ACCU Group Training Course 2022
Country Reports

Australia

Creating a new 'best practice' in the management ofAustralian cultural heritage.
Matilda Steelcliff
Cultural Heritage Officer
South Coast Region, Department of Transport and Main Roads,
Queensland Government, Australia
The problems facing the protection of Australian cultural heritage are varied and ever evolving. The vast
variation in the Australian landscape has borne an equally deep variation in the archaeological record. This
record is protected by multiple protective legislative acts and Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander cultural
heritage acts across all states and territories. The primary legislative pieces being The Burra Charter (forHistorical Heritage) along with the Aboriginal Cultural Heritage Act and the Torres Strait Islander Cultural
Heritage Act (for Indigenous cultural heritage). As an early professional within the heritage discipline, thelearning curve of deciphering the terminology and legal obligations within all of these acts is steep.
I am a cultural heritage officer for the Queensland Department of Transport and Main Roads, I help my
department manage the heritage of over 33,000 kilometres of roadway, snaking through 1.853 million square
kilometres of countryside. We also manage waterways and sea country along almost 7,000km of coastline,
including entry points into the Great Barrier Reef. Despite this broad region, the main problems I haveencountered while managing cultural heritage can be split into 2 overarching areas; Climate change and slow
legislative review processes.
Impacts of accelerated climate change.
Like the material remains of cultural heritage throughout the world, the recent acceleration of climate change
has devastatingly impacted sites throughout Australia. The region in which I work is blessed to include
multiple World Heritage listed sites, including the Gondwana Rainforest. In the January of 2020, this site
was involved in one of the most widespread bushfire events Australia has experienced. In addition to this,several of the roadways throughout the area are recognised as having a state level of heritage significance.
Binna Burra Road, Tamborine Mountain Road and Geissman Drive are some of the oldest roads inQueensland and still have heritage infrastructure, such as culverts and drains in use. Binna Burra Road wassignificantly damaged by fire and the fire fighting efforts. In moments of extreme threats, the safety of people
rightly takes precedent over heritage. In Australia, in the event of an emergency, all environmental andcultural heritage constraints and permit requirements are voided for a government mandated period. For the2020 Binna Burra fires, this period was initially 60 days. For these 60 days, fires were fought and thankfully
extinguished, burned vegetation was bulldozed then removed and roadways and road batters were shored up
and secured, without the need for damage mitigation or risk assessment to either heritage or environmental
matters. After the 60 days expired, all works had to be resurveyed, re-assessed and new management planscompiled. Also, because works were continuing in these areas, assessments for risks to remaining heritage,
had to be completed to ensure compliance with reinstated legal obligations. Consultation with the state
heritage department is still ongoing, over 18 months after the event. The fires not only impacted theremaining heritage infrastructure, it devastated the environment. What was once called one of the mostbeautiful drives in Australia, became a reminder of one of the worst events in Australia's natural history.
How Australian's and other visitors viewed the landscape has completely changed. The Gondwana
Rainforest has this special ability to make you travel back in time. Standing under the canopy of the giant
trees, it is not hard to imagine what 5,000 years ago seemed like, you can hear it, smell it and see it. Afterthe 2020 fires, sections of the rainforest were violently thrust into the 21st century. Finding ways to manage

the risk of fire to heritage throughout my region is a priority. But how to do this has been a combination of
trial and error, inciting apathy from some and outrage from others. Some want large fire breaks bulldozed
through the landscape and additional roads constructed for ease of access and escape. While others haveaccused the transport department of deliberately sacrificing environmental and heritage significance to build
more roads. At this stage, I believe that further extreme events are inevitable, and the utmost priority is theaccurate recording of what we have remaining, combined with a proactive presence within all construction
projects in the area. But this may be effective for the management of one site, but when multiple sites are
impacted by multiple events, managing cultural heritage within an emergency situation can seem daunting
and overwhelming.
In addition to the fires of 2020 the region also experienced an influx of extreme weather events. After many
years of drought, the region experienced several storms over a matter of weeks, which saw a year's worth ofrain fall in a month. This caused mudslides and cliff collapses throughout heritage protected areas, including
Tamborine Mountain road. In one night, several tonnes of rock collapsed from a cliff overlooking Lahey's
Lookout in the Lamington National Park section of the Gondwana Rainforest onto the roadway and houses
below. This blocked access to the top of the mountain and destroyed large sections of rainforest. For over 6
months now, this section of the rainforest has been completely inaccessible to the public due to safetyconcerns and construction efforts. This has introduced many additional challenges that were not anticipated.
Several tonnes of rock have fallen and needs to be moved. It is always preferred to keep material as close to
its source as possible, but how to distribute that much rock without further impact to the area? In addition tothis, with the closure of this roadway for so long, Gondwana Rainforest has begun to reclaim sections of theroad due to lack of interference from people and vehicles. Tamborine Mountain Road is an area of highhistorical heritage significance, there are heritage features over 100 years old, still in use throughout the
roadway. There are drystone walls build almost a century ago, still hold up steep cliff sections around hairpin
bends, troughs that once watered the horses that delivered goods to the mountain area still have natural springwater flowing into them. How do you manage the risk to a heritage site, when it is unsafe to even see thesite? How do you respect the environmental significance of an area when it is rapidly deleting the historicalsignificance of a site?
It is not just historical heritage that is being impacted by climate change, several Indigenous sites that aresituated within Department land have become threatened by fire and weather events. The Cunningham Gap
highway sits adjacent to a sacred women's site for the local traditional owner group. This site includes abirthing stone and several story places that are sacred to the Yugambeh people. A fire, started by a lightning
strike in a nearby national park, raced through the area destroying a portion of the stone arrangements andsetting. This fire also destroyed vegetation on a cliff face above the site, causing the slope to become
unstable. Regular rockfalls and collapses are occurring, furthering the damage to the area and creating asituation too hazardous to allow any heritage preservation or mitigation activities to commence. While
Queensland has historically experienced extreme weather events in the past, it was not at the frequency weare currently experiencing. It is the density of events that have highlighted the second overarching problem
facing Australian archaeological and heritage sites, a slow and convoluted legislative review and updateprocess.

Outdated Legal Protection
As an archaeology and heritage management students within Australia, we are taught that Australia's heritage
conservation and preservation frameworks were some of the world's leading and ground-breaking
legislature. The Burra Charter was an innovative document aimed at a practical approach to heritage

management, it was to be the reinvention of The Venice Charter. This document was also the framework formany other country's heritage management strategies. There is no doubt that this may have been true in 1979
when the document was ratified, but the framework is now over 40 years old. Attempts have been made to
update and keep the conservation document relevant but this process lags behind an ever-increasing need forinnovative conservation. Each state within Australia, shapes its own heritage legislation, based on the Burra
Charter. The Queensland Heritage Act 1992 is the relevant framework for my area in regard to historical
heritage management. The Aboriginal Cultural Heritage Act 2003 safeguards Indigenous heritage. Both
documents have had repeated reviews or attempted reviews, but there are still massive gaps in protection
and the Aboriginal Cultural Heritage Act has a concerning amount of grey areas that have been manipulated
to the detriment of Indigenous heritage. I am very aware that although I work within the archaeological andheritage management industry, I primarily answer to a construction company. The Department of Transport's
focus is on building and maintaining transport infrastructure. I am not averse to progress and don't believe
the solution to heritage conservation is to freeze it in time, but an increasing population and a population's
needs seem to always take precedent over the preservation of cultural heritage.
As a Queensland government department, we are encouraged to set the benchmark for best practice and beopen to transparent reviews of procedures. But this approach is not embraced by all industry professionals.
The prevalence of gaps in legislature encourages unscrupulous behaviours from some third-party providers
to Traditional Owners. The largest gap I have encountered is the fact that the Aboriginal Cultural Heritage
Act is self-regulated. It is up to the principal to ensure they are following the duty of care guidelines for theact. It is only when a traditional owner group raises an issue with the state department that any issues canaddressed. This places a great deal of pressure on Traditional Owner parties, some groups are the custodiansof areas that cover thousands of kilometres. This policing places a great strain on resourcing and resources.
Some custodians simply don't have the capacity to know every construction project happening within theirjurisdiction. Also, many local planning schemes do not require the need to consult either the centralised
Aboriginal Heritage Database or the Traditional Owner group. It is evident that construction and planningindustries moves faster than heritage. By having such a reactive approach to protecting heritage I fear thatmany sites are being damaged, minimally protected or even lost completely.
Although it was not a project I was directly involved in, I have had the misfortune of working with a
Traditional Owner group while they have fought with another developer about a shopping precinct being
built adjacent to a Bora Ring complex. There had been no consultative process and they were only madeaware when ground-breaking activities had commenced. The strain this placed on the group was immense,
it was taxing both from an emotional viewpoint and a resourcing front. Group members had to be removed
from other active projects to respond to the threat to a sacred area. The threat to a sacred initiation site alsosaw, some initiation processes accelerated, and normal cultural processes couldn't be followed. This projectis still ongoing, and a costly legal battle has ensued, further taxing the Traditional Owner group. The
Aboriginal Cultural Heritage Act 2003 has been in review for several years, postponements have held up
any meaningful changes to the protective act. The archaeological community agrees that something needs
to change and soon, but the governmental processes needed are slow. The slow reactionary timing and theaccelerated threat of climate change and construction to heritage is a dangerous combination.
This has been a simplified overview of two main areas of concern that I have personally experienced as a
new professional within the heritage industry and all fall within the past 2 years. These issues are not limited
to Australian archaeology, but I believe that the Australian archaeological community has no reason not to
set the precedent for best practice. I regularly administer cultural heritage risk inductions to construction
contractors, informing them of their obligations in protecting cultural heritage. I stress that it is not only alegal obligation it is a cultural obligation as Australians, to protect what we all value. Cultural heritage is a
non-renewable resource and once it is gone, it is gone forever.

Bangladesh

Problem and Needs for Cultural Heritage Protection and
Restoration Activities in Bangladesh
Md. Shahin Alam
Field Officer
Antiquities & Protection, Department Archaeology,
Ministry of Cultural Affairs
Bangladesh has numerous problems and needs for cultural heritage protection due to a variety of cultural
materials, heritage sites, and artefacts made of brick, stone, wood, metal, terracotta, bone, ivory, paper, andtextiles, all of which are bearers of ancient human traditions. Each area in Bangladesh has a diverse culture
with unique heritage sites, artefacts, and various challenges. Despite the need to decide the best approach foreach and every circumstance, this paper will address only the main problems and needs.
Limitation of Specialists and Human Resources in Cultural Heritage Protection
There are many cultural heritage sites in Bangladesh, such as ancient temples, viharas, mosques, monuments
and historic houses, including 518 archaeological sites protected and listed by the Department ofArchaeology (DoA), with two as World Cultural Heritage sites, namely (a) Historic Mosque City ofBagerhat, and (b) Ruins of the Buddhist Vihara at Paharpur, plus five sites on the World Cultural Heritage
tentative list, namely (c) Mahansthangarh and its Environs, (d) The Lalmai-Mainamati Group of monuments,(e) Lalbagh Fort, (f) Halud Vihara, and (g) Jaggadala Vihara. Apart from these heritage sites, Bangladesh
also has different types of museums, namely the Bangladesh National Museum, Liberation War Museum,
Father of the Nation Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Memorial Museum, etc., as well as different
archaeological museums administered by the DoA. There are many government, autonomous, and semiautonomous organizations working to protect and conserve the cultural heritage under the guidance of the
Ministry of Culture Affairs of Bangladesh. Additionally, teaching and research on cultural heritage
management and protection take place at different universities and specialized non-governmentorganizations. As a leading government organization, the DoA under the Ministry of Cultural Affairs
protects, conserves, restores, renovates, studies and researches, and develops and utilizes the cultural heritageof Bangladesh. The DoA has five sections—the Administration, Antiquities & Protection including a
heritage division, Publications, Engineering, and Chemical sections—located at the head office in Dhaka,with the remainder of its organization divided among four regional offices located across Bangladesh. As
Bangladesh has eight administrative divisions that include a total of 64 local districts, the current central
sections and regional offices of the DoA are not enough to protect all of the nation’s cultural heritage, which
is a major problem. But the DoA’s General Director is trying to minimize the problem by increasing thespecialists and human resources trained in archaeology, especially in the areas of archaeological survey,
excavation, and exploration, as well as in museology, cultural heritage protection and conservation science,
epigraphy, etc. For this reason, officers of the DoA are sent to different training courses at the national andinternational levels to study and exchange knowledge about heritage protection, conservation, restoration,and renovation.
Limitation of Laboratories for Cultural Heritage Protection
To perform chemical tests and treatment for cultural heritage protection, there is a chemical laboratory at the
DoA and another at the National Museum, both located in city of Dhaka, Bangladesh. But these twolaboratories are not enough to conduct all of the chemical tests and treatment needed for cultural heritage
protection for the whole of Bangladesh. There is also a deficiency in the numbers of specialists and humanresources trained in executing the tests and treatments necessary for protecting the country’s cultural
heritage.

Destruction of Cultural Heritage
Threat of destruction is a great problem for cultural heritage sites and artefacts in Bangladesh. This
destruction can result from the following causes.
(a) Thieves steal artefacts from ancient cultural heritage sites, namely temples, viharas, mosques,monuments, historic houses, and archaeological mounds, to sell them on the black market.
(b) Some rural people directly destroy ancient cultural heritage sites through illegal occupation of public
land recognized as archaeological sites, especially archaeological mounds.
(c) Some rural people also destroy archaeological sites by digging soil for sale, especially archaeologicalmounds.
(e) Earthquakes have at different points in time had a harmful impact on ancient cultural heritage sites in
Bangladesh. For example, several cultural heritage sites, including the ancient Sateraratna temple of
Comilla district in Bangladesh, were destroyed by an earthquake in 1878.
(f) Climate change and its gradually increasing impacts have started to have direct and indirect effects
on ancient cultural heritage sites in the coastal areas of Bangladesh, in addition to threatening the wayof life of the people in both the short and long terms. Due to the continual increase in temperature
fuelling climate change, mechanical weathering brought by cyclones born from atmosphericdepressions, and the resulting cyclonic floods and increased amounts of rainfall, etc., have had a direct
impact on cultural heritage sites. These sites have begun to face the harmful effects of long-term
mechanical, chemical, and biological weathering due to the sea level rise as a result of global
warming, bringing increases in saline water intrusion, excess rainfall, and tidal surges or flooding
during cyclones, etc., as the impact of climate change.
Although Bangladesh has different laws and rules for cultural heritage protection, it is difficult to stop or
restrain the above-mentioned human and natural threats of destruction of ancient cultural heritage.
For this reason, the DoA of Bangladesh has appointed temporary workers and regular employees who help
the DoA protect, take care of, clean, and preserve cultural heritage sites, as well as report directly to the DoA
when these sites face an emergency. However, there is a real need is to convey knowledge of these threats
to everyone in Bangladesh, especially students, the young generation, religious persons living in and using
the cultural heritage sites, and local administrative organizations. Although the DoA is currently trying todevelop and carry out projects to provide such knowledge for the people of Bangladesh, it needs help fromother countries with regards to relevant case studies, and forms of training and methods, necessary to solve
this problem.
Damage to Cultural Heritage Due to Development
Bangladesh has different laws and rules such as the Antiquities Act 1968, Archaeological Works Code,Conservation Manual, and Immovable Antiquities Preservation Rules, to protect cultural heritage sites.
Under these laws and rules, it is necessary to conduct studies and excavation when carrying out development
projects on land adjacent to the cultural heritage sites. But damage to cultural heritage still results fromdevelopment, from aspects of land use as well as from private construction projects such as housing, andother forms of development.
Management of Cultural Heritage Sites:
There are numerous problems regarding the management of cultural heritage sites. First is the managementof archaeological mounds containing cultural heritage materials after an archaeological excavation. Manysites do not have a permanent roof to protect the excavated areas, along with any surviving architecturalfeatures and remaining artefacts, even though the excavated artefacts will be exhibited in the site museum.
The second problem is how to control tourists who come to these ancient cultural heritage sites and cause
problems such as scrawling on the stucco walls, the stone art, and the terracotta art of ancient buildings,

2

stealing artefacts, climbing the ancient buildings, touching mural paintings, etc. In addition, poor landscaping
and planning is also a problem. Buildings set up in close proximity to temples, mosques, and ancientmonuments are often poorly matched to their settings, impairing the scenic value of the heritage.

Figure 1 An example of an ancient bridge

Figure 2 An example of

Figure 3

An example of an ill-that was partially destroyed and inundated.

the wall of a temple

matched building set up next to an

defaced by tourists.

ancient mosque.

Protection, Conservation, Restoration, and Renovation of Cultural Heritage
As it is difficult for the other specialists to protect, conserve, restore, and renovate the ancient cultural
heritage under its jurisdiction, the DoA of Bangladesh always tries to conduct training courses to teach local
personnel about the protection, conservation, restoration, and renovation of heritage sites, artefacts, as wellas their proper documentation. These courses help local officials carry out the primary maintenance forheritage sites and artefacts by themselves without depending on specialists for matters of scientificprotection, conservation, restoration, and renovation.
On the other hand, the protection, conservation, restoration, and renovation of ancient cultural heritage sites,
especially temples and mosques, are often done by local organizations and management committees. Local
management committees of temples and mosques in Bangladesh have enough money from donations toprotect, conserve, restore, and renovate this heritage by themselves. Accordingly, they do not wait for
projects planned and led by the DoA, which require one year or more for approval and thus one or two years
before they can begin. Local organizations and management committees of temples and mosques will contact
local construction companies which lack methodological knowledge and experience in the protection,conservation, restoration, and renovation of ancient cultural heritage. For this reason, the DoA cannot be
involved in this kind of cultural heritage work.
In conclusion, the problems and needs for cultural heritage protection, conservation, restoration, andrenovation activities in Bangladesh mainly come from the limitations of budget, knowledge, understanding,and specialists necessary for properly protecting, conserving, restoring, and renovating cultural heritage.

3

BhutanProblems and Needs for the Protection and Preservation of
Heritage Sites in Bhutan

Ugyen Dorji
Engineer
Division for Conservation of Heritage Sites, Department ofCulture, Ministry of Home & Cultural Affairs
Unlike many other countries, theheritage sites in Bhutan are living heritage sites and the heritage buildings have people using them for various
purposes. In this lies the greatest challenge for preservation, protection, and management of the heritage sites
and buildings. The heritage sites in Bhutan consist mostly of religious buildings and sites. The heritage sitesthat my office (Department of Culture) works on include cultural sites, heritage buildings (dzongs,
lhakhangs, and monasteries), and archaeological sites.

Figure 1 Punakha Dzong (located in Punakha district)Figure 2 Paro Taktshang (Tigers nest, in Paro district)

Problem 1: Urbanization
Urbanization is one of the key problems resulting in the loss of heritage sites and buildings in Bhutan.
Development activities in and around heritage sites have directly or indirectly resulted in the destruction ordamage to the aesthetics of heritage sites. All heritage buildings and structures in Bhutan are either built of
rammed earth or stone masonry with timber framing. The use of such local construction materials without
any chemicals has ensured their long life for many years. However, due to urbanization, the use of cement
has caused the deterioration of the integrity of such heritage buildings. Moreover, people’s preference formodern reinforced concrete buildings to replace old structures has resulted in the disappearance of many
heritage sites and buildings.

BhutanFigure 3 Trong village in Zhemgang district. This clustered village
is a cultural site where the traditional houses display the mostbeautiful workmanship of stone masonry walls. However,urbanization has resulted in the construction of modern concretebuildings in between traditional houses with beautifully built stone
masonry.

Problem 2: Lack of Data (Inventory)
Lack of data is a problem faced by conservation professionals in Bhutan for the protection of heritage sites
and structures. There are no definite records or documentation of the heritage sites, which ultimately leads
to difficulties in monitoring the heritage sites in Bhutan. An inventory of heritage sites is of utmost
importance, especially to a developing country like Bhutan where every nook and corner has development
activities and construction work being carried out.
Problem 3: Lack of AwarenessSince most of the people residing in and using the facilities provided by the heritage buildings and sites are
religious people and monks, it is very difficult for conservation personnel to persuade them about the needfor protection and preservation of heritage sites. They have a mindset that diverges more towards dismantling
all old heritage buildings and reconstructing them. This clearly shows their lack of awareness regarding
protection and preservation of heritage sites and buildings. In Bhutan, almost 30% of the lhakhangs (temples)are reconstructed, thereby losing the essence of their heritage value.
Considering all of the problems listed above, the following are the needs for addressing these problems
regarding the protection and preservation of heritage sites in Bhutan.
Need 1: Professional Development
It is important for heritage specialists to continue their training throughout their professional career byattending training courses, conferences, and building upon their skill sets. Keeping up with the latest
advances in technology is just one example. New information technologies provide conservation
professionals with tools that can efficiently record information with improved precision, and can offer better
management capabilities for communicating and sharing results. Today, the application of information
technology is a means to improve public understanding of and access to cultural heritage. One example isthe application of Q-GIS in the documentation of heritage sites across in Bhutan, which has enormously
helped in the tracking and plotting of thousands of sites.
Need 2: Creation of Awareness in the Public
Bhutan struggles to achieve awareness on the part of the public, as conservation professionals seek toadvance the notion of conservation among a public that is more oriented towards development and the ideaof bringing modern structures to heritage sites. Creating awareness in the public regarding conservation andBhutanthe importance of protecting heritage sites would enormously help in preserving and promoting the value
and integrity of heritage sites in Bhutan. At the current time, due to the developmental stage of the country,
the public leans more towards modern structures. Creation of awareness is crucial at this stage.
Need 3: Public Engagement
Organizing events open to the public to attend or participate in is a way to celebrate heritage as part of thecommunity and society. This should foster community ownership whereby a sense of community vitality
can be achieved. In Bhutan, the Department of Culture has been working on the protection of heritage sites
and buildings through the engagement of communities such that the conservation works are directly ownedby the local community together with the benefits that come with conservation. One such example is the
Stewardship Plan of Nobgang Village, which aims to achieve sustainable and vibrant community vitality
through the protection of heritage buildings.

Figure 4 Picture of Nobgang village in 1907 by John C.
White

Figure 5 Present view of Nobgang village. The
conservation of the house seen in the picture is carriedout with support from the community as part of the
Stewardship Plan of Nobgang Village.

Cambodia

Cultural Heritage Protection Activity in Cambodia
Chum Phirum
Technical Staff
Department of Monument and Archaeology, National Authority forPreah Vihear

Cambodia is rich in cultural heritage sites such as Sambo Prei Kuk, Angkor, and the Temple of Preah Vihear,
which are registered as World Heritage sites. There are more than two thousand temples and fifteen thousandarchaeological sites across the country, including prehistoric sites, settlement mounds, ancient hydraulicstructures, industrial kilns for ceramics, and other traditional structures of which are all part of the national
cultural heritage and world culture heritage. These cultural heritage sites present problems and needs fortheir protection, preservation, and conservation to promote the value of the nation’s cultural, environmental,
and historical resources. Many archaeological remains and temples illustrate the needs of outside zone
protection at the Preah Vihear and Angkor sites, and the need to protect the national cultural heritage in
general against illegal looting. This paper will indicate the main management issues, problems, and needsfor outside zone protection of Cambodia’s national heritage.
Management of Archaeological Sites in Cambodia
Cambodia has created a series of national and regional laws to protect the national cultural heritage andarchaeological sites. Those heritage sites are managed by APSARA, the Preah Vihear and Sambo Prei Kuk
National Authorities; the Provincial Departments of Culture; and the Cambodian national commission for
UNESCO, which works to protect culture heritage sites. The purpose is to protect and prevent any harm to
the historical and cultural heritage of the Kingdom of Cambodia. The government of Cambodia has also
created specialized administrative officers and the Department of Cultural Heritage Police supervised by the
Ministry of the Interior, whose sole responsibility is the management, preservation, and protection against
illegal looting etc. of world and national heritage sites.
Recently, all Cambodia national authorities under the Ministry of Culture and Fine Arts have been continuing
to focus on the management, protection, and inventory listing of heritage sites by archaeological surveys
from 2008 until the present. Indeed, the research methodology of surveys is based on remote sensing and onarchaeological prospection surveys of underground conditions, in areas such as the outside zone of protection
at the Preah Vihear and Angkor sites, to protect the national cultural heritage in general against illegallooting, destruction, alteration, and excavation that affect archaeological sites. Mapping and inventory work
registers the temples, foundations of religious buildings, ancient settlement mounds, ancient ponds andbarays (large reservoirs) or other parts of the ancient hydraulic systems, which are found both inside andoutside the zone of protection. Furthermore, the outside zone of archaeological sites has recently become ofsignificance for management and protection, because those areas have been disturbed by looting and/or are
in a dispersed condition. These Cambodia management activities, therefore, have been supported byestablishing laws and regulations to protect the national heritage issued through a Royal Decree and SubDecrees, and they are being carried out by conservation and professional officers of the Provincial
Department of Culture.
Problems of Protection and Preservation of Archaeological Sites
Problems of preservation and protection of archaeological sites include a lack of education in the rural areasand illegal trading during the period 1988-1990. It was a serious concern when uneducated villagers who

Cambodia

needed money engaged in the sales of statues and artifacts obtained from illegal excavations at settlementmounds, temples, and ancient features such as human burials.
In addition, a global crisis of cultural racketeering has been associated with the looting, trafficking, andconsequent destruction of cultural heritage. Especially, through official or unofficial routes, these activities
have brought adverse effects to the local and global economy, cultural well-being, and national security.
Furthermore, during the period between 1988 and 2010, approximately 377 Khmer antiquities are known tohave been traded abroad with 71% having no published provenance and only 29% having a listed provenanceor ownership history.
Therefore, the following causes are behind the needs for the protection of national heritage in Cambodia.
- Lack of knowledge on the part of villagers who have destroyed archaeological sites- Urban development, with disregard for the national cultural heritage- Land encroaching on heritage sites for agricultural activity- The looting of artifacts at archaeological sites- New pagoda construction destroying ancient site remains
Theft of sculptures and artifacts from archaeological sites for sale to illegal traders- Rural villagers destroying public land or undeveloped landMoreover, there is development conducted without proper archaeological survey, and land encroachment
for agricultural purposes. These are still important factors affecting archeological sites, and it is difficult tocontrol and stop these activities. Sometimes this kind of development, such as the construction of new ruralroads in the outside protection zone of the Preah Vihear and Angkor sites, can destroy some parts ofarchaeological sites (Figs. 1, 2). Some people who live nearby the road construction will collect theuncovered ancient pottery, metal objects, and stone statues and take these to their homes (Fig. 3). Allarchaeological sites and artifacts represent important data for future research and documentation, and arematerials for the protection of Cambodian national cultural heritage.

Fig. 1

Fig. 2

Fig. 3

The Needs for Cultural Heritage Protection Activities
Cambodia needs to initiate and strengthen cooperation among ASEAN countries in order to combat theillegal selling of tangible culture heritage objects, and to protect against their destruction in the region as awhole. The following concrete measures are required:- Strengthen the legal frameworks related to illicit trade and trafficking of antiquities in order toprevent the looting of antiquities to sell abroad.
- Negotiate the return of tangible cultural heritage to the countries of origin that has been lost due toillicit trading and trafficking.
- As a member of the ASEAN community, the parliament of Cambodia could sign a Memorandumof Understanding on cultural heritage with other members to protect heritage and seek the return ofillegally trafficked heritage.
- Develop human resources for cultural heritage work (research and documentation).
- Adopt modern technology for monitoring archaeological and heritage sites.
- Build up the capacity in techniques for cultural heritage protection and restoration.

Cambodia-

Launch outreach programs focusing on educating local communities about cultural heritage value.
Build cooperation among relevant institutions for the understanding and protection of cultural
heritage.

In conclusion, some problems and needs for cultural heritage protection and restoration activities in
Cambodia mainly come from a lack of technical staff, a lack of knowledge on the part of villagers and local
authorities, from urban development, from land encroachment for agricultural activity, from new pagodas
destroying the sites of ancient remains, from thieves stealing sculptures and artifacts from archaeologicalsites to sell to illegal traders, and from rural villagers destroying public lands or undeveloped land.

India: Davangi Pathak

Problems and Needs for Cultural Heritage Protection and
Restoration Activities in India
Davangi Pathak
Executive Conservator
Collection, Research and Management, Delhi Art Gallery

Trans-Himalayan states and other states of India accommodate many well-known and lesser-known
heritage sites that need immediate attention by the experts and young professionals of heritage and culture.
In this report I will be bringing forth some lesser-known yet important sites that I have visited throughout
my fieldwork since the start of the pandemic, and discuss some problems and key areas that need to beaddressed. The sites will include mostly ancient built structures, a Jain cave, and a painted rock shelter.
Site study 1: J ageshwar Dham temple complex and old village structures
The complex along with the village is situated in the Almora district of Uttarakhand, and consists of agroup of 100 temples dating to between the 7th and 12th centuries. It is one of the many importantpilgrimage sites in India. The temples are made of local steatite and are in working condition. Rituals andprayers performed in the temples by the priests and the tourists create lot of unnecessary damage anddebris which could be avoided even while the rituals are being performed. Due to low temperatures thedeterioration of the structures has never accelerated but over the past few years, due to the shift in climaticconditions, the temple structures and the valuable aesthetic stone carvings and inscriptions are vanishing
due to deterioration. The complex is under legal protection of the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI)
and has been documented by the Indian National Trust for Art and Cultural Heritage. Additionally, atemple committee run by local priests and people also takes care of the intangible cultural practices related
to the temples, which often leads to clashes between the ASI and the temple committee. The village itself
is very old and exhibits old wooden structures and doors with carved wooden facades called likhai.These
wooden structures are former resting lodges for the priests, with attached wooden facilities for cattle.
These wooden structures are lesser known. The village’s craftsmanship and tourism has been adversely
affected due to the pandemic, and as a result people are migrating out of the village in search of jobs andnew means of livelihood, leaving their old way of life behind.

India: Davangi Pathak©Davangi Pathak
Biological growth on wooden facade
known as likhai© Davangi Pathak

Jageshwar group of temples

PathIndia: Davangi Pathak

Site study 2: Painted rock shelter named Lakhudiyar
Lakhudiyar is located in Barachina village, Uttarakhand. The rock shelter has prehistoric paintings said tobe of the Lower or Upper Palaeolithic period according to a few scholarly articles. No absolute dating
method has been used to determine the approximate age of the rock shelter art. Lack of adequate
documentation has prevented art historians and scholars from conducting any kind of research or further
studies regarding it. Due to biological and natural factors, the rock art of Lakhudiyar and many other rockart examples in Uttarakhand are fading before even being properly documented.

The site is under protection by the ASI. Due to lack ofawareness on the part of the local authorities andcommunity, Lakhudiyar has been neglected in research andinvestigations. The site was previously recorded as having
pictograms of red, white, and black pigments. However,during my field visit, only pictograms made of red could befound and recorded. Unfortunately, in previous publications
the photographed pictograms were not specified with thelocation on the rock shelter showing the scale.

View of Lakhudiyar rock shelter

10 cm©Davangi Pathak
Image of a pictogramIndia: Davangi Pathak

Site study 3: Jain wall paintings of Ellora
One of the UNESCO World Heritage Sites in India, these caves have been abundantly studied in terms ofart history. Surprisingly, while the tempera style wall paintings have not been dated using any absolute
method, they are estimated to have been carved and painted in the relatively short period from 462 to 481
CE. Increases in the frequency of tourist visits, combined with environmental factors, has led to thedeterioration of the ancient wall paintings. The paintings have been documented by art scholars for their
specific research from the perspectives of the philosophy of art and aesthetics only.

©Davangi Pathak
Deterioration of a wall painting on the ceiling of Cave no. 32, depicting celestial beings dancing andsinging

Conclusion
These sites are not meant to last for eternity; however, we can always try to extend their life span throughimplementation of ethical practices while simultaneously documenting, examining, and researching theseexamples of ancient art using modern methods such as multispectral imaging, reflectance transformation
imaging (RTI), and non-destructive/non-invasive techniques, which could help in understanding thematerials and technology that could be further used for their preservation and innovative utilization. These
ancient designs are the living product of a distinctive cultural expression. The local communities andartisans and the upcoming generations of native professionals and scholars of history need to be aware andto make joint efforts to build sustainable heritage management programs, along with conducting ethicalpractices in cooperation with various NGOs, which will require initiatives taken by younger professionals
like ourselves which others can support.

India: Jiten Desai
Problems & Needs for Cultural Heritage Protection & Ongoing
Practices in India
Ar. Jiten Desai
Associate Architect
Heritage Conservation, Architecture, aDRG
India is a country with a rich reserve of various types of cultural heritage, including both tangible heritage
such as archaeological and architectural sites, art objects, etc., and intangible heritage in the form of folklore,
oral histories, ancient languages, and so forth. This short report is an introduction focusing primarily on
aspects of the tangible cultural heritage in India, and issues related to the same.
India’s built heritage includes various types of structures and monuments, of different scales including
residential to institutional, religious temples to monasteries, forts and palaces to caves and ruins of entire
civilizations and cities. Having such a diverse reserve of cultural heritage has its own set of challenges, whichis the main focus of this report, where I have tried to highlight some of the key and important issues asmentioned below.
1.
Prioritization & Negligence
Issue: One of the major disadvantages of having such diverse built heritage is the fact that managing the sameis always a challenge. Heritage plays a very important role in the tourism industry of India, with most of the
tourists coming to explore the rich culture of the country. As a result of this, over many years, monuments
and historic places which have tourism potential have always taken precedence over less important andsmaller structures and monuments. Due to this, many lesser known and small-scale structures remain ignored
and in a derelict state. Similarly, prioritization exists in various other fields such as religious and institutional
structures as well, where the more famous temples are conserved and better maintained than lesser known
temple structures.
Example: The Hill Forts of Rajasthan due to their rich cultural background and artwork are far more famousand thus well conserved as compared to the lesser known, smaller forts in Maharashtra, Punjab, etc. Similarly,
the Buddhist caves of Ajanta and Ellora are far better maintained and regulated compared to other smaller
caves in Maharashtra.
Needs: It is a fact that such prioritization and hierarchies placing some monuments over others will always
remain and cannot be avoided, but a better structural framework needs to be introduced at the organizational
level to maintain a healthier balance between these heritage sites and ensure that the smaller, lesser known
structures are also well conserved and not completely neglected.
2.
Development Pressures
Issue: In a fast-developing country such as India the built heritage is always under pressure to make way for
new development, especially in historic cities like Jaipur, Ahmedabad, Varanasi, etc., where entire cities are
an integral part of the cultural heritage of the region and have been sustained over the years, but are underenormous pressure to allow growth and development for the local residents. As a result of this many of theseregions are losing their built heritage and their traditional essence of place to make way for development.
Example: One of the prime examples would be the finding of two kunds (tanks or small reservoirs ofcollected rainwater) in Jaipur. During the ongoing development works of metro rails in Jaipur, two ancientkunds were discovered which had filled in over the years and main arterial roads had been laid over them. Thus,
for many years these kunds were completely lost and the local community did not know that they had everexisted. However, on discovering these sites, extensive efforts were taken by the government to restore thekunds as part of the city’s heritage fabric.
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India: Jiten Desai
Needs: Efforts are already being taken at various levels, from local authorities to state and central
governments, to ensure that the built heritage is not damaged by development, which include hiring
professionals to oversee the development projects from a heritage conservation point of view, setting out strict
rules and regulations, etc. However, better management on a larger scale of urban planning is required toensure that our built heritage does not succumb to modern development pressures.
3.
Insufficient Data & Archival Records
Issue: Another key issue is the fact that many heritage structures and monuments have very basic or noarchival documentation or detailed recorded data. Many times the documentation is not done at all, or has
been misplaced or degraded over many years passing from generation to generation, and in all but a few cases
the documentation is thus not preserved and maintained correctly. This is a major concern as one of the key
aspects of conserving/restoring built heritage is archival research and analysis, without which restoration
works need to be based on conjecture and on references to other similar examples of built heritage found in
the region. Apart from the conservation issues, lack of archival data also means less information from a
tourism point of view, which is equally important in a country like India.
Example: The archaeological ruins of the abandoned village of Kuldhara represent a classic example wherean entire town exists in the form of ruins, but there is absolutely no archival data regarding the lifestyle,planning, architecture, history, etc., of the community except oral history and folklore passed down over thegenerations. Thus, taking up any sort of conservation work becomes extremely difficult and is completely
conjectural. Additionally, the only information about Kuldhara that can be shared with tourists is based on
speculation about disturbing causes behind the sudden disappearance of the entire community, and legends ofrelated paranormal events experienced in the region.
Needs: Lack of archival records remains one of the major concerns, and government and local organizations
are already taking up multiple projects for documenting our built heritage, but the scale of these efforts iscurrently too small and distributed among small-scale organizations. Thus, much more focused and concrete
efforts need to be taken up to document the existing built heritage to create an extensive database for futureuse, and more importantly, extensive efforts are required by professionals to sift through ancient documents
and records to extract the existing available information. Also, it is equally important for historic structuresand monuments to be documented in their current condition to create an extensive database of information
and archival records. Apart from these issues, modern technology also needs to be introduced for specificallythese efforts, in which old documents and manuscripts need to be translated into digital format to preserve thedata for future generations.
4.
Lack of Awareness
Issue: Another important issue is the lack of awareness regarding the importance of our heritage, and the
problems arising due to the same, such as vandalism, encroachment, etc., which remain a major threat andconcern. Lack of public awareness and surveillance leads to major vandalism threats to monuments, including
damage to property, littering, etc. Another aspect of the lack of awareness is the fact that many of the heritage
structures are under government or public use, and as a result encroachment can be observed in many places,
ranging from constructing new walls and spaces to appropriating entire sections of heritage property as part of
expansion. This also leads to heavy losses to the cultural heritage of the country.
Example: Maluti is a small village near West Bengal and was supposedly home to nearly 102 or more temple
structures. These temples are of the Odisha architectural style and had a unique façade treatment detail of
baked terracotta tiles fixed to the façades, and these terracotta tiles depicted various scenes from religious
manuscripts. Over the years, due to lack of awareness and negligence, many of the temple structures havebecome dilapidated with only around 45 structures still standing. Also, the local villagers have removed manyof the terracotta tiles from the temple façades to decorate their individual homes. All this has led to an
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India: Jiten Desaienormous loss of a very unique unexplored part of the cultural heritage of India. Multiple efforts are being
taken up by the authorities to conserve the remaining temples and to spread awareness amongst the people ofthe village.
Needs: Various efforts are required such as organizing awareness programs, explaining the importance of
heritage from cultural and other points of view, and setting up stricter by-laws and regulations to monitor andregulate heritage precincts. The government has already undertaken the launching of various such programs tospread awareness.
The above-mentioned points are only a few of the many such challenges faced in India for the preservationand conservation of our cultural heritage, and all points cannot be mentioned in this report.
On-Going Conservation and Preservation Practices in the Country
Heritage conservation as a field, and awareness of the need for conserving our built heritage, are still growing
phenomena in the country, but have increasingly become one of the major points of concern and havedeveloped vastly in the past few years. Various organizations at the national level such as the ASI (Archaeological
Survey of India) and individual State Archaeology Departments have been set up along with other localorganizations to tackle the enormous task of conserving and developing the cultural heritage of the country.
Though the field is constantly growing and evolving, many aspects involved such as methods of restoration,conservation by-laws, means of interpretation, etc., have not evolved and are still practiced under outdated
systems. Also, we need to understand that in a diverse country like India different sites may need different
approaches based on some of the points already discussed in this report and many other controlling factors,
and that having a blanket system of conservation may not always work for all of the sites; thus a need tobroaden the perspective and have a site-specific approach is imperative. For example, complete restorationand conservation including façades and decorative artwork will work for the grand forts and palaces in
Rajasthan, but may not be that relevant for military forts in Maharashtra and Punjab, where damage due to thehistory of wars is an integral part of the historic fabric and something that should be retained for people toexplore. Similarly, inflicting strict heritage conservation by-laws on smaller heritage residential structures
would not prove effective, as this will restrict the development and growth of living standards of theresidents; thus a somewhat constrained but liberal set of regulations should be designed to maintain theheritage aspects of structures and allow the people residing in them to improve their personal living standards.
Another aspect which I feel is currently lacking in the ongoing conservation practices in the country is the useof modern technologies and facilities to improve the overall quality of conservation, and most importantly theinterpretation of these sites, making the experience a lot richer and informative for tourists who are an integral
part of country’s economy. For example, using 3D mapping technology to document heritage structures rather
than the traditional physical surveys, using interactive interpretation methods rather than the traditional signboards and panels, etc., would greatly help to improve and develop the overall conservation and interpretation
efforts of the cultural heritage in India.
Conclusion
The term symbiosis is most important and relevant when it comes to the cultural built heritage of India. As
discussed before, in spite of the many challenges and issues, heritage conservation practices are increasingly
developing and evolving in India and awareness regarding our heritage is also increasing, thus creating andmaintaining a balance between the needs of preserving heritage and current living standards by infusing key
elements such as heritage control by-laws, modern technology, sensitivity towards our heritage, etc., is ofutmost importance to help preserve and maintain the unique cultural environment of the country for future
generations.

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India: Mauli Mishra

Problems and Needs for Cultural Heritage Protection and
Restoration Activities in Architectural Conservation
Maulishree Mishra
ArchitectArtefacts and Habitats Sustainable Solutions LLP

India is home to heritage of varied cultures spanning different time periods and this heritage is the pride andreflection of the diverse cultures that coexist here. But sites of historical importance in a country like India
are often left to neglect due to their massive numbers, and a lack of relevant knowledge and resources,
leading to the decay over time of evidence which might have otherwise helped in developing an
understanding of the history of a specific region/area and which could then become a potential resource for
local economic growth. Most of the work for the identification and protection of historically important sites
in India traces back to the pre-independence period when the Archaeological Survey of India was foundedin 1861, and eventually more than 3650 ancient monuments/archaeological sites of national importance werebrought under its management. As of now around 37 sub-circles of the ASI manage this vast heritage underthe AMASAR Act of 1958 (Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains Act) with thesupport of the National Monuments Authority which came into being in 2010. Apart from this there is also
a huge amount of unprotected and unidentified heritage which now needs attention. The three cases below
briefly illustrate key points on the state of heritage, problems in managing it, and the need for protection.
Case 1: Heritage sites under the protection of the national and state governments

India: Mauli Mishra

The example chosen here is the Lakhamandal Temple in Dehradun district, designated a site of national
importance in 1909, although the temple precincts still await a proper management plan. The importanceof the site can be well understood as initial studies revealed its time period to be around the 5th century.
An inventory was carried out in 1928 followed by an excavation in 2007, which was abandoned midway
leaving numerous finds exposed to weather and the elements. According to a study I conducted in 2013–
14, the following major issues were identified as potential threats to the site:(1) Absence of research and maintenance, and lack of management of the site.
(2) Instances of artefacts being carried away and finding use as boundary markers or as grindingstones, due to a lack of awareness of the people of the locality.
(3) Robbery of exposed artefacts, finding their way into the black market.
(4) Instances of vandalism of the artefacts by people visiting the site, often due to associated myths.
(5) Insensitive construction in the immediate context of a historic site, despite laws that are in place.
(6) Lack of knowledge amongst local communities and of pride in their heritage, as they are notparticipants in the heritage management process.
(7) No long-term planning for improving the context and economics of the place, resulting in ahaphazard multiplication of structures to within a few meters of the historic site, thereby damaging
its aesthetic value.
The
mainstanding
Image Credit: Author

templeatthehistoric

settlementofCase 2: Historic settlements located adjacent to nationally protected heritage sites

Lakhamandal.

India: Mauli Mishra

The old town of Leh located below historic Leh Palace is situated in the union territory of Ladakh. Built
in the 16th to 17th centuries, the nine storey high structure of Leh Palace constructed of stone, mud, andtimber is a well conserved site of national importance and holds a strong resemblance to Potala Palaceof Tibet. However, the traditionally built settlement in its immediate context is time and again threatenedby insensitive building activity, an example of which was the Rajiv Awas Yojana scheme introduced in2014 when the entire historic settlement was identified as a slum area owing to the lack of proper
infrastructure and maintenance of the traditional mud dwellings. It was only after the strong oppositionof the locals and the NGO Tibet Heritage Fund, which was already working on the restoration of thehistoric precinct including the upgrading of the infrastructure, that it could be saved from complete
demolition and the building of concrete dwellings in this historic settlement. Being engaged with the
Tibet Heritage Fund since 2013, I have had a chance to contribute in multiple ways and in my view thefollowing major issues hold potential threats to this important historic site of Tibetan culture andarchitecture in India:(1) Lack of support from government agencies in terms of policy making and funds to carry out theconservation and restoration works.
(2) Lack of proper understanding between various government departments for carrying out
infrastructure improvements in a coordinated manner.
(3) Lack of pride amongst the locals as motivation to protect their heritage.
(4) Absence of a planned sustainable development model necessary for tourism and other activities,
as it is an eco-sensitive region.
(5) Lack of motivation and support for trained craftsman to carry forward traditional knowledge.
(6) Lack of knowledge for engaging and training local communities to make them participants in theprocess of maintaining and protecting their heritage.
(7) Unregulated building activities in the historically important area, despite the laws in place, due tolack of surveillance, pointing to the need for stricter laws and special incentives for local residents
to maintain their heritage.
(8) The original owners leaving the place due to lack of facilities and sub-letting the historic houses.
(Left) Leh Palace as viewed from the settlement below (Right) The settlement below the historic palace
Image Credits: Author
Case 3: Isolated structures and places of historic value belonging to private stakeholders or distributedin old cities and along forested areas, deserts, rivers, etc.
The majority of India’s heritage falls under this category and is largely under no protection. Various NGOs,
cultural organisations like INTACH (Indian National Trust for Art and Cultural Heritage), and individual
experts have been working constantly to save whatever possible but there remains a lot more to be rescued.
Apart from the heritage distributed across cities, a major portion is still unexplored in the indigenous regions
and remains to be rescued and researched, comprising petroglyphs, historical artefacts, etc., which are often
destroyed unknowingly during infrastructure development or construction activities due to lack ofawareness.

India: Mauli Mishra

Images of a historic structure before (Left) and during restoration (Right), belonging to a private stakeholder.
Image Credits: Author*(Property of Artefacts and Habitats Sustainable Solutions Llp., No use of it in any form be made without
permission of the Author.)
What needs to be done
1) Better identification, research, and documentation of heritage structures and historical sites.
2) Better opportunities and involvement for trained professionals such as historians, archaeologists andconservation experts at various levels of research, development, and management of historical sites, insteadof only engineers or contractors who have neither knowledge nor experience, and often conduct insensitive
interventions that cause further damage to the historic materials.
3) Educating the communities directly associated with the particular historic sites, and involving them in theprocess of documentation, research, and long-term management of the historic setting.
4) Introducing special incentives for private stakeholders for the maintenance of historic sites and making themaware of the possibilities of conservation and adaptive reuse.
5) Developing short-term and long-term plans for the development of historic sites including associatedtourism-related activities, such that in the long term the heritage is managed well and not completely lost
due to unregulated tourism activities, as happens with most of the heritage sites in India.
6) Imparting regular training to professionals for knowledge building, motivation, and learning newtechnologies.

India: Mauli Mishra

7) Involving locals, historians, archaeologists, and conservation professionals working in the particular region
while making policies or development plans for heritage sites in that region, to have a more holistic andculture-oriented development.
8) Understanding that development is possible while protecting the heritage, and that these goals can co-exist
if planned thoughtfully.
9) Developing knowledge about the importance of heritage in the schools to create better awareness.
10) Promoting use of traditional materials and techniques in conservation works.

Indonesia: Ghilman Assilmi

Problems and Needs for the Protection and Preservation of Urban
Heritage Sites in Indonesia
Ghilman Assilmi
Assistant Professor
Department of Archaeology, Faculty of Humanities,
Universitas Indonesia
Indonesia is the largest archipelagic country with a diverse range of natural and cultural resources. Following
Law Number 11 of 2010 concerning cultural heritage, the government's heritage management efforts arebeing carried out for the relevant objects, buildings, structures, sites, and areas. The following problems andneeds regarding heritage sites are based on my perspective, as an archaeologist for Indonesia's Islamic andColonial Eras, that Indonesia still has heritage in conditions that are susceptible to risk. According to the
Ministry of Education and Culture data, the most susceptible heritage conditions can be found on Java Island.
At the same time, Jakarta is the province with the highest number of objects of cultural heritage, registering
as many as 28,237 items. In this report, I try to unravel the problems and needs for managing cultural heritage
in one of the urban heritage districts with the largest number of historical buildings, namely the Jakarta Old
Town area.
Damage risks to heritage buildings
There are at least two main factors causing damage to buildings in the Jakarta Old Town area, namely
flooding and the buildings being unoccupied. More than 40% of Jakarta's area is lowlands that are below sea
level. In addition, Jakarta is also a downstream area of rivers in the north. This condition causes Jakarta to
be prone to flooding, including the Jakarta Old Town area. There are two types of floods that threaten the
Jakarta Old Town area: alluvial floods and coastal/estuarine floods.
In addition to the threat of flooding, many historic buildings in the Jakarta Old Town area are not inhabited,thus worsening the condition of the buildings becoming damaged. The private sector predominantly has
ownership status for these buildings. The cost of renovation, maintenance, and strict regulations governingthese procedures are the main factors for many buildings being uninhabited.
Identification as being at special risk for damage caused by floods rarely gets attention for Old Town heritage
management buildings. Suppose the historic environment is to be safeguarded from flood damage. In thatcase, integrated flood-risk management is required, and efficient communication between all parties iscritical to ensuring the proper response. Local risk management requires collaboration with nationalorganizations such as the Environment Agency. An interdisciplinary research team also needs to have asignificant role in helping manage the risks and providing integrated emergency management.
Management of cultural heritage sites
The absence of regulation that explicitly covers the area's management of cultural heritage becomes the most
crucial issue. The Jakarta Old Town area has received more attention from the Provincial Government of
Jakarta because it is the strategic area of socio-cultural interest with high historical value and reflects thehistorical stories, lifestyles, culture, and civilization of Jakarta's society in the past. The efforts of the Jakarta
Provincial Government to manage the Old Town area are still hampered by various problems, such as
irregular traffic, decreasing quality of the surrounding environment, and divided administrative boundaries.
The Jakarta Old Town area management is also considered overlapping because there is no clear division oftasks and responsibilities. Cleaning, security, and parking problems often cause dilemmas because there isno coordination between the Jakarta Provincial Government and the West Jakarta Municipal Government,
and between the administrative villages and sub-districts.The Provincial Government of Jakarta has

1Indonesia: Ghilman Assilmi

established the Area Management Unit (UPK) of Kota Tua (Old Town) Jakarta. This has limited authority
to coordinate with other institutions that deal exclusively with security, cleanliness, permits, and datacollection and public information services. Those problems are seen in the Jakarta Old Town area. The local
government regulation of the area's specific management, including matters of preservation, regulation, anddevelopment, must be prepared in detail assisted by the central government.
Restoration and renovation of heritage buildings
Based on observations, there have been no environmental impact assessments for several projects that havebeen implemented in the heritage area. Assessments of impact within the area have been limited to one basedon observations made by the UPK of Kota Tua Jakarta, and it only includes the physical impact. It has notincorporated the socio-cultural impacts, such as the potential gentrification of the area due to the positive
impact of business, attractions, and events, and the negative impact of the public crowds. Meanwhile, therenovation of buildings within the Jakarta Old Town area is also not attended by any specific impact
assessment. The utilization of buildings is left entirely to the owners of the buildings.
In managing heritage, it is essential to maintain the original values of the heritage. The process of maintaining
these original values involves mostly highly technical procedures and requires specialized knowledge andskills. Technical management of the Jakarta Old Town area includes efforts to maintain the authenticity of
the architecture and the attributes of heritage materials within the area. The local authority must have theability and power to implement an environmental impact assessment for each project to restore and renovate
the built heritage in the Jakarta Old Town area.
This brief report is about problems and needs for protecting and preserving the Jakarta Old Town area as anurban heritage site in Indonesia. The most challenging issue of urban heritage management in Indonesia is
the preservation, management, and utilization of privately owned heritage buildings. We are now struggling
to coordinate with local governments and the land and building owners to work towards preserving,conserving, and managing heritage sites.

2

Indonesia: Dwi Astuti

Problems of Preservation at the Plaosan Temple Site
Dwi Astuti
Conservator
Institute for Preservation of Cultural Heritage in Central JAVA,
Ministry of Education, Culture, Research, and Technology
General overview
Plaosan is one of the Buddhist temples located in Bugisan Village, Prambanan District, Central Java,
Indonesia. It was built by the king Rakai Pikatan for his wife, Pramodhawardani, in the mid-9th century.
Covering an area of 47,332 m2 at an elevationof 163–165 m, the site is a complete and uniquetemple complex. There are 2 main temples, 72
ancillary temples, 254 ancillary stupas, plus
ancient trenches, mandapas, ancient footpaths,
fences, and gates. The Plaosan Temple site isdivided into two areas, namely the North
Plaosan Temple (Fig. 1) and South Plaosan
Temple. Considering the number and variety ofbuildings, there will be various problems andchallenges faced at Plaosan, described asfollows.
Fig. 1 The North Plaosan Temple*
1. State of preservation
The temples have been preserved and protected through conservation and restoration measures. The
restoration activities have been carried out since 1940. The 2 main temples of North Plaosan have been
restored from base to superstructure, as well as other 28 ancillary temples. The rest of the 298 buildings are
mere piles of stones. The problem faced in the field of restoration is the limits on budget and humanresources. In a single year only one or two buildings can be restored. If there are still 298 structures, then it
will take hundreds of years to complete the restoration. Restoration measures require human resources withcertain qualifications whose knowledge is not obtained from school but based on experience. One skill isthat of stone seekers whose job is collecting stones that are useful for restoring temples. Stone seekers areusually old and it is difficult to find replacements when they retire.
2. Conservation problems
North Plaosan Temple was built with two types of stone, andesite and tuff. Most of the structures built with
andesite were in stable condition while the tuff stones were endangered. Climate strongly influences or evendetermines the nature of the mechanism by which a stone will weather. In Indonesia, which has a tropicalclimate, seasonal and diurnal temperatures are more constant while the humidity is consistently high.
Moreover, annual precipitation in the form of rainfall is almost double the level of precipitation in temperateregions. These differences imply lower susceptibility to thermal stresses, but more importantly, greater
susceptibility to water and moisture.
The disparity in weathering between climates may be exacerbated by the porosity of the stone. In the case oftuff, the large volume of open pores (the porosity of tested stones varied from 41% to 49%) implies a larger
surface area accessible to deteriorating factors, thus increasing its propensity to weather as compared to lessporous stone such as andesite. The Plaosan Temple site is part of a natural landscape, and as such, itIndonesia: Dwi Astuti

includes many forms of vegetation and animal life
which can only thrive in an environment that has aconstant supply of moisture. Water is suspected to be
the main deteriorating factor, causing powdering,
spalling, and flaking of the stone (Fig. 2). These
conditions are presumably responsible for the loss ofthe stone surface. The deleterious effects of capillaryrise are evidenced at the base of the structure. The zoneof rising damp exhibits disaggregation, powdering of
the surface, and some softening of the subsurface.
Immediately above

Fig. 2 Weathered tuff*
this zone, the surface is hardened and suffers from flaking, delamination and spalling. It is postulated thatthe mechanism causing this condition is the action of water dissolving the silica in the matrix and rockfragments, and transporting the dissolved silica towards the surface of the stone. There it evaporates to forma precipitate of amorphous silica which will subsequently harden into a deposit. This reduces the surface
porosity of the tuff, further impeding the evaporation of water, so that any further silica deposition now
occurs at the subsurface level. This in turn leads to spalling. The cycle repeats itself as long as there is asufficient supply of water and moisture to dissolve the silica.
The implication for the weathering of this water-sensitive stone in the tropics suggests an accelerated rate ofdecay due to the availability of water, compounded by other mechanisms directly related with water supply
to the stone. This poses a challenge for the study of weathering of tuff in a tropical environment. The
multiplicity of narrow capillaries and extreme porosity of tuff requires a low viscosity treatment. To obtainpreliminary information for appropriate conservation treatment, an ethyl silicate was chosen as theconsolidant because previous experiments on the consolidation of tuff showed that silica-based products
gave good results, being chemically akin to the siliceous stone. Samples were treated with SILRES BS OH
100 according to the manufacturer's specifications. The treatment was applied using a brush, wet on wet.
During this research, we found out that the tuff stones have a unique characteristic compared with andesite.
The consolidation agent penetrates into fragile andesite to a depth of about 1–2 cm, while only 1–2 mm forfragile tuff. We have tried diluting the consolidation agent using alcohol and applying it 3–9 times using a
brush but the results are still the same. I think it will be our greatest challenge for tuff conservation because
we still do not have a solution for the problem.
3. Settlement around the site
The Plaosan Temple site is also the core of a cultural landscape. Environmental elements that still exist
today, such as rivers, nearby rice fields and other agricultural areas, rural settlements, and Mount Merapi inthe north, form the charm of the cultural landscape supporting the Plaosan Temple site as heritage that must
be preserved. People who live around Plaosan have cultural, economic, and social potential that deserves tobe developed. Community empowerment is carried out by developing the potential of Indonesian traditions
for the improvement of economic standards. This has been implemented through promoting the traditionalart of gamelan to the younger generation, and training in silkscreen printing for items such as t-shirts.
Empowerment of the community around the Plaosan Temple through gamelan and so forth can increase
cultural activities around the temple, while the silkscreen printing is expected to help improve the economic
standard of the population.
Figure 1 shows a map of the current situation of Plaosan. It can be seen that only a small part of the area isowned by the state (the green areas) while most of the land is privately owned. This can result in uncontrolled
growth. Therefore public land acquisition is an activity that has always been carried out until now.

Indonesia: Dwi Astuti

Fig. 4 Situation map of the Plaosan Site*
4. Site utilization
A massive information campaign through websites and social media has indirectly contributed to the tourism
promotion of the Plaosan Temple Site. This effect can be seen from the numbers of tourists, both domestic
and foreign, which increase every year. The Plaosan Temple site has also been used for various otherpurposes, such as social, educational, scientific, religious, and for cultural development. However, utilizationin the tourism sector dominates over other fields.
Conclusion
The Plaosan Temple site is architectural cultural heritage that represents traditional wisdom, knowledge, andan ability to integrate symbolic/conceptual aspects in the construction of sacred buildings, along withtechnical aspects required for its construction, along with a balanced relationship with the environmental
setting. With regard to the various problems that have been raised, it is hoped that there will be interventions
for better protection and preservation of this heritage in the future.
*All pictures and photographs belong to Institute for Preservation of Cultural Heritage in Central Java

New Zealand

Problems and Needs for Cultural Heritage Protection andManagement in New Zealand – a focus on Archaeological Sites
Dr Sarah Phear
Archaeologist
Mid Northern Regional Office, Archaeological Authorities
Heritage New Zealand Pouhere Taonga
Cultural heritage in New Zealand is rich and diverse and predominantly relates to both the indigenous Māori
culture as well as European settlement in the 19th century. Archaeological sites are defined as any place in
New Zealand that was associated with pre-1900 human activity, where there is evidence relating to thehistory of New Zealand that can be investigated using archaeological methods. Protection of cultural
heritage across New Zealand is covered by various legislation. With regards to archaeological sites we havethe Heritage New Zealand Pouhere Taonga Act (2014), where it is illegal to modify or destroy anarchaeological site without authority from Heritage New Zealand. Other legislation includes the Resource
Management Act 1991 where protection of historic heritage places from inappropriate subdivision, use anddevelopment is a matter of National importance, and includes protection of selected sites on a schedule; theConservation Act (1987) for land held by the Department of Conservation (DoC); the Reserves Act (1977)
for historic reserves where heritage is the paramount resource to be protected and preserved by the DoC.
The Protected Objects Act 1975 is administered by the Ministry for Culture and Heritage and regulates
taonga tuturu (50+ year old objects related to Māori culture and society) and New Zealand archaeologicalobjects (materials removed from a New Zealand archaeological site). We also follow the principles of
ICOMOS. Māori hold a special place in the identity and life of New Zealand through a partnership between
Māori and the Crown under the Te Tiriti o Waitangi / the Treaty of Waitangi (Te Tiriti). Māori iwi/hapū(tribes) mandated to the Auckland/ Tāmaki Makaurau region alone number 19 (the largest total in NZ) andconsideration of Māori cultural values, tangible (sites/places) and intangible (wāhi tapu/sacred areas) forms
a key part of cultural heritage in New Zealand.
Having the above legislation in place provides a good framework for cultural heritage protection in NZ;
however, the legislation does not always marry well nor is well understood by the public and developers,
and we deal with problems arising from dual process (when conditions issued with the resource consent
conflict with Heritage NZ legislation) and confusion as to what legislation (and subsequent procedures andprotocols) are relevant to people and their particular developments. Consultation and advice from iwi / mana
whenua is at times considered the only consent needed when heritage and archaeology is involved – however,this can conflict with the legislation where archaeological sites are concerned. At worst, the confusion andlack of clarity as to what rules apply to archaeological and cultural heritage sites leads to unauthorised
damage and destruction to cultural heritage sites and places which can lead to criminal prosecution.
My role as an archaeologist at HNZPT focuses on administering the HNZPT Act (2014) with regards toarchaeological sites (recorded or not yet discovered) of which there are over 70,000 recorded on our nationalsite recording scheme (New Zealand Archaeological Association ArcSite database). In my role I provide
advice around, and process, archaeological authorities (to modify or destroy sites) which allow controlled
management of site modification when sites cannot be avoided. Our office processed 99 authorities last year,with a total of over 530 across the country in total. These include authorities for known sites, unknown sites,and specialist authorities for emergencies. However, in my role I also advocate for best heritage practicewith a focus on archaeological sites, through contributing to submissions on Plan Change and Resource
Consent applications relating to historic heritage places, structures/buildings, and I provide advice andfeedback on management plans and conservation plans.

1New ZealandIn this short paper I will touch upon some key challenges/problems in my work as an archaeologist in MidNorthern Office (based in Auckland / Tāmaki Makaurau) of Heritage New Zealand; discuss examples of
how we approach these problems; and look at what is still needed in the cultural heritage sector in New
Zealand heading over the next decade.
Problem 1: Achieving a balance between large infrastructure development and the protection ofcultural heritage
In the Mid-Northern region we work on multiple large infrastructure projects with roading, telecommunications and energy providers, which span many kilometres and across many areas including rural,
coastal and urban environments. Auckland / Tāmaki Makaurau is one of 16 regions in NZ; it includes a
metropolitan area, small towns, islands in the Hauraki Gulf and has the largest population in NZ. Our officealso covers the Coromandel Peninsula and Hauraki Plains where there are many industrial and mining (gold,
minerals) sites from the 19th century. The Mid-Northern region is culturally diverse, and our cultural heritage
sites reflect this with sites recording first human occupation of our country in the 14th century to 19th century
settlement and development of towns and industry.
Movement around the Auckland region is predominantly via large motorways and arterial roads maintainedby Waka Kotahi - NZ Transport Agency and Auckland Transport, although we also have bus, rail and ferry
services. Chorus are our main telecommunication provider, and they are rolling our largescale ultra-fastbroadband across the region, and multiple energy companies are building new towers and lines across
Auckland. We are, though, a city dominated by car users, and pressure for a more efficient and safe road
network means undertaking widening/safety upgrades; new road constructions including bridges; building
bus-ways and stations; upgrading railway lines and building new stations and tracks. Cultural heritage sites
are at risk from development of this kind. In order to try and identify the key sites and heritage areas at thefront end of project design, in my role I help develop and maintain key relationships with infrastructure
providers, government organisations and consultants in an effort to avoid and/or minimise adverse effects
on sites.
Example: State Highway 22 The expansion of an existing small town called Drury into a major town
settlement. The development includes upgrading roads like State Highway 22 (under a Notice ofRequirement) as well a town centre expansion and new housing. There are 17 recorded cultural heritage sites
within the development footprint, of which 11 are archaeological sites. Interaction throughout the planningstage was important to identify statutory requirements push for best heritage practice. For example one of
the archaeological sites (a 19th century cemetery) was to likely be modified by the works; we advocated foravoidance of the site based on high heritage values. The design was subsequently altered to avoid this site.
However, a 20th century heritage structure on the opposite side of the road cannot be avoided dur to thisredesign. Options are being explored to relocate the structure within Drury to maintain the culturalconnection with the place and retain some heritage values. We have established that an authority will be
required for modification of some sites which cannot be avoided including any unrecorded sites. So wheresome cultural heritage is lost, other sites are retained with the aim to create some balance in heritage
protection and infrastructure upgrades resulting from urban development.
Needs – Communication is key between all stakeholders, heritage organisations, mana whenua and otheraffected parties. Promotion of the benefits of protecting cultural heritage sites and places needs further
attention to encourage design innovation that incorporates historical narratives and preserves site for future
generations. There is also a need for more specialists to be trained in assessing heritage landscapes not justarchaeology so that we can achieve more varied heritage outcomes.

2New Zealand

Problem 2: Understanding the effects of climate change particularly in coastal zones andimplementing appropriate monitoring and management strategies
The coastline in Auckland spans some 3,700km long and within the Hauraki Gulf / Tīkapa Moana there areover 14 islands, all which have cultural heritage sites. Climate change and the effects on coastal sites is ofprime importance to us country wide, with many sites being affected by accelerated erosion caused by kingtides, storm surges, inundation, and increased ground-water run-off. Sites most at risk in Auckland region
are koiwi (human burials) and urupa (Māori cemeteries), shell midden and settlement sites and shipwrecks.
This is demonstrated by an increase in koiwi exposed on Waiheke and Rakino Islands and beaches acrossthe region and this problem will only increase over time. The NZAA have established a Climate change andCultural Heritage Portfolio designed to provide national direction, coordination, and advocacy on behalf of
the NZAA. Heritage New Zealand has provided input into the National Climate Change Risk Assessment
for NZ (2020) with heritage listed as one of 43 priority risks. The risk assessment recognises the importanceof social and cultural resilience through heritage (tangible and intangible), taonga and Mātauranga Māori(Māori knowledge). Despite a government announcement for a Climate Change Adaptation Act to beformed, we are yet to have direct policy to guide response and action. Councils are developing ‘Coastal
Management Framework’ where Coastal management Plans are being co-designed with mana whenua tomanage council owned land including managing the effects of climate change.
Example: Motutapu Island A significant cultural landscape is Motutapu Island which has over 380
recorded archaeological sites representing an occupation history encompassing nearly the full span of humansettlement in NZ. The island consists of over 1,527 hectares and the majority of sites (374) relate to Māori
settlement and use of the island. DoC administers the majority of the land which it co-manages with Ngāi
Tai ki Tāmaki (mana whenua). There are also two concessionary groups on the island. These layers ofownership, co-management and concessionaries adds complexity to the management of the culturallandscape; the majority of the island is run as a farm but includes historic reserves, native revegetation areas,
plant nurseries and a camp all within an extensive archaeological landscape. Heritage NZ is overseeing thedevelopment of a Heritage Management Plan for the island, designed to ensure that heritage places are cared
for to preserve their meaning and importance for present and future generations. However, climate change
is presenting challenges to many of the sites. The Sunde site, for example, documents footprints (human andkuri/dog) in the ash of the eruption of Rangitoto Island c. 1400AD, and is one of four known archaic period
sites on the island. It is also protected on the Auckland Regional Plan (Schedule 1/134) and is one of mostacclaimed sites in NZ. However, it is in an at risk location on the northwest coast of the island and mana
whenua have reported that it has been adversely affected by environmental processes, and it is not clear just
how much of the site survives. A detailed condition assessment is urgently required along with many othersites at risk on the island. We are working on a partnership with DoC and mana whenua to implement a
survey and monitoring programme, to train Kaitiaki (environmental monitors) how to utilise archaeologicalmethods for monitoring and recording. In order to ensure consideration of all affected parties, the future
management of the sites need to work in partnership with Māori, acknowledging the importance of
Mātauranga Māori (Māori knowledge) to achieve common conservation goals.
Example: HMS Buffalo Shipwrecks are examples of cultural heritage that are not protected well in NZ,
with many sites recorded archaeologically but not protected on district or regional plans. In Whitianga
Harbour, Coromandel Peninsula change in tidal processes has accelerating the breaking up of the wreck withpieces of the HMS Buffalo being washed ashore, the most recent being earlier this year following a storm
event. We are supporting and working with the Mercury Bay Museum and maritime archaeologists to help
record and conserve the timbers and support the development of a conservation plan for management and3

New Zealandconservation purposes. Further conversations with the Waikato Regional Council and Thames Coromandel
District Council to discuss scheduling wrecks to afford them some protection is also required.
Needs – Clear need for urgent policy development nationally for climate change action with regards tocultural heritage sites. Locally, impetus needs to be placed on establishing site monitoring projects in thegulf islands in particular, and working in partnership with mana whenua to ensure a balanced approach isand detailed dataset is gathered to develop suitable adaptation responses in coastal environments.
Conclusion As an archaeologist working for Heritage New Zealand I am able to administer legislation
around archaeological site protection, modification and management of cultural heritage. This includes
advocating for best heritage practice with key government organisations, mana whenua, stakeholders,developers and the general public. There are still clear challenges in dealing with the adverse effects climatechange and economic and urban expansion which require attention heading into the next decade which need
to be brought to the fore, which form a key part of our planning for the immediate future. Where physicalprotection is just not viable then implementing mitigation strategies and measures to offset adverse effects
are essential.
Websites and links to legislation and policy
Heritage New Zealand Pouhere Taonga Act 2014:
https://www.legislation.govt.nz/act/public/2014/0026/latest/whole.html
Heritage New Zealand: https://www.heritage.org.nz/
Resource Management Act 1991
https://www.legislation.govt.nz/act/public/1991/0069/latest/DLM236704.html
Department of Conservation: https://www.doc.govt.nz/
Conservation Act 1987: https://www.legislation.govt.nz/act/public/1987/0065/latest/DLM103610.html
Reserves Act 1977: https://www.doc.govt.nz/about-us/our-role/legislation/reserves-act/
Protected Objects Act 1975: https://mch.govt.nz/nz-identity-heritage/protected-objects
Auckland Council - The hapū and iwi of Tāmaki Makaurau:
https://www.aucklandcouncil.govt.nz/plans-projects-policies-reports-bylaws/our-plansstrategies/auckland-plan/about-the-auckland-plan/Pages/iwi-tamaki-makaurau.aspx
New Zealand Archaeological Association https://nzarchaeology.org/
National Climate Change Risk Assessment:
https://environment.govt.nz/publications/national-climate-change-risk-assessment-for-new-zealand-mainreport/
HMZ Buffalo links https://mercurybaymuseum.co.nz/hms-buffalo-project/4

Sri Lanka: Buddakoralelage Janani Namal Seneviratne

Problems and Needs for Cultural Heritage Protection and
Restoration Activities in Sri Lanka-Based on specific mural painting and stone cultural heritage sites in Sri Lanka-

Buddakoralelage Janani Namal Seneviratne
Archaeological Research Officer
Department of Archaeology, State Ministry of National Heritage,
Performing Arts and Rural Arts
It is imperative to mention that there are thousands of cultural monument sites, including hundreds of mural
painting and stone cultural heritage sites, scattered all over the island of Sri Lanka, with various historical,
aesthetic, and religious attributes. The apex governing body, the Department of Archaeology of Sri Lanka, takes
responsibility for conserving and managing the cultural heritage, including research work. These sites areprotected by the Antiquities (Amendment) Act, No. 24 of 1998, titled “An ordinance to provide for the better
preservation of the antiquities of Sri Lanka, and of sites and buildings of historical or archaeological importancein Sri Lanka,” which is an amendment of section 2 of the principal act.
Specific problems, issues, and threats for cultural heritage protection and restoration of mural painting
sites and stone cultural heritage in Sri Lanka- Limited investigation and research work has been done on mural paintings and on stone heritage of the country
due to the lack of technically and chemically knowledgeable field officers. Lack of analytical instruments for thescientific investigations is another burning issue.
- Lack of systems for monitoring natural and continuous deterioration of these two types of cultural asserts makes
it difficult to implement preventive conservation measures by the principal heritage management authorities.
- The rapidly decreasing traditional skills and talents of the direct descendants of former master painters suggeststhat if this trend continues, traditional knowledge of preparing paint using natural materials will also be lost in
the near future.
- Use of vast stretches of lands for new development projects such as irrigation, agriculture, settlements, andhighways directly threatens loss of the authentic value of cultural landscapes.
- Lack of adequate management plans for cultural heritage sites, which should be based on a clearly defined
governance and communication structure, and which set out the short-, mid- and long-term strategies for bothconservation and visitor management, as well as budget planning.
- Lack of disaster management plans for the protection of cultural sites against natural sudden changes is anothermajor issue. It is clear that cultural sites which are distributed throughout the island are at risk to floods, landslides,
and tsunamis, notably along the coastline.

Sri Lanka: Buddakoralelage Janani Namal Seneviratne

Golden Temple of Dambulla – World Heritage Site
-Lack of visitor management plans for cultural heritage sites. In particular, there is currently no practical tourism
management plan for the World Heritage properties, and one is urgently needed, due to the large number oftourists and pilgrims visiting the sites.
There may be other threats which can could cause the loss of outstanding universal value, integrity, andauthenticity, which can lead to removal from the World Heritage List.
Biological, chemical and physical deterioration factors
There are similar problems affecting most cultural sites in Sri Lanka, for example thefive caves in Dambulla, and conservators are now investigating how to take care of these
problems. The problems are due to fungi, potter wasp nests, water leakage, and damage
by visitors, etc. There are also number of statues which display multiple cracks, plus
damp areas on the mural paintings, mainly due to water leakage and termite attacks.
There is a lack of adequate mechanisms for measuring and recording the atmosphericconditions of the cultural heritage sites, such as the relative humidity, temperature, anddust levels, etc., which are as relevant as the numbers of visitors.
Needs for protection and restoration of mural painting sites and stone cultural heritage
Few scientific studies have been conducted on Sri Lankan stone sculptures and wall paintings by scientists in thefield of Sri Lankan archaeology from 1960 to date. The objectives of such study should include understanding
the utilization of materials and techniques by ancient artists. Although these matters were mentioned in ancient
documents, insufficient knowledge of them has been provided by previous historical research. It is therefore
necessary to conduct such research based on the scientific analyses in the field of material science for theconservation and preservation of the cultural heritage of Sri Lanka. Accordingly, the staff of the conservation
section is requesting the organization of workshops and training programs from collaborative and distinguishedforeign professionals. It would benefit the local conservation staff to build up their capacity and creative
capabilities.
It is of vital importance to find opportunities for foreign visits (for participation in workshops/training programsto acquire professional knowledge and skills) provided by foreign countries, and to invite foreign experts toarrange short-term conservation workshops and so forth at archaeological sites in Sri Lanka. Educating ourconservation staff in advanced techniques through such short-term training programs, while providing researchprospects to the visiting academics, thereby raising our professional standards and improving research
publications, are the expected opportunities.
Precision digital recording and documentation systems need to be established and used for methodical
conservation work. New scientific and technical tools and innovative skills are also needed to improve data forentering into the documentation systems. Preparation of detailed condition reports and the regular monitoring ofconservation sites also need to be followed, along with taking necessary steps for the preservation of mural
paintings and stone monuments, including making damage surveys and restoration plans.
A management plan should clearly set out the governance structure of the property, with the roles of all the key
stakeholders identified. The plan must focus on short-, mid-, and long-term strategies as required by the new
government system. The management plan should clearly set out the management structure for the property, withdefined responsibilities, and it also should address its state of conservation and set out a visitor access strategy

Sri Lanka: Buddakoralelage Janani Namal Seneviratne

that determines the number of visitors permitted at each site, and where to enforced a no flash photography policy,
etc.
The operation of a website is an important part of the promotion and advertisement aspects of the managementof heritage. Though this may bring more visitors, whose large numbers are problematic, it can also be used as ameans of monitoring.
Another need is to establish a research laboratory, which can be utilized for mural painting conservation andstone conservation. Such a facility could accommodate undergraduates and postgraduate students in researchcollaborations. This would allow them to share in the research experience and knowledge of the professionals.
Further this will improve the skills and knowledge of both the higher and minor staff who are employed in thechemical conservation section, by allowing them to obtain exposure to modern techniques and instrumentationin these disciplines.
It is important to sustain a well-organized unit when dealing with foreign specialists. It is more productive tomaintain a complete database including conservation reports produced by qualified conservation officers fromthe past to the present. This knowledge can be used as a resource in conducting future conservation. Due to thelack of recognized institutes for gaining professional knowledge in Sri Lanka in the fields of painting and stone
conservation, foreign training is considered the only way to achieve the desired skills, and the knowledge gained

through such foreign training can be applied to a professional carrier in Sri Lanka as a conservator.
Sigiriya Paintings – World Heritage Site

Thiwanka Image House

It is necessary to continue with the research and identification of solutions for the problematic issues affecting
the property, with the help of local and international experts in the relevant fields.
It is also vital to update the management plan based on a clearly defined governance and communication structure.
To improve the management of the site, a sitemanagement committee should be created which
includes representatives of the government, and the local
community, as well as experts. This committee shouldmeet at least bimonthly, to discuss and decide on all
matters related to the conservation and management of
the World Heritage property, including for example themaximum number of persons allowed to enter each area
Gal Viharaya Open Image Complex – Worldof the heritage site at once, as control of the visitor
Heritage Site
numbers allowed is crucial to managing the areas.

Sri Lanka: Buddakoralelage Janani Namal Seneviratne

Another need is to introduce and enforce, as soon as possible, a policy prohibiting visitors from using flash
photography inside cave heritage such as Sigiriya and the Golden Temple of Dambulla, as this is one of the maincauses of the change in color of the ancient paintings.
Establishing such a tourism management strategy within the coming years, especially including the maximum
number of persons allowed to enter heritage sites at once, is likewise imperative for all World Heritage properties
of Sri Lanka: the Golden Temple at Dambulla Cave, the Gal Viharaya Open Image Complex and Thiwanka
Image House at Polonnaruwa, the rock paintings at Sigiriya, etc.

Sri Lanka: Diveesha Athukorala

Problems and Needs for Cultural Heritage Protection and
Preservation Measures in Sri Lanka
Diveesha Athukorala
Archaeological Research Officer
Department of Archaeology, State Ministry of National Heritage,
Performing Arts and Rural ArtsThe Department of Archaeology, as the apex institution overseeing efforts to recover, analyze, protect andconserve the archaeological heritage of Sri Lanka, has an enormous collection of artifacts, including itemsof organic and inorganic materials, housed in 32 archaeological site museums such as Galle Fort, Kandy,
and Anuradhapura, which are historic buildings. In addition, our collection is rich with a huge variety ofarchaeological objects recovered from terrestrial and underwater sites.
As an archaeologist and a conservator, I am currently responsible for identifying threats to the artifacts
and establishing priorities for protecting these assets against risks, and also for determining specificpreservation methods. Therefore, this report identifies the main problems and needs concerning thepreservation and management of archaeological objects in Sri Lanka.
Problem 1: Environmental conditions for the collection
Sri Lanka is one of the countries with the most abundant cultural heritage in the tropical climate zone.
Therefore, preservation of heritage under the peculiar conditions of this climate is connected with aconsiderable number of inherent problems.
The main problem that we face for the collections in Sri Lanka is to protect them from deterioration caused
by interaction with the surrounding environment. Environmental processes and weather events have asignificant impact on preserving artifact collections in my country. Materials that have been kept indoors
and outdoors without any protection are affected by changes and extremes of temperature and humidity,
and the action of rain, microorganisms, and other factors. Objects can be affected by physical factors,
including cracking, flaking, detaching, fading, yellowing, embrittlement, pitting, warts, and a host of otherbiological and chemical changes as factors causing deterioration.
The majority of metal objects in Sri Lanka face dire situations regarding active corrosion, including
crevice corrosion, pitting corrosion, and bronze diseases due to the effects of chloride. Chlorides arepresent in almost all types of water and soil and cause problems mainly when metal is used, such as pitting
and bronze disease, and also corrosion cracking at high temperatures. Iron rust is caused by the oxidationof iron in the presence of moisture in the tropical environment. The chemically unstable orange appearanceof rust is porous, which allows moisture, oxygen, chlorides, sulfide and sulphate to reach the bare metal.

1

Sri Lanka: Diveesha AthukoralaFig. 1 Products covered by corrosion
In Sri Lanka, it appears that one of the leading causes of the deterioration of stone, especially forcrystalline limestone, is rain. Moisture and salt can do the most damage to porous stone. Porous stones
sitting on the ground can absorb dissolved salts through capillary action. When the moisture evaporates,
the soluble salt left behind crystallizes and gradually breaks the structure of the stone. In addition,
inappropriate older conservation methods or materials such as cement provide soluble salts to the objects,
for instance the Maligawila statue. This may also be the reason for the flaking that can be seen in many of
the gneisses, particularly at Pollonnaruwa in the North-Central province in Sri Lanka—weathering first of
all inflicts damage as humidity, but large and small plants also damage monuments and historic buildings
in Sri Lanka. Substantial erosion by wind is another significant cause of damage in Sri Lanka.

Fig. 2 Damage due to weathering
Another reason is lack of space in museum storage premises. Whole artifact collections of the museum
are stored in the same storage room, even though they need different climatic conditions for proper
keeping. Therefore, objects have been abrasive to each other or have become severely stuck together.

2

Sri Lanka: Diveesha Athukorala

Finally these collections are under the threat and in unstable condition due to a lack of technology as wellas inappropriate storage and display.

Fig: 3 Inappropriate placement (Bad Storage)
Problem 2: Lack of funding
Apart from the more technical problems of preserving the monuments and collections, the Department ofArchaeology also faces the problem that its own personnel and financial resources are insufficient for
coping with all of the challenges involved in preserving such an enormous cultural heritage. Therefore, itis necessary to secure separate funds as financial assistance directly received from local andinternational donors. As an example, through the Projects of Ambassador's Fund for Cultural Preservationin 2009, 2012, and 2015, funding was requested for the preservation of archaeological collections bybuilding physical facilities in order to preserve and manage public archaeological collections for future
generations.
Needs 1: Preventive conservation measures
In order to maintain the collection, the museum should maintain the proper preventive measuresthrough proper handling, storage, appropriate packing, climatic control with monitoring, and display
practices for the artifacts, reducing the impact of these factors. In addition, proper preventive measures areneeded for stabilizing or at least slowing down an object's rate of deterioration. Therefore, I suggest thatevery object should be inspected periodically to assess the type, significance, use, and condition, in orderto check the causes or signs of deterioration.
When deciding on the environmental requirements for the long-term preservation of cultural collections,
including those housed in museums and galleries, it is necessary to consider many parameters, which
include the collection management plan, building maintenance plan, improvement plan for the museum
and its gallery, a disaster management plan, a risk management plan, and a conservation plan. In brief,
regular inspections, maintenance, and cleaning schedules for the collections, in other words, goodhousekeeping with proper management, are the basis for prevention of deterioration. These inspections
should be documented manually and digitally saved as part of the museum's records. Every museum
should have a collection storage area that is separate from the exhibition areas. Also, proper storage units,cabinets, and shelves are essential for storage locations and display cases under controlled microenvironments with security measures.
As an example, preventive conservation measures are being applied for archaeological materials in theAnuradhapura Archaeological Museum, Department of Archaeology, through replacement with newdisplay cases for creating a safer environment. These collections had been under threat and were inherently3

Sri Lanka: Diveesha Athukorala

unstable due to lack of funding and lack of technology, resulting in inappropriate storage and display for
generations under conditions that were not conducive to preservation. The entire collection of the museum
was put in storage because the museum building of Anuradhapura is being renovated using local
governmental institution’s funds. The museum has been closed more than four years due to the pending
set-up of the new display cases under the Ambassador's Fund for Cultural Preservation (AFCP) funding.
Needs 2: Professional development
In order to safeguard cultural heritage for future generations, it is necessary to train heritage professionals
in proper conservation and preservation. We greatly need studies with detailed technical information fromobservations and examinations before conducting treatment. Therefore, it is crucial for conservation
professionals to participate in training programs throughout their professional careers, to update theirknowledge by attending courses, workshops, seminars, and conferences, in order to build their skills.
The Sri Lankan conservation team also needs sufficient training with updated methods and techniques totake full responsibility for managing the conservation laboratories and conserving archaeologicalmaterials. Therefore, it is imperative that we have theoretical knowledge and training through formal
professional courses with modern technology and updated techniques, as an appropriate adjunct to our
professional careers.
Conclusion
This report has identified the main problems and needs for the preservation and management ofarchaeological materials in Sri Lanka. Proper response to those different needs will help to achieve better
preservation of the heritage for tomorrow.

4