ACCU Nara International Correspondent
The ACCU correspondents periodically send reports on cultural heritage protection activities in which they have been
recently involved. This is a collection of seventeen reports submitted by international correspondents in the Asia-Pacificregion.

The Tenth Regular Report
Contents
Bangladesh

1

India (1)

3

India (2)7Indonesia (1)11Indonesia (2)13Malaysia

17

Maldives

21

Mongolia

22

Mst. Naheed Sultana
Lalbagh Fort, the Significant Monuments of Mughal, Dhaka

Bhuvan Vikrama
Preservation of the Excavated Remains – Some Issues of Reference at Sarnath

Kunkuma Devi Kishore
Restoration of the Garrison Cemetery at Srirangapatna, Karnataka

Mohammad Natsir Ridwan Muslim
Rescue Excavation of Gambar Wetan III Temple Site

Indah Sulistiana Kuncoro
Diagnosis of Damage in Historical Museum of Jakarta

A Ghafar Bin Ahmad
Restoration of Ubosoth (Bothd) of Wat Chonprachumthat Chanaram, Kampung Dalam, Tumpat, Kelantan, Malaysia

Aishatha Moosa Fikree
Excavation of Bathing Tank at Ha. Utheemu

Rinchinkhorol Munkhtulga
Some Newly Found Ancient Turkic Complexes with Stone Statue from North-Western Mongolia

Nepal25

New Zealand

27

Pakistan

35

Philippines

39

Samoa

41

Sri Lanka

43

Thailand47

Uzbekistan

51

Viet Nam

54

Suresh Suras Shrestha
The Heritage Conservation Training Program in the School

Matthew Schmidt
The Kaitiaki Monitoring Programme: Community Management of Coastal Cultural Heritage Sites in Murihiku

Asim Dogar
Conservation of Lahore Fort, A World Heritage Monument

Grace Barretto-Tesoro
The Old Church of San Juan, Barangay Pinagbayanan, San Juan, Batangas, Philippines

Mainifo Viliamu
Preservation of the Courthouse, and Demolition of the First Parliament House of Samoa

Sujeeva Kaushalyani Peiris Deraniyagala
Ruhuna Cultural Triangle of Sri Lanka

Pongthorn Hiengkaew
Spirit of the Historic Place: Sanam-Luang

Akmaljon Ulmasov
The 2011 Archaeological Excavations in the Old Termez Citadel

Nguyen Chi Cong
Surveying a Part of Hanh Cung's Wall in the Nguyen Dynasty, Thang Long Imperial Citadel Centre, Ha Noi

Bangladesh
Bangladesh

Lalbagh Fort, the Significant Monuments of Mughal, Dhaka
Mst. Naheed Sultana, Assistant Director
Department of Archaeology, Ministry of Cultural Affairs
The Lalbagh fort was built during the reign of Mughal
Emperor Aurangzeb (1658 AD-1707 AD) mainly toproperly perform the works of administration together
with the maintenance of the hundred present security ofthe provincial governor. Situated at the heart of the cityof Dhaka, this fort and the museum bear testimony tothe cultural heritage and prosperity of the Mughal period.
A very rare and skillful combination and amalgamationof Bengali, Indian and Persian architecture is evidently
found in these monuments. In consideration of thisunprecedented work of architecture and its style ofconstruction, the Lalbagh fort is regarded as a distinguishedspecimen of Mughal architecture.
During the reign of the Mughal Emperor Jahangir (16051627), Islambungalow Khan the then provincial governor
transferred capital from Rajmahal to Dhaka. But this ruler
was so much busy in making his administration stand on a
firm footing that he found little time peaceful to build up
any architectural plant worth noticing and praising. Nearly
50 years of this, when a British Baptist named Taverniar
came to Dhaka, he found Nawab Shaista Khan residing
in a wooden bungalow. But within a very short time, hebuilt up this fort and other important buildings within thefort during his two phases of the assignment as provincial
governor (1663 AD-1688 AD). For a short interim period
in between two phases of the governorship of Shasta
Khan, ShahaJada (Prince) Azam (July 1678 AD-1679 AD)
appointed Subeder (General) of Bengal. The exquisitely
beautiful mosque still existing within the fort area as a
specimen of Mughal architecture is known to have been
built by Shajada (Prince) Azam Shah.
Lalbagh Fort
The fort of Lalbagh stands in the South-East corner of the
Dhaka city on the bank of river Buriganga. The fort wasnamed ’Aurangabad fort’ after the name of the Mughal
Emperor Aurangzeb. The rectangular fort is surroundedby high walls all around and it measures 1,082 feet to theeast-west in the length and 700 feet to North-South inbreadth. There are two high and spacious getaways to theNorth-East and South-West corners and a small gateway
in the north of the fort. Besides, the whole of the interior
space of the fort was divided into 22 lawns and thosewere decorated with flowers and plants that assumed avery attractive look as a whole. Till now the tradition ofmaintaining the beauty of the garden is going on. Eachof the lawns is separated by walk-paths made of bricks.
Moreover, many fountains of water were set up at the
middle of garden and that was linked up with some otherchannels beautifully designed from the West to the NorthEast and to the South. All these luxurious and pompous
piece of works manifest the financial prosperity, peacefulpolitical stability and above all the high artistic taste of the
Mughals. Almost at the middle of the fort, there is a Mazer(Mausoleum) of Pori Bibi. To the west of the Mazar, themosque of Shajada Azam Stands and to the East, there
is a two storied building which was a Dorbar hall (anassembly hall). To the east of this Dorbar Hall, there isa tank which had been dug during the Mughal regime.
Besides these, there is military barracks towards the south
and an octagonal two-storied observation tower in thesouthwest corner of the fort.

A general view of Lalbagh Fort

The main gate of Lalbagh Fort1

Prince Azam Shah MosqueBibi Pori’s Tomb
Bibi Pori’s tomb lies at a distance of only 170 feet to theeast from the Azom shah mosque. Pori Bibi alias ’Iran
Dukht’ was the daughter of Nawab Shaista khan. She was
exquisitely beautiful and loved by Shaista Khan. She diedat a very early age and the Nowab was deeply shocked
by her premature death. The extremely shocked Nowab
constructed a mausoleum on her grave to perpetuate thememory of the beloved daughter. The construction of
the mausoleum was a skillful combination of the Persian,
Indian and ancient Bengal art.

ground floor of this building, there are a bath room andthree waiting-cum-resting rooms of the viceroy. For all
arrangements of supplying hot and cold water, there wasseparate equipment with an oven, etc. The upper storey
also has three rooms. They might have been used for theadministrative work.

Bangladesh

Prince Azam Shah Mosque
An emblem of super excellence of the architectural artistic
skill is the Azam Shah mosque which was constructed by
Prince Azam Shah within the fort area in the year 1679 AD.
The mosque measures 65 feet in the length and 32.5 feetin the breadth. On the four corners of the mosque, there
are four octagonal pillars and the top of the pillars are
beautified by small domes. The bodies of the pillars aredecorated by panel designs. This is a three-domed mosqueof which the third dome is comparatively larger than theother two. Mughal architectural tradition was adopted in
making the domes. The lower parts of the domes look
like round domes decorated with a large sized leaf designs
from outside. There are three entrance doors to get
into the mosque of which the first one is larger and theother two are comparatively small. In front of the door,
multifarious arch styles, the characteristics of the Mughal
art have been distinctly shown.

Military Barracks and Water Reservoir
After an extensive excavation for a long period at the highmound of mud within the fort area, a vast military barracks
has been discovered. The barracks was constructed tofortify the fort and to strengthen its security measures. Justat the middle of this building there was a water reservoir
where water was collected and preserved from the river
Buriganga. The artificial fountains in the fort were kept
alive supplying water from this reservoir.
Conclusion
The high excellence and advancement of architectural
performance is one of the glorious achievements of the
Mughal rule in Indian sub-continent. They rose to the
pinnacle of glory by constructing enormous administrativebuildings, mosques, mausoleums, a military barracks,
hammams (the royal bath room), etc. During the reignof Akbar, Jahangir, Shahjahan, Aurangzeb, the heightadvancement and supremacy of architecture is evidently
noticed side by side with their remarkable financial
stability.

Tank, Audience Hall and Hammam (the Royal Bathroom)
At the middle of the north and south gates of the fort,
there is a Mughal tank which is square in size and eachside is 235 feet long and covered with retaining walls on
all sides. There are also four staircases at four corners.
At a little distance from the west bank of this tank, there
stands a two storied building graceful to look at. At the

The general view of mausoleum of Bibi Pori

The close view of mausoleum of Bibi Pori

The interior of the Hammam

The audience hall and Hammam

The military barracks

Tank

2

India (1)India (1)Preservation of the Excavated Remains – Some Issues of Reference at Sarnath
Bhuvan Vikrama, Superintending Archaeologist
Archaeological Survey of India
Sarnath, the place where the enlightened delivered his
first sermon was nothing more than a series of rollingmounds and few heaps of bricks until 1794 AD. The
name Sarnath is the derived form of Saranganath, a formof Shiva holding a deer, who was the presiding deityof a temple there. Its association with Buddhism wascompletely lost, when Jagat Singh, Dewan (Minister)of Raja Chet Singh of Benaras, ordered for quarryingof bricks and stones from a place near Benaras called
Sarnath, where a great heap of brick was readily
available.

except those by Kittoe, lacked planning and academic
purpose, proved little beyond the haphazard digs.
Finally in 1903-04 Mr. F. O. Oertel of the Public Works
Department started detailed excavation. The changes in
the heritage area from the times of Cunningham (Pl. 3).
He cleared the area where Kittoe had identified his third
stupa and could expose a very elaborate temple built oflavishly carved burnt bricks belonging to the last phaseof occupation and the Asokan Pillar and lion capital to
the west of it and a large number of images of Buddhist
affiliation.

The great heap of bricks was the Dharmarajika stupa of
Mrigdava, which was completely dismantled and carted
to Benaras. The work was stopped only when somepieces of bones along with ashes, and some gold leaves,pearls and other objects were found in a casket of green
marble. Thanks to one Mr. Jonathan Duncan, a residentof Benaras, that this finding was report to learned worldin 1798 AD and association of something Buddhist with
Sarnath was established. For almost five centuries thename Mrigdava and anything Buddhist was forgotten
from the human memory. The place was instead known
as Sarnath,

Remains at Sarnath attest only to the century of Asoka
on the earlier side while the last remains are those of
the 11th -12th century AD. whereas the Mrigdava andBuddha association is more than two hundred years older
than Asoka. Not much reliance can be placed on thefindings and more importantly, neither on the procedureof findings. As the minor antiquities and potsherds were
not considered important, only few complete earthen
wares and some objects which caught the fancy of the
diggers were preserved.

Ever since 1794 AD antiquarian attention was focussed
at Sarnath. In 1835-36, Alexander Cunningham, a Major
then, spent 18 months and Rs. 517 on excavating thesite with sole intention to retrieve the relic casket.
The borings and burrowing at Dhamek (Pl. 1) and
Chaukhandi did not reveal anything but the make-up of
the stupas. The other digs, however, yielded a monastery,a temple and a chamber full of statues. Later in 1851
Major Kittoe, Archaeological Enquirer to the Government,
started excavation at this place and brought to light amonastery to the south-east of Jagat Singh’s stupa (as theDharmarajika was known and referred), a rectangularstructure to the west of Dhamek which he preferred
to call ’Hospital’ and rows of votive and donative
stupas to north and east of Dhamek (Pl. 2). Though nochronological information could be derieved from thesefindings yet the topography and contours of the Mrigdava
were changed considerably. Major Kittoe, following
Hwen tsang’s description believed in three stupas in
Mrigdava – Jagat Singh’s stupa and Dhamek were alreadythere and the third he identified a short distance north of
Jagat Singh’s stupa, which he could not probe.
Major Kittoe’s fatal illness prevented him from reporting
his excavation properly and most of the details were lost,
some informal communications survive. His work was
further continued in 1853 by Mr. A. Thomas followed by
Dr. F. Hall and Mr. Buttler. In 1865 Mr. C. Horne and in1877 Mr. Rivett Carnao also did their antiquarian hunt.
In all these attempts some more structural remains wereadded to the personality of the site. Since these efforts,

3

Excavations at Sarnath continued intermittently till 1932.
Each passing year of excavation added some new features
to the ancient monastic settlement at Sarnath, thereby
changing the landscape. A large number of remains
movable as well as immovable were laid bare. Large
proportion of the movable remains found their ways tovarious quarters of the world and some unfortunate ones
got watery grave (in the pier of Duncan’s bridge on river
Varuna) or were crushed to make concrete or refashioned
into other building material (at Queen’s College). Some
fortunate ones which had survived the vagaries of time
and were probably in good shape found their way backto Sarnath (museum) or other museums or collections.
The immovable property at Sarnath, with sole exceptionof Dharmarajika Stupa which was vandalised by Jagat
Singh, most survive till date (Pl. 4). However, withmodifications some induced deliberately and some due
to ignorance of the executioner. Many of the structural
remains have been done away with and some have been
re buried to create a better movement plan for the visitor.
Still a comparison of what was excavated and what wehave today will reveal that drastic changes have been
made in structures and many of the structures have now
become almost modern with the use of modern building
material. It may be a big question as to whither we aremoving in the field of conservation? To what extent
conservation should be permissible and at what cost?
And it is not the story of Sarnath only rather it is the taleof almost all of the excavated sites and standing ancient
structures

Now, if the documentation of 1905 AD, specially thedrawings and photographs, is taken as a bench mark forthe study of this shift, it may be seen that structures that
had withstood the two onslaughts of human destruction
coupled with vagaries of nature for almost 1200 years
found the last century the most difficult for survival. Plans
and elevation drawings attest to this fact. The drawingof the west face of Dhamek is sufficient to illustrate themarks of last century (Pl. 7). There are eight projected
niches around the drum of the stupa separated byrecesses. Seven of the projecting niches are capped withsimple tapering cone, but the one on the west is special
as it shows a shoulder above the straight sided drum
and is capped by gently curved dome topped by two
receding stepped boxes, on top of which is a socket forholding flagstaff. The shape alone was not different, thedecoration that it bore were also different than that of thedrum.

The significance of the western projection has been a topic
of debate among scholars and researchers. Cunningham
and Oertel the two serious excavators have deliberated on
it at great length forwarding their own views for dedicating
the stupa for one or the other form of Buddha. The twojustifications, although very logical, failed to satiate myhunger for the architectural queries. Dhamek attracted
me not only for its dimensions and shape but also for its
architectural peculiarities, keeping the time frame for its
construction in mind.

India (1)

We are not sure what was the original shape of Dhamek
let aside the Dharmarajika, which is no more today. From
all the remains I would like to stress upon Dhamek toshow the tell-tale marks of the passage of a century.
I would also like to suggest the original shape of theDhamek stupa. There are a few good pictures of Dhamek
in different time frames that provide state of preservationof the monument (Pl. 5 & 6).

The projections on regular interval remind of the upshikara or anga shikharas that developed in the temple
architecture around the same time with the purpose
perhaps to break the monotonous linear verticality as
also to make the structure more stable. Whatever be theoriginal reason for these projections, to me they appear
to be the up-shikhar or anga-shikhara, i.e. the miniatureform of the original tower/spire. The eighth decorated
projection appears to retain the actual shape of the stupaof the final stage. On the basis of the detailed drawing
published in 1904-5, a 3D model is attempted (Pl. 8).
References:
A. Cunningham ; Archaeological Tour Report – 1862-6364-65, vol : 1, 1871 (reprint 2000).
B. A nnual Report, Archaeological Survey of India –1904-05, 1914-15

Plate : 1

4

India (1)Plate : 2

Plate : 3

Plate : 4

5

Plate : 5

India (1)Martin Hurlimann: Picturesque India; 1928

Martin Hurlimann: India; 1965
Plate : 6

Drawing of western projection. 1905: right side
decoration has been probably conjectured.

Photograph of western projection. 2010:

Shape of other seven projections. 2010:

Plate : 7

The original shape of Dhamekh: after drawing of the western projection
Plate : 8

6

India (2)India (2)Restoration of the Garrison Cemetery at Srirangapatna, Karnataka
Kunkuma Devi Kishore, Architect & Conservation Consultant
Good Earth Office, Hyderabad, India
Introduction
The Garrison Cemetery is located in Srirangapatna,
a town of great religious and historic significancesituated on the western island of River Kaveri, in
Karnataka. The town takes its name from the celebrated
Ranganathaswamy temple (the 9th century AD) which
dominates the town, making Srirangapatna one of themost important Vaishnavite centers of pilgrimage in south
India. Srirangapatna became the seat of the local viceroyof the Vijayanagar Empire during the 15th century AD. In
1610 AD, when Raja Wodeyar of Mysore took possessionof Srirangapatna, it became the capital of the Rajas of
Mysore and continued to be the seat of government
under Haider Ali and Tipu Sultan until its seizure by
the British during the last Anglo-Mysore war in 1799
AD. Srirangapatna has also had strong trade relations
with overseas especially the Middle East exporting best
quality sandalwood and spices and it was here that the
famous Mysore Silk began to be woven. Tipu Sultan
the celebrated ruler of the Sultanate of Mysore was oneof the earliest and fiercest opponents of the British andSrirangapatna as a strategic capital withstood bravely the
expansion of British rule into the Southern India for morethan fifty years.
After the downfall of Tipu Sultan in 1799 AD the capital
was shifted to Mysore and a British Garrison was
stationed under General Wellesley, who later became theDuke of Wellington. This probably was the circumstanceunder which the Garrison Cemetery came into existence
as evident from the first and last burial records available
on the site; 1801-1867 AD. Garrison Cemetery thus
houses the tombs of soldiers from all ranks, members of
their families and civilians stationed there. They served
different regiments of the British army that was stationed
here and at Mysore prior to and post war.
The cemetery is located on the lush green left bank ofRiver Kaveri in the midst of a fertile fruit orchard andcovers an area of 3.5 acres having shrunk over the
decades succumbing to land grab. The restoration works
were undertaken by a Mysore based Conservation firm
Ravi Gundu Rao & Associates, in association with theDept. of Archeology, Museums & Heritage, Karnataka(State Government). The project was entirely initiated andfunded by the descendants of a Swiss based regiment
known by the name ’de Meuron’, which served the British
Army in the last Anglo-Mysore war. I was fortunate
enough to be assigned the role of a Project Leader for theentire restoration project.
Architectural SignificanceWhen the study began there were about 312 tombs
however further clearing of vegetation and excavation
revealed several more predominantly razed to the ground.
In addition to these about 30 headstones all dating 1800

7AD are laid in a row at the right hand corner of theentrance within the cemetery premises. These belong
to the French and appear to have been placed here
much later. There are very few tombs that resemble one
another and most of them are masterpieces of art, beautyand proportion. It is one of the largest existing cemeteries
found in the southern part of India with so many of
the tombs and headstones in fairly good condition. The
headstones are an important archive of the different
Regiments that served the region, the aftermaths of animportant war that affected the British who continued tostay and many unrecorded tales that can be interpreted
from the beautifully inscribed calligraphic epitaphs.
This cemetery is also an important record to visualize
Srirangapatna as it may have existed in the late 18thand early 19th century along with the fort walls,
temple, Tipu Sultan’s mausoleum, his summer palace,mosque and other memorials completing the pictureof a predominantly religious Hindu town reigned by apowerful Muslim ruler with British and French battalions
stationed briefly. Excepting for some colonial bungalowsand a few tombs scattered randomly there aren’t manyremains of the French and British in this historic town
now. Immediately after the downfall of Tipu Sultan thefocus was deliberately shifted entirely from Srirangapatna
to Mysore to ensure it never restores its earlier might andwill to oppose the British ever again.
Condition Assessment
The conservation program was divided into two parts
first being a study and documentation of its history,architectural details and assessment of its existing
condition, that took about six months to complete andsecond being the repair and restoration works that lasted
about thirteen months.
The cemetery was found to be in a state of poor
maintenance when the study began with very dense
growth of vegetation hiding many of the tombs andmaking it almost impossible to even tread on someparts of the site. The wooden gate at the entrance
was mostly dilapidated however the design and all
metal hinges remained integral. The gate posts and thecompound wall were mostly intact except requiringextension or reconstruction and lime plastering in certain
portions. These along with most tombs were devoidof lime wash or present only in the form of scatteredscales. Some tombs were found to be either totally or
partially demolished, evidences of the original form andornamentation thankfully remaining intact. Platforms
were found to be missing for some tombs causing
disorientation or dislocation of the entire tomb while
in some cases they lay hidden beneath the soil. Ficus
and vegetation growth within the structures had caused
severe structural cracks and splitting off of portions from

The embellishments did not vary much, mostly ranging
from scrolls of acanthus and foliages, simple columns
with plain base and capitals along the corners, andlayers of recessions and projections along the sides ofhorizontal surfaces. The most exquisite and fine detailing,
predominantly floral in nature were found on the urns
and finials. Many of these had fallen off, some were ina poor state of deterioration, and most were gone, longago. Many intricate details in lime plaster, especially along
the thinner edges of horizontal recessions and projections
over the top portions of the tombs were hidden behindseveral layers of lime wash. The headstones made of local
stones like Chloritic Schist, Granitic Gneiss and Dolerite,
were discolored due to deposition of dirt and salts and insome cases the inscriptions were indecipherable. Someheadstones were partially or totally detached from thetomb.
Restoration Works
The major works involved clearing of wild vegetation,
main gate and gate post repairs, partial and total
reconstruction of tombs, lime re-plastering, addressing
structural and superficial cracks, restoration of decorative
plaster works, application of lime wash, cleaning &consolidation of headstones using chemicals, providing
sign boards, basic site surface drainage system and least
maintenance landscapes.
Lime and bricks were the predominant materials used in
the restoration of the cemetery. The lime was procured
from a local quarry and the entire process startingfrom slaking of lime to preparation of lime mortar wasundertaken in a lime centre located 10 kms away fromthe site. The coarse lime mortar constituted slaked lime
and coarse aggregates in the ratio of 1:3 ground for 15
minutes in a diesel run lime mortar mill. The fine coarse
lime mortar constituted slaked lime and coarse aggregatesin the ratio of 1:2 ground to form a uniform mix for 16
hours in the same mill. On the site prior to starting any
mortar related works, the contents in the bags were
emptied into a big metal tray and mixed well with jaggery
syrup and tree gum for better workability and avoiding
shrinkage cracks. A total number of 12-18 masons,
craftsmen and other skilled workers were involved in therestoration and repair works.
Brick platforms laid in lime mortar were constructed andleft un-plastered around tombs to prevent stagnationand seepage of water. The collapsed tombs as well as
missing portions were first cleared of all the vegetationand ficus growth using ammonia based chemical solution
following which well-burnt bricks, laid in lime mortar,
were used for reconstruction. Where, in good condition
the original flat bricks were reused after carefully cleaning
it off the mud and mortar. The ornamental details in fineand coarse lime mortar were recreated after studying
the missing portions referring to similar tombs in thepremises. Some intricate embellishments were redone
in fine lime plaster only as the details were minute andrequired greater workability of the medium. These works
were however limited to less intricate ones. Where it wassuspected that some ornamental details remain hidden
beneath layers of lime wash, they were scrapped carefully
by deft hands, prior to undertaking of any plasterworks. The plastered surfaces were first cleaned by soft
nylon brushes to remove any loose and deteriorated
particles, as well as discolorations. The surface was thendampened and the first layer of course ground mortar
was applied using trowels followed by fine mortar. Threecoats of lime wash were then applied on the plasteredsurfaces followed by three coats of colorless; silicon
based hydrophobic coating using mechanically regulated
sprinklers. The color of the lime wash was approved bymembers from BACSA (British Association of Cemeteriesof South Asia, Bangalore) so as to keep it as close towhat it may have looked like originally. Extreme care
was taken to maintain an even spread of both the lime
wash layers as well as hydrophobic coating so as tomaintain an even texture, color and functional efficiency.
The headstones were mostly cleaned using water, nonreactive soap solution and soft nylon brushes. All theheadstones were covered with films before and after the
restoration works so as to prevent further staining fromlime products.

India (2)the tomb. Deterioration, delamination and discolorationof lime plaster from surfaces of all the structures was themost common issue that needed to be addressed.

Conclusion
One of the challenges faced during the restoration wasthat it was not easy to explain to the masons “how muchto restore” in terms of more intricate and less intricate
ornamental details. As a pre-restoration policy for thiscemetery, it was decided that the more intricate details(requiring very skilled craftsmen and hence more money,
both then unavailable) could be undertaken at a laterstage when the required resources came along. Constantsupervision and monitoring were a pre-requisite, giventhat the restoration of these small structures would
sometimes progress at a tremendous speed. The study did
not reveal any definitive patterns for having positioned
the tombs in the manner it exists now and though tombsof all sizes, shapes and style were repeated frequently,
they could not be categorized into a few groups thus
adding to the charm and challenge for restoration.
Garrison Cemetery proved to be an ideal training groundto school, the semi skilled workers and semi-masons in
graduating to semi masons & masons respectively. Prior
to restoration the cemetery was only visited occasionallyby foreign tourists who came in search of their ancestral
tombs. The cemetery has now been included in all the
tourist brochures and circuits and is under the custodyof the government. A watchman who was part of theentire restoration phase now takes care of the cemetery,
including offering basic guidance to the visitors,
maintaining the orchard and lawns as well as reporting to
the concerned authorities periodically. Garrison Cemeteryhas proved to be an excellent example of a restoration
work based on a public-private partnership in southern
India.

8

India (2)9Before restoration, after clearing of vegetation

After restoration and maintenance of minimal landscape

Before restoration, after clearing of vegetation

After restoration and maintenance of minimal landscape

The wooden entrance gate and original gateposts before restoration

The new entrance gate and gateposts after restoration

The cemetery before clearing of vegetation and ficus growth

Construction of brick platforms in lime mortar where originals were missing

India (2)A tomb during restoration of decorative elements

Intricate details hidden behind layers of lime wash

The tomb after restoration

Layers of lime wash carefully scraped and embellishments in lime
mortar exposed

Before restoration, partially demolished tombs

After restoration

Before restoration, after clearing of vegetation

After restoration

10

Indonesia (1)Indonesia (1)Rescue Excavation of Gambar Wetan III Temple Site
Mohammad Natsir RM, Head of Maintenance and Restoration Section
Directorate of Heritage Preservation and Museums, Ministry of Education and Culture
The rescue excavation of the Gambar Wetan III Temple
site was held in May 2012 in Indonesia, and the important
remains were found at the site. The temple is a significant
evidence to comprehensively reconstruct the history, thefunction, and positioning patterns of the temples around
Gambar Wetan site. The rescue excavation was carriedout according to the report on stone findings which waspresumed as part of a temple structure. This supposition
from unearthed findings was also strengthened by the
ROC report data (Rapporten van den Oudheidkundigen
Commise) in 1908 and the ROD (Rapporten van den
Oudheidkundigen Dienst) in 1915. It was mentioned
in a Dutch official report that there were other temples
besides Gambar Wetan. Gambar Wetan II temple wasfound in 1992. There is a strong suspicion that the othertemples were buried by Mount Kelud eruption which
occurred for several times before 1908 and 1915. Due toits vulnerability, the temple needs protection through therescue excavation. The rescue excavation was conductedin order to identify archaeological remains in Gambar
Wetan Temple site on 5–6 May 2012 by a team from theEast Java Archaeological Office.
The Gambar Wetan Temple site is located in Blitar
Regency, East Java Province, with geographic coordinatesof 49 M 0636542 UTM 9119042 and altitute of 590 meters
above sea level. The site is positioned in an area of
16,000 m2, located on the slope of Mount Kelud, on
the edge of a lava river (Figure 1). Based on the figures
found in the site, it can be described that the this site wasbuilt during Majapahit Kingdom period. The figures are:
Dwarapala statue placed at the bottom of the cliff, shows
number figure of 1438 AD, Dwarapala statue placed on
the stair (figure 2).
Rescue excavation
Rescue excavation was carried out by several stages asfollows: coordination with related parties; literary studiesof particularly Netherlands reports; land surface survey
to identify archaeological remains around Gambar Wetan
Temple site; interviews with supervisors who had goodknowledge on local soil condition; the excavation, anddocumentation (verbal and pictorial).
The area of excavation was chosen based on the soil
outcrop showing the location of the temple, which was
3.6 meters north of GambarWetan I Temple. The rescue
excavation was carried out by the grid system method;that is, an area of 14 m × 14 m was divided into boxesof 2 m × 2 m. In order to facilitate data recording in eachbox, all boxes of 2 m × 2 m was divided into four small
sections measuring 1 m × 1 m (a quadrant). The quadrant
was named with wind directions: a southwest quadrant, anorthwest quadrant, a northeast quadrant, and a southeast
quadrant. While the pit technique was used with aninterval of 50 cm and the depths were varied according

11

to the soil condition. The depth of the foundation
was usually as deep as 170 cm. The excavation teamunearthed 34 boxes scattered at four quadrants. Thirteenone out of 34 boxes contained archaeological remains in
the form of a point of the temple, the outer wall of thetemple, reliefs, panels of reliefs, inner stones, stairs, steps,(Figure 4-9). Other findings were potteries and small
number of coins.
The findings were restored into the form of basement of
the temple with a size of 8 m × 8 m, which was named
Gambar Wetan III Temple. The batur was constructed byandesite stones. Both of Gambar Wetan III Temple andGambar Wetan I Temple are similar in orientation andface in the same direction to Mount Kelud (east). Basedon the structure of the temple, batur is the bottom partof the building, and there are body and roof above thebatur. Based on the findings of pottery and the veil of thepillar, it is assumed that the roof and pillars are also madefrom natural materials.
Conclusion
For safety reasons, the excavated findings have been
temporarily covered by soil. The existing condition of thesite shows intensive and extensive data of archaeologicalremains. Therefore, it needs a larger scale excavation forfurther identification of the site. On the other hand, thetemple is located on the slope of Mount Kelud, therefore,
the conservation policies by the government should be
implemented properly to protect it from the possible
eruption. At present, only protection efforts have been
conducted, and disaster mitigation devices are just as
important.
Bibliography
Rapporten van den Oudheidkundigen Commise (ROC) in
1908
Rapporten van den Oudheidkundigen Dienst (ROD) in
1915
Rescue Excavation Report of Gambar Wetan temple site,
Sumbersari, Nglengok, Blitar, East Java Archaeology
Office 2012

Figure 1. Location of Gambar Wetan Site

Indonesia (1)Figure 2. Dwarapala statue in front of the upper stairs

Figure 3. Temple of Gambar Wetan I

Figure 4. Box B1 was located at quadrant II, the box was opened only
for 1 x 2 meter in size to observe details of the southwest corner of thetemple.

Figure 5. Box B2 was opened to determine the outer boundary of thewall in the south and the possibility of in situ reliefs. Soil strip activity
indicates that the corner part of the temple is intact.

Figure 6. At Box B4, a statue relief was found, which was positioned
at the middle of the wall dividing the front and back corner part in thesame of length.

Figure 7. Box C1 was opened to observe the details of the front wall of
the temple directs to the north. The corner between the front wall andstairs cheek was found at the depth of 91 cm.

Figure 8. Box C1, at the depth of 170 cm from soil surface; there were
4 stairs found in this box, and it is assumed that there was one morestair buried in the soil (top part of this stair was appeared).

Figure 9. Box D1, one piece of relief which was part of the staircase
found at the depth of 72 cm, and one more relief was found towards
the walls of the temple.

12

Indonesia (2)Indonesia (2)Diagnosis of Damage in Historical Museum of Jakarta
Indah Sulistiana Kuncoro, Architect / Teaching Assistant
Tarumanagara University
Introduction
The degradated condition of Historical Museum of
Jakarta moved the Department of Tourism and Culturein the government as the owner, to set up MoU with theRoyal Dutch Embassy in Jakarta to support for research,documentation and recommendations for conservationof the building. The damage of the building extended
into problems of water leak, termites, rising damp,
cracks and wood decompositions. The Royal Dutch
Embassy gave the assignment Centre for Architecture
Documentation (PDA- Pusat Dokumentasi Arsitektur)
to carry out technical research, documentation and to
make recommendations for conservation. This work wasdone from December 2010 until June 2011. During the
research work I was involved as part of the team in PDA
and did the field survey, diagnosis of damage and maderecomendation of the repair work. The objectives wereto record all damage in the building components for bothmechanical and physical condition, to analyse all thepossible causes and to draw up the repair strategy before
the conservation work.

Field Survey and Damage Diagnosis
Drawing by measurement was conducted to record thepresent state of the building configuration by making
plan, sections and drawing component’s details throughsketching on the site and then transfered them into
AutoCAD drawing. This work is very important torecoqnize the building structure and to understand therelation of the scale, space quality, material charater indetail approach. After that, the work continue in stage
on diagnosis of damages on the building. Material
investigations had been done by taking material sampleof the brick wall, plaster and wood into the laboratory.
Some visual observations on damages followed by basic
experiments directly on the building component to know
the resistence and degradation level. Analysis on possible
cause followed the mapping of symthoms and damages
on the building with interpretation of their risks.

Architectural Significance of Historical Museum of Jakarta
The construction of Historical Museum of Jakarta started
on 25 January 1707 in the Dutch colonial period inIndonesia. It located in Kota, the core historical district inJakarta. The name of building was Ex Stadhuis Batavia,
and then it was used for the governor office of West
Java. The first restoration was implemented in 19721974 and used for the military district office, but thenit was changed again to Museum Fatahillah and now
became Historical Museum of Jakarta. It is preserved as
an historical building of Jakarta City. The architectural
significance of this building is shown on its rustic
character and building technology in the colonial period.
The wall is made of thick brick as the load bearing
structure. Wood materials are used for floor beams andplanks, doors and windows, stairs and also the whole
structure of the bell tower.

Photo 1. Survey on the roof

13

Photo 2. Photogrammetry survey

The old painting by Fr. Valentijn, the 17th century.

The old photo from KITLV collection, Tropen Museum.

Photo 3. Measuring and drawing on site

Figure 1. A building section based on documentation 2011

Photo 4. Tower structure

The Relation of Special Symptoms in Bell Tower Structure
Symptom 1: The pivot wooden beam for hanging the bellcannot be rolled.
Assumption: It is possible due to un-levelling on the one
side of bell columns or the main bell tower column.

Indonesia (2)Mechanical Defect-	Displaced axis of wooden truss (in the attic room).
This defect was identified by the measurement on the
distance on each wooden truss caused by the imperfectmanual work as the traditional system of construction.
The symptom shown by the different numbers ofmeasurement resulted in the distance of each trusses,
but no decline caused by cracks or porosity was
identified. It has potential risk for further delineationand torsion by the extended wind load.
-	Deflection. The defect occurred in the middle part ofthe central gutter horizontal balk in the attic room wascaused by the upper load. The horizontal balk madecracks and deflection. It has potential for extended leakson the central gutter above it.
-	Deformation. The deformation occurred on the wooden
plank of the second floor in general, was caused by
the load in long duration of years, and the long length
dimension of plank. It provoked the shrinkage going up
on both pole and created the major risk for quests walkcirculation inside the museum especially for children.
-	Joint gaps (on the most eastern joint among the maintrusses and secondary truss) were caused by the
response from the joint articulation to the horizontal
force which transferred from the displacement axis.
-	Vertical cracks (on the columns of the base level ofbell tower) were caused by the upper load of wooden
structures and by being continuously exposed to termite
attacks.

Symptom 2: Combination of a crack (3 cm in max depth,
80 cm in length) and decomposition (12 cm diameter on
the surface) in the end of the cracked wooden column.
Assumption: The existing crack was caused by the small
preliminary one that had been made by manual defective
work of making a traditional joint. Because it locatedin the high position, the wood experienced aggressive
expansion-shrinkage which caused extension of a crack
up to 80 cm length long in the slow duration. The rainwater, caught into the crack, stayed and penetrated
to the end of the crack. In the wet and high humidity
environment, bacteria came and destroyed the wood
cellulose in that point and gave an opportunity to
the lichen to grow, and the decomposition of wood.
The risk was more serious on the secondary cause on
decomposition rather than the crack itself, because it
can destroy wood cellulose faster to weaken physicalstrength than the slowly extended crack. The risk washigh because the crack located in the high tower that wasalways exposed to rain water.
Symptom 3: There was a crack in the one horizontal balkof central gutter, and deformation can be seen on thenext three horizontal balks which were spanned parallel
between wooden truss columns.

Figure 2. Mapping on damage in the attic floor and the bell tower

Photo 5. Trusses in the attic room

Figure 3. Deformation of the wooden floor plank14

Indonesia (2)Photo 7. Cracks of 3 cm depth on the wooden column

Figure 4.
structure

The bell tower

Photo 6. Defects on the tower column

Assumption: It received upper load which weretransferred from the articulation between tower column
and roof wooden truss.
Risk: Further leaks on the central gutter.
Common Physical DefectPhysical defects on wood materials ranged from earlystage of decomposition, porosity, hollows caused bysevere porosity, shrinkage, and discolorisation. Those
damages are shown in the graphic below.
Recommendations for Repair
The axis displacement of roof trusses has to be supportedwith the diagonal steel cable that can be adjusted on
its joint with detailed structural calculation on it in theconservation work phase.
The relation of the symptoms in the bell tower defectindicates un-levelling of the wooden structure on the bell
tower. The potential risk is to provoke imbalance of thetower. The structure calculation will have to be conduct
to find the point where the un-levelling started along withstructure consolidation. The Bell Tower needs periodical
monitoring on the stability of the structure.
Blocking the further rain water penetration has to be
conducted while applying disinfectants and wooden
repair works.
General strategy of the repair work has to be planned
chronologically according to the management system andcost budgeting. They should be based on the priority ofthe building components as follows:
1.	Repair of roofs and gutters includes waterproofingof the whole building (main building, right and leftwing) at the same time.
2.	Carpentry works package for each main building,right and left wing consist of repairs on wooden
beams, wooden floors, doors and windows, andstairs. The work package can be done in paralel or in

15

Photo 8. Decomposition on the wooden column

order with the main building, left and right wings ofthe museum.
3.	Mechanical electrical works and the site utility work.
Acknowledgement
I would thank to all of my senior colleagues who I
worked with and gave me an opportunity to be involvedin this project, they are Han Awal, Cor Paschier, Hubertus
Sadirin, Ria Febrianti, Nadia Rinandi, all surveyor in PDA,
Martinus, Kemaludin, David, Kristanti, Rian Timadar, Eko,
Suwedhi and BP3 Serang team.
References[1]	Centre for Architecture Documentation (PDA-Pusat
Dokumentasi Arsitektur): Documentation Report on
Historical Museum of Jakarta. Jakarta, 2011. www.
pda-id.org[2]	Centre for Architecture Documentation (PDA-Pusat
Dokumentasi Arsitektur): Conservation Document
and Repair Recommendation of Historical Museum of
Jakarta. Jakarta, 2011. www.pda-id.org

Indonesia (2)Graphic 1. Physical defects on the dome of the bell tower

Graphic 2. Physical defects on the dome of the bell tower

Graphic 3. Cracks and porosity on the base of the bell tower structure

16

Malaysia
Malaysia

Restoration of Ubosoth (Bothd) of Wat Chonprachumthat Chanaram, Kampung
Dalam, Tumpat, Kelantan, Malaysia
A Ghafar Bin Ahmad, Professor
School of Housing, Building and Planning, Universiti Sains Malaysia,
Introduction
Wat Chonprachumthat Chanaram or Wat Kampung
Dalam, as commonly known by the locals, is a Siamese
Buddhist wat (temple complex) located at Kampung
Dalam in the Tumpat district of Kelantan State. It issituated about 5 kilometers from the town of Tumpat andabout 12 kilometers north of Kota Bharu, the capital of
Kelantan State. Tumpat district is the northern most districtof Kelantan State which shares an international borderwith Thailand to the west. Sungai Golok (or Korok River)that divides Malaysia and Thailand lies west of Tumpat.
The proximity of Tumpat district to Thailand explains astrong Thai influence on the local cultures as reflected innumerous Thai Buddhist temples in this district.
Wat Chonprachumthat Chanaram is currently managed
by chief monk named Prakhru Kassem Thamaviphat.
According to Thamaviphat, two Buddhist temples
were built earlier by the local Siamese at the site ofa local school (Sungai Pinang Primary School). The
temples were then moved to a former scout camp site
at nearby Kampung Kok Keli. Later the local Siamese
migrated across the Kelantan River and established avillage settlement at Kampung Dalam. They built the
Wat Chonprachumthat Chanaram which is considered
as one of the oldest Siamese Buddhist temple
complexes in Kelantan (about 100 years old). The Wat
Chonprachumthat Chanaram compound comprises ofAn aerial view of the Wat Chonprachumthat Chanaram at Kampung
Dalam, Tumpat, Kelantan

many buildings including Ubosoth (Bothd), Sala KarnPrak Rian - Mae Tek (monk resident), a multipurpose
hall, a workshop, a resting space and a main gateway.
The Wat Chonprachumthat Chanaram also serves as a
cemetery for the local Siamese.
During September 2011 to March 2012, the Federal
Government of Malaysia, under the auspices of the
Department of National Heritage (Ministry of Information
Communications and Culture, Malaysia), allocatedan amount of RM 308,000 (USD 103,000) to restore
Ubosoth (Bothd) of Wat Chonprachumthat Chanaram.
The restoration works were completed successfully asscheduled due to the full commitment by the project
team members as well as involvement and support by themonk circle and local Siamese communities.
Architectural SignificanceUbosoth (Bothd) was built in 1918 by a chief monk
named Phrak Khru Ophad Phuthakhun. It is a singlestorey masonry brick building that has unique Siamesearchitectural elements of double layer roofing of clay
tiles (singgora) and dragon motif roof ornaments. Built
in symmetrical order, Ubosoth (Bothd) has a main hallwith 8 internal masonry columns, surrounded with
26 external columns and wide corridors. At the main
entrance is a chengal (hardwood) timber door with
Chinese architectural elements such as bronze door ringsand dovetail locking system. The original Ubosoth (Bothd)
ceiling covering the main hall was made of zinc sheets
decorated with religious Buddhist paintings. A large-sized
sitting Buddha statue is located inside Ubosoth (Bothd).
The Sala Karn Prak Rian - Mae Tek building is locatedat the center of the Wat Chonprachumthat Chanaram
compound. This timber building portrays unique
Siamese architectural design which is reminiscence of
old Thai palaces. The building features intricate wood
carving patterns as commonly found in many temples
in Thailand. No nails were used in the constructionof this building; instead the builders used a special
technique of wood joint. Another unique feature of the
Wat Chonprachumthat Chanaram is its main gateway.
There are three towers on top of the gateway with three
entrance doors.

The Wat Chonprachumthat Chanaram includes (from left) multipurpose hall, monk resident and main gateway17Restoration Works
The restoration works of Ubosoth (Bothd) were carriedout over a period of six months from September 2011 toMarch 2012. The major works involved are as follows:i. Roofing
The existing clay tiles roofing (singgora) were leaking
due to cracked roof tiles and defective roof joints. Before
the roof restoration work began, temporary zinc sheet
roofing was built as a shelter to protect the building fromheavy rainfall. After the temporary roofing was built,
broken clay tiles and termite-infested chengal timber
battens were dismantled carefully. The clay roof tiles andtimber batten were in such poor condition and cannot besalvaged. New clay glazed roof tiles were used to replace
the existing clay tiles. New chengal timber battens wereobtained from local sources. These new replacements
are of similar profile and material to the original ones.
Before fixing the new roof tiles and timber batten, pest
control specialists were engaged to conduct anti-termite
treatment using effective chemical spray and injection at
the building perimeter.

Site discussion with the monks and local Siamese communities before
the restoration of Ubosoth (Bothd)

The existing 8 concrete dragon motifs at the roof edges
were in poor condition due to continuous weathering.
Skilled craftsmen lowered down one of the existingdragon motifs as reference to make a new molding basedon the existing profile. The craftsmen produced 8 new
dragon motifs of similar profile to the original dragon
motifs and installed them onto the roof edges.

Malaysia

Building Defects
Before the restoration of Ubosoth (Bothd) began, abuilding conservator was appointed to document thebuilding conditions and facades through the method ofHistorical Architectural Building Survey (HABS). Common
building defects diagnosed on Ubosoth (Bothd) included
salt contamination, termite infestation, rising damp, roof
leakage, eroded dragon motif on roof, and rusted zinc
sheet ceiling. Building conditions were documented
systematically using HABS 1, HABS 2 and HABS 3(before, during and after restoration) to ensure minimum
disturbance to the building authenticity and integrity.

ii. Wall
Ubosoth (Bothd) was built in masonry brick with load
bearing walls and columns. The wall surfaces were tested
using a moisture meter to gauge the level of moisture
content or dampness in the walls. Some parts of the lime
plaster walls had high moisture contents due to natural
factors such as building proximity to the river bank andrising damp. The average moisture level in the walls at
1.2 m to 2.0 m from ground level was ≥75%, while theaverage reading for walls of 2.0 m height to the roof level
was much lower at ≤30%. The moisture meter was also
used to mark the level of rising dampness in the walls.
Ubosoth (Bothd) had defective plastering at the curved
surface of the external corridors. The workers carefully
hacked off the weak plaster to expose the bricks. Thisis important to ascertain the existing bricks are in goodcondition and usable. Three plastering mockups weredone at site based on the reference ratio of 3: 6: 2: 1
(Coarse Sand : Fine Sand : Lime : Adhesive Material/
Pozzolan). These mockups were left for a month todetermine the strength of the plastering. Finally, themockup with no cracks (ratio of 3: 6: 2: 1) was chosen
for re-plastering of the wall. The curved surface profileof the wall was recorded using a piece of plywood. The
workers carefully molded the new plaster according to
the curved wall surface. Pictorial records were taken
before, during and after the process to document theprocedure.

Temporary zinc-sheet roofing was built as a shelter to protect Ubosoth(Bothd) from heavy rainfall

Dampness, broken plaster and termite infestation are some of the common building defects found at Ubosoth (Bothd)

18

Malaysiaiii. Floor
The existing internal floor of Ubosoth (Bothd) and theexternal corridor were made of cement render. During
restoration, ceramics floor tiles were used as the newfloor material, similar to that of the floor tiles at theTemple of Emerald Buddha in Bangkok, Thailand.
iv. Ceiling
The existing ceiling of Ubosoth (Bothd) was made of zinc
sheets with religious Buddhist paintings. The ceiling was
rusty and fragile due to roof leakage, while some ceiling
panels were missing. Craftsmen from Thailand were
engaged to produce the new ceiling sheets with religious
Buddhist paintings.
v. Door and Window
Based on in-situ timber species verification by the
Malaysian Timber Industry Board (MTIB), the existing
door and windows of Ubosoth (Bothd) are of chengal

hardwood (Natural Group Strength No.1). All existing
door and windows were still in good condition so no
repairing works was necessary. During restoration, the oldpaint on the door and windows were removed manuallyusing a scrapper. The entire building was repainted inwhite on both external and internal walls based on thefindings of paint analyses.
Conclusions
The restoration of Ubosoth (Bothd), Wat Chonprachumthat
Chanaram showcased another successful conservation
work coordinated by the Department of National Heritage,
Malaysia. The project team members including building
conservator and contractor had collaborated effectively
to ensure a timely project completion. During the
project duration, the monk circle and the local Siamese
communities had participated actively in site meetingsand discussions, and voiced their concerns and interests
as the project progressed. The local Siamese communities

A roof mockup using new clay glazed tiles was set up at site fortechnical references

The floor plan of Ubosoth (Bothd) showing a main hall surrounded withexternal corridors and columns

The existing rusted zinc sheet ceiling of Ubosoth (Bothd) was replacedwith new zinc sheets of religious Buddhist paintings

New dragon motif at the roof edge was produced using a mold of similar profile

19

restoration of Ubosoth (Bothd), Wat Chonprachumthat
Chanaram for future generations.

Malaysia

have expressed their gratitude and appreciation to the
Minister of Information Communications and Culture,
Malaysia and the Department of National Heritage for theExterior views of Ubosoth (Bothd) after restoration

Interior views of Ubosoth (Bothd) after restoration

External walls and corridor of Ubosoth (Bothd) before and after restoration

The roof structures and elements of Ubosoth (Bothd) before and after restoration

20

Maldives
Maldives

Excavation of Bathing Tank at Ha. Utheemu
Aishath Moosa Fikree, Curator
National Museum, Department of Heritage, Ministry of Tourism, Arts and Culture
Utheemu is an island of the Northern most Atoll(Thiladhunmathi Uthuru Buri), of Maldives. It is popular
for many significant historical events, especially thatof the great National hero Muhammed Thakurufaanu
who freed Maldives from the Portuguese. As such many
historically significant sites are found on the island. In
this island, there is a bathing tank (used to clean up
before praying in the nearby Kandhuvalu Mosque),now completely buried by the passage of time. Eldersof the island had seen it above ground in earlier times.
It was the islanders request to excavate the tank for lastyear’s National Day, Rabeeul Awwal (4 February 2011),
as it is observed to celebrate the victory of Muhammad
Thakurufaanu over the Portuguese in the year 1573 AD.
It was in March 2012 that a team from Maldives National
Defense Force was able to go there to dig the tank, butthey stopped after few days of work. The tank was notcompletely excavated and a team from Department of
Heritage went to the island to continue the excavation in
April 2012.
The team from Department of Heritage excavated the tankuntil it reached the bottom of the tank. The work was
carried out with the help of the staff at Boduthakurufaanu
Memorial Centre (a unit of the Department of Heritage)
and a few youngsters in the island. At first, a sketch
drawing of the tank was made, and dimensions of the

21

tank were taken. After which, water from the tank was
pumped out. After which 4-5 people worked inside thetank to take out the sand. Trowels and spades were used
to remove the sand and they were carried out of thetank using sacks and wheelbarrows. This sand was thensieved by using 5 mm sieve and few pot shreds and two
ceramic remains were discovered. A machine was used tospray water on the limestone blocks around the tank toremove the growth of moss. With the aim of investigating
how the tank was constructed and designed, the tank
was dug until its bottom was reached. Upon excavation
to the bottom layer timber blocks were found all aroundthe tank. A sample was taken from this to confirm thematerial (timber of coconut palm). The excavation took
five days and a conservation report was written. The tankis rectangular with steps made using limestone blocks
running down into the tank. Timber blocks were used at
the bottom in the first three rows. They were locked fromeach corner. In some layers, limestone blocks were used
on top of them. The steps are made above the limestonelayers. Steps are made by using rectangular limestone
blocks.
The tank is in danger and many of the limestone blocks
have cracks and are about to fall out of the tank.
Therefore conservation work is urgently needed to thissite.

Before excavation

After excavation

During excavation : pumping out water

Timber blocks around the tank

Mongolia
Rinchinkhorol Munkhtulga, Researcher
Institute of Archaeology, Mongolian Academy of Sciences
The territory of Mongolia was a heartland of Inner Asian
nomadic empires during the period from the 3th century
BC to the 13th century AD. In the mid 6th century, theancient Turks founded a great nomadic empire in theEurasian Steppe. But in a short time the Turkic Empire
was divided into two powerful wings and the east one
dominated in a vast territory until first half of 8th century
AD which spreading out from the Altai mountains to
Khingan mountains and from the lake Baikal to the Great
Wall of China. At the same time the ancient Turks played
an important role in political, social and cultural livesof the Eurasian societies. Also they strongly influenced
ethnogenesis, culture and tradition of later Inner Asian
Turkic- and especially Mongol-speaking peoples.
Ancient Turkic memorial complex is an importantmonument for the study of the Inner Asian nomadic
culture between 6th and 8th centuries AD. Monuments ofthis kind often consist of stone enclosures, stone statues
and balbals and they spread over almost the wholeterritory of Mongolia. Zavkhan county situated in thenorth-western part of the territory of Mongolia includes
some of the richest Ancient Turkic monumental sites.
There is no enough systematic research on most of theAncient Turkic monuments in the region.
In 1983, D. Tseveendorj, an archaeologist of the Mongolian
Academy of Sciences discovered six complexes with stone
statues from Bayankhairkhan soum of Zavkhan county. He
photographed the stone statues and made the first brief
description of the complexes (Tseveendorj 1983). In 1996,
D. Bayar, an archaeologist of the Mongolian Academy of
Sciences wrote a precise description, made drawings andtook photographs of the complexes (Bayar 1996). Between
the 4th and 11th of September 2011, the author undertooka survey to search the memorial complex with stone
statues and examined the early-found stone statues in the
territory of Bayankhairkhan soum.
We photographed the early-found stone statues and tookrubbing from one of them. We found one complex witha stone statue near the place named Dood Ulaan Bulag
by information of a local person. Also by field-walking
survey, we found five enclosures with three statues from
Taadagiin Uvur site. All of the newly-found four statues
and their complexes were documented by description,
photography and drawing. The stone statues were very
suitable for rubbing because each statue was made fromstone has 4 almost plane surfaces.
1.The complex of Dood Ulaan Bulag
The complex was situated on the level ground surface, tothe north of a spring Dood Ulaan Bulag, about 30 km to
the west from the center of Bayankhairkhan soum. Aroundthe complex was a ground prominence like a low dike.
There was a rectangular stone enclosure at the western

Mongolia

Some Newly Found Ancient Turkic Complexes with Stone Statue from NorthWestern Mongolia

part of the complex. A stone statue and a row of balbals
are located to the east of the enclosure (Fig. 1 and 2).
Enclosure
The enclosure of the monument consisted of three verticalstone slabs. All of the slabs sloped to the outside. There
was no slab of the west side.
The measurement of the slabs:
LengthThickness
Slab
(cm)
(cm)
North
145
4-9
East
163
7.5-14
West
136
4-8

Height above theground surface (cm)
26
34
25

There were few stones inside the enclosure (Fig. 3).
Stone statue
According to the early Inner Asian nomadic rite, thenomads erected a stone statue at the east side of theenclosure as an imitation of a deceased person. A little
statue was located 37 cm to the east from the enclosure. It
sloped to the east by its top. The statue was 27.5 cm highabove the ground surface and 57 cm high vertically fromthe ground surface to the sloping top. It was 30 cm widein the bottom but 27 cm in the centre and 19.5 cm thick.
A human figure was very approximately represented as
an engraved pictorial representation on the left surfaceof the stone. A head, arms, and cup (or legs?) expressedby full and half circles and eyes were depicted with two
oval shapes. The nose was missing (invisible). A slanting
line imitated a mouth. It is possible that a vertical line
drawn down to a mouth, represented a beard. There wasa line under the head which was longer than the line
representing mouth. It was similar to the line of mouth inshape and it seemed to be a collar of a dress. The left andright hands were depicted with two connected half circles
on the chest. It is possible that a direct line from the leftshoulder to the edge of the surface represented a lapel ofdress or some tools in the left hand (Fig. 4).
Balbals
Balbals are mysterious symbolic stones that were erected
in a row from the east side of enclosure or a stone statue
to the sun-rising direction. The complex of Dood Ulaan
Bulag had a row of six balbals directing to the east. The
first balbal was located 92 cm to the east from the statue.
The measurement of distances between the balbals:
Balbals
Distance (cm)
1-2
624
2-3
330
3-4
542
4-5
444
5-6
1,681

22

Mongolia

The balbals were generally little. For example, the 6th
greyish pink coloured balbal was 19 cm wide, 13 cm thickand 33 cm high above the ground surface (Fig. 5).
2. The complex of Taadagiin Uvur
The complex was situated in front of the mountain Taadag,
18 km to the west from the center of Bayankhairkhan
soum. There were five rectangular stone enclosures joined
in a sloping line directed to the north. Three of them had
the stone statue. A local person informed us that several
years ago there were another two statues. It means thatoriginally there should have been five statues or eachenclosure had a statue (Fig. 6).
Enclosures
The enclosures of the complex of Taadagiin Uvur wereof the same construction. Each enclosure consists of arectangular fence enclosing an area filled by stones to makeup flat platform. Each side of the fence constructed of 2
or 3 vertical stone slabs. The eastern slab of the southernside of the enclosure 1 is 73 cm long, 4.5-8 cm thick and24 cm high above the ground surface. Some fence slabs of
the complex are missing. The enclosures numbered by asequence from the south to the north (Fig. 7).
Stone statues
The upper part of the statue of the enclosure 1 wasdamaged because it was made of very thin stone. It had
only a depiction of hands with fingers. The wrinkles (?) of
the sleeves were visible (Fig. 8 and 9).
There was depicted a bearded man figure with astylistic headdress on the statue of the enclosure 2. He
was depicted having narrow eyes, a long nose, long
moustaches on his wide face, taking a cup in his righthand and holding a dagger by a handle in the left hand.
The dagger was connected with two straps to a belt. A
little bag and a whetstone or a file hanged down from abelt on the right side (Fig. 10 and 11). There were depicted
a figure of a young man (maybe a woman because there
was no belt) who had no beard and holding a cup in his
right hand on the statue of the enclosure 3. His/her wide
face had narrow eyes close to each other, a very long nose
and a little mouth. The body was thinner than head (Fig.
12 and 13).

Fig. 1: The complex of Dood Ulaan Bulag. A view from the east.

23

The measurement of the stone statues:
Enclosure
Height above theWidth (cm)No.
ground surface (cm)
1
49
43
2
31
87
4
29
62
Balbals
Enclosure No.
Number of the balbals
1
2 or 3
2
10-11
3
1 (?)
4
1-2
5
11
Total
24-28
The first balbal of the enclosure 2 was brownish yellow
and its thick sides were directed towards the north-south.
It was 27 cm wide, 18 cm thick and 39 cm high above
the ground surface. The distance between the first balbal
and the second one was 405 cm. The last balbal of theenclosure 5 was located to the north from the balbal row.
The distance between the enclosure 5 and its last balbal
was about 60 m (Fig. 14).
3. Conclusion
The Ancient Turkic memorial complexes with stone statuesof north-western Mongolia have not been documented
archaeologically well even today and no one can give theexact number of ancient monuments of this region. In thisreport I attempted to present only some data of newlyfound monuments. We are convinced that the Ancient
Turkic memorial complexes with stone statue of Mongolia
will increase in number by future survey. The complexes
have been preserved well through the historical time. But
now, most of them are rapidly damaging. For example,
some stone slabs of the stone fence of the complex of
Taadagiin Uvur were removed for a modern sacrificial
mound named ovoo near the site. And also, as mentioned
above, 2 of the 5 statues of the complex were looted
several years ago.
References
Tseveendorj 1983 - Цэвээндорж Д. 1983 онд Увс, Хөвсгөл,Завхан, Булган аймагт ажилласан хүрэл, төмөр зэвсгийн
дурсгал судлах ангийн тайлан. Улаанбаатар, 1983
Bayar 1996 - Баяр Д. ШУА-ийн Түүхийн Хүрээлэнгээс
Завхан аймагт ажиллуулсан шинжилгээний ангийн тайлан.
Улаанбаатар, 1996

Fig. 2: The plan of the complex of Dood Ulaan Bulag.
1-stone slab; 2-stone statue; 3-balbal

Mongolia

Fig. 3: The enclosure of the complex of Dood
Ulaan Bulag. A view from the south.

Fig. 4: The stone statue of the complex of Dood Fig. 5: A balbal of the complex of Dood Ulaan
Ulaan Bulag. A view from the east.
Bulag. A view from the east.

Fig. 6: The complex of Taadagiin Uvur. A view
from the east.

Fig. 7: An enclosure of the complex of Taadagiin Fig. 8: The stone statue of the enclosure 1. A
Uvur. A view from the north-east.
view from the east.

Fig. 9: The rubbing of the statue of theenclosure 1. A view from the east.

Fig. 10: The statue of the enclosure 2. A view
from the east.

Fig. 11: Taking a rubbing from the statue of theenclosure 2. A view from the east.

Fig. 12: The statue of the enclosure 4. A view
from the east.

Fig. 13: The rubbing of the statue of theenclosure 4. A view from the east.

Fig. 14: The balbal row of the enclosure 2. Aview from the west.

24

NepalNepal

The Heritage Conservation Training Program in the School
Suresh Suras Shrestha, Archaeological Officer
Department of Archaeology, Ministry of Culture, Tourism and Civil Aviation,
Background
When the Kathmandu Valley was inscribed on the World
Heritage List, it was a special moment for the country.
It helped to spread the news around the world about
this beautiful country. The Kathmandu Valley was stillvirgin and less disturbed from imported civilization andthe traditional society of the Valley looked very happy
and innocent from advanced technological progresses.
Kathmandu Valley World Heritage Property (KVWHP)
was nominated as a single site consisting seven separate
monument zones. It consists of three medieval Durbar
Square sites of the cities, two famous temple sites,
Pashupatinath and Changu Narayan and two stupa sites,
Boudhanath and Swayambhunath.
The place appeared perfect for nomination, not only forthe exceptional interest of heritage both relevant andwidespread, but also for being almost un-contaminated.
It was in coincidence with the nomination that the firstbuilding with a reinforced concrete frame started toappear. This was the medium that allowed dangerous
hybridization. The choice was well balanced, from thepoint of view of the quality of the objects, but risky, forthe extension of the total area involved and of each single
zone. Moreover, the sites were different in their character,managed by different bodies with different religious
requirements and involved with different ethnic realities.
Kathmandu Valley was inscribed on the list of World
Heritage, in fact, to be supposedly ideal conditions, but it
was possibly fated to disappear in time with the sudden
introduction of modern technology and of the process of"westernization" or “modernization”. The consequenceswere the same as in so many other developing countries:
the unbearable urbanization and the passage from rural
to urban economy generated a fast erosion of the built,
urban and environmental heritage. World Heritage
Committee had decided to inscribe the Kathmandu Valley
property on the list of World Heritage in Danger on its
27th session in 2003.
Department of Archaeology (DoA), the responsible
body of state party in the Government of Nepal, hasbeen working to conserve and preserve the authenticity
and integrity of KVWHP and done several activities
as recommended by UNESCO. After its effort andcooperation from other stakeholders, KVWHP was
removed from the list of World Heritage in Danger in July
2007. Among these activities, one of the most effective
programs was raising community awareness throughinteractions and DoA still continues this awarenessprogram through different activities: for example,
interaction of communities with different stakeholders,awareness programs through different media, the photo
exhibition in the protected monument zone, school
students and teachers training on heritage conservationand management program etc.
The Training
It is believed as a universal truth that students are
the most efficient agents for developing community

25

awareness and they are the future of the country as
well. So, the Department of Archaeology has decided to
conduct heritage training programs for school student
including teachers from this fiscal year 2068/69 (2011/12).
However, the program annually continues, training
programs were conducted only in two schools within
two separate monument zones of the Kathmandu Valley
World Heritage Property.
One of the schools within the protected monument zone
was chosen for the training and selected students from
grade 8, 9 and 10 as well as the teachers of social studies.
The Dolagiri Secondary School in Changunarayan andAdarsha Kanya Niketan Secondary School in Lalitpur werechosen for the entire program in this year. One hundredand seventy students and 19 teachers (80 students and
12 teachers from Dolagiri and 90 students and 7 teachers
from Adarsha Kanya) participated in the training
program. The training course was student-friendly;
however it was for a week and was a bit different subject
for them.
In the training course, introduction to heritage in general
and world heritage, importance of world heritage, tourism
and world heritage, conservation and managementof world heritage, integrated management plans,
the framework of Kathmandu Valley World Heritage
Property, national and international legislation on world
heritage conservation and management, the role of thecommunity on conservation and management of world
heritage, the role of school students and teachers onconservation and management of world heritage, the roleof the stakeholders and their responsibilities in Nepalesecontext, general introduction of disaster risks in cultural
heritage and field visits were included.
The students and teachers participated actively andwhole school family were very happy with this event.
The training was conducted in the beginning of theacademic year that was informative to the communityand school environment. Most of the resource persons
were from the Department of Archaeology, as they are
directly involved in different projects related to World
Heritage conservation and management either in thefield or in the policy level, and some of them were theprofessors from Tribhuvan University. They shared theirknowledge and experiences in heritage profession andthe students realized need of heritage conservation of

The students and teachers from Shree Dolagiri Secondary School withthe staff from Department of Archaeology

their surroundings.

Conclusion
The target group of the training was specially students
and teachers from the schools within the protectedmonument zone; they are also users as well as caretakersof heritage and interlinked with community/residents ofthe site as an integral part of the entire site. So, it wasthought that school community (students and teachers)
would be the best medium to develop awareness ofthe community or the residents and to enhance theirknowledge on the heritage site. The training program

Nepal

At the end, the photo exhibition program was also heldin the same protected monument zone as another tool
for the community awareness. In the exhibition, most of
the photographs were related to the housing construction
within the Protected Monument Zone, its bylaws andsome exemplary photographs of the building renovation,monument conservation, conservation and management
related photographs, which were also very interesting forthe community, school students and teachers and otherstakeholders. The exhibition attracted hundreds of people(either students and teachers or other stakeholders andtourists) not only from Nepal, but also from the different
parts of the world. To develop awareness on conservationand management of valuable monuments and heritage
sites to the community was the main objective of theexhibition.

was very much appreciated by the school as well as by
the community people. They need similar and/or moreadvanced trainings every year and more schools should
be involved as the feedback was given by the trainees.
So, it was the great achievement for the Department ofArchaeology regarding developing community awarenessprogram on heritage conservation and management. The
achievements can be pointed out as follows:
1.	I t w as a g ood e x a m ple f o r i n v o l v i n g sc hoolcommunity in developing community awareness on
heritage conservation and management conducted in
Kathmandu Valley World Heritage Property area andit would be a sample project for further program for
Department of Archaeology.
2.	It was one of the best platforms for using the trained
heritage professionals as resource persons from
Department of Archaeology that encouraged theprofessionals to be more responsible and enhance theirexpertise.
3.	The school family (students and teachers) realized thatthey are also a part of the heritage and they are the key
for making awareness to the community.
It was the first step, however the Department ofArchaeology already introduced different programsfor community awareness, but this program seemedvery useful and the result of the program showed its
importance in practice.

The students observing the photo exhibition

The students observing the photo exhibition

During the Training session in Shree Adarsha Kanya Niketan
Secondary School, Mangal Bazar, Lalitpur

A group of trainees (school students) of Shree Adarsha Kanya Niketan
Secondary School with the organizer group from DoA

During the training session, trainees (school students and teachers) from
Shree Adarsha Kanya Niketan Secondary School, Mangal Bazar, Lalitpur

The local (stakeholder/resident of WH Property) observing the Photo Exhibition

26

New Zealand
New Zealand

The Kaitiaki Monitoring Programme: Community Management of Coastal Cultural
Heritage Sites in Murihiku
Matthew Schmidt, Regional Archaeologist, Otago/Southland
The New Zealand Historic Places Trust
Introduction
The Murihiku/Southland Region lies on the southern endof the South Island of New Zealand (Figure 1). Althoughnorthern New Zealand is often regarded as where the first
regular contact between Europeans/Pakeha and Maoribegan after the arrival of Capt. James Cook in 1769, it was
actually in Murihiku that the earliest continual interaction
between these cultures occurred, this being between Maori
and Pakeha sealers and whalers. The coastline of theSouthland/Murihiku Region contains archaeological sites
dating from initial Maori occupation in ca. 1300 AD to theearly contacts between Maori and Pakeha in the late 18th
century through to substantial European colonisation in
the 19th century.
However, the Murihiku coastline has been experiencing
increased erosion over the last ten years with many
heritage sites being rapidly lost. Not only are the Runanga(local Maori councils) of Murihiku concerned about lossof their Maori heritage and those Pakeha sites which arealso part of their whakapapa (genealogy), other groups
who have links to this heritage or who are responsible formanaging this heritage on behalf of all New Zealanders arealso concerned with this loss. In 2003 five organisations
formed the Southland Coastal Heritage Inventory Project

Otago	
  Otago	  Murihiku/Southland	
  Murihiku/Southland	  Dunedin	
  Dunedin	
  (“SCHIP”). The aims of this project are to understand theloss of coastal heritage sites on the Murihiku coast andinvestigate, managed and protect a select number of thesesites according to heritage best practice. Out of this project
was developed the Kaitiaki Monitoring Programme where
volunteers from local communities have been trained tomonitor archaeological sites within in their own takiwa(area) of coastline. This report briefly describes SCHIP andthen explains how the Kaitiaki Monitoring Programme
has been developed, this programme being the first of its
kind in New Zealand.
The Southland Coastal Heritage Inventory Project (“SCHIP”)
The Southland Coastal Heritage Inventory Project (SCHIP)
was founded in 2003 by the Southland Regional Council(also known as Environment Southland), the Departmentof Conservation, Te Ao Marama Incorporated on behalfof Kaitiaki Runanga of Murihiku, the New Zealand
Historic Places Trust and the New Zealand Archaeological
Association. Each of the partners have a responsibility,
either as part of their statutory function or as part of theirorganisations objectives, to contribute to the investigation,
protection and management of New Zealand’s/Aotearoa’scultural heritage. The project was therefore established
out of a concern by the project partners about the loss of
Murihiku’s coastal cultural heritage sites through increased
coastal erosion. The aims of the project are to understandthe nature and extent of the coastal archaeological/heritage
record on the Murihiku/Southland coast and, using datafrom field visits to sites, makes decisions on the protection
and management of various sites. In 2011 the Southland
District Council also joined as partners of the SCHIP
project. The partners meet regularly to manage SCHIP andmake decisions on project fieldwork and site management.

Invercargill	
  Invercargill	
  Bluff	  Bluff	
  FigureMurihiku/Southland
Region of New
Zealand,being the Invercargill
regional city. (MapsourcedFigure1. The
1. TheMurihiku/Southland
RegionofInvercargill
New Zealand,
being
thefrom
FigureInfoMap
1. The Murihiku/Southland
Regionof New Zealand, Invercargill being the regional city. (Map sourced from266. Crown CopyrightReserved).
regionalcity.
(Map sourced
InfoMap
266. Crown
Copyright
Reserved). from InfoMap 266. Crown Copyright Reserved).

Figure 3. Locations of Maori and Pakeha heritage sites assessed,
including newly discovered sites, during the SCHIP 2004 (Stage I) and2006 (Stage II) fieldwork (Source: SCHIP 2008).

Figure 2. The area of coastline between Waiparau Head and Rowallan Burn surveyed for heritage sites by
SCHIP during
fieldworkin 2004I) and 2006
(Stage II).
This area of Headcoastlineandhas been
experiencing
Figure2. Theareaof (Stage
coastline
between
Waiparau
Rowallan
Figure 2. The area of coastline between Waiparau Head and Rowallan Burn surveyed for heritage sites by
increasing coastal erosion over the last 10 years which has led to significant heritage loss (Source: SCHIP 2008).
Burn
for (Stage
heritage
by SCHIP
duringfieldwork
2004
SCHIP
duringsurveyed
fieldwork in 2004
I) and sites
2006 (Stage
II). This areaof coastline
has been inexperiencing
increasing
coastalI)
erosionthe last 10
years which
led to significant
heritageloss (Source:
SCHIP2008).
(Stageandover
2006(StageII).hasThisarea ofcoastline
has
beenexperiencing increasing coastal erosion over the last 10 years which
has led to significant heritage loss (Source: SCHIP 2008).

Page 5 of 31

27

Page 5 of 31

Figure 4. Results of the SCHIP 2004 and 2006 coastal fieldwork torecord archaeological/ heritage sites on the Murihiku coastline. Of the
275 previously recorded sites, only 120 could be relocated, 56% ofpreviously recorded sites were not found.

Pre-Pakeha Maori in Murihiku typically occupied thecoastal environment with its sand dunes and beachterraces, and so it is in this sandy matrix that many of theoccupation sites are found. The reason that the majorityof Maori archaeological sites are coastal in Murihiku isbecause subsistence greatly depended on hunting andgathering from coastal resources, such as fish, shellfish,sea birds and seals, as the environment was too cold for
horticulture. Later Pakeha settlers settled on the coastand inland, but the coast was crucial for the exploitationof resources such as seals, whales, timber and flax, forexample. The soft matrix in which the coastal Maori and
Pakeha archaeological sites lie is particularly sensitive
to sea erosion and any increase in sea height and wave
action can bring about the rapid loss. They are also
sensitive to various types of land use such as farming.

on sites through animal activity. In addition, it was also
found sites from all periods of Maori and Pakeha history
are being lost, with the significant early sites containing
evidence of the first settlers on coastal Murihiku being thefirst to disappear due to their original close proximity to
the sea.

New Zealand

In 2004 and 2006 two stages of fieldwork were undertaken
to visit all known archaeological/heritage sites along
the eastern and southern Murihiku coastline and record
any new sites discovered during the site visits (Figure2). This stretch of coastline was chosen as it was easily
accessible and contains the majority of coastal heritage
sites. Ultimately, a report on this fieldwork was producedin April 2008 which clearly illustrated the loss of cultural
heritage sites on the Murihiku coastline. Of the previously
recorded 275 sites searched for during the fieldwork,
only 44% (120 sites) were able to be found (Figures 3& 4). However, the fieldwork also recorded 109 newarchaeological sites with almost a third of these sites beingof Pakeha/European origin and the remainder being ofMaori origin.

The 2008 fieldwork report made a number ofrecommendations on how the known archaeologicalsites could be managed. These recommendations ranged
from the further investigation of sites, such as by coring
and test pitting to determine the surviving extent of sites,
radiocarbon dating a variety of sites to understand the ageof sites being lost, salvage excavations, and protection ofsites through various New Zealand legislation eg. Historic
Places Act (1993) Heritage Covenants. Since 2008, the
SCHIP partners have funded and achieved many of therecommendations greatly expanding on our knowledge
about the Murihiku coastal heritage resource, retrieving
culturally significant data from a number of sites andrecovering important tangible evidence from sites which
would have been lost to the sea (Figures 5 to 12). In 2012,
the SCHIP partners produced an Action Plan & Strategic
Overview document to guide the project over the next five
years.
One of the most important recommendations from the2008 SCHIP fieldwork report and 2012 Action Plan &Strategic Overview document was that ongoing monitoringof archaeological sites on the Southland/Murihiku coast
was required to be able to understand what is happening
to this heritage in the long term. This monitoring could beundertaken by local people who could be equipped and

The 2008 fieldwork report showed that erosion fromthe ocean was the main threat causing the loss ofarchaeological sites with the combination of wind andocean causing the most rapid loss. The next major threat
to sites was from live stock (particularly cattle) impactingSee	
  close	  view	
  below	
  Figure 5. The Tokonui 15th/16th century archaeological site (F47/53). Verylittle remains of this Maori archaeological site which has now almost been
totally lost through coastal erosion. The midden is thick with marine shell,fish bone, hangi stones and also contains whale and moa bone. Adzes (toki)
FigureThe Tokonuiarchaeologicalsite (F47/53).
Very little
remainsaofsalvage
this Maoriwere 5.also
found 15th/16th
as wellcentury
as koiwi.
The SCHIP
partners
fundedarchaeological site which has now almost been totally lost through coastal erosion. The midden is thick withexcavation of this site in 2011 to recover as much data as possible about themarine shell, fish bone, hangi stones and also contains whale and moa bone. Adzes (toki) were also found as
past
andtaonga(Maoriartefacts)
being
lostastomuch
thedataseaas
well
as occupation
koiwi. The SCHIP
partners
fundeda salvage
excavation whichof this sitewere
in 2011
to recoverpossibleabout
the past occupation
taongaArchaeologist(Maori artefacts) which
wereOskam-Schmidt
being lost to the sea (Source:
SCHIP(Source:
SCHIP
partnersand
2011.
Jakob
pictured).
partners 2011. Archaeologist Jakob Oskam-Schmidt pictured).

Figure 6. Context view (top) and close view (bottom) of what remainedof the Tokonui archaeological site in 2011. The effects of coastal
erosion can be clearly seen as only a ca. 3m width of the site remains.
The site would have originally extended for many meters to the right ofthe photographs.

28

New Zealandtrained by heritage professionals to monitor archaeologicalsites.
As the majority of sites were of Maori origin, there wastherefore the opportunity for SCHIP to involve local
Maori to participate in the ongoing monitoring of coastalarchaeological sites within their own takiwa. As many local
Maori also had past links with the Pakeha sites they could
also monitor Pakeha sites alongside Pakeha monitors. The
monitoring programme would therefore be a combinationof both Maori and Pakeha volunteers working together tounderstand the changes to their heritage in their own area
and act as kaitiaki (“guardians”) of these sites.
The Kaitiaki (“Guardian”) Monitoring Programme
In 2012, Dean Whaanga from Te Ao Marama Incorporated
on behalf of Kaitiaki Runanga of Murihiku and the author
wrote and published the Kaitiaki Monitor Training
Guide: Murihiku - A training guide for the monitoringof archaeological sites and the Kaitiaki Monitor Field
Book: Murihiku – a field book for the monitoring ofarchaeological sites on behalf of the SCHIP partners. The
training guide and field book were developed particularly
for the Murihiku region and with Murihiku Runanga
cultural protocols in mind. The training guide requiresthat the Kaitiaki Monitor training be undertaken at a local
Marae (Maori meeting/discussion place) near where thesites to be monitored are located so various sites can bevisited as part of the training process.
The training guide is divided into four sections, thesebeing:• Section 1: Takiwā, Method and Archaeology.
• Section 2: Kaitiaki Monitor Field Equipment andRecording Archaeological Sites.
• Section 3: Tikanga and Karakia.
• Section 4: Land Access, the Law Protecting Our Heritage
and Koiwi.
The first section of the guide explains the areas (“takiwa”)
of coastline which are to be monitored (Figure 13), themethod of how the monitoring process is to be undertaken(Figure 14) and how to recognise archaeological sites(Figures 15 to 24). The second section describes the fieldequipment provided to the Kaitiaki Monitors by the SCHIP
partners (such as a field backpack, GPS digital camera, firstaid kit, measuring scale, stationary and Kaitiaki Monitor
Field Book) and how to record the archaeological sites
using a camera and the field book. Section 3 describes
the Tikanga (“custom” or “lore”) of Murihiku. Three
Karakia (Maori prayers) are also provided, one to open
archaeological work, one to close archaeological work,and one to be used during the recovery of koiwi (burials).
In Section 4 the law on accessing land, the protection ofarchaeological sites and artefacts is explained as well as
guidance on what to do when a fossicker, for example,
is encountered and what to do when taonga or koiwi arefound on the coastline.

Figure 7. A small hangi (oven) being excavated at Tokonui (Source:
SCHIP partners 2011).

Figure 9. Oyster shell pendant found at Tokonui (F47/53).

Figure 8. Two argillite toki (adzes) as found (top) and photographed in
the laboratory recovered from the Tokonui site (F47/53).

29

Figure 10. Fragments of bone from Tokonui, some worked: moa at top
and centre right, whale at centre left and bottom.

A key emphasis of the training guide is that the monitoringof cultural heritage sites in each monitors’ takiwa isvoluntary, should be enjoyable and how often sites are
visited is at the discretion of the kaitiaki monitor. The
guide is a visual document so children can also be partof the monitoring process and hence this knowledge ofheritage can be passed on through the generations.
On the 20th and 21 of July 2012, the Kaitiaki Monitoring
Programme was launched at Te Rau Aroha Marae in
Bluff (Figure 1). This event saw ten monitors trained in
the recognition and recording of heritage sites and in therecovery of taonga (artefacts) at risk of loss to the ocean
or from theft (Figure 40). The training included site visits
to local archaeological sites and instruction on use of the
field equipment. The successful launch attracted local andnational media coverage with Runanga from other parts of
New Zealand requesting copies of the training guide soonafter the launch.
Conclusions
The ongoing loss of cultural heritage sites along theSouthland/Murihiku coastline through coastal erosion anddamage to sites by particular land uses presents challenges
to those concerned about the loss of the tangible evidenceof New Zealand’s culture. However, the Southland Coastal
Heritage Inventory Project (SCHIP) and the Kaitiaki
Monitoring Programme have provided the opportunity fora pro-active community based approach to the protection,
management and recording of archaeological sites andthe recovery of artefacts (taonga) that would otherwise
be lost to the sea. This community monitoring initiativeis the first of its kind in New Zealand. Over the next five
years the Kaitiaki Monitoring Programme will provide
crucial information on heritage loss along coastal Murihiku
which would otherwise not have been able to be achieved
previously.

New Zealand

The guide also provides Appendices showing the locationsof all known sites on the Murihiku coastline, examplesof Maori taonga which have been found during SCHIP
fieldwork and which may be encountered by the monitors(Figures 25 to 37), how to identify toki or adzes, one of
the more common artefacts found at Maori sites (Figure38), and how to recognise bones from both Maori and
Pakeha sites (Figure 39). It can be seen from the examplesof taonga shown in figures 20 and 25 to 37 that a verylarge amount of Maori and Pakeha material culture is
being lost every year on the Murihiku coastline and so too
is part of the story of Maori and Pakeha settlement.

Acknowledgements
This report would not have been possible without the
support of the Kaitiaki Runanga of Murihiku and theKaitiaki Monitoring Programme volunteers who haveprovided access to their valuable cultural heritage. Tēnākoutou. Essential to this report has also been the SCHIP
partners. I would like to thank Hazel Heal and Vivienne
Timlin of the New Zealand Historic Places Trust for their
help in the preparation of the backpacks for the training
programme.
References
Davidson, J. 1984. The Prehistory of New Zealand. Auckland: Longman Paul.
Duff, R. 1977. The Moa Hunter Period of Maori Culture. Canterbury Museum Bulletin
No. 1, E.C. Keating, Government Printer, Wellington, New Zealand.
Southland Coastal Heritage Inventory Project Partners 2008. Southland Coastal
Heritage Inventory Project Waiparau Head to Rowallan Burn. Field coastal survey’s
2004/2006 results report.
Southland Coastal Heritage Inventory Project Partners 2012. Southland Coastal
Heritage Inventory Project Action Plan and Strategic Overview.

Figure 11. Dean Whaanga of Te AoMarama Incorporated on behalf of Kaitiaki
Runanga of Murihiku recovering a large
Maori toki (adze) made from Southlandargillite found lying on the beach at
Tokonui. This adze may have originatedfrom a site no longer present and lost
through coastal erosion.

Figure 12. Close view of the toki
in Figure 11.

Figure 13. Example of a Takiwa (area) where one of the Kaitiaki
Monitors will monitor archaeological sites. A red dot = site not found,blue dot = site found, green dot = new site.

Figure 14. Flow diagram showing the method used for the Kaitiaki Monitoring
Programme. Note that the Kaitiaki Monitor can undertake fieldwork at any timethey wish but must report at least every six months to the Kaitiaki Monitor Coordinator.

30

New ZealandFigure 15. Dummy’s Beach/Kahukura eroding midden(G47/128) (Photo: SCHIP).

Figure 18. Various midden sites from coastal Southland/Murihiku.
Note the top photograph has Pakeha (19th century fence posts)
and Maori archaeological evidence (midden) (Photos: SCHIP).

Figure 16. Midden site exposed high up on a cliff above
a beach (Photo: Matthew Schmidt).

Figure 17. Colyer’s Island adze flaking sites (Photo:
SCHIP).

31

Figure 19. Hangi stones and midden from the remains of an oven
exposed by a deflated dune (Photo: SCHIP).

New ZealandFigure 20. Pakeha/European artefacts from a 19th century occupationsite (Photo: SCHIP).

Figure 24. Jetty piles (Photo: SCHIP).
Archaic(transition)

Classic

Figure 21. Wooden boat wreck from a European/Pakeha vessel (Photo: SCHIP).

Examples of Maori artefacts from Archaic (Early ca. 1300-1500AD) and Classic (Late ca. 1500AD-lateFigureFigure25.25.Examplesof Maori artefacts from Archaic (Early ca. 1300-1500AD)
1800s) Period sites which can be found along the Southland/Murihiku coastline (Figure from Davidson 1984).
and Classic (Late ca. 1500AD-late 1800s) Period sites which can be foundalong the Southland/Murihiku coastline (Figure from Davidson 1984).

Page 22 of 31

Figure 26. Distal end of an argillite chisel/toki. Duff Type 6A. (Photo:
Matthew Schmidt).

Figure 22. Remains of a Maori Waka (canoe) being recovered by local
Runanga/Runaka and the Southland Museum (Photos: Southland
Museum). The lashing holes used to join the timbers during building of
the waka can be seen in the bottom photograph.

Figure 23. A 19th century Pakeha/European stone tramway formation on abeach flat used for transporting timber along the coast (Photo: SCHIP).

Figure 27. Lithic material: a - schist stone file, b – polished stone
fragment, c – adze fragment, d – chert flake, e – adze fragment
reworked, f – chert flake tool, g – chert flake (Photo: SCHIP).

32

New ZealandFigure 28. Lithic material: a-b,e - quartzite?, c- porcellanite, d unknown, f - clear quartz, g - silcrete, h- polished adze fragment –nephrite/pounamu? (Photo: SCHIP).

Figure 29. Hammer stone used for making toki/adzes (Photo: (Photo:
Southern Pacific Archaeological Research).
Figure 32. Moa bone barracuda lure hook point and one piece moa
bone fish hook (Photo: SCHIP).

Selection of moa bone and dog bone fish-hooks. Such fish hooks can be found exposed on beaches
oding site (Photo: SCHIP).
Figure 30. Selection of moa bone and dog bone fish-hooks. Such fish hooks
can be found exposed on beaches from an eroding site (Photo: SCHIP).

Figure 33. An example of a small piece of fragmentary bone (possibly
an awl) (Photo: SCHIP).

Figure 31. Moa egg shell (Photo: SCHIP).

Figure 34. Ivory chevron amulet (Photo: SCHIP).

Figure 31. Moa egg shell (Photo: SCHIP).

33

Page 25 of 31

New ZealandFigure 35. Worked whale bone (Photo: SCHIP).

Figure 38. Duff (1977) Adze types 1A (top, centre) and 2A (bottom).
These are the most common adze types in museum collections in
Murihiku/Southland and so are probably the most common type foundon coastal sites (see Jennings 2009:67).

Figure 36. Bone paua whakatiriwhana or lever (Photo: Southern PacificArchaeological Research).

Figure 37. Shell pendant (Photo: Southern Pacific ArchaeologicalResearch).

Figure 39. Skeleton of a Moa. This flightless giant was unique to New
Zealand and quickly became extinct sometime between 1300 AD and1500 AD (Figure from Worthy and Holdaway 2002). Bones of moa
can be found in early Maori sites on coastal Murihiku.

Figure 40. The Kaitiaki Monitors during a site visit on 21 July 2012.

34

Pakistan
Pakistan

Conservation of Lahore Fort, A World Heritage Monument
Muhammad Aasim Dogar, Field Officer
Department of Archaeology, Government of Punjab
Historical Background
Lahore Fort was built as early as the city itself and the firstauthentic reference to Lahore Fort was made by Al-Biruni
in the 1021 A.D. The fort was ruined by the Mongols in
1241 A.D., but it was re-built by Sultan Balban in 1267 A.D.
It was again destroyed and plundered by Amir Timur’s
Army in 1398 A.D. and again built by Sultan Mubark Shahin 1421 A.D. Mughal Emperor Jalaludin-Akbar demolishedthe earlier mud structures and built it in burnt brickmasonry some time before 1566 A.D. and the same isthus referred to by Abul Fazal in Ain-e-Akbari:“Lahore is a large city in Bari Doab. In size andpopulation it has few rivals in old books it is called
Loawar. It lies in longitude 109o 22’, and latitude 31o50’. In this everlasting reign the Fort and palace havebeen built of burnt bricks. As it was for some time the seatof Government, lofty edifices were erected and delightfulgardens added to its beauty”.
Architecture
The present configuration of Lahore Fort can justifiably be
attributed to the master of fortification planning, Jalal-uddin Muhammad Akbar. From its planning and its extensive
use as a royal residence, it is clear that the site wasenvisaged as a fortified palace rather than a defensive fort.
All the three Mughal emperors, Akbar, Jahangir and Shah
Jahan, concentrated on building exquisite palace structures
after the first fortification walls had been constructed
to secure the perimeter of the citadel. Later on Akbar’s
successors, Jahangir and Shah Jahan and Aurangzeb
added several precious architectural buildings to the fort.
The Lahore Fort contains 21 different monuments ofarchitectural and historical significance. Mainly the Fort canbe described by six Quadrangles; the brief description is as
under.

1. Diwan-e-Aam Quadrangle
The configuration of the area dates to Akbar’s residence
at Lahore for fourteen years, when the city became thecapital of the Mughal Empire (1584-1598). The existinglayout of trees and vegetation was carried out during the
British and post-Independence periods. The quadrangle
itself is maintained as grassy lawns with flowers andshrubbery. Originally it was bordered by a large numberof cells; however, foundations alone of those dalans are
now extant.

the southwest. It is bordered by cloisters on the west,
Dalan-e-Sang-e-Surkh on the east with Mai Jindan Haveli
beyond, and southern aspect of the so-called Khwabgahe-Shah Jahani on the north. Presently it houses an illplaced cafeteria built around an enormous historic tree.
3. Jahangir’s Quadrangle
Jahangir’s Quadrangle is among the first quadrangles laidout during Akbar’s stay in Lahore and as such carries
enormous significance. However, during the Sikh andparticularly British periods it underwent large scaleinterventions. The damage was caused not only due tothe construction of many structures within the quadrangle
and abutting various chambers palaces particularly theeastern and western dalans, when the buildings wereconverted into barracks. During 1980s, the Departmentcompletely restored the Mughal setting. There are
however, still some of simple fresco decorations whichappear to be original and need to be protected.
4. Shah Jahan Quadrangle
This quadrangle incorporates two buildings dated to Shah
Jahan’s period, the Diwan-e-Khass and Khwabgah-eShah Jahani. This quadrangle was probably Shah Jahan’sfavourite abode and as such must have been profusely
ornamented. This is a more intimate chahar bagh ofsize 150’×150’, compared to Jahangir’s Quadrangle. It isbordered by the elegant Diwan-e-Khass on the north,
Khwabgah-e-Shah Jahani on the sourth, the rear dalansof Jahangir Quad’s Mashriqui Iwans line the eastern
periphery, while the attached accommodation of the Lal
Burj border the western aspect. The quadrangle is laid

PAIEN BAGHSHAHJEHAN’S QUARDANGLE

JAHANGIR’S QUARDANGLESHAHBURJ QUADRANGLE(SHISHMAHAL)

2. Moti Masjid Quadrangle
The courtyard itself represents various periods of the
Mughal rule. The palaces built by Jahangir, mentioned in
his memoirs were probably located in this area. Dalane-Sang-e-Surkh implied buildings were built in red
sandstone, the foundations of which are extant, which
may have belonged to the periods of Akbar or Shah
Jahan, rather than Jahangir. The Moti Masjid Quad has
been so named in view of the location of Moti Masjid in

35

PICTURED WALL

ALAMGIRI GATEAKBRI GATE (AKBAR’S PERIOD)

D E WA N - E - A A M Q UA R D R A N G L E

Pakistanout in the form of a chahar bagh or paradisal garden,
including the central tank and mahtabi (central platform).
Directly below Diwan-e-Khass is the Arz Gah, also dated
to the Mughal period.
5. Paien Bagh Quadrangle
The Paien Bagh is conjectured to have been a garden for
the use of the imperial female entourage; however, so far
no historical accounts have been found to support thisassumption. There is also no record of the buildings thatstood there and how they came to be lost. Paien Bagh
Quad at present incorporates the Khilwat Khana area,
although in fact they were probably two distinct areas.
The northern aspect has a small pavilion, the Khilat or
Khilwat Khana, while the west and east peripheries arebounded by the Kala Burj and Lal Burj respectively. The
remains of foundations in the Paein Bagh area point
towards a large number of chambers with enclosed
gardens or spaces. The so called ’Imperial Zenana
Mosque’or Royal Ladies Mosque is accessed from the
Paien Bagh.
6. Shah Burj Quadrangle
Northern west corner of the Lahore Fort contains oneof the unique and the most profusely decorated mirror
palace called as Shish Mahal. It was built by the emperor
Shah Jahan in 1631-32 and it was formed the haram
portion of the Fort. The palace consists of loughty halls
in front and several rooms behind and either sides. Thereis specious courtyard in front of chamber, and its floor is
paved with variegated marble stone slabs such as sange-badal, sang-e-musa and sang-e-khattu etc. In the centerof the courtyard there is a shallow water bastion in thecircular shape. Four fountains and water channels are themain features.
Lahore Fort (During Sikh Occupation)
After the decline of Mughal’s authority in Punjab inlater half of the 18th century the Sikhs occupied theFort. The Sikh utilized the Fort, at one stage decorating
it with beautiful frescoes, at other stages, they built
new structures with architectural elements borrowed or
copied from Mughal monuments, while damage wascaused when it became the scene of Inter-Sikh wars.
Various structures were added by the Sikhs: the northern
fortification wall, kharak Singh Haveli, Hammam of Shersingh in shish Mahal, Aath dara, Haveli on Shish Mahal,so-called Naag Temple, and some other structures inside
the Fort, which affected the original planning of the
Mughal era
Lahore Fort (During British Rule)
After the conquest of the Punjab by the British forcesin 1849 A.D., the Fort came under the British Military36

Pakistanoccupation. The British also made a lot of additions andalterations in the original layout. They demolished thesouthern fortification wall and brick stairs were replacedfor political reasons. Postern Gate and the road leading
to the fort, Barood Khana, a curator residence, garages
outside Shish Mahal, and residential quarters of staff
etc. The establishment of British cantonment in 1849,
inflicted severe damage to the original palace buildings,
when these were converted into barracks etc. and many
barrack structures were built in the quadrangles, thus
destroying the quality of Chahar Baghs. The British
period was destructive due to the establishment of a
British cantonment and due to baser uses of elegant
palace buildings.
It was in 1905 after the visit of Viceroy Curzon that action
was taken to dismantle the cantonment structures after
British army units began to vacate them. A concerted
effort to restore Mughal imperial structures dates fromthat period. Although several makeshift British structures
were removed, some survived until after 1947. Most ofthem were pulled down after Independence leaving only
a few intact.
Protection of the Fort
Lahore Fort was protected under the Ancient Monuments
Preservation Act 1904 vide Notification numbers of its
protection are 2524 dated: 27-01-1920 & 11078 dated: 0904-1920. The Lahore Fort was handed over to Departmentof Archaeology in 1924 for proper conservation andmaintenance. Since Fort has been taken over by
the Department, all the immediate measures for thesystematic removal of shabby additions were taken torevive the original glory and layout of the buildings andgardens of the Fort.
World Heritage Inscription
Lahore Fort was inscribed on the World Heritage List,
jointly with Shalamar Gardens, in 1981. Both sites
were inscribed on the basis of Criteria (i) (ii) and (iii),
specifically, that “they represent a masterpiece of humancreative genius, exhibit an important interchange ofhuman values over a span of time or within a culturalarea of the world, or developments in architectureor technology, monumental arts, town planning or
landscape design, and because they bear a unique or atleast exceptional testimony to a cultural tradition or to a
civilization which is living or has disappeared.”
Factors Contributing to Deteriorations of Lahore Fort
1. General Causes of Decay
i. Climatic causes:
a. Ground waterb. Rain, particularly monsoon rainsc. Temperature variations.
ii. Biological Causes:
a. Birds
b. Batsc. Insects: particularly wood beetles and white ants
(termites).
iii. Botanical Causes:
a. Vegetation growth (Trees/Plants)
b. Fungic. Moulds and lichen

37d. Algae and moss
iv. Natural Disasters:a. Floods and fires
b. Earth quakesc. Wind storms
v. Human Causes:
a. Lack of preventive conservationb. Wear and tearc. Human vandalism
d. Environmental pollution
e. Unorganized tourism
f. Warsvi. Internal Causes:
Humidity and contaminated air (including CO2, soot, dust
and H2S) by vehicles
2. Critical Causes of Decay of Lahore Fort:
In the light detail analysis based on physical survey,
it was revealed that various buildings within Fort are
deteriorated or damaged due to general causes, but themost serious / critical due to:i. The Action of Water
Apart from the action of rainwater and moist wind, thepresence of water in any form accelerates the decayof most buildings. The effect of capillary absorption
may extend several feet above level damp soil. As an
example the damage to Pictured Wall is extensive apartfrom other structures. The rainwater is more destructive
exceptionally heavy downpour in monsoon season.
Original storm water disposal system is either chocked
or inefficient causing water penetration in the structure
resulting deterioration of structures. Some of the later
period addition has also disturbed the drainage system of
Mughal period.
ii. Effects of Temperature Variations
In Lahore the temperature varies from 0 ℃ in winterand up to 47℃ in summer. As all the building materials
expand in when heated and contract when cooled,this thermal expansion and contraction cause thermal
movements in the structures, causing stresses in various
components of the buildings. These thermal movements
are serious cause of deterioration in the structures of
Lahore Fort.
iii. Insect Attacks
All organic materials are vulnerable to insect attacks andcauses a tremendous amount of damage by weakening
the wooden structures, and special mention here is to bemade to termites or white ants because the harm they
do is not externally visible until too late to be repaired.
In country like Pakistan where all sorts of climate can befound all the year round, a wide range of wood eating
boring insects are found. The monsoon is the best season
for termite to flourish and attack the various portions of
Lahore Fort.
Conservation and Site Management
The Department of Archaeology, Government of the
Punjab has been doing its level best for maintaining andmanaging the World Heritage Sites particularly the Lahore
Fort, within available resources.
UNESCO, Islamabad took a positive step in 2005 and aManagement plan for the Conservation of Lahore Fort
was developed, after carrying out the detail studies

Pakistanand documentation of all the structures inside Lahore
fort including the surrounding environment. The main
objective of the management plan is defined as follows:
to organize and monitor the tasks in a manner that they
achieve the objectives. For the preparation of UNESCO
Lahore Fort Master Plan 2005-2011, it incorporates amanagement framework for the site, and carries extensive
baseline data including graphic and photographic
documentation, condition surveys and dossiers ofreferences and excerpts from various reports (from 1,881
onwards). The various quadrangles have been numberedand each building carries a hierarchy of number system
related to the spaces. Recently, the Government of the
Punjab has very generously approved a conservation
project for its conservation and development amounting
to Rs. 300 million. The conservation works at various
monuments inside the fort is in progress and will becompleted up to 2015.

Restoration of glaze lime plaster fresco paintings

Restoration of fresco paintings

BeforeBefore conservationconservation

Before conservation

Before conservation

DuringDuringconservationconservation

During cons

During conservation

After conservation

Restoration of stucco tracery work

After conservation
After
conservation

38

Philippines
Philippines

The Old Church of San Juan, Barangay Pinagbayanan, San Juan, Batangas,
Philippines
Grace Barretto-Tesoro, Associate Professor
Archaeological Studies Program, University of the Philippines
The excavation of the Old Church of San Juan located in
Barangay Pinagbayanan, San Juan, Batangas, Philippines
is part of a research project that aims to investigate thedevelopmental history of the town of San Juan from its
establishment in the mid-1800s until its transfer to its
current location in Calit-calit in the 1890s. Archaeologicalwork commenced in 2008 with surveys conductedalong the coast of San Juan and neighbouring towns
in Batangas. The old church was first recorded as anarchaeological site in 2008 (Barretto-Tesoro et al. 2009a).
From 2009 to 2011, two stone houses dating from the late
1800s to the early 1900s were excavated by members of
the University of the Philippines-Archaeological Studies
Program. The locations of these stone houses in relation
to the old church suggest that they were residences of
local elites (Barretto-Tesoro et al. 2009b; UP-ASP 2010,2011). Below are the results of the excavation of the Old
Church of San Juan conducted from 20 April to 27 May
2012.
Background
The town now known as San Juan was once part of
the neighbouring town of Rosario. In 1848, it officiallyseparated from Rosario and became an independent
municipality. The original seat of the government of
San Juan was located along the coast now known as
Barangay Pinagbayanan. Due to seasonal flooding and agreat flood in 1883, the parish priest requested that the
town be transferred. This request was granted by theGovernor-General years after. Eventually in 1890, the seatof government and the church were transferred seven
kilometres inland to Calit-calit. To date, several stone ruins
have been documented in Barangay Pinagbayanan which
includes ruins in a church complex, remains of residential
units, and what is believed to be the old municipal hall.
The church complex
In 2008 the ruins of two structures were recorded in
the church complex; the larger structure found in thenorthern part of the site, which will be referred toas the main structure, and a smaller structure in thesouth now known as tarangkahan from the root word
tarangka meaning ’lock’ but contextually means gate.
The Tarangkahan has holes which appear to function as
locks for an opening or entryway. In subsequent visits tothe site in 2010, at least two more stone features, which
could be remains of previous structures separate from themain structure, were noted.
Prior to the 2012 excavation, the site was cleared of mostvegetation except for the two large trees found within theconfines of the main structure (Figure 1). The presenceof the antipolo (Artocarpus blancoi Merr.) and dita
(Alstonia scholaris) trees, including the cemented sectionof the ruins which served as a stage for social activities
in the community, helped us select the locations of thetrenches. A total of eleven trenches were opened in the39

site – nine in the main ruins and two trenches for otherstone features found in the vicinity. Beforehand the teamconducted a foot survey of the area and marked otherstone features with wooden pegs.
The main structure has a north-south orientation andmeasures 26.5 m × 15.6 m. The ruins include twelve
upright pillars, the south wall and parts of the east wall.
There are remains of walls connecting some of theinterior pillars found in the southeast section of the main
structure. Pillars on the west show characteristic evidenceof arches. A buttress continues supporting the northwest
pillar (Figure 2) and the other exterior pillars located in
the west side of the main structure also exhibit evidence
that buttresses were once attached to them but were nolonger visible.
The walls and pillars are made of tuff blocks with lime
mortar as binding agent. The foundations uncovered insome trenches were also of tuff blocks and lime mortar.
The aggregates used for walls were rocks of varying
types such as tuff blocks, river stones, corals, fragmentsof limestone and even lime mortar fragments.

Figure 1. East side of the main ruins in the old church complex of San
Juan, Batangas showing the two large trees in the interior (Photo by G.
Barretto-Tesoro)

Figure 2. Remaining buttress attached to the northwest pillar (Photo by
A. Tesoro)

There were few artefacts found during the excavationof the main structure compared to the large number ofartefacts found in the stone houses previously excavatedin 2009 to 2011. The artefacts found in the main structure
include small fragments of porcelain, stoneware vessels,
and earthenware pots. There were also glass shards anda couple of animal bones. The current interpretation forthe dearth of artefacts was that the main structure was
not really used because the place was abandoned before
the construction was completed. It is most likely that theartefacts were flood-borne deposits.
The hypothesis for the construction not being completed
is based on the stone pillars found north of the main
structure. These stone pillars were aligned with the pillarsof the main structure and have the same construction
materials but appear to be unfinished. Their proximity to
the main structure indicates that they could have beenpart of the main building. A trench opened where theoutside pillars were located reveals the absence of rubble
which was present in the trenches in the main structure.
The absence of rubble in the outside trench suggests theabsence of walls indicating that the construction was notcompleted. In addition, not a single square nail was foundin the church complex site whereas there were square
nails recovered from the stone houses excavated from2009 to 2011 - 743 square nails from Structure A and 147
square nails from Structure B. The standing interpretationis that the church roof was not even constructed and thatwould explain why we did not find any square nails.
The square nails were used to nail down galvanised ironroofing commonly used around that time. Nor did werecover roof tiles that would suggest that they were used
for roofing.

Figure 3. The L-shaped flooring found west of the main ruins in the oldchurch complex of San Juan, Batangas (Photo by A. Tesoro)

Other structures in the old church complex include an
L-shaped flooring measuring 15 m × 15 m and made fromtuff blocks (Figure 3) and a circular stone feature initiallythought of as a base of a bell tower. After excavation,
the circular stone feature turned out to be a lime kiln
(Figure 4) which produced the lime used for mortar in
the construction of the structures in the church complex.

Philippines

Analysis of the sediment deposits in the trenches revealed
several episodes of flooding. These deposits are clayey
sand or clayey silt found covering lime mortar floors.
These lime mortar floors have impressions suggesting tuff
blocks were once laid on them. Some walls that connect
pillars were found resting on flood deposits whichsuggests that modifications to the structure were done tomitigate if not overcome the effects of flood inside thestructure.

San Juan observed its centennial in the 1990s celebrating
the transfer of the church and seat of the government.
A National Historical Institute (now National Historical
Commission of the Philippines) marker was installed
to signify the historical importance of the church ruins.
Through archaeological excavations carried out so far
the local residents have learned of the presence of otherstructures such as the lime kiln and the L-shaped flooring.
This new knowledge further enhanced pride in their
history and encouraged them to protect and preserve theruins.
Acknowledgements:
The author acknowledges the Office of the Chancellorin collaboration with the Office of the Vice-Chancellor
for Research and Development, of the University of thePhilippines Diliman for funding support ; University of
the Philippines-Archaeological Studies Program; 2012
San Juan, Batangas Excavation Team; National Museumof the Philippines; Mrs. Belen Dimayuga Bautista andfamily; Municipality of San Juan; Barangay Pinagbayanan;
Pinagbayanan Elementary School; Inna Jeresa Marie P.
Briton; Michael Armand Canilao; Danny Galang; Lorenz
and Chit Lasco; Richard Manjares; Love Reynante; Archie
Tesoro.
References:
Barretto-Tesoro, G., F. Campos, and A. Pineda. 2009a. New Sites in Southeastern
Batangas, Philippines. Report on the Survey conducted by the UP-ArchaeologicalStudies Program in 2008. Arquelogia Iberoamericana 4:25-48.
Barretto-Tesoro, G., P.Piper, A. Pineda , P. Basilia, J. Ceron, T. Reyes, E. Lim,K. Maguire, K. Manalo, L. Sioco, and A. Ramirez Jr. 2009b. An archaeologicalinvestigation of ’Structure A’ in San Juan, Batangas. University of the PhilippinesArchaeological Studies Program.
University of the Philippines-Archaeological Studies Program (UP-ASP). 2010. An
Archaeological Investigation of ’Structure A’ in San Juan, Batangas: The Second
Season. University of the Philippines-Archaeological Studies Program.
University of the Philippines-Archaeological Studies Program (UP-ASP). 2011. An
Archaeological Investigation of ’ Structure B’ in San Juan, Batangas. ArchaeologicalStudies Program.

Figure 4. The lime kiln excavated in the old church complex of San
Juan, Batangas (Photo by A. Tesoro)

40SamoaSamoa

Preservation of the Courthouse, and Demolition of the First Parliament House of
Samoa
Mainifo Viliamu, Senior Museum Officer
Ministry of Education, Sports and Culture
Introduction
The German annexation of Samoa was from1900 to 1914.
The Governor by that time was Wilhelm Soft and thecourthouse was built in 1906 as a central office for theGerman colonial government. The architect was Albert
Schaaffhausen, the government architect for the Germanadministration. The architecture style was a mixture ofHistoricism (a copy of old European style) and Art Deco,which was in fashion in Europe at that time. The building
was used originally as court house and administrationbuilding, also for the British/New Zealand administration.
The British/New Zealand occupation force took over
Samoa from the Germans in 1914.
In 1914 under New Zealand administration, the Union
Jack flag was raised in a special ceremony in front of thebuilding. The leader of Mau Independence Movement,
Tupua Tamasese Lealofi II was shot at its doorsteps on“Black Saturday” in 1929. After independence in 1962 theplace was used as the main office of the Government of
the Independent State of Western Samoa. Until 1993, themuseum used to occupy the very place where was theseat of the Samoan Prime Minister’s Office and Cabinet.
The Justice and the Supreme Court was housed in
the courthouse for many years before moving to theirmulti-million tala modern house at Mulinu’u. Now theThe original courthouse

The courthouse as it exists today

41

courthouse is vacant with the plan of the government
to restore and preserve this historical site for future
generations.
A historically-viable project for preservation or simply
an old run-down building in a prime position was about
to be tendered out. With time fast running out, this was
the question being put to our citizens. Some of whom
wished to restore the once beautiful landmark, the oldcourthouse for future generations.
Situated on the beach road of Apia, the courthouse
was built in 1906 under the German administration and
was also in use when New Zealand governed Samoa. It
housed the first Government of Samoa after independence
in 1962 until 2010; the Court of Samoa dispensed justicefrom it. It is also on the corner of the road where on
December 28 in 1929, the Zealand military police fired toa peaceful procession of Mau protesters, turning the day
into violence and the event to become known as Black
Saturday. In short the area is deeply steeped in history of
Samoa. For these reasons former politician, Hans Joachim
Keil and German Consul, Arne Schreiber have organizeda series of meetings to work with a committed group of
like-minded citizens.
“I want to do this for the community,” says Mr Keil. “I
don’t want to look back in years to come and wish that I
had done my best to help preserve and restore this finepiece of architecture. There is too much wishful thinking
around. Even if we fail, at least I will have tried.” Mr.
Schreiber is equally passionate about the project. “You
can’t have a future without a history” he says. “You need
to be able to see your history.”
Demolition of the first old Parliament House of Samoa
Old Parliament house was constructed in the year 1916
by a Samoan builder (tufuga) Solofuti Fili from Satupaitea
Savaii. At first it was a traditional Samoan house withthatched roof and woven blinds and the floor wascovered with stone pebbles. It was there our former
leaders had meetings and discussed matters for the
betterment of Samoa. It was built in the unique Samoan
traditional architecture with local resources not relying
on funding agencies or Western Union. The Samoan
have lived self-sufficiently for thousands years, and they
still have amazing skills and knowledge to use our own
resources around us. The central pillars (poutu) of the
Maota Fono were presented as gifts by then joints head ofstates Malietoa Taumafili II, Tamasese Meaole and the first
Prime Minister of Samoa, Mataafa Faumuina Muliuu II.
The Samoa’s flag was raised in front of it for the firsttime on January 1962 by the first Prime Minister, Fiame
Mata’afa Mulinu’u II. It is one of few remaining remindersof Samoa’s struggle for independence. It has hosted many
debates and discussions on plans towards independenceSamoawhich resulted in drafting of the constitution. Laterin 1972, the current modern Parliament building was
open. The old building was later used by the original
ombudsmen as its office. Prior to the opening of the new
courthouse, the fale was used by the Land and Titles
Court.
The malae o Tiafau at Mulinu’u was a place of sorrow
and anger as the elderly, youngers, former and current
political figures, mourned the fale fono there as it was
about to be torn down. Many congregated there to say
their last goodbyes to the old fale fono because thegovernment decided to tear it down. They reminisced
about the past as in their memories they recalled the roles
their forefathers played in the struggle for independence
while others were visibly angry and in tears.
Most felt betrayed by the government for not heeding
their cry to keep the birthplace of independent Samoa
from being destroyed. Some could only look on andsing hymns and songs as they paid tribute to theircountry’s freedom cemented in that house. Others used
the opportunity to take their last photos of the building.
Former member of Parliament and Cabinet Minister
Letagaloa Pita, was furious about the decision to demolishthe house. He compared its tearing down to the removalof the rights of all Samoans.
Initial constructions of the fale fono began on the 12thof July 1916 by a head carpenter, Solofuti Fili from
Satoalepai Savaii and his workers. The building waschristened three months later on the 18th of September
1916.
The fale fono has played a major role in Samoa’s struggle
for independence in 1954, the member of the Fono
Fa’avae gathered at the fale fono to discuss Samoa’s
future. In 1960 the fale fono hosted an important debatethat discussed on Samoa’s future towards independence,
which resulted in the drafting the constitution. This
constitution was later adopted as the official Samoan
constitution when Samoa declared its independence byraising the flag in front of the fale fono on the first ofJanuary 1962.
The fale fono, Samoa’s first parliament building was torn
down on the 11th of March, 2012. The decision of Prime
Minister and his cabinet to tear down the historic building
met with criticism from the public. Before the demolitionof the building, there had been talks of turning the site
into a memorial or political museum. Currently there isno firm indication as to the intended fate of the site.

42

Sri Lanka
Sri Lanka

Ruhuna Cultural Triangle of Sri Lanka
Sujeeva Kaushalyani Peiris Deraniyagala, Conservation Supervisor
Central Cultural Fund
Sri Lanka’s southern region presently covering mainly
Galle, Matara, Hambantota and Monaragala districts were
known as “Ruhuna” or “Rohana” in ancient times and it
was one of the three ancient provinces of the island. But
ancient “Ruhunu rata” covered a larger portion of theisland; bounded by the river Mahaveli in the north andeast and river Kelani in the west part woven around thecentral hills taking shape of half doughnut. Indian Ocean
surrounds the whole region from southeast, south andsouthwest. Ruhuna was protected from Indian mainland
invaders because of its location away from the sub
continent, of which the Anuradhapura and Polonnaruva
kingdoms frequently subjected. On the other hand thesea around the region is rather deep with no land in
between southern tip of the island and the Antarctica.
Further the island’s south eastern coastal area is protectedby a vast reef, which is distracting and ships passing theisland had to sail considerably away from the island.

“ S ad d har mal ankar a ya” , “ Dhatuvamsa” etc. andinscriptions installed in historic places, helped immensely
to build the history of the region.

These factors contributed to the civilization in the region
to grow independently and comparatively peacefully thanisland’s other ancient kingdoms. King Devanampiyatissa’s[B.C. 307–267] brother Prince Mahanaga founded
Magama sub-kingdom [Magama was the capital city in
the Ruhuna region] in the 2nd century B.C. He built
many Buddhist temples, reservoirs and tanks to uplift
the culture and agriculture of the region. Sandagiriya
Stupa in Tissamaharama, built by him is considered tobe the oldest stupa in the southern region [presently
conservation of this stupa is completed by the Central
Cultural Fund].

“Ruhuna Cultural Triangle” programme is implemented
to secure these ancient arts and to ensure their survival
for further period enabling future generations to benefit.
Central Cultural Fund and the Department of Archaeology
will jointly carry out the work identified in five distinct
sectors.

According to legends, Ruhuna’s history is older thanthat of Anuradhapura. The first Aryans from India
settled down in the north east region of the islandand made several principalities like Tammenna andUpatissanuvara. It is believed that brothers and troupe
of Princess Baddhakacchana, who came from Madura,
India to marry King Panduvasdev [B. C. 504–474, reignfrom Upatissanuvara] had moved into the southern region
and built Magama in the 4th century B.C. Anuradhapura
was made capital some 50 years later around B.C. 400
during King Pandukabhaya’s [B. C. 437–367] reign. Since
then Ruhuna became a haven to disgraced royal family
members or fleeing royalty under enemy invasions.
Heroic King of Sri Lanka, King Dutugemunu [B. C. 161137] was born and grown up in Ruhuna and both hisparents were descendants of southern sub-regional
kingdoms. Prince Dutugemunu fought with King Elara [B.
C. 205–161, a Chola from India captured Anuradhapura
and ruled for 44 years] and regained the capital for Sri
Lankans. Anuradhapura and subsequent kingdoms held
esteem from ancient chroniclers that history of Ruhuna
sub-kingdom was not considered as significant and thus
its written history was discontinued time to time. But
ancient scripts like “Sihalavattuprakarana”, “Rasavahini”,

43

It is significant that Ruhuna sub-kingdom and its culture
had been able to survive from Indian and other foreign
influences and to secure identity of its own. Hindu
influence was evident in culture, art and architecture fromlate Anuradhapura period and thereafter, but strangely
the force was reduced when it reached the southern
region so that people in the South had been able tominimize them. Therefore culture and architecture of
Ruhuna can be safely described as descending from early
Anuradhapura period. It is true that during occupationsof European nations, the region had undergone vastchanges in art and architecture, religion and culture, butthese could be identified and sieve-out to restore original
status if required.

1. E xploration and documentation of pre and proto
historic human settlements and ancient landscapes
2. Documentation and conservation of historic structures
belonged to different eras including those of theEuropean occupation
3. Documentation and conservation of ancient religious
places including art, archival materials, literatures etc.
4. D ocumentation and conservation of mural art,
inscriptions and other historically valuable materials
5. E stablishment of site museums / information
centres [wherever necessary] and developing tourist
infrastructure facilities.
The selected area presently belongs to four districts: three
in the southern province (Galle, Matara, Hambantota)
and one in Uva (Monaragala). Two teams comprising ofarchitects, conservators, and archaeologists will carry out
the work with assistance of draughtsmen, photographersand other related professionals. Twenty-six sites in Galle,
46 sites in Matara, 60 sites in Hambantota and 47 sites
in Monaragala have been selected for this programme.
Some sites are dating from Anuradhapura period and thelatest belongs to the British period up to the early 20th
century. Thus the programme will be able to restore anddocument vast number of sites and historic landscapes
belonging to diverse cultural spheres that evolved
through long period of time.
Necessary excavations leading to comprehensive
conservation programme will be carried out once theThe region’s close proximity to popular coastal resorts,
Arugambay, Unawatuna; natural/ wild life reserves, YalaNational Park, Bundala, Kalamatiya and Rakawa Lagoons,
Kumana Bird Sanctuary, Hambantota Salterns; and close
connectivity to the hill country through Bandarawela
Tea Route etc. further enhance the potential for tourism.
Another advantage will be the present mass scale
infrastructure development programme in progress within
the region. Country’s first highway was commissioned
recently and is highly successful reducing 3.5 hour drive
between Colombo and Galle to just about one hour.
Apart from this construction of Harbour at Hambantota isin progress while the second international airport of theisland will be constructed in Mattala or Weerawila making
the area very much attractive to foreign tourists.
Considering all these, it is anticipated that the “Ruhuna
Cultural Triangle” will be highly successful throughconservation and presentation of large number ofhistoric structures neglected for considerable time whileanswering many questions hidden under array of culturallayers that remain unexplained so far.
Some significant historic structures and landscapes within
the region selected for the programmeGalle District – [Total 26 sites]
1. Thotagamuwa Purana Vihara – dates back to the 15th
century and presently with murals belonging to the19th century. The great Buddhist scion of the 15th
century and a scholar monk Thotagamuwe Sri Rahula
lived in this temple.
2. Galle Fort – one of the two living World Heritage Sites
in the island. The 16th century Dutch fort was recently
conserved by the CCF with the assistance of theGovernment of the Netherlands.
3. T hunmahal Viharaya, Gintota, Galle – the ancient
temple with exquisite murals.
4. Roomassala Mountain – the natural reserve locatedon the coast but extraordinarily consist of rain forest
vegetation.
5. G arumuni Walawwa – the 19th century mansionof de Soysa family and now being donated to CCF,
presently in a much deteriorated condition. There isgood collection of period furniture and an archival
collection.
Matara District [Total 46 sites]
1. Star Fort – also known as Van Eck redoubt, built by
the Dutch in 1763–65
2. Nupe Market- Dutch market built in 1784
3. Kushtarajagala Statue and Temple – the life size relief
carved in solid rock and considered be one of thefinest statue in Mahayana style [7–9th century A.D.]
4. D
 evundara Devalaya – being dedicated to God Visnu
and located in the most southern tip of the island fordaily rituals and traditional customs.
5. W
 ewurukannala Raja Maha Vihara – in Kandyan
Period [15th–19th century A.D.], the temple with thelargest seated Buddha statue in the island with theheight of 50 m.

Sri Lanka

first phase is completed with the objective of displaying
the archaeological, historical, cultural and religious
monuments of historic sub-region of Ruhuna and bringing
back its ancient grandeur. Since the Central Cultural Funddraws its revenue through tourist ticket sales, this new
region has potential of attracting large number of tourists.
Development of tourism will also benefit inhabitants
within the region through increased employment
opportunities.

Hambantota District [Total 60 sites]
1. M
 ulkirigala Raja Maha Vihara – rock temple carved outof a huge outcrop and dates back to the 2nd century
B.C. Believed to have planted one of the 32 Bodhi
saplings brought by Arahat Sanghamitta in the 2nd
century B. C. Beautiful mural paintings belong to theperiod.
2. N
 aigala Purana Vihara – The rock temple with apleasant setting and lots of mural paintings
3. R amba Viharaya – the royal monastery complex ofancient Maha Nagakula city of Ruhuna Kingdom in the
11th century A.D. Renowned academic centre of theisland between the 11th and the 12th centuries.
4. M inihagalkanda – pre-historic human settlement
evidences found and designated as an archaeologicaland nature reserve.
5. K irinda Viharaya – built by King Kavantissa of Ruhunain the 2nd century. Located on top of a rock with apanoramic view of Ruhuna Jungles and the Indian
Ocean.
Monaragala District [Total 47 sites]
1. M aligawila – the tallest free standing statue of Buddha
in the island [16 m] belonging to the 8th century A.D.
One of the finest standing Buddha images in Sri Lanka.
2. B uduruvagala – the 9th-10th century complex
consisting of seven statues of Mahayana sect. The
largest standing Buddha images [16 m] in the island.
3. D ambegoda – the 9th-10th centuries, A.D. 10 m highAvalokitheswara Bodhisatva crystalline limestone
image is considered to be one of the finest in theworld.
4. D ematamal Viharaya – dating back to the 3rd century
B.C with unique sculptures and a stupa believed
to be built by Prince Saddhatissa [a brother of King
Dutugemunu].
5. K ataragama - an apt example of multi-religious livingmonument in the island with interwoven religious
customs of Buddhists, Hindus, Muslims, Christians
and Veddhas –the aboriginal people of the island. The
stupa [height 95 ft] dates back to the times of King
Mahasena of Ruhuna Kingdom.
References:
1. T he story of the logo, Reprinted publication of the
Department of Archaeology, Sri Lanka for the 10th
General Assembly of ICOMOS 1993.
2. P reliminary project proposal on Ruhuna Cultural
Triangle –Dr. W.H. Wijeyapala
Acknowledgement:
Photographs and Maps: Central Cultural Fund archives,
Jayatissa Herath Associates

44

Sri Lanka
Dambegoda bodhisattva statue

Kataragama Kiri Vehera

Ancient divisions of Sri Lanka

Kirinda Raja Maha Vihara

Entrance to Mulkirigala

Buduruvagala statues

Dambegoda Statue being conserved

45

Galle Fort

Kustarajagala Bodhisat

Kasagala mural

Maligavila Buddha statue

Sri Lanka

Rumassala mountain overlooking the sea

Sithulpawuva temple

Sandagiriya Stupa being conserved

Thotagamuwa ancient temple

Seegala painting on walls

Wewurukannala temple

Mulkirigala Rock temple art

Mulkirigala wall paintings

Southern Triangle
Nupe market

46

Thailand
ThailandSpirit of the Historic Place: Sanam-Luang
Pongthorn Hiengkaew, Conservation Architect
Office of Archaeology, Fine Arts Department, Ministry of Culture
Introduction
Sanam-Luang or the royal ground is an open area in thecentre of the old town area of Bangkok. It is surroundedby several important places, for example Grand Palace
and National Museum. Superficially observed, SanamLuang looks like a large lawn, there is nothing to beinterested. However, in fact, it is a place where ancientroyal custom continues for at least 500 years.

and is surrounded by Grand Palace in the south, Wat
Mahathat in the west, Ratchadamneon road in the north,and Supreme Court in the east. At present, Sanam-Luangis still an important part of the setting of historic areain Bangkok in the aspect of physical forms and ancientbelief.

Background, History and SignificanceBangkok was established in 1782, the beginning of thereign of King Rama I. The city planning of Bangkok was
imitated in physical and belief from the former capital,
Ayutthaya (AD 1350-1767). One of important places was
Sanam-Luang. Sanam-Luang has been served as the place
where official royal ceremonies were held. A significant
ceremony was royal cremation. Therefore, people
called Sanam-Luang as Tung Phra Meru (the groundfor royal cremation ceremony), an informal name. In
1897, King Rama V reign, the city was development andconsequently the size of Sanam-Luang was also increased
about the present size.
Sanam-Luang, a large historic monument in Bangkok,
was registered as the national historic monument in
1977. Its size is 120 m × 589 m. It is located in inner ringof Rattanakosin Island, the old town area of Bangkok,

Fig. 3. A map of the central area of Bangkok in 1932 showing theshape of Sanam-Luang (in green colour) that was improved in 1898.

Fig. 4. Sanam-Luang after improvement in 1898 during the King Rama
V reign.
Fig. 1. The aerial view of Sanam-Luang

Fig. 2. A map of central area of Bangkok (Koh Krung Rattanakosin) in
1897, the green colour is Sanam-Luang.

47

Fig. 5. Sanam-Luang in the present dayRoyal cremation ceremony is a tradition derived from
Brahmanism, Devaraja (the King as the God) belief. The
belief came into Thailand via influence of ancient Khmer
civilization. It is believed that the king is God descending
to the earth to provide nation with peace. In addition,
together with cosmology belief in Buddhism, there isSumeru Mountain which is the centre of universe and it is
the highest level of heaven where the top of the mountainis Indra. When the king and royal highness, believed as
divine king, pass away; they return to house at Sumeru
Mountain where is a genuine home for them. Hence, itis necessary to arrange a ceremony in the best way tosend them back home. The royal cremation ceremony
represents Brahmanism and Buddhism beliefs via any
symbols in custom, for example, royal crematorium andcortege.
Royal cremation ceremony is arranged at Sanam-Luangafter the king and royal highness have passed away forat least a year. This is because building the crematoriumis the most important component in royal cremation
ceremony. The royal crematorium is a temporary

building for conducting cremation ceremony. According
to Brahmanism and Buddhism beliefs, the building isplanned, built, decorated, and then demonstrated insymbols. In addition, it presents a magnificent traditional
Thai architecture. Royal crematorium looks like a huge
mountain representing centre of universe and residence
of God. It is located in the centre of the ceremony area
and is decorated with paintings and figures of Deva
and Himavana animals. Therefore, it presents a clear
image of heaven, according to the religious belief. After
finishing the cremation, the crematorium is disassembled
and removed from Sanam-Luang. The materials of
royal crematorium are dedicated to temples or publicorganization.
From the evidence in Ayutthaya period (1350-1767 AD),the biggest royal crematorium was 102.75 m height and
16 m column span width. The structures were composedof woods, bamboo, plaster and papers. The decoration
was beautified by colour intricate perforated papers andthe gold leaf. The style and scale of royal crematoriumof the Ayutthaya period had been used until 1869.
After that, the scale has been reduced and the form has
been improved. Nowadays, the material of construction
has been changed from woods to steel because it isdifficult to find some materials used in the structure anddecoration and also economical reasons. However, themain belief and the way of royal crematorium ceremony
are still the same.

Fig. 6. and 6.1. Royal crematorium (Phra Meru Mas) of King Rama IV in 1869: It was the last huge royalcrematorium in 80 m height, that was built according to traditional royal crematorium since the Ayutthya period

Fig. 8. The royal crematorium(Phra Meru Mas) of HRH Galyani
Vadhana in 2008

ThailandRoyal Cremation Ceremony: Belief, Pattern, andSustainability
Royal cremation ceremony is an important Thai
royal ceremony maintaining for at least 500 years.
It is a significant cultural heritage of Thailand that
preserves principle essence of belief in royal ceremony,architecture, fine arts, traditional craft, and location.

Fig. 7. Aerial view of HRH Princess
Sangwan’s royal crematorium (PhraMeru Mas) in 1996: The area planning
represented concept of the universe, theroyal crematorium was in the center as it
was Mount Meru.

Fig. 9. and 9.1. The decoration of royal crematorium: a figure of Devas and Himavana animals were presented
in the area of Mount Meru.

48

Thailand

In April 2012, at Sanam-Luang, royal cremation ceremony
was arranged for Her Royal Highness Bejaratana, theonly child of King Rama VI. The royal crematorium wasdesigned by Fine Arts Department, Ministry of Culture.
The height of crematorium was approximately 36 m.
The ceremony was conducted by Bureau of the RoyalHousehold and several government organizations.
At present, royal cremation ceremony is preserved
and it is necessary to pass it to the next generation.
For preserving the royal cremation ceremony, thesystematic knowledge management and human resources
development, particularly specialists in all branches,
are needed to maintain and conduct the crucial royal
ceremony with the former belief and pattern.
Conclusion
Sanam-Luang appears a historic monument that is
not outstanding in construction when compared toother historic monuments in Bangkok. However, it isa remarkable place that represents spirit of the crucial
cultural heritage of Thailand and sustains the royal
ceremony in consistent with the former beliefs.
References
1. ศลปะสถาปตยกรรมไทยในพระเมรุมาศ จัดพิมพโดย พิพิธภัณฑสถานแหงชาต พระนคร
พ.ศ. 2539
2. พระเมรุมาศ พระเมรุ และเมรุ สมัยกรุงรัตนโกสนทร โดย พลเรือตร สมภพ ภิรมย รน.
ศิลปนแหงชาต ราชบัณฑิต จัดพิมพครั้งท 3 โดย สํานักพิมพอมรินทร มีนาคม พ.ศ.
2539
3. งานพระเมรุมาศ สมัยกรุงรัตนโกสนทร จัดพิมพโดยรัฐบาลไทย ทูลเกลาฯถวายสนองพระมหากรุณาธิคณุ ในงานถวายพระเพลงพระบรมศพ สมเดจพระนางเจาราไพพรรณ พระบรมราชนในรชกาลท 7 พ.ศ. 2528

Acknowledgement
I would like to thank Dr.Vasu Poshyanandana,
Assoc. Prof., Dr. Vimonwan Hiengkaew, Mr. Surayoot
Wiriyadamrong, and Mr. Patiwat Tui-on for their guidance
and nice figures.

Fig. 10. and 10.1. The cortege of King Rama V’s royal cremation ceremony in 1911

Fig. 11. and 11.1. The cortege of royal cremation ceremony in 200849

Thailand

Fig. 12. A Thai architecture specialist from
Fine Arts Department was enlarging thedecorated ornament of HRH Bejaratana’s
royal crematorium in 2012.

Fig. 13. The HRH Bejaratana’s royal crematorium wasunder construction in 2012.

Fig. 14. The HRH Bejaratana’s royalcrematorium: The roof architectural
ornament was assembled.

Fig. 15. and 15.1. Details of decorated ornaments of the HRH Bejaratana’s royal crematorium

Fig. 16. The HRH Bejaratana’s royal crematorium shows the crematorium
as Mount Meru.

Fig. 17.The wooden royal carriage, built in 1795, was restored for the
royal cremation ceremony.

Fig. 18., 18.1. and 18.2. The ancient performances, Nang-Yai and Mong-Kum, are sustained as a part of the royal cremation ceremony.

50Uzbekistan
Uzbekistan

The 2011 Archaeological Excavations in the Old Termez Citadel
Akmaljon Ulmasov, Researcher
Fine Arts Scientific Research Institute, Academy of Arts of Uzbekistan
belonged to the 2nd century AD, when Kushan kingdom
was ruled by the most famous king, Kushan Kanishka
I. Another settlement in old Termez was Fayaz-tepa, a
Buddhist monastery, which located 1 km north-west fromKara-tepa.

Old Termez was one of the largest settlements, whichcontained many structures and monuments dating todifferent times. The city that was also known as Tarmita,
had a total area of 500 hectares and was located 12
km north-west of the modern Termez. It consisted of a
citadel, two settlement sites and a rabad1 in the suburbs(Fig. 1). For many centuries Termez-Tarmita was one of
the largest cities of Bactria. At the turn of Anno Domini,with the propagation of Buddhism in this area, Buddhist
structures began to appear in great numbers. At the
beginning of the 7th century this town was mentioned in
the recollections of Chinese traveller Xuanzang Sanzang.
According to him, the city wall was extended by 20 li2(10 km); at that time there were 12 monasteries andstupas, and more than 1,000 monks served in Ta-mi(Termez). This means that at the time of threshold of the
Arabic period in Termez, Buddhism saved its importance.
Archaeological excavations conducted in the settlement
confirmed the data provided by Xuanzang Sanzang
and resulted in the discovery of Buddhist structures:monasteries, temples and stupas. The largest of them was
the so-called Kara-tepa located to the north-west of thesettlement; it consisted of semi-cave structures (vihara)and stupas. The formation of the monastery in Kara-tepa

The oldest part of the city located on the banks of AmuDarya River; it was built on a natural hill of quaternarysandstone. The rectangular citadel covered the area of
10 hectares. Originally, the citadel was the base andthe core of the city. Over time the city expanded, anda fortress appeared on its ancient territory. The lengthof the fortress walls along the river bank was 470 m.
The citadel’s north-western wall was up to 230 m long.
Due to predominant presence of rulers’ palaces, temples
and administrative buildings, the city fortress had strong
fortification. The fortress wall was 7-8 m thick and 18-20
m high. The advantage of building a fortress on the hill
was that the hill provided natural defences and enhanced
the fortification power of the citadel. Presently, in some
sections the walls are as tall as 20 m. Due to its location
on a natural hill, some historical sources refered to thecitadel as "Kuhandiz". As it was never seized, it wasrecognized as “Madinat ul rizhol”, the City of the Brave.
In the Middle Ages Termez was a major trading andmanufacturing centre. Like other Central Asian cities, itconsisted of a citadel, a fort, and two rabads. Each partof the city was circled by defence walls. Scientifically,
the archaeological finds from the citadel confirmed that
Termez was founded 2,500 years ago. In this respect,academic research performed by archaeologist Shakirdjan
Pidaev in 1971-1986 was very valuable.
1

A Suburb of a town; this term comes from the Middle Ages and now is used by all
researchers in Uzbekistan, Russian and others.
2
Traditional Chinese unit of distance; one li equals to 500 metres.

Fig. 1. The old Termez settlement layout (according to М. Е. Masson,1930).

Coin

Room. 330х30х6
Baked brickCoin30х30х6 см

1.20 м

Brick

d-7м

Loose coating(layer)Room. 1

Baked brick

Khum (big jug)
3.10 м

05

1.10 м

4.00 м

10

15

Room. 220

25

1.00 м

3035

М - 1:100
Fig. 2. Preliminary plan of the Fortification wall on Citadel. (Drawing & Tracing by A. Ulmasov).

Fig. 2. The preliminary plan of the fortification wall on the citadel.

51

35х35х9-10 смCoin

d - 36 см

40 м

Archaeological excavations conducted on the site haveshown that the defensive walls of the citadel dated to the10th-12th centuries. Most probably, they were destroyedin the process of maintenance and construction. The
corner tower has been preserved better. Besides, on thissection the walls of the Kushan of the early medieval
periods were cut longitudinally by more than 24 m. The
cross-section clearly showed that the wall’s masonryof square and rectangular contained air bricks. On thissection the surviving remains of defensive walls dating
to the 10th-13th and the 15th-16th centuries stood righton the ruins of the walls of the Kushan period. Now theruins of the Kushan period defensive walls have beenfound to be 120 meters long; they have been cleared tothe depth of 1.45 m; the height of these walls has not yet
been established.

ornamental painting against bright blue background(Fig.5a to 5c). Chiragi lamps, while some of them werecompletely intact, with their numerous fragments also
testified the great skills and mastery of the Termez
potters. Stone cauldrons with primitive linear ornaments
were carved out of monolithic stone and presented theexample of a very labour-intensive effort invested by themasters.

Uzbekistan

As a result of archaeological excavations conducted in2011, part of the wall was exposed in 60 by 10 metres(Fig. 2 and 3). The depth of the excavation pit was 8-10
m. One of the towers, which were erected every 2025 meters, and its inner chamber were studied. While
clearing the topmost section of the fortress wall, remainsof a semi-circular tower dating to the 16-17 centuries
were discovered. Although the tower was made of
baked bricks, it was built on soft sediments. The semicircular tower with a radius of 3.5 m dated to the late
Middle Ages; the surviving remains of the tower had thesize of 1-1.2 m. The tower was made of baked bricks of
27×27×5 cm. Clearing the inside of the tower revealed
an inner chamber of the later construction period. The
wall of this chamber was about 1 m thick, 3.5 m long andabout 1.9 m wide.

In the course of the field work, the author performed
restoration and conservation of numerous archaeologicalfinds. Specifically, an amazing pitcher with carved
ornament showing a dimorphic creature was restored.
On the pitcher’s handle one can clearly see a snake
crawling upwards (Fig. 6a and 6b). Glazed vessels ofdifferent shapes, chiragi lamps, iron arrowheads, andother items have also been restored and conserved.
Among the restored items one should give specificmentioning to a stone cauldron reconstructed of several
fragments. Despite the fact that the glued section of thecauldron constituted less than half of it, the vessel has
been fully restored (Fig. 7a and 7b).
In addition to the restoration work, the author was
actively involved in producing the excavation pit layout
and made drawings. Thus, more than 200 archaeologicalitems were drafted and drawn, and 50 of them weretraced.

Archaeological excavations resulted in the discovery of
more than 300 new archaeological objects in different
degrees of preservation, dating to different historicalperiods. Among them were carved and glazed ceramics,
terracotta figurines, jewellery, iron and bronze objects,
fragments of glass artefacts, and coins. Ceramics alone
provided a diversity of materials: in particular, wonderfulglazed bowls and pots decorated in a uniform style –Conclusion
As a result of archaeological excavations carried out in
2011, a defensive wall of 60 meters long, three watch
towers on the north-western citadel wall, an innerchamber, and a corridor were exposed. Height, thickness
and construction time of the wall’s main lines have beenstudied. Subsequently, one third of the exposed wall was
restored using bricks obtained from the excavation pit
debris. There is no doubt that the restoration of the wall
makes it possible to get an idea about the medieval art ofconstruction developed by our ancestors; and the wealthof archaeological material testifies to the advanced culture
and development of manufacture skills and crafts.

Fig. 3. A general view of the excavation area of the citadel wall.

Fig. 4. A semi-circular inner chamber of the tower №2.

52

Uzbekistan
(a)

(b)

(c)

Fig. 5. Standard glazed ceramic vessels: (a, b) chalice; (c) pot.

mad

eb
yh

an

with
ng

woo
ds
with

cloth

es

touch

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with

wood

w

stick

ip

in

g

c

w

u

it

h

tt

fi

in

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g

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hing

cutti

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Cтарый Термез - 2011
Дуне-тепе. Яма (Бадраб)сolour is (out) - Hue 2.5 Y pale yellow 8/3
in - Hue 10 YR light yellow orange 8/3
includes - much (small) sands

g

in

(c)

ip

(b)

w

(a)

Drawing & Tracing by Akmal Ulmasov
25. 07., 22.10.2011 y.

touchingwithwoodstickFig. 6. Restoration of a single-handle carved pitcher; (a) before restoration, (b) after restoration, (c) a traced drawing.

(a)

(b)

(c)

Fig. 7. Restoration of a stone cauldron; (a) before restoration, (b) after restoration, (c) drawing (“point” style).

53

Viet Nam
Nguyen Chi Cong, Staff
Center for Preservation of the Co Loa Historical Site and Hanoi Citadel
Thang Long Heritage Preservation Centre, Ha Noi held
the science conference to report results of discovery
and survey of a part of Hanh Cung’s wall in the Nguyen
dynasty.
The survey plan was made by Thang Long Heritage
Preservation Centre in corporation with the Heritage
Preservation Institute and it was implemented from
December to April 2012. The survey aimed to determine
original factors, fundamental characteristics, to evaluate
technical conditions and harmful reasons in a wall ofHanh Cung in the Nguyen Dynasty. Thang Long Imperial
Citadel Centre, Ha Noi took main responsibility for
project planning, conservation design and renovations.
The wall of Hanh Cung was selected to be studied basedon the principles, because it had relatively clear original
traces, typical states and changes; less relation to otherarchitectures and it situated in a convenient location for
visiting to survey.
We examined and selected a part of Hanh Cung’s
wall with 15 m in length and 4 m in height on Hoang
Dieu road, next to West gate of the Old Hanh Cung(existing entry gate of Thang Long heritage preservation
centre, Ha Noi ) for the survey. Then the survey was
implemented as follows: studying documentary profiles;
surveying, drawing architectural structures and its
condition; removing inappropriate supplementations,discovering the original architecture, exploration of
the ground; surveying and studying building materials,
determining harmful agents; analyzing for generalevaluation. From the results of studying, a survey report

Viet Nam

Surveying a Part of Hanh Cung’s Wall in the Nguyen Dynasty, Thang Long
Imperial Citadel Centre, Ha Noigave specific proposals to preserve and restore boundary
walls and eight Hanh Cung’s gates in the heritage area. It
was needed to expand this survey to the comprehensive
one such as evaluation for wall construction of Hanh
Cung with the supplementary survey in other special
locations
According to “Đại Nam nhất thống chí ,” published in
1805, when building Ha Noi citadel under Vauban model,
the Nguyen built boundary walls from Doan Mon door
around and inside of the palace where the King took arest after the southern patrol. Currently in the ancientcitadel, there were relatively undamaged eight gates ofHanh Cung. The eight gates and boundary walls weresurrounded by broken bricks in Ha Noi citadel in Nguyen
dynasty. There were two gates in the south in two sidesof Doan Mon, two gates in the north behind Hau Lau,
one gate in the east directing to Nguyen Tri Phuong roan,
one gate in the west directing to Hoang Dieu Road, andtwo gates in two sides of Kinh Thien shrine
Gates of Hanh Cung “was categorized” with someheritages in Ha Noi citadel since 1925 under France State
protection. The campus was the strategic headquarter
from 1954-2004, the headquarter section of Ministry of
Defense. This was the working and meeting place where
the government published important policies to manage
battlefields, to lead people in the whole nation and to
make the victory in the spring of 1975 for unification.
We expected that after survey, we would cooperate withinternational experts for its restoration to the originals.

54

Published by
Cultural Heritage Protection Cooperation Office,Asia-Pacific Cultural Centre for UNESCO (ACCU)
757 Horen-cho, Nara 630-8113 Japan
Tel: +81-742-20-5001
Fax: +81-742-20-5701
E-mail: nara@accu.or.jp
URL: http://www.nara.accu.or.jp© Cultural Heritage Protection Cooperation Office,Asia-Pacific Cultural Centre for UNESCO (ACCU) 2012