cathedral was designed by
British architect Arthur Charles Alfred Norman at a cost of$11,500. A year before in 1893, Norman‘s design, whichfeatured Early English Gothic architecture, was selectedby the church committee as the new church design.
Early English Gothic architecture has significant design
characteristics such as pointed arches, vaulted roofs,
buttresses and stained glass lancet windows. The pointed
arches at St. Mary’s Cathedral are found on the nave
arcade, doorways and windows. The church building
has a nave for 180 people sitting (87 feet by 28 feet indimension); and a pulpit with an octagonal end (29 feet23

by 22 feet in dimension). The church also has a vestry
and an organ chamber that can accommodate a twentyperson choir.
St. Mary’s Cathedral has undergone several renovations
over the years. In 1958, its main hall was expanded andnamed Jubilee Hall. In 1968, a two-storey annex building
was erected, comprising the administrator’s rooms,
priest’s office, utility room, kitchen and living quarters.
During 2006-2007, more additions were built at the
church including a multipurpose hall, an office, a library
and an apartment unit. Due to its immense historical,architectural and social significance, St. Mary’s Cathedral
was listed as a National Heritage of Malaysia in 2011
under the National Heritage Act 2005 (Act 645).
Building Defects
An experienced building conservator was appointed
to monitor and document the building conditions
before, during and after conservation works. A
dilapidation survey of the building was carried out by
the building conservator prior to conservation works;
and all building defects and their probable causes were
determined through the help of local experts such as
structural and acoustic engineers and the Departmentof National Heritage. All building defects were recorded
through various media such as digital photography,
measured drawings, and technical reports. Such detailed
documentation not only presents critical baseline
information on the affected building for future repair
works, but also provide a strong basis to assess the mostappropriate and effective remedy for conservation works.
From the dilapidation survey report, factors that had
caused damage to St. Mary’s Cathedral were classified as
natural factors and human-induced factors. Damage tothe roof structure was a result of natural climatic factors.
Almost all of the timber battens on the roof were rotten
and needed to be replaced. On the other hand, noise
pollution occurring in the neighbourhood was considered
to be human-induced damage. Since the church’s roof,
doors and windows did not have appropriate soundinsulation, the noise of heavy traffic, daily activities andfestivities taking place at nearby Dataran Merdeka has
affected the serenity of the church congregation.
Conservation Works
The church conservation project adopted only provenand effective remedial methods and techniques. It isvery important to ensure that all conservation methods
and techniques employed on-site including the acoustic
treatment did not further aggravate the problems to thebuilding structure and fabric. In accordance with building
conservation best practices of minimum disturbance andof retaining authenticity and integrity, only the damaged
and affected parts of the building were removed andThe acoustic treatment of St. Mary’s Cathedral was carriedout in two phases over a period of five months fromJanuary until May 2012. Phase I focused on the main hall,whilst Phase II concentrated on the Jubilee Hall. The
acoustic treatment involved four major works, namely
installation of temporary scaffolding; restoration of roof
structures; installation of a linear metal strip ceiling; andacoustic treatment of the glass doors and windows. All
conservation works were carried out based on work
method statements prepared by the building conservatorand approved by the Department of National Heritage.
Installation of Temporary Scaffolding
The acoustic treatment of St. Mary’s Cathedral beganwith the construction of temporary scaffolding. Mobile
temporary scaffolding was set up inside the building toprovide a strong working platform for installing a layerof acoustic treatment on the ceiling and for changing therotten timber battens on the roof. The selected scaffolding
was a mobile frame known as the Upright Lightweight
Mobile Aluminium Tower Skybridge. Green Tag Certified
scaffolding was installed in the church in compliance with
the needs of all users concerned, as well as to ensure
the workers’ safety. A clear work method statement wasdeliberated pertaining to the installation, safety operationand maintenance of the scaffolding throughout the
duration of the project.
Restoration of Roof Structures
St. Mary’s Cathedral has A-frame timber roof structures forboth its main and Jubilee halls, with Marseille roof tiles.
Prior to restoration of the roof structures, all furnitureand electrical fixtures in the halls including woodenbenches, cabinets, chairs, ceiling fans and chandeliers
were removed, whilst the organ and pulpit were covered
with plastic sheets. Plywood sheets were fixed onto theinterior floors to prevent any damage during construction.
Waterproof plastic sheet covers were used to protect
the exposed roof structures during rainy days. In viewof the possibility of termite infestation and for future
maintenance of the roof structures, the church committee
had requested that all decayed timber battens be replacedwith steel members, whilst good timber rafters and roof
trusses were to be kept intact. The existing Marseilles roof
tiles were carefully removed in batches, brought down
and cleaned on-site before they were re-installed on theroofs. For energy efficiency and noise reduction, the roof
structures were insulated with wire netting, rock wool
and aluminium foil. A roof mockup was set up on-site fortechnical reference.
Installation of Linear Metal Strip Ceiling
Several noise level experiments were carried out by
experts at St. Mary’s Cathedral in order to determine thenoise level caused by the activities at the nearby Dataran
Merdeka, and to gauge the effectiveness of the acoustic
treatment. The noise level experiments were conductedin the car park outside the church, at the main hall andat Jubilee Hall. The results of the noise level experiments

showed that the acoustic treatment was successful
in lowering unwanted noise levels by approximately
one-third. In accordance with the conservation basic
principles, acoustic treatment started from the top of
the building (the roof) and worked its way down to theground floor. The church committee, the consultant andthe Department of National Heritage agreed to installan acoustic control layer and a linear metal strip ceiling
painted in a shade of brown, which was in harmony withthe original timber frame of the church building.

Malaysia

replaced with the same or similar building materials. The
rest of the building was preserved and kept intact in its
original form.

Acoustic Treatment of the Glass Doors and Windows
St. Mary's Cathedral required acoustic control to avoid or
minimise noise disturbances from nearby heavy trafficand other unwanted sounds. Acoustic control works
included fixing additional new glass panels onto theoutside of all original doors and windows of the church.
New additional glass was fitted onto the door glass on
both sides of the nave; folding glass doors that separate
Jubilee Hall from the multipurpose hall; folding glass
doors at the back of Jubilee Hall; and the door glassof Jubilee Hall facing the Dataran Merdeka. All stained
glass lancet windows were also fitted with an additional
glass panel. Adding an acoustic control glass piece on
the outside of the doors and windows was carried out
carefully to protect the aesthetic and historical valueof the original beautiful doors and stained glass lancet
windows.
Conclusions
St. Mary's Cathedral is a historical building 118 years old
in 2014. It is not only a place of worship for Anglicans
but also a famous tourist location. St. Mary's Cathedral
has significant historical, architectural and social value
as it bears testimony to the chronicles of early Kuala
Lumpur and the Anglican churches in Malaysia. The
conservation works including the acoustic treatment at
St. Mary’s Cathedral were carried out according to theguidelines and procedures approved by the Departmentof National Heritage and building conservator. All new
discoveries and work method statements were recorded
systematically for future reference. The reduction of noiselevels by approximately one-third proves that the acoustic
treatment proposed at St. Mary’s Cathedral has been a
success.
In conclusion, mutual co-operation and understanding
among the Department of National Heritage, the building
conservator, the St. Mary's Cathedral church committee
and the contractor can be considered as a key successfactor in the conservation works at St. Mary's Cathedral.
One lesson from this project is that works of heritagebuilding conservation require a concerted effort by
all parties concerned through co-operation and joint
responsibility to ensure that all conservation works at thesite are carried out perfectly and smoothly as scheduled.
Acknowledgements:
Thank you to the Department of National Heritage,
Malaysia; St. Mary’s Cathedral church committee, Kuala
Lumpur City Hall, Ori Green Design Studio (final
report and photographs) and Architect Junn Ng (aerial
photograph) for making this project and article possible.

24

Malaysia

References:
A Ghafar Ahmad, “Chronological Biography of Arthur
Charles Alfred Norman”, Journal of the Malaysian Branchof the Royal Asiatic Society (JMBRAS), Volume LXX, Part 1,
June 1997, p. 21-29.
http://www.stmaryscathedral.org.my/about/history,

accessed on 22nd July 2014.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Mary's_Cathedral,_
Kuala_Lumpur, accessed on 22nd July 2014.
Tan Chin Ling, (2012), Laporan Akhir Cadangan Kerjakerja Rawatan Akustik St. Mary’s Cathedral, Jalan Raja,
50050 Kuala Lumpur (No. Rujukan: JWN.TPjW600/60).

Designed by British architect Arthur Charles Alfred Norman in 1894, St.
Mary’s Cathedral features Early English Gothic architecture with pointed
arches, vaulted roofs, buttresses and stained glass lancet windows

Aerial view showing the historic green field of Dataran Merdeka (Independence
Square) surrounded by St. Mary’s Cathedral (bottom right), the Royal Selangor
Club (right) and the Sultan Abdul Samad Building (left)

Services held at St. Mary's Cathedral were often interrupted by the soundof heavy traffic and loud music coming from the nearby Dataran Merdeka
festivities

The interior of the main hall before conservation, with Marseille roof tiles andtimber battens able to be seen from inside25

Malaysia

The interior of Jubilee Hall before conservation

The interior of Jubilee Hall after conservation

Mobile temporary scaffolding was set up inside the main hall to provide astrong working platform for installing a layer of acoustic treatment on theceiling and for changing the rotten timber batten on the roof

Existing Marseilles roof tiles were carefully removed in batches, brought down
and cleaned at site before they were re-installed on the roofs

For energy efficiency and noise reduction, the roof structures were insulatedwith wire netting, rock wool and aluminum foil

Waterproof plastic sheet covers were used to protect the exposed roof
structures during rainy days

Prior to the conservation works, all furniture and electrical fixtures in the main
hall were removed, the organ and pulpit were covered with plastic sheets andthe interior floors were protected with plywood sheets to prevent any damage
during construction

26

Malaysia
The installation of an acoustic control layer and metal strips linear ceiling at
the main hall during construction

All stained glass lancet windows were fitted with an additional glass panel inorder to minimise noise disturbances

Several noise level experiments were carried out by experts at St. Mary’s
Cathedral in order to determine the noise level caused by the activities at
the nearby Dataran Merdeka, and to gauge the effectiveness of the acoustic
treatment

A roof mockup insulated with wire netting, rock wool and aluminum foil was
set up at site for technical references

Mutual cooperation and understanding among the Department of National
Heritage, building conservator, the St. Mary's Cathedral church committee
and the contractor are the key success factor in the conservation works at St.
Mary's Cathedral

The interior of the main hall after conservation with the new acoustic control
layer and metal strips linear ceiling27

Maldives
Maldives

Detailed Survey of R. Meedhoo Ancient Mosque and Its Boundary for “Coral Stone Mosques ofMaldives towards World Heritage List” Project
Shiura Jaufar, Archaeologist
Department of Heritage, Republic of Maldives
Upon ratification of the UNESCO World Heritage
Convention in 1986, the government of Maldives has
been carrying out a vast amount of work in order tonominate a Maldivian site to the UNESCO World Heritage
List. Today, Maldives is due to accomplish this task. We
are now on the verge of submitting a series of Coral
Stone Mosques (Five mosques) to the World Heritage
Centre. This report will thus look at the detailed survey(major component of the second and final phase) carriedout for this project. Detailed surveys of each of the fivemosques are to be undertaken and this report will lookat the survey of R. Meedhoo Ancient Mosque and its
boundary.
The mosque is situated on R. Meedhoo, an inhabitedisland in Raa Atoll, about 154.30 km (95.88 mi) northwest
from the capital of Maldives, Malé. The site consists offour main components: the mosque complex, an ancient
cemetery, a well and a buffer area. A total of two trips
were made to the island between July and October
2013. The first trip was made in July and a team of eight
members (four from the Department of Heritage, twofrom the survey department of the Maldives National
Defense Force and two from a private architecturalcompany) visited the site and worked there for two
weeks. The second trip was made in October and ateam of three members from the Department of Heritage
visited the site and worked there for one week.

photographed and archaeological drawings (plan andsection) were made and the corner reburied afterwards.
2. Architectural drawings
Two architects were hired from a private company
to complete this part of the project. Drawings (plans,
sections and cross sections) were made of both theexterior and interior of the mosque including every detailof the lacquer work, carvings and calligraphy.

Interior of the Mosque showing the lacquer work

3. Surveying and locating the site
Two staff from the Maldives National Defense Forcejoined the project to survey and locate the site using
a total station machine. The site was marked on adigitalized island map, and each component of the site(including all the tombstones) was also accurately marked
on the map. They also helped the rest of the team bydrawing a site plan which was used by the architects andfor the conservation assessment.
Due to circumstances beyond the survey team’s control
work had to be halted, which was why a second visit wasmade to complete the unfinished work. Thus, during thesecond visit the rest of the work was completed, which
included:General view of the mosque complex

The majority of the work was completed during the first
visit, which included:
1. Archaeological test excavations
Test excavations of one of the corners of the mosque
were carried out by an archaeologist to determine thefoundation of the mosque. The result was that it had asimilar type of foundation as the other four mosquessurveyed for the project, where layers of both sand andcoral stone were placed on top of each other in 3-4 levels
below the plinth of the mosque. No artifacts were foundduring this excavation and the work took two days tocomplete. After the excavations, the excavated corner was

4. Studying the buffer zone
The buffer area for the site was determined with the helpof the international expert for this project (a conservationarchitect from India). For this site, a buffer of about
three blocks of land around each side of the boundary
wall was accorded to the site. Surveying for the buffer
area was carried out by two members of the Department
of Heritage, by which they recorded architectural andconstructional features and made relevant drawings andplans. They also conducted interviews with locals to
obtain oral histories of the mosque and the island.
5. Photography
A photographer of the Department of Heritage was
responsible for taking pictures of the whole site,
including detailed and scaled photos of both the exterior

28

Maldivesand interior of the mosque along with any designs andcarvings, or damage/defects found in the mosque. The
same technique was similarly applied to the cemetery,where all the tombstones were photographed as well.
Photographs of the excavated corner and the buffer area
were also taken. The images taken by the photographer
were used by the Research Officer to develop a
conservation plan for the site. The images were also usedby the architects to complete the drawings of carvingsand designs.
6. Documentation of the cemetery
Since the cemetery covered a large part of the site, it was
divided into six parts from the site plan. Documentationof every tombstone was carried out, which included
measuring and drawing the tombstones (including thecarved designs), scaled photography of the tombstones,
and recording any damage caused to them as well as any
inscribed death records.

7. Preparation of a condition assessment and a conservation
plan for the site
In order to prepare a condition assessment, each coralstone block and all of the wooden structures of themosque were studied, and defects/damage for each of theblocks/wooden plaques were marked on the architectural
drawings. The same technique was applied to record thecondition of the tombstones too. Most common damage
included cracks, moss growth, and termite action. In themeantime they were also photographed and measured.
After preparing the condition assessment, a conservation
plan was drawn up on how to deal with the damage andhow to conserve the site for future generations.
The Department of Heritage has now been able tocomplete detailed surveys of three of the five mosquesand is also working on preparation of the dossier which
will be submitted at the beginning of next year.

General view of the cemetery

Interior of the mosque showing lacquer work with geometrical designs andArabic calligraphy

29

Shrine of an important local

Mongolia
Munkhtulga Rinchinkhorol, Researcher
Mongolian Academy of Sciences, Institute of Archaeology
There is a gigantic statue of a Buddhist deity veryskillfully made of stone in easternmost Mongolia, on thesoutheast side of a terrace on the west bank of Khalkh
Gol River, territory of Khalkhgol Soum, Dornod Aimag.
The deity is the eight-handed Avalokiteshvara measuring29.2 x 21.7 m. It is also named ‘Ikh Burkhan’ or ‘Great
Deity’ in Mongolian. There are many other smaller stone
sculptures of deities, stone walls and remains of otherstructures around it (Fig. 1).
V. A. Kazakjevich, a Soviet researcher who worked at
the Mongolian Committee of Sciences reached the Ikh
Burkhan complex in 1925. In his report, he wrote somenotes on the monument (Kazakjevich 1925: 35/).
In 1942, the famous Mongolian historian andarchaeologist Kh. Perlee clarified some problems with
Qing Dynasty period archival documents that this greatcomplex was built with the intention and conduct ofTogtokhtur (1797-1868), a reformer, enlightener and headof a banner of Setsen Khan Aimag in Khalkh Mongolia, in
1859-1864 (Perlee 1942: 4, 5, 8, 46; Perlee 1963: 64-65).
In 1949, a Soviet historic-archaeological expedition
discovered some Stone Age settlement ruins andmonuments of the Khitan period (10 th-11 th centuries)
along the Khalkh Gol river basin with the help of B.
Zhargalsaikhan, a representative of the Mongolian
Committee of Sciences (Okladnikov 1958: 214).
Zhargalsaikhan also guided the team and its head A.
P. Okladnikov, a later Soviet academician, to the Ikh
Burkhan complex because he was a native of the Khalkh
Gol region (Okladnikov 1958: 214). The team briefly
described and photographed the monument. Okladnikov
suggested that Ikh Burkhan may be a monument of the
Khitans or Jurchens of the 10th-11th centuries. (Okladnikov
1958: 216).
In his book on Togtokhtur, the Mongolian academician
Sh. Natsagdorzh wrote about how Ikh Burkhan was
erected (Natsagdorzh 1968).
In 1995-1996, Kh. Enkhtuvshin, who was a researcher
at the Institute of History, MAS, directed large-scale
excavations at the Ikh Burkhan complex. Under his
direction, many local people worked to uncover thewhole of the Ikh Burkhan statue, excavated somestructures and revealed statues of deities which had
been covered by soil. They also reconstructed the main
great stone wall of the complex. Based on these facts,
Enkhtuvshin proposed that the Ikh Burkhan complex was
lost and had been looted and damaged from the early
20th century until recent times (Enkhtuvshin 1995).
In 1997, the local government and a foundation which
aimed to restore the complex tried to restore the Ikh

Mongolia

Some Results of an Archaeological Excavation at the “Ikh Burkhan” Complex in Eastern Mongolia
in June 2012

Burkhan statue and some other smaller sculptures(Tsogtbaatar 1999: 259).
In 2012, an expedition of the Mongolian Cultural Heritage
Center began to restore the great statue scientifically first,
using the latest conservation methods and standards.
Before this work, the greatest ever restoration project ofMongolian cultural heritage, archaeological researches byprofessional organizations were required at the complex.
Accordingly, we excavated at several sites of the complex
from June 10 to 24, 2012. In this article I would like topresent briefly the excavation of the site IB.VIII or thefour structures with Maharaja sculptures.
Site IB.VIII (four structures with Maharaja sculptures)
There were four cement sculptures erected at theentrance of the complex in 1997 (Figs. 2 and 3). They are
in two pairs, with the members of each pair looking at
one another (Fig. 3). The sculptures represent The Four
Maharajas on a flat background (Figs. 3-7).
The sculptures of The Four Maharajas are often built near
the gates of traditional Buddhist architectural heritages ofMongolia. ‘Maharaja’ means ‘great chief’ in Sanskrit. The
modern Mongolian word ‘Makhranz’ (Tsevel 2013: 469)
and its written Mongolian version ‘Maqaranča’ (Buddhist
Dictionary 1995: 228; Rybatzki 2006: 597-599) derive fromthe 10th century Early Uighur versions ‘Maqaranč’ and‘Maqaranča’ (Kaya 1994: 586) or perhaps the 8th century
title ‘Maqaraˇč’ in Ancient Turkic script (Drjevnjetjurkskij
1969: 337). The Maharajas’ function is door-keeper of atemple, shrine, wall or other Buddhist building. They also
symbolize powerful protectors of Buddhism from enemiesof the religion.
The goals of our excavation at the site were as follows:-to determine whether the Maharaja sculptures werereally there before the 1997 restoration;-to understand what structures were there;-to describe the structures for preparation of futurereconstruction at the site.
Situation before excavation
There was a rectangular fence made of small andmedium-sized stones at each of the four sites before
excavation. The fences are parallel to each other andtheir orientation seems to be generally the same as thecomplex. There were some stones from the fence sides
spread around the fences. Some sides and corners of thefences and most stones of some sides were missing (Figs.
4-7).
The Maharaja sculptures which were erected in 1997
were different from each other in terms of position andorientation of the face (Fig. 3).

30

Table 1. Situation before excavation

Mongolia

No

Structures

Spread of stones Max height of stones above(E-W x S-N) (cm)ground surface (cm)Location of sculptures

Orientation of facesof the sculptures

Dimensions of stonepedestals (cm)1

IB.VIIIA

450 x 446

15

Center of the stone fenceSW

90 x 63 x 16

2

IB.VIIIB

450 x 400

15

SW part of the stone fenceW

91 x 64 x 18

3

IB.VIIIC

300 x 400

~15

Center of the stone fence

SE

-

4

IB.VIIID

244 x 340

16

E part of the stone fenceSE

95 x 63 x 16

Table 2. Excavation
No

Excavation site

Location

Dimensions of the sites(E-W x S-N) (cm)Depth of excavation (cm)NE

600 x 400

10-25

1

IB.VIIIA

2

IB.VIIIB

SE, 350 cm to the E from IB.VIIIC

450 x 450

5-30

3IB.VIIIC

SW, 1150 cm to the S from IB.VIIID

450 x 500

10-30

4

IB.VIIID

NW, 300 cm to the W from IB.VIIIA

500 x 600

20

Table 3. Structures and their elements
No
1

Structures
IB.VIIIA

Dimensions of the stone
fences E-W x S-N (cm)
300 x 250

Distances between the basesof the columns (cm)
NE-SE
SE-SW
SW-NW
NW-NE
171

176

Location of sculptures &stone pedestals

165

59 x 34 x 7

S part of the structure

2

IB.VIIIB

260 x 250

170

181

163

167

-

SW part of the structure

3

IB.VIIIC

300 x 260

170

176

188

175

-

N part of the structure

4

IB.VIIID

270 x 300

168

170

166

168

73 x 32 x 17

E part of the structure

There was a flat stone pedestal for a deity in front of eachof the Maharaja sculptures, at the uppermost level of thestructures. The stone pedestal of site IB.VIIIA is oval andthe others are semicircular. All of the pedestals have thesame orientation as their sculptures and are of a similar
size. Some engraved lines and traces of being hit with ametal tool are visible on the sides. Also, there are someremains of pink-painted white plaster on the narrow sidesof the pedestals (Figs. 8-12 and 14).
Only the pedestal of site IB.VIIIA has been broken into
three pieces (Fig. 8).
Excavation
The excavation sites were 450-600 cm x 300-600 cm insize, including the area spread with fence stones fromeach structure (Fig. 2). The depth was 5-30 cm below
the ground surface. The colour of the local brown soil
did not change during the excavation. This means that
there were no clear layer differences at the excavatedsites. The excavation below the level of the stone
fence was not continued after revealing the bases of
the columns of each structure. It was clear that each
Maharaja sculpture had been erected in a hole deeper
than the floor of the present excavation site. The flatstone pedestals in front of each Maharaja sculpture wereon the present ground surface, at the uppermost level ofthe structures. Archaeological data in some places inside
the fence where the Maharaja sculpture was erected
might have been destroyed in the process of digging theabove-mentioned holes. Also the places under the stonepedestals were not excavated. (Figs. 8-11)
Stone fence
Each of the structures had a rectangular stone fence.
Its orientation was the same as that of the Ikh Burkhan
complex. (Fig. 12) The fence stones were 10-20 cm above

31

167

Dimensions of the entrance
stones (cm)the floor of the sites, generally extending out from thelines between the column bases. The average size ofthe fence is 300 x 250 cm and its southern and northernsides are longer than the others. On the eastern side of
the fence of IB.VIIIB, from the northeast column baseto the south, are placed four flat stones bigger thanthe others (Fig. 13). The right sides of those stones,
facing the inner side of the structure, are in one line.
An almost quadrangular stone at the northern point of
the side is 32 X 29 cm in size. Some of the fence stones
are in two rows. Only two sides of the fence of IB.VIIIB
are completely uncovered because some stones fromthe other sides had been removed from their original
position. (Figs. 9, 13 and 15) There were no remains of arammed earth floor inside the stone fence or of a rammed
earth foundation under the fence sides. Neither were
there any traces of a burnt or sun-dried brick wall on thesides.
Table 4. State of preservation of the stone fences
Sides of the stone fences(complete + / incomplete +- / no stone -)No
Structures
NE-SE
SE-SW
SW-NW
NW-NE
1

IB.VIIIA

+-

+-

+-

+-

2

IB.VIIIB

+

+-

+-

+

3

IB.VIIIC

+-

-

-

+-

4

IB.VIIID

+-

+-

-

+-

Entrance stone
A handmade stone slab which differs from the otherfence stones was uncovered in each fence of the twonorthern Maharaja sculptures. It might have been part of
the floor at the entrance of the structure because its sides
have been specially flattened and it has been placed in
the middle of the fence side. (Fig. 12)
The entrance stone of IB.VIIIA is at the center of theThe IB.VIIID entrance stone, one of the fence stoneson the eastern side, is located to the east of the stonepedestal. It was at a depth of 16 cm below the groundsurface, 10 cm below the pedestal and 2 cm above thefloor of the excavation site, the lowest level of the stonesof the structure. Its surface is rectangular. Its dimensions
are 73 X 32 cm and 17 cm thick. The distance between
this stone and the eastern wall of the site is 100 cm (Figs.
11, 12 and 14).
The entrance stones of the other two structures seem tohave been removed.
Remains of columns
Corner columns. Evidence indicating that four wooden
columns were in the corners of each structure wasrevealed at a depth of 5-20 cm below the ground surface(Figs. 8, 12 and 15). The original position of the fencestone clearly indicates that the outer surface of thecolumn, except for part of it facing the inner side of thestructure, had been enclosed tightly by a corner stone(Figs. 12, 13, 15, 17 and 18). The distances between thecolumn bases measured 163-188 cm, making an almost
quadrangular site (Fig. 12). The cylinder-shaped columnbase was made of white and whitish-yellow plaster ofchalk and clay. The base is 22-33 cm in diameter, 5-39 cm
high and 2-7.5 cm thick. Its inner side or hole is 18-24 cm
in diameter (Figs. 15, 17, 18 and 19). The southeasterncolumn base of the site IB.VIIIB had an open bottom.
It indicates that the other bases might have the samebottom. The state of preservation of the column remains
can be divided into the following:- Base and bottom of the wooden column (Fig. 15
and 16);- Base and small fragments of the bottom of thecolumn;- Base (Figs. 17, 18 and 19);
- Bottom of the wooden column;- Small fragments of the bottom of the column;- Hole.

Remains of the wooden column erected on the base wererevealed at a depth of 3-17 cm below the ground surface.
They are 15-20 cm in diameter and 10-17 cm in height(Figs. 15 and 16). It is possible that the columns might
have been painted in red because the bottom of thesoutheastern column of IB.VIIID had red paint.

Mongolia

western side of the fence, and at a level 10 cm above thefloor of the excavation site. Its dimensions are 59 x 34 cm
and 7 cm thick, and it is oriented to 300° azimuth (Fig. 8).

Central column(s). We also found evidence indicatingthat these wooden columns was not only in the corners,
but also at the center of the structure. Two oval-shaped
bottoms of wooden columns were in a powdered earthen
spot of 37 X 21 cm in IB.VIIID. The distance between
the bottoms was 7 cm. The larger, northern bottom was
16 cm in diameter. The smaller one was 12-13 cm indiameter. (Figs. 12 and 20)
Other wooden remains were located to the east fromthe center of the inner rectangular site of the IB.VIIIA
structure. It is possible that the remains were the same as
those of the wooden column at the center of the IB.VIIID
structure, although it was not clear whether these areremains of either a bottom of a column in situ or a fallencolumn.
Finds
The finds from the sites can be divided into five kinds:
building materials, remains of stone sculptures, coins,domestic goods and animal bones.
Building materials Very few pieces of roof tile were foundin three structures. The roof tile pieces were 1.7-2.3 cm
thick and they had the same features as the roof tiles
from other buildings in the complex. Perhaps they had
been removed from the ruins of the other buildings, as all
were located in the upper part of the site. If the structures
had had tiled roofs, more pieces of roof tile would havebeen found. Although this is doubtful because somepieces of roof tile were revealed in IB.VIIIA, at a depth of
10-20 cm below the ground surface. (Fig. 21)
Pieces of brick were found in each of the three structures.
But it was impossible to determine the dimensions of
the whole brick because the pieces were very small. No
bricks were in their original placement, which could have

Table 5. Remains of the columns
Walls of the bases
Structures

IB.VIIIA

IB.VIIIB

IB.VIIIC

IB.VIIID

Columns
NE
SE
SW
NW
NE
SE
SW
NW
NE
SE
SW
NW
NE
SE
SW
NW

Level of upper side
below ground surface
(cm)
15
15
11
5
15
12
20
16
15
12
20
16
15

Wood

Height (cm)Width (cm)

Diameter
(cm)

5
3
8
4
39
13
10
13
10
-

2,5
2,5-5,52,5-3,5
2-6
3-6
4
4-7,5
3-3,5
2,5-3,5
2-2,5
2-5
3-3,5
2,5-3,5
2-2,5
2-5

30
25-27
22-26
30
31-33
31
26
24-26
27
24
26
24-26
27
24

Inner
diameter
(cm)
18-21
20
23
22-24
22
20
21
20
21
-

Level of upper side
below ground surface
(cm)
17
15
3
15
15
-

HeightDiameter

10
17
17
-

15
18
20
20
-

32

Mongolia

indicated that a part of the walls or floor had been builtwith brick.
Four-sided handmade iron nails were uncovered in threestructures. Some of them do not have heads. Also a headof a nail was found (Fig. 22). All of these nails were
found during the excavation and some of them wereat depth of 15-20 cm. The depth and number of nails
indicate that these were used for some structural element
made of wood originally in the structures. Such nails havealso been revealed in the other architectural ruins of thecomplex.
Fragment of sculpture (?) A small stone fragment like apiece of a finger from a stone sculpture of a deity was
found in the northwest corner of the fence of IB.VIIID,
at a depth of 15-20 cm below the ground surface (Fig.
23). No other stone could be identified as a fragment ofa stone sculpture found at the sites. On the other hand,
this is only one piece of evidence that may indicate that a
Maharaja sculpture was originally in the structure.
Modern coins were also found in limited numbers inthree of the structures and almost all of them were on the
ground surface (Fig. 24). These coins, Mongolian from1970 and 1981, Russian from 1997, 1998 and 2003 andChinese from 2000, are offerings of people who came tothe complex and worshipped Ikh Burkhan.
Domestic goods The function of the domestic goods
except the pieces of a cast iron cauldron has not been
determined. The goods may belong to the time of thestructures because all of them are handmade anyway (Fig.
22). Two 2-2.5 cm thick pieces of ceramic vessel were
found near the site IB.VIIID. The inner and outer surfacesof the ceramic pieces were dark brownish-glazed. /Fig. 25/
Animal bones A few fragments of small cattle bones foundby excavation are not traces of sacrifice but accidental
remains (Fig. 26/).
Table 6. Finds
No

1

Building materials

Fragment of sculpture (?)

3Modern coins

5

Domestic goods

Ecofacts

The structure and organization of the structures andthe finds from the site are leading us to the following
conclusions:- These four structures were simple-structured small
houses.
- The function of such houses was to contain the
Maharaja sculpture, a work of religious fine art.
Number13 piecesBrick

3 pieces9311Small 1
1
5
3

9

Fragment of a stone finger

1
3
4
2
2 (1 of them is arim fragment)
1

9

3 pieces

Iron wire with noose
Iron hook
Ceramic vessel
Sheet iron with a hole like thepiece of a hand-saw
Small cattle mandibles with teeth
Small (?) cattle bones
Small cattle bones

33

Here, the four structures, oriented in the same direction
as the complex, have been symmetrically placed in arectangular site. A rectangular fence made of stones wasaround each of the structures. Its longer axis coincides
with that of the complex. In some parts of the fence, thestones were in two rows. There is a main road between
the structures and it goes from the entrance area of thecomplex to Ikh Burkhan. Each of the structures had an
entrance facing the main road, which had a stone slab.
No remains of a special rammed-earth floor were foundinside the structure. In the four corners of the stone
fence, red-painted wooden columns had been erectedon the cylinder-shaped plaster bases. There was also awooden column (columns) at the center of the structure.
Perhaps the structure had wooden walls and a tiled roof.
The iron nails found at the site might have been used forsuch wooden structural elements as columns, walls andthe framework of the roof.

Roof tile

Cast iron cauldron
4

The total size of the excavation site was 90.75 m2 and the
maximum depth was 30 cm below the ground surface.
Some places below the four Maharaja sculptures and thestone pedestals were not included in this excavation.
Through the excavation we clarified the organization,
structure and function of these four structures.

Finds

Iron nails
2

Conclusion
It was clear before excavation that the position andorientation of the Maharaja sculptures and the stonepedestals do not coincide with those of the structures.
The original position of the fence stones and columnbases also confirmed it.

11
2 pieces11
3
1 piece

IB.VIIIA
IB.VIIIC
IB.VIIIC
IB.VIIIC
Near the site IB.VIIID
IB.VIIIA

1 piece4 pieces

Location
IB.VIIIA
IB.VIIIB
IB.VIIIC
In front of the SW column in IB.VIIIA
IB.VIIIB
IB.VIIID
IB.VIIIA
IB.VIIIC
IB.VIIID
IB.VIIID
IB.VIIIA
IB.VIIIB
IB.VIIID

IB.VIIIB
SE of IB.VIIIA
In front of the SW column in IB.VIIIA
IB.VIIIB

References
Buddhist Dictionary 1995 - A Buddhist Terminological
Dictionary. Edited by Alice Sárközi. // Asiatische
Forschungen. Band 130. Wiesbaden
Drjevnjetjurkskij 1969 - Древнетюркский словарь. Л.

Enkhtuvshin 1995 - X.ЭнXтүвшин. “ИX БурXан”цогцолборын туXай зарим баримт. // Studia Historica.
Tom. XXIX, fasc. 11. УБ., 1995: 64-66
Kaya 1994 - C. Kaya. Uygurca Altun Yaruk. Giriş, Metin
ve Dizin. Ankara
Kazakjevich 1925 - В.А.Казакевич. Отчет сотрудника
Ученого Комитета В.А.Казакевича о поездке на Xэрулюнгол и XалXыйн-гол, летом 1925 года.
Natsagdorzh 1968 - Ш.Нацагдорж. То ван, түүний сургаал.
УБ.
Okladnikov 1958 - А.П.Окладников. «ИXэ-бурXан»на XалXин-голе (Из полевыX заметок арXеолога). //Филология и история монгольскиX народов. М., 1958:
214-216
Perlee 1942 - X.Пэрлээ. ЛиXой То-ван. Рукопись.
Perlee 1963 - X.Пэрлээ. “Тайна” ИXэ БурXана на XалXинголе. // ШинжлэX УXааны Академийн мэдээ. № 1. УБ.,1963: 63-65
Rybatzki 2006 - V. Rybatzki. Die Personennamen und
Title der mittelmongolischen Dokumente. Helsinki
Tsevel 2013 - Я.Цэвэл. Монгол Xэлний товч тайлбар толь.
УБ.
Tsogtbaatar 1999 - Б.Цогтбаатар. ИX БурXант. Монгол
нутаг даXь түүX соёлын дурсгал. УБ., 1999: 259

Mongolia- It is an architectural complex which consists of thesame style of houses built with the same materials
in the same period.
- It was also built as part of the main construction
project of the complex.
- Therefore, the most likely possibility is that thesefour houses were built around 1859-1864, when the
Ikh Burkhan complex was built.
- Later, the houses were badly damaged and theirbuilding materials were extensively looted. The
works of fine art that should have been in thehouses were also removed somewhere.
- It is clear that Ikh Burkhan is not only an ensembleof stone statues of deities, but also a Buddhistarchitectural complex.
- After the damage to the complex, the structures
were never rebuilt. But now the Maharaja structures
require professional conservation and reconstruction.

Fig. 2. Excavated sites

Fig. 3. The Ikh Burkhan statue and the sculptures of The Four Maharajas.
From the gate of the complex

Fig. 1. The Ikh Burkhan complex and the site IB.VIII

34

Mongolia
35

Fig. 4. The site IB.VIIIA before excavation. From the east

Fig. 5. The site IB.VIIIB before excavation. From the west

Fig. 6. The site IB.VIIIC before excavation. From the east

Fig. 7. The site IB.VIIID before excavation. From the east

Fig. 8. The site IB.VIIIA. From the south

Fig. 9. The site IB.VIIIB. From the south

Fig. 10. The site IB.VIIIC. From the south

Fig. 11. The site IB.VIIID. From the eastMongolia

Fig. 13. Stone fence of the IB.VIIIB structure. From the southeast

Fig. 12. P lan of the IB.VIIID structure: 1 - Maharaja sculpture; 2 - Stone
pedestal; 3 - Entrance stone; 4 - Column remains

Fig. 15. Column remains in the northeast corner of the IB.VIIIB structure. Fromthe east

Fig. 14. Entrance stone of the IB.VIIID structure. From the east

Fig. 16. Column remains in the southeast corner of the IB.VIIID structure.
From the south

36Mongolia
Fig. 17. Column remains in the northwest corner of the IB.VIIIB structure.
From the south

Fig. 18. Column remains in the northeast corner of the IB.VIIID structure.
From the west

Fig. 19. Column remains in the northwest corner of the IB.VIIID structure.
From the south

Fig. 20. Column remains at the center of the IB.VIIID structure. From the west

Fig. 21. Pieces of roof tile from the IB.VIIIA structure

Fig. 22. Iron nails and fragments of domestic metal goods

Fig. 23. Finger fragment of a stone sculpture (?) from IB.VIIID

Fig. 24. Modern coins from IB.VIIIA

Fig. 25. Pieces of ceramic vessel found near the site IB.VIIID

37

Fig. 26. Small cattle mandible and its teeth from IB.VIIIBNepal
Nepal

Nepal and The Silk Roads Serial World Heritage Nomination
Suresh Suras Shrestha, Chief Archaeological Officer,
Focal Point for Silk Roads SWHN Process, Nepal, Department of Archaeology, Nepal
Background
Based on the World Heritage nomination Action Plan
developed in Samarkand, Uzbekistan in October 2006,
the Concept Document for the Serial Nomination of the
Silk Roads in Central Asia and China was adopted in
Dushanbe, Tajikistan in April 2007, by the Central Asianand Chinese States Parties, and amended in June 2008
during a further Silk Roads consultation workshop in
Xi’an, China. In May 2009, at the Silk Roads consultation
meeting in Almaty, Kazakhstan, the participating States
Parties (China, India, Iran, Japan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan,
Tajikistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan) agreed toestablish an intergovernmental Coordinating Committee
on the Serial World Heritage Nomination of the Silk
Roads. This workshop also decided to organize the firstmeeting of the committee in Xi’an, China from 3 to 6
November 2009; in which Nepal and Afghanistan werealso welcomed to participate. After that Nepal has been
continuously participating in different activities of thecommittee and executing decisions as well. This was the
beginning of Nepal’s involvement in the process of the
Silk Roads World Heritage Nomination.
In November 2009, the first meeting of the Coordinating
Committee took place in Xi’an, China, and at thismeeting, the States Parties appointed the ICOMOS
International Conservation Centre (IICC) Xi’an to be theSecretariat; they also decided to create an expert groupfor documentation, and requested UNESCO and ICOMOS
to carry out a Thematic Study of the Silk Roads (Second
Meeting of the Coordinating Committee on the Serial
World Heritage Nomination of the Silk Roads, 3-6 May
2011, Ashgabat, Turkmenistan).
Some fifty potential Silk Roads Heritage Corridors havebeen identified, with twenty corridors being considered
as a medium priority, while three corridors within the five
Central Asian countries and China were recommended
as a top priority for the first phase of the serial and transboundary World Heritage Nomination of the Silk Roads
at the Second Meeting of the Coordinating Committeeof the Serial World Heritage Nomination of the Silk
Roads, which was successfully convened in Ashgabat,
Turkmenistan, from 3 to 6 May 2011 (http://whc.unesco.
org/en/news/751/ extracted on 8th May 2014).
Silk Roads Serial World Heritage Nomination-related
Activities in Nepal
When Nepal was invited to the first meeting of theCoordinating Committee in Xi’an, China, Nepal did
not have a vision to further pursue the concept of Silk
Roads and/or its corridors; however, Silk Roads-related
activities have actually been conducted in different ways
in Nepal for some decades: i.e. excavation of cave cities
in the Muktinath Valley, archaeological research in the
Kaligandaki region, studies on different aspects of Lo

Manthang, and so on. These activities also support thisprocess. After participating in the Ashgabat meeting of
the Coordinating Committee and receiving the formal
decision from the committee, Nepal has nominated a
National Coordinator as well as a Focal Point for theformalization of the process and dissemination of allprocesses at the national level, as well as international
coordination.
Similarly, Nepal has begun to prioritize the process of
allocating funds in the national government budget;
however, this was nominal initially; we also started to
identify corridors, linkages to settlements, heritage andother aspects. The Department of Archaeology, thesole government authority for the conservation andmanagement of cultural heritage in Nepal, conducted apreliminary identification of silk roads and corridors in aworkshop of national experts called the Nepal National
Workshop on the “Serial World Heritage Nomination of
the Silk Roads” on 19th – 20th April 2011. International
experts were also invited from UNESCO’s World Heritage
Center at that time, who joined the national experts ininitially identifying three corridors existing within the
territory of Nepal and it was suggested that these bestudied in detail later.
After the first workshop in April 2011, in the same year,
July 25-27, another National Workshop on “Nepal andthe Silk Roads” was conducted jointly by the Departmentof Archaeology and the UNESCO Office in Kathmandu.
The participation of the UNESCO Advisory Mission
from the World Heritage Center was invaluable for thisworkshop; the experts from the mission also suggested
that continuous research or study be carried out on Silk
Road Corridors within the territory of Nepal that would
be extended towards China to the north and India to thesouth.
The national experts agreed to establish three initial
identified routes as corridors which were connectors to
Nepal within the main Silk Roads either via China orIndia. These three corridor routes are:
1. [Benaras-] Kapilavastu – Lumbini – Butwal – Ridi –Beni – Kakbeni – Lo Manthang - [Guge-Puhrang- Leh –Kasmir then to Khasgar].
2. [Bodhgaya-] Surkhet – Jumla – Simikot - [Taklakot and
Mt. Kailash] (marked by Kirtistambhas (stone steles)
has already been proposed by Tim William in his
paper on Askabad).
3. [Patna (Ancient Pataliputra)-Vaisali-] Simraungarh –Sindhuli – Kathmandu – Nesti – Kodari - [XigatseLhasa-Tharchindo-Thindafu to Peking].
However, the three routes existed to connect withthe major Silk Road from Nepal, a point on which thenational experts were in agreement, but there is still38

Nepala need to study all three routes in detail including all
possible diverse aspects.
In the same year, in September 2011, the Department ofArchaeology, Government of Nepal organized another
National Consultation Workshop on “Nepal and the Silk
Roads” in close coordination with the UNESCO Office in
Kathmandu. In this workshop, the national experts tried
to focus on some of the specific aspects and on a single
corridor of the Silk Road. However, there was a robust
discussion on the merits of all three possible corridors.
Among them, the strongest candidate is [Benaras-]
Kapilavastu – Lumbini – Butwal – Ridi – Beni – Kagbeni– Lo Manthang - [Guge-Puhrang- Leh –Kasmir then to
Khasgar], on which most of the experts were agreed.
They also agreed to prepare a detail inventory, identify
the possible peripheral heritage clusters, including
the mapping of all of these to establish a route of the
Silk Road corridor in Nepal. A detailed inventory, fulldocumentation, other related information and mapping of
the specific corridor and its extension clusters were themajor ideas to start initial work to prepare the nomination
document, on which almost all of the experts, policy
makers and other participants were agreed during theworkshop.
After these three national workshops organized within
the country, Nepal has been involved in the executionof decisions; the process is slow but gradually being
implemented. Similarly, Nepal has been participatingin the international workshops and meetings of theCoordinating Committee as well. Most of the portionsof the route are being studied within the focus corridor
route [Kapilvastu – Lumbini – Butwal – Ridi – Beni –Kagbeni – Lo Manthang] and the detailed inventory andmapping are being prepared as well.
As part of its involvement in the various activities for theestablishment of a Silk Road Corridor in the territory,
Nepal will organize a regional (South Asian) workshop
this year, 2014, which should be beneficial to all of theSouth Asian States Parties in strengthening their capacity
to prepare the World Heritage of Silk Roads.
Conclusion
The Silk Roads Serial World Heritage Nomination
follows the concept of a transnational or trans-boundary

nomination for UNESCO’s World Heritage List, by which
it will be possible to engage in the international exchangeof culture, knowledge and other aspects as a transboundary situation. However, in the initial period, somestakeholder nations including China and Japan agreed
to prepare for the nomination of their entire routes andstarted to work together to establish a Coordinating
Committee, with the aim of gradually coordinating withthe possible states parties; Nepal has also been involvedin this process since 2009, and has been working together
with other nations to establish at least the ancient
corridors of the Silk Roads within its territory.
In this process, mapping, identification of corridors,
possible extension of peripheral clusters or settlements,
and preparation of a detailed inventory are someexamples of the initial preparatory documentation
work required for preparation of the Silk Roads Serial
World Heritage Nomination in the future as per theInternational Coordinating Committee. Currently, Nepal
is in the process of formulating a National Coordinating
Committee to coordinate all national experts, institutions
and other related matters within the country, as well as
to international committees and institutions regarding thisprocess.
Bibliography
1. Ashgabat Agreement (May 2011). Second Meetingof the Coordinating Committee on the Serial World
Heritage Nomination of the Silk Roads. 3-6 May 2011,
Ashgabat, Turkmenistan.
2. Benjamin, Craig. The First Silk Roads: Trade Routes
Connect the Vast Continent of Afro-Eurasia.
3. Developing a Sustainable Tourism Strategy for the
Silk Roads Heritage Corridors. From www.unesco.org.
Extracted on 2nd May 2014.
4. Roland and Sabrina Michaud (1980). Afghanistan.
London, New York: Thames and Hudson Ltd.
5. The “Silk Roads” in Time and Space: Migrations,
Motifs, and Materials (2012). Victor H. Mair (Ed.). SinoPlatonic Papers 228 (July 2012).
6. The Silk Road (2007). Volume 5 Number 1. Summer
2007.
7. Unpublished Internal Reports of the Department ofArchaeology, Government of Nepal. 2009 – 2013.

Lo Manthang, 13th Century Mud Walled City, settlement within the Nepal Silk Road Corridor

39

NepalStupa in the Cave Settlements, Muktinath Valley.
Photo: Sukra Sagar Shrestha

Stupa in the Cave Monastery, Cave Settlement in Muktinath Valley
Photo: Sukra Sagar Shrestha

Caves from a primitive settlement near Chaile village above Kaligandaki
village

Gateway into and out of the village and chorten with mane wall

Samar village - a unique settlement

40New Zealand
New Zealand

Project Njord: Declaration of the 1926-1932 Norwegian Whalers’ Base, Price’s Inlet, Rakiura/Stewart Island as an Archaeological Site
A Southland Coastal Heritage Inventory Project (“SCHIP”) Cultural Heritage Project
Dr Matthew Schmidt, Regional Archaeologist Otago/Southland
Heritage New ZealandIntroduction
My two previous International Correspondent Reports(Volume 11, 2012 & Volume 12, 2013) described Project
Njord, a cultural heritage project which had three aims:
1) to undertake a marine archaeological survey of thewater in front of the Norwegians Whalers’ Base (‘TheBase’) to determine the nature and extent of any marine
heritage structure/features/items, 2) to gather additionalterrestrial heritage data to supplement that alreadyrecorded previously at The Base, and 3) use the marine
and terrestrial heritage survey data to prepare a proposal
to the Board of the NZHPT to declare the Norwegian
Whalers’ Base an archaeological site under Section 9(2)of the Historic Places Act (1993). Protection of the site
as an archaeological site would deter fossicking, which
the site has been at increased risk from in recent years,
particularly the removal of whale catcher/chaser boat
propellers. More importantly, such protection would
also help in preserving The Base for future generationsof New Zealanders and Norwegians wanting to visit andenjoy the site, particularly relatives of the whalers.
This final report describes the successful final stage of the
project, where legal protection of this cultural heritagesite as an archaeological site has been achieved.
Brief History of the Norwegian Whalers’ Base
For those not familiar with this cultural heritage site fromprevious reports, a brief history of The Base is provided
here.
Between 1926 and 1932 the Ross Sea Whaling Company
of Sandefjord, Norway established its repair base forwhale catcher vessels in Price’s Inlet, Rakiura (Figures
1 to 8). The Ross Sea Whaling Company named their
shipyard ‘Kaipipi Shipyard’ but it is also known as ‘The
Base’, ‘Price’s’ or ‘The Whalers’ Base’ (Watt 2006:3). Watt(2006:3) notes that the purpose of the facility was tomaintain and repair whale catchers during the southern
winter while the factory ships returned to Europe withthe whale oil taken during the hunting season from
November to February. The fifteen Star whale catchers
were repaired at various times at the yard as well asother catchers such as the Karrakatta. The yard consistedof a slipway, workshop (including a forge), cookhouse,carpenters’ shop, bunkhouse, winch house, a tin hut
and the Othello Wharf, which was a wharf made fromthe hulk of the 1853 whaler the Othello (the hulk was
fixed, not floating). The buildings were weatherboard
and built on concrete foundations (pads, footings orpiles) with the manager’s house and bunkhouse being
kitset buildings brought from Norway (these buildings
still survive in Oban today). The Base was used for basic
maintenance and repairs of the catcher boats as it did nothave a foundry to undertake any larger repairs, this being
carried out at Port Chalmers near Dunedin (Watt 2006:3).

41

Up to 38 Norwegians operated The Base and during theweekends excursions were made to Oban, Rakiura’s main
town, for supplies and socialising. The base closed in1932 due to a ‘glut’ in the whale oil market (Watt 2006:3).
This led to whaling moving away from the Ross Sea andthe Ross Sea Whaling Company moving its facilities toSouth Africa. The Base (Lot 31) has not been occupied
since 1932 and is currently privately owned.
Why was it important to protect The Base?
As noted above, The Base was at increased risk offossicking, particularly the whale chaser boat propellers.
In addition, The Base has high cultural heritage
significance to Rakiura, New Zealand and Norway
because:* ‘The Base’ is part of the story of Rakiura/Stewart
Island.
* The site is unique in NZ in terms of the history of
Norwegian whaling.
* The site is directly related to the creation of the Ross
Dependency in Antarctica in 1923.
* There are tangible heritage remains which can still
be seen and interpreted, some of which, such as thehulk of the 1853 American whaler the Othello, areinternationally rare.
* There are persons living today who are either related
to the Norwegians from The Base or persons who
worked on the ships.
* People today still live in buildings in Oban (Rakiura’s
main town) which were recovered from The Base.
Protecting The Base through ‘Declaration’ under the Historic
Places Act (1993)
An archaeological site is defined under the Historic Places
Act (1993) as any place in New Zealand that:(a) either(i) was associated with human activity that
occurred before 1900; or(ii) is the site of the wreck of any vessel wherethat wreck occurred before 1900; and(b) is or may be able through investigation byarchaeological methods to provide evidence relating to
the history of New Zealand.
In June 2014, the Historic Places Act (1993) was
superseded by the Heritage New Zealand Pouhere Taonga
Act (2014), and this definition of an archaeological site
was changed to include any pre-1900 building or structure
or part of a building or structure (these structures werealways considered sites but this was made clearer in the
new Act to avoid any confusion). Hence, any post-1900
heritage site does not have any direct legal protection in
New Zealand.
The most effective way of legally protecting a significant
cultural heritage site which postdates 1900 AD is to haveHeritage New Zealand has declared five post-1900
heritage sites as archaeological sites since 1993. These fivesites were protected because of their significant cultural
heritage value to early 20th century New Zealand history,
their rarity value and their ability to educate visitors about
an important aspect of New Zealand history.
In February 2014, a proposal was presented to theBoard of the New Zealand Historic Places Trust to havethe 1926-1932 Norwegian Whalers’ Base declared anarchaeological site. This proposal contained a detailedarchaeological assessment of The Base (Figures 9 & 10),the proposed extent of the protection to include all the
known terrestrial and marine heritage related to The Base
(Figure 11), and support from the landowner and thecouncils that manage the land and marine area on which
the site lies.
On 27 February 2014, the Board of the New Zealand
Historic Places Trust declared the 1926-1932 Norwegian
Whalers’ Base, Price’s Inlet, Rakiura/Stewart Island an
archaeological site, and in doing so also created New
Zealand’s first legally protected post-1900 marine heritagesite. The declaration was notified in the New ZealandGazette on 20 March 2014.
A Norsk Feiring: A Norwegian Celebration – 4 to 6 April
2014 and Recognition of the Project
The overarching goal of Project Njord was to ensurethat this important part of New Zealand and Norwegianhistory was preserved for future generations of New
Zealanders and Norwegians to enjoy, particularly thoserelatives of the Norwegians and New Zealanders who
worked at The Base and who undertook whaling in theRoss Sea.

On 5 April, 160 people travelled by boat to the site andas part of this day’s celebrations, a plaque announcing
the protection of The Base as an archaeological site wasunveiled by the Royal Norwegian Consulate General of
New Zealand, Graeme Mitchell (Figure 13). Afterwards,
a group photo was taken of all who attended, withmany being relatives of the Norwegian Whalers or New
Zealanders who had worked with the Norwegians (Figure
14).

New Zealandthat site declared an archaeological site by the Board of
Heritage New Zealand (prior to June 2014 known as the
New Zealand Historic Places Trust) under Section 43 of
the Heritage New Zealand Pouhere Taonga Act (2014).
This gives that site the same legal protection as a pre1900 site where the site cannot be modified or destroyed
without an Archaeological Authority from Heritage New
Zealand. This declaration is notified in the New ZealandGazette, hence this protection mechanism is often termed‘Gazettal’.

The fieldwork which resulted in the protection of The
Base has also been recognised. At the New ZealandArchaeological Association’s 60th Anniversary Conferencein June 2014, the fieldwork for Project Njord received
the Groube Fieldwork Award. The award is made every
second year “to the archaeologist who has made the mostoutstanding contribution to field work in New Zealandarchaeology in the immediate past.”
Future management of The Base
Since the completion of Project Njord, proactive
management of the site is being undertaken to aid in its
preservation and to educate visitors. Permission has been
gained from the local Harbour Master to have buoys
placed around the hulk of the Othello to prevent thisshallow lying wreck from being accidently damaged byvisiting vessels, and interpretation panels for visitors arebeing designed for installation at the site. Rock armouringof the front of the site is also being proposed to slow
down or stop coastal erosion.
Acknowledgements
This project involved many people and could nothave been achieved without them. I would like tothank: Rowley Moffett, the Environment Management
Committee of Environment Southland, the Otago/
Southland Area Office of the New Zealand Historic
Places Trust, Subsurface Ltd (Andy Dodd & Matthew
Carter), the Southland Coastal Heritage Inventory Project(“SCHIP”) partners, the Southland Museum & Art Gallery(David Dudfield), the Southland Branch of the New
Zealand Historic Places Trust, the Rakiura Office of the
Department of Conservation (Steve Meads, Sue Pasco),
Phil Latham of the University of Otago Anthropology
Department, Richard Hemi of the University of Otago
Surveying School, and the Marine Archaeological
Association of New Zealand (MAANZ).

In April 2014, the Rakiura Museum and Stewart Island
community celebrated the first arrival of Norwegians on
Stewart Island 90 years ago when the ship the James
Clark Ross (Captained by C.A. Larsen) first enteredPaterson Inlet. This arrival saw the bringing together ofcultures from opposite ends of the globe, and although
the Norwegian Whalers had returned home by 1932, close
ties were formed with the Stewart Island community withsome Norwegians marrying locals and staying on. The
April 2014 event saw 180 people celebrate the Norwegianarrival, with many of these people being relatives ofthe original Norwegians, as well as some of the New
Zealanders who had worked with the whalers. The eventdrew out a number of artefacts related to the site retainedby relatives and locals, one important item being a cabindoor from the Othello (Figure 12).

42

New ZealandFigure 1. Location of the Norwegian Whalers’ Base in Price’s Inlet, Kaipipi Bay, Rakiura/Stewart Island. The sunken hulk of the 1853 ship the Othello, used as a
dry jetty by the Norwegians from 1926-1932, is noted.

43

New ZealandFigure 2. The Base ca. 1926-1932 showing a whale catcher at the start ofthe slipway at medium tide
(Photo: Southland Museum & Art Gallery).

Figure 3. The Base ca. 1926-1932 showing the whale catcher repair slipway(centre) and the Othello Wharf (far left)(Photo: Southland Museum & Art Gallery).

Figure 4. Five Star whale catcher boats moored at the Othello wharf withanother in the background(Photo: Southland Museum & Art Gallery).

Figure 5. The location of The Base and the Ross Sea, where whaling wasundertaken.

Figure 7. Factory ship Sir James Clark Ross and a whale catcher(Photo: Southland Museum & Art Gallery).

Figure 6. The Star whaler catchers/chasers making their way through sea ice
in the Ross Sea(Photo: Southland Museum & Art Gallery).

Figure 8. Whale catchers with their catch of whales waiting for the factoryship(Photo: Southland Museum & Art Gallery).

44

New ZealandFigure 9. Extent of the Norwegian Whalers’ Base as mapped for thedeclaration(Graphic: Dr Matthew Schmidt).

Figure 10. Detailed site plan of the active working area of the Norwegian
Whalers’ Base
(Graphic: Dr Matthew Schmidt).

Figure 11. The extent of the declaration area showing the terrestrial andmarine boundaries. All terrestrial and marine aspects of the site
are now protected as an archaeological site
(Graphic: Dr Matthew Schmidt).

Figure 12. The author with a cabin door from the 1853 American whaler the
Othello(Photo: Heritage New Zealand).

Figure 13. The Royal Norwegian Consul General for New Zealand, Graeme
Mitchell (far left) with Heritage New Zealand staff, (left to right)
Geraldine Bauman, Dr Matthew Schmidt & Jonathan Howard, after
the unveiling of the plaque notifying the declaration of The 192632 Norwegian Whalers’ Base as an archaeological site
(Photo: Heritage New Zealand).

45

Figure 14. Visitors to The Base during the Norsk Feiring (4 to 6 April 2014).
Many of the people in the photograph are either related to theNorwegians from The Base or New Zealanders who worked with
the Norwegian whalers. The two small boats in the background are
original Norwegian Oselvar from The Base still used today by locals(Photo: Heritage New Zealand).

Philippines
Louella Solemerano Revilla, Conservator and Head/Supervisor-San Agustin Museum Conservation Laboratory
San Agustin Museum, San Agustin Church, Intramuros, Manila
From 1998 until 2010, I was able to witness the San
Agustin Church in Intramuros, Manila filled with people
listening to various repertoires of classical music
performed by International and local artists during aseries of international music festivals, ecumenical concerts
and liturgical masses. The San Music Festivals started
after the restoration of the 18th century pipe organ locatedat the magnificent choirloft of San Agustin Church. The
early presence of an organ in San Agustin Church canbe traced back to 1762 when two small realejos weredestroyed during the British invasion. Another one
was installed shortly after and enlarged, incorporating
the usable parts of the old one, from 1810 to 1813.
Through the centuries, the San Agustin Church played asignificant role in the development of choral music in thePhilippines. The 18th Century Pipe Organ was installed foruse during the citation of daily prayers. The organ was
the perfect instrument to fill the needs of the liturgicalcelebrations. The 18th Century Pipe Organ of San Agustin
Church reached its peak during the time of the Pakil-born
Marcelo Adonay, a tiple of the church who later became
a composer, conductor and organist. For centuries, thePipe Organ of San Agustin Church has endured many
natural human calamities. Its restoration in 1997 greatly
contributed a musical tradition whose echoes have beensilent for some time. The restoration was carried out withthe joint cooperation of Diego Cera Organbuilders of Las
Pinas and Mr. Federico Acitores of Organeria Torquemada
from Palencia, Spain, the patronage of Agencia Españolade Cooperacion Internacional, and many Filipino
philanthropists. Since then, beautiful music can be heard
resounding at San Agustin Church. A document foundin Valladolid, Spain states that the materials used for theconstruction were basically of native origin so that we canproudly say that this pipe organ is Spanish-Filipino madewith Filipino materials by Filipino artisans. To quote from
Sr. Acitores: “It is the only one in Manila of this styleand antiquity. I sincerely believe that we behold a jewel
which in addition to being valuable, is rare. It is a jewel
because it deals with an instrument of quality, and rare
because of its antiquity and style in a place in the world
like the Philippines where an authentic baroque Spanish
organ, constructed locally, should be specially valued.”
There is an article by Prof. Dr. Guido Dedene from the
University of Amsterdam entitled “A Tentative Explorationof the Historical Organ Patrimony of the South of thePhilippines in the 19th Century” wherein he mentions thatin general, most of the current historical patrimony goesback to the 19th century. Fr. Diego Cera, and in general
the Augustinians and the Recollects, developed thepatrimony in the South up to Manila, and exceptionally
into the North. Historically, the pipe organ was theearliest keyboard instrument. Parishes and their priests
were often proud to decorate their churches with honorfor God, the Virgin Mary, saints, and so on. The organ

Philippines

Preserving the Historic Pipe Organs in the Philippines: A Cultural Necessity

cases from the 17th to 19th centuries show very impressive
caseworks, decorated as much as possible, and designed
to make the people chant/sing the liturgy. The churchorgans are intimately connected with their churches, andform a unity of style. Fr. Diego Cera, Brother Otorel,
Brothers Roques and Amuezas were among the church
builders of that period. The end of the 19 th century
marked an “invasion” of European organ builders.
The restoration of the other pipe organs present in thePhilippines were carried out by Diego Cera Organbuilders
as more and more of the religious custodians felt theneed to restore and preserve the pipe organ in theirrespective churches. On November 17, 2011, the Swissorganist Guy Bovet, an expert on historic organs, cameto the Philippines to record on CD the amazing sound of
six historical pipe organs built during the colonial period:
Loay, Loboc, and Baclayon in Bohol; Bacong in Negros
Oriental; San Agustin Church, Intramuros, Manila; andBamboo organ in Las Pinas City. The CD was launchedon November 17, 2011 at San Agustin Church, Intramuros,
Manila with a pipe organ performance. The proceeds
were intended to help train young individuals about theuse, value, and maintenance of a pipe organ.
Prior to the devastating October 2013 earthquake that
occurred in Bohol and Cebu, a request was submitted by
the Society for the Conservation of the Historical Organin the Philippines (SCHOP) Incorporated, headed by Mr.
Leo Renier (also founder of the International Bamboo
Organ Festival), to have the 18 remaining historical pipeorgans built during the Spanish colonial era and pre-war
period (1600-1940) declared as NATIONAL CULTURALTREASURES, including the 18th Century Pipe Organ of
San Agustin Church, to prevent further extinction and toacknowledge the unique organ patrimony the country
possesses.
In my paper last year, I indicated the condition of thechurches in the Visayas region that were damaged during
the devastating October 2013 earthquake. Some historicorgans present in these churches were saved and somecompletely damaged, especially in the Bohol churchesof Loboc, Loon, and Maribojoc, which totally collapsed.
Due to the unfortunate state of the structure of thesechurches and the unrecovered pipe organs, the processof declaration of the 18 pipe organs in the Philippines as
National Cultural Treasures may not be feasible.
There are detailed engineering studies, assessments,
documentation, clearing, dismantling of delicate
structures, and inventory of important exhibit items
continuously being done in the affected churches in
Bohol. The government agencies mentioned in my paper
will commission Diego Cera Organbuilders and otherexperts in the field. These specialists can help determine

46

Philippines47

the real condition, identify the recovered parts of the pipeorgans and make recommendations in cases where there

is a need to restore or dismantle them for safety reasons.

Philippines

48

Philippines

49

Philippines

50

Philippines

51

Philippines

Recent efforts are being made to save and recover what
is left of the pipe organs in Bohol with the help of thelimited number of experts in the country. Knowledge
about the preservation, historic value, design andinstallation of these pipe organs is confined to a few
Filipinos who had the privilege to study in a foreigncountry or those who were trained locally by theseexperts. Also, not much is written about these pipeorgans. The Philippines is faced with future challenges
and problems. Our government institutions can hopefully
subsidize the training of more Filipinos in this field. The
preservation and restoration of the Historic Pipe Organs
in the Philippines is a must; it is a cultural necessity.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS:
The author would like to thank the following for making
this paper possible:
The National Commission for Culture and the Arts (NCCA),
National Museum (NM), National Historical Commissionof the Philippines (NHCP), San Agustin Church andMuseum, Mr. Leo Renier, Mr. Cealwyn Tagle (Diego
Cera Organbuilders), Prof. Dr. Guido Dedene-Universityof Amsterdam, Mr. Guy Bovet, and Ms. Ma. Antonio
Kalayaan de Mesa Cornista.

52

Sri Lanka
Sri Lanka

Architecture in Ancient Sri Lanka (1st Part)
D.A. Rasika Dissanayaka, Assistant Director (Promotions)
Department of Archaeology, Sri Lanka(This paper depicts a pictorial overview of the ancientarchitectural edifices remaining in the present and detailsof some of their characteristics.)
The skill displayed by the architects of ancient Sri Lanka
is due mainly to the discipline invoked by Buddhism. Thisarchitecture exemplified the changes that took place inthe religious environment as well.
Classification of Architectural Edifices
i. Religious -	s hrines/residences/service buildings/
templesii. Royal- palaces/forts/royal gardensiii. Habitats - rock caves/dwellings/mansions
iv. Public - wayside resting places/bridges/granaries
This includes buildings and other appurtenances withforeign architectural features, which appeared in theaftermath of foreign invasions.
Brick Technology
The development of bricks, irrespective of how they
evolved, has been beneficial to humankind, and this is
likely to be a permanently invaluable invention. Bricks
appeared for the first time as early as the 2nd century BC.
It is believed that wattle and daube walls were used
before the advent of bricks. (Fig 1) (Fig 2)
The hard clay layer situated about 10 ft. below the surface
is excavated and brought to the surface to be beaten witha mallet into small pieces. These pieces of clay are heaped
and treated with water until the required consistency
is reached. The mixed clay is made into smaller lumps
and put aside for about a week to season. The lumps
are then pressed into wooden moulds. The moulds areturned upside down to eject the lumps, now in the shapeof bricks. They are then sun dried for about a week. The
bricks are placed in a kiln and fired for two days. To
avoid cracks appearing in the fired bricks, a small quantityof sand is added to the clay mix. Early man made stronger
bricks by increasing the proportion of sand to be added tothe clay.

(Fig 1) Wattle and daub building, 19th century AD

53Composition of a brick
8 ¾”x4 ¼”x2 ¾”
MineralModern brick
Sand (Quartz)
30-40%
Clay
55-65%
Voids
1-5%
Load bearing
230 lbs/sq. inch
capacity

18”x9”x2”
Old brick
50-60%
35-45%
3-8%
621 lbs/sq. inch

Protection of Bricks
The author of the Mahavamsa (The mavavamsa, "TheGreat Chronicle", is the most important chronicle record
written in the Pali language. It describes the society andpeople who lived and build our nation from the comingof Vijaya in 543 BC to the reign of King Mahasena (334
– 361) (6 th century BC to 4 th century AD). ) mentions
the production of bricks for the Mahathupa as follows:“Ulu waduwek kiyanne vanehi kullen wadu kalhi
ema daagalehi ambarawa mati amunak (ek dawasak
gewannemi) mehi chaiythyehi thrunadihu da nowannahuya”. (Then an experienced and shrewd master builder
said to the King: “I shall pound (the sand) in the mortar,and then, when it is sifted, have it crushed in the mill and(thus will use) one ammanna (only) of sand”.) (Fig 4)
Bricks were produced in different shapes and sizes to suitvarious needs. The bricks had indentation marks on themfor the purpose of identification to facilitate their selection
for the type of structure that they were to be used for.
Artistic bricks were also produced. It is believed that thedesigns on them were symbols depicting religious-relatedarchitectural features and mythical beliefs.
Brahmi script markings were indented in bricks to identify
the craftsman or to indicate the grade of his skill (Fig 5) (Fig6)
The brick wall is strengthened by the thin layer of mortar
to bond the bricks. The thick plaster makes the brick wall
waterproof. The exterior view of the wall shows the bricks
placed one against the other such that the surface is flush
while the inner view shows that the bricks are laid withplaster-filled masonry joints. (Fig 7)(Fig 2) Ancient brick kiln, 12th century AD(Fig 4)

Sri Lanka(Fig 5) Artistic bricks(Fig 6) Artistic bricks

Patterns of various brick structures
Corbelled
Spanning the space between vertical brick walls using
courses of bricks to form an arch. (Fig 8)
Circular
Spanning the space between two vertical brick walls usingsemi circular shaped bricks. (Fig 9)
Corbelled and circular
Leaving several corbels inside the two vertical brickwalls and spanning the space by placing bricks on it in acircular manner. (Fig 10)
Timber Crafting Technology
In the early periods of Sri Lanka, buildings wereconstructed with clay, mud walls and wattle and daub.
By the 7th – 8th centuries AD, timber was the predominantmaterial used in constructing the ancient buildings of Sri
Lanka. Thereafter the timber design tradition of buildings
changed to the rock design tradition. Even so, the roofs ofall the buildings continued to be designed in timber. The
old timber structures and their ruins still remaining mainly
belong to the medieval era.
In the fabrication of timber components for the constructionof the ancient buildings prominence was given to strength
rather than to aesthetics. This strength and an impressive
appearance were given prominence in the old buildings.
Mee (Madhuca longifolia), Na (Mesna ferrea), Gammalu(Pterocarpus marsupium), and Palu (Manickara hexandra)
were the woods commonly used. (Fig 11)
In ancient times, the technology of timber in Sri Lanka
remained highly developed. The timber pillar was thebest known creation. The pillar head is the most striking
feature of medieval buildings. These are able to support
the weight of the huge timber beams placed horizontally
upon them with ease. The pillar head helps to extend theeaves of a building. (Fig 12)
Wall plates were jointed by using scarf joints. While therafters of the buildings generally had carvings of motifs,
where curved rafters were used the deflections of therafters were avoided by use of wooden pieces called“idda”. (Fig 13)
Roofs of buildings not requiring a ridge plate wereconstructed using a circular apex of roof rafters, thereby
avoiding the use of a central column. (Fig 14)
Ancient doors were without hinges. A door sash was fixed(Fig 7) King’s Palace, Polonnaruwa, 12th century AD

to the upper and the lower horizontal door frames by twotenons. (Fig 15)
Tile production Technology
Man used tree shades, tree burrows and rock caves before
the use of houses with tiled roofs.
Roofing materials have an important place in architecture.
Tiles made of materials such as clay and copper havebeen found, and coloured roof tiles with a glossy
finish have been found near the Maha Pali alms hall ofAnuradhapura.
A hitch was fixed under each tile to prevent the tiles fromsliding down. Some tiles had holes for nails to fit in. The
cut creases on the top surfaces of the tiles helped thewater to drain. (Fig 16) (Fig 17)
During the Anuradhapura period, roof tiles weretrapezoidal shaped and had creases from top to bottom
etched by fingers. Later, in the Polonnaruwa period, thetiles became rectangular shaped.
Several layers of tiles kept one layer atop the other on theroof, and reduced the temperature within the building.
(Fig 18)
Stone Technology
The stone industry was in a more advanced stage ofdevelopment during the Anuradhapura and Polonnaruwa
periods than in the medieval era. It is evident that thestonemasons were mainly of South Indian origin.
Huge rocks were separated from the parent rock bydrilling wedges into 100-200 mm wide cleaves made withchisels. They were subsequently put to use in various
creations such as pillars, arches, doors, tiles, bridges,
foundations and sluices. The smallest chisels were used tomake the surface of these rocks smooth. (Fig 19)
Stones not harmed with tools were used in the constructionof the megalithic tombs of Ibbankatuwa. (Fig 20)
Even the Padavi Gampola cromlech is a creation made ofstone. (Fig 21)
The Pali commentaries mention that the Bhikkus, who
lived in rock caves, took steps to enlarge the cavesby lighting bonfires, causing the rock to scale anddisintegrate. Drip edges were constructed on top of the
cave openings to prevent rainwater entering the cave.
(Fig 22)54

Sri Lanka(Fig 9) T emple of Tooth Relic, Kandy, 17 th -18 th
centuries AD(Fig 8) I m a g e H o u s e , G a l m a d u w a , 1 7 t h - 1 8 t hcenturies AD(Fig 10) L ankatilaka Image House, Polonnaruwa,
12th century AD(Fig 12) Pillar head of the Panavitiya Resting Place(Ambalama)(Fig 11) C ross section of the Temple of Tooth,Kandy, 17th-18th centuries AD(Fig 13)(Fig 14)(Fig 15) T imber lock at the Malwatte Monastery,
Kandyan period(Fig 16) T iles of different shapes and sizes were
designed to suit particular locations on the roof

(Fig 17) Tiles in different shapes and sizes(Fig 18) Several layers of tiles were laid

(Fig 19)

To transfer the weight of the structure evenly on the
ground, the columns were supported on rock slabs oron brick foundations. To maintain the equilibrium of
the columns the centre of gravity was located as low as

55

possible. (Fig 23)
Wedges were used to keep the structure stable and toprevent it shifting horizontally. The rock blocks of theSri Lanka(Fig 20) Megalithic tombs at Ibbankatuwa(Fig 21) Cromlech at Padavi Gampola

twin ponds (Kuttam Pokuna) were held together forstability by the use of stone pegs. (Fig 24) (Fig 25)
Stupa
The history of Sri Lanka dates back to the 3rd century BC,
when Buddhist traditions were established on its soil. In
India prior to the 6th century, the relics of nobility wereentombed and stupas were built over them. The earliest
stupas this country were built according to the tradition of
the North Indian stupa tradition of Sanchi and others, andunderwent extension over time by the appropriation of
new accompaniments.
According to the Theravada tradition, Lord Buddha’s
corporeal relics were entombed and stupas were built
over them. The stupa Indikatu Saya of Anuradhapura,erected after depositing Doctrine Relics, is considered to
be an act of Mahayana tradition. (Fig 26)
Professor Paranavithana identifies the Sathmahal Prasadha
of Polonnaruwa as a stupa from the 12th century AD.
(Fig 27)
Some stupas were erected to commemorate special
incidents. (Fig 28)
Construction of Stupas
The foundation of a stupa generally extends up to therock on which it is situated. It is mentioned that in someinstances, the foundation of the stupa is prepared bylaying huge bolders on soil moist with water and letting
elephants tread on it to compact the soil. The stupa isbuilt on a platform raised above ground level. Around theplatform boundary walls, entrances and decorative steps
are constructed. The dome of the stupa is made solely
out of brick and plastered lime. Relic chambers are built
within the dome for the deposition of relics. (Fig 29)
Before the stupa is constructed, a sketch drawing of
it is prepared. The sketch of a stupa found on a stoneslab in the Salapathala Maluwa (Stone Paved Terrace)of Mirisawetiya stupa reveals that a sketch drawing had
been prepared before the stupa was constructed. Stupaswith a single “chathra” (umbrella) and a yupa stone (axis)
were constructed before the appearance of stupas withpinnacles. The addition of more chatras placed on topof the other led to the design of a pinnacle to crown the
stupa. (Fig 30)
This model of a stupa belonging to the earliest period of
stupa construction has been discovered in Deliwala stupa.
(Fig 31)(Fig 22)

Stupas can be categorized according to the shape andarchitectural characteristics into six basic types. No records
exist of some of these types of stupa in Sri Lanka.
01. Ghantakara (Bell shape)
02. Ghatakara (Pot shape)
03. Bubbulakara (Bubble shape)
04. Dhanyakara (Paddy heap shape)
05. Padmakara (Lotus shape)
06. Amlakara (Shape of the Nelli fruit (Phyllanthus
Emblica), Indian gooseberry or myrobalan type offruit)(Fig 32) (Fig 33) (Fig 34) (Fig 35) (Fig 36) (Fig 37)
Some types of stupa were built with a canopy called a“watadage”. (Fig 38)
A special type of stupa with a shelter above its dome
is found in Sri Lanka. This type is termed “kuludage or
thupagara”. (Fig 39)
Image House
In the early period, instead of worshipping images of the
Buddha, objects which represented the Buddha, such as
the Bo tree and the sacred footprint, were worshipped
as symbolical representations of Lord Buddha. The
oldest type of image house design, famously known
as the Gandhakuti, had a single door. A staircase wassubsequently added to one side of the image house.
(Fig 40)
When image worship increased, image houses with innerverandahs of greater magnitude were constructed. (Fig 41)
During the Polonnaruwa period, image house ofenormous size were built. (Fig 42)
In the medieval era with the population shift towards the
Kandyan Kingdom (Central Part of the country) the Image
houses which are smaller than the aforesaid, known as
Tampita Vihara (Temple on Stone, Temple on pillers)
were constructed. Wood was the main material used in its
construction. (Fig 43) (Fig 44a) (Fig 44b)
Image houses associated with caves were created as well.
A lean-to roof was often constructed on the front of the
cave with a drip ledge on top of the cave opening toprevent the rainwater dripping inside.
Bodhighara
In India an image of a Bodhigara is seen on the stone
carvings of Sanchi, belonging to the 3rd century BC. The

56

Sri Lanka(Fig 23) Foundation of stone building(Fig 24)(Fig 25) Rambakan Oya, Anuradhpura period(Fig 26) Thuparamaya, 3rd century BC(Fig 28) T he place where the remains of King
Parakramabahu’s mother were cremated isin Udagananava stupa from the 12th century
AD(Fig 27) Sathmahal Prasadaya, 12th century AD(Fig 31) Model of a stupa found in Deliwala(Fig 29)(Fig 30)(Fig 34) Bubble shape(Fig 32) Bell shape(Fig 33) Pot shape(Fig 35) Paddy heap shape(Fig 36) Lotus shape - No records exist of this type (Fig 37) Amlakara - No records exist of this type ofof stupa in Sri Lanka
stupa in Sri Lanka

57

Sri Lanka(Fig 38)(Fig 39)(Fig 41) Near Thuparama, Anuradhapura period(Fig 43) Tampita Vihara at Kolambagama(Fig 40) Preliminary design of the Gandhakuti(Fig 42) Lankatilaka image house, Polonnaruwa(Fig 44a)(Fig 45) Bodhigara in Nillakkagama, 9th century AD(Fig 44b)(Fig 46) Saseruwa, latter Anuradhapura period

practice of worshipping the Bo tree (Ficus religiosa) in
Sri Lanka as a Buddhist tradition commenced from when
Buddhism was introduced to Sri Lanka. It is clear that thehistoricity of the Sri Maha Bodhiya and its importancewould have influenced the construction of a Bodhigara,
a prominent religious building in Buddhist temples in Sri
Lanka.

(Fig 47) Arankele, Anuradhapura period

A Bodhigara is a structure with a roof constructedsurrounding a Bo tree. It has perambulation paths, flower
altars and seated Buddha statues, as well as a drainage
system for draining the rainwater out of the structure.
As the Bo tree requires sunshine for its growth, theBodhigara was erected to cover the area surrounding the58tree, leaving space in the middle portion. (Fig 45)

Sri Lanka

Later, parapet walls, or “prakara bemi”, were used insteadof the Bodhighara with a roof. (Fig 46)
Promenades were used by Bhikkus to practice theirperambulatory medication. These meditation promenades
were prepared by spreading sand between two walls builtof cobblestones. (Fig 47) (Fig 48)
Jhanthagara (Bathing House)
Jhanthagara (Bathing House) is another essential item
in a temple complex. In this special building, steam wasused to augment sweating to induce invigoration and theprotection of one’s health. (Fig 49)
In the middle of a Jhanthagara a rock strewn shallow
area for bathing, a place to heat water, a place to prepare
medicine or anointing liquids and a sewerage system wereusually provided. (Fig 50)
Alms Halls (Refectory)
The alms hall, or “danasala”, is a single storied building
with pillars. The building consists of a compound witha number of doors, rice and gruel bowls, and storage
containers. Usually this building is void of decorative
finishes. (Fig 51) (Fig 52)
After the Anuradhapura and Polonnaruwa periods, theconstruction of alms halls ceased to such an extent
that they are hardly ever seen today. The alms hall of
Dodandoowa Shailabimbaarama and Palmadulla temples,
which were built during the medieval period, stand out
as two examples of alms halls which continue to serve
priests to the present day. (Fig 53)
Uposathagara (Chapter House)
An important activity is performed in the Uposathagara
or Sabbath house of a temple complex. It is a place set
aside for Bhikkhus to redeem the violation of a Vinaya
act. Mahavamsa mentions that Venerable Mahinda Theraadvised King Devanampiyatissa to build the Uposathagara
in the “Velimaluva” (Sand Terrace). Sabbath houses wereusually built with one or more upper floors.

According to the Mahayana tradition, Vihara of Pabbatha(Piyangal Vihara) has been a residence for the Bhikkus.
(Fig 59) (Fig 60)
Panchavasa was a special building in a monastic complexof the Anuradhapura period. It was actually a groupof buildings comprising four square cubicles built
symmetrically around a bigger multistorey structure.
(Fig 61)
An avasage was like an ordinary house in the medieval
era. They were rectangular buildings with doors facing theinner verandah and comprising central inner courtyards.
(Fig 62)
References
1. Silva, Roland. 1990, Brick - A Unit of Constructionin Ancient Sri Lanka, ICTAD Journal, Vol.2 No.1, A
Publication of the Institute for Construction Training
and Development
2. Wilhelm Geiger & Mabel Haynes Bode, Mahawamsa
Colombo: Information Department, 1950.
3. Coomaraswamy, Ananda K. 1979, Mediaeval SinhaleseArt, Pantheon Books INC, New York.
4. Geiger, Wilhelm; Bode, Mabel Haynes (transl.); Frowde,
H. (ed.): The Mahavamsa or, The great chronicle of
Ceylon / translated into English by Wilhelm Geiger ...
assisted by Mabel Haynes Bode ... under the patronageof the government of Ceylon. London: Pali Text Society
1912 (Pali Text Society, London. Translation series ; no.
3)
5. Bandaranayake S., Mogren, Mats. 1994, Further Studies
in the Settlement Archaeology of the Sigiriya-Dambulla
Region, A publication of the Postgraduate Institute ofArchaeology (PGIAR), University of Kelaniya
6. Knox, Robert. 1681, An Historical Relation of the Island
Ceylon, in the East-Indies Printed by Richard Chiswell,Printer to the ROYAL SOCIETY, at the Rose and Crown
in St. Paul’s Church-yard, 1681.
(The rest of the article will be published in the 15th regular
report)Latterly, the Sabbath houses of the Ramanna andAmarapura Nikayas (different chapters of priests) werebuilt above water.
Initially, the Lovamahapaya with nine storeys was the
Sabbath house of the Maha Viharaya.
(Fig 54) (Fig 55) (Fig 56) (Fig 57)
Avasage (Residential Buildings of Priests)
Chullavagga mentions that Bhikkus of ancient times
lived in haystacks and under huge trees. Later, they
moved into buildings. Buddha subsequently permitted
Bhikkus to reside in monasteries (avasage). An avasage
is a rectangular structure with a center courtyard and averandah around it.
Bhikkus living in forest hermitages absorbed in meditation
used natural caves as their retreats. (Fig 58)

59(Fig 48) Maligatenna, Anuradhapura period

Sri Lanka(Fig 50) Kiralagala, Anuradhapura period(Fig 49 Arankele, 9th century AD(Fig 51) Alms hall in Mihintale, Anuradhapura period(Fig 52) Rice storage container at Mahapali Alms
Hall in Anuradhapura (Constructed by King
Devanampiyatissa in the 3rd century AD)(Fig 53) Alms hall in Pelmadulla, Kandyan period(Fig 56) Malwatta Pohoyage, Kandy (Sabbath house)
18th century AD(Fig 54) Lovamahapaya, 3rd century BC(Fig 55) Baddha Sima Prasada, Polonnaruwa, 12th
century AD(Fig 57) Dodanduwa Shailabimbaramaya, 19 th
century AD(Fig 58) Dimbulagala Cave

(Fig 60) Plan of double platform building(Fig 61)(Fig 59) Double platform building, Arankele, latter
Anuradhapura period(Fig 62) Lankatilaka Vihara, Kandy, 19th century AD

60

Uzbekistan
Uzbekistan

Documentation of Architectural Monuments of Uzbekistan
Akmal Ulmasov, Leader specialist
Fine Arts Institute, Academy of Sciences of Uzbekistan
Introduction
At the beginning of this year, a three-day national
training course was held in Bukhara on documentation ofarchitectural monuments of Uzbekistan in the frameworkof the UNESCO / Japanese Funds-in-Trust project"Support for documentation standards and procedures of
the Silk Roads World Heritage Serial and Transnational
Nomination in Central Asia". Afterwards, training was
carried out based on documentation of three objects inthe category "Silk Road corridor Pandjikent – Samarqand– Poykent":• Mir Sayid Bakhrom Mausoleum• Raboti-Malik Sardoba• Portal of Caravanserai Raboti-Malik.
Workshop participants were young professionals andstudents from different regions and organizations working
in the field of cultural heritage preservation.
Plan of realization work:- Familiarize participants with archival materials relating
to the selected objects and the surrounding areas;- Photographing objects, their interiors and construction
details, as well as the surrounding landscape from all
sides. Measuring objects and their structural parts using
both the laser and manual methods;- Study of the technical condition of objects (damage,cracks, humidity, salinity, etc.);- Definition of building materials (brick, stucco, stone,
wood, etc.);- Treatment of photographs made with the help of thecomputer programs Perspective Rectifier, Panorama
Editor and Auto CAD;
- Preparation of a final presentation and demonstration.
1. Mir Sayid Bakhrom Mausoleum.
Description
The Mir S ayid Bakhrom is located in Navoi province
and was established in the 10th to 11th centuries. The
building is a square domed structure of brick, with adecorated portal on the southern side. The history of
the construction of the mausoleum is not well known.
The name of Mir Said is mentioned in the work of Abu
Takhirhudja Samarqandy "Samaria," which, along with theabsence of external damage to the mausoleum, points tothe importance of this person (Fig. 1).
The study of the history of this landmark at different times
has engaged researchers such as A. Pisarchik, V. Nilsen,
I. Borodin, E. ekrasov and others. In 1972, research was
conducted, and in 1973 the development of business andresidential premises began in the south including thepreservation and restoration of the mosque with an ayvan(terrace). At the end of 1973 metal strands were attachedto the mausoleum in order to protect against possible
collapse of the walls in winter. In 1974, restoration was

61carried out to strengthen the constructed part and most
likely, the loss of part of the terracotta decorations (Fig. 2).
Condition of conservation of the property: satisfactory
state of the object today.
2. Threats and possible destruction
Environment
The greatest threat to the object is dampness in the soil in
the area where the object is located, while the side street
which runs alongside it is insignificant.
The main building: Mausoleum
The general condition of the main building is satisfactory;
however, on the facades there are definite salinedamaged areas. On both sides of the doorway between
the arches with epigraphic inscriptions at a height of 1.9m, there are regions with high humidity. On the left sideof the arch with epigraphic inscriptions, and next to themon the corrugated semipedestal, some bricks are missing.
Loss of the brick lining was detected on other portions of
the building facade as well (Fig. 3).
On the surface of the facade of the foundation under theleft edge of the arch waterproofing material (bitumen)
was used. The same solution was used for the Whaler (ata height of 1.85 m) – a П-shaped space with brick décor,as well as part of the corrugated pilasters. It is not clear
why different parts of the void between the whaler brickgeometric decor are filled with clay and sand mortar. The
same solution was smeared in a small section of the rightcorner of the tympanum. On the surface of this cementoccasional scratches and indentations had been madewith a sharp instrument, which suggests their connection
with the application of a superimposed finish, for example,
colored mosaics or majolica. However, in the absence of
relevant written information and factual evidence, it canbe only assumed that if the décor and color are present
on this surface, it was performed at a later time. To clarify
these issues, further studies are required.
Some of the portal of the eastern facade of themausoleum at 2m from the top of the intermediate
brickwork is absent. Apparently, these voids from abunch of not surviving to the boundary wall. On thewestern facade at 1.50 m from the right edge there issignificant deformation of the wall.
The interior of the mausoleum
Moisture went inside of the premises, affecting the entire
surface of the structural parts. In particular, the perimeterof the premises at various levels (from 0.50 m to 1.50 m)shows traces of salt and moisture. This is visible on theupper brickwork dome (7th row of the dome heel). On
the dome of the interior there are significant cracks andsometimes traces of salinity. The western arched niche
is completely covered with bitumen. This solution wasAyvan (terrace) of mosques
An ayvan was built separately from the mausoleum a few
years ago. The damage to the object was determined. The
blind area, the foundation and mid ayvan showed tracesof high salinity and humidity in the upper 5-6 layers ofthe masonry. This was pronounced on top of the rightwall of the ayvan. Here the bottom of the beam has avertical crack about 30 cm long, which most likely arose
due to the weight of the roof above the beam. Also, there
were partially rotten wooden beams on the ceiling of theayvan due to humidity (Fig. 4).
On the eastern facade on the surface of the brick dandana(masonry roof edge) at different places there is visible
leakage around the bitumen. The western façade drain isproperly organized. As a result, accumulation of moisture
was observed in the areas around the drains. And as aresult of rain runoff, the bottom part of the foundationwall also showed traces of moisture (Fig. 5).
3. Portal of Caravanserai Raboti-Malik
Description
Raboti-Malik (or Royal Rabot) was built on the ancientdesert caravan route between Karmana and Kiziltepa askhan rates – strengthening, and served as a caravanserai,
as a rabot, and may have performed the function of akhonako (a similar barrack-type building in the preMongol period, with rooms around a courtyard). Direct
historical information about the time of completion is
known through a postscript in the margins of the 16th
century work "Kitabi Mulla-zoda" (“Mulla-zade’s book”)
on the construction of the "Royal Rabot" Abul Hasan
Karakhanids Nasr ibn Ibrahim in 471 AH (1078-1079 AD.),attributed by V. Bartold and I. Umnyakov to Raboti-Malikin the Karmana desert. The object was reconstructed in
the first quarter of the 12th century during the reign of
Karakhanids Arslankhan Muhammad ibn Sulayman (Fig.
6).
Through archaeological works carried out during thesecond half of the 20th century to the beginning of the
21 st century, it was possible to identify the complex
layout of this unique building. It occupied an area of
100 x 100 m, surrounded by strong walls and divided
into two halves. According to the latest archaeologicalresearch (N. Nemtseva) on numismatics and household
ceramics, Raboti-Malik was built in the first quarter ofthe 11 th century. The northern part underwent major
reconstruction in the third quarter of the 11th century.
Possibly by Shams-ul-Mulk Nasr, the son of Ibrahim
Tashgach Khan, who ruled Samarqand in 1068-1080 AD.
The only part of the majestic "Royal Rabot" that is now
preserved are the ruins of the portal with the remnantsof the magnificent monochrome decor in the form ofintertwining lines on brick framing the eight-pointed star
chain entrance arch, a loop which bypasses the stucco
carved inscription: "The building was built by the Sultanof the world and with the help of God was like paradise."
The most complete historical record of this lostmonument are the descriptions and illustrations
published in 1841 by A. Lehman. They fix the facade of
the monument inside the outer fortifications. Actuallystrengthen, as it is called Caravanserai Raboti-Malik by A.
Lehman and formed a huge square with a south-facing
facade from his description. At its center is a portal on
the wall that exceeds 1/3 of the wall's height. In thecorners were "towers" that were twice the height of thewall: the wall on either side of the portal, as evidenced
by the photographs of the 1920s, was designed as acomplex rhythm of powerful semi-columns connected at
the top and extending deep into the lancet arcs – as inancient fortress walls with corrugated motifs, it performed
a purely figurative function1.

Uzbekistan

smeared on the upper adjacent walls and partially on
the southern wall (on the doorway beams). In a small
area on the western side of the layer of bitumen residue,
there is cement plaster with a layer of stucco plaster. Clayplaster with straw is visible here, including in the archedrecess on the northern side of the room décor framedwith stucco. In the central and eastern arched niche
similar decor has not been preserved.

Threats and possible destruction
Environment
The facility is situated along a highway and is therefore
affected by vibration, noise, exhaust fumes and dust
from passing vehicles. An airport is also nearby, which
is a source of vibration and noise. The site on which thefacility is located is heavily influenced by closely spaced
groundwater (Fig. 7).
Portal object
The general state of the object is satisfactory, but insome areas destruction and infiltration of groundwater
into the masonry can be identified. In particular, on
the left pole of the portal on the southern side, a large
area exposed to moisture has vertical crack at the base.
On the right pylon, vertical cracks and a small area ofmoisture was also found. On both sides of the arch ata height of 2.45 m to 7 m and about 1 m wide, there isoriginal clay plaster. In the tympanum an inscription canbe traced along the contours of the arch. However, partof the epigraphy has been lost. Terracotta inscriptions
throughout the facility have been retraced new masonry.
Also at the level of 10.4 m on the facade on the southernside there is a break in the masonry of the epigraphy.
There are traces of vandalism. In the inner part of thearch from the south, starting at the level of 7 m to theend of the arch, there is modern stucco plaster. In someareas clay inlay is visible under the original plaster. On
the western side of the portal at the bottom of the new
masonry area, some parts of about 3 m2 have collapsed(Fig. 8).
Conclusion
After careful examination new data were collectedconcerning the studied objects defined by their current
status and the following recommendations were
proposed:- Plant trees around the objects to absorb groundwater(e.g., mulberry or Central Asian sycamore);- Create a drainage system to drain groundwater;- Increase the slope of the blind area around the perimeter(this applies to Mir-Said Bahram);62

Uzbekistan- Generate an audit and completely replace the existing
pavement with traditional material (middle ages breakor limestone) around the object (for Mir Said Bahram);- Revise the organization of drainage throughout thefacility (for the Mir Said Bahram);- Modernize the interpretation of objects, including
replacing signs and installing bulletin boards;- Develop a management plan to monitor the technicalconditions of regular maintenance and routine repairs.
Thus, this workshop brought together a large amountof material on the current status of objects that canbe used to further their study and conservation. In
addition, during the exchange of individual experiences,
participants gained new knowledge and skills in the fieldof cultural heritage preservation.

Note: Materials were prepared by participants in theseminar: the author of the project, Ona Vileaks; andproject coordinator, Culture Officer at the UNESCO Officein Uzbekistan, Sanjar Allayarov. The author of this report
participated in the seminar as a specialist to determine
the possible threat of destruction of objects. Photos weretaken by the participants. Drawings are by the author.
Archive materials:
1. Passport of Historical and Cultural Heritage of USSR
(Tangible). Caravanserai Raboti-Malik. ИА (М). М 23.
№1256/5. Fine Arts Institute (in Russian lang.).
2. R. Kadir. Pamphlet about Caravanserai Raboti-Malik (inUzbek lang.). Tashkent, 1998.
3. Training materials from the UNESCO Office in
Uzbekistan on documentation of serial objects.
1

From materials of archive documents.

1. General view of the object Mausoleum Mir Said
Bakhrom.

3. Drawing of the object with descriptions(mausoleum).

6. Plan of the Caravanserai Raboti-Malik.

4. Part of the object. Ayvan (terrace).

2. Part of the object. Entrance to mausoleum.

5. Drawing of the object with descriptions(mausoleum).

7. General view of the object Caravanserai RabotiMalik.

8. Part of the object. Portal.

63

Published by
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