“To Open Minds, To Educate Intelligence, To Inform Decisions”

The International Academic Forum provides new perspectives to the thought-leadersand decision-makers of today and tomorrow by offering constructive environments
for dialogue and interchange at the intersections of nation, culture, and discipline.
Headquartered in Nagoya, Japan, and registered as a Non-Profit Organization (一般社
団法人) , IAFOR is an independent think tank committed to the deeper understandingof contemporary geo-political transformation, particularly in the Asia Pacific Region.

INTERNATIONALINTERCULTURAL
INTERDISCIPLINARY

iafor

ACEID Programme Committee
Professor Shingo Ashizawa
Kansai University of International Studies, JapanDr Joseph Haldane
The International Academic Forum (IAFOR), Japan
Professor Brendan Howe
Ewha Womans University, South Korea
Professor Farish Noor
University of Malaya, Malaysia
Professor Barbara Lockee
Virginia Tech., United States
Dr Taro Mochizuki
Osaka University, Japan
Professor Haruko SatohOsaka University, JapanDr Krisna Uk
The Association for Asian Studies (AAS)The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

ISSN: 2189-101X© The International Academic Forum 2023
The International Academic Forum (IAFOR)
Sakae 1-16-26-201
Naka Ward, Nagoya, Aichi
Japan 460-0008
www.iafor.org

Table of Contents
Academic Adaptation and Stress Associated With University Life: Insights
From First-Year Students
Narangerel Tsedendamba
Otgonsuren Gungaarentsen

pp. 1 - 8

The Dichotomy Between Final Year Undergraduate New Zealand Nursing
Students’ Reports of Learning and Their Practice Intentions in Aged
Residential Care: Challenges and Surprises
Judith Honeyfield
Deborah Sims
Pam Foster
Adam Proverbs
Muhammad Akhtaruzzaman

pp. 9 - 25

Make the World a Better Place: Design Skills in an Academic Context
Carla Cadete

pp. 27 - 37

Working in the Pacific, Working in Asia: The Challenges of Sustaining
International Partnerships in a Pandemic
Cath Fraser
Judith Honeyfield

pp. 39 - 50

Effectiveness of Modified Individual Learning Monitoring Plan on Science
Achievement and Student Engagement Among the Grade 11 Academically
Challenged Learners
Kathleen Anne F. Faderogao
Reynaldo P. Ramos

pp. 51 - 64

The Effects of Instructional Scaffolding in Students’ Conceptual
Understanding, Proving Skills, Attitudes, and Perceptions Towards Direct
Proofs of Integers
Audric Curtis P. Dy
Minie Rose C. Lapinid

pp. 65 - 76

Grading of Project-Electronic Courses in the Pre-COVID, COVID,
Hybrid, and After-COVID Semesters
Samuel Kosolapov

pp. 77 - 84

Qualitative Study: Disruption and Violence Among Primary SchoolStudents in the Lahore District of Punjab Pakistan
Tajammal Hussain Awan
Hafiz Muhammad Nouman
Sobia Nasir

pp. 85 - 97

The Development of the ESP Process-Genre Writing Course for Thai
Business Administration Undergraduates: The Closer Look at the Student
Experiences
Tanassanee Jitpanich
Samah Ali Mohsen Mofreh
Shaik Abdul Malik Mohamed Ismail
Anis Binti Shaari

pp. 99 - 112

Promoting Student Interaction in Online Educational Environments WithEngageliCarlos Alario-Hoyos
Carlos Delgado Kloos
Pedro Manuel Moreno-Marcos

pp. 113 - 124

Gender Analysis for the Pre-university Education Sector in Albania
Suela Kusi Drita
Zyhrada Kongoli

pp. 125 - 137

Examining the Relationships Between Distance Education Students’ SelfEfficacy and Their Achievement
Romi Aswandi Sinaga
Robiatul Adawiya
Te-Sheng Chang

pp. 139 - 153

Implementing Stop Motion in Learning Quadratic Functions to Develop
Mathematical and Global Competence for Students in Vietnam for the
Sustainable Development Goals
Chi Ton Le

pp. 155 - 164

The Influence of Financial Assistance on Student’s Academic
Achievement: A Case-Based Research Study
Fatima Shaikh,
Khalil Ahmed Channa
Gul Afshan
Murk Memonpp. 165 - 179

The Study Conceptual of Professional Learning Community and Teacher’s
Practice in School in Thailand
Anchalee Srikolchan

pp. 181 - 191

The Promotion of Technology-Based Analytical Problem-Solving Skills(aPSS) Based on the Cognitive Apprenticeship Approach and ThroughAdaptive Tutorial Feedback
Stefan Christian FernerChristopher Andre Klupak
Felix Walker

pp. 193 - 205

Reducing Inequalities in East Asia:
Challenge and Solution of Women in Modern China
Siriporn Dabphet

pp. 207 - 218

Learning Material by Augmented Reality Technology About Korfball for
HealthSuppawan Vongsrangsap

pp. 219 – 225

An Investigation on Role of Modern Management in Cultural Values andSpirituality for Organizational Development
Gannu Praveen Kumar
Gannu Swetha

pp. 227 – 237

Taiwanese University Teachers’ Motivation and Language Choice for
Scholarly Publishing
Shih-Chieh Chien

pp. 239 – 252

A Perception Study of Multicultural Values:
Applying Hofstede’s Values Survey Module in the Thai Setting
Pradit Wanarat
Maneewan Chat-uthaiTatchawan Kanitpong

pp. 253 - 260

Developing Students’ Transferable Skills Through Service Leadership of
Inclusive Learning Community
Atara Sivan
Vicky C. W. Tam
Tony L. F. Chow

pp. 261 - 268

Exploring Chinese Secondary Teachers’ Perception of Critical Thinking in
Mathematics Teaching
Wei Liu
pp. 269 - 280
Work From Home and Distance Learning: Its Impact on Working
Students’ Performance
Vivi Viyati Yudha Hadijaya
Sari Wahyuni

pp. 281 - 296

Strengthening Higher Order Critical Thinking Skills of C1 Level Students
in a Classroom Environment
Ganzul Gantuya

pp. 297 - 312

The Silk Road of Siam the Country in the Western Central Region
Krittagan Charlie Dhoppupa
Noppadon Tumchuea
Chaowarit PhanthongWichitra KeingbathRaktawan Siritawon
Vasidtee Saisudjai
Suchart PhettianchaiPongphan Phanpong
Wattanapong Oonnum

pp. 313 – 320

Theoretical Framework on the Use of Art-Inspired Pedagogy in Early
Childhood to Mitigate Urban Barriers
Thi Tran Khanh
Kieu Thi Kính
Pham Thị Thu
Dang Minh Thư
An Thu Tra
Kelsey Anne Carlton
Dang Thi Ngoc Lan

pp. 321 - 336

Digital Piracy Case of Learning Materials in China: A Tough Challenge
to Chinese Copyright Law
Dan Liu
Marcelino M. Agnawa Jr.

pp. 337 - 346

The Development of Mathematics Teachers’ Proficiency Framework for
Sustainable and Standardised Assessment in Southeast Asia (SEA)
Uki Rahmawati
Gusnandar Yoga Utama
Farida Nurhasanah
Miftahul Hidayah

pp. 347 – 361

Assessing ASEAN Students’ Competencies and Readiness in Learning
Mathematics Through MaRWA Diagnostic Test
Wisnuningtyas Wirani
Ummy Salmah
Bungkus Dias Prasetyo
Uki Rahmawati

pp. 363 - 380

Curriculum Review of the BS Pharmacy Program of a Local University in
the NCR, Philippines: A Mechanism for Quality Assurance
Maria Fay Nenette M. Cariaga
Justine Marie A. Ocampo
Estela DV Barasi

pp. 381 - 407

The Effectiveness of Interdisciplinary Learning on 21st Century Skills for
Taiwanese Elementary School Students
Ya-Ting Yang
Chih-Chan Cheng

pp. 409 – 415

Designing Integrative STEM Learning Materials for Junior High School
Mathematics Classroom: What Works (and Not)?
Russasmita Padmi
Ummy Salmah
Pasttita Ayu Laksmiwati
Wahid Yunianto
Uki Rahmawati

pp. 417 – 424

Reflection of the Current Practice in Psychological Diagnostics ofLanguage-Based Diagnostic Tools
Lothar Filip Rudorfer

pp. 425 - 435

The Best Practices in STEAM Education: Using Local Wisdom to
Improve Innovators' Competence
Suwicha Wansudon
Trai Unyapoti
Phatcharida Inthama
Pawanrat Wattana
Kongkhwan Tipoaksorn

pp. 437 - 446

Local Wisdom Board Game Based on the Concept of STEAM Education to
Promote Innovator Skills
Suwicha Wansudon
Phatcharida Inthama
Trai Unyapoti
Pawanrat Wattana
Kongkhwan Tipoaksorn

pp. 447 - 456

A Case Study of Pre-service Teachers’ Physics Laboratory Skill in
Measurement and Uncertainty
Trai Unyapoti
Suwicha Wansudon
Phatcharida InthamaThanida Sujarittham

pp. 457 - 461

Content and Language Integrated Learning for CSL Students Using a
Picture-Book Approach: An Action Research in Hong Kong Kindergartens
Karen Chingching Cheung

pp. 463 - 476

Procedural Checkpoint-Infused Laboratory Activity: Impact on the
Attitude Towards Physics Among STEM Students With Varying Academic
Achievement
Gian May M. Morgado
Jhoanne C. Orillo

pp. 477 - 492

Teaching Science in Remote Schools: The Struggles and Successes ofTeachers From the Perspective of an Ethnographer
Kenneth Adu-Gyamfi
Isaiah Atewini Asaki

pp. 493 - 505

Delphi Surveys for Development of Sub-domains, Factors, and Items ofMusical Self-Concepts Scales for Korean Secondary Students
Joo Yeon Jung

pp. 507 - 519

Getting Ready for F2f Learning: Teaching Factory in the Fashion Design
ProgramDhany Efita Sari
Aghna Ima Zukhrifa
Sabar Narimo
Rochman Hadi Mustofa
Noor Lela Ahmad
Tiara

pp. 521 - 533

Challenges and Approaches in Adopting EIL in a Japanese EFL: Internaland External Factors
Arifumi Saito

pp. 535 - 542

Evaluation of Cocuricular Implementation in the Project of Strengthening
the Profile of Pancasila Students at Private Vocational School Yplp Pgri 1
Makassar
Zahrun Awal
Deni Kurniawan
Zainal Arifin
Dahri Thalib

pp. 543 – 553

STEAM (Science, Technology, Engineering, Art, and Mathematics)
Implementation and Challenges in Elementary Schools in West Java
Yopi Malagola

pp. 555 - 562

Japanese University Students’ Learning Experiences and Attitudes Toward
Computer Programming
Harumi Kashiwagi
Min Kang
Kazuhiro Ohtsuki
pp. 563 - 577
The Development and Application of the Wearable Device for the Deaf
Performers
Tzu-Hua Huang
Yi-Jiun Li

pp. 579 - 591“Top-Bottom Deconstruction”: A Global Space for Art Education in Rural
Society
Joni Agung Sudarmanto

pp. 593 - 604

Towards Efficient and Effective Doctoral Education in Biomedical
Sciences: Nurturing Transferable Skills
Kyoko Hombo

pp. 605 - 615

How Did Traditional Nomadic Herders Increase in the Past Decade?
–The Relations of Higher Education, TVET, and Career Trajectory
Eri Nakamura

pp. 617 - 624

Savor a Kahoot!-Licious Classroom: Embodying Gamification in a
Business School as a Recipe for Innovation Among the Digital Natives
Yung-huei Chen

pp. 625 - 637

The Impact of Singapore’s SkillsFuture Credit on Training Participation
Sheng Yee Zher
Magdalene Lin

pp. 639 - 646

Analyzing the Architectural Internship Program in India andRecommending Guidelines
B SudhaK Premkumar

pp. 647 - 662

Promoting Teamwork Skills Among Thai Pre-service Teachers ThroughGamification on Cloud Technology
Siripon Saenboonsong
Akarapon Poonsawad

pp. 663 – 670

Undergraduate Research and Grant Applications: Access and Barriers at
a Transnational University
Heather L. Morgan
Allison Segal

pp. 671 - 679

Learning Motivation of Adult Learners During the Transition to Fully
Online Learning Due to COVID-19
Bao Zhen Tan
Yee Zher Sheng

pp. 681 - 694“People Are Poison” – A Case Study of Chinese Young Adults’ Printed
Clothes as Linguistic Landscape From Wearers’ Perspective
Ruijie Li

pp. 695 - 708

Research on the Learning Effect of Statics Course by the Problem-Based
Learning Method Integrated With Design Thinking
Shyh-Chour Huang

pp. 709 - 717

A Study on the Differences in Perspectives of Cyber-Bullying Between
Korea and Japan
Yoo Kyung Son
Hwajo Leepp. 719 - 740

Research on the Relationship Between Reflective Practice and Academic
Performance in Experiential Learning
Shu-Yin Yu

pp. 741 – 750

Relegating School Principal Leadership From Teacher Professional
Learning: Social Network Analysis Approach
Lita Mariana
Mone Stepanus Andrias

pp. 751 - 760

Relations Between Visual Perception and Working Memory ThroughUrban Sketches at Phumin-Ta Li Community, Nan Province
Tawipas Pichaichanarong
Solos Punakabutra

pp. 761 - 768

STEAM Implementation Analysis on Creative Thinking Skills of
Middle School Students in East Java
Shofia Maghfiroh
Insih Wilujeng

pp. 769 - 776

Development of a Tool to Analyze Source Code Submitted by Novice
Programmers and Provide Learning Support Feedback With Comments
Tatsuyuki Takano
Osamu Miyakawa
Takashi Kohama

pp. 777 - 789

The Creation Strategies, Participants’ Satisfaction and Learning
Experiences of ‘Sure and Share’s Fact Check Detective Club’Jessada Salathongpp. 791 - 805

Factors Influencing Thai University Students’ Decision in Participating inStudy Abroad
Phanita Pooteang-on
Chatwaroot Dulyachai
Worada Apirat

pp. 807 - 817

An Analysis of Content Marketing on Social Media by Five Top Global
Universities
Worada Apirat
Phanita Pooteang-on

pp. 819 - 832

Research Skill Level of Grade 12 Students of Penablanca National HighSchool and Their Learning Needs in Practical Research 2: Basis for an
Intervention Plan
Mary Jane Villarin

pp. 833 - 842

The Development of a Local Curriculum on Bamboo Wicker for PrimaryStudents
Wanida Sarati

pp. 843 - 850

Speak Better: A Meta-Analysis of Language Learning Modalities for
Improving Speaking Proficiency
Allison Lauren Segal

pp. 851 - 861

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Academic Adaptation and Stress Associated With University Life:
Insights From First-Year Students
Narangerel Tsedendamba, Mongolian National University of Education, Mongolia
Otgonsuren Gungaarentsen, Mongolian National University of Education, Mongolia
The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023
Official Conference Proceedings
Abstract
University attrition rate is increasing around the world and there is a consequence for the
student who is dropping out, the university, and society as a whole including costs,
psychological issues associated with the perceived feeling of failure, and issues aroundemployability and job satisfaction (Sosu & Pheunpha, 2019). The university attrition rate isincreasing in Mongolia too. About 80% of the students who study at the Teachers’ School,
Mongolian National University of Education (MNUE) are from the country of Mongolia andmost of them come to the capital city to do their tertiary education. Due to the differences
between rural and urban lifestyles, and expectations of tertiary education, the dropout rate isincreasing especially at the beginning of the first semester. There is an urgent need to better
understand the need to drop out of the university and find ways to support these students toadjust to university life and life outside the university. This study aims to explore the issues
associated with adjusting to university studies and its relationship with attrition. It used the
SPSS-20 program to collect data from 80 first-year students. The findings revealed that thestudents needed support in many aspects of their studies, including support with time
management, stress management, and well-being. The study suggests policymakers anduniversity managers to develop a plan to better support students to seamlessly transition into
the university and life outside the university during the first half of the first semester.
Keywords: Academic Adaptation, Stress, University Life, First-Year Students, Attrition,
Retention

iafor
The International Academic Forumwww.iafor.org

ISSN: 2189-101X

1

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Introduction
Transitioning into the first-year university life can be one of the most challenging times formany university students. To successfully navigate through university studies, it is important
to become socially and academically integrated (Tinto, 1993). When students experiencestudy and life-related challenges, some students drop out of the university, especially in thefirst half of the first semester (Sosu & Pheunpha, 2019). Research shows that dropouts
usually spend about 8 years as low-income earners (Hällsten, 2017).
To find better ways to support students, several studies have investigated the reasons why
students drop out of the university. The consensus of the studies was that the reasons arevaried and complex and unique to individual circumstances and contexts (e.g., Stratton et al.,2008; Bernardo et al., 2016; Contini et al., 2018). However, it was identified that a student
who experiences several risk factors are highly likely to drop out compared to a student who
struggles with one or two issues.
One of the common risk factors is students’ intellectual capability (Voelkle & Sander, 2008).
Voelkle and Sander (2008) point out that students who enter university with a lower gradefrom their previous educational institutions are a high indicator of a drop out. Students withlimited intellectual capabilities not only experience academic challenges but also may
experience an emotional distress (Bernardo et al., 2016). However, other research shows that
if such students pass this period and remain studying, they achieve better academic results by
the end of their degree (Hoare & Johnson, 2011).
Researchers highlight the importance of supporting these students on how to cope withemotions associated with the struggles around academic integration and help them integrate
into the university life (Bernardo et al., 2016). It was also found that family support isessential to achieve optimal integration and psychological well-being (Romero et al., 2015).
Context and the study
In 2020 it was identified that the teaching profession was listed second in the high-demand
professions list in Mongolia. About 80% of the students who study at the Teacher’s School,
Mongolian National University of Education are from the country of Mongolia and most ofthem come to the capital city to do their tertiary education. Due to the high demand ofteachers, it is paramount for the university to decrease attrition and help students to study
successfully.
Of the 80 students who participated in this study, 25% come from central province regions
and 73.8% were from small villages. The majority or 95% of the students were female andonly 5% were male. On average the participants were between 17-18 (48.7%) years of age
and the rest of the students were in their early or mid-twenties. 86.3% of the students werestudying primary education and the rest were studying various subjects in school. See Figure1.

ISSN: 2189-101X

2

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

76
59

69

1
мэдээлэлгүй

мэдээлэлгүй

эмэгтэй

2
21-22 нас3
19-20 нас84эрэгтэй

мэдээлэлгүй

1бага ангийн
багш
бусад

20

17-18 нас38 39аймгийн
төвөөс
сумаас

80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0

Official Conference Proceedings

Graph 1. Student population
The MNUE has a support system in place to assist first-year students to transition into
university life and life outside the university. For example, the Students’ Association of theuniversity provides various support services such as financial support, academic support, andhousing support, and organizes sporting, well-being, and fun activities to help students
network, connect with peers, talk to guest teachers and experts, and form friendships.
Teachers also provide outside-classroom academic support. All teachers give their timetables
to their students. Students then can book a face-to-face or an online appointment to talk to theteacher. However, more needs to be done to find ways to better support first-year students toadjust to university life and life outside the university. This study aims to explore the issues
associated with adjusting to university studies and its relationship with attrition.
Methodology
A Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS-20) program was used to collect data.
The SPSS is one of the best data collection tools as it is easy to use and has in-depth
statistical analysis including frequencies and cross-tabulations statistics. Its text analytics
helps researchers to uncover insights from responses to survey questions (IMB n.d). A totalof 80 students completed the SPSS-20.
Results
At the time of completing the survey, the 80 student participants studied at the Teachers’
School, Mongolian National University of Education.
Knowledge about the capital city prior to university
25% of the participants, prior to becoming university students have visited the capital citywhere the university is located several times already. 53.8% of the students have visited thecity only a few times whereas 21.3% reported that they have never been to the city prior totheir study in the city. In response to a question ‘how well did you know the capital city prior
to your study?’, 51.2% answered that they knew very little. 93.7% of the students reported
that they are adjusting to city life relatively easily. It was identified that those students who
knew very little about the city also reported that they struggled to adjust to city life. 62.8% of
the students faced some form of difficulties during the early adjustment phase whereas 36.3%
of the students reported that they almost never experienced any difficulties.

ISSN: 2189-101X

3

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Students were also asked about their prior knowledge of the university before enrolment.
67.5% of the students had some basic understanding of the university and expectations ofuniversity studies. 32.5% of the students however reported that they knew nothing of theuniversity and the expectations associated with the university study.
Issues with studying and living in a big city
When students started their life and studies at the university, they started experiencing a
range of issues associated with life and their studies including 43.8% said that theyexperienced financial difficulties, 21.3% study-related issues, 13.8% hardships around theirliving conditions, and 12.5% reported that they were lonely and needed a friendship. A large
number of students or 81.3% of the students reported that they felt stressed with 18.7%
saying that they experienced very little stress. Of the things that they were stressed the mostabout were financial hardships (43.8%), health issues (31.3%), extracurricular activities(7.5%), and 1.3% reported stresses around family, friendship and relationships.
The issues and their impact on behaviour and well-being
It was identified that these issues mentioned above had a negative impact on students’behaviours and well-being. 22.5% of the students experienced difficulties in simple
communications, another 22.5% could not relax, 13.8% reported that the issues made themfeel angry, 11.3% experienced disrupted sleep, 10% increased feeling emotional and cried
regularly, 8.8% noticed unwanted changes in eating habits, and 7.5% felt anxious. Theseissues made 21.3% of the students to consider dropping out of the university altogether.
There was a flow-on effect from these issues including limited leisure time, lack ofconcentration on studies, thoughts about the wrong choice of profession, inability to manage
time, increases in study load, and inability to pay rent, even some of the students reported
feelings of pressure from some of the teachers that they may potentially fail the unit.
Study load
77.6% of the students reported that they stress due to a study load. This included
requirements such as attending classes (70%), 12.5% self-independent study, 7.5% spent on
extra-curricular activity organized by the school, 2.5% of the students reported that they had
to work part-time, and only 1.3% was able to spend quality time with friends.
Living situations
To better understand students’ life, the researchers asked questions about their living
situations. 16.3% of the students lived at home, 27.5% lived in a dormitory, 38.8% lived with
their relatives, and 15% lived in a rental property. Most of the students spent on an averageminimum of 10 minutes and a maximum of 2 hours traveling to and from the university. The
students who lived in the dormitory spent the least amount of time in commute. 52.6% of thestudents reported that they experience stress due to not having an ideal living arrangement,
however 47.4% experience little to no stress in their living situations. See Table 1.

ISSN: 2189-101X

4

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Table 1. Commute time from home to the university
95% Confidence
Livingsituations

N

Mean

Interval

Std.

for

Mean

Deviation

Lower

Upper

Bound

Bound

Minimum

Maximum

Home

9

75.56

44.19041.59

109.5220

120

Dormitory

18

20.83

25.394

8.21

33.46

10

120

With relatives

28

96.43

60.137

73.11

119.7520

240

Rental7

72.86

26.277

48.56

97.16

40

120

Money
In response to a question about finances, 86.3% of the students are funded by their parents
and family members, 20% make money from part-time jobs, and only 3.8% of the students
study on scholarships. Students spent 37.5% of their money on school fees, 23.8% on schoolrelated supplies, 2.5% on accommodations, 18.8 on transportation, 3.8% on health, and 8.8%
on leisure activities.
Relationships and friendships
In response to a question about being friendly with their classmates, 57.1% of the students
reported that they have a friendly relationship, 39% average and 3.9% did not get on wellwith their classmates. It was good to see that almost half of the participants received apositive influence from their peers (44.9%) and 46.2% also received more or less positive
influence from their peers. 89.7% reported that overall students’ relationships and how to
influence each other are positive with very little negativity. Also, 94.9% of the students
reported no bullying occurred during the time they first joined the university and 2.5%
experienced some time of bullying.
Overall satisfaction with the university
67.9% of the students were overall well satisfied with their choice of studying at the MNUE,
29.5% felt somewhat satisfied and 2.6% were dissatisfied.
The findings revealed that the students needed support in many aspects of their studies in the
big city. Of the issues, there are 2 key areas that need a careful focus which include support
with stress management associated with study load, and well-being.
Discussion
As can be seen from the results, a small percentage of the students (2.6%) reported that they
were dissatisfied with the university, reported stresses around family, friendship, andrelationships (1.3%), and experienced some time of bullying (2.5%). Though the number islow, these are the students who are likely to drop out of the university.

ISSN: 2189-101X

5

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

It is worth noting research that shows that female students have a lower hazard of droppingout of university compared to male students (Ortiz & Dehon, 2013). A large student
population of the MNUE is female students and it is assuring to think that with more targeted
support, these students are likely to continue their studies at the university.
The main areas of concern are well-being and stress management associated with study load.
It was found that students from disadvantaged family backgrounds or who live with
unsupportive family members are more likely to have emotional distress that has risen fromtheir study load (Zhang et al., 2021). This shows that though students may have support with
their studies from the university if there is an issue in their households, their engagement may
decrease and emotional distress may increase (Daniels et al., 2021). Research shows that
coping strategies may potentially mediate the effects of emotional distress (Padron et al.,2021), and exercise along with stronger family and friends seem to be more helpful to
become resilient (Killgore et al., 2020).
Research shows that the lack of time management skills and stress experienced by university
students are the main contributors to academic failure (Ahmad et al., 2021). Research also
shows that with the right intervention students improve and the failure rate decreases (Ahmad
et al., 2021).
Conclusion
There is a need to have a strategic plan in place to better support the students to seamlesslytransition into university and city life during the first half of the first semester. There are two
key areas that need to be addressed as a result of this study.
••

Develop time and stress management skills to help students succeed in their studies
Coping strategies with emotional distress and overall well-being

The ability to use time wisely in learning is an issue for many students. Many students study
full-time, and have family commitments, and part-time jobs. This causes stress and emotional
distress. Policymakers, university managers, teachers, and other support services staff need totake into consideration such research findings to develop a better intervention to help firstyear students to seamlessly transition into their university studies.

ISSN: 2189-101X

6

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

References
Ahmady S, Khajeali N, Kalantarion M, Sharifi F, Yaseri M. Relation between stress, time
management, and academic achievement in preclinical medical education: A
systematic review and meta-analysis. J Educ Health Promot. 2021 Jan 28;10:32.
doi:10.4103/jehp.jehp_600_20. PMID: 33688541; PMCID: PMC7933620.
Baker, R. E. (1999). Students adaptation to college questionnaire manual. Western
Psychologica Services: Los Angeles CA.
Bernardo, A., Esteban, M., Fernández, E., Cervero, A., Tuero, E., and Solano, P. (2016).
Comparison of personal, social, and academic variables related to university drop-out
and persistence. Front. Psychol. 7:1610. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01610
Contini, D., Cugnata, F., and Scagni, A. (2018). Social selection in higher education.
Enrolment, dropout and timely degree attainment in Italy. High. Educ. 75, 785–808.
doi:10.1007/s10734-017-0170-9
Daniels L.M., Goegan L.D., Parker P.C. The impact of COVID-19 triggered changes to
instruction and assessment on university students’ self-reported motivation,
engagement and perceptions. Soc. Psychol. Educ. 2021;24:299–318.
doi:10.1007/s11218-021-09612-3
Gadzella, B. M. (1991). Student-life inventory. Commerce: Texas.
Hällsten, M. (2017). Is education a risky investment? The scarring effect of university
dropout in Sweden. Eur. Sociol. Rev. 33, 169–181. doi:10.1093/esr/jcw053
Hoare, A., and Johnston, R. (2011). Widening participation through admissions policy – a
British case study of school and university performance. Stud. High. Educ. 36, 21–41.
doi:10.1080/03075070903414297
IMB. (n.d.). IMB SPSS software. https://www.ibm.com/spss
Killgore W.D.S., Taylor E.C., Cloonan S.A., Dailey N.S. Psychological resilience during the
COVID-19 lockdown. Psychiatry Res 2020;291:113216.
Ortiz, E. A., and Dehon, C. (2013). Roads to success in the Belgian French community's
higher education system: predictors of dropout Bruxelles. Res. High. Educ. 54, 693–
723. doi:10.1007/s11162-013-9290-yPadrón I., Fraga I., Vieitez L., Montes C., Romero E. A Study on the Psychological Woundof COVID-19 in University Students. Front. Psychol. 2021;12:589927.
doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.589927
Romero, D. H., Riggs, S. A., and Ruggero, C. (2015). Coping, family social support, andpsychological symptoms among student veterans. J. Couns. Psychol. 62, 242–252.
doi:10.1037/cou0000061

ISSN: 2189-101X

7

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Sosu, E. M., & Pheunpha, P. (2019). Trajectory of university dropout: Investigating the
cumulative effect of acdemic vulnerability and proximity to family support. Frontiersin Educaiton, 4(6). 1-10. https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2019.00006
Stratton, L. S., O'Toole, D. M., and Wetzel, J. N. (2008). A multinomial logit model ofcollege stopout and dropout behavior. Econ. Educ. Rev. 27, 319–331. doi:
10.1016/j.econedurev.2007.04.003
Tinto, V. (1993). Leaving college: Rethinking the causes and cures of student attrition (2nded.). Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Voelkle, M. C., and Sander, N. (2008). A structural equation approach to discrete-timesurvival analysis. J. Individ. Dif. 29, 134–147. doi:10.1027/1614-0001.29.3.134
Zhang Y., Liu B. Psychological Distress Among Chinese College Students During the
COVID-19 Pandemic: Does Attitude Toward Online Courses Matter? Front. Psychol.
2021;12:1–8. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.665525

ISSN: 2189-101X

8

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

The Dichotomy Between Final Year Undergraduate New Zealand Nursing Students’
Reports of Learning and Their Practice Intentions in Aged Residential Care:
Challenges and Surprises
Judith Honeyfield, Toi Ohomai Te Pūkenga, New Zealand
Deborah Sims, Toi Ohomai Te Pūkenga, New Zealand
Pam Foster, Toi Ohomai Te Pūkenga, New ZealandAdam Proverbs, Toi Ohomai Te Pūkenga, New Zealand
Muhammad Akhtaruzzaman, Toi Ohomai Te Pūkenga, New Zealand

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023
Official Conference Proceedings

Abstract
The aged healthcare sector internationally is facing a crisis in attracting and retaining a nurse
workforce. Alongside the global rise in longevity, the sector is experiencing an increasing
demand on their services. Yet undergraduate nursing students are often reluctant to consider
aged residential care (ARC) with perceptions that a lack of opportunities, compared tohospital positions, will mean that their education and high-tech skills are underutilised. This
paper describes our institution’s atypical response of offering ARC practicums in both thefirst and third years of study and our desire to discover students’ perceptions of their learningand experience. Where the first-year experience allows students to undertake fundamental
care, the final, month-long year 3 placement, focuses on managing complex care, enhancing
nursing leadership and management practices and quality improvement. This mixed method
study collected questionnaire data from 72 of 96 (75%) year three Bachelor of Nursing
students and facilitated four focus groups involving 38 students. Findings included bothcongruent and disparate themes from contemporary literature on this subject. Whilst students
reported some mixed experiences, they noted improved confidence in applying a range ofknowledge and skills in response to encountered needs. Thirty percent said that they weremore likely to choose the ARC sector as a career specialty. The biggest factor to which they
attributed this positive shift was their interaction with registered nurses and managers. This
paper shares our reflections on implications for how we can better prepare our students andeducators for placement roles, skills and responsibilities and support the sector.

Keywords: Student Preference, Aged Care, Curriculum

iafor
The International Academic Forumwww.iafor.org

ISSN: 2189-101X

9

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Introduction
Aotearoa New Zealand (NZ), like many countries is experiencing a growing older population,(by 2036 over 25% will be over 65) and an increasing shortage of nurses (NZ Aged Care
Association, 2022). This demographic profile signals the need to provide health services
tailored to supporting people living with the normal effects of aging including increasing
frailty, chronic conditions, ill health and the need for both home-based and aged residential
care support (ARC). The requirement for registered nurses (RNs) to provide speciality care in
the community and ARC facilities is expected to increase proportionally, yet the number of
RNs choosing to work in ARC is decreasing (Nursing Council of New Zealand, 2018). ARC
settings account for 9% of the current RN workforce, yet a study in 2012 of the new graduate
Advanced Choice Employment (ACE) programme, found only 1.32% of the 1232 national
RN graduates selected ARC as a preferred setting (NZ Health and Disability System Review,2019), a finding confirmed by Hughes et al. (2020) the following year.
Due to this lack of ability to attract NZ graduates and experienced nurses, the ARC sector ishighly reliant on internationally qualified nurses (IQN), of whom 27% were working on
temporary visas, prior to the pandemic (NZ Health and Disability System Review, 2019). The
impact of Covid-19 on international nurse recruitment has created significant workforce
issues meaning there are currently over 1000 vacant RN positions in ARC (NZ Aged Care
Association, 2022). Retention of staff also continues to impact ARC with a high turnover of
RNs reported at 48% in 2022 (NZ Aged Care Association, 2022), up from 38% in 2017 (NZ
Health and Disability System Review, 2019). Issues concerning the nursing workforce in the
ARC sector have long been predicted (WHO, 2012). Nurse leaders, educators, researchersand policy makers in recent years have been focused on developing responses to the need torecruit and retain far more RNs in the ARC sector.
Literature review
The need to identify perspectives to foster education and practice responses to increase BN
students’ entry into the ARC sector has been the topic of numerous international studies overthe last 20 years (Algoso et al, 2016; Brown et al, 2008;Wilkinson et al., 2016) including:
career intentions (Happell,1999; Rodgers & Gilmour, 2011); student perspectives of working
with older persons (Koh, 2012, McAllister et al, 2020) and factors that contribute to career
preferences (Lea et al., 2017; Liu et al, 2013; McKenzie et al., 2014; Wilkinson et al., 2016).
Four critical factors have emerged in the literature: (1) BN students’ negative/social
stereotypical attitudes toward older persons (Abbey et al., 2006; Cheng et al., 2015; Evers etal., 2011; Henderson et al., 2008); (2) the influence of prior work (part-time employment) in
ARC on negative attitudes (Happell, 2002); (3) experiences in ARC practicum placements asstudents (Hunt et al., 2020; Moquin et al., 2018; Robinson et al., 2008; van Iersel et al.,2018); (4) the influence of education providers, including the BN curricula (Abbey, 2006;
Algoso et al., 2016), educational preparation (Hunt et al., 2020; Lea et al., 2017; Moquin etal., 2018), and the influence of nurse educators (Foster, 2019).
Aged residential care provides an essential mainstream function within our health care system
and is currently not valued as such, according to Hughes (2020). Over 40,941 ARC beds areprovided in some 670 facilities throughout NZ (NZ Aged Care Association, 2022). Thesefacilities provide 24-hour care and assessment, rehabilitation, and palliative care services;with 96% of facilities offering additional respite care to provide breaks and support forfamilies and carers. The average age of residents entering ARC is 85 years and rising. A

ISSN: 2189-101X

10

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

growing proportion have cognitive impairment and/or multiple long-term conditions
requiring significant levels of speciality care. Stays in ARC are becoming shorter over timewith the medium length of stay 18 months, however the acuity of the resident is increasing(NZ Health and Disability System Review, 2019). With predicted increasing need, resident
acuity is likely to continue alongside population aging (Boyd et al., 2009). We urgently needto discover the impact of BN students’ learning, perceptions and experiences of their ARC
placement and create multisector resources to complement educational preparation andsupport the ARC nursing workforce.
BackgroundIn responding to these challenges, nursing education through curricula design, preparationand management of practicum experiences and educator role modelling appears to be highly
influential (Foster, 2019), along with strong partnership relationships with ARC agencies. In
NZ, nursing programmes must offer a minimum of 1100 hours of practicum (clinically based
experience - Nursing Council of NZ, 2016) across the three-year BN degree and pass anational exam to enter the register as an RN. All practicum experiences are supervised
learning experiences with student nurse educators (SNE) allocated contact hours with a groupof students. Contracted access and service agreements in ARC settings enable quality
outcomes to be negotiated and collaboratively managed. ARC practicum experiences begin insecond semester, year one, to assist BN students gain foundational nursing skills, including
hygiene care, therapeutic communication skills and competency in taking vital signs (Foster,2019). SNEs are allocated five hours per week per first year student to facilitate and supervise
their learning as they support residents with activities of daily living (ADL). In preparation
for this practicum, students participate in classroom lectures, tutorials and laboratory skill
development and simulation sessions to prepare them to move from theory to practicum
experiences. Bi-cultural and Te Tiriti o Waitangi learning, developmental studies,fundamental nursing practice skills and care, ethics, research, consumer rights, science andprofessional development as a nurse are facilitated.
In our institution’s initiative to promote aged care as a career option, which is the subject of
this paper, students return to the ARC setting in the first semester of their final year for a 96hour practicum experience. Two further practicum experiences; ‘speciality nursing – acute’and ‘primary care – community’ are also scheduled in rotation during this semester. The threepracticum placements offer high contact with older persons. The assessments undertaken in
the placements enable students to demonstrate the four domains of RN competence in New
Zealand: Professional responsibility; Management of nursing care; Interpersonal
relationships; Interprofessional health care and quality improvement (Nursing Council of
New Zealand, 2016). A comprehensive holistic assessment with a selected resident includingcare planning and evaluation is undertaken. Based on the assessment findings, students thenimplement a quality improvement project in collaboration with the resident, to improve theresident’s quality of life and health outcomes. Students are expected to participate in a rangeof activities and practicum leadership and management with the RN staff in the ARC facility.
This is a significant advance from their earlier year one ARC experience which was oftenwith a health care assistant. Few NZ nursing programmes place students in ARC in year three(Foster, 2019) yet we view this placement as an attempt to reverse the dominant negative
narrative of older persons’ health care and ARC settings as an area that requires only
rudimentary nursing skills.

ISSN: 2189-101X

11

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

However, just supplying the year three ARC placement may not be enough to turn the tide.
As a team of senior BN teaching and leadership staff, we have become increasingly
concerned about the variety of experiences and learning outcomes reported by SNEs and year
three students through their placement evaluations, and in debriefing/moderation teammeetings. We therefore developed a formal research inquiry to investigate student
perceptions and experiences and the match, or mismatch, with classroom learning andpracticum preparation.
Research
The aim of this research was to increase our understanding of third year students’ perceptions
and experiences of ARC settings, and impact on their career aspirations. Specifically, we
asked;
1. Do ARC practicum experiences for year three BN students positively or negatively
influence their career choice as an RN in ARC?
2. What features of this experience can be enhanced to improve perceptions andexperiences of working in ARC?
Research Design
This study used a mixed method approach, collecting qualitative and quantitative data. Mixed
method research is the planned collection and integration of quantitative data via aquestionnaire and qualitative data using focus groups, within a single study or coordinatedcluster of studies (Creswell, 2012). The advantages of mixed method are complementarity(using more than a single research approach), practicality (to use a variety of tools to address
an important research question) and enhanced validity (multiple and complementary data
leads to more confidence in inferences). Qualitative data from the questionnaire and focus
groups enabled connected conversations that allowed us to capture complexities andsubtleties about student experiences, alongside numerical data about frequency.
Participants and data collection
Year three BN students were contacted via the year three Moodle (learning management
system) clinical page. Postings on the page informed them about the research and invitedthem to participate. Once they had read the participant information sheet and completed aconsent form, they could proceed to the questionnaire (Appendix 1) and/or volunteer toattend focus groups. Focus groups were held on each main campus in May and July 2021 andfacilitated by an educator from the nursing department who was not in the research team orengaged in ARC supervision or assessment. The audio-taped meetings with 8-10 students pergroup, lasted between 45-60 minutes and were scheduled over the student break, with lunch
and refreshments provided. A Māori Kaiako (teaching staff member) from the research teamand Department of Nursing provided support with students who identified as Māori to givefull feedback.
Data Analysis
Qualitative data from the questionnaire and focus groups were analysed using an inductive
approach which included:
1. Focus group audio data was transcribed by a member of the research team, while
another team member typed the questionnaire narrative data onto an excel spread

ISSN: 2189-101X

12

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

2.
3.
4.
5.

Official Conference Proceedings

sheet. According to Thomas (2006) this is an initial step in analysis of data thatcatches the fullest and richest data. The other benefits are the continuation ofconfidentiality as no other person is exposed to the raw data and is also a way for the
researcher to be further immersed in the data and develop awareness of issues ofimportance. Files are printed for all members of the research team.
Detailed reading of text: the transcribed data are read between the five researchers andunderstanding of the themes and phenomena in the text are identified and discussed.
Creation of categories: themes and/or categories are identified.
Overlapping coding and un-coded text: to reduce overlapping, text may be coded into
more than one category and text that is not relevant is not assigned to a category.
Continued revision/refinement: sub-topics, including contradictory viewpoints andadditional insights were identified. Appropriate quotes are agreed to communicate theessence of a category (Thomas, 2006, p. 241-2).

Quantitative questionnaire data analysis
Descriptive statistics (mean and standard deviation, pie charts and bar diagram) are usedbelow to report questionnaire data. Frequency, percentages, mean and range measurement
tools (Polit & Beck, 2018) aided analysis. Statistical software Stata was used to perform
quantitative analysis in this study.
Findings
Three quarters or 75% of our year three BN students responded to the questionnaire.

Figure 1: Pie chart of age distribution

ISSN: 2189-101X

13

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Figure 1 shows the age distribution of the participants showing the age group 21-30 had themost (52%) participants followed by the age groups 31-40 years, and under 20 years.
Length of time in BN
The largest group 86% identified three years in length of time they have spent in the BN, 8 %had spent two years (likely to be IQN who were granted recognition of prior learning to enter
into year two of the BN), 5.5% identified four year and one student had been enrolled for five
years in BN.
Work
The majority of the students (82%) did not work in ARC at this stage in the BN programme.
Of the 13 or 18 % of the students who identified they currently worked in ARC, three or 23%
worked fewer than 10 hours per week, seven or 54% worked 10-20 hours per week and threeor 23% worked over 20 hours per week in ARC as well as full time study in the BN.
Experience and change in perceptions
The participants were asked if their recent ARC experience increased their likelihood tochoose ARC as a place to work as a RN. The following two pie graphs indicate their
responses.

Figure 2: Pie chart -more likely to choose ARC

ISSN: 2189-101X

14

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Figure 3: Pie chart-less likely to choose ARC
Figure 2 shows that 68.12% of the participants said no when they were asked if they are more
likely to choose ARC. Yet when this question was posed as now less likely to choose ARC
the negative response was reduced to 59.38 % a difference of 8.74%. Similarly, the “morelikely to choose ARC” 28.99% in the first question increased to 37.5% (less likely – answerno) in the second question – difference of 8.51%. These findings contrast to what we
expected to find from their overall satisfaction and learning in this practicum experience. The
overall satisfaction level of the participants was moderate to high. However, the response tothis question presented in the pie charts (Figures 2 and 3) suggests that two-third of theparticipants were unlikely to choose ARC. One important finding was that over 30% ofparticipants perspectives shifted to a positive perception of working/choosing ARC as acareer option in the future, with a further 8% as a possible shift.
The next section of the quantitative data asked students to rate experiences, learning, and theability to apply key curriculum concepts to their professional practice in their ARC
practicum. A Likert scale (1: Least opportunity to apply/practice, 2. Somewhat able to apply
3: Mostly able to apply, 4: Excellent opportunity to apply/practice) was used to obtain student
responses. The data is presented in Table 1.

ISSN: 2189-101X

15

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Variables
Te Tiriti o Waitangi

Official Conference Proceedings

Table 1: Summary statistics
N (Obs.)
72

Mean
1.94

Std. Dev.
1.11

Managing older adults with complex conditions

73

2.67

1.05

Cultural safety

73

2.55

0.99

Assessment skills with the deteriorating patient

73

2.51

1.04

Leadership and management of care

73

2.29

1.09

Delegation and supervision

73

2.23

1.11

Advancing nursing practice – ethics, QI,

73

2.51

1.06

Advanced Care Planning

73

2.22

1.06

Advocating for your resident

73

2.52

0.93

Communication with the RN/CNL

73

2.85

1.00

Increase knowledge of disease management

73

2.34

1.04

Increased knowledge of medications

73

2.30

1.11

Overall Experience (mean ranking of experience on

73

2.41

0.74

above 12 items)

Table 1 above shows the summary statistics of the responses of the participants. A total of 12
closed questions were used to rate their satisfaction level with their ability to apply expectedskills and knowledge/learning (see appendix for survey questionnaire). An index was createdas an overall satisfaction level by taking simple averages of the 12 Likert scale questions. The
mean level of satisfaction of the different aspects of ARC practicum is satisfied to moderatesatisfaction except the ‘Te Tiriti o Waitangi’ aspect which shows satisfaction level was
relatively low. Overall, satisfaction level was moderate (2.41). The results also suggest thatthe highest level of satisfaction (2.85) was with ‘Communication with the RN/CNL.’
The mean satisfaction level helps us to find a potential answer to the RQ1 of this project andsuggests that the ARC practicum had an overall positive experience for the participants. Also,
this finding suggests that more work needs to be done to support learning and application of‘Te Tiriti o Waitangi’ to enhance the experience where satisfaction level was lowest and apotential area to further improve (a possible potential answer to the RQ2) expected skills andknowledge/learning.

ISSN: 2189-101X

16

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Difference between year one and year three
After the analysis of their learning, students were asked to identify what they achieved intheir ARC practicum experience that differed from their year one experience. Following
analysis, student comments reflected three areas: ‘Nursing and management of care skills’,‘Knowledge and thinking development’ and ‘the Role of the RN.’
A. Nursing and management of care skills
Students reported their ability to be more independent and confident (a boost from year one)with their nursing skills. They described better insights regarding professional skills,
treatments and medication calculation and administration. Greater exposure to complex
patients, focused assessments, wound dressings and care planning were also identified.
One student summarised… “Better insight regarding clinical skills, and a different range ofknowledge - just being a 3rd year student and having slightly more knowledge.”
B. Knowledge and thinking development
Students identified that learning by observation and interactions with patients, developing
critical thinking and learning about long term conditions provided better insights for care.
Developing de-escalation techniques and looking after residents with dementia led to more
confidence with their knowledge base.
A common theme reported by students related to… “taking more responsibility and looking
after complex patients.”
C. Role of the RN
Many comments reflected students developing their independence and working alongside an
RN. Learning leadership/delegation skills and a better upstanding of the role of the RN was
identified along with involvement with doctor’s visits/clinics and managerial function within
the role of RN and the paperwork required in ARC. The most frequent response was captured
by one student who said, “I have a better understanding of the role of the RN after ARC.”
Identified education and practice preparation
When considering their educational and practice preparation that supported their ARC
placements, students’ comments continued to reflect the same categories as identified above,‘Nursing and clinical skills,’ ‘knowledge and thinking development’; and ‘the Role of theRN.’
A. Nursing and clinical skills
Students reported learning/identifying usual ARC residents’ medical conditions,communicating with patients/ and common co-morbidities, alongside a mini-CAF[competence assessment framework – an assessment component], online resources/lectures,and working and learning from labs “helped a lot.”

ISSN: 2189-101X

17

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

De-escalation techniques e.g., ‘re-direct don’t correct’ and information for QI project[another assessment point] were identified. Being able to do manual/moving and handlingand medication/calculations/administration/rights was also mentioned.
One student summarised their learning, “…how to manage care with complex patients wasreally important.”
B. Knowledge and thinking development
The assessment essay for learning about complexities of care in one core course was citedalongside poly pharmacy, and general knowledge regarding common health issues
experienced by the older adult. One student reported that … “Prep was good, however, did
not really get a chance to solidify this learning at ARC.”
C. Role of the RN
Students gave some examples when considering their preparation in managing care, with one
student stating improved understanding of “how to assess if patient is about to give consent
due to cognitive decline” and “having previous acute care experience assisted my practice.”
Suggestions for improvement
The final question asked students to comment about ways educators and the organisation
could improve their ARC placement experiences.
Positive perceptions of student learning outcomes included the following student comments;“I was very privileged and staff encouraged me to do as much as possible -an awesome
placement as a year 3 students.” Another student signalled the importance of the RN: “somuch of the experience relates to the relationships you build with your RN. If you work
alongside a great RN, it is great placement.” Further student comments included, “Lovely
staff and patients in my ARC facility which made it enjoyable… Thank you for theopportunity. It really helped with my confidence since it was a place where we can direct ourown practice under RN supervision.”
Yet a number of students reported negative experiences relating to them not feeling valued,
such as “I felt unwelcome… and I was left alone for long periods of time” and “I felt
redundant to requirements.” There were issues within the agency as well: “I enjoyed agedcare but not the facility” and “I had good support, however the ARC facility I was at wasconsistently under staffed.” Students identified facilities where, “They [RN] seemed to lackunderstanding what students are allowed to do despite being advised” and “the nurses in
ARC are too busy to teach.”
Four students stated they didn’t think that an ARC placement is beneficial in year 3, with six
students suggesting removing this placement, for example the comment “Would be better tohave another hospital experience.” However, these more negative comments represent onlyaround 7% of respondents.

ISSN: 2189-101X

18

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Focus group findings
The focus group data from 38 participants concurred closely with the comments students
made in their questionnaire responses, both positive and negative, about their ARC
experiences. Many responses focused on their ability to provide care, and relationships with
RNs and clinical nurse leaders (CNL) and being used as care assistance to support illness andreduced staffing. The impact of senior nursing leadership and management was again referred
to, with students describing nurse managers across a continuum of support - from welcoming
and working to ensure learning opportunities were provided, to being office-based with little
engagement with students. Across the four focus groups students reported their own andothers’ suboptimal experiences captured in the questionnaire feedback addressed earlier.
The detailed analysis of the focus group findings is the subject of an additional paper (Foster
et al, in review – 2023).
Conclusion
In undertaking this mixed method research, we wanted to extend our understanding about
year three BN students’ perceptions, experiences and learning in an ARC setting. Our
challenge was to make sense of the difference between the students’ recording of high overallsatisfaction in identifying knowledge and skills generation, yet the persistent reporting, as in
the literature, that two-thirds of graduating nurses were unlikely to choose ARC as a practicesetting. However, more than 30% of participants did report a shift to a positive perception ofworking/choosing ARC as a career option in the future, with a further 8% still considering
this. It appears that most of this difference was due to students’ professional interactions with
RNs and student nurse educators, as well as nursing leadership experiences. This study
suggests that educational and practicum preparation requires significant improvements toensure that these positive experiences are consistent across all ARC practicum experiences.
Based on our finding the research team recommend the following;
1. Improve understanding of contributions of year three students “RNs need a clear
picture of what we are there to do” and that “more education of facility staff isneeded”
2. Facility support – Students called for “More access to resources and qualified
nurses”; our response is to suggest an increase of SNE hours for more onsite guidance
and facilitation of both student and RN learning and development
3. Preceptor training for RN - Students told us, “There is limited independence andlearning, … there was little we could do to advance our nursing practice”
4. Salary and professional development initiatives to attract more graduates to thesector
5. Campaigns to share the skill mix and importance of ARC work
The data gathered in this research contributes to developing a better understanding of how
and when ARC placements support student learning, their importance in the BN curricula andthe contribution of ARC to the national and international health sector. This knowledge ofBN students’ perceptions of the ARC sector, as well as identifying factors that may dissuade
them seeking employment, impacts the way nurse educators and the ARC sector prepare andplan for practicum experience, recognising that new graduates are a key future workforce.

ISSN: 2189-101X

19

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Such recognition of the advanced skillset required by RNs may contribute to a cultural shift
to increase desirability to work in ARC. Our future as aging people depends on this!

Acknowledgements
We would like to thank the Toi Ohomai research office for supporting this research, the year
three students who participated and the aged residential care providers for their ongoingsupport of student learning.

ISSN: 2189-101X

20

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Appendix 1 – Questionnaire - Nursing students experience in aged residential care
(ARC) placements as third year undergraduate students
This questionnaire is designed for year three BN students at Toi Ohomai who have completed
NURS. 7116b practicum. We expect the questionnaire will take approximately 15 minutes tocomplete. All data will be confidential and no personal details are required thus noidentifying features are sought.
By completing this questionnaire, you are confirming that you have read the participant
information sheet and giving your consent for the data you provided to be collated analysed
and reported.
After analysis, this completed questionnaire will be scanned and kept in a password protected
electronic file for three years then destroyed.
We appreciate your assistance with this research project. Thank you.
A. Background - biographical1.

Age – year band in decades

2.

Ethnicity

3.

How long have you been a BN student?
••••

Two years
Three years
Four years
More

4. Do you currently work in ARC outside of your BN programme?
Yes noIf no, please disregard the next question
5. How many hours per week do you work?
Less than 10hrs
10-15hrs
More than 20hrs
B. Experience as year three ARC placement
6. What did you achieve as a year three student in your ARC practicum experience
which was different to your year one experience? (Comment box)
7. What aspects of your preparation for this practicum was the most helpful?
(Comment box)
8. What aspects of your preparation was least helpful? (Comment box)

ISSN: 2189-101X

21

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

9. Please rate your experiences in your third year ARC placement relating to applying
the following components of year three professional practice requirements.
Likert scale (1-4)
a. Te Tiriti o Waitangib. Managing older adults with complex conditions
c. Cultural safety
d. Development of advancing assessment skills with the deteriorating resident?
e. Leadership and management of caref. Delegation and supervision
g. Advancing nursing practice – ethics, QI,
h. Advanced Care Planning
i. Advocating for your resident
j. Communication with the RN/CNL
k. Increased knowledge of disease management and medications
10. In what way, if any, do you think your ARC practicum experience in year three
could be improved? (Comment box)
11. Has your ARC experience increased your likelihood of choose ARC as a place towork as an RN? (Comment box)
12. Has your ARC experience decreased your likelihood of choose ARC as a place towork as an RN? (Please explain -Comment box)
13. Has your perception of working in ARC changed? Comment box

14. Is there anything you would like to add as feedback from your ARC practicum?
(Comment box)

ISSN: 2189-101X

22

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

References
Abbey, J., Abbey, B., Bridges, P., Elder, R., Lemcke, P., & Thornton, R., (2006). Clinicalplacements in residential care facilities: the impact in nursing students’ perceptions ofaged care and effect on career plans. Australian Journal of Adv. Nursing 23(4), 14-19.
Algoso, M., Peters, K., Ramjam, L., & East, L. (2016). Exploring undergraduate nursing
students' perceptions of working aged care settings: A review of the literature. Nurse
Education Today, 36, 275-280.
Boyd, M., Connolly, M., kerse, N., Foster, S., von Randow, M., Lay-Yee, R.m Chelimo, C.,
Broad, J., Whitehead, N., Walters-Puttick, S (2009). Changes in Aged Care residents’Charasteristics and Dependency in Auckland 1988-2008. Findings from OPAL 10/9/8
Olderpersons’ Ability Level Census. Report. Department of Gertatric Medicine,
Faculty of Medical and Health Sciences, University of Auckland.
Brown, J., Nolan, M., Davies, S., Nolan, J., Keady, J., (2008). Transforming students viewsof gerontological nursing: realising the potential of “enriched” environments oflearning and care: a multimodal longitudinal study. International Journal Nursing
studies 45(8), 1214-1232.
Cheng, M., Cheng, C., Tian, Y., &Fan, X. (2015). Student nurses’ motivation to choose
gerontological nursing as a career in China: A survey study. Nurse Education Today
35,843-848 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.nedt.2015.03.001
Creswell, J. W. (2012). Educational research: Planning, conducting, and evaluating
quantitative and qualitative research (4th ed.). Pearson.
Evers, C., Ploeg, J., & Kaasalainen, S. (2011). Case study of the attitudes and values ofnursing students toward caring for older adults. Journal of Nursing Education, 50(7),404-409.
Foster, P. (2019). What undergraduate nurse education actually teaches student nurses about
people named as older: A Foucauldian discourse analysis. [Unpublished doctoral
dissertation]. Auckland University of Technology.
Happell, B. (1999). When I grow up, I want to be a…? Where undergraduate student nurses
want to work after graduation. J Adv Nursing, 29(2),499-505.
https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2648.1999.00913.x
Happell, B. (2002). Nursing home employment for nursing students: valuable experience of aharsh deterrent? J Adv Nursing 39(6): 529-36. doi: 10.1046/j.1365-2648.2002.02321
Henderson, J., Xiao, L., Siegloff, L., Kelton, M., & Paterson, J. (2008). 'Older people have
lived their lives': first year nursing students' attitudes towards older people.
Contemporary Nurse: A Journal for the Australian Nursing Profession, 30(1), 32-45 .
https://doi:10.5172/conu.673.30.1.32
Hughes, F. (2020). Building a sustainable nursing workforce for age related residential careservices. Chair, NZACA Nursing Leadership Group, June 22.

ISSN: 2189-101X

23

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Hunt, G., Verstappen, A., Stewart, L., Kool, B., & Stark, J. (2020). Career interests ofundergraduate nursing student: A ten-year longitudinal study. Nurse Education in
Practice, 43(1) https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nepr.2020.102702
Koh, L. (2012). Student attitudes and educational support in caring for older people- A
review of the literature. Nurse Education in Practice, 12, 16-20.
Lea, E., Marlow, A., Altman, E., Courtney-Pratt, H. (2017). Nursing students preferences forclinical placement in the residential aged care setting. Journal of Clinical Nursing, 27,
143-152. DOI: 10.1111/jocn.13859n
Liu, Y., Norman, I., & While, A. (2013). Nurses' attitudes towards older people: a systematic
review. International Journal of Nursing Studies, 50, 1271-1282.
Mc Alister, M., Ryan, C., Dodd, L., Goldenberg, M., & Brien, D. (2020). A thematic
literature review of innovative strategies to prepare nursing students for aged care.
Nurse Education Today, 87. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nedt.2020.104355
Mc Kenzie, E., & Brown, P. (2014). Nursing students’ intentions to work in dementia care:
Influence of age, ageism and perceived barriers. Educational Gerontology,40: 618633 DOI:10.1080/03061277.2013.863545
Moquin, H., Seneviratne, C., & Venturato, L., (2018). From Apprehension to advocacy: aqualitative study of undergraduate nursing student experience in clinical placement inresidential aged care. BMC Nursing, 17 (8): 2-11.
New Zealand Health and Disability System Review (2019). Interim report. Author
https://www.health.govt.nz/system/files/documents/publications/h-and-d-full-interimreport-august-2019.pdf
Nursing Council of New Zealand. (2016). Competencies for registered nurses. Author.
Nursing Council of New Zealand. (2018). The 2005/2006 and 2012/2013 Nursing Cohort
Report A longitudinal study of New Zealand and Internationally Qualified Nurses.
Nursing Council of New Zealand.
NZ Aged Care Association (2022). Aged residential care: Industry Profile 2021-2022.
https://nzaca.org.nz/wp-content/uploads/2022/03/NZACA-ARC-Industry-Profile2021-22.pdf
Polit, D. & Beck, C. (2018). Essentials of nursing research: Appraising evidence for nursing
practice, (9th Ed.), Wolters Kluwer.
Robinson, A., Andrews-Hall, S., Cubit, K., Fassett, M., Venter, L., Menzies, B., Jongeling,L., (2008) Attracting students to aged care: the impact of a supportive orientation.
Nurse Education Today, 28(3), 354-362.
Rodgers, V., & Gilmour, J. (2011). Shaping student nurses’ attitudes towards older people
through learning and experience. Nursing Praxis in New Zealand, 27 (3), 13-20.

ISSN: 2189-101X

24

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Thomas, D. R. (2006). A general inductive approach for analyzing qualitative evaluation
data. American Journal of Evaluation, 27(2), 237-246.
Toi Ohomai Institute of Technology. (2020). NURS.7116 Nga hiahia uaua nursing practice:Complex needs. Author.
Van Iersel, M., Latour, C., de Vos, R., Kirschner, P., Scholte op Reimer, W. (2018.)
Perceptions of Community care and placement preferences in first-year nursing
students: A multicentre, cross-sectional study. Nurse Education today, 60, 92-97.
DOI: 10.1016/j.nedt.2017.09.016
Wilkinson, J., Neville, S., Huntington, A., & Watson, P. (2016). Factors that influence newgraduates’ preferences for speciality areas. Nursing Praxis in New Zealand, 32 (1) 819.
World Health Organization (2012). Good health adds life to years: Global brief for World
Health Day 2012. Author.

Contact email: Judith.honeyfield@toiohomai.ac.nz

ISSN: 2189-101X

25

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

ISSN: 2189-101X

26

Official Conference Proceedings

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Make the World a Better Place: Design Skills in an Academic Context

Carla Cadete, HEI-Lab Center–Lusófona University, Portugal

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023
Official Conference Proceedings

Abstract
This article aims to present a pedagogical practice carried out in an academic context with
undergraduate students from the 2nd year of the Communication Design course at Lusófona
University (UL) in the second semester of 2021/22. A proposal that provides continuity to a
project developed in the 1st semester in partnership with this NGO. A collaborative
endeavour to help build a school in Monte Chimoio, Manica, Mozambique, through acollection of design artefacts for fundraising – T-shirts and sweatshirts for different ages andgenders, hats, key holders and tote bags. The creative process was done using the Design
Thinking methodology (problem definition, project ideation, prototyping and implementationof the chosen proposal). The article is divided into four parts: Introduction, literature review,
work methodology and final considerations. The President of the NGO will take part in thelast step of the creative process by selecting for print the best propositions. This pedagogical
exercise proved to be an opportunity for students to engage in a real-life project with thepossibility of applying the tools and methods learned in the course. Design scholars must
motivate and prepare design students to work on projects that contribute to society and torecognise the role design plays in social issues — a Design practice through co-working that
educates students to use design processes to support positive social change giving them theability to be part of a project with a cause.

Keywords: Design Skills for a Better World, Pedagogical Practice, Design Educators,
Collaborative Projectiafor
The International Academic Forumwww.iafor.org

ISSN: 2189-101X

27

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Introduction
A collaborative project was developed to help build a school in Monte Chimoio, Manica,
Mozambique village. The briefing proposed a collection of design artefacts for sale andfundraising, such as T-shirts and sweatshirts for different ages and genders, caps, key holders
and tote bags. A project carried out by The Big Hand, a non-governmental organisation(NGO) that promotes the well-being of children living under unfavourable environmental
conditions, with particular attention to orphan girls, ensuring their access to education,
healthcare, nutrition, water and basic sanitation. The Big Hand believes that children raised ina healthy environment can change the world. Also, it believes in a world where all children
are treated with dignity, in a world that protects its children, guaranteeing them access tonutrition, water, sanitation, health, shelter, information and quality education that allows
them to reach their full potential and in that way they contribute to their community and theworld. It works in partnership with communities, local organisations and governments.
This design project was a co-creation started from the collaboration between the Academy(ULP) and The Big Hand. For this purpose, a partnership protocol was established between
both institutions in January 2022.
Design scholars must motivate and prepare design students to work on projects helping thosein need of a better world. This proposed briefing offers a concrete opportunity for design
students’ immersion in a specific context through co-working, building empathy with others,
and learning by doing.
Design skills for the common good and the importance of collaborative project
Design scholars must motivate, prepare and challenge design students to work with realprojects to help those in need. Today's world faces unprecedented problems: “Phenomena
such as terrorism, climate change, immigration, cybercrime, poverty or malnutrition can nolonger be truly understood without considering the complex socio-technical systems that
support our way of living.” (Tromp & Hekkert, 2021, p.1). According to Alice Rawsthorn e
Paola Antonelli, “Design is not a miracle cure, but is a powerful tool that can help us toaddress these issues if applied sensitively and responsibly.” (Rawsthorn & Antonelli, 2022,
p.12). Design scholars must cultivate an approach to social issues and promote the value ofdesign to inspire and prepare the next design generation as changemakers. Design must be
used to impact positive social change. “As methods and tools make developing a business,
program, or project more accessible, designers can actively use their amazing talents to
educate and inform, fight injustice, build community, and make the world a better place”(Heller & Vienne, 2018, p.76).
According to Rawsthorn & Antonelli, “An essential first step is to ensure that design is seen,
both inside and outside the design community, as capable of addressing complex problems,
rather than continuing to be confused with styling” (2022, p.13). Additionally, “ (…)
designers worldwide are committed to working for the greater good of all communities,
geographies, and species, and making all our lives fairer, safer, healthier, and more enjoyable,
productive, and inclusive” (Rawsthorn & Antonelli, 2022, p.15).
How can a teacher challenge students and stimulate them toward social issues? How canstudents feel stimulated? My experience of 17 years in teaching has shown me that realprojects are the best solution. Working with local Associations or NGOs has always been a

ISSN: 2189-101X

28

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

great challenge for students, who commit and dedicate themselves with great enthusiasm tothe projects.
When you are a student or professional, and you want to improve the world, how do
you do that? You concentrate on a problem that speaks to and motivates you andallow yourself to be inspired and challenged, giving it all you have. You have to offer
the abilities you have built up through experience – the skills, knowledge, methods
and tools of your profession, strengths, and qualities. (Tromp & Hekkert, 2021, p.xii)
As an academic today, many students and professionals want to make a difference in theworld and wish to use design to counteract social issues. It is urgent to motivate students bymaking them feel valuable in today's society, using design as a social agent of change “ (…)
called upon designers to move away from commercial design and instead be responsive to
people´s ‘true needs’ ” (Tromp & Hekkert, 2021, p.8).
As Papanek “(…) explicitly called for designers to move away from commercial business,and this may have motivated some designers to work with NGOs rather than support
commercial interests.” (Tromp & Hekkert, 2021, p.12). According to him, “(…) integrate
ethical considerations and social values into the design discipline, and use design for what
Papanek referred to as real needs.” (Tromp & Hekkert, 2021, p.12). It is necessary to teachour students to use the tools that design has at their disposal not only for the creation ofservices or objects for merely economic purposes but also for the service of the planet andsociety, in the hope of contributing to a better world; and “From this perspective, design is an
instrument of power. It is the art of inventing and shaping two, three, and four-dimensional
forms intended to satisfy needs, wants and desires, thereby effecting changes in the attitudes,
beliefs, and actions of others” (Buchanan & Margolin, 1995, p.48).
Buckminster Fuller1 (1895-1983) was recognised for his comprehensive perspective on theworld’s problems. He developed pioneering solutions that reflected his commitment to thepotential of innovative design to create technology that does “more with less” and thereby
improves human lives. During the 1940s, he began to teach and lecture at universities,
including Harvard and MIT, and in the late 1950s, he became a professor at Southern Illinois
University (SIU). At Black Mountain College, he proposed to the students to help him
develop a design formula with which anyone could construct lightweight domed structures ofdifferent sizes and for diverse terrains, aiming to create a new type of emergency shelter – ageodesic dome. Since then, “Millions of geodesic domes have since been constructedworldwide. As well as providing emergency housing for people who might otherwise havebeen homeless.” This home solution was developed after world war II (Rawsthorn &Antonelli, 2022, p.8).
Ezio Manzini has played an essential role in developing a design for social innovation as ascholar and active member of the DESIS network. “Manzini articulates how design can
support global transformations towards more sustainable futures” (Tromp & Hekkert, 2021,
p.16).
Moholy-Nagy recognised Design as “a powerful force in society by acting as an efficient andingenious agent of change, free from commercial constraints” (Rawsthorn, 2020, p.9).

1

https://www.bfi.org/about-fuller/biography/

ISSN: 2189-101X

29

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

This briefing was an opportunity to design students’ immersion in a specific context througha collaborative project, building empathy with others, learning by doing and ensuring theright to education for Manica children. With this project, design played an essential role as asocial agent of change, raising community awareness and generating support to build aschool in Mozambique. “Empathy, the ability to understand other people, or put simply as
being able to ‘walk in another’s shoes, is a key attribute for all socially-oriented activities(…)” (Scharoun, Hills, Montana-Hoyos, Peng & Sung, 2020 p.3).
Work Methodology
In the second semester of 2021/22, students from the 2nd year of Communication Design
Bachelor in the module of Communication Design II were challenged to use creative design
artefacts for sale and fundraising, aiming to help a non-governmental organisation (NGO)that promotes the well-being of children living under unfavourable environmental conditions,ensuring their access to education, healthcare and nutrition.
Client: The Big Hand, an NGO based in Lisbon, Portugal.
Briefing: A collection of design artefacts for sale and fundraising – T-shirts and sweatshirtsfor different ages and genders, caps, key holders and tote bags for sale and fundraising tobuild a school in Monte Chimoio, Manica, Mozambique. Students had five weeks to work on
this project (2 classes a week/3, hours each). The creative process was done through the
Design Thinking methodology in the following order: problem definition, ideation, prototype
and implementation (problem-solution) (Lupton & Philipps, 2011).
1. Problem definition: In the beginning, President David Fernandes presented the NGO andthe briefing through videoconference. The objectives and the target were taken into account(T-shirts for all ages from babies to adults, sweatshirts for teenagers and tote bags, caps,
backpacks, critical holders for all), available time (five weeks), proposal (Creative design
artefacts for sale and fundraising to build a school in Mozambique), and a schedule withdates for the first-term, mid-term, and final-term assessment.
2. Ideation and Prototype: ideas were generated with tools such as words, images, colours
and shapes through brainstorming, keywords, action verbs, brain dumping, a mind map and amood board. Students presented the creative process and ideas with several drawings in thesketchbook. A practice that generates more ideas. Brainstorming is an exercise that starts
with a divergent approach to creating an extensive range of options. According to Brown,“When I use drawing to express an idea, I get different results than if I try to express it withwords, and I usually get to them more quickly” (Brown, 2009, p.81), (Figs.1 and 2).
Each proposal’s strengths and weaknesses were analysed to find the most effective way offulfilling the initial goal. Design tools, such as colour, contrast, balance, typography,
legibility, composition, scales and materials, were considered considering that the campaign
will contain a message that needs to be strong but easily understood. This phase was vital toguide students’ work and advise them accordingly, as practice-oriented initiatives are crucialin Design teaching. This phase requires exceptional guidance from the teacher, as theteacher’s experience allows them to draw attention to certain aspects that often go unnoticed
by younger students. Students had difficulty composing the graphic elements in the roll-up
because it is extended support in height but narrow in width. This is why, at this stage, aninterim presentation and evaluation were carried out, where these factors are highlighted and

ISSN: 2189-101X

30

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

usually surpassed. During the creative process, meeting groups facilitate dialogue and shareideas rather than issuing instructions. Creating a collaborative class is a way to learn throughengaging students, sharing insights, and gathering feedback from the group. A collaborative
process where everyone involved benefits from a positive discussion where solutions arefound and sometimes lost ideas are rescued.

Figs. 1 and 2 – Ideation phase: mind map and visual brain dumping from
Sarah Nogueira and Danielly Correia.
The tripTo complement the project developed in the Design classes, on May 25th, 2022, a trip was
prepared to a graphic company that produces and prints graphic material for fully customised
merchandising – Nobrinde. In terms of merchandising production, the company can workwith several quantities and materials available in the market: glass, ceramics, textiles,
acrylics, paper, wood and metal technology, and also several types of merchandisingproducts/gifts to order, such as T-shirts, sweatshirts, caps, handbags, backpacks, pencils,
pens, USBs, agendas, flags, and others.
Positive aspects: The trip took place during the ideation phase, a decision that allowed
students to have an opportunity to understand all the manufacturing and printing process—achance to ask questions and become enlightened to decide based on costs and production
time. Also, the fact that the proposed work is intended for a real client and, in particular, witha humanitarian purpose increased the students' commitment and encouraged them to work
closely together to create the best design proposed. During this activity, teams tested ideas inan exploratory process to increase the number of solutions and find the best one (Figs. 3,4
and 5).
3. Prototype: Testing ideas through an exploratory process. Different materials andtechniques were tested to find the best proposals. In this term, students presented theadvantages and disadvantages of each possible solution in a convergent approach after testing
their ideas (Figs. 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 and 13).

ISSN: 2189-101X

31

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Figs. 3, 4 and 5 – Trip to Nobrinde, producing and printing graphic material forfully customised merchandising.

Figs. 6, 7 and 8 – Sarah Nogueira and Danielly Correa.

Figs. 9, 10 and 11 – Luis Góis and Gustavo Santos.

ISSN: 2189-101X

32

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Figs. 12 and 13 – Hugo Carvalho and Pedro Herbstrith Saboya created
The Big Dreamers alphabet.
4. Implementation (problem-solution): The final solution was developed, finished, andpresented with the creative process, and all the steps were justified accordingly. The final
assessment considered creativity, relevance, impact, and legibility (Figs. 14, 15, 16, 17, 18,
19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29 and 30).
After the teacher conducted this evaluation in the classroom through an oral presentation, asession was scheduled with the NGO President where students presented their proposals via
videoconference. One will be selected to be implemented (Figs.31 and 32).

Figs. 14, 15, 16 and 17 – Luis Góis and Gustavo Santos.

Figs. 18 and 19 – Luis Góis and Gustavo Santos.

ISSN: 2189-101X

33

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Figs. 20 and 21 – Luis Góis and Gustavo Santos.

Figs. 22, 23 and 24 – Hugo Carvalho and Pedro Herbstrith Saboya.

Figs. 25, 26 and 27 – Hugo Carvalho and Pedro Herbstrith Saboya.

ISSN: 2189-101X

34

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Figs. 28, 29 and 30 – Sarah Nogueira and Danielly Correa.

Figs. 31 and 32 – Luis Góis and Gustavo Santos presented their work via
videoconference to the NGO President.
Conclusion and Final Considerations
This briefing offers a concrete opportunity for design students’ immersion in a specificcontext through co-working, building empathy with others, learning by doing and helping
those in need. In Communication Design bachelor's at Lusófona University, we believe
design students must develop sensitivity to social issues. This pedagogical practice proved to
be an opportunity for design students to have an immersive design project that focuses on a
specific social situation and the possibility of applying the tools and methods learned in the
curriculum course. Design scholars must motivate and prepare students to work on projects
helping those in need for a better world. Students must believe that design should play a rolein social issues, such as equity and social justice. Also, an opportunity to prepare students forthe real working world by engaging through innovative practices for real problems andpreparing them for the challenges they will face. This academic project that goes beyond
traditional university practices was an opportunity to develop core skills for the workplace. A
chance to visit a factory that produces and prints merchandising objects, to ask questions, andbecome enlightened to decide based on costs and production time. This collaborative work
allowed students to see their work published and sold to support a social project. It proved to
be an opportunity for students to engage in real-life work with the possibility of applying thetools and methods learned in the course.

ISSN: 2189-101X

35

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Acknowledgements
This work was funded by Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia (FCT) under HEI-Lab R&D
Unit (UIDB/05380/2020).

ISSN: 2189-101X

36

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

References
Brown, Tim (2009). Change By Design: How Design Thinking Transforms Organisations
and Inspires Innovation. New York: Harper Collins.
Buchanan, R., Margolin, V. (1995). Discovering Design – Explorations in Design Studies.
The University of Chicago Press, 1995.
Krucken, L., Mouchrek , N.(2008). Design as an agent of change: Practice-oriented initiatives
on Design Teaching. . Cuadernos del Centro de Estudios de Diseño y Comunicación2(80):125,
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/325193892_Design_as_an_agent_of_change_Practice-oriented_initiatives_on_Design_Teaching DOI:10.18682/cdc.vi80.3699
Lupton, Ellen; Philipps, J. (2011). Graphic design thinking: Beyond brainstorming. New
York: Princeton Architectural Press.
Moholy-Nagy, L. (1947). Vision in Motion. Paul Theobald & Co, Chicago, Illinois.
Rawsthorn, A. (2020). Design as an Attitude. Clément Dirié. JRP, Editions & Les Presses duRéel.
Rawsthorn, A., Antonelli, P. (2022). Design Emergency – Building a Better Future. London:
Phaidon Press Limited.
Resnick, E. (2019). The Social Design Reader. London: Bloomsbury.
Scharoun, L.; Hills D.; Hoyos, C.M.; Peng, F.; Vivien, V. (2020). Cross-Cultural Design for
Healthy Ageing. University of Chicago Press.
Tromp, N., Hekkert, P. (2021). Designing for Society. London: Bloomsbury Publishing.

ISSN: 2189-101X

37

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

ISSN: 2189-101X

38

Official Conference Proceedings

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Working in the Pacific, Working in Asia:
The Challenges of Sustaining International Partnerships in a Pandemic
Cath Fraser, Te Pūkenga–New Zealand Institute of Skills and Technology, New Zealand
Judith Honeyfield, Te Pūkenga–New Zealand Institute of Skills and Technology,
New Zealand
The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023
Official Conference Proceedings
Abstract
In early 2020, members of the international, nursing and research teams at Toi Ohomai
Institute of Technology, New Zealand, met with a number of education and practiceproviders in China, to explore an education and research collaboration. These discussions
facilitated the establishment of the Sino-New Zealand Aged Healthcare Association(SNZAH) which currently has 15 inaugural New Zealand members including academic staff,
medical and healthcare practitioners, and aged care professionals. Membership is growing
with the launch of a website, and interest from other Chinese universities and technicalinstitutes. The advent and impact of COVID-19 has certainly stymied our progress. However,
our early adoption of cultural lens theory as a way of understanding one another’s contexts
and drivers has enabled us to ‘keep calm and carry on’, and even begin to thrive. We haveconducted an initial iterative review into good practice in aged healthcare in New Zealandand achieved several co-authored research publications; we have held an online symposiumwith simultaneous translation options; and we have established a Learning Centre in Chengdu– all from our New Zealand base, and despite a raft of challenges. This paper outlines theroles of effective leadership and management in pursuing goals of internationalisation, when
all the usual protocols of relationship-building have had to be revisited. We are alsointerested in connecting with readers who may be involved in similar collaborations in theaged healthcare and nursing sector.
Keywords: Aged Healthcare, Internationalisation, International Research Collaboration

iafor
The International Academic Forumwww.iafor.org

ISSN: 2189-101X

39

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Introduction
Aotearoa New Zealand is a trade-dependent country, and our economic relationship with
China is our second largest, following our close exchange of goods and services with ournearest neighbour Australia. The New Zealand–China Free Trade Agreement (FTA) signed in2008 (and further upgraded in 2016) was China's first FTA with a developed country. China
is one of the world’s fastest-growing economies and its vast population and growing middle
class represent huge potential for our much tinier nation. Alongside our agricultural andforestry exports, education and tourism links have been growing steadily: prior to the arrivalof Covid-19, around 450,000 Chinese tourists, and 40,000 Chinese students visited New
Zealand annually (Ministry of Foreign Affairs & Trade, 2022).
New Zealand’s providers of higher education have also pursued partnerships with Chinese
universities and technical institutes, to progress research, collaboration and knowledge
sharing through seminars, visitor exchanges, conferences, and collaborative research. This
paper is an account of one such partnership, the Sino-New Zealand Aged Healthcare
Association (SNZAH). Naturally the member institutes are interested in the inherent
opportunities for profit generated through programme offerings, consultancy, and bilateralcommercialisation ventures. However, first and foremost, SNZAH was born from an interestin the trade of ideas and good practice.
The following sections outline the SNZAH international partnership, and its context: theshared challenge of planning effective and emancipatory healthcare for an ageing population.
Next, we discuss New Zealand’s unique bi-cultural environment, which was one of the key
interest areas for our Chinese partners, and how a cultural lens methodology has been an
integral element within SNZAH. We then describe our progress to date, including research
outputs, an online symposium with simultaneous translation, and a new China-based learning
centre. These achievements have been hard-won, despite the restrictions and shock of aworldwide pandemic which has arguably affected China more than any other nation. We
hope that some of our experiences and learnings will be transferable to likeminded colleagues
in their own collaborative endeavours.
The SNZAH initiative
In early 2020, members of the international, nursing and research teams at our New Zealandinstitute of technology met with a visiting delegation of education and practice providers
from China, to explore an education and research collaboration. Visits to these organisations
had occurred in the previous year with an international consultant and senior nursing
department staff. Discussions at these meetings focused on health workforce development
and positive ageing for older people The resultant SNZAH association was formed with 15
New Zealand members including academic staff, medical and healthcare practitioners, andaged care professionals. A number of Chinese nursing education providers were either earlysignatories or expressed an interest in considering joining the venture once the threat of
Covid-19 had passed – although three years on, Covid remains an ongoing challengeinternationally. Present or potential Chinese partners include Chengdu University, Sichuan
Vocational College of Health and Education, China Medical University, and Jinjiang College(part of Sichuan University). We have also commenced discussion with representatives of theprestigious Peking University, Beijing (Honeyfield et al., 2021).

ISSN: 2189-101X

40

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

In addition to the delays Covid-19 has wrought, a compounding challenge is noted in the
backdrop of New Zealand’s higher education ecosystem. A large-scale transformation known
as the Reform of Vocational Education (RoVE) is currently underway, which will see theamalgamation of 16 legacy institutes of technology and polytechnics into a single new entity:
Te Pūkenga – New Zealand Institute of Skills and Technology. Alongside systemic changes toevery level of operations, including curricula, assessment and service provision, Te Pūkenga
now assumes responsibility for all international enterprises established by the previously
independent subsidiaries. The Memorandum of Understanding signed with Chengdu
University to establish a learning centre on behalf of SNZAH (described later in this paper)
was Te Pūkenga’s very first undertaking in this arena.
The account which follows describes SNZAH’s activities and achievements to date. The
association’s key role is to act as an important link with key China health and education
provider-partners, to share skills and knowledge and facilitate education at certificate,
diploma, degree and postgraduate levels studies in aged healthcare. The Association’s statedobjectives are to promote:
1. Research and evidence-based practice in aged healthcare
2. Educational programme design, development, and delivery at all levels
3. Human resource, leadership, and management capability
4. Supportive built environments and infrastructure (www.snzah.org)
The ageing population: an international concern
The world’s population is ageing, and in virtually every country in the world the population
aged 65 and over is growing faster than all other age groups. The United Nations (2022)
forecasts that by 2050, one in six people in the world will be over age 65 (16%), up from one
in 10 in 2022 (10%). Further, the number of persons aged 80 years or over is projected totriple, to 426 million in 2050. Healthcare and long-term care systems will become
increasingly critical.
Yet despite this growing demand for gerontology services and specialists, multiple studies are
testifying to a looming crisis in the personnel pipeline (Gawande, 2014; King et al., 2011).
Simply put, nurses, and nursing students, show a persistent disinclination to specialise in thisarea (Wilkinson et al., 2016). Our recent review of the literature for SNZAH (Honeyfield etal., 2021, p. 59) includes this illustrative account:
When the American Journal of Gerontological Nursing (Your turn, 2001) asked its
readers for suggestions to improve recruitment of students into nursing programmes
focused on elder care, the published correspondence noted a range of barriers:“…gerontology is at the bottom of the heap [due to] Western society’s emphasis on
the culture of youth”; “Nursing home experiences are poorly mentored and many
instructors have an attitude of ‘let’s get this over with’”; “geriatric nursing is stillviewed as ‘the place where lousy nurses go’”; and “Gerontological nurses are
overworked, undercompensated (e.g. money, benefits), understaffed and often work in
outdated facilities with shoddy equipment.” (pp. 44-45)
Ageism in healthcare, as a stereotyped and discriminatory response, has remained relatively
unchanged over the last 20 years (Foster, 2021), and can be defined as judging an entire
population group based on one shared characteristic (Fisher, 2018). Such bias, whether
conscious or not, is clearly against the interests of the older person, and can lead to

ISSN: 2189-101X

41

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

disrespect; disempowerment and neglect (Rodgers & Gilmour, 2011). For nursing
practitioners and students, such negative constructs, if unchallenged, will continue to see a
shortage of nurses selecting aged healthcare as a preferred career pathway: a huge concern forgovernments, hospitals and communities (Parker et al., 2021).
Worldwide, there is a growing call for a paradigm shift (for example, Gawande (2014) in
America; Song and Tang (2019) in Japan, and Rodgers et al. (2017) in New Zealand.
Increasingly, accounts of successful re-alignment of care philosophy, revisited policies andprocedural guidelines, and individualised quality care experience for those in the end stagesof life are being sought, and shared. This is one way in which New Zealand can contributevalue to our much larger Chinese partners, through the framework provided by SNZAH. Our
country already has a ‘wellness’ orientation, with a vision for all New Zealanders to live well,stay well, and get well (MOH, 2016) and to ensure New Zealand is a great place to age(MSD, 2019). Overall, New Zealand’s health system has many strengths, and our people areliving longer and healthier lives, with generally high levels of self-rated health and wellbeing
and good access to acute and emergency care (NZHDSR, 2020). Of course, there are still
inequities and failures, and a considerable way to go, but we have made a start (NZHDSR,
2020).
The Aotearoa New Zealand cultural context, and the connection with ageing
Culture, says Statistics New Zealand (2009), is:a general way of life that contributes to national identity and society. [It is also] theshared knowledge, values, and practices of specific groups…Cultural expression andparticipation contribute to individual well-being and sense of belonging. The
expression of, and respect for, cultural practices, language, and beliefs is part of asocially cohesive society. These expressions of culture are sustained by being passed
down generations, and through the protection of heritage. (p. 127)
The bi-lingual, full name of our country reflects its dual heritage of indigenous and westerncultures, languages and world-views. By placing their language first, we acknowledge Māorias tangata whenua, the original people of the land. The symbolism of this convention isrepresentative of our present-day efforts to live in a bi-cultural nation, respecting the values
and wisdoms of each people. Our founding agreement, Te Tiriti o Waitangi (the Treaty of
Waitangi), was signed by representatives of the British Government, and 46 Māori rangatirain 1840 (Orange, 2012). Despite disputed wording and different versions, Te Tiriti is integral
to contemporary life in our country; its signing is commemorated by a public holiday, it istaught in schools and is widely referenced in all spheres of public life, including healthcare
provision.
Redress for wrongs perpetrated against Māori in colonial times are ongoing and necessary. In
health, as in many other areas, Māori are disadvantaged when compared to Pākehā (New
Zealanders of European descent), with a lower life expectancy (a gap of approximately 7
years), a higher incidence of smoking, hazardous drinking and obesity. Māori health status isalso unequal across almost all chronic and infectious diseases, as well as injuries, including
suicide (Ministry of Social Development, 2019).
Informing government policy, a number of studies have focused on Māori health and ageing.
One of the most significant is a longitudinal study begun in 2010, known as ‘Life and Living

ISSN: 2189-101X

42

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

in Advanced Age, a Cohort Study in New Zealand’ (LiLACS). Led by the School of
Population Health at the University of Auckland and funded by the Ministry of Health andthe Health Research Council of New Zealand, it is a “world leading research programme thataims to determine the predictors of successful advanced ageing and understand the
trajectories of health and wellbeing in advanced age” (LiLACS NZ, 2015) and the first suchstudy in the world of an indigenous population. The study clearly established the importanceof culture to older Māori, as holders of heritage, knowledge and tikanga (customary
protocols). Specific findings included:• almost all participants (82%) had been to a marae (a traditional Māori tribal
meeting place) in the last 12 months• half (51%) of Māori in advanced age have a complete understanding of theirtikanga• forty-seven per cent of Māori reported that their contacts were mainly with otherMāori• ‘ageing in place’ was a vastly preferred option over institutional care, andrepresented a significant difference between Māori and non-Māori. Overall, lessthan half of Māori (36% of women, 50% of men) were living in residential care,compared to three-quarters (76%) of non-Māori men and women with acomparable level of need
The LiLACS team reported that strong cultural identity, participation and respect arisingfrom their involvement in community, and the cultural norm of being cared for by whānau(family) were key contributors to the reduced demand for institutional care by this population
sector. Emery et al.’s (2021) small community study endorses these findings, concluding thatmaintaining whanaungatanga (relationships) and undertaking iwi (tribal) cultural roles andduties are vital for Māori intergenerational positive ageing.
A cultural lens methodology
Cultural Lens theory is a five-step approach to evaluating how theories, practices or
phenomena apply across cultural groups (Dik et al., 2019; Hardin et al., 2014). This tool,
originally from the domain of psychology and often used in anthropology, is designed to help
researchers metaphorically look through different cultural lenses to view the object of theirinquiry in a different way – especially when we seek to understand a non-Eurocentric
worldview. We have previously published extended descriptions of the tool and its use(Fraser et al., 2022; Honeyfield et al., 2021) and therefore will not repeat a step-by-stepaccount here. However, what is worth revisiting and relevant to this discussion, is the verybroad, but useful summary of the New Zealand-Chinese cross-cultural comparison generated
by the Hofstede Insights Group (n.d.) online tool (Figure 1.). In this very generalised
overview, it is national characteristics rather than ethnicity which is being described, so thateven in highly multicultural societies all citizens are considered together. Thus the New
Zealand scores and descriptors conflate Māori and Pākehā cultures, for the sake ofhighlighting international contrasts – an acknowledged limitation.

ISSN: 2189-101X

43

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Figure 1. China-New Zealand cross-cultural comparison using the Hofstede Index.
(Hofstede Insights, n.d. Reproduced under academic articles permission,
https://hi.hofstede-insights.com/faq)
To borrow from our previous precis of the Hofstede Index dimensions:Power Distance is defined as the extent to which people accept that power isdistributed unequally. In China, for example, subordinate-superior relationships are
more accepted than in New Zealand which aspires more to egalitarianism.
Individualism is about people´s self-image as “I” or “We”. In contrast to New
Zealand, China is a highly collectivist culture where people act in the interests of thegroup and not necessarily of themselves. Masculinity is used to describe societies
driven by competition, achievement and success, a value system that starts in school
and continues throughout organisational life. People will sacrifice work-life balance
and are motivated more by being the best at what they do, than by liking what theydo. Uncertainty Avoidance describes how a society responds to the unknown future.
While New Zealand’s score is neutral, China’s lower score indicates comfort with
ambiguity and an adaptable and entrepreneurial mindset. Long term orientation isabout views of societal change and the importance of tradition. According to the
Hofstede Index, New Zealanders are normative in their thinking: respecting
established systems, seeking quick results, and with a relatively low commitment tosaving for the future. China is a more pragmatic culture, adapting traditions easily tochanged conditions, with a focus on saving and investing, thriftiness, andperseverance. Indulgence is “the extent to which people try to control their desires andimpulses, based on the way they were raised” (Hofstede Insights, n.d.). Compared toChina, this index score suggests New Zealand is a more indulgent society: optimistic,
focused on enjoying life, having fun, acting as they please and spending money more
freely. (Honeyfield et al., 2021, pp. 20-21)
Understanding one another’s cultural character was important during the outbreak of Covid19, as SNZAH members fought to keep the momentum of the new partnership through thechallenges of 2021 and 2022. China’s long term orientation meant that they were the more
prepared to step back, pause and wait for conditions to be more favourable before progressing
our agreed agenda. China also has one of the world’s highest power distance scores andembraced their leadership’s strict internal enforcement of authority and sanctions related to

ISSN: 2189-101X

44

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

lockdowns and damage control more readily than many western cultures. Some of thisisolation mindset may have affected enthusiasm for international ventures. Certainly, thecollectivist considerations of safeguarding a national population did not encourage top tiermanagement support for prioritising SNZAH initiatives. It is probably not surprising, either,that New Zealand, with its high individualism and indulgence ratings, and low long termorientation score, took the lead in progress during this period. However, it must be noted that
New Zealand did have the benefit of a locally based cultural mediator and translator in
Access New Zealand to steer these efforts and keep the initiative on track.
SNZAH achievements to date
1. Research and publications
Collaborative research opportunities were one of the key drivers for the partnership, and thesubject of some of our earliest dialogue. SNZAH’s first project was an integrative literature
review of good practice reports regarding aged healthcare provision in both countries. The
research would then be used to guide the development of a culturally-responsive teaching andlearning programme, in which healthcare of older people is an attractive and valued career
choice. Following early discussions, the New Zealand and Chinese partners expected thateach would conduct a parallel integrative review of the relevant literature published in
English and Chinese as Volumes I and II, to be then amalgamated into a single bilingual
account. Three key strands as priority areas of mutual interest were set to guide the structureof each volume:• Wellness and positive ageing• Culture and indigenous populations – and in New Zealand, biculturalism• Education
Unfortunately, the impact of Covid-19 caused delays for each research team, but with far
greater consequences for the Chinese teaching hospitals, medical educators and professionals
who had intended to participate. The New Zealand team therefore determined to proceed with
Volume I, (Figure 2), as an independent text, hoping that in the future the original intentionof parallel accounts and a synthesis of cross-cultural learning will be completed.

Figure 2. ‘What is good practice in aged healthcare provision?
A literature review of international studies informed by cultural context:
The Aotearoa New Zealand perspective’(Honeyfield et al., 2021. Reproduced with permission from https://snzah.org/)

ISSN: 2189-101X

45

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

A conference presentation, poster and journal article by New Zealand members of theassociation have further assisted the dissemination of this first volume. This is an example,
we believe, of ‘leading from the side’ (Burke & Baron, 2014), trying to offer an example
without overstepping a partnership relationship, or minimising the different challenges of
their lived reality. It is about being productive, setting high standards, and persevering in ourown realm while keeping the door open for our colleagues to join us, when they are able.
2. An online symposiumInternational fora, such as conferences and symposia, are another effective way to shareaccounts of good practice across both academic and healthcare practitioner communities. Prepandemic plans had embraced the idea of an annual aged healthcare symposium, alternating
between New Zealand and China as host nations, although by 2021 this had clearly become
impossible. Nevertheless, in March 2022 the association successfully held an online
conference via Zoom video-conferencing. Keynotes were shared between Chinese and New
Zealand experts, a team of professional interpreters provided simultaneous translation, and
the Programme and Book of Abstracts (Figure 3) was bi-lingual. A key challenge of not
being able to convene face-to-face was the five-hour time difference, meaning that New
Zealand delegates were in attendance late into the evening.

Figure 3. SNZAH symposium 2022 Programme and Book of Abstracts(Reproduced with permission from https://snzah.org/)
Our keynotes for this inaugural event were:• Professor Stephen Neville, Director of the AUT Centre for Active Ageing and Headof Department (Nursing) at Auckland University of Technology• Cheyne Chalmers, an adjunct professor at Deakin University and an Executive
Director at Ryman Healthcare• Professor Matthew Parsons, clinical chair in gerontology, Waikato District Health
Board and the University of Waikato• Professor Liu, China Medical University• Professor Shangbin, Peking University Health Science Center• Dr. Li Liu, Director, Health care service and management, School of Medical Care,
Chengdu Polytechnic
Addresses from delegates covered a wide spectrum of topics related to aged healthcare: theimportance of exercise, the impact of Covid-19, the role of nurse practitioners, a cultural

ISSN: 2189-101X

46

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

approach to caring-in-place, elderly care informed by Artificial Intelligence, vocational
education advantages – and many more.
At the time of writing, the location and format of our 2023 event remains uncertain as
China’s current travel restrictions make travel for this purpose unlikely, but we hope that withgoodwill and a strong inaugural event to pave the way, we will be able to continue this annual
exchange of ideas – tentatively scheduled for October/November 2023. Our management andleadership learning here is to do with flexibility and adaptability. Covid-19 has delivered
uncertain and unpredictable circumstances on a scale not previously seen, and has had thepotential to derail our partnership, but an optimistic approach of problem-solving and areadiness to ask external experts for advice (Burke & Baron, 2014) has enabled us tocontinue, and grow.
3. A purpose-built learning centre
Where research and the symposium have thus far been largely driven by SNZAH’s New
Zealand partners, the opening of the Chengdu Learning Centre in Chengdu, South-West
China in 2022 is a tangible expression of both countries’ commitment to advancing academic
collaborations. A joint venture between Chengdu University and Te Pūkenga, the Centre(Figure 4) will have multiple uses, including online meetings, Symposia, professional
development and train-the-trainer workshops. An important proposed use will be as China’s
first testing centre for the Occupational English Test (OET). OET was founded in 2013 bypartners Cambridge Assessment English (UK) and Box Hill Institute (Australia) and is
widely used internationally by hospitals and universities as proof of ability to communicate inEnglish-medium healthcare environments (https://www.occupationalenglishtest.org/aboutoet/).

Figure 4. Classroom, Chengdu Learning Centre. (Photo: Access New Zealand)
At the time of writing, final agreements to offer OET at this site are still in progress, yet theCentre has been built. Leadership and management texts frequently warn against the ‘Build it
and they will come’ approach as unsubstantiated wishful thinking. Yet our learning to date,has been more aligned with (Ellis (2018) four pre-planning tips: be realistic, be prepared, bein community, be courageous. A further admonition by this author is to think long-term, notshort-term – a mindset which tallies closely with China’s cultural characteristic of long-termorientation (Hofstede Insights, n.d.).

ISSN: 2189-101X

47

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Conclusion
In August 2020, New Zealand’s prime minister, the Right Honourable Jacinda Adern,addressed the China Business Summit, referencing a Māori whakatauki (proverb):
Tuia ngā waka, Tuia ngā wawata, Tuia ngā hou-kura
Let us bind our connection, let us bind our vision, let us bind our shared aspiration forpeace and prosperity (https://www.beehive.govt.nz/speech/pm-speech-china-businesssummit)
Adern was drawing on an indigenous cultural value from Aotearoa New Zealand, but using
the saying also as a reference to New Zealand and China’s desire to work together, and tocollaborate for mutual benefit. This is a vision which SNZAH shares, and one which hassustained members from both countries through the ravages of Covid-19, and the challengesof national responses. We have learned new ways to support one another, we have learned to
be pragmatic and expedient, and we have committed ourselves to a confidence that one day
soon, we will be able to work alongside one another rather than through screens. So much ofwhat we have managed to achieve to date has drawn on relationships forged through awillingness to understand each other, and our respective cultures. With one foot in Asia andone in the Pacific, we have a solid platform from which to launch future actions in aged
healthcare education, and we hope, to make a real contribution to older peoples’ care,wellbeing and quality of life.

ISSN: 2189-101X

48

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

References
Burke, R., Barron, S. (2014). Project management leadership: Building creative
teams. Jordan: Wiley.
Dik, B. J., Canning, B. A., & Marsh, D. R. (2019). A cultural lens approach to promoting
work as a calling. In L. E. Van Zyl & S. Rothmann Sr. (Eds.), Positive Psychologicalintervention design and protocols for multi-cultural contexts. Springer.
Ellis, L. (2018). Protecting your leadership decisions: 4 pre-planning tips. [Blog]. Leading
With Honour. https://www.leadingwithhonor.com/
Emery, W., & Emery, T. (2021). Koeke a ko ake nei: Towards intergenerational positive
ageing for Ngati Pikiao. Wellington, NZ: Health Research Council of New Zealand.
Fisher, S. (2018). Factors that influence nurses’ attitudes towards working with older adults:
A qualitative descriptive study. [Thesis]. Auckland University of Technology.
Foster, P. (2020). What undergraduate nurse education actually teaches student nurses about
people named as older: A Foucauldian discourse analysis [Thesis]. Auckland
University of Technology.
Fraser, C. J., Honeyfield, J., White, M., Qiu, W., Sims, D., & Proverbs, A. (2022). Using
cultural lens theory to investigate the impact of a nursing education practicum in aged
healthcare: Aotearoa New Zealand’s bi‑cultural framework. Journal of CrossCultural Gerontology, Online. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10823-022-09458-yGawande, A. (2014). Being mortal: Medicine and what matters in the end. Doubleday
Canada, a division of Penguin Random House.
Hardin, E. E., Robitschek, C., Flores, L. Y., Navarro, R. L., & Ashton, M. W. (2014). The
cultural lens approach to evaluating cultural validity of psychological theory.
American Psychologist 69(7), 656-668. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0036532
Hofstede Insights. (n.d.). Compare countries. Hofstede Inc. https://www.hofstedeinsights.com/product/comparecountries/
Honeyfield, J., Fraser, C., & White, M. (2021). What is good practice in aged healthcare
provision? A literature review of international studies informed by cultural context:
The Aotearoa New Zealand perspective. [Report]. Sino-New Zealand Aged
Healthcare Association & Te Pūkenga – New Zealand Institute of Skills andTechnology.
King, A., Boyd, M., Carver, P., & Dagley, E. (2011). Evaluation of a gerontology nurse
specialist in primary health care: Case finding, care coordination and service
integration for at-risk older people. Wellington, NZ: Ministry of Health.
LilACS NZ. (2015). Participation in Māori society in advanced age: Findings from LiLACS
NZ. Auckland, NZ: University of Auckland.

ISSN: 2189-101X

49

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Ministry of Foreign Affairs & Trade. (2022). China. MFAT:
https://www.mfat.govt.nz/en/countries-and-regions/asia/china/
Ministry of Health. (2016). DHB spending on services for older people. Wellington, NZ:
Ministry of Health.
Ministry of Social Development. (2019). Better later life - He oranga kaumātua 2019 to2034. Wellington, NZ: Ministry of Social Development.
NZ Health and Disability System Review (NZHDSR). (2020). Wellington, NZ: Ministry of
Health.
Orange, C. (2012). 'Treaty of Waitangi'. Te Ara - the Encyclopedia of New Zealand.
[Online]. https://teara.govt.nz/
Parker, C. N., Harvey, T., Johnston, S., & MacAndrew, M. (2021). An exploration ofknowledge of students and staff at residential aged care facilities and implications fornursing education. Nurse Education Today (96), January 2021, 104639. https://doi:/10.1016/j.nedt.2020.104639.
Rodgers, V., & Gilmour, J. (2011). Shaping student nurses’ attitudes towards older people
through learning and experience. Nursing Praxis in New Zealand, 27(3), 13-20.
Song, P., & Tang, W. (2019). The community-based integrated care system in Japan: Healthcare and nursing care challenges posed by super-aged society. BioScience Trends
13(3), 279-281.
Statistics New Zealand. (2009). Measuring New Zealand’s Progress Using a Sustainable
Development Approach: 2008. Wellington: Statistics New Zealand.
The United Nations. (2022). World population prospects 2022: Summary of results.
Population Division of the United Nations Department of Economic and Social
Affairs (UN DESA).
Wilkinson, J., Neville, S., Huntington, A., & Watson, P. (2016). Factors that influence newgraduates’ preferences for specialty areas. Nursing Praxis in New Zealand, 32(1), 819.
Contact email: Cath.fraser@toiohomai.ac.nz

ISSN: 2189-101X

50

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Effectiveness of Modified Individual Learning Monitoring Plan on Science Achievement
and Student Engagement Among the Grade 11 Academically Challenged Learners
Kathleen Anne F. Faderogao, Corcuera National High School, Philippines
Reynaldo P. Ramos, Technological University of the Philippines, Philippines
The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023
Official Conference Proceedings
Abstract
Monitoring student’s progress is one of the key roles of a teacher because the goal of
education is the academic achievement of the learners. With this, the researcher devised amodified individual learning monitoring plan patterned to that of the DepEd to assess its
effectiveness in student engagement and academic achievement among the Grade 11
academically challenged learners in science. This study is supported by progress monitoring
theory, goal theory, theory of zone of proximal development, and expectancy-value theory.
The study was conducted to determine if there is significant difference between the student
engagement and science achievement of the experimental and control group before and after
the use of Modified Individual Learning Monitoring Plan (MILMP). The researcher used
non-equivalent quasi-experimental research design where control and experimental groups
were selected purposively using the criteria; 40%- previous science grade, 20%- previous
science teachers interview and 40%- for the 1st quarter grades in earth and life sciences. Data
were collected using survey questionnaire for student engagement and 50-item achievement
test and focus group discussion. The statistical tool used are percentage, weighted mean, TTest, Wilcoxon signed rank Test and Mann-Whitney U-test. Data reveals that the level ofscience engagement and achievement of the experimental group increased after the use of
MILMP than to that of the control group. Overall, the use of MILMP is effective in
improving the science achievement and student engagement of the academically challenged
learners because of Immediate feedbacking and communication to parents and learners,
active involvement of the parents and specific learning objective. The MILMP is easy to use
and does not consume so much time, effort, and money on the part of the parents andlearners.
Keywords: Individual Monitoring Plan, Response-to-Intervention, Progress Monitoring

iafor
The International Academic Forumwww.iafor.org

ISSN: 2189-101X

51

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Introduction
Due to the increasing demands to maintain the quality of education amidst the time ofpandemic DepEd’s goal “Sulong Edukalidad”, poses a great challenge to educators to makeevery effort to reach out to the school children and give the best quality of education they canoffer for them to learn the necessary competencies even if they are out of the campus or stayat home. Learners have full control of their time and learning because they have thealternative distance learning modality (modular print) wherein, they were just given modules,
a weekly home learning plan, and a schedule every day on what subjects they will have forthat specific time of the day. The problem faced by the teachers is that a lot of students were
having backlogs in the required outputs and written outputs. Some just pass empty activity
sheets and summative tests, some do not communicate with the teacher even if he is being
reached out through calls and chats, and some copy answers from the internet or from theirclassmates. The low summative and performance results were evidence that these learners
may be having a hard time in the distance modality. These problems faced in the teaching
field inspired the researcher to develop a Modified Individual Learning Monitoring Plan
(MILMP) to monitor the struggling learner’s academic progress and improve their scienceachievement.
As cited in the work of Steele (2019), “there is a need for teachers to be ‘thermostats, notthermometers’” meaning the teachers should not just assess the learning but most importantly
make changes based on the status and needs of the learners identified. It is supported by theWork of Victoria (2019), Dolin et al. (2019), and Torres (2019) that teachers use informationfrom summative and formative assessments and assess the effectiveness of teaching andmake improvements in teaching styles. As the teachers identify learners who need academic
support, they may provide additional assistance and constantly monitor the growth of thelearners providing them feedback on their growth so that they can change themselves andregulate their own learning. Through this, it will be more predictive of the achievement of thetargeted goal. Although, this could take more of the teacher’s time and effort, constantmonitoring of the improvement of the learners will let the learners feel that they are cared forand ensured that no one is left behind. Educators should also ensure mastery of necessarycompetencies before going to the next to prevent premature presentation of ideas bymonitoring learners closely. As the teacher identifies the academic need of the learner andvulnerability, timely remediation must be done. Some of the results of closely monitored
learners were being motivated, having high-quality work, having to learn goals as their top
priority, and being self-governing thinkers. (Harrell et al., 2018, Gray & Toms, 2018).
Wijngaards-de Meij & Merx (2018) presents the idea that large instructional advantages are
attained when the curriculum, the instruction, and the measures of assessing students’progress are aligned. DM-CI-2020-00162 Urges the teachers to use the DepEd’s Individual
Monitoring plan, for students after assessing the result of their summative and formative
assessment who shows learning gaps or difficulty in the learning areas assessed.
From the Individual Learning Monitoring Plan (ILMP) implemented by DepEd, theresearcher added some research-based elements which were not included in the present ILMP
to fully ensure the learning progress of the students such specific learning objective or goal,
feedback method, date of giving feedback, problems meet, solutions made, signatures ofparents, learners, and teachers. The MILMP will serve as a document for the socio-economic
status of the learner, interventions made, and the problems meet during the intervention as
well as how the learner responds to the interventions made. The plan indicated in the MILMP
will be changed after the learner was assessed after making interventions. There was also

ISSN: 2189-101X

52

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

limited study on how effective this tool is since it is new in the teaching field. It is in thiscause that the researcher was inspired to test the effectiveness the of Modified Individual
Learning Monitoring Plan (MILMP) to the science achievement and engagement of the grade
11 academically challenged learners.
Theoretical framework
This study was anchored in the Progress Monitoring theory by MacGregor, Ormerod, andChronicle which states that a problem-solver seeks to minimize the gap between the
problem’s recent or present state and the goal state. If he assesses that the problem-solving
methods used do not help for coming up to the solution, there he will consider and use otheralternative approaches. This theory is ruled by assessing the difference between the current
state and the goal state (Alaidaros, Omar, & Romli, 2018). Another theory that supports thisstudy is the Achievement Goal Theory. It states that goal acceptance, commitment, goaldifficulty, and specificity as well as feedback are important in successful achievement ofsomething. Also, if the person is committed to the goal and makes it as intrinsic motivation,
he will positively achieve his goals (Bardach et al., 2020, Borovoi et al., 2020). Another isthe Vygotsky’s Theory of the Zone of Proximal Development. This theory tells that support isgiven to the learner by teachers or peers until it is slowly removed if the learner is gauged that
he can already solve problems on his own (Lasmawan & Budiarta, 2020). Lastly, theExpectancy Value Theory by Wigfield & Eccles’s (2020) supports this study for it states thatwhen one has high expectancy for success, one will believe they can perform a task well.
Methods
In this study, a non-equivalent group quasi-experimental research approach was utilized.
Similar to a true experiment, a Quasi-experimental design seeks to establish a cause-andeffect relationship between a dependent and independent variable or the outcome after anintervention. The difference between this from a true experiment is that it does not use
randomization. The non-equivalent type of a quasi-experimental design uses groups that are
similar, but it does not follow randomization in selecting participants (Miller, Smith, &Pugatch, 2019; Rogers & Révész, 2020). The participants were purposively selected using the
given criteria; 40% previous science grades in junior high school, 20% previous scienceteacher’s assessment interview, and 40% in the first quarter grade in earth and a life science
subject for the first quarter. The 10 students at the bottom were selected in both sections andassigned as control and experimental group. This was conducted for Grade 11 students underthe HUMSS strand of Corcuera National High School during the second quarter of the firstsemester of the school year 2021-2022, from November- January.
A 50-item multiple-type test was devised by the researcher to determine the scienceachievement of the learners. It was validated and pilot tested before use. To test the reliabilityof the instrument, Cronbach’s Alpha was utilized. The result was .840, meaning the test items
had a high internal consistency and reliability. A survey questionnaire for student engagement
adopted from the work of Reeve and Tseng (2011) was utilized to determine the level ofengagement of the learners in science. An online focus group discussion (FGD) was
organized to gather the parent’s feedback on the use of MILMP and validate the result of thestudy. In using the MILMP, the researcher first accomplished MILMP highlighting the needand competency the learner needs to master, the specific objective the teacher wants toachieve, the interventions to make, the schedule of monitoring, and the method and date ofgiving feedback. Then through home visits, the researcher explained the MILMP to both the

ISSN: 2189-101X

53

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

parents and learners. Monitoring approaches such as home visitation, monitoring the learners
via messenger, and having phone calls with parents were oriented to both the parents and thelearners. After the parents and learners agreed with the plan, they affixed their signatures on it
as evidence that they will do their part in making the plan successful. A copy of MILMP
together with a weekly home learning plan was given to each parent and learner for them tobe guided on what to do in the absence of the teacher. The researcher monitored the learneron the specified date in the MILMP and then gave immediate feedback after the outputs werechecked either through home visits or messenger chat. The schedule given for accomplishing
their modules was every Saturday to give way for the regular modules they have in 2ndquarter. After giving intervention with the use of MILMP, a post-test was employed to assess
their learning after the use of MILMP. For the control group, the monitoring approach wasjust traditional monitoring through messenger chat specially if the learner failed to pass theoutput on the scheduled time.
Table 1: Comparison of Monitoring Approach between the use of MILMP and
the C onventional Monitoring
Use of MILMP

Conventional Monitoring

Home visitation
Messenger Chat
Phone Calls

Messenger Chat

Results and Discussion
Table 2 shows that the level of engagement in science of the experimental group before theuse of MILMP (M = 2.91, SD = 0.47) is average while after the use (M = 1.98, SD = 0.43) ishigh. This result indicates that before the use of MILMP in the experimental group, they haveaverage level of engagement meaning, the students just do the school task for compliance.
However, after the use of MILMP, the students’ engagement became high.
Table 2: Level of engagement in Science Learning before and after the use of
MILMP for Experimental GroupStatemant

BEFORE
Mean

SE1
SE2
SE3
SE4
SE5
SE6
SE7
SE8
SE9
SE10
SE11
SE12
SE13
SE14
SE15

ISSN: 2189-101X

2.9
3.2
3.3
3.5
2.5
2.6
2.8
2.8
2.7
2.7
3
2.8
2.9
3.2
3

Std.
Deviation

AFTER

Rank Description Mean

0.876 8.00
0.632 3.50
0.823 2.00
0.85 1.00
0.972 17.00
0.843 16.00
0.789 11.00
0.919 11.00
1.059 14.00
0.949 14.00
0.816 5.50
0.919 11.00
0.568 8.00
0.632 3.50
0.667 5.50

A
A
A
L
H
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A

2.2
2.7
2.3
2.9
1.4
1.7
1.4
1.7
1.5
1.8
1.7
2
1.8
2.2
2.1

MILMP

Std.
Rank
Deviation

Description

WM

Std.
Rank
Deviation

Description

0.919 5.50
0.823 2.00
0.823 3.50
0.738 1.00
0.516 16.50
0.483 13.00
0.516 16.50
0.483 13.00
0.527 15.00
0.919 10.00
0.949 13.00
0.943 8.00
0.919 10.00
0.789 5.50
0.738 7.00

H
A
H
A
VH
VH
VH
VH
VH
H
VH
H
H
H
H

2.55
2.95
2.8
3.2
1.95
2.15
2.1
2.25
2.1
2.25
2.35
2.4
2.35
2.7
2.55

0.945 6.50
0.759 2.00
0.951 3.00
0.834 1.00
0.945 17.00
0.813 14.00
0.968 15.50
0.91 12.00
1.021 15.50
1.02 12.00
1.089 9.50
0.995 8.00
0.933 9.50
0.865 4.00
0.826 6.50

H
A
A
A
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
A
H

54

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

SE16
SE17
SE

2.7
2.9
2.912

0.823 14.00
1.101 8.00
0.465

A
A
A

Official Conference Proceedings

1.8 0.789 10.00
2.3 0.483 3.50
1.971 0.4343

H
H
H

2.25
0.91 12.00
2.6 0.883 5.00
2.441 0.6518

H
A
H

Legend:1.0 - 1.79 – Very High Engagement (VH)
1.80 – 2.59 – High Engagement (H)
2.60 – 3.39 – Average engagement (A)3.40 – 4.19 –Low engagement (L)4.20 – 5.00 –Very Low engagement (VL)
The control group who is not exposed to MILMP’s level of engagement in science before (M= 2.68, SD = 0.48) and after (M = 2.68, SD = 0.48) is both Average as shown in Table 3.
Students in the control group were not exposed to MILMP, they were in the modular mode oflearning only and no interventions and simple monitoring such as sending messages throughmessenger if no output was submitted.
Table 3: Level of Engagement in Science Learning of the Control Group,
not exposed to MILMP
BeforeAfter

Not Exposed to MILMPStatemen
t

Mean

Std.
Deviation

Rank

Description

Mean

Std.
Deviation

Rank

Description

WM

Std.
Deviation

Rank

Description

SE1
SE2
SE3
SE4
SE5
SE6
SE7
SE8
SE9
SE10
SE11
SE12
SE13
SE14
SE15
SE16
SE17
SE

3.20
3.20
3.40
3.10
2.60
2.00
2.40
2.30
2.30
1.90
2.40
2.10
2.40
3.00
2.70
3.20
3.30
2.68

0.919
0.919
0.843
1.287
0.966
0.816
0.843
0.675
1.059
0.738
0.699
0.568
0.966
0.943
0.823
0.919
0.675
0.48

4.00
4.00
1.00
6.00
9.00
16.00
11.00
13.50
13.50
17.00
11.00
15.00
11.00
7.00
8.00
4.00
2.00

A
A
L
A
A
H
H
H
A
H
H
H
H
A
A
A
A
A

3.20
3.20
3.40
3.10
2.60
2.00
2.40
2.30
2.30
1.90
2.40
2.10
2.40
3.00
2.70
3.20
3.30
2.68

0.919
0.919
0.843
1.287
0.966
0.816
0.843
0.675
1.059
0.738
0.699
0.568
0.966
0.943
0.823
0.919
0.675
0.48

4.00
4.00
1.00
6.00
9.00
16.00
11.00
13.50
13.50
17.00
11.00
15.00
11.00
7.00
8.00
4.00
2.00

A
A
L
A
A
H
H
H
A
H
H
H
H
A
A
A
A
A

3.20
3.20
3.40
3.10
2.60
2.00
2.40
2.30
2.30
1.90
2.40
2.10
2.40
3.00
2.70
3.20
3.30
2.68

0.894
0.894
0.821
1.252
0.94
0.795
0.821
0.657
1.031
0.718
0.681
0.553
0.94
0.918
0.801
0.894
0.657
0.47

4.00
4.00
1.00
6.00
9.00
16.00
11.00
13.50
13.50
17.00
11.00
15.00
11.00
7.00
8.00
4.00
2.00
SE

A
A
L
A
A
H
H
H
A
H
H
H
H
A
A
A
A
A

Legend:1.0 - 1.79 – Very High Engagement (VH)
1.80 – 2.59 – High Engagement (H)
2.60 – 3.39 – Average engagement (A)3.40 – 4.19 –Low engagement (L)4.20 – 5.00 –Very Low engagement (VL)
The experimental group’s pretest and post-test (M = 15.20, 29.70) (SD = 5.55, 5.08) show ashift from low to average science achievement same as that of the control group in theirpretest and post-test (M = 20.00, 20.30) (SD = 9.46, 5.46) as shown in Table 4. From having

ISSN: 2189-101X

55

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

low science achievement, meaning the students have low scores from the achievement test
given by the teacher on the pre-test to having average or median scores on the post-test.
Table 4: Science achievement of the control and experimental groups before andafter the use of MILMPGroup Test
Mean
Std. Deviation Description
Experimental Pretest
15.20
5.55
L
Post Test
29.70
5.08
A
Control Pretest
20.00
9.46
L
Post Test
20.30
5.46
A
Legend:40.01 – 50.00 – Very High Science Achievement (VH)
30.01 – 40.00 – High Science Achievement (H)20.01 – 30.00 – Average Science Achievement (A)10.01 – 20.00 – Low Science Achievement (L)1.00 – 10.00 - Very Low Science Achievement (VL)In Table 5, A Mann-Whitney U-test indicates that there is no significant difference in theexperimental and control group’s Level of science achievement before the use of MILMP (M= 8.9, 12.1), U = 34, ρ = 0.23. Thus, this result failed to reject the null hypothesis.
Table 5: Comparison in Science Achievement between control and experimental groups
Before using MILMPGroup N
Mean Sum of
MannSig.
Description Decision
Rank
Ranks
Whitney U(2-tailed)
Experimenta
10
8.9
89
34
0.225
Not Sig.
Acceptl
HoControl 10
12.1
121
Total 20
Mann Whitney U-test in Table 6 reveals that there is a significant difference in scienceachievement between the experimental and control group after the use of MILMP (M = 6.3,
14.7), U = 8.000, ρ = 0.001. Therefore, the null hypothesis is rejected. This means that when
the MILMP is used as a monitoring tool, students’ achievement is better than those who were
not exposed to it.
Table 6: Comparison in Science Achievement between control andexperimental groups After using MILMPGroup
N
Mean Sum of
MannSig.
Description Decision
Rank Ranks Whitney U (2-tailed)
Control 10
6.3
63
8.000
0.001
Sig.
Reject Ho
Experimental 10
14.7
147
Total 20
Wilcoxon signed rank test in Table 7 shows that the science achievement of the experimentalgroup had positively increased from that of the pre-test (M = 5.50), Z = -2.805, ρ = 0.005.
This test indicates that this difference is statistically significant, thus null hypothesis is

ISSN: 2189-101X

56

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

rejected. This result implies that the scores of the experimental group in the post-test proved
as compared to that in the pretest after the use of MILMP.
The same test also indicates that there is no significant difference in the science achievementof the control group from the pretest to their post-test. There are 3 negative ranks (M = 9)
which mean the scores decreased in the post-test than on the pretest and 7 positive ranks (M=4) which means that their scores increased in the post-test, Z = -0.051, ρ = 0.959. Therefore,
this result failed to reject the null hypothesis. This means that the scores of the students in thecontrol group in the pre-test and post-test may differ but statistically, there is no significant
difference.
Table 7: Comparison in Science Achievement between the pretest andposttest as to groups
Category

postconprecon

Negative
Ranks
Positive
Ranks
Ties
Total
Negative
Ranks

postExpPretestExp Positive
Ranks
Ties
Total

N

Mean Sum ofRank Ranks
3
9
27
7

4

0
10
0.00
0
10

0.000

Z

Sig.
Description Decision(2-tailed)

28 -0.051

0.959

Not Sig

Accept
Ho

0.005

Sig

RejectHo

0.000-2.805

5.50

55

0
10

The summary of difference between each learner’s score in the pre-test & post-test waspresented in Table 8 below.
Table 8: Summary of Learner’s pre-test & Post test result with their gender
EXPERIMENTAL
Student No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
MEAN
SD
CONTROL
1

ISSN: 2189-101X

Gender
F
M
F
F
F
F
M
M
M
M

PRETEST
22
13
11
14
12
11
16
28
13
12
15.9
5.55

POST-TEST
29
23
34
30
26
24
26
33
39
33
29.70
5.078

F

22

32

57

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

F
F
F
M
M
M
F
F
M

Official Conference Proceedings

32
17
13
33
10
9
33
16
15
20
9.463

MEAN
SD

16
21
18
21
12
17
22
25
19
20.3
5.458

A Mann-Whitney U-test in Table 9 reveals that the use of MILMP is effective (U = 7.50, ρ =0.001). Thus, the null hypothesis is rejected. The use of MILMP is effective in the
improvement achievement as seen in the increase in the post-test of the experimental group.
Evidence shows that frequent information and feedback to parents through calls and chats,home visitation, and interventions suited to the needs of the learners make progress
monitoring effective (Bergman & Chan, 2019).
Group
Experimental
Control
Total

N
10
10
20

Table 9: Effectiveness of MILMP
Mean Sum of
MannSig. (2Rank
Ranks Whitney U
tailed)
6.25
62.5
7.500
0.001
14.75
147.5

DescriptionSig

Decision
Reject Ho

Table 10 presents the Mann-Whitney U-test. This test reveals that there is no significant
difference in the level of engagement in science learning between those exposed to MILMP
and those not exposed (U = 146, ρ = 0.143) thus, this result failed to reject the null
hypothesis. Level of engagement was assessed by the learners using a self-reportquestionnaire thus, self-report surveys are somehow posing biases and limitations such as
honesty wherein students may make socially acceptable answers rather than being honest
about the real state and subjects may sometimes be unable to assess themselves accurately(Pedneaut, 2020).
Table 10: Comparison in the level of Engagement in Science Learning between
experimental and control group
Group
N
Mean
Sum ofMannSig.
Description Decision
Rank
Ranks
Whitney U (2-tailed)
Exposed to 20
17.8
356
146
0.143
Not Sig
AcceptMILMP
Ho
Not Exposed 20
23.2
464
to MILMP
Total 40
To gather the feedback of the parents as to what they can say about the use of MILMP, theFocus-Group Discussion (FGD) reveals the following. The MILMP does not require a lot ofmoney, time, and effort on their part, it’s easy to use and they viewed the importance of

ISSN: 2189-101X

58

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

parent’s involvement. Lastly, immediate feedback and constant communication with theteacher about the progress of their child helped them know how their child is doing in school.

Theme
Transcripts

Table 11: Parent’s Feedback on the use of MILMPParent’s Feedback in the Use of MILMP
Emerging
Concept

Use of MILMP does
not require so muchtime, money andeffort, because wehave a copy of the
MILMP of theteacher we becameoriented of the
Not Time
strategies she used
Consuming
and when is theon parents
follow-up to our child
It is not time
consuming on mypart because I always
monitor my child if
she already finished
her school tasks even
before the pandemic
It does not require somuch time, moneyand effort but I amquite challenged in
Notmonitoring my child
Requiringif she does her school money on
works because forparents
whole day, I am
washing laundry for aliving in town
There is no problem
with theimplementation anduse of MILMP, I
Involvingalways encourage myParents inchild to do thetheirassigned tasks
child’s
There are nolearning
challenges met during
the use of MILMP, I
just facilitated andreminded

ISSN: 2189-101X

Sub-categories

Categories

Easy to use

Time Factor

Frequency

3

%

75%

50%
Free to use

Budget &Resources

2

Facilitates
activeinvolvement of
parents

Parental
Support &Involvement

3

59

75%

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

I became more
involved in mychild’s academic
achievement becauseof MILMP
Through immediate
feedback and constantcommunication withthe teacher, it helps
us be engaged more”
By texting and callingor even during thehome visit, I can
immediately know if
my child understands
the lesson or not
Immediate feedback
and communication
about how my childprogresses is not aburdenIt’s good, I reallywant to know if mychild passes all theexams
The score of my childincreased, I think
MILMP is helpful

GivingTimely &Immediate
Feedback

Helps inincreasing
test scores.

Establishes
Constant
Communication

Effective toolin helping thechild learn thecompetencies

Official Conference Proceedings

100%
Immediate
Feedbacking

With needbased
interventions

4

1

25%

Conclusion
Based on the statistical results, it can be inferred that the use of MILMP is effective due toconstant communication, active involvement of parents, and immediate feedback. The use of
MILMP does not require so much time, effort, and money on the part of the parents. Parent
involvement, timely feedback, and communication help in the best implementation of thetool. Most importantly, MILMP improves science achievement and student engagement of
academically challenged learners. It is suggested that a larger population will be involved in
the study for future researchers who will pursue related or the same study as this. Teachers
should also ensure alignment of the strategies to the academic need of the learner identified
through the MILMP.

ISSN: 2189-101X

60

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Acknowledgment
The authors extend their gratitude to their family, Romblon State University, Corcuera
National High School, and to God Almighty.

ISSN: 2189-101X

61

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

References
Alaidaros, H., Omar, M., & Romli, R. (2018). A Theoretical Framework for Improving
Software Project Monitoring Task of Agile Kanban Method. Recent Trends in Data
Science and Soft Computing, 1091–1099. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-990071_101
Bardach, L., Oczlon, S., Pietschnig, J., & Lüftenegger, M. (2020). Has achievement goal
theory been right? A meta-analysis of the relation between goal structures andpersonal achievement goals. Journal of Educational Psychology, 112(6), 1197–
1220. https://doi.org/10.1037/edu0000419
Bergman, P., & Chan, E. W. (2019). Leveraging Parents through Low-Cost Technology: The
Impact of High-Frequency Information on Student Achievement. Journal of Human
Resources, 1118–9837R1. https://doi.org/10.3368/jhr.56.1.1118-9837r1
Bolt, D. M., Ysseldyke, J., & Patterson, M. J. (2010). Students, teachers, and schools assources of variability, integrity, and sustainability in implementing progress
monitoring. School Psychology Review, 39(4), 612–630.
https://doi.org/10.1080/00228958.2020.1770006
Bond, M. (2020). Facilitating student engagement through the flipped classroom approach in
K-12: A systematic review. Computers & Education, 103819.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2020.103819
Borovoi, L., Schmidtke, K., & Vlaev, I. (2020). The effects of feedback valance and progress
monitoring on goal striving. Current Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-02000925-8
Chang, B. et.al (2016). Does monitoring goal progress promote goal attainment? A metaanalysis of the experimental evidence. Psychological Bulletin, 142(2), 198 229. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000025
Dolin, J. et al. (2017). Exploring Relations Between Formative and Summative Assessment.
Transforming Assessment (4), 53-80. https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3319-63248-3_3
Dumont, H. et al. (2014). Quality of Parental Homework Involvement: Predictors andReciprocal Relations with Academic Functioning in the reading Domain. J. Educ.
Psychol. 106 (1), 144–161. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0034100
Förster, M., Weiser, C., & Maur, A. (2018). How feedback provided by voluntary electronic
quizzes affects learning outcomes of university students in large classes. Computers &Education, 121, 100–114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2018.02.012
Fuchs, L. S. (2017). Curriculum-based measurement as the emerging alternative: Three
decades later. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 32(1), 5–7.

ISSN: 2189-101X

62

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Furey, J., & Loftus-Rattan, S. M. (2021). Actively Involving Students With Learning
Disabilities in Progress Monitoring Practices. Intervention in School and Clinic,
105345122110326. https://doi.org/10.1177/10534512211032618
Gray, C. & Toms, N. (2018). A holistic remediation intervention for struggling undergraduate
medical students affords sustained Progress Test performance recovery.
MedEdPublish. https://doi.org/10.15694/mep.2018.0000210.1
Groccia, J. E. (2018). What Is Student Engagement? New Directions for Teaching and
Learning, 2018(154), 11–20. https://doi.org/10.1002/tl.20287
Harrell, C. et al. (2018). Vulnerability Assessment, Remediation, and Automated Reporting:
Case Studies of Higher Education Institutions. 2018 IEEE International Conferenceon Intelligence and Security Informatics (ISI).
https://doi.org/10.1109/isi.2018.8587380
Lasmawan, I.W. & Rudiarta, I.W. (2020). Vygotsky’s Zone Of Proximal Development and
The Students’ Progress in Learning (A Heutagogcal Bibliographical Review).
Indonesian of Educational Journal, 9(4).
https://ejournal.undiksha.ac.id/index.php/JPI/article/view/29915
Lei, H., Cui, Y., & Zhou, W. (2018). Relationships between student engagement andacademic achievement: A meta-analysis. Social Behavior and Personality: An
International Journal, 46(3), 517–528. https://doi.org/10.2224/sbp.7054
Malecka, B., & Boud, D. (2021). Fostering student motivation and engagement with feedback
through ipsative processes. Teaching in Higher Education, 1–16.
https://doi.org/10.1080/13562517.2021.1928061
Miller, C. J., Smith, S. N., & Pugatch, M. (2019). Experimental and Quasi-Experimental
Designs in Implementation Research. Psychiatry Research.
doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2019.06.027
Muller, C. (2018). Parent involvement and academic achievement. (1st ed). Parents, Their
Children, and Schools. Routledge.
https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9780429498497-4/parentinvolvement-academic-achievement-chandra-muller
Pedneault, K. S. (2020). The use of self-report data in psychology.
https://www.verywellmind.com/definition-of-self-report-425267
Pryima, S. et al. (2018). Lifelong learning progress monitoring as a tool for local
development management. Problems and Perspective in Management Journal, 3, 113. https://www.ceeol.com/search/article-detail?id=681085
Reeve, J. & Shin, S. (2020). How teachers can support students’ agentic engagement. Theory
into practice, 59(2). https://doi.org/10.1080/00405841.2019.1702451

ISSN: 2189-101X

63

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Reister, M., & Blanchard, S. B. (2020). Tips and Tools for Implementing Progress
Monitoring. Kappa Delta Pi Record, 56(3), 128–134.
https://doi.org/10.1080/00228958.2020.1770006
Rogers, J; Révész, A; (2020) Experimental and quasi-experimental designs. The Routledge
Handbook of Research Methods in Applied Linguistics. (pp. 133-143). Routledge:
London, UK.
Scherrer, V., Preckel, F., Schmidt, I. & Elliot, A. J. (2020). Development of achievement
goals and their relation to academic interest and achievement in adolescence: A
review of the literature and two longitudinal studies. Developmental Psychology, 56(4), 795-814. 10.1037/dev0000898
Steele, A. (2019). What is the assessment of learning and what are the benefits?[Blog post]
Retrieved from https://www.cambridge.org/us/education/blog/2019/07/02/whatassessment-learning-and-what-are-benefits/
Stecker, P. M., Fuchs, D. & Fuchs, L. S. (2017). Progress monitoring as essential practicewithin response to intervention. Sage Journal.
https://doi.org/10.1177/875687050802700403
Torres, J. (2019). Positive Impact of Utilizing More Formative Assessment over Summative
Assessment in the EFL/ ESL Classroom. Open Journal of Modern Linguistics, 9 (1).
https://doi.org/10.4236/ojml.2019.91001
Victoria (2019). 4 benefits of monitoring student progress in the classroom. Retrieved fromhttps://www.teachstarter.com/au/blog/4-benefits-monitoring-student-progressclassroom/
Wigfield, A. & Eccles, J. (2020). From expectancy-value theory to situated expectancy-value
theory: A developmental, social cognitive, and sociocultural perspective on
motivation. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 61.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2020.101859
Wijngaards-de-Meij, L. & Merx, S. (2018). Improving curriculum alignment and achieving
learning goals by making the curriculum visible. International Journal for Academic
Development, 23(3). 219-231. https://doi.org/10.1080/1360144X.2018.1462187
Contact email: kathleenanne.faderogao@deped.gov.phreynaldo_ramos@tup.edu.ph

ISSN: 2189-101X

64

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

The Effects of Instructional Scaffolding in Students’ Conceptual Understanding, Proving
Skills, Attitudes, and Perceptions Towards Direct Proofs of Integers
Audric Curtis P. Dy, De La Salle University, Philippines
Minie Rose C. Lapinid, De La Salle University, Philippines
The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023
Official Conference Proceedings
Abstract
Students find mathematical proving a challenging task and often perform poorly in proving
despite its importance in developing students’ critical thinking and reasoning skills. The
purpose of the study is to determine if instructional scaffolding can improve students’conceptual understanding, proving skills, and attitudes and perceptions towards proving. The
instructional scaffolding strategies used were providing hints, examples, and questions for the
students to develop ideas, showing how to perform a task, and letting the students provide
feedback, ask questions, and show support to their fellow peers. Foundations or preliminaries
prior to proving integers were also tackled first. The study used mixed methods quasiexperimental design where twenty-six Grade 11 STEM students participated in surveys
involving attitudes and perceptions on proving, an odd/even concept test, and a proving test.
Students generally had positive attitudes and perceptions towards proving even prior to theintervention and these further improved due to the intervention as the t-test result shows asignificant improvement. A rubric was used to score students’ proofs. Nine students wereable to progress from the beginning level to developing, approaching proficiency,
proficiency, and advanced levels in their proving skills although fifteen of them retained theirlevels. Students’ difficulties in proving were due to improper representations of the integers
as arbitrary values and errors in performing operations in simplifying algebraic expressions.
Nonetheless, it can be deduced that instructional scaffolding is effective in improving
students’ conceptual understanding of integers and proving skills, and attitudes andperceptions towards proving.
Keywords: Instructional Scaffolding, Conceptual Understanding, Proving Skills, Direct
Proofs of Integers

iafor
The International Academic Forumwww.iafor.org

ISSN: 2189-101X

65

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Introduction
Proving is regarded as an important activity in mathematics by many if not all mathematics
educators and mathematicians (Baştürk, 2010; Ersen, 2016). The National Council of
Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM, 2000) espoused the integration of proving into thecurriculum since it improves mathematical thinking and reasoning skills across age levels.
Thus, it comes as no surprise that concepts involving logic including direct proofs are now
included as competency skills required of Senior High School students to learn in thePhilippines (Department of Education, 2016).
Leddy (2001, p. 13) defined proof as “a reasoned argument from acceptable truths.”. De
Villiers (1999) described proving to involve exploration, analysis, and creating new results
which plays an important role in mathematics knowledge generation through deduction. In
proving statements, students could use various strategies such as using examples to perform
illustrations, disproving false statements, and using definitions, properties, and theorems(Ersen, 2016).
However, there are learners who struggle in proving (Weber, 2001). Weber (2001) identified
students’ difficulties in starting a proof, the lack of mathematics concepts and how to use
these concepts in the proof. Due to its abstract nature, proving has always been considered achallenging skill to learn due to its complex processes which often than not, teachers are
avoiding to teach (Güler, 2016; Varghese, 2017).
Varghese (2017) expressed that effective classroom mathematics teaching can bring about
any desired improvement in students’ mathematics education by providing opportunities forstudents to interact, propose mathematical ideas and conjectures, evaluate their thinking, anddevelop reasoning skills. Instructional scaffolding has been used in teaching mathematics tostudents in order to develop certain mathematical skills, that can serve as a factor in theirachievement. Instructional scaffolding strategies involve collaboration between the teachersand students when learning a certain lesson. Students initially need support from the teacher,but through gradual release of responsibility, they have to do tasks individually once thepurpose of the instructional scaffolding strategies has been achieved. Ihechukwu (2020) haveshown instructional scaffolding strategies to be effective in developing students’ criticalthinking skills in mathematics, especially in problem-solving. Therefore, this study posits that
instructional scaffolding strategies can also be applied in teaching students in proving.
The purpose of the study is to determine the effects of instructional scaffolding to students’conceptual understanding, attitudes and perceptions towards direct proof on integers.
Specifically, it sought to answer the following research questions:
1. Is there a significant difference in the attitudes of students on proving theorems on
integers before and after instruction?
2. Is there a significant difference in the perceptions of students on proving theorems on
integers before and after instruction?
3. Is there a significant difference in the levels of students on proving skills before andafter instruction?
4. What was the students’ conceptual understanding of direct proving of integers?

ISSN: 2189-101X

66

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Proving Skills
Tall (1999) states mathematical proof is following a logical way to explain why and how theconjecture has been reached. Varghese (2017) explains that proving is a complex task
because it covers a wide range of student competencies such as identifying assumptions,
identifying relevant properties and structures which may be definition of terms, postulates,
corollaries or theorems, and organizing these in logical arguments. In the study of Güler(2016), academicians experience difficulties teaching proof because the proofs mostly focus
on the nature of mathematics being incremental, has an abstract structure and uses symbolic
representations. Because of these difficulties, Varghese (2017) suggests that students may
initially be exposed to proofs using illustrative examples for its explanatory function, butshould gradually progress to communicating mathematical ideas using symbolic
representations using arbitrary values as a mathematical language of proof. Academicians inthe study of Güler (2016) further remarked that the lack of understanding of the logic of proof
methods might cause students to mistakenly think that proofs can be solved using trial anderror method and by illustrating examples. They suggest students understand the different
types of proofs and to internalize logical proof methods representation.
Direct Proof is one of the most fundamental proving strategies to be studied along with
proofs by contradiction, proofs by contraposition, and proofs by induction. According toDoruk (2019), the different ways to prove consist of the following: using counterexamples,
providing mathematical induction, contradicting statements, direct proving, and indirect
proving. In direct proving, the hypothesis is usually treated as the given and then gaps arefilled in to reach the conclusion of the conditional statement. This entails that students firstunderstand (1) the parts of a conditional statements, the hypothesis or premise and theconclusion; (2) the different forms of a conditional statement, converse, inverse, andcontrapositive; (3) discerning which of the forms is logically equivalent to the conditional
statement; (4) translating a statement in the conditional statement form; and (5) understanding
mathematical symbols such as “∈” (“is an element of”) and “⟹” (“if… then...) (Laili &Siswono, 2020).
Conceptual Understanding of Proof
Stavrou (2014) indicated that there are misconceptions about direct proofs. One of these is
students use specific examples instead of applying properties, axioms, definitions, andtheorems in proving various statements. He cited students using numbers instead of arbitrary
constants in proving a number theory-related statement as one of the examples in situations inproving. Aside from this error, students use the conclusion as a basis of assumption inproving the conclusion of the given statement. Students also do not use both conditions of abiconditional statement in proving biconditional statements. Lastly, students also lacked
understanding and analysis of the definitions they would be using in proving statements.
There were instances when students were able to complete proving statements although there
were some mistakes in parts of their proofs. This implied that understanding definitions,
properties, axioms, and theorems serve as one of the most fundamental and important steps inproving statements (Sari, et. al., 2018).
In ruling out the misconceptions in proofs, Buchbinder and McCrone (2020a) devisedteaching strategies using their MKT-P, also known as Mathematical Knowledge for
Teaching, Framework. In this framework, they used KLAP (Knowledge of the Logical
Aspects of Proof) in addressing their misconceptions about basic terminologies, definitions,

ISSN: 2189-101X

67

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

and theorems in proving. This aimed at teaching students in using proper mathematical
vocabulary and notations in proving statements since these serve as the first steps in proving.
This also targeted correcting their logical reasoning skills, which are required in proving. It
was also suggested that students be encouraged to develop their skills in explicating
conditional statements, using mathematical language, and reasoning logically (Buchbinder &McCrone, 2020b).
Attitudes and Perceptions
Attitudes in mathematics in general is focused on the following aspects: liking, value, andconfidence. In the liking aspect, attitudes were based on how the students like and show theirinterest in mathematics, in general wherein proofs are integrated in the lessons. These
highlighted enjoyment as one of the determinants of liking mathematics. In the value aspect,attitudes indicated the need to learn proving and problem-solving in mathematics and the
purposes of learning mathematics in real-life situations and everyday life. These alsoemphasized how important mathematics concepts, including proving, are. The confidence
aspect is composed of self-esteem and independence in doing mathematical problems andeven proving mathematical statements (Giannoulas & Stampoltzis, 2021; Khine et al., 2015).
Aside from liking, value, and confidence, Laili & Siswono (2021) considered motivation as
one of the indicators of attitudes in proofs. Motivation involved the willingness to provestatements independently. In proving mathematical statements, attitudes focused on interest,
enjoyment, and appreciation towards proofs and their relevance. It was found that proving isimportant not just in learning mathematics and its concepts, but also in its application in
everyday life. Additionally, proving builds critical thinking and other higher-order thinking
skills in the students and enhances confidence in mathematical concepts (Lee, 2022). Proving
has also been perceived by teachers as a way of communicating in mathematics and a guidein providing logical and valid explanations (Lesseig et al., 2018; Ersen, 2016).
On the other hand, based on the study of Ersen (2016), teachers perceive students have tomemorize theorems, properties, and definitions and consider it as a requirement inunderstanding mathematics in proving, which can cause some students to have negative
perceptions that proving is difficult, time-consuming, and unnecessary.
Methods
The research study utilized a quasi-experimental research design with mixed methods
approach to analyzing data. Quantitative data constitutes students’ responses from survey
questionnaires on attitudes, perceptions, and scores from students’ proving tests. Qualitative
data consist of students’ solutions and answers. There were twenty-six (26) Grade 11 students
taking up Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM), from a private
school located in Quezon City, who participated in the study. They were chosen throughconvenience sampling method. The selection was based on the availability of their schedules
and willingness to participate.
The following research instruments were administered: surveys focusing on attitudes andperceptions on proofs, diagnostic tests, comprehensive tests, and instructional scaffolding
worksheets. Permission to conduct the study were secured from the school principal, classadviser, and the students.

ISSN: 2189-101X

68

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

First, the participants took the diagnostic test to measure their prior knowledge on related
concepts in proofs and answered the surveys on attitudes and perceptions of proof before theintervention. Then, the researcher implemented a series of scaffolding interventions focusing
on the fundamentals of direct proofs. The instructional scaffolding strategies used were
providing hints, examples, and questions for the students to develop ideas, showing how to
perform a task, and letting the students provide feedback, ask questions, and show support totheir fellow peers. Foundations or preliminaries prior to proving integers were also tackled
first. The researcher conducted the comprehensive test and the survey questions on attitudes
and perceptions of proofs after the intervention. A rubric was used to score students’ proofs.
Students’ scores were used to determine their proving skills level. The paired t-test was used
to determine if there is improvement in students’ attitudes and perceptions on proof broughtby the intervention. Students’ solutions and answers were analyzed using narrative analysis inorder to draw out students’ difficulties in proving. There were 4 class sessions allotted for theintervention and each intervention session consisted of 60 minutes.
Findings
Attitudes and Perceptions of Proof
Table 1: Comparative Analysis of the Attitudes Towards Proofs
Before and After Instructional Scaffolding
Pre-Intervention
Post-Intervention
Attitudes
Attitudes
Mean
3.7276
4.2115
Number of Participants
26
26Standard Deviation
0.45000.5428
Standard Error Mean
0.08830.1064
Pairwise Comparison
Mean Difference
0.4839Standard Deviation
0.6663Standard Error Mean
0.1307
95% Confidence Interval of the Mean
Lower
0.2149DifferenceUpper
0.7531t-value
3.704
Degrees of freedom
25
p-value (2-tailed)
0.001
Based on Table 1, the students already showed positive attitudes during the pre-intervention
with a mean of 3.7276. After the interventions, their attitudes improved with a difference of
0.4839, leading their attitudes to have a mean of 4.2115, which implies that their attitudes
were very positive. The level of significance for this data was 0.05. The computed t-statistic
was 3.704, which is greater than the critical value for a 2-tailed hypothesis, 2.060. The pvalue, 0.001 is less than the significant level, a = 0.05. With these, the null hypothesis was
rejected and we conclude that there is a significant difference between the attitudes of thestudents toward proof before and after the instructional scaffolding interventions.

ISSN: 2189-101X

69

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Table 2: Comparative Analysis of the Perceptions Towards Proofs
Before and After Instructional Scaffolding
Pre-Intervention
Post-Intervention
Perceptions
Perceptions
Mean
3.6731
3.8237
Number of Participants
26
26Standard Deviation
0.36810.4333Standard Error Mean
0.72190.0848Pairwise Comparison
Mean Difference
0.1506
Standard Deviation
0.3652Standard Error Mean
0.0716
95% Confidence Interval of the Mean Difference
Lower
0.0032Upper
0.2981t-value
2.104
Degrees of freedom
25
p-value (2-tailed)
0.046
Based on Table 2, the students showed positive perceptions during the pre-intervention with amean of 3.6731. After the interventions, their attitudes improved with a difference of 0.1506,
leading their attitudes to have a mean of 3.8237. The computed t-statistic is 2.104, which isgreater than the critical value for a 2-tailed hypothesis, 2.060. The p-value, 0.046 is less than
the significant level, a = 0.05. With these, the null hypothesis was rejected. Thus, there is asignificant difference between the perceptions of the students toward proof before and after
the instructional scaffolding interventions.
Proving Skills
Table 3: Frequency Distribution of Students based on their Proving Skills Levels
Before and After the Interventions
Level of
Approaching
Proving
Advanced Proficiency
Developing Beginning Total
Proficiency
Skills
Before theIntervention

0

1

0

1

24

26

After theIntervention

6

2

1

2

15

26

In can be gleaned from Table 3 that most of the students (24) were at the beginning level inproving direct proofs, while only one of the students received a developing level and anotherreceived an approaching proficiency level before the instructional scaffolding interventions.
After the interventions, there are less students in the beginning proficiency level and there are
more students who reached higher proficiency levels. To be more specific, nine students wereable to progress from the beginning level to developing, approaching proficiency,
proficiency, and advanced levels in their proving skills. Nonetheless, fifteen (15) out of thetwenty-four (24) students remained in the beginning proficiency level.

ISSN: 2189-101X

70

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Conceptual Understanding of Proof
In the diagnostic test, the areas of conceptual understanding focused on the following:
identifying the hypothesis and conclusion of a conditional statement and providing
illustrations (Stavrou, 2014; Sari et. al., 2018). Here are samples of the answers given by thestudents in the diagnostic test:

Figure 1: Answers of the Student 1 in Identifying the Hypothesis and Conclusion

Figure 2: Answers of Student 2 in Identifying the Hypothesis and Conclusion
Based on Figure 1, Student 1 was not able to identify the hypothesis and conclusion properly
since he was not able to understand what the hypothesis and conclusion are. While in Figure
2, Student 2 was able to identify the hypothesis and conclusion of a conditional statement.
Table 4: Students’ Scores in Identifying Hypothesis and Conclusion of
Given Conditional Statements
Score (Out of 10 points)
9
8
7
6
4
3
2
0

Number of Students (N=26)
2
5
1
3
2
1
2
10

The results (see Table 4) show that there are still many students (10 out of 26) who wereunable to distinguish the two different parts of a conditional statement and very few, only 2
students got a score of 9 points. No student got a perfect score.

ISSN: 2189-101X

71

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Figure 3: Answers of Student 3 in Providing Illustrations
Another set of items were given to test if students could explore and observe patterns bygiving examples in order to formulate conjectures prior to its direct proving skills. Figure 3
shows Student 3 failed to illustrate by giving numerical examples to explain their answers.
Instead, they reiterated the statement and gave a verbal explanation without any
computational basis. Figure 4 shows the correct answer by Student 4.

Figure 4: Answers of Student 4 in Proving Statements
The figures presented so far illustrate students’ prior knowledge before the implementation of
instructional scaffolding strategies.
In the comprehensive test, the key areas for conceptual understanding focused on thefollowing: representing integers using arbitrary constants, proving counterexamples, anddirect proving. Here are examples of students’ answers in the comprehensive test:

Figure 5: Answers of Student 5 in Providing a Counterexample

ISSN: 2189-101X

72

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Figure 6: Answers of Student 6 in Providing a Counterexample
As can be seen in Figure 5, Student 5 used arbitrary constants in providing counterexamples.
This means the student has not understood what a counterexample is. While in Figure 6,
Student 6 used numbers in providing counterexamples. Student 6 was able to disprovestatements by using numbers as means of counterexamples.
Table 5: Students’ Scores in True or False and Counterexample Items
Score (Out of 5 points)
Number of Students (N=26)
4
2
3
6
2
4
1
14
In Table 5, many students (14 out of 26) scored only one point, and few students (only 2)scored 4 points. No student got a perfect score.

Figure 7: Answers of Student 7 in Proving Statements

Figure 8: Answers of Student 8 in Proving Statements
Students 7 and 8 were able to represent arbitrary constants as given for odd and even integers.
Moreover, both of them were able to use different variables in representing different odd
integers. However, only Student 7 was able to represent the product as an arbitrary form of an
odd integer, such that “2(a + 2ab + b) + 1, where a and b are integers”. Student 8 failed toshow that the product is an odd integer.

ISSN: 2189-101X

73

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Discussion
As students go to higher levels in mathematics, critical thinking is a necessary skill inproblem-solving and proving. Since they are at higher levels in mathematics, they need to
explore other skills, particularly in proving. Based on the results of the diagnostic test, which
was before the implementation of the instructional scaffolding strategies, students lack thepreliminary skills, such as using arbitrary constants, in proving direct proofs. Because of the
misconceptions they had, they needed to undergo a series of instructional scaffolding
interventions. During the interventions, they were given worksheets with guided examples
and were allowed to collaborate with their peers for them to develop ample prerequisiteknowledge and skills in proving direct proofs involving integers. With the help of
instructional scaffolding strategies, the students developed some skills in proving direct
proofs regarding integers. They were able to represent integers using arbitrary constants andprovide counterexamples to disprove false statements involving integers. Many improved in
representing integers using arbitrary constants, which is one of the first steps in proving direct
proofs involving integers. Observing how the frequency count of students from different
proficiency levels, the instructional scaffolding proved to be effective. Consistent to students’performance, t-test results show students’ attitudes and perceptions significantly improved
after instructional scaffolding intervention.
Conclusion and Recommendation
This study focuses on how the students perceive and behave towards direct proofs and proveand understand direct proofs. Proofs are one of the lessons students should learn in order tounderstand mathematics. These are being studied by Grade 8 students only in geometry.
However, direct proofs involving integers are being studied in Grade 11 General
Mathematics under Logic. However, students exhibit misconceptions about proving direct
proof. Based on the findings, the respondents had problems identifying the hypothesis andconclusion of conditional statements, representing arbitrary constants in terms of odd andeven integers, and stating the given in proving direct proofs involving integers. In the
diagnostic test, many struggled with their conceptual understanding of the basic concepts
prior to direct proving. While, in the comprehensive test that was administered after theinterventions, there were still students who struggled in proving albeit some students haveshown improvement in skills in proving integers. All these show that instructional scaffolding
has helped the students in learning how to prove integers directly.
This study promotes instructional scaffolding interventions in proving direct proofs involving
integers. It is recommended that teachers be more intentional in utilizing instructional
scaffolding in proving so the students can be able to maximize their potential in proving.
Acknowledgment
First of all, we would like to give many thanks to God for His unending grace, love, andsupport, especially in writing this paper and preparing for presentations. Next are our families
for their continuous financial, moral, and emotional support. We would also like toacknowledge and express our gratitude to Emjoy and Erika, for their help in critiquing thepaper, especially during the data gathering, validating our analysis and research instruments.
We would also wish to thank Dr. Aline Lascano-Manabat, Teacher Adoracion Rico, and Sir
Raymund Gubat for accommodating us in the research site.

ISSN: 2189-101X

74

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

ReferencesBaştürk, S. (2010). First-year secondary school mathematics students’ conceptions
mathematical proofs and proving. Educational Studies, 36(3), 283-298.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03055690903424964
Buchbinder, O., & McCrone, S. (2020). Characterizing mathematics teachers’ proof-specificknowledge, dispositions, and classroom practices. In ICME 14th International
Congress on Mathematical Education, Shanghai.
Buchbinder, O., & McCrone, S. (2020). Preservice teachers learning to teach proof throughclassroom implementation: Successes and challenges. The Journal of Mathematical
Behavior, 58, 100779. https://par.nsf.gov/servlets/purl/10149885
Dawkins, P. C., Roh, K. H., & Eckman, D. (2023). Theo’s reinvention of the logic ofconditional statements’ proofs rooted in set-based reasoning. The Journal of
Mathematical Behavior, 70, 101043. https://par.nsf.gov/servlets/purl/10353072
Department of Education. (2016). K to 12 Basic education curriculum: Senior high school –core subject. https://www.deped.gov.ph/wp-content/uploads/2019/01/SHSCore_General-Math-CG.pdf
De Villiers, M. (1999). Rethinking proof with the geometers’ sketchpad. Emeryville, CA:
Key Curriculum.
Doruk, M. (2019). Preservice Mathematics Teachers' Determination Skills of the Proof
Techniques: The Case of Integers. International Journal of Education in
Mathematics, Science and Technology, 7(4), 335-348.
Ersen, Z. B. (2016). Preservice Mathematics Teachers' Metaphorical Perceptions towards
Proof and Proving. International Education Studies, 9(7), 8897.https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1106461.pdf
Giannoulas, A., & Stampoltzis, A. (2021). Attitudes and Perceptions Towards Mathematics
by Greek Engineering Students at University: An Exploratory Study. International
Electronic Journal of Mathematics Education, 16(2), em0639.
https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1320195.pdf
Güler, G. (2016). The difficulties experienced in teaching proof to prospective mathematics
teachers. Higher Education Studies, 6(1), 145-158.
Ihechukwu, N. B. (2020). Impact of instructional scaffolding approach on secondary school
students achievement in mathematics. Malikussaleh Journal of Mathematics
Learning, 3(2), 46-50. https://ojsv3-demo1.unimal.ac.id/mjml/article/view/8
Khine, M. S., Al-Mutawah, M., & Afari, E. (2015). Determinants of Affective Factors inMathematics Achievement: Structural Equation Modeling Approach. Journal ofStudies in Education, 5(2), 199-211
http://www.macrothink.org/journal/index.php/jse/article/view/7484

ISSN: 2189-101X

75

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Laili, N., & Siswono, T. Y. E. (2020). Giving Questions as Scaffolding to Help Student in
Constructing Proof. MUST: Journal of Mathematics Education, Science andTechnology, 5(2), 143-155. https://journal.umsurabaya.ac.id/index.php/matematika/article/view/5882
Laili, N., & Siswono, T. Y. E. (2021). Thinking Process of Secondary Level Students inConstructing Proof by Mathematical Induction in Terms of Their Attitude toward
Mathematics. Jurnal Tadris Matematika, 4(1), 121-138.
Lee, G. C. Y. (2022)." I would (not) teach proof, because it is (not) relevant to exams":changing beliefs about teaching proof. In Twelfth Congress of the European Society
for Research in Mathematics Education (CERME12) (No. 21). https://hal.science/hal03746854/document
Lesseig, K., Hine, G., & Boardman, K. (2018). Preservice Secondary Mathematics Teachers'
Perceptions of Proof in the Secondary Mathematics Classroom. North American
Chapter of the International Group for the Psychology of Mathematics Education.
https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED606568.pdf
National Council of Teachers of Mathematics. (2000). Principles and standards for schoolmathematics. Reston, VA: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics.
Sari, C. K., Waluyo, M., Ainur, C. M., & Darmaningsih, E. N. (2018). Logical errors on
proving theorem. In Journal of Physics: Conference Series (Vol. 948, No. 1, p.
012059). IOP Publishing. https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/17426596/948/1/012059/pdf
Stavrou, S. (2014). Common Errors and Misconceptions in Mathematical Proving by
Education Undergraduates. IUMPST: The Journal. Vol. 1, pp. 18.https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1043043.pdf
Varghese, T. (2017). Proof, proving and mathematics curriculum. Transformations, 3(1),Article 3.
https://nsuworks.nova.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1014&context=transformations
Weber, K. (2001). Student difficulty in constructing proofs: The need for strategic
knowledge. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 48, 101-119.

ISSN: 2189-101X

76

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Grading of Project-Electronic Courses in the Pre-COVID, COVID, Hybrid, andAfter-COVID Semesters
Samuel Kosolapov, Braude College of Engineering, Israel
The Asian Conference of Education & International Development 2023
Official Conference Proceeding
Abstract
Providing consistent and fair grading of the student's work during a semester is never a
simple task. Consistent and fair grading becomes even more complicated when the courseorganization is changed. This contribution explores the practical experience of teaching threeelectronic courses: "Electronic Instrumentation", "Real-Time Digital Signal Processing" and"Image processing". Before 2020 above courses were provided by using what our days can becalled “normal” (pre-COVID) logistics: in-class frontal lectures, laboratories, home works,
and hardware-based projects to be presented physically in class. Then, during a number ofsemesters, different variants of “COVID logistics" were used. Later “HYBRID” logistics wasused (some students still can work from home), whereas the last semester was a gradual
return to “After-COVID” logistics – which is supposed to be close to the original “normal”
logistics with some modifications. Obviously, most changes are in the hardware-based
assignments. In order to make grading as consistent and fair as possible, detailed Excel
Grading Tables were created for each assignment. Those tables contain numbered lists ofrequirements including their weights in the grade of this assignment and numbered lists oferrors typically made by students. To make grading time-efficient for educators, shortnumerical codes are used to point to the specific error in the relevant list. This techniquemakes grading transparent to the students. Additionally, reference to the detailed descriptionof the student’s error prevents many baseless student grade appeals.
Keywords: STEM, Cloud-Based Education, Project-Based Course, Consistent Grading

iafor
The International Academic Forumwww.iafor.org

ISSN: 2189-101X

77The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Introduction
This contribution summarizes the practical experience of grading three project-based
electronic courses: Electronic Instrumentations, Real-Time Digital Signal Processing (RTDSP), and Image Processing in different semesters: Pre-COVID, COVID, Hybrid, and AfterCOVID.
The course Electronic Instrumentation is a basic electronic course provided in the electronics
department. It is provided after students learned the fundamentals of analog and digitalelectronics. In the frames of this course, students learned the structure and usage of simple
sensors and actuators used in laboratories and industry. In some universities, this course
contains frontal lectures, exercises, and laboratories. In Braude College, this course has nolaboratory. Instead, pair of students get a specially prepared kit containing an Arduino UNO
R3 board with a shield, containing a small matrix, and a set of 37 sensors and actuator
modules. By using a set of color wires, students can assemble on small matrix prototypes of
the typical electronic instrumentation systems. Important, that those kits enable students not
only to build prototypes at their homes but to use their laptops to program the Arduino board.
By using programming, students can create advanced projects by using simple andinexpensive components from the kit.
The course Real-Time Digital Signal Processing (RT-DSP) is “a hard-to-learn course” foradvanced electronics students. It is provided after students of the electronics department learn
basic math and physics (including complex numbers and Fourier Transform) and after they
have learned basic analog and digital electronics and basic programming (preferably C
language). In the frames of RT-DSP students learned the following items: how to make theacquisition of analog voltage signals from different sensors (for example, from a
microphone), how to use ADC (Analog to Digital Converter) to convert analog voltage signal
to digital signal (sequence of numbers that can be stored in the electronic memory), how to
use microcontrollers to do an acquisition, how to process digital signals practically (forexample clear human speech from the street noises), and how to do all above fast enough byusing specially designed microcontrollers. “Fast enough” in the content of RT-DSP means: inaccordance with exact timing criteria described in technical terms for the specific application.
RT-DSP course can be considered as a "pedagogic challenge”. It is assumed, that in theframes of this course, students must fortify the theoretical basis learned in the prerequisite
courses, and learn on a higher level a set of classical DSP algorithms (like filtration by
convolution and by using FFT [Fast Fourier Transform]). Then, students learn advanced RT
concepts: timers, hardware interrupts, ring buffers, dual-buffer techniques, and Q-Numbers. It
is clear, that learning a "theory only" is not enough for the modern electronic engineer. To
make learning closer to the real-life work of the electronic engineer, students, instead ofworking in the dedicated laboratory, uses a development board “EasyPic Fusion V7.” As in
the case of the kits for the course Electronic Instrumentation, students get this board with anadditional Arduino DUE board. Then, they can program above board by using their PC
and/or laptops to test basic and advanced RT-DSP algorithms at their homes. By doing thisstudents achieve minimal practical experience: how to implement classical DSP algorithms
by using advanced RT concepts while using real electronic components and development
boards, and by using modern software development and simulation tools.
The course Image Processing is another example of a classical course provided in theelectronic departments. Our days, we have a huge number of digital cameras in laboratories,

ISSN: 2189-101X

78

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

hospitals, factories, on the street, and at home. Students must learn about the basic design andproperties of digital cameras and how to write software that can process images by usingclassical image processing algorithms in order to enhance digital images and analyze theircontent.
This course contains frontal lectures, exercises, and a laboratory. Before 2020 a dedicatedlaboratory room was used to provide laboratories. By using the equipment of this dedicatedlaboratory, pair of students use digital cameras to grab images and develop software that canprocess those images. Then, expensive equipment must have been used: Silicon Graphics
workstations, still experimental digital cameras. In 2005, expensive Silicon Graphics
workstations were replaced by inexpensive PC with Windows OS. MS Visual Studio 2005
was used to write image processing assignments by using C/C++ language. The goal of theeducator then was to monitor students’ activity during the laboratory and assist in solving
technical problems. Grading was “plain, instant, and simple”. The educator’s job was tocheck manually written paper reports prepared during the laboratory and ask a number ofquestions in case of need.
Starting in 2015 laptops became inexpensive – hence, most of the students started to use
laptops and bring them to campus. Simple for inexperienced user Windows OS became thedefault OS installed on most PC and laptops. MS Visual Studio becomes free for noncommercial use. An inexpensive WEB camera became a default for every laptop. Highspeed Internet became always available. As a result, nearly any computer class can be used toprovide Image Processing Laboratory. But, many students prefer to use their laptops. Then,the need for the specialized Image Processing laboratory room has become obsolete. Grading
still was “plain, instant, and simple”. An educator then checked computer-based reports
prepared during the laboratory and ask a number of questions in case of need.
The next step was to evaluate the quality of the student’s work in the laboratory by grading
their reports and the code. Effectively, those reports can be prepared at any place and at any
appropriate time – just some deadlines to send reports must be set. In this situation, “strong
monitoring” of the student’s work in the laboratory time became obsolete.
Speaking practically: even before “The COVID-19 semesters,” Image Processing Laboratory
was provided by using Gmail cloud services. Laboratory still was provided in the dedicatedroom at the dedicated time slot. During this time slot, an educator answers the specificstudent’s questions, but students no more printed their reports – they mailed them to theeducator by using the special time-effective format. Grading became dependent mainly on thequality of the student’ PowerPoint reports and the code written.
The yet next step was to grade the reports by using clearly described criteria. Practically,
detailed Excel forms were created. As a result, while using cloud services, it was possible toprovide the Image Processing laboratory practically in the same way in different semesters,
while the grading criteria were not changed significantly.
The approach to using specially designed Excel tables, containing clearly definedrequirements to work to be done with fixed maximal grades was naturally expanded to all
three courses long before the time when COVID-19 restrictions were imposed. Practicaldetails of this approach will be described in the following sections.

ISSN: 2189-101X

79The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Literature Review
Courses Electronic Instrumentation and DSP are classical courses for the electronic engineer,hence many articles were dedicated to the details of teaching these courses. Many educators
believe, that working with real electronic components (like amplifiers, microcontrollers,
ADC, and DAC) is a must for a course of that kind (Nikolic, 2015). Some educators use only
mathematic tools to demonstrate usage of the typical DSP algorithms: “A substantial amountof effort from the teacher is required to deliver mathematical and algorithmic concepts”,
hence “specially designed Windows Store App can be used as a teaching aid for an
introductory undergraduate DSP course” like “linear convolution, circular convolution, radix2 Fast Fourier Transform (FFT), and Finite Impulse Response (FIR) filter design” (Diya,2017). The above authors use non-electronic software emulation of a "hypothetical 16-bit
floating-point digital signal processor, with a simple instruction set.” Modern software-based
electronic simulators are an advanced tool. The results of their work are very close to theoperation of real-life systems. This is why many educators started to use dedicated electronic
simulators and software tools (like LabView) for electronic courses (Yi, 2005). Some
educators promote the "remote laboratory" concept. In the frames of this concept, students
remotely operate specific electronic equipment positioned in the "normal" electroniclaboratory. (Auer, 2000). Taking into account that the DSP course contains a lot of
sophisticated math, and, thus, is not simple for many students, many educators promote“project-based” learning (Hoffbeck, 2012).
Grading of the student’s projects in the “normal” semesters was plain and simple. COVID-19
significantly changed the organization of many courses, including organization of theelectronic courses. In many countries it was found that a significant number of students“perceive a paradigm shift in their learning experience before and after COVID-19” and thata significant number of students had faced “numerous challenges during the COVID-19
online learning, affecting their academic performance” (Acheampong, 2023). Many educators
observed “inflation of the grades” as a result of the changes in the course organization. For
example: “The increase in grades can be explained by the effort of instructors who areaccustomed to face-to-face settings. When they suddenly switch to distant education, theymight try to grade higher to compensate for the unforeseen negative circumstances”(Karadag, 2021).
This contribution is attempting to analyze the efforts and practical changes in the course’sorganization that were provided to prevent significant changes in the grading of the threeproject-based electronic courses.
Lectures and Exercises of three courses in a “normal” and in a COVID-19 semester
Common elements of the three Electronic courses are frontal lectures and exercises. In a“normal semester”, lecturers of obligatory basic courses (like math and physics) still use
markers and white-board. At the same time, the majority of lecturers of “electronics elective
courses” uses pre-written PowerPoint presentations and projectors. Only a small number oflecturers require obligatory presence in the lectures.
When COVID-19 restrictions were enforced, lecturers were asked during 3 days to propose
an “alternative”. It so happens that, “the alternative to normal life” in Israeli schools anduniversities was prepared and tested long before: periodically lecturers and students areforced to remain at their homes in “shelter rooms,” and use ZOOM to provide lectures.

ISSN: 2189-101X

80

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Hence, there were nearly no problems with the frontal lectures. Those days some students
have had low-speed Internet. In that cases, they were permitted to switch off their cameras
and microphones.
Exercises of the above three courses are mostly provided by using pre-prepared PowerPoint
presentations. Additional software is used to demonstrate practical elements. For “Image
Processing” exercises “MS Visual Studio” is used. “Arduino IDE” is used for “Electronic
Instrumentation.” “MikroPIC C” is used for “RT-DSP.”
As in the case of Frontal Lectures, there was no problem to use ZOOM services to provide
exercises nearly as in the ‘normal semesters.”
Changes in the Laboratory organization
The real challenge was in the change in the organization of laboratories. Solutions weredifferent for the above three courses. In the end, assignments were practically the same in the“normal semester”, in the “COVID-19 semester, in the “HYBRID semester,” and in the“Normal Again Semester”. This became possible because of the fast progress in the way how
computers and cloud services are used our days.
In the case of the Image Processing course, changes were minimal. Practically the same
grading tables were used in all the semesters. Important point was to formulate assignment
requirements in a clear way. For example, requirement #1 in assignment #11 was formulated
as: “Put YOUR resulted image “grayImage11.bmp” and add a short comment of what theeducator is expected to see”. In this case, the student was forced to add some text describing
created test image in scientific terms. Requirement #4 was written as: “Proof that the function“AddGrayRectangle” works as described (use scientific tools)”. Again, it was not enough towrite the code of the function “AddGrayRectangle”, it was necessary to provide solid proof.
The grading policy was clear and simple. Every requirement has a maximal grade of 2 points.
“Two-point grading” makes possible fast and simple evaluation and grading: ‘0’ – not done;‘1’ – done but not exactly as required, ‘2’ – done as required. To make this process really fastand simple two-monitor configuration was used. One monitor presented the table withrequirements, whereas the second monitor presented the student’s report. During the years,
student’s errors were systemized and a “typical numbered error’ list was compiled”. The
educator in several seconds can evaluate: whether a specific requirement was properly done.
Any appeal of the student concerning grade now can be checked in a fast and simple way:“done as required”/”not done as required”. This enables fair and consistent grading for the
Image Processing Assignments. In the comment to the relevant cell in the grading table, it
was necessary only to add the “number” of the specific error. The “price” of every error was
obviously the same for all pairs of students. Usage of the numbered list of errors effectively
minimized the number of student appeals for the one-digit number of appeals.
In addition to the laboratory assignments, students were asked to do two micro projects: MP1
and MP2. In the “normal semester”, students presented their work physically in class. During
the “COVID-19 semester presentations were provided by ZOOM. In the “HYBRID
semester” – some students were physically present, whereas others were at their homes. It
was proved that using high-quality cameras and microphones for the ZOOM sessions makes
cloud-based presentations nearly the same as in a “normal semester”. (HI-RESOLUTION
option was set). In the case of Micro Projects grading was different for the different
requirements. For example, simple requirement #2 of the Micro Project #1 (Provide the

ISSN: 2189-101X

81The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

description of the algorithm including a description of Input Image(s), algorithm’parameter(s), Output Image(s)/value(s); write what exactly must the algorithm do with input
images – what is/are expected output(s)) – has the maximal grade of 1 point. Howeverrequirement #3 (create a detailed block chart of the algorithm(s) including all algorithm
functions, parameters, input/output/temporary arrays by using the same names as in the code)– has a maximal grade of 6.
All assignments are now stored in the cloud (Gmail service was selected). Then, bycomparing the level of students’ presentations and the complexity of the code during“COVID-19” semesters with those of “normal” semesters, it can be stated that the level of thepresentation and the level of the code’ complexity were not significantly changed. Thisconclusion justifies practically the same typical grades for the different semesters.
For the courses Electronic Instrumentation and RT-DSP, the situation was not simple as in
the case of the course Image Processing. In the normal semester, real electronic components
were used to implement the assignments. Unfortunately, when COVID-19 restrictions were
enforced, it was too late to distribute the kits. After short tests, the TinkerCad simulator was
selected as a proper alternative.
Advertisement of the TinkerCad claims that: Tinkercad is a free, easy-to-use (really easy touse) web application (no need to install) that equips the next generation of designers andengineers with the foundational skills for innovation: 3D design (not used in three courses)
analog and digital electronics + some microcontrollers, and coding. The community of
Tinkercad is ~ 35 million users. Tinkercad is used by many educators for simple school
projects. Hence the question was: whether Tinkercad can be used to create sophisticatedalgorithms learned in the frames of the Electronic Instrumentation and RT-DSP courses.
The answer for the course Electronic Instrumentation was: yes, the assignments that were
designed for the real electronic sensor and actuator modules from the kit can be implemented
in the TinkerCad practically without changes – because most of the components were foundat the TinkerCad palette of electronic components, and the code in the simulator was 100%
compatible with the code used to program real Arduino Uno R3 board.
Cloud-based reporting technique (practically the same as with the course Image processing)makes it possible to evaluate the quality of students’ work without physical meetings – bygrading GMailed reports containing links to the simulations. Additionally, students were able
to demonstrate the operation of their simulations by using the “share screen” feature of
ZOOM. An additional challenge was to ensure that all students really build and test what was
asked to do in the frames of assignments. This is why students were asked to fill a number oftables documenting all steps of the execution of the assignment. It was obvious that a simple
copy-paste technique would be immediately revealed.
As the answer to “Students difficulties during COVID-19 semesters”, students werepermitted to send up to 3 versions for Home Work #1 and for Micro Project #1. The goal ofthis policy was to motivate students to do “decent work” while learning “the rules of goodreporting”. Only one version was permitted for Home Works #2 and #3 and Micro Project#2– because students already know the rules and requirements.
For the course RT-DSP it was found that the cloud-based reporting technique, developed forother electronic courses, can be used for remote reporting and grading of the student's RT-

ISSN: 2189-101X

82

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

DSP assignments with minor modifications (Kosolapov, 2019, 2022). When simulation
became the only possible option, students, as proof of execution, added to their report
screenshots of the simulation's screens instead of adding photos of the working system.
Additionally, a link to the working stimulation must be added to the first page of thePowerPoint report, so that the educator was able to check remotely all the details: howexactly students executed specific assignments. Unfortunately, the current version of
TinkerCad supports only an extremely simple Arduino UNO R3 board. The small size of the
RAM limits the size of data that can be processed. However, considering that Arduino UNO
R3 has timers and hardware interrupts, and supports direct operation, it was found that most
RT-DSP algorithms (like ring buffers, filtration by convolution in the TD and by FFT at FD)
can be implemented by using TinkerCad.). Important that Tinker Cad can simulate as analog
as digital electronics. Hence Arduino UNO R3 can be programmed by writing standard C
code by using integrated into TinkerCad an Arduino simulator. An educator can see the codeand check its execution, including graphs of the signals created by the Arduino simulator.
Still, the C-code, in that case, was significantly different that the code for the MicroC
compiler so that it cannot be stated, that the complexity of the code is the same in bothcompilers.
Providing courses in the Hybrid semester
It so happens that semester 2021-10 – 2022-03 was started as an online semester, but after
three weeks, it became a hydride semester: lectures, exercises, and Micro Projects
presentations were provided in-campus, but students had the right to stay at home andcontinue to use cloud services including ZOOM and Email. In the “normal” semester students
were required to present in-class Micro Projects However, with the non-strict presence rulesof the hybrid semester, a plurality of situations was created: for example, one student of thepair was physically present in class during the presentations, whereas the second student
participated by using ZOOM. This situation created a number of logistics problems, and,thus, some logistics changes needed to be done in order to ensure fair and non-biased
grading, as for the students who were physically present during the lectures, exercises, andpresentations, as for the students who participated remotely. In any case, in the frames of thethree courses, the number of assignments was the same as in other semesters.
Results and Conclusion
During 10 years, different variants of this time-effective cloud-based logistics for thedifferent electronic engineering courses were tested. Some results were published before andreported at a number of international conferences. There were no drastic changes as in thelevel of the student’ reports, as in their final grades for the three electronic courses. In thesemesters when student pools were provided, grades provided by students for this course
were in the range {4.23...4.94} (by using a 1-5 scale) and were in most cases 0.5 higher thanthe mean department’s course grade. In the written comments, most of the students’ remarks
were positive, and, the median grade for this course in most of the semesters was 5.0 (of 5). It
is assumed that by analyzing the results of the last student pools (still not available), more
conclusions will be drawn, and some modifications in the logistics will be provided.
And, some technical conclusion: TinkerCad simulation was found extremely useful for thegoals of two courses: Electronic Instrumentation and RT-DSP, hence it will be used in the
AFTER-COVID semesters.

ISSN: 2189-101X

83

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

References
Acheampong, J, (2023). The impact of COVID-19 on students’ academic performance: Thecase of the University of Ghana business school. Cogent Education, Volume 10, 2023
- Issue 1.
Auer, M. E., and Gallent, W. (2000). The “Remote Electronic Lab” as a part of thetelelearning concept at the Carinthia Tech Institute. Proceedings of the ICL2000,
Villach/Austria, 28/29.09.2000.
Diya, J., Chavla, P., Chander, H., Rawat, T. (2017). A multipurpose toolkit for teaching DSP
in an undergraduate course. Computer Applications in Engineering Education. 06
April 2017.
Hoffbeck, J. (2012). Enhance your DSP Course with These Interesting Projects. 2012 ASEE
Annual Conference & Exposition.
Karadag, E. (2021). Effect of COVID-19 pandemic on grade inflation in higher education in
Turkey. PLOS ONE, 16(8), e0256688. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0256688
Kosolapov, S., and Sabag, N. (2019). Logistics of Electronic Home Project-Based Course.
International Journal of Information and Education Technology, vol. 9 no. 6, pp. 445448. 2019.
Kosolapov, S., (2022). Time-Effective Logistics of Project-Based Course Electronic
Instrumentation. eLmL2022: The Fourteenth International Conference on Mobile,
Hybrid, and On-line Learning, Proceedings, (35-41), PORTO, Portugal, July 26-30,
2022.
Nikolic, S, Vial, P., Ros, M., Stirling, D., and Ritz, C., (2015). Improving the Laboratory
Learning Experience: A Process to Train and Manage Teaching Assistants, IEEE
Transactions on Education, vol. 58, no. 2, 2015.
Yi, Z., J. Jian-Jun, and Shao-Chun, F., (2005). A LabVIEW-based, interactive virtuallaboratory for electronic engineering education, International Journal of Engineering
Education, vol. 21, no. 1, pp. 94-102, 2005.
Contact email: ksamuel@braude.ac.il

ISSN: 2189-101X

84

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Qualitative Study: Disruption and Violence Among Primary School Students in
the Lahore District of Punjab Pakistan
Tajammal Hussain Awan, Superior University Lahore, Pakistan
Hafiz Muhammad Nouman, University of the Punjab, Pakistan
Sobia Nasir, Superior University Lahore, Pakistan
The Asian Conference of Education & International Development 2023
Official Conference Proceeding
Abstract
Children's welfare has been impacted by the global problem of school violence. Few studies
have examined how school features in public primary schools serve Asian cultures, It poses a
serious risk to students' social, familial, and personal well-being. The study's goals were to
examine the type and degree of disruption that results in violence among primary school
students, which spread to elementary school students, and finally, before entering highschool, they stopped attending their schools for odd jobs, becoming the poorest andmarginalized group in society, and some of them joining the unfair ideologies that harm
others. The research was qualitative, The representative sample for the study was chosenusing a stratified cluster random sampling procedure through the interviews with public
primary school teachers in Lahore. The findings indicate that teachers perceive disruption in
the classroom and verbal and physical aggression among public primary school students areharmful to the future of our kids. They believe that the main causes are a lack of
accountability for one's actions, a lack of self-efficacy to engage in productive teachingactivities, personal, family, and social factors, the school environment, teaching strategies,classroom management, and school administration are responsible. The future of our children
and nations can be saved by the implementation of real monitoring, training, work
satisfaction, and long-term educational plans.
Keywords: Student Violence, School Administration, Class Room Management, Primary
School Students, Class Room Disruption

iafor
The International Academic Forumwww.iafor.org

ISSN: 2189-101X

85

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

INTRODUCTION
School violence has spread around the globe, posing a threat to kids' well-being. Few studies
have looked at how school variables buffer the relationship between personal and family
factors and school violence in Asian cultures' primary schools. School violence has become amajor social issue in recent decades, hurting the personal, family, and social well-being ofkids. The majority of school violence research has thus far concentrated on adolescent data.
The demographic of primary school children has received far less attention. Furthermore,
numerous studies on the risk variables linked to school violence have been undertaken inWestern countries. Although considerable disparities in attitudes, perspectives, andworldviews appear to exist between East and West, a nationally representative sample
demonstrating that these risk factors extend to primary school in Asian cultures is lacking.
Additionally, research studies on school violence in primary schools have looked at how
children's personal, family, and school experiences influence the persistence of student-onstudent violence. According to international research, teachers are also targets of student
violence in the classroom, but little is known about how students' personal, social, and school
experiences influence student aggression toward teachers in primary school. Few studies havelooked at organizational or school variables between personal and family factors and school
violence in primary schools to date. Few studies have looked at organizational or school
variables that may act as mediators between personal and family factors and school violencein primary schools to date.
Different types of violent behaviors are considered the root causes of violence among
primary school students. Physical violence is the intentional use of physical force for causing
harm, injury, or disability, It includes scratching, pushing, shoving, throwing objects, biting,shaking, slapping, physical fighting, twisting ears, slapping, hair pulling, pinching, pushing,snatching belongings, biting with teeth, face pinching, and use of strength against anotherperson in school.
The intentional verbal behavior or kind of act which causes aggression, abuse, threats, makes
one feel stupid, and mentally disturbed, and negatively affects one’s achievement andconfidence is psychological violence in school which consist of stolen belongings, shouting,bullying, name-calling, teasing, and be fooling.
Statement of the problem
In Pakistan, violence among primary school pupils is a serious concern. The purpose of thisstudy was to explore the disruption and violence among primary school students in the
Lahore district of Punjab Pakistan.
Objectives of the Study
The objectives of the study were:
1. To explore what sort and intensity of disruption and violence among primary school
students.
2. To explore the factors promoting disruption and violence among primary school
students as perceived by the teachers.

ISSN: 2189-101X

86The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Research Question
1. What was the nature and extent of violence among students?
2. Which were the factors promoting violence among primary school students asperceived by the teacher?
3. What was the impact of the corporal Punishment law on primary school students?
4. What were the major causes of violence?
LITERATURE REVIEWSchools are in charge of instilling in kids beneficial social behaviors such as creativity, talent,and critical thinking, as well as life skills, social relations, confidence, and self-esteem.
Schools should establish policy patterns that encourage nonviolent behavior and play a role inthe development of communication skills, negotiation skills, and support for peaceful dispute
resolution. Schools must create a safe atmosphere for kids because it is where they spend the
majority of their time (three quarters), learn social conduct, and even develop their objectives
and values (Burton & Leoschut, 2013).
Winicki (2010) defined school violence as the act that upsets or negatively affects theschooling process. It can involve criminal acts, aggression, and many other related factors
like harsh behavior, teasing, physical fights, and attacks.
According to Ozdemir, (n.d.), school violence covers a wide array of intentional or recklessphysical and psychological behavior ranging from bullying to murder. Sexual harassment,
school fighting, bullying, verbal threats and intimidation, gang violence, rape, hate crimes,
vandalism, and verbal or physical harassment on the way to and from school have also been
observed.
School violence is increasing day by day and the feeling of an unsafe school environment isspreading in society. School violence can be defined in many ways but exactly it can be said
that violence is all kinds of those behaviors revolving around physical harm, psychologicalharm to the student, and property damage to the school and students (Llewellyn, 2011).
According to Ridler (2006) most commonly reported physical violence among elementaryand secondary school students is slapping on the hand or arm, head or face, twisting of theear, pulling hair, etc. Psychological types of violence are shouting, threatening with badremarks, calling names, insulting, making one feel stupid, and stealing others' belongings.
Bullying is common behavior in schools across the world and a survey conducted in 2003 –2005 in developing countries resulted that one-third of students committing bullying violenceon daily basis and most of the victims do not complain to their teachers because they feelshame to repeat it. So they get psychological harm (Ramos-Jimenez et al., 2013).
Child abuse is a highly concerning matter in secondary students. It has been observed thatwhen children feel aggression then they are abused and abused even to their belongings torelease depression. Some students abuse to treat other students because they feel secure anduse their abusive habit as a tool of defense so they start abusing others even in slighter
conflict. Some students learn such social behaviors from peer groups. The company of groupmembers made them habitual to abuse (Dembo, 1998).

ISSN: 2189-101X

87The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Most students avoid informing their school problems to parents. They feel that nobody athome will believe them. They might be having the inner feeling that if they report such
incidents to their parents and teachers they may feel they are strengthless or not braveenough. Secondly, they think that reporting teachers or parents will become worried (Burton& Leoschut, 2013).
It is bullying when a student threatens or irritates in aggression by others. It is also bullying
when a student makes conflict among the group or with another. In conflict, most students
say nasty and unpleasant things to others. It is also bullying when parents or elders at thehome hit, kick, or lock children inside the room. So it is established that students bulled inaggression and defense to resolve their aggression (Cornell & Brough, 2004). A significant
amount of research has examined that the influence of the home environment is very strong
on a child’s behavior. Children are first exposed to social problems within the context offamily. Relations within the family, parents, siblings, and other family members are rolemodels for how they deal with others and which way they adapt to solve conflict andproblems (Stain & Albro, 2001).
Marital conflicts are common in Pakistani society. It also affects children, particularly girls’
thinking and behavioral level. They start getting awareness about such kinds of social
problems and find out the solutions to such problems by sharing with their peers in the school
and on a slighter conflict other members of peers share it with others. So violence or verbal
threats come into being and girls verbally tease each other with bad comments. Secondly,
girls are so very close to their mothers, and if the mother solves all the problems in the homewith strict actions and behaves aggressively then automatically girls adopt that behavior
because they think it is the best way to handle the situation (Parveen, 2013).
The physical disability or any other problem of the child makes it target more likely.
Similarly, sometimes the problems and disabilities of parents are the sources of the target for
students in the school. Such students may be rejected by their friends and schoolmates.
Students fall into depression and psychological disorders when their classmates orschoolmates treat them worse due to their family background or give names on school
playgrounds or start to whisper about them (Jimenez, Medrano, Villar & Torres, 2013).
Society has to create such an environment where a student may learn how to adopt a nonviolent attitude and tolerance for a healthy life and society (Bologa, 2010). Media has a great
influence on children’s behavior. Children look at people in the media as their role models,
especially their favorite celebrities (Jumprasert & KetUm, 2008). Students are not passive
recipients of media context; they select and use the media according to their motives.
Nevertheless, exposure can affect both what they learn and the way they behave, even thoughthese effects may depend on the characteristics of the teenager. They learn a great deal fromthe media other than entertainment. Children are typically more attentive to those characters
who have high status or power or who are similar to themselves in sex, age, or ethnic
background. It was found that 83% of all programs contained violent elements. Boys are fondof violent films and dramas and like to watch such programs which contain a lot of fights. On
the other hand, girls like to watch fashion shows and dramas based on romance and housepolitics. So media affects our values and attitude to a great extent (Wal, 2006).
Students have a great influence on juniors. If they behave violently in school areas andclassrooms and mostly show aggressive behaviors with teachers, friends, and other students
then the juniors also feel proud to be violent in the school. It is necessary to behave politely

ISSN: 2189-101X

88The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

with students and try to promote the values among them. Similarly, the most jammed groupof people who are jammed together at the bottom of the social pyramid cannot even think of
their future. They contribute to developing aggression, a sense of fed up, and demotivationand contribute a lot to promoting social evils (Avlos, 2001).
Schools are playing a vital role in the personality of students and the development of
behavior. The school environment is responsible for violent acts and bullying at schools.
Students feel threatened and are often teased by their schoolmates on the way to school.
Students who are bullied a lot are mostly low-grade achievers and have less participation inclass. School violence mostly occurs on school property, on the way to and from school, or
during a school event, or (APHA, 2011).
Some students start skipping classes, especially in grades 9th and 10th due to performing someschool duties regarding supervision which makes them overconfident sometimes and they
become the reason for violence. Categorization based on academic achievement labeled thestudents as doing well or doing poorly. Similarly, financial grouping is also creating gaps instudents' mix-up habits. Violence also exists in the student's mind but compactions give it
power and motivation (Jumprasert & KetUm, 2008). Physical harm is common prevailing
violence in classrooms. Mostly those students are victims who are physically weaker andcannot defend themselves. Some students start shouting at others. They release theiraggression but others feel psychological disturbance (Jimenez, Medrano, Villar & Torres,2013).
Most schools focus on academic achievement and excellence. They also train their students
how to handle the pressure and tolerate the behaviors. It is only possible if the teaching staff
is fully trained. Unqualified teachers neglect their duties, a factor of promoting violent
behavior in school. It has been observed that the occurrence rate of violence is high among
students who are taught by teachers who are not professionally trained. The ratio of violence
is less among those students who are taught by certified teachers (Rose & Gallap, 2007).
Schools should provide appropriate curricula adjusted to suit the local context. Religion andethics should be a compulsory part of education (Jumprasert & Ket Um, 2008). According toArter (2000), rural schools have more difficult challenges than urban schools. They havefewer resources in schools and have to achieve a high level of performance with limited
resources.
School violence affects not only the violent victim but also those who witness the violence inschools. This creates an atmosphere of fear for learners and disrupts the academic attitude
and the possibilities of learning. Every fifth student report that they feel fear of physicalfighting near parking areas or school gate and every tenth student report that they have seenor victimization by physical violence at school playgrounds and near toilets ( Burton &Leoschut, 2013). Fear and mental disturbance are badly affecting the students learning andsuccess. School-based health centers should form to manage school-based violence. It hasneeded to introduce anti-bullying and anti-violence programs to improve the school
environment (APHA, 2011). The school head should arrange meetings with the problematic
student’s parents to give an accurate report of the student and to the discussion of violent
behaviors and their effect on their academic achievement (Mills, 2001). It is necessary toensure that schools adopt the rules for all individuals on an equal basis and also make surethat all the students have equal opportunities to grow and learn. Teachers can conduct Parents

ISSN: 2189-101X

89The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Teacher Meetings to develop school and home collaboration and improve poor family-based
relations with strong bounding (CDC, 2013).
To control school violence school principals should overcome school violence risk factors
like dropout ratio, poor student-teacher learning bounds, and relationships, problems of theschool environment, and association with peer members and change these factors into good
student-teacher relations, effective teaching-learning environment, through equal
opportunities in academic activities, discipline, and motivation (Burton & Leoschut, 2013).
The principal can control school violence by rewarding good behavior, adopting the zerotolerance policy, training students in anger management, and developing easy ways forparents to be involved in the school activities of students (NCPC, 2013). Now, these days thegovernment of every country is spending millions of dollars to make schools healthy and safe
for students and developing different policies to control this social problem by giving equal
opportunities for co-curricular activities (Llewellyn, 2011).
Schools should develop individual and group strategies not only for students but also for theteachers and parents to overcome the social problem and also at that level where they takemany things from other society members secondary to friends, Usually related factors ofschool violence at the individual level are lack ness of facilities, low income, large family
size, not effective communication with parents and other family members or crime family
background or history. Schools should develop individual and group strategies not only forstudents but also for teachers and parents to overcome the social problem (Piedrahita,
Martinez, Vinazco. et, al. 2007).
Methodology:
This study is a descriptive qualitative approach was used for this study. This research is used
to explore the disruption and violence among primary school students in the district ofLahore.
Interview Guide Development
A semi-structured interview guide was developed with the help of a literature review. Basedon the literature review, different indicators regarding perceptions about student violence andviolence are reported in the schools. A theoretical framework based on these themes wasdeveloped. The interview Guide was developed based on themes.

ISSN: 2189-101X

90The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Figure 1: Interview Guide
Interview Guide
The interview guide was divided into two parts. In the first part, the researcher asked for
demographic information regarding teachers, such as the name of the interviewee, name ofinstitution, gender, location, marital status, age in years, academic qualification, professional
qualification, teaching experience, and job status. The second part of the interview guideconsists of semi-structured questions.
Themes of an Interview Guide for Teachers
The researcher asked teachers about:
1. Causes of disruption and violence among primary school students
a. Do you observe aggressive behavior amongst children in primary schools or between
students and teachers anyplace in the school?
b. Do you notice them fighting, pushing, splashing, or pinching each other?
c. Do you notice them screaming, calling each other names, pulling their hair, or abusing
each other?
d. Have you noticed that kids are willing to fight or tease one another over little things?
e. What are the reasons encouraging student violence?
f. How do students' personalities and the media interact?

ISSN: 2189-101X

91The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

2. Students learning interest
a. What kind of disruptive behavior do you see students engaging in during the lecture?
b. What do you believe is causing pupils to lose interest in their studies?
c. Do you believe that the violence among primary school pupils will eventually escalate
to the worst possible situation or towards actual violence?
3. Impact of the law of corporal punishment
a. What factors, in your opinion, are responsible for encouraging violence among
students, including the statute that forbids physical punishment?
b. How does the law requiring corporal punishment affect people's nature and conduct?
4. Teachers' Proper Guidance and Responsibilities
a. What counsel would you offer to teachers and other educators who are dealing with orseeing this violence?
b. How can they provide excellent instruction or guide kids towards a positive learning
environment in the same disruptive atmosphere?
c. Do you believe that teachers are doing their jobs?
5. Parents Care for Their Children and Responsibilities
a. Should teachers involve parents in efforts to reduce student violence?
b. Why, in your opinion, is it necessary to ask parents about the reasons behind theirchildren's aggressive behavior to help them change it?
c. How do you notice that the parents are responding to you in line with yourexpectations when you talk to them about their child's aggressive behavior?
d. Are their social standing and financial situation impeding their kids' ability to behave
well in any way?
6. Environment of Society, community, and their responsibilities
a. Should teachers inform the community about the aggressive behavior of the pupils
who attend school so that they can change their behaviors?
b. Based on their expectations, how do you think they will respond to the teacher?
c. How, in your opinion, is our community responding to the issue of student violence?
Validity of Interview Guide
The interview guide developed for the study was presented to the research supervisor of the
field for opinion. According to the expert opinion, the interview guide had good content
validity. All the questions of the related theme measure the nature and intensity of violence
among primary school students. After validation, the suggestions were included in theinterview guide after a discussion with the researchers.
Population
Primary school teachers from various primary schools in the district of Lahore Punjab,
Pakistan, made up the study's population, which was made up of 80% men and 20% women.
Participants in a group that a researcher is interested in studying make up the target
population. Since they all share crucial traits, the study's findings can be applied to thiscommunity as a whole. The primary school teachers in Lahore are the study's target
population.

ISSN: 2189-101X

92The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Procedure
The focus of this study was to explore the disruption and violence among primary school
students. Sufficient literature was reviewed to know more about student violence in theirschools, based on the literature review, the researcher developed an interview guide to see
student violence. The research tool was validated by experts from the field of education.
Semi-structured interviews were collected with teachers.
Data Analysis
The interview guide was administered on the scheduled sample and the data obtained wereorganized, tabulated, and analyzed using a computer package i-e QSR NVIVO. Firstly, all therecorded data were transcribed and shifted into a file according to each theme. After this, alldata were coded, and shift the answers were according to the participant's responses.
Results of the Study:
Themes & Responses
Themes
1. Causes of violence
among primary school
students.

2. Students learninginterest

3. Impact of the law ofcorporal punishment

4. Teachers' Proper
Guidance andResponsibilities

ISSN: 2189-101X

Responses of Teachers
It is concerning to hear about the aggressive and violent behavior
observed among primary school students. The teachers'
observation that violence is more prevalent when there is lessteacher attention is understandable. The factors identified byteachers, such as busy parents, insufficient teacher attention, andmedia influences, are valid concerns.
It is concerning to hear that students with aggressive and violent
behavior are less interested in the learning process and can be a
distraction to others in the classroom. This behavior creates adomino effect, leading to other students losing focus andbecoming disengaged from the learning process.
It is concerning to hear that the law of corporal punishment isseen as a contributing factor to the aggressive and violent
behavior observed among students. Teachers are correct in statingthat punishment is necessary to maintain discipline and create asafe and supportive learning environment. However, the use of
corporal punishment can have severe negative consequences on a
student's mental and emotional well-being.
Research has shown that corporal punishment can lead toincreased aggression, anxiety, and depression in children. It canalso negatively impact their academic performance and social
development.
The teachers' suggestions and advice seem very reasonable andpractical. Teachers need to understand the root cause of violenceand disruptive behavior among students and address those issues
through communication and collaboration with parents and otherrelevant stakeholders. Using professional skills and experience tocreate an engaging and interesting learning environment can also
help reduce the incidence of violence in the classroom.

93

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

5. Parents Care for
Their Children andResponsibilities

6. Environment ofSociety, community,
and their
responsibilities

Official Conference Proceedings

It is important to note that while economic factors may play a rolein promoting disputes in families, it is not solely responsible forviolent behavior among students. There may be various otherfactors at play, such as the influence of media and peer groups,
mental health issues, and exposure to violence in theirsurroundings. Teachers and parents need to work together to
identify and address the underlying causes of violent behavior
among students, rather than simply blaming one another.
Collaboration and a proactive approach can go a long way increating a safe and positive learning environment for students.
It is concerning to hear that the community is not taking
responsibility for the behavior of their children and is not willingto cooperate with teachers to address the issue of violence inschools. However, teachers need to continue to reach out to thecommunity and communicate the importance of education and apeaceful learning environment for the students. Teachers can alsocollaborate with local authorities and organizations to implement
programs and initiatives that promote positive behavior anddiscourage violence. It is a collective effort to create a safe andsupportive learning environment for the students, and everyone
has a role to play in achieving this goal.
Table 1: Themes & Responses

Discussion
Furthermore, the study found that corporal punishment is not an effective method to reduce
violence among primary school students. It can worsen the situation and can lead to physicaland emotional harm to the students. The role of teachers, parents, and the community is
crucial to reduce violence among primary school students. Teachers should use theirprofessional skills, teaching methodology, and experience to create an interesting andactivity-based environment for their students. They should also identify and work on
problematic students to reduce violence among them.
Parents should also cooperate with teachers and positively guide their children to promote
good behavior. However, some parents are non-cooperative and do not accept the mistakes of
their children. They should also take responsibility for their children's actions and not justsend them to school for security purposes.
Lastly, the study highlights the importance of the community in reducing violence among
primary school students. The community should be aware of the consequences of violenceand should take responsibility for the children of their nation. They should work together
with teachers and parents to promote a safe and violence-free environment for primary school
students.
CONCLUSIONSIn conclusion, it is crucial to address the issue of violence among primary school students. By
working together, parents, educators, and policymakers can create a safe and supportive
environment that fosters positive behavior and helps prevent violence. It is essential torecognize the negative impact that disruptive behavior can have on the learning environment.

ISSN: 2189-101X

94The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Teachers must take proactive steps to address these behaviors early on and provide support tostudents who are struggling. Collaboration between parents, teachers, and the community isnecessary to create a safe and supportive environment for all students. It is crucial to address
the negative impact of corporal punishment on student behavior and well-being. Alternative
methods of discipline need to be explored, and teachers need to be provided with thenecessary training and resources to manage disruptive behavior effectively. Additionally,
there may be a need for flexibility in the law of corporal punishment to ensure that it does notcause physical harm to students. Overall, it is important for all stakeholders in the education
system, including teachers, parents, and policymakers, to work together to address the issueof violence among primary school students and create a safe and nurturing learning
environment for them. The researcher was limited by the possibility that the study could be
conducted in each of Punjab's other provinces in Pakistan.
Recommendations
In light of the above findings and conclusions, the following recommendations are made:•Parents should be encouraged to participate in school-based programs to help theirchildren develop positive behavior and social skills. Schools should work closely withthe community to address the underlying factors that contribute to violent behavior
among students. Teachers and parents should be provided with adequate training on
how to identify and address violent behavior in children. Schools should have asystem in place for reporting and monitoring incidents of violent behavior among
students.

•

Schools should create a safe and supportive learning environment for all students,
including those who may have been victims of violence.

•

Students should be taught conflict resolution and problem-solving skills to help them
deal with difficult situations. The government should allocate more resources to
education, especially in disadvantaged areas, to provide better facilities and resourcesto schools and students.

ISSN: 2189-101X

95The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

References
APHA. (2011). The Vital Role of School-Based Health Centers in Creating a Violence-Free.
Arter, J. (2000). Addendum to improving classroom assessment: A toolkit for professional
developers. Portland, OR: Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory, pp. 1-54.
Bologa, Lia. (2010). “Determinant Factors of Current Form of Manifestation of School
Violence. Preventions and Strategies”. (Unpublished Doctoral dissertation,)
doctorat.ubbcluj.ro/sustinerea_publica/rezumate/.../Bologa_Lia_en.pdf
Burton, P., Leoschut, L. (2013). School Violence in South Africa. Result of the 2012 National
School Violence Study: Center for Justice and Crime Preventions South Africa.
CDC. (2013). Understanding School Violence. National Center for Injury Prevention andControl U.S.A. Retrieved from www.cdc.gov/violenceprevention.
Celbis, O., Karaoglu, L., Egri, M., & Ozdemir. (2012). A prevalence study: violence amonghigh school student in Malatya. Turkish Journal of Medical Science, 42 (2), 343-350.
Doi: 10.3906/sag-1102-1394
Cornell, G. D., & Brough, B. K. (2004). Article: identification of bullies and victims. Journalof health science, 23(1), 63-87.
Dembo, H. M. (1998). Applying educational psychology in the classroom 4th edi: Universityof southern California.
Jimenez, R. A., Medrano, W. A., Villar, D., & Torres, H. P. (2013). Design and validation of
a self-administered test to assess bullying in high school Mexicans: a pilot study.
BMC.Public Health.13:334. Retrieved from: http://www.biomedcentral.com/14712458/13/334
Jumprasert, T., Ket, Um. P. (2008). Violence against children in school. The circle ofInterconnected problem in Society. Retrieved from: www.plan-international.org/Asia
Llewellyn, S. (2011). Factors related to school violence victimization: the role ofextracurricular activities. (Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, University of Lowa).
Retrieved from: http://www.ir.uiowa.edu/etd/2687
Mills, M. (2001). Challenging Violence in Schools. Buckingham Philadelphia: Open
University Press.
NCPC, (2013). Crime Preventions Bulletin: School Violence Prevention Strategies. National
Crime Prevention Council, Washington. Retrieved from: http:// www.ncpc.org.
Online at http://mpra.ub.uni-muenchen.de/17223/ MPRA Paper No. 17223, posted 11.
September 2009 06:31 UTC
Ozdemir.S.M. An Investigation of Violence Against Teachers Turkey. Journal of
Instructional Psychological 39/01. 51-62.

ISSN: 2189-101X

96The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Parveen. S, (2013). Social problem solving skill, normative belief about aggression andaggression behavior among school students.M.Sc Thsis. University of Punjab.
Ramos-Jimenez, A., Wall-Medrano, A., Esparza-Del Villar, O., & Hernández-Torres, R. P.
(2013). Design and validation of a self-administered test to assess bullying (bull-M) in
high school Mexicans: a pilot study. BMC public health, 13(1), 1-7.
Ridler. j(2006)teacher’s and student’s percepti on of school violence and preventions.
Journal of scholars.15(2), 65-83.
Rose, L, &A .Gallup2007. The 39th annual.Phi Delts Kappa/Gallup poll of
thepublic’sattitudes toward the public schools. Phi delta Kappan 89:33-48.
Stain, N.L., Albro, E.R.(2001). The origin and nature of arguments: studies in conflict
understandings emotions. Discourse Processes, 32,113-133.
Wal.Cs. (2006). Encyclopedia of child development: priorities for 21st Century -2.
Winicki. L. Jenna. (2010). Staff Preparedness for Acts of Violence in School Settings(Counselor Education Master's Theses. Paper 114).

ISSN: 2189-101X

97The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

ISSN: 2189-101X

98

Official Conference Proceedings

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

The Development of the ESP Process-Genre Writing Course for Thai Business
Administration Undergraduates: The Closer Look at the Student Experiences
Tanassanee Jitpanich, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Malaysia
Samah Ali Mohsen Mofreh, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Malaysia
Shaik Abdul Malik Mohamed Ismail, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Malaysia
Anis Binti Shaari, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Malaysia
The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023
Official Conference Proceedings
Abstract
In Thailand, English writing is crucial for career advancement and workplacecommunication. Nevertheless, empirical evidence has suggested that English writing is not
typically emphasized in English language curricula offered at Thai universities, and there arelimited English writing courses tailored to specific needs of business administration students.
Thus, this study aims to develop the ESP writing course based on the process-genre approachfor Thai business administration undergraduates. Drawing on the ESP approach and theprocess-genre pedagogy, the course was developed according to seven course development
processes adapted from Graves’ (2000) framework of language course development, namely
defining the context and articulating beliefs, assessing needs, formulating goals andobjectives, conceptualizing content, organizing the course, developing materials, anddesigning an assessment plan. Following the course development phase, the course was
implemented with 40 business administration undergraduates, and their experiences were
explored with the use of two main instruments, namely the student logs and semi-structured
interviews. The results revealed that the students were satisfied with the course, citing
numerous favorable elements of the course and perceived benefits of the course in enhancing
their English writing skills. Some unfavorable aspects of the course were also reported for
future course refinement. The results imply that the custom-made ESP course is suitable andsatisfactory to learners. On this basis, it is encouraged that ESP courses be developed tocarter to student needs by primarily focusing on appropriate sub-skills and technicalknowledge for each group of students.
Keywords: English for Specific Purposes, Language Course Development, Process-Genre
Approach, English Writing Instruction

iafor
The International Academic Forumwww.iafor.org

ISSN: 2189-101X

99The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Introduction
Considered as the essential communication tool in the business context, English writing skills
are undoubtedly pivotal for Thai businesspeople, especially when executing work-related
tasks as well as communicating with colleagues and clients (Cheep Aranai et al., 2017;
Jitpanich et al., 2022; Ulla & Winitkun, 2017). English writing is also deemed crucial for
career advancement in the business administration field (Thitthongkam et al., 2011).
Moreover, empirical evidence has indicated that English writing is more frequently exercisedin Thai workplace than English speaking considering from the significance of emails forbusiness communication (Hiranburana, 2017; Jitpanich et al., 2022).
In spite of the critical importance of English writing, it has been reported that both Thaibusinesspeople and students have issues communicating using English writing. To elaborate,
Thai businesspeople struggle to communicate effectively using English writing in forming
workplace communication (Jitpanich et al., 2022), and English writing is deemed one of themost serious areas of problem for Thai businesspeople (Hiranburana, 2017). In a similarmanner, Thai students, especially business administration students, reportedly possess
inadequate English writing ability to form effective workplace communication and perform
work-related tasks in the business context (Jitpanich et al., 2022; Low, 2020).
In this regard, the insufficient preparation of Thai learners and graduates in their tertiary
education could give rise to such inadequate English writing abilities of Thais when pursuing
careers in the business field (Dueraman, 2012; Wiriyachitra, 2002). To illustrate, Thaibusiness administration graduates presently pursuing business careers indicate that do nothave sufficient training in English writing, particularly writing formal emails and employing
linguistic knowledge to write in the formal style (Jitpanich et al., 2022; Low, 2020).
As a result, this highlights the need to better prepare Thai students in terms of their English
writing skills for their future business careers. One potential solution is the development of an
English writing course based on the English for Specific Purposes approach (ESP) owing to
the fact that the ESP approach is mainly involved with catering to student needs andpreparing them to utilize English in a specific area of expertise or situation (Dudley-Evans &St. John, 1998; Hutchinson & Waters, 1987). This could be ideal in this regard since thedeveloped ESP writing course could focus specifically on what English writing skills needed
for the field of business administration since it is suggested English courses should bedesigned to be corresponding to student needs (Hutchinson and Waters, 1987; Rahman,2015), employer expectations (Cheep-Aranai et al., 2017), and target situations (Hutchinson
and Waters, 1987).
Moreover, since the majority of English writing classes in Thailand are dominated by theteacher-centered and product pedagogies, it could be interesting to employ the use of a
relatively novel approach in the Thai context. In this case, owing to the fact that the processgenre approach combines strong elements of differing writing approaches (Badger & White,
2000), it could be ideal to be used to instructed the developed ESP writing course forbusiness administration students.
Nevertheless, research studies conducted in the Thai context in pursuit of developing English
writing courses and modules appear to solely focus on English academic writing(Sanonguthai, 2011; Visser & Sukavatee, 2020). Only one study focused on the ESP writing
course development but with a different target student, engineering students in that case

ISSN: 2189-101X

100

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings(Changpueng, 2009). To bridge the gap in literature, this study was thus conducted with two
main research objectives, as listed below:
1) To design and develop the ESP process-genre writing course based on the English
writing needs of Thai undergraduate business administration students
2) To determine Thai undergraduate business administration students’ experienceswith the developed course
Literature Review
English for Specific Purposes (ESP)As a response to the demand for English courses customized to serve learners’ specific needs,
the construct of ESP emerged in the early 1960s (Hutchinson & Waters, 1987). In essence,
ESP, according to Hutchinson and Waters (1987), is a communicative approach with
relevance to learners’ needs rather than a language product, having needs analysis as thecentral idea for ESP course development. In agreement with this, Dudley-Evans and St. John
(1998) perceive needs analysis as the crucial aspect underlying the approach. They deliberateon the ESP characteristics that ESP courses are mostly designed for adult learners and canemploy differing teaching methodologies than those used with General English (GE). To
elaborate further, ESP has been cited as the opposite of GE in their focuses and learners’
reasons for learning. In contrast to GE, which is more exam-oriented and entails theconcentration on all four language skills, ESP emphasizes particular language skills andprofessional knowledge necessary for learners to carry out language-related tasks inparticular contexts (Rahman, 2015).
ESP can be divided into various categories. Nevertheless, there are two main types of ESP
commonly presented in literature, namely English for occupational purposes (EOP) andEnglish for academic purposes (EAP). Based on its definition and classifications, this study
takes into account the main characteristic of ESP, specifically on the primacy of needs
analysis to develop a course to correspond to specific learners’ needs, and the EOP
classification with the focus on English writing for workplace communication.
Process-Genre Approach
Considered as an integrated approach, the process-genre approach incorporates the strengthsof different teaching approaches to guide the teaching practice. In details, the process-genre
approach basically draws on the key concepts of the genre pedagogy in combination with theprocess approach (Badger & White, 2000; Gao, 2007; Hyland, 2003; Nordin & Mohammad,
2006; Rusinovci, 2015).
In principle, the process-genre approach highlights the genre elements of writing, namely the
analysis of texts in terms of the key linguistic and textual elements associated with the target
genres, the explicit instruction of textual and linguistic features dominant in the target genres,and the awareness of the social contexts of writing (Badger & White, 2000; Gao, 2007).
Simultaneously, it also focuses on the process aspects of writing, particularly the recursive
writing process and the composing skills involved in the writing process (Badger & White,
2000; Nordin & Mohammad, 2006; Rusinovci, 2015).

ISSN: 2189-101X

101The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Framework of Language Course Development by Graves (2000)
Course development is typically defined as a process of designing a course and implementing
it, which involves systematic planning (Graves, 2000). There have been several frameworks
language course and curriculum design proposed to guide the course design and development
processes. One of the most influential frameworks is the framework of language course
development by Graves (2000), which contains six main stages. These include assessing
needs, formulating goals and objectives, designing an assessment plan, developing materials,
organizing the course, and conceptualizing content. In her model, there are two additional
aspects serving as the foundation for the aforementioned six stages, particularly defining thecontext and articulating beliefs. Graves’ (2000) model emphasizes two unique features oflanguage course design. First, it is the non-hierarchical nature of language course design,
meaning that the course development process can be initiated from any stage in the model
based on the target context. Second, Graves’ (2000) model focuses on the interconnected
relationship between each course development stage.
Adapted Course Development Process
In this study, Graves’ (2000) framework of language course development was adapted to fit
the context of the study in order guide the course design process. The adaptations made to
Graves’ (2000) model include two main aspects. First of all, the course development
processes employed in the present study followed the linear process, which basically meantthat the researcher or course developer developed the course in a sequential order. That is,
one step was completed before continuing to other remaining stages. Second, even though all
the original six steps in Graves’ (2000) were maintained, the two aspects serving as
foundation for other stages were combined into one preliminary step, making the course
development steps become seven in the present study, as portrayed in Figure 1.

Figure 1: Adapted Course Development Process
As presented in Figure 1, the first step the researcher undertook was to define the context andarticulate beliefs. To elaborate, the information regarding the context in which the course wasdeveloped was collected by the researcher to gain insights into the timetable, the involved

ISSN: 2189-101X

102The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

educational institutes, the physical setting, the instructional resources, and the nature of thecourse. In addition, in order to inform decision-making in the course development process,the researcher’s beliefs regarding how language instruction should be carried out werereflected on. Following that, the needs analysis was performed based on the frameworks ofneeds analysis of Graves (2000) and Hutchinson and Waters (1987), highlighting three key
elements: (a) target situation analysis – required language skills in performing specific target
situations, (b) learning situation analysis – efficacious ways of learning language as identified
by learners, and (c) present situation analysis – their existing skills and issues in using thelanguage.
This was followed by the stage in which the course goal and objectives were formulated
based on the results of the needs analysis with the list of three writing skills, namely the skills
to write emails giving information, e-commerce product descriptions, and progress reports.
Afterwards, in the conceptualizing content stage, it involved the selection of the content. The
final product of this stage was an initial form of syllabus outlining the key themes to be
explicitly instructed in the course. In the next stage of organizing the course, the course
instructional units were sequenced according to the sequencing principle as suggested by
Graves (2000). To elaborate, the course units were organized from the simplest unit to themost complex unit. Therefore, the course sequence became writing emails giving
information, writing e-commerce product descriptions, and writing progress reports,
respectively. This decision was based on the genre analysis results with the analysis ofsample texts.
After that, the researcher designed the teaching materials and the associated lesson plans
based on the teaching activities as guided by the adapted process-genre teaching model
employed in this study. The adapted teaching model as adapted from Yan (2005) consists offive main teaching phases, namely preparation, modeling and reinforcing, independent
constructing, joint constructing, and revising. Finally, the assessment plan used to measure
the learning progress of students was developed, employing both formative and summative
forms of assessment. That is, three writing assignments assigned at the end of the three
instructional units were used to formatively assess student progress in the course, whilst the
final examination in the form of a writing test was administered as summative assessment of
their learning.
Following the rigorous process of course development, the product was the developed ESP
process-genre writing course with the focus on English writing for professional purposes,with three instructional units as identified from the needs analysis, which were writing emails
giving information, e-commerce product descriptions, and progress reports. The course wasalso verified by the experts and pilot tested before actual implementation.
Research Methodology
Research Design
It is imperative to address that this research is part of my PhD project using the mixedmethod research design in the overall study. Nonetheless, for this particular part of research
reported hereby, it used the qualitative research design with the usage of two qualitative
research instruments, namely the semi-structured interview and the student log.

ISSN: 2189-101X

103The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Research Participants
Forty business administration undergraduates enrolling in one intact class from a Thai public
university were selected to participate in the study using the purposive sampling method.
Research Instruments and Data Analysis
There are two research instruments utilized to gather data for this study, which include thesemi-structured interview and the student log. The first instrument is the semi-structured
interview developed according to Graves’ (2000) suggested areas of focus when obtaining
feedback about the course. There were 17 questions in the interview, soliciting respondents’opinions about their experiences with the ESP process-genre writing course. In addition, thestudent log, which was adapted from Changpeung (2009), was also utilized to record thestudent experiences with the course in the written form through the semester. There wereeight items in each log, and each student was required to complete three logs throughout thesemester, particularly one at the end of each course unit. The data generated from the student
logs and the semi-structured interviews were analyzed using inductive thematic analysis(Braun & Clarke, 2006).
Research Findings and Discussion
There were two prominent themes emerging from both the semi-structure interview and thestudent log, namely the positive experiences and negative experiences. Table 1 encapsulates
the main themes along with their sub-themes and the associated codes.
Table 1: List of Themes, Sub-Themes, and Codes
Theme
Sub-Theme
Codes
Positive
Favorable aspects of the course Relevant and useful content
experiences
Practical vocabulary and expressions
Analysis of model texts
Personalized and positive teacher feedback
Classroom interaction
Abundant English writing practices
Improvement in English
Greater vocabulary repertoire
Writing Skills
More accurate use of grammar
Improved idea organization
Enhanced ability to write properly
according to the context
Enhanced ability to write the three genres
Negative
Unfavorable aspects of the
Difficulty of English grammar
experiences course
Challenging peer-review activity
Improper time allotment and teaching pace
Positive Experiences
The majority of business administration undergraduates stated that they had positive
experiences with the ESP process-genre writing course, specifying various favorable aspectsof the course and improvement in their English writing skills in many areas.

ISSN: 2189-101X

104The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Favorable Aspects of the Course
In terms of their favorable aspects of the course, the business administration undergraduates
acknowledged the relevant and useful content to their future career in businessadministration, the practicality of the vocabulary and expressions learned in the course, theanalysis of model texts, the personalized and positive teacher feedback, the classroom
interaction, and the abundant opportunities to practice English writing as the course aspects
that they truly enjoyed. The following interview and log excerpts illustrate the point, aspresented in Table 2.
Table 2: Examples of Excerpts for Favorable Aspects of the Course
Code
Example of Log or Interview Excerpt
Relevant and“I like learning to write emails. In the future, I think I can use thisuseful content
knowledge learned to write emails properly in my business career.”(S1- Log)
Practical“I learned many useful new vocabulary words that I could apply into
my writing.” (S4- Log)
vocabulary andexpressions
Analysis ofmodel texts
Personalized andpositive teacher
feedback
Classroom
interaction
Abundant
English writing
practices“I enjoyed analysing sample texts. I found it to be very useful for mywriting process. It made me become familiar with the structure of thetexts that I would soon write on my own” (S12 – Interview)“The teacher feedback really helped me to know what my errors wereand how I should fix those errors. I really liked it that the teacher tooktime to comment on my work and explain it afterwards” (S3 - Interview)“The class discussions allowed me and my friends to interact in order toreduce our nervousness when writing, which I really enjoyed.” (S9 –Interview)“I got to practice writing in English in this course which really helped
me because I did not usually have chances to practice it outside of theclass.” (S35 - Log)

Based on the reported findings, it can thus be concluded that the business administration
undergraduates had positive experiences with the course, addressing six areas of the course to
be favorable. First of all, the marked preference of the students for the relevant course content
to the field of business administration could perhaps be explained by the ESP nature of thecourse, which catered to their needs in learning English writing. This is congruent with theresults of the study of Changpueng (2009), which indicated that students possess positive
attitudes towards ESP courses since they catered to their needs in learning. Second, thestudents’ preference for the instruction of useful words and phrases for business
communication could be the result from their perceived usefulness for their career
preparation, which is consistent with the findings from the research of Asyiah (2017) in the
aspect that students the instruction of English vocabulary was fondly perceived by learners.
Third, the positive attitudes towards the analysis of model texts employed in the course could
be attributed to the perceived practicality of such as activity in assisting them to become
familiar with key textual and linguistic features of the target genre. Such findings arecompatible with those of Kitajroonchai et al. (2022), which indicated that learners found theanalysis of model texts to be beneficial. Fourth, the personalized and positive teacher

ISSN: 2189-101X

105

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

feedback provided on students’ texts were favorable for the students because such teacher
feedback could motivate students to continue writing despite the difficulty of the writing
tasks, and the feedback also helped the students in acknowledging their improvement areas inwriting. This is consistent with the findings from Zhan (2016) in the sense that students
valued the teacher feedback and had positive attitudes towards the teacher feedback.
Fifth, the students’ preference for the classroom interaction put forth through collaborative
learning and writing activities could be explained by the nervousness the students faced intheir writing process due to the perceived difficulty of English writing. In the student view,the classroom interaction could mitigate their nervousness. This is similar to the findings ofZhang (2018), who reported that students expressed positive attitudes towards the interaction
with peers in the process-genre writing class. Finally, the abundant opportunities for the
students to practice English writing was identified as their favorable aspect of the course dueto the fact that the students’ insufficient English writing practice, which is congruent to thefindings of Kitajroonchai et al. (2022) that the process-genre lessons allowed students
chances to practice English writing when being exposed to the recursive process of drafting
and revising texts.
Improvement in English Writing Skills
With regard to the students’ improvement in English writing skills, the students mentioned
five mains areas which they improved their English writing skills the most after attending the
ESP process-genre writing course, namely their greater vocabulary repertoire, more accurate
use of grammar, improved idea organization, enhanced ability to write properly according to
the context, and enhanced ability to write the three genres. Table 3 presents the interview andlog excerpts which demonstrate such areas of progress.
Table 3: Examples of Excerpts for Improvement in English Writing Skills
Code
Example of Log or Interview Excerpt
Greater“I learned a lot of new words from taking this course, which enabled me
to write in English using more various word choices.” (S6- Interview)
vocabularyrepertoire
More accurate“This knowledge learned from this unit has expanded my vocabulary
use of grammar
knowledge.” (S32- Log)
Improved idea
“I learned to organize details in writing more efficiently, especiallyorganization
after completing the outline.” (S14- Log)
Enhanced ability “After I acknowledged the purpose of writing and the reader-writer
to write properly relationship, I could use more proper writing style and writing tone towrite accordingly.” (S1 – Interview)according to thecontext
Enhanced ability “I think I can now write the emails, the reports, and the productto write the three descriptions better because I learned the writing principles from thisgenrescourse.” (S10 – Interview)
In accordance with the reported findings, it can be seen that the business administration
undergraduates had positive experiences with the course considering from how they
identified numerous benefits of the course in enhancing their English writing skills. Firstly,
the enhancement of their vocabulary repertoire could be attributed to the genre elements ofthe process-genre approach used to instruct the developed course, particularly the analysis of

ISSN: 2189-101X

106The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

model texts for their key lexical features and the explicit teaching of key words andexpressions associated with the target genre. These findings are consistent with those of
Huang and Zhang (2020), which concluded that the process-genre approach could help
enhance students’ vocabulary repertoire and vocabulary knowledge. Secondly, theimprovement in the accurate use of grammar could be the result from the explicit instructionof key grammatical features in the target genre, which is aligned with the results of Huang
and Zhang (2020) in the sense that the explicit instruction part of the process-genre approach
plays a pivotal role in students’ development in their grammatical competence.
Thirdly, the students demonstrated the improved ability to organize ideas and details inwriting, which could perhaps be explained by the use of outline as part of the process aspectsof the process-genre approach. This is similar to the findings from the research of
Kartawijaya (2018), who revealed that the outline technique helped students improve theirEnglish writing skills in terms of organizing ideas in writing. Fourthly, the enhanced ability
to write appropriately according to the context using the proper style and tone of writing was
the positive consequence of the students’ development of genre awareness following thecompletion of the process-genre lessons, which is congruent with the results of Huang andZhang (2020) in the aspect that the development of genre awareness could positively
influence students’ selection of rhetoric and language features to be according to the writing
context and the communicative purpose. Ultimately, the students’ increased ability to write
the three target genres could be attributed to the exposure to the process-genre teachingstages, which gradually helped them improve their English writing skills. This is partly
similar to the findings of Huang and Zhang (2020), which similarly suggested that theprocess-genre teaching phases were beneficial in enhancing students’ writing performance,
especially in the aspect of content.
Negative Experiences
Nonetheless, the business administration undergraduates also stated that they occasionally
had negative experiences with the developed ESP process-genre writing course, enumerating
their three main unfavorable aspects of the course.
Unfavorable Aspects of the Course
There were three unfavorable aspects of the course as identified by the businessadministration undergraduates who took the developed ESP process-genre writing course,which included the difficulty of English grammar instructed in the course, the challenging
peer-review activity, and the improper time allotment and instructional pace. Table 4 presents
the examples of log and interview excerpts which illustrate the unfavorable aspects of thecourse.

ISSN: 2189-101X

107The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Table 4: Examples of Excerpts for Unfavorable Aspects of the Course
Code
Example of Log or Interview Excerpt
Difficulty of“Grammar is my biggest problem in writing in English, and there was aEnglish grammar lot of content about grammar in the course, which made me rather
nervous. I was not confident that I could understand how to use
grammar correctly.” (S6- Interview)
Challenging“I do not really like the peer-review activity. It is rather difficult for me
peer-review
to evaluate my friends’ texts. I do not think I am good enough in English
togive them useful comments.” (S12 – Interview)
activity
Improper time
“In Unit 1, the content was way too much for the time we had. The
teacher had to rush through a lot of sections in that unit.” (S19 – Log)
allotment andteaching pace
According to the reported findings, it can be seen that the students identified a few course
elements to be favorable in their learning experiences. First of all, the reason underlying why
the business administration undergraduates disliked the difficult grammar could be theirlimited confidence in their ability to use grammar in writing, which is somewhat consistent to
the findings of Jitpanich et al. (2022), which revealed that most of the business administration
students and graduates English grammar found English grammar to be the most difficult
element in English writing.
In addition to this, the peer-review activity was identified to be challenging for the students,and most of them did not seem to like doing this activity. This occurrence could be a result of
their limited confidence in their English writing ability since they believed that they did nothave sufficient ability to evaluate texts of their peers, and they were also skeptical of theirfriends’ ability to provide comments on their texts. The findings are somewhat consistent
with those of Moneypenny et al. (2018) in the sense that students, especially those withlimited experience with peer reviewing, had negative attitudes towards the peer-review
activity. Ultimately, the improper time allotment and the slow teaching pace were anotherunfavorable aspect of the course for the students owing to the fact that the difficulty ofEnglish writing in the view of the students, which would require substantial amount of time
for them to understand the learned writing principles and practice the writing skills. The slow
teaching was mainly due to the excessive and heavy focus on vocabulary teaching in thecourse. The findings of the present study are somewhat similar to those of Viriya and
Wasanasomsithi (2017) in the sense that learners would become dissatisfied because of theexcessive amount of content.
Conclusion
This study was mainly related to the development of the ESP process-genre writing course
based on the English writing needs for professional purposes of Thai business administration
undergraduates and the exploration of the student experiences with the developed course. The
findings revealed that the students had relatively positive experiences with the ESP processgenre writing course. This is because they specified various aspects of the course to befavorable for them, namely the relevant course content to their future career in businessadministration, the usefulness of the vocabulary and expressions learned in the course, theanalysis of model texts, the personalized and positive teacher feedback, the classroom
interaction, and the plentiful opportunities to practice English writing. They also developed
their English writing skills in various ways after attending the course, particularly their

ISSN: 2189-101X

108

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

greater vocabulary repertoire, more accurate use of grammar, improved idea organization,enhanced ability to write properly according to the context, and enhanced ability to write thethree genres. Nevertheless, the negative experiences of the students were also reported intheir unfavorable aspects of the course, which are crucial to be considered for course
refinement for future course implementation. These included the difficulty of English
grammar instructed in the course, the challenging peer-review activity, and the improper time
allotment and instructional pace.
The findings of this study offer pedagogical implications for both English writing teachersand ESP course designers. For English writing teachers, the findings highlight the use of theprocess-genre approach in English writing classes, as it has been proven to enhance learners’
learning experiences in this study. As for the ESP course designers, it is recommended that
English writing courses should be designed based on the learner needs in order to maximize
their learning experiences.

ISSN: 2189-101X

109The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

References
Asyiah, D. N. (2017). The vocabulary teaching and vocabulary learning: Perception,
strategies, and influences on students' vocabulary mastery. Jurnal Bahasa Lingua
Scientia, 9(2), 293-318. https://doi.org/10.21274/ls.2017.9.2.293-318
Badger, R., & White, G. (2000). A process genre approach to teaching writing. ELT Journal,
54(2), 153-160.
Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Researchin Psychology, 3(2), 77-101. https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa
Changpueng, P. (2009). The development of an English writing course based on the genrebased approach for undergraduate engineering students at King Mongkut's Universityof Technology North Bangkok [Doctoral dissertation, Chulalongkorn University].
Chulalongkorn University Intellectual Repository. https://cuir.car.chula.ac.th
Cheep-Aranai, R., Chutichaiwirath, K., Grubbs, S., & Brady, M. (2017). A comparison ofindustry English needs with university students' strengths. Veridian E-Journal, 10(4),394-409.
Dudley-Evans, T., & St. John, M. J. (1998). Developments in English for specific purposes:
A multi-disciplinary approach. Cambridge University Press.
Dueraman, B. (2012). Teaching EFL writing: Understanding and re-thinking the Thai
experience. Journal of Alternative Perspectives in the Social Sciences, 4(1), 255-275.
Gao, J. (2007). Teaching writing in Chinese universities: Finding an eclectic approach. AsianEFL Journal, 20(2), 285-297.
Graves, K. (2000). Designing language courses: A guide for teachers. Heinle and Heinle
Publishers.
Hiranburana, K. (2017). Use of English in the Thai workplace. Kasetsart Journal of Social
Sciences, 38(1), 31-38. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.kjss.2015.10.002
Huang, Y., & Zhang, L. J. (2020). Does a process-genre approach help improve students’argumentative writing in English as a foreign language? Findings from anintervention study. Reading & Writing Quarterly, 36(4), 339–364.
https://doi.org/10.1080/10573569.2019.1649223
Hutchinson, T., & Waters, A. (1987). English for specific purposes. Cambridge University
Press.
Hyland, K. (2003b). Second language writing. Cambridge University Press.
Janenoppakarn, C. (2016). Effects of using process-genre approach on the teaching ofwriting: A case study of higher and lower proficient EFL students [Doctoral
dissertation, Thammasat University]. Thammasat University Digital Collections.
http://ethesisarchive.library.tu.ac.th/thesis/2016/TU_2016_5406320019_4956_4785

ISSN: 2189-101X

110The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Jitpanich, T., Leong, L. M., & Ismail, S. A. M. M. (2022). Assessing the English writingneeds of undergraduate business administration students for ESP writing course
development: A case study in Thailand. LEARN Journal: Language Education andAcquisition Research Network, 15(2), 104-128.
Kartawijaya, S. (2018). Improving students’ writing skill in writing paragraph through anoutline technique. Curricula: Journal of Teaching and Learning, 3(3), 152-158.
https://doi.org/10.22216/jcc.2018.v3i3.3429
Kitajroonchai, N., Kitjaroonchai, T., & Sanitchai, P. (2022). The effects of process genrebased writing and process writing approaches on Asian EFL pre-university students’
writing performance. Journal of Language Teaching and Research, 13(4), 860-871.
https://doi.org/10.17507/jltr.1304.19
Low, P. (2020). An investigation of English usage in careers of Thai graduates with abusiness administration degree. Shanlax International Journal of Education, 9(1), 2732. https://doi.org/10.34293/education.v9i1.3416
Moneypenny, D. B., Evans, M., & Kraha, A. (2018). Student perceptions of and attitudes
toward peer review. American Journal of Distance Education, 32(4), 236-247.
https://doi.org/10.1080/08923647.2018.1509425
Nordin, S. M., & Mohammad, N. (2006). The best of two approaches: Process/genre-based
approach to teaching writing. The English Teacher, XXXV, 75-85.
Rahman, M. (2015). English for specific purposes (ESP): A holistic review. Universal
Journal of Educational Research, 3(1), 24-31.
https://doi.org/10.13189/ujer.2015.030104
Rusinovci, X. (2015). Teaching writing through process-genre based approach. US-China
Education Review, 5(10), 699-705. https://doi.org/ 10.17265/2161-623X/2015.10.006
Sanonguthai, S. (2011). Teaching IELTS writing module through English debate: A casestudy in Thailand. Language Testing in Asia, 1(4), 1-61.
Selvaraj, M., & Aziz, A. A. (2019). Systematic review: Approaches in teaching writing skill
in ESL classrooms. International Journal of Academic Research in Progressive
Education and Development, 8(4), 450-473.https://doi.org/10.6007/ijarped/v8-i4/6564
Thitthongkam, T., Walsh, J., & Bunchapattanasakda, C. (2011). The roles of foreign
language in business administration. Journal of Management Research, 3(1), 1-15.
https://doi.org/10.5296/jmr.v3i1.509
Ulla, M. B., & Winitkun, D. (2017). Thai learners' linguistic needs and language skills:
Implications for curriculum development. International Journal of Instruction, 10(4),203-220. https://doi.org/10.12973/iji.2017.10412a
Viriya, C., & Wasanasomsithi, P. (2017). The effect of the genre awareness approach on
development of writing ability. International Forum of Teaching and Studies, 13(1),11-22.

ISSN: 2189-101X

111

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Visser, P., & Sukavatee, P. (2020). Effects of the genre-based writing instructional module ina blended learning environment. Journal of Education Naresuan University, 22(2), 118.
Wiriyachitra, A. (2002). English language teaching and learning in Thailand in this decade.
Thai TESOL Focus, 15(1), 4-9.
Yan, G. (2005). A Process genre model for teaching writing. English Teaching Forum, 43(3),18-26.
Zhan, L. (2016). Written teacher feedback: Student perceptions, teacher perceptions, andactual teacher performance. English Language Teaching, 9(8), 73-84.
https://doi.org/10.5539/elt.v9n8p73
Zhang, Y. (2018). Exploring EFL learners' self-efficacy in academic writing based onprocess-genre approach. English Language Teaching, 11(6), 115-124.
https://doi.org/10.5539/elt.v11n6p115
Contact email: tanassanee.ji@gmail.com

ISSN: 2189-101X

112

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Promoting Student Interaction in Online Educational Environments With Engageli
Carlos Alario-Hoyos, Universidad Carlos III de Madrid, Spain
Carlos Delgado Kloos, Universidad Carlos III de Madrid, Spain
Pedro Manuel Moreno-Marcos, Universidad Carlos III de Madrid, Spain
The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023
Official Conference Proceedings
Abstract
Online educational scenarios are characterized by major challenges concerning the promotionof interaction, both between instructors and students and among students themselves.
Traditional videoconferencing tools do not favor interaction as they have been designed for amore lecture-based format. Therefore, it is necessary to look for additional technologies thatencourage active learning methodologies in online educational scenarios. This article presents
a large-scale pilot of using Engageli at Universidad Carlos III de Madrid (UC3M) in the2021/2022 academic year. Engageli is a tool specifically designed to promote interaction in
online and hybrid learning environments, starting with the assignment of students to virtualtables since the moment they connect to a live session. Engageli has been used on a large
scale at UC3M mainly in two subjects on Digital Literacy and Digital Numeracy. This firstpilot year revealed the potential of Engageli to promote interaction in online educational
scenarios and showed the opportunities to implement complex collaborative learning
situations in online environments. Nevertheless, this first pilot year has also served to identify
the importance of carrying out extensive training with instructors on the use of Engageli witha focus on the specific technology, but also on the learning situations that can be
implemented to get the most out of the tool.
Keywords: Student Interaction, Active Learning, Engagement, Online Education, Engageli

iafor
The International Academic Forumwww.iafor.org

ISSN: 2189-101X

113

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Introduction
The COVID-19 pandemic has accelerated the adoption of new models of online and hybrid
education at numerous universities around the world (Nikolopoulou, 2022). The adoption ofthese models was divided in four phases by Phil Hill in his revised outlook of the response to
COVID-19 by Higher Education Institutions (Hill, 2020). The first phase was the rapidtransition to emergency remote teaching and learning around March 2020 (Bond et al., 2021);
this was due to the urgency of the lockdowns across the globe and the need to continue
teaching synchronous classes, but online, using the resources available at the educational
institutions. The second phase involved the full continuation of online teaching and learning
until the end of the 2019/2020 school year but taking care of additional essential elements;
these included the asynchronous components of learning (e.g., production of videos andcomplementary materials by educators) (Boté-Vericad, 2021), or the training on the use of
the necessary technologies for online education (e.g., videoconferencing tools, polling tools,
shared whiteboards, etc.). The third phase involved the extension of online teaching andlearning during a period of uncertainty (2020/2021 school year), scheduling critical face-toface activities (e.g., those of a practical nature) whenever possible; this phase entailed a morethoughtful and planned online teaching unlike the previous two phases, and theimplementation of different hybrid education models (Benito et al., 2021). The fourth phase
was the transition to the new normal with a greater presence of online and hybrid models on aregular basis and a greater adoption of technology as a cornerstone for teaching and learning;
the cultural change towards a more positive perception of online and hybrid teaching andlearning in many students and instructors prevails here (Díaz-Noguera et al., 2022).
Numerous technologies are facilitating the transition to online (and hybrid) teaching andlearning. Perhaps the most important of all are videoconferencing tools, which enable
synchronous online sessions between instructors and students (Wiyono et al., 2021). As oftoday, instructors have become familiar with Zoom, Google Meet, Microsoft Teams,
Blackboard Collaborate, Jitsi, etc. Nevertheless, these tools were not designed for teaching
online classes, but rather for presentations, which are much more passive in nature.
Gradually, these videoconferencing tools added functionality aimed for more interaction,such as the possibility of sharing a collaborative whiteboard with students, launching polls, orcreating groups (breakout groups / rooms) to implement collaborative activities (Rucker etal., 2020). However, there is still plenty of room for technology to effectively support active
learning in online (and hybrid) educational environments.
In this context, tools specifically designed to promote active learning in such educational
environments emerge. For example, Class (Class, n.d.) (formerly Class for Zoom) from Class
Technologies Inc. is a tool built as an additional layer in Zoom and designed to promoteinteraction and collaboration. Class allows instructor to manage multiple breakout rooms at
the same time and monitor student attention by identifying those who do not use Class as
their primary application, among other relevant features. Engageli (Engageli, n.d.) is another
tool designed to promote interaction and collaboration in online and hybrid scenarios but
developed from the ground up. Engageli is based on the idea that students should by default
be seated at virtual tables, with peers with whom they can discuss while listening to the
instructor (Brunetto & Cangiotti, 2021). Engageli supports the use of shared collaborative
documents automatically distributed per virtual table and provides instructors with visualindicators on the level of engagement of each student and of the class, among other relevant
features. Both Class and Engageli are strongly committed to reinforce instructor’s awarenesson the level of interaction of the class through specific reports on how many times students

ISSN: 2189-101X

114

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

write in the chat, how often they answer polls, how often they raise hands, or how long they
speak during class time (Robertson, 2022).
The objective of this paper is to present the experience of using Engageli for teaching online
courses as part of a large-scale pilot in the 2021/2022 school year. This tool represents animportant paradigm shift in relation to other traditional videoconferencing tools currently
used for online education in higher education, so it is important to share experiences andlessons learned. The next section presents an overview of the large-scale pilot. Next, there area set of five use cases that could be implemented thanks to the technological support ofEngageli. The article finishes with the conclusions and future work.
Large-Scale Pilot with Engageli
Engageli was used in a first large-scale pilot at Universidad Carlos III de Madrid (UC3M)
throughout the school year 2021/2022 (Avida & Kolodny, 2021). Two transversal subjects on
digital skills were chosen for this pilot: Digital Literacy (Information Skills) and Digital
Numeracy (Intermediate/Advanced Knowledge of Spreadsheets). These two subjects aretaught in all undergraduate degree programs at UC3M. Engageli was also piloted in several
additional courses that participated in a novel call for Active Learning in Digital Teaching at
UC3M; the purpose of this novel call was to promote active and participatory learning
through the use of technology and at the same time to promote flexibility in instruction bydelivering the selected courses in a fully online or hybrid form. These additional courses wereSupply Chain Management I and II, Criminal Procedural Law, and Regulation of Energy
Markets and Cost-Benefit Analysis (CBA).
Table 1 summarizes the overall data on the use of Engageli at UC3M in the school year
2021/2022. In the first semester (fall semester) Engageli was used by 3397 students and 48
instructors in 85 different sections; this means an average of 38.2 students per section. In thesecond semester (spring semester) Engageli was used by 2552 students and 47 instructors in
88 different sections; this means an average of 29 students per section. Some instructorsdelivered several sections in the same semester and even repeated in both semesters because
they taught the same subject multiple times. Some students repeated in both semesters
because they took several of the subjects in which Engageli was piloted. It is worth
mentioning that the instructors had varying levels of proficiency in relation to digital skills
and that no one had used Engageli before (as it was a recently developed tool). UC3M
organized several training workshops on the use of this tool, with technical and pedagogicalorientations, prior to the start of the classes (in both fall and spring semesters). Bothinstructors and students received specific documents with guides on how to use the tool andthe Engageli support team was at their disposal during the synchronous online sessions.
Engageli was integrated with the institutional LMS at UC3M, Moodle, through the 1EdTech
LTI (Learning Tools Interoperability) standard (1EdTech, 2019), so that this tool could belaunched directly within the LMS for each course. Students accessed their regular course in
Moodle, clicked on the Engageli link with the student role, and launched Engageli as a web
application in their browser. In the case of instructors, they had to install a desktop
application locally. They could open this desktop application directly or launch it throughMoodle, using the same Engageli link available, but with the instructor role.
The use of Engageli in the first semester was conditioned by some technical problems thatwere identified for the first time in this large-scale pilot of the tool. These technical problems

ISSN: 2189-101X

115

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

were mainly related to the use of the desktop version of the tool by instructors. This desktop
version turned out to be quite resource demanding, which led to disruptions in thecommunication between instructors and students, especially when simultaneously using othertools that were essential for the session. A web version was developed in the second semester
also for the instructor with slightly more limited functionality but much less resource
demanding. Some additional problems related to the usability of the tool were also detected
and progressively solved by the Engageli team.
Table 1. Total number of instructors, students, and sections in which Engageli was used aspart of a large-scale pilot in 2021/2022.
Total
Semester number of
instructors

Total
number of
students

First

48

3397

Second47

2552

Subjects

Number of
sections

Digital Literacy
Digital Numeracy
Supply Chain Management I
Regulation of Energy Markets and CBA
Digital Literacy
Digital Numeracy
Supply Chain Management II
Criminal Procedural Law

53
30
1
1
22
64
1
1

Total
number of
sections
85

88

The technical problems identified particularly in the fall semester also conditioned theevaluation of Engageli by the instructors. In the first semester, the overall evaluation (N = 16
instructors) showed an average of 45.2 points (out of 100), while the usability evaluation
using the System Usability Scale (SUS) (Bangor et al., 2008) showed an average of 52.7
points. In addition, several instructors could not teach their classes through Engageli properly
and had to switch to the alternative videoconferencing tool used at UC3M, which wasBlackboard Collaborate. In the second semester, the overall evaluation (N = 28 instructors)
showed an average of 62.9 points, while the usability evaluation showed an average of 56
points. This improvement in the perception of the instructors is aligned with the
improvements that occurred in Engageli in the second semester to overcome the technicallimitations found in the first semester. Similar results were obtained in the case of thestudents. In the first semester the overall evaluation by students (N = 127 students) was 45.8
and the usability evaluation was 50.9. In the second semester the overall evaluation (N = 84
students) was 53.3 and the usability evaluation was 54.9.
Use cases
The large-scale pilot served to implement multiple educational scenarios in which interaction
among students was promoted. This section presents five representative use cases that could
be implemented with the support of Engageli.
1. Playback Room: Interaction in asynchronous education
One significant feature of Engageli is that it allows students to watch the videos with therecorded lessons again both individually and in groups. This has different implications. A
student can watch a recorded lesson individually, as is the case with most videoconferencing
platforms, but also several students can join to watch the recorded lesson at the same time(simultaneously) and even at the same virtual table in Engageli, being able to do at that very
precise moment the activities initially planned when the class was recorded. This is called
Playback Room in Engageli. For example, in the second semester 350 students accessed

ISSN: 2189-101X

116The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Engageli to review lessons that had been recorded previously, spending a total of 1431 hours
in the Playback Room. This number is higher than the number of hours spent by instructors
teaching live sessions in Engageli (1342 hours). The Playback Room can be used for different
purposes. For example, the instructor can schedule certain virtual office hours for students towatch a recorded lesson (again or for the first time) with the support of the instructor in the
backchannel (or moving between virtual tables). Students can also self-organize themselves
independently of the instructor, agreeing on when to join to watch a recorded lesson
simultaneously. There may even be an incidental situation where two or more students join
the Playback Room at the same time and then watch a recorded lesson together.
The key to the Playback Room is that students not only can interact with each other in thepresent but also replicate activities that took place originally in the past. For example, if the
instructor used a poll on Engageli at the time of recording the lesson students could answer
the poll again, and even see the answers provided by their peers to the original poll (in casethese answers were shown when the lessons was recorded). Students can interact with eachother through an oral conversation at the virtual table, or comment in the chat or in the Q&A
section of the recorded session. It is also possible for a group of students to watch therecorded lesson at their own pace, e.g., stopping, playing back, fast forwarding, or rewinding.
The ability to control the playback allows for more interaction by stopping the recording
when students wish to comment or discuss on what the instructor has explained. In the
Playback Room students can also take notes in the same way they would do during the live
section (and they are able to download them), and also open a shared whiteboard forbrainstorming, or to create sketches or diagrams. In the course about Data Numeracy, thisfeature was used and students were encouraged to use the Playback room to either (1) watchclasses they missed or (2) review the concepts they struggled with. For example, in thiscourse, instructors usually solved exercises about spreadsheets sharing their screen andstudents could use these recordings to review the steps or the options in the application they
had to use to solve the same (or other similar) exercises. Nevertheless, it is important to notethat this feature was not exempt from privacy issues and some instructors were reluctant torecord their classes.
2. Peer Instruction: Polls and discussion aligned
Engageli supports the use of live polls during a session, as is the case with mostvideoconferencing tools used for classes. Nevertheless, Engageli also incorporates aninteresting functionality that is implemented together with the use of polls, supporting thereorganization of students into virtual tables according to the results of the poll. This allows,for example, the implementation of peer instruction (Lasry, Mazur, & Watkins, 2008). For
example, if the instructor detects that a question has very varied answers (e.g., correct
answers are between 30% and 70%), then students with different answers can be confronted
at the same virtual table to discuss and reason why they chose their answer. This has a twofold effect to improve the understanding of the concept related to that poll. Those who got theanswer correctly get a better comprehension of the concept by explaining the reasoning toothers. Those who failed can reflect on the aspects they did not consider. The implementationof peer instruction is possible thanks to the dynamic arrangement of virtual tables supported
by Engageli.
Regarding the design of these polls, Engageli has defined a set of QR codes that represent
different type of questions (e.g., multiple-choice questions with one possible correct answer,
with several possible correct answers, and short-answer questions). Instructors can

ISSN: 2189-101X

117

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

copy/paster these codes in their materials (e.g., slides) to launch the questions at a certain
moment during the session. For example, they can copy the QR code of a multiple-choicequestion with one possible correct answer four times to create a question with four possible
answers. When instructors share the materials where questions are, the QR codes areautomatically converted to clickable items so that students can answer the question. In thatmoment, instructors can view the distribution of answers. When they decide to show thecorrect answer, they can prevent students to continue. Once the correct answer is selected,
Engageli can compute statistics about whether students answered the question right or not.
In the case of Digital Numeracy, a polling tool used at the institutional level and called
Wooclap was mainly used in the school year 2021/22, instead of the built-in poll tool
provided by Engageli. This was also possible as instructors could share their screen with thequestions in an external tools and students could connect to the external tool to answer thequestions. This is particularly relevant, not only for the polls, but for the usage of any othereducational tools that could also be integrated in a class using Engageli. For the case of thepolls, the usage of the built-in poll tool in Engageli can be beneficial because students canalso answer the polls when using the Playback Room (see the first use case). Future plansinclude the adaptation of existing polls from Wooclap to the build-in poll tool in Engageli.
3. Shared Documents: Synchronous resolution of activities
An interesting feature of Engageli is that it allows independent documents to be assigned toeach virtual table so that students sitting at the same virtual table can work collaboratively onthese documents to carry out a given activity and generate a shared output. Currently
Engageli supports the assignment of documents of two types: Google Docs (text) and Google
Sheets (spreadsheet). The assignment of independent documents per group automaticallyaccording to preset group settings to facilitate the implementation of collaborative activities
has been previously implemented in other platforms (Alario-Hoyos et al., 2022).
Nevertheless, Engageli facilitates both the distribution and withdrawal of shared documents
by the instructor. Beforehand, the instructor must go to the Engageli dashboard and assign an
instance of Google Docs/Sheets per table (see Figure 1). It is possible to create multiple setsof instances of Google Docs/Sheets to be used as supporting documents at independent
activities/sessions per group. The responsibility for setting the right permissions to each
instance of Google Docs/Sheets (view/edit permissions) falls on the instructor. During thesession the instructor can automatically distribute the documents to the virtual tables andthese will appear seamlessly on students’ screen depending on the virtual table they are
sitting at. This automatic distribution can be done by clicking a button on the Engageli
interface or by means of a QR code that the instructor can add to his/her slides. Then, at any
time the instructor can collect the documents and the students will no longer be able tomodify them. It is important to note that the student is never aware of the URL of the
document. In conclusion, this is an appropriate feature to request time-bound collaborative
tasks with an intended output during a synchronous session.
The automatic distribution of Google Sheets per virtual table is very appropriate in thecontext of a course on Digital Numeracy whose purpose is to get students to master the use of
spreadsheets. The instructor can take a spreadsheet with a certain dataset, upload it to Google
Sheets, make copies of the spreadsheet in Google Sheets, and assign the URL of each
instance of the spreadsheet per virtual table before the session. Then, during the session the
instructor can distribute the instances and ask students to work collaboratively to solve a setof questions related to the dataset of the spreadsheet. Students at the same table can discuss

ISSN: 2189-101X

118

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

the best way to solve the problem, and even divide the task to be performed using several
approaches while working simultaneously in the shared document. For example, somestudents may focus on applying certain mathematical formulas to process the data, others
may create a pivot table with the dataset, and others may add some charts to better understandthe data. Then, students can combine the three approaches to draw conclusions and solve theproposed questions. The instructor can give a limited time to do this activity and then collectthe shared documents and even use them as evidence for the summative assessment of thestudents. In the particular case of the 2021/22 school year, this functionality of Engageli wasused only in some sections of Digital Numeracy and in a limited way, although it is planned
that in the future there will be more collaborative activities that take advantage of thisfunctionality.

Figure 1: Engageli interface for the assignment of Google Sheets to virtual tables before
the start of the synchronous session.
4. Evolving Virtual Tables: Collaborative patterns implemented
The flexibility provided by the virtual tables in Engageli allows for different configurations(see Figure 2). For example, the instructor can allow each student to sit where he/she wants(free seating), the instructor can choose where each student sits (instructor chosen) or each
student can be assigned to a randomized table. However, these configurations can evolve
over the course of a single session. This allows, for example, to implement known
collaborative learning flow patterns, such as jigsaw or pyramid (Hernández-Leo et al., 2008).
In the case of jigsaw, a complex problem that needs to be solved is divided into subproblemsof similar complexity. Each member in the virtual table studies and specializes in a
subproblem and then joins a virtual table with other experts, when this student returns to his
original table, he or she reports to the rest of the group what was learned in such a way that
all table members become an essential piece of the jigsaw. For example, in Digital Numeracy
a dataset could be assigned to each table with certain questions that can be solved in various
ways: (1) applying formulas, (2) applying filters, (3) applying pivot tables, (4) applying
visualizations). In this case each virtual table would have four members. Each table member

ISSN: 2189-101X

119The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

then meets with the experts in formulas, filters, pivot tables or visualizations from the othervirtual tables. When each table member returns to the original virtual table, he or she
contributes what was learned and they all reach the same solution to the complex problem,
but in different ways.
In the case of pyramid, a complex problem needs to be solved in several iterations (phases)
with groups increasing in size by merging smaller groups from previous phases. For example,
in Digital Numeracy a complex optimization problem can be solved with a tool called Solver.
In a first iteration the groups are initially three members per table, then they merged into
groups of six (two three-member groups) and into groups of 12 members (two sex-member
groups). In the process they all evolve until they reach the desired solution.

Figure 2: Engageli interface for the seating arrangements in the virtual tables(e.g., free seating, chosen by the instructor, or randomized).
5. Onsite-Online Collaboration: Hybrid education deployed
Engageli can also be used to foster collaboration in hybrid educational scenarios where somestudents are physically in the classroom while some others are simultaneously following thesession online. In this case, each virtual table may contain some students who are onsite andsome students who are online. The proportion of students of each type can be determined by
the instructor or by the students themselves depending on the context. In that hybrid
educational scenario, oral communication is possible although it is more challenging andrequires additional measures to avoid the overlapping in the conversations among groups.
Written communication via chat is always preferred in hybrid educational scenarios. The useof peer instruction, shared documents, and collaborative patterns as detailed in scenarios 2-4
is also possible here.

ISSN: 2189-101X

120

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Hybrid educational scenarios require more attention as they place an additional overload on
instructors to orchestrate such educational scenarios. especially in the case of using
collaborative activities with a certain complexity (Carruana-Martín, et al., 2022). These
include the above mentioned activities where onsite and online students needed tocommunicate to solve problems (either combining or without combining onsite and online
students).
In the case of Digital Numeracy, the Advanced version of the course was fully online, while
the Intermediate version of the course was 67% online and 33% onsite. The delivery mode
(online/onsite) was the same for all the students regardless of the section in which they wereenrolled. Nevertheless, to foster international mobility and avoid delays when students moveabroad for a semester, mobility students were allowed to take 100% of the classes online.
This means that there could be onsite and online students in the case of the Intermediate
version of Digital Numeracy if there were mobility students in that section. In those cases,
instructors used Engageli to allow mobility students to follow the class and instructors could
solve doubts either asked in class or posted in Engageli.
Moreover, as Digital Numeracy was a course where it is very important to follow the steps ofthe instructor in order solve the exercises, Engageli was also used as a complement to onsite
lessons. Particularly, Engageli was used to enable screen sharing and recording so as to makeit easier for students to follow the steps to solve exercises with spreadsheets and enable thepossibility to use the Playback Room later if students missed any step. In addition,
considering this approach, it would be possible to support onsite classes with Engageli withthe usage of live digital polls and shared documents (cases 2 and 3), so that there could be a
relationship between a physical and online table. In that case, a group of students in aphysical table could be given a shared document through Engageli (using a virtual table) tobe completed in class. The interaction would be onsite unless groups combine onsite andonline students (as previously mentioned), but Engageli technologies would enhance thelearning experience.
Conclusions and Future Work
This paper has presented a large-scale pilot of the tool Engageli (with almost 6,000 students
and 95 instructors) to support online educational environments. This tool was specificallydesigned for online teaching, unlike other videoconference tools. Moreover, Engageli can be
integrated in the LMS and support innovative use cases that enhance online learning
experiences. Particularly, this paper has reviewed five possible uses cases: (1) usage of theplayback room to allow interactions between students in an asynchronous scenario where, forexample, several students could be watching a recording of a previous lecture, (2) usage of
integrated polls that can be embedded in the session materials and can enhance peer
instruction and foster discussion among students, (3) usage of shared documents to enable
synchronous resolution of activities assigned by the instructors in online contexts (e.g., fillinga shared document or spreadsheet in a group), (4) implementation of collaborative patterns bymodifying the students in each working virtual table depending on several settings (e.g., freeseating, based on the performance of the students, random groups, etc.), and (5) deploymentof hybrid education scenarios where there can be students both onsite and online, or even
where the usage of online elements with Engageli could be used as a complement to boost thelearning experience in the onsite class.

ISSN: 2189-101X

121

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Engageli was tested in several courses, with several sessions. Some of the use cases presented
here serve to highlight the potential of this tool. However, the pilot carried out at UC3M
during the school year 2021/22 had some limitations that are worth mentioning. First, there
were several technical issues in the first semester that limited the possibility of using many
features at first. Moreover, instructors’ capabilities in online teaching and educational
technologies also entailed a barrier and, while a vast amount of training and resources wasprovided, adaptation to new technologies also required time to fully exploit all thecapabilities. Similarly, students were not used to be involved in online collaborative activities
and that also hindered the deployment of several of the above-mentioned use cases. But inthis case, the goal was to promote collaboration with the help of this tool.
For future work, it would be relevant to carry out more experiences using all the proposed use
cases, including those that had not been previously tested or tested in a limited scope. In
addition, it would be relevant to carry out analyses to measure the impact of the tool and also
the impact of each use cases individually to better understand how online learning can be
improved. In this line, the analysis of log data would be also important to better understand
students’ behaviors in these contexts and gather insights that could serve to adapt the
proposed activities in these settings or to create new ones.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported in part by grant PID2020-112584RB-C31 (H2O Learn project)funded by MCIN/ AEI /10.13039/501100011033, and in part by the Madrid Regional
Government through the e-Madrid-CM Project under Grant S2018/TCS-4307 and under theMultiannual Agreement with UC3M in the line of Excellence of University Professors
EPUC3M21), and in the context of the V PRICIT (Regional Programme of Research andTechnological Innovation), a project which is co-funded by the European Structural Funds(FSE and FEDER). Partial support has also been received from the European Commission
through Erasmus+ Capacity Building in the Field of Higher Education project PROF-XXI(609767-EPP-1-2019-1-ESEPPKA2-CBHE-JP). This publication reflects the views only of
the authors and funders cannot be held responsible for any use which may be made of theinformation contained therein.

ISSN: 2189-101X

122The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

References
Alario-Hoyos, C., Bote-Lorenzo, M. L., Gómez-Sánchez, E., Asensio-Pérez, J. I., VegaGorgojo, G., & Ruiz-Calleja, A. (2013). GLUE!: An architecture for the integration of
external tools in Virtual Learning Environments. Computers & Education, 60(1), 122137.
Avida, D., Kolodny, T. (2021). UC3M-engageli: Partnership announcement. https://earchivo.uc3m.es/bitstream/handle/10016/33173/engageli_Avida_JID_2021.pdf
Bangor, A., Kortum, P. T., & Miller, J. T. (2008). An empirical evaluation of the systemusability scale. Intl. Journal of Human–Computer Interaction, 24(6), 574-594.
Benito, Á., Dogan Yenisey, K., Khanna, K., Masis, M. F., Monge, R. M., Tugtan, M. A., ... &Vig, R. (2021). Changes that should remain in higher education post COVID-19: A
mixed-methods analysis of the experiences at three universities. Higher Learning
Research Communications, 11, 4, 51-75.
Bond, M., Bedenlier, S., Marín, V. I., & Händel, M. (2021). Emergency remote teaching inhigher education: Mapping the first global online semester. International Journal of
Educational Technology in Higher Education, 18(1), 1-24.
Boté-Vericad, J. J. (2021). Perceived barriers for distance teaching in higher education during
the COVID-19 crisis: “I never did a video before”. Education for Information, 37(3),377-397.
Brunetto, D., & Cangiotti, N. (2022). Online team working with emerging technologies in auniversity math class. In 8th International Conference on Higher Education Advances(HEAd'22) (pp. 1263-1270).
Carruana Martín, A., Ortega-Arranz, A., Alario-Hoyos, C., Amarasinghe, I., Hernández-Leo,D., & Delgado Kloos, C. (2022). Scenario for Analysing Student Interactions andOrchestration Load in Collaborative and Hybrid Learning Environments. In
International Conference on Collaboration Technologies and Social Computing (pp.
295-303). Springer, Cham.
Class (n.d.). The Virtual Classroom Built on Zoom. https://www.class.com
Díaz-Noguera, M. D., Hervás-Gómez, C., De la Calle-Cabrera, A. M., & López-Meneses, E.
(2022). Autonomy, motivation, and digital pedagogy are key factors in theperceptions of Spanish higher-education students toward online learning during the
COVID-19 pandemic. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public
Health, 19(2), 654, 1-14.
Engageli (n.d.). Where Engaged Learning Happens. https://www.engageli.com
Hernández Leo, D., Asensio-Pérez, J. I., & Dimitriadis, Y. (2005). Computational
representation of collaborative learning flow patterns using IMS learning design.
Journal of Educational Technology & Society, 8(4), 75-89.

ISSN: 2189-101X

123The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Hill, P. (2020). Revised Outlook for Higher Ed’s Online Response to COVID-19.
PhilOnEdTech. https://philonedtech.com/revised-outlook-for-higher-eds-onlineresponse-to-covid-19
Lasry, N., Mazur, E., & Watkins, J. (2008). Peer instruction: From Harvard to the two-yearcollege. American journal of Physics, 76(11), 1066-1069.
Nikolopoulou, K. (2022). Face-To-Face, Online and Hybrid Education: University Students’
Opinions and Preferences. Journal of Digital Educational Technology, 2(2), 1-7.
1EdTech (2019). Learning Tools Interoperability Core Specification.
https://www.imsglobal.org/activity/learning-tools-interoperability
Robertson, J. (2022). Real time learning during and after the pandemic: how to productively
use chat and polling. Interactive Learning Environments, 1-12.
Rucker, J., Steele, S., Zumwalt, J., & Bray, N. (2020). Utilizing zoom breakout rooms to
expose preclerkship medical students to TeleMedicine encounters. Medical scienceeducator, 30(4), 1359-1360.
Wiyono, B. B., Indreswari, H., & Putra, A. P. (2021, August). The Utilization of “Google
Meet” and “Zoom Meetings” to Support the Lecturing Process during the Pandemicof COVID-19. In 2021 International Conference on Computing, Electronics &Communications Engineering (iCCECE) (pp. 25-29). IEEE.
Contact email: calario@it.uc3m.es

ISSN: 2189-101X

124

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Gender Analysis for the Pre-university Education Sector in Albania

Suela Kusi Drita, University of Tirana, Albania
Zyhrada Kongoli, Kongoli Law Firm, Albania

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023
Official Conference Proceedings

Abstract
Gender equality concept is unquestionably linked to the quality in the education system, as
the foundations of the intellectual and social development of children. Achievement ofgender equality in education system is an important challenge not only for the children but
also for all responsible government institutions and their respective education and social
policies. While schools may seem as "the Albanian society in miniature" i.e. undeniably
loaded with gender stereotypes imparted through school and hidden curricula, educators havedistinguished role to teach their students those intrinsic layers of “biological sex” versus“socially constructed gender” and that being a boy or a girl should not impact theirperspectives in life. It is the government’s responsibility to ensure for all children access toquality education as it is high time to give gender equality the place it deserves foremost in
education system and Albanian schools, from social to exact science subjects, fromkindergarten to universities, from general to vocational schools. The analysis was carried out
during the period February-May 2022, and it explored the following two questions: What are
the main gender gaps in Albania’s pre-university education system? How can the national
policies and interventions address the identified gender gaps to maximize its intended
impact? Analysis is based on a desk study of internal and external gender assessments,
reports, and surveys relevant to the purpose. While the analysis is primarily concerned withexamining the gender gaps in the pre-university education sector, it also explores linkages
and correlations with other sectors.

Keywords: Gender Mainstreaming, Pre-university Education System, Citizenship Education

iafor
The International Academic Forumwww.iafor.org

ISSN: 2189-101X

125

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

I.

Official Conference Proceedings

Introduction

It is widely recognized the important role and the impact that education has for the sociocultural development of the society. Education provides the individuals, regardless of theirgender, with the opportunity to emancipate them and improve their social and economic
status, for a better future. Nowadays it is essential to educate young people beyond any
gender, racial, and cultural prejudice in order to build secure foundations for our society.
Gender equality concept is unquestionably linked to the quality in education system, as thefoundations of the intellectual and social development of the children. Achievement ofgender equality in education system is an important challenge not only for the children but
also for all responsible government institutions and their respective education and social
policies.
The school and family are the most important institutions contributing to the development of
the children's personality by creating the necessary spaces to overcome any social barrier or
prejudice and to design their future in accordance with their abilities and goals. It isunquestionable that educating the younger generation about gender equality in school is a
way to give them the ability to understand gender equality, gender stereotypes and to avoid
any kind of violence against girls and contributing overall to narrow the gender equality gap
in any dimension.
While schools may seem as “the Albanian society in miniature” i.e. undeniably loaded withgender stereotypes imparted through school and hidden curricula, educators havedistinguished role to teach their students those intrinsic layers of “biological sex” versus“socially constructed gender” and that being a boy or a girl should not impact theirperspectives in life.
This study undertakes a gender analysis of multiple aspects of pre-university education sector
in Albania, namely policy and legal framework; statistics related to enrollment of boys andgirls; and an observance of gender issues in schools.
The recent European Commission (EC) Report for Albania1, has noted a persistent funding
gap which hindered the implementation of previous strategy and action plan on genderequality (2016-2020) calling for new efforts at central and local level to ensure adequate statefunding for the implementation of new strategy on gender equality 2021-2030. In addition, allnational strategies at central and local level should be gender mainstreamed and apply gender
responsive budgeting.
The first Gender Equality Index for Albania, published in 2020 2, reached 60.4 points,
indicating a gender gap of 7.4 points below EU average. The domain of knowledge is amongsix core domains where the largest gaps are observed, compared to EU average. The index
shows a large gap on enrolment in preschool education between Albania with enrollment rate
at 76.3% and EU member states where 95.4% of children enroll in preschool education.
While in EU member states the enrolment rate among boys and girls is almost equal, in
Albania there is a higher enrolment rate of boys (81.6%) versus girls (78.9%).

1

Albania 2021 Report, available at:https://ec.europa.eu/neighbourhood-enlargement/albania-report-2021_en;
http://www.instat.gov.al/media/6657/gender_equality_index_for_the_republic_of_albania_2020_alb.pdf;

2

ISSN: 2189-101X

126

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

This analysis is based on the most recent available data, mainly provided by INSTAT throughGender Equality Index (2020) and “Women and Men in Albania” (2021) as well as otheravailable data on situation in Albania and other countries.
II.

National framework

Being part of fundamental rights, gender equality is protected at the level ofConstitution3,asserting that such rights are indivisible, inalienable and inviolable and stand at
the foundation of the legal order. The public bodies, while rendering their tasks, shall observe
such rights and contribute to their realization. Equality before the law and non-discriminationon the ground of gender are among basic principles promoted by the Constitution. On theother hand, everyone has the right to education 4. The compulsory education and higher
secondary education are offered for free at public schools. Education of children andyoungsters is amongst core social objectives of the state.
The principles on the ground of the functioning of the pre-university education system
include respect, protection and promotion of human rights in general and student’s rights inparticular, all-inclusiveness as well as the right to quality education and equal chances foreducation. The principle of equality among individuals and students in opportunities, quality,
enjoyment, conditions and achievements is embodied throughout the law provisions. The law
regulates explicitly that the curriculum, which is a system composed of several elements suchas frame curriculum, education programs and assessment, ensures quality and equal
education for every member of the society regardless of gender.
Regarding the tasks and responsibilities of involved actors, the education institution has animportant role of creating a friendly environment for students as well as providing
opportunities that each student can display and develop the individuality and fulfill his/herpotential according to the law 5, in addition to the notable role of the ministry of education
regarding drafting of policies, programs and projects aiming at the development of preuniversity education system.
Education is an important ingredient of child protection and participation, especially forchildren in risk, children in vulnerable conditions and during emergency situations such asthat caused by COVID-19. The right and access to quality and free education on the basis ofequal and non-discriminatory opportunities is also regulated by the law on child rights andprotection6. Highest interest of the child as the primary consideration as well as equality andnon-discrimination are among main principles of the law. Children with disabilities andchildren belonging to an ethnic, religious and language minority are addressed in particularby this law.
In addition to obligation to ensure quality education through adequate curriculum, teaching
programs, infrastructure, financing and continuous evaluation of teaching personnel, the law
charges the ministry responsible for education and its subordinated institutions withresponsibilities to enable the child access to preschool education as well as free compulsory
education even in cases when they have passed the age but have been unable to attend
education.
Law No. 8417, date 21.10.1998, as amended “Constitution of the Republic of Albania”;
Article 57 of the Constitution of the Republic of Albania;
5
Article 32 of the Law No. 69/2012 “On pre-university education system”, as amended;
6
Article 18 of the Law No. 18/2017 “On the rights and protection of the child”;
3
4

ISSN: 2189-101X

127

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

The available education statistics from the Institute of Statistics in the Republic of Albania(INSTAT), present data on girls’ and boys’ participation in the education system in the
country, as shown in the tables and figure below.

Programme

Table 1: Students enrolled by programmes and gender7
2016-20172017-20182018-20192019-2020

2020-2021

Boys

Boys

Girls

Boys

Girls

Boys

Girls

Boys

Girls

Girls

Pre-primary 42.295 38.899 42.314 38.712 41.221 37.721 40.466 37.392 37.016 34.316
Primary

92.380 82.456 89.835 81.026 87.762 79.342 84.734 77.436 82.707 75.821

Lower
secondaryUppersecondary

80.842 72.422 78.348 70.462 73.705 65.721 70.210 62.499 67.560 60.398

III.

67.528 59.586 63.901 56.161 62.177 54.469 58.290 51.243 57.270 50.719

Gender statistics in pre-primary education

Early childhood education, or otherwise referred as pre-primary education, in Albania is
optional and offered for children of age 3–6 years. The education offered in pre-primary isorganized in three groups based on age: 3-4; 4-5 and 5-6-years old children. Children on theage of 5, who have not attended kindergarten for various reasons or due to the lack ofkindergartens near their place of residence, can attend preparatory classes, in order tofacilitate their integration into compulsory education.8 These preparatory classes take place inprimary schools. The unification of pre-primary classes in all education institutions has beenlong discussed, but not yet achieved.
Table 2: Participation in education, by education level /gross enrollment ratio (GER) 9
Programme
PreprimaryPrimary +LowersecondaryUppersecondary

2016-2017
Boys
Girls
81,8
81,3

2017-2018
Boys
Girls
81,6
78,9

2018-2019
Boys Girls
80,3
76,3

2019-2020
Boys
Girls
81,9
77,9

2020-2021
Boys
Girls
78,5
75,2

101,6

99,2

102,1

99,2

102,6

97,2

100,7

95,5

99,9

94,2

98,9

91,3

97,4

90,1

100,8

92,0

95,0

88,6

96,8

90,1

The net enrolment rate at the pre-primary level in Albania has greatly increased since 2000,
reaching about 81% in 2016 (UIS, 2020). The rate in 2017 was about 80%, lower than the
average in the OECD countries (84%) and the EU member states (87%). However, such rate
is higher than in Serbia (61%) and Montenegro (60%).

7

INSTAT, 2021. Women and Men in Albania 2021, Tirana, Albania, available at
http://www.instat.gov.al/media/8713/burra-dhe-gra.pdf
8
DCM No. 621, dated 22.10.2021 “For the approval of National Strategy for Education 2021-2026 and theAction Plan on its implementation”;
9
INSTAT, 2021. Women and Men in Albania 2021, Tirana, Albania, available at
http://www.instat.gov.al/media/8713/burra-dhe-gra.pdf

ISSN: 2189-101X

128

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

As it can be seen on Table 2 above, during the academic year 2020-2021, 78.5% of boys and75.2% of girls attended pre-primary education. There has been a reduction in the number ofchildren attending pre-primary education programme compared to preceding academic years.
Table 3: Number of children enrolled in preschool education, by gender, 2021
Gender2016-20172017-20182018-20192019-2020
2020-2021
Total
81.19481.02678.94277.85871.332Boys
42.29542.31441.22140.46637.016
Girls
38.89938.71237.72137.39234.316% of girls
47.90047.80047.80048000
51.900A new preschool education curriculum has been developed, which includes the curriculum
framework document, development and learning standards, programs for each age group as
well as monitoring the framework for assessing preschool education. Also, for the first time,
are drafted development and learning standards for ages 0–3. MoES has approved theProfessional Training Standards for General Education of Preschool Teachers as well as
Preschool Education Programs for the age of 3-4 years.
IV.

Gender statistics in primary and lower secondary education

In the law on pre-university education system, under Chapter III, have been defined the levelsof pre-university education. According to the law, primary and lower secondary education are
included under the name of “Basic Education”. 10 Basic education starts at the age of 6 andends at the age of 16 years old and is compulsory. This education is composed by two levels:
primary education level, which consists in 5 classes, starting from first till fifth grade; andlower secondary education level, consisting in 4 classes, sixth till ninth grade. The basic
education aims the social, intellectual and physical development of every student, teaching
the rules of conduct as well as the education of values, health care and sufficient preparation
for the continuation of the upper secondary education or the labour market.
In the academic year 2020-2021, 286,486 children were enrolled in basic education, 55.3 %in primary education and 44.7 % in lower secondary education. Compared to the school year
2019-2020, it was noted a decrease of 2.8 % children participating in basic education thisyear.11
According to the INSTAT data, the number of children attending primary education isdecreasing during last year’s. This decrease can probably be attributed to the demographic
trend regarding decline of natality which has been reflected in the reduction of primaryeducation generations. The difference in number of boys and girls attending primaryeducation reflects the gender differences among children in the general population.

Article 22 of theLaw No. 69/2012 “On pre-university education system”, as amended;
INSTAT, Enrollment statistics, 2020-2021, Tirana, Albania, available
at:http://www.instat.gov.al/media/8187/press-release-enrollments-statistics-2020-21eng.pdf
1011

ISSN: 2189-101X

129

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Gender
Total
Boys
Girls
% of girls

Official Conference Proceedings

Table 4: Students enrolled in primary education 12
2016-20172017-20182018-20192019-2020
174.836
170.861
167.104
162.170
92.38089.83587.76284.73482.45681.02679.34277.43647.20047.40047.50047.7002020-2021
158.52882.70775.82147.800As the data on UIS indicate, the total net enrolment rate13 for primary education in 2020 was
high (96.16%), with a 3.61% difference between girls and boys. The total percentage of out
of school children for 2020, in the legal age to be enrolled in primary education, is 3.7%
(6221 children), 0.9% of which are girls and 2.8% are boys. There is no specific available
data providing information on the attendance and drop-out rate for children belonging toRoma community, not only for primary education, but also for every level of education. This
lack of data prohibits us from realizing the percentage of Roma children enrolled in eachlevel of education and those belonging in the “out of school” category.
According to UIS, the number of repeaters in primary education in Albania is 1143 students,
consisting mostly on boys (660 boys and 483 girls).
The number of primary education students enrolled in private education institutions is 14.653
students, out of which there are 6.793 (46.4%) girls and 7.860 (53.6%) boys.
According to the data available on INSTAT, 127.958 students enrolled in lower secondary
education for the academic year 2020-2021- 60.398 girls (47.2%) and 67.560 boys (52.8%).

Gender
Total
Boys
Girls
% of girls

Table 5:Students enrolled in lower secondary education 14
2016-20172017-20182018-20192019-2020
153.264148.810139.426132.70980.84278.34873.70570.21072.42270.46265.72162.49947.30047.40047.10047.1002020-2021
127.958
67.56060.39847.200As the data on UIS indicate, the total net enrolment rate on lower secondary education in2020 is 96.45%, which is considerably a high level. There is a 4.18% difference between girls
and boys (respectively 98.7% for girls and 94.52% for boys). The total percentage of out ofschool adolescents for 2020, in the legal age to be enrolled in lower secondary education, is3.5% (4823 students), 0.6% of which are girls and 2.9% are boys. The number of repeaters inlower secondary education in Albania is 1045 students, consisting mostly of boys (735 boys
and 310 girls).
The number of lower secondary education students enrolled in private education institutions
is 10.053 students, 4.819 (47.9%) of which are girls and 5.234 boys (52.1%).

12

INSTAT, 2021. Women and Men in Albania 2021, Tirana, Albania, available at
http://www.instat.gov.al/media/8713/burra-dhe-gra.pdf;
13
Total number of students of the official age group for a given level of education who are enrolled in any levelof education, expressed as a percentage of the corresponding population
14
INSTAT, 2021. Women and Men in Albania 2021, Tirana, Albania, available at
http://www.instat.gov.al/media/8713/burra-dhe-gra.pdf

ISSN: 2189-101X

130

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Table 6: Participation in Basic Education /gross enrollment ratio (GER) 15
Programme
2016-20172017-20182018-20192019-2020
2020-2021
Boys
Girls Boys Girls Boys Girls Boys Girls Boys Girls
Primary +101,699,2 102,1 99,2 102,6 97,2 100,7 95,5 99,9 94,2
Lower
secondary(in %)In the academic year 2020-2021, 91.4 % of basic education students were enrolled in public
education institutions and 8.6 % in private ones. Among the students enrolled in basic
education, girls constitute 47.5 % of the total. 16
Data on gender parity in basic education 17 are available for the academic year 2020-2021 andGender parity index 18 is 0.94 indicating that there is no difference in the attendance of girls
and boys in this level of education.

Programme
Primary +Lowersecondary(in %)

Table 7: Gender Parity Index (on GER) 19
2016-20172017-20182018-20192019-2020
0,98
0,97
0,95
0,95

2020-2021
0,94

In 2019, 34.982 students graduated from basic education, corresponding to 96.4% of ninth
graders for the academic year 2018-2019, marking an increase of graduation rate by 1%,
compared to the pervious academic year. In this level of education, 52.6% of the graduatedstudents were boys and 47.4% were girls.20During the academic year 2019-2020, 33.618
students graduated from basic education, out of which 52.3% were boys and 47.7% weregirls.

GenderGirls
Boys

Table 8: Graduations in Basic Education 21
Academic year
2017-20182018-2019
48.9%
47.4%
51.1%
52.6%

15

INSTAT, 2021. Women and Men in Albania 2021, Tirana, Albania, available at
http://www.instat.gov.al/media/8713/burra-dhe-gra.pdf
16INSTAT, Enrollment statistics, 2020-2021, Tirana, Albania, available at:
http://www.instat.gov.al/media/8187/press-release-enrollments-statistics-2020-21eng.pdf
17
INSTAT, 2021. Women and Men in Albania 2021, Tirana, Albania, available at
http://www.instat.gov.al/media/8713/burra-dhe-gra.pdf
18
Ratio of adjusted net attendance ratios of girls to boys
19
INSTAT, 2021. Women and Men in Albania 2021, Tirana, Albania, available at
http://www.instat.gov.al/media/8713/burra-dhe-gra.pdf
20
INSTAT, Statistics of graduations, 2018-2019, Tirana, Albania, available at:
http://www.instat.gov.al/media/6957/diplomimet.pdf
21
INSTAT, Statistics of graduations, 2019-2020, Tirana, Albania, available at:
http://www.instat.gov.al/media/8334/statistika-te-diplomimeve_2019-20_juna-formatim.pdf

ISSN: 2189-101X

131

2019-2020
47.7%
52.3%

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

V.

Official Conference Proceedings

Gender statistics in upper secondary education

In the academic year 2020-2021, 103,001 students were enrolled in upper secondary
education, marking a decrease of 6.0 %, compared to the previous year. Out of these students,
48,801 (47.4%), are girls and 54,200 (52.6%), are boys. The majority of students in upper
secondary education are enrolled in gymnasiums and socio-cultural schools (81.5 %). This
proportion has remained almost at the same level during the last three years. Most of thestudents enrolled in upper secondary education attend public education institutions (86.5 %).
Table 9: Students enrolled in upper secondary education 22
School/academic year
2018-20192019-2020
2020-2021
Upper secondary
116,646
109,533
103,001
Gymnasium & Socio95,359
89,86983,977
CultureVocational
21,28919,66419,024
The number of teachers in upper secondary education is 8,584, of which 68.4 % are women.
The student-teacher ratio in upper secondary public education is 12.7 and 8.9 in private
education institutions.
Data on gender parity in upper secondary education is available for the academic year 20202021 and Gender parity index 23 is 0.93 indicating that there is no difference in the attendanceof girls and boys in this level of education.

Programme
Uppersecondary

Table 10: Gender Parity Index (on GER) 24
2016-20172017-20182018-20192019-2020
0,93
0,93
0,91
0,93

2020-2021
0,93

In 2019, 34,021 students graduated from upper secondary education, marking a decrease of
3.6%, compared to 2018. Out of the students that graduate, 47.9% were boys and 52.1% weregirls. Vocational education graduates made 11.2% of total graduates in secondary education.
In 2020, 31,662 students graduated upper secondary education, marking an additional
decrease of 6.9%, compared to the previous school year. Out of the graduated students,
51.1% were boys and 48.9% were girls. 4,862 students graduated in upper secondary
vocational education. This number is 27.7% higher, then the number of students that
graduated at the endof 2018-2019 academic year. Vocational education graduates make up
15.4% of the total upper secondary education graduates. The gross graduation ratio in upper
secondary education was 81.5%. 25
Upper secondary vocational education in Albania is provided in about 53 schools, of which 9
are private, mainly located in urban areas. According to official figures, enrollment in public
22

INSTAT, Enrollment statistics, 2020-2021, Tirana, Albania, available at:
http://www.instat.gov.al/media/8187/press-release-enrollments-statistics-2020-21eng.pdf
23
Ratio of adjusted net attendance ratios of girls to boys
24
INSTAT, 2021. Women and Men in Albania 2021, Tirana, Albania, available at
http://www.instat.gov.al/media/8713/burra-dhe-gra.pdf
25
INSTAT, Statistics of graduations, 2018-2019, Tirana, Albania, available
at:http://www.instat.gov.al/media/6957/diplomimet.pdf

ISSN: 2189-101X

132

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

vocational high schools in the 2020-2021 academic year has dropped to 17,000 students from
18,164 who were enrolled in the 2019-2020 academic year. The 2022-2024 economic reform
document adopted by the government states that demographic trends are mainly the cause ofthis decline.
Boys make up the majority of upper secondary vocational education students. According to
official data, most girls use upper secondary vocational education as a path leading towards
higher education (over 79% of girls graduating from vocational education enroll inuniversities, compared to 39.2% of boys), while boys mainly use the upper secondary
vocational education as a bridge to enter the labor market after graduation. 26
VI.

Gender equality issues in educational programs, curricula and teaching methods

The law on pre-university education system defines the curricula as a system made of various
elements such as: the curricular framework, the core curricula, education programmers,
assessment programmers, which, being interconnected, allow the orientation and functioningof the educational system, through education and administrative plans. The curricula provide
quality and equal education for every member of the society, despite their ethnicity, genderand social status.
This law also identified the curricular framework as the main document of the curricula,which describes its general goals, main competences, expected results for students, in terms
of knowledge, skills and attitudes in the end of primary and secondary education, their goals
in learning and the general principles of the teaching-learning process, and student
assessment. The core curriculum is a joint curriculum for all students in the same level ofstudies in the educational system.
Primary education level in Albania consists of five classes, starting from the first grade till
fifth grade. Gender education is included in the content of a social subject named“Citizenship” (Qytetaria). This subject aims to educate students on the basic concepts
regarding individuals and groups, gender equality and non-discrimination, society and culture
etc. One of the goals of this subject is to empower students and encourage them into
participating in activities that promote cultural, ethic, religious and gender tolerance anddiversity, at school or in community at large.
The education program is implemented through school textbooks, teaching materials and theinfluence of school environment. The latter is also known as hidden curricula.27 Everysociety influenced by their gender beliefs and stereotypes has prevailing images of portrayalof man and women on the education programme. When children enter school environments,
the images of boys and girls portrayed on books influence their concept of gender affiliationand gender roles expectations.
Students get influenced by both the official and the hidden curricula. It is very important toanalyse textbooks and the hidden curricula, because they play a crucial role in the process ofgender identity formation in children. Studies show that even school text books images can

Top Channel, “Unemployed / 35% with vocational education, 10% with gymnasium”, 2021, available at:https://top-channel.tv/2021/12/29/te-papunet-35-me-arsim-profesional-10-me-gjimnaz/
27
Dode E., Doctoral Dissertation “Analysis of the integration process for gender education in the education
system. Special educational needs assessment for boys and girls”, p.32
26

ISSN: 2189-101X

133

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

convey powerful messages, just like the written text28. The way male and female characters
are shown in the content and designs of textbooks influences the way children develop theirgender affiliation in society, which can bring negative or positive effects, reflected in theirattitude towards themselves and/or others. For this reason, textbooks should depict genders as
equal as possible because the images that boys and girls see in school textbooks instil theirself-perception and views about themselves.
According to the law on pre-university education, textbooks are part of the written andimplemented curricula. The textbook is the tool of the learning and teaching process,developed in the frame of implementation of the subject syllabus. In Albania, the textbook is
the main source for the learning process, at school and other learning environments. In orderto maintain gender balance, textbooks should represent both genders in a fair and logicalratio. It is also relevant to analyse the gender ratio of the authors whose textbooks are
selected by school academic boards to be taught in schools.
In order for teachers to be able to contribute to gender equality in the society, they need firstto be aware of their gender biases and subsequently to be equipped with gender educationcompetences. Although some progress is made, gender equality issues are still not part of thesubjects for pre-service teacher training.
Another area for consideration would be the socialisation process in the schools andduringthe extracurricular activities. Such process can greatly benefit from a gender-sensitive
approach, where teachers ensure a spirit of equality in the interactions between boys and girls
not just in class, but also in the decision-making bodies of the schools such as the students’
government and board of the school.
VII.

Conclusions

The available data disaggregated by gender is not complete. Therefore, it is necessary tofurther develop the available data for various aspects and levels of education. Regarding
participation in education, disaggregated by gender, it is necessary to not only have data on
the total number of children enrolled at each level of education, and the ratio of boys and girls
enrolled, as we currently have, but this data should be enriched and should involve
information on participation in education compared to the total number of children in the age
to attend that level of education. To elaborate, the data should include the comparison of allchildren enrolled in one education level, compared with the total number of children in theage to attend that education level, and also disaggregate this data by gender. That would
make it possible to realize how many children that should be in that level of education are notenrolled in schools, and what is the share of boys and girls in this group of children.
Also, data on children from vulnerable groups are extremely restricted, so it would be very
useful if some of the data would be collected through regular administrative data in order toscreen the situation among children from national minorities, Roma, children from rural areas
etc.
Related to data collection, it is important to state that there is poor data available on
employment in education disaggregated by gender and the % of leadership positions in eacheducation level disaggregated by gender (particularly principals and vice principals).
GDAC, “Gender Perspective of School Textbooks in Albania”, Tirana, 2008.

28

ISSN: 2189-101X

134

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Since the available data show that there is a gender gap in the attendance of each level of
education, it is of key importance to investigate the reasons of this gender gap, and comingwith ways to reduce this gender gap, by tackling the reasons leading to this gap.
Regarding the content of the curricula, it would be very beneficial to conduct new analysis oncontent of education curricula and materials, including gender education since many new
textbooks were adopted after previous studies were published, and a new curriculum based oncompetences has been adopted for the pre-university education.
The subject of Citizenship, used in primary, lower secondary and upper secondary education,
could be used as an opportunity to introduce systematic education and awareness rising in
gender equality and gender-based violence, but with the support of appropriate learningmaterials and textbooks. It is important to introduce regular monitoring and evaluation ofknowledge and attitudes of students on gender equality.
Since textbooks in Albania are the main source of the learning process, the textbooks should
represent both genders in a fair ratio, not only in text, but also in illustrations. Therefore, it isimportant to conduct an analysis of school textbooks, as part of the hidden curricula, toscreen the fair representation of girls and boys, and also to eliminate any gender stereotyped
concept of the roles and attitudes of men and women at all levels of education.
It would also be very beneficial to conduct the analysis of the new pre-primary education
curricula including the learning materials used towards advancing the knowledge andattitudes of children regarding gender equality. The methods used should be in accordancewith their age. In this manner some prospective occupations should be introduced to children
with the message that different opportunities are equally suitable and available for both, girls
and boys. Here, education classes can serve as a suitable entry point for gender education
topics in the class.
Therefore, to offset the aforementioned, pre-service and in-service gender equality training
programs should take place for teaching and management staff in pre-university education
institutions. Gender equality competences should also be part of the staff performance
criteria.
The socialisation process in schools can greatly benefit from a gender-sensitive approach,where teachers ensure a spirit of equality in the interactions between boys and girls not just inclass, but also in the decision-making bodies of the schools such as the students’ government,
and the extracurricular activities.
Gender segregation in education should be a priority, part of education, gender equality,
youth and employment related policies. Promotion of non-traditional occupations for boys
and girls should be one of the regular activities in schools, as part of career orientation andguidance.
It is of great importance to realize that gender segregation on the labour market should be
addressed with carefully tailored measures in order to increase employment of men in all
education levels, especially in pre-primary and primary education, and to empower women
employed in education to undertake leadership positions. Therefore, efforts here should
include gender-sensitive career orientation and guidance elements.

ISSN: 2189-101X

135

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

References
CEDAW (2021) “Fifth periodic report submitted by Albania under article 18 of theConvention, due in 2020”, 20 January 2021, available at:https://www.ecoi.net/en/document/2046178.html
Çobaj, T. (2015) “Gender relations in school leadership in Albania”, Academic Journal ofInterdisciplinary Studies.
Dode E., Doctoral Dissertation “Analysis of the integration process for gender education in
the education system. Special educational needs assessment for boys and girls”, p.32.
European Commission, Albania 2021 Report, published on 19 October 2021, available at:https://ec.europa.eu/neighbourhood-enlargement/albania-report-2021_en
INSTAT (2020) “Gender Equality Index for the Republic of Albania 2020”, Tirana, January
2020, available at:
http://www.instat.gov.al/media/6657/gender_equality_index_for_the_republic_of_alb
ania_2020_alb.pdf
INSTAT (2021) Women and Men in Albania 2021, Tirana, Albania, available at
http://www.instat.gov.al/media/8713/burra-dhe-gra.pdf
INSTAT (2020) “Gender Equality Index for the Republic of Albania 2020”, Tirana, January
2020, available at:
http://www.instat.gov.al/media/6661/gender_equality_index_for_the_republic_of_alb
ania_2020.pdf
INSTAT (2021) Enrollment statistics, 2020-2021, Tirana, Albania, available at:
http://www.instat.gov.al/media/8187/press-release-enrollments-statistics-202021eng.pdf
INSTAT (2019) Statistics of graduations, 2018-2019, Tirana, Albania, available at:
http://www.instat.gov.al/media/6957/diplomimet.pdf
INSTAT (2020) Statistics of graduations, 2019-2020, Tirana, Albania, available at:
http://www.instat.gov.al/media/8334/statistika-te-diplomimeve_2019-20_junaformatim.pdf
OECD (2019 ) PISA 2018 Results (Volume I): What Students Know and Can Do. Paris,
available at https://doi.org/10.1787/5f07c754-en
OECD (2020) Reviews of Evaluation and Assessment in Education: Albania. Available at:https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/sites/7f73878ben/index.html?itemId=/content/component/7f73878b-en
UNESCO, Sector of education policy, “Albania, Education policy review: Issues andrecommendation”, August 2017 available at:https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000259245.locale=en

ISSN: 2189-101X

136

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

UNESCO (2002) Education for All: Is the World on Track, EFA Global Monitoring Report,
Paris: UNESCO, available at: https://en.unesco.org/gem-report/report-education-allefa

ISSN: 2189-101X

137

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

ISSN: 2189-101X

138

Official Conference Proceedings

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Examining the Relationships Between Distance Education Students’ Self-Efficacy and
Their Achievement
Romi Aswandi Sinaga, National Dong Hwa University, Taiwan
Robiatul Adawiya, Alma Ata University, Indonesia
Te-Sheng Chang, National Dong Hwa University, Taiwan
The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023
Official Conference Proceedings
Abstract
This study aimed to examine the relationships between students’ self-efficacy (SSE) andstudents’ achievement (SA) in distance education. The instruments were administered to 100
undergraduate students in a distance university who work as migrant workers in Taiwan togather data, while their SA scores were obtained from the university. The semi-structured
interviews for 8 participants consisted of questions that showed the specific conditions of
SSE and SA. The findings of this study were reported as follows: There was a significantly
positive correlation between targeted SSE (overall scales and general self-efficacy) and SA.
Targeted students' self-efficacy effectively predicted their achievement; besides, general selfefficacy had the most significant influence. In the qualitative findings, four themes wereextracted for those students with lower self-efficacy but higher achievement—physical andemotional condition, teaching and learning strategy, positive social interaction, and intrinsic
motivation. Moreover, three themes were extracted for those students with moderate or
higher self-efficacy but lower achievement—more time for leisure (not hard-working), lesssocial interaction, and external excuses. Providing effective learning environments, social
interactions, and teaching and learning strategies are suggested in distance education.
Keywords: Distance Education, Self-Efficacy, General Self-Efficacy, Academic SelfEfficacy, Students' Achievement, Migrant Worker

iafor
The International Academic Forumwww.iafor.org

ISSN: 2189-101X

139

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Introduction
For decades, educational researchers have been studying self-efficacy as a construct todetermine its impact on students' academic motivation (Zimmerman, 2000), learning
strategies (Phan, 2011), perseverance in the face of academic setbacks (Caprara et al., 2008),
and students' achievement (Prat-Sala & Redford, 2012). Students' self-efficacy is related tothe belief that students have to manage and perform a given task well. It influences how
students approach their task, their persistence to accomplish the objectives, and theirconfidence to manage their studies. This concept has a role in human functioning throughsocial cognitive, self-esteem, motivational selective, and affective processes.
Students with high self-efficacy intend to persevere longer, search for deeper meaning acrosslearning tasks, report lower anxiety, and have higher achievement in school (Bandura, 1997).
Commonly, students with high self-efficacy can maintain their studies well. It affects their
daily learning activities. As a result, they preserve longer than students with low self-efficacy.
Several studies examine the relationships between the level of self-efficacy and achievementin university students. Prat-sala and Redford (2012) found the importance of the concept ofself-efﬁcacy in relation to student performance. They discussed the relevance of self-efﬁcacy
on students' perceptions and self-regulation in an undergraduate student. Other studies also
have proved that self-efficacy could have a positive impact in many aspects, including
students' achievement (Kluemper et al., 2009; Siddique et al., 2006). However, few studies
were done on distance universities. This study will contribute to fulfilling the role of selfefficacy on the achievement for distance learners.
Nowadays, technology supports education through the internet. It changes the way oflearning in the classroom into learning in an online system. Some universities open classes byusing an online learning system. It requires students' greater autonomy and a higher level of
persistence and effort in the learning tasks. To be aware and know the degree of self-efficacyof students seems particularly relevant (Goulau, 2014). This study stated that students' selfefficacy has positively impacted the students' achievement even learning process is done byusing an online application.
Furthermore, Bandura (1997) has introduced the theory of self-efficacy, which states that
self-efficacy expectations are based on four significant sources of information: (1)performance accomplishments, (2) vicarious experience, (3) verbal persuasion, and (4)physiological states. As one of the topics in social cognitive theory, self-efficacy sourcesindicated that the environment influences students' self-efficacy. Therefore, distance learning
environments become challenging for non-traditional students.
Concerning migrant workers getting higher education, the Indonesian government provides
education through Indonesian Open University. This distance university aims to provide
higher education services for migrant workers who cannot continue their education at face-toface tertiary institutions for work or other reasons. This policy promotes the rights ofIndonesian citizen to get an education wherever they are and help people with a lower social
economic status that cannot continue their higher education without working because theyneed financial support. However, working abroad and studying in a distance learning
program, both of these conditions might affect the students' self-efficacy and achievement.

ISSN: 2189-101X

140

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Most of the previous studies discussed the relationship between self-efficacy andachievement in primary and secondary education. Yet, few are discussed in tertiary
education, particularly distance education. Therefore, this study examined the relationships
between students' self-efficacy and the achievement of distance learners. The findings of thisstudy could fill the information as follows: Does students' self-efficacy correlate to students'
achievement in distance education? Is self-efficacy able to predict students' achievement indistance education? And why do distance learners have specific conditions regarding selfefficacy and achievement?
Literature Review
Distance education for Indonesian migrant workers
Distance education has allowed non-traditional learners to acquire skills and knowledge withflexibility and convenience, which are essential for their families and work responsibilities.
These non-traditional learners have specific characteristics, including part-time or full-timeenrollment, delayed post-secondary enrollment, independence for financial assistancepurposes, employment over 35 hours per week, dependents' primary caregiver, and acompleted high school diploma (Stephen et al., 2020). The population of non-traditional
learners in online courses has grown steadily over the years, with the number of 25-year-olds
increasing their enrollment in distance programs by 35 between 2001 and 2015. Nontraditional learners are expected to grow by 11% by 2026 (Hussar & Bailey, 2018).
The Indonesian government facilitated higher education through Indonesian Open University
to migrant workers to get their rights to access education. Based on Indonesia Open
University Catalog (2019), this university entirely uses a distance education mode oflearning. It has been designed to be a flexible and inexpensive university focusing on serving
people who lack the opportunity to attend face-to-face mode of the higher education system
due to various constraints, including lack of funding, living in isolated and rural areas orabroad, and working as migrant workers. The system has continued to evolve and improve its
teaching and learning systems, management, and support services for students. It applies alearning management system (LMS) to facilitate teachers’ and students’ interaction, an online
library to access learning content, and several online applications to support their study.
Students' self-efficacy in the distance education context
Bandura (1997) defined self-efficacy as belief in one's capabilities to organize and executethe courses of action required to produce given attainments. It shows the level of confidence
that students have to learn and perform in the classroom. Therefore, this concept strongly
influences the approach to the task, the persistence to accomplish it, and the level of effort toachieve the goals. Students with high self-efficacy persevere longer, search for deeper
meaning across learning tasks, report lower anxiety and have higher achievement at school(Pajares & Schunk, 2005). On the other hand, students with low self-efficacy may have lower
achievement. This study separated self-efficacy into general self-efficacy and academic selfefficacy. General self-efficacy is the belief in one's competence to cope with a broad range ofstressful or challenging demands (Luszczynska et al., 2005). While academic self-efficacy
poses that human achievement depends upon interactions between the person’s behaviors andpersonal factors such as abilities, beliefs, motivation, and environmental conditions (Bandura,
1997).

ISSN: 2189-101X

141

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Various factors enhanced self-efficacy and provided evidence of significant sources of selfefficacy in the context of distance learning. Many of the learners who resort to distancelearning, in general, are no longer youths, and they have their jobs and their families.
Moreover, the investigation guides further research in designing online learning
environments to enhance the self-efficacy of learners (Peechapol et al., 2018). Based on
Rovai's (2003) model and previous research demonstrating the importance of non-traditional
learners' needs, skills, and characteristics for online persistence, he assumed that self-efficacy
predicted the enhancement of non-traditional distance learners. Self-efficacy is important for
persistence and requires learners to structure the environment, set goals, manage time, seek
help, use task strategies, and self-assess, and a comprehensive understanding of selfregulation as it relates to perseverance is incomplete without self-efficacy (Stephen et al.,2020). Learners' beliefs about their ability to succeed in time management, technology use,
and learning are predictors of persistence (Robbins et al., 2004). Finally, given the highly
independent nature of the distance education environment, it can be argued that self-efficacy
is essential to the success of distance learners.
Factors affecting students’ achievement
Menon (2016) considered that learning achievement was an indicator to evaluate students'
absorption of course contents, and teachers' teaching effectiveness could be judged according
to students' test performance. As a tool of evaluation, the achievement score indicates how
effective the learning process is. Shadiev et al. (2015) regarded learning achievement as thelearning outcome and performance during participation in activities. They explained that
achievement is obtained result of what students perform in the class. Huang et al. (2013)referred to learning achievement as the evaluation or test of learners after completing learning
activities to understand the achievement of the learned contents. It means achievement can beobtained from tests and other assessments.
Some factors have a potential effect on the quality of students’ achievement. The theory of
Educational Productivity determined three groups of nine factors based on affective,
cognitive, and behavioral skills for optimization of learning that affect the quality ofacademic performance: Aptitude (ability, development, and motivation); instruction (amountand quality); environment (home, classroom, peers, and television) (Walberg, 1982),
including distance learning environment. Jurecska et al. (2012) suggested that culture may
influence the pathways between poverty, self-efficacy, and achievement. The need toassimilate content to develop students' emotional self-efficacy is highlighted. In the context
of distance education for migrant workers, the students adjust to the culture in the country
and regulations in the places they work.
Self-efficacy influences students' achievement
Many researchers have explored the relationships between students' self-efficacy andachievement with various samples in various settings (e.g., Bates & Khasawneh, 2007;
Cascio et al., 2013). While past performance is helpful in forming predictions about students,
students' own self-efficacy beliefs are more reliable in predicting future performance.
Wigfield and Eccles (2000) found similar results of beliefs in which study participants'
beliefs better predicted grades than students' previous grades. Bandura (1976) stated that
although previous achievements affect self-efficacy, students also consider their own
personal standards when evaluating themselves, pushing themselves to reach new goals. A
meta-analysis revealed significant relationships were present between self-efficacy and

ISSN: 2189-101X

142

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

performance of high schools and college students than younger students, and relatively weakrelationships were founded between self-efficacy and performance of younger students thanhigh schools and college students (Multon et al. 1991).
In contrast, a study has revealed no signiﬁcant relationship between self-efficacy andacademic performance (Cho & Shen, 2013). This case probably happens because people havesignificantly different conditions, cultures, and goals in learning. Operationalization of selfefficacy, the timing of measurement, and cultural di erences have been proposed as reasons(Honicke & Broadbent, 2016). Currently, it has been assumed that self-efficacy is one of themost important factors or predictors for learners to achieve learning success (Ugwuanyi et al.,2020). This may mean that if a student's self-efficacy is enhanced, the student may be able toachieve higher academic results in an online learning context (Yokoyama, 2019).
Materials and methods
Development of research instrument
A developed questionnaire was adopted as the major instrument for data collection, including
two major sections. The first section collected participants’ socio-demographic backgroundinformation and the second section was designed to collect distance learners’ perceptions of
their self-efficacy. The second section was divided into 21 100-point scales of general selfefficacy and 24 100-point scales of academic self-efficacy. The instructions and standard
response format of self-efficacy are promoted by (Bandura, 2006): The strength of selfefficacy on a 100-point scale, ranging in 10-unit intervals from 0 (cannot do); throughintermediate degrees of assurance, 50 (moderately certain can do); to complete assurance,
100 (Highly certain can do). While their GPA was obtained from the university. The semistructured interviews for the case study consisted of questions to confirm the specificconditions of students.
Validity and reliability
The validity of the questionnaire was determined by content validity, where the draft of thequestionnaire was reviewed by three scholars to ensure the questions’ accuracy, completion,
mutual exclusivity, and measuring of what they claimed to measure. Cronbach’s alpha wasused to determine the reliability; the results were .90 for general students' self-efficacy, 97 foracademic students' self-efficacy", and .97 for the total score of two subscales. The results arehigher than the cutoff score of .7, indicating the questions achieved a high degree of internalconsistency.
Data gathering procedure
Target respondents. In order to ensure that the participants were qualified to answer the
research questions and to ensure a high responding rate, we corporate with Indonesian Open
University. The students should participate in distance learning programs for more than one
academic semester and have professions as migrant workers in Taiwan. After collecting thedata, semi-structured interviews were used to gather follow-up data from those students who
had specific conditions based on their responses (i.e., rating of students’ self-efficacy andachievement scores). Targeted students who had two specific conditions were purposefully
selected; the first group is six students with lower self-efficacy ratings but higher
achievement scores (ID: S007, S010, S025, S048, S072, and S078) and the second group is

ISSN: 2189-101X

143

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

two students with moderate/higher self-efficacy ratings but lower achievement score (ID:S073 and S093). Contacting them via messenger that they frequently used was made forinviting them to the interview. All of the questions were designed based on their answers inthe survey. An interview is considered an effective tool to enable the researcher to obtain indepth explanations from participants (Kumar, 2014).
Responding rate. The questionnaires were sent out to entire 169 students at Indonesian Open
University Taiwan Branch, and 100 valid questionnaires were retrieved, resulting in a
59.17% response rate. The percentage of demography backgrounds of 100 participants is
19% males and 81% females; 30% factory employees, 22% of housemaids, and 48% ofcaregivers.
Statistical analysis
The quantitative data were analyzed by using SPSS. Pearson's product-moment correlation
and regression analysis were applied. Then, the qualitative data were organized and preanalyzed using the following steps (Thomas, 2006): Preparation of raw data files, closed
reading of the text, creation of categories, overlapping coding and uncoded text, andcontinuing revision and refinement of the category system. The template analytic techniques(Crabtree & Miller, 1999) were then employed for further analyses. The analytic editing
system, applying the organizing code topics (i.e., related to students' self-efficacy andachievement), was used to ensure that the analyses focused on learning at a distance
university.
Results
The relationship of students' self-efficacy and achievement
As illustrated in Table 1, there was a significantly positive correlation between students' selfefficacy (both "total score" and general self-efficacy) and their achievement. However, there
was no significant correlation between students' academic self-efficacy and their achievement
in distance learning. It indicates that belief in one's competence to cope with a broad range ofstressful or challenging demands correlated with students’ academic scores (e.g., Metcalf &Wiener, 2018; Tang & Westwood, 2012).
Table 1: Correlation between Students' Self-Efficacy and Achievement in Distance Education
Factors
General selfAcademic
Self-efficacy
efficacy
self-efficacy(total score)
General self-efficacy
Academic self-efficacy.78***
Self-efficacy (total score).92***.97***
Students’ achievement
.29**
.18
.24*
Note. *p < .05; **p < .01; ***p < .001
The findings from multiple regression analysis revealed that students' self-efficacy (total
score) significantly predicted their achievement (F (1, 91) = 5.48, p < .05), with 5.7% of thevariance in achievement explained by students' self-efficacy (i.e. total score). The
standardized regression coefficient indicated that students’ self-efficacy (i.e. total score) (β= .24, t = 2.34, p < .05) had significant effects on their achievement. Accordingly, theISSN: 2189-101X

144

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

targeted students with higher students' self-efficacy (i.e. total score) had positive influenceson their achievement. Furthermore, with a more detailed inspection of two subscales ofstudents' self-efficacy (i.e. general self-efficacy and academic self-efficacy), the result
showed that the two subscales together significantly predicted their achievement (F (2, 90) =4.47, p < .05), with 9.0% of the variance. The standardized regression coefficients showedthat students’ “general self-efficacy” (β = .37, t = 2.40, p < .05) had significant effects on
their achievement. Tladi (2017) stated that distance education students’ self-efficacy
explained 10% of the variation in academic achievement. While there were no significant
effects of students’ “academic self-efficacy” (β = - .10, t = - .67, p > .05) on theirachievement (see Table 2 for details). This finding was in contrast to several studies thatreported academic self-efficacy is a strong predictor for students’ achievement (e.g., Dogan,2017).
Table 2: Predictors of Students’ Achievement in Distance Education
FactorsBSEβt(constant)
53.49
10.84
4.94***.54.22.37
2.40**
General self-efficacy
-.11
.17
-.10
-.67
Academic self-efficacy
Note. **= p < .01; ***= p < .001
Based on the finding above, general self-efficacy is more suitable to measure and predict
students' achievement in the distance education context. The possible reason is that the
sample in this study was collected from different majors with different courses. Therefore,
academic self-efficacy concerning the specific course or academic cannot predict students'
achievement. Recent studies usually used academic self-efficacy for measuring or predicting
students' achievement in one subject, such as Mathematics (Chang, 2015).
Interviews of students with specific conditions
Students with lower self-efficacy but higher achievement
Based on the interview results, four themes were extracted for those students with lower selfefficacy but higher achievement.
First theme: Physical and emotional condition
The main reason why they had low self-efficacy was the "distraction" of their physical andemotional conditions. S010 explained, "I work as an elderly caregiver. Sometimes, I want to
do homework, grandmother that I care for suddenly wakes up, and I need to care for her."Working time as a caregiver requires them to care for the elderly for the whole day. S025 also
had a similar thought:
I am tired of working, so I cannot focus on my study. I look after the elderly, it is likeworking 24 hours, because the elderly usually wakes up at night every two hours, tourinate, so I need to wake up to care for them.
As a result of their busy working time, they felt fatigued, and they did not have extra time toreview the class. "Due to lack of free time and fatigue at work, I sometimes use my free time
to rest. After the online classes are over, I still do many e-learning assignments.", said S072.

ISSN: 2189-101X

145

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

S078 realized that she was a student at a distance university as well as a migrant worker in
Taiwan. It made her more difficult to manage her time, she said:
I have to adjust between work and homework; it is not easy. I can do my homework
after work at 10 PM. I have to choose to work, study online, or do an assignment first.
I cannot use my computer while working, so I am stuck doing homework.
In addition, S078 also stated that "Sleepiness, that is the problem. I do my assignments at
midnight. I sleep late, then I work at 7 am."Either physical or emotional distraction could make students feel less efficacious; that is, theymight be less confident in their future learning tasks. As S025 responded, "My problem isbecause I take care of the elderly, who are often angry or screaming, so I have to focus on her
whole days." Similarly, S078 also expressed her feeling: "Nervous makes me not confident to
do it. I get difficulty concentrating because I am tired". Further, she indicated that:Students like us become different from students who do not work as migrant workers.
I lack confidence because of the stress of facing a lot of homeworks and information
when not attending class. Therefore, I try always to be present.
Accordingly, she gradually realizes the risk of doing two things together, i.e., studying andworking simultaneously. In fact, if one is in a lousy mood and restless, she/he will become
more anxious and temperamental which may lead to no or less accomplishment in her school
works.
Second theme: Teaching and learning strategy
Students have various kinds of interests and employ different ways in learning. Therefore,
strategies they may apply for studying and practicing vary; especially, they will be different
while confronting distance learning. S010 said, "The point is I have prepared, even though I
do not think it is optimal. for example, there are 10 points to be learned, I only read 5 points.
There is not enough learning time."
In this distance university, there were intensive interactions between the tutors and students
that were essential for some students if they need discussions, even though some students
prefer to learn by themselves. S010 claimed, "I prefer learning by myself. Maybe I can readmore books or search for specific information." In contrast with S010, S025 held different
opinions about her way of learning. She indicated that, "My ideas usually arise with morepressure from people around me. Interesting learning motivates me to do better, then I will beable to achieve my learning goals. If none motivates me; maybe I cannot do it well."In addition, S025 said, "I often hear or watch learning videos given by tutors, rather thanreading books while working." However, she stated, "If the grandmother was sick or fussy,
she was undoubtedly unable to focus on what the teachers explained.”
S072 expressed her thought on why she had a lower self-efficacy rating, “When I am tired
after working if the teachers gave uninteresting lectures, that makes me feel bored and did notwant to learn at all." In short, some students did like to have more interactions while learning.

ISSN: 2189-101X

146

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Third theme: Positive social interaction
Echoing Bandura's (1997, 2000) social learning theory, social interactions are essential for
positively promoting the development of one's self-efficacy, which, in turn, may result inbetter learning achievement. However, some of these students did not have enoughinteractions with their peers. S001 realized that fewer social interactions with friends orclassmates were ineffective; more social interactions would be helpful for her learning.
"When I do not understand or have questions, I look for a way to solve it by myself. I realizethat learning online has an obstacle to interacting with friends since our time is so limited
freely," said S001.
Once they lack interactions with peers or the teachers, they may feel that the class tasks orhome works are more difficult to be finished. As S078 indicated, "I am lazy to ask questionsin class and I rarely contact tutors after class." She added that "I am more comfortable whilelearning by myself. If I study with others, I feel afraid that I cannot express my opinions or
thoughts well so that they cannot understand." However, this lack of social interaction may
not only lower these students' self-efficacy but also decrease positive opportunities to workwith or learn from others.
Fourth theme: Intrinsic motivation
Even though they had lower self-efficacy, they got good grades. Therefore, it was soimportant to discover how they could get better grades compared to other students. S001
claimed that "I do not know. I always feel motivated while learning, especially while I finish
some learning tasks." Through this kind of intrinsic motivation, they did better than others.
S025 indicated that "I always try my best, I know my capacity. It is lucky to get good grades.
I always do my work as best I can". In addition, S048 and S072 expressed that they always
try to be active in online classes; for example, they always participate in online activities andask or answer questions in class. They always attend class and submit assignments on time.
Likewise, "I have to be more focused even though my time is limited. Moreover, I think I am
always motivated", said S078. In fact, intrinsic motivation is beneficial for one's learning,which will promote them to keep learning and persist longer while facing obstacles. As
Bandura (1997, 2000) argued, "mastery experience" is one of the essential resources for selfefficacy development, and it will also cyclically influence the development of one's learningachievement (Zimmerman, 2000). Consequently, since these six students had better
achievement scores now, it may cyclically promote their self-efficacy positively in the near
future.
Students with moderate/higher self-efficacy but lower achievement
Three themes were extracted for those students with moderate/higher self-efficacy but lower
achievement. However, since only two students were interviewed, the findings needed to be
confirmed by future studies. Here are some preliminary results.
First theme: More time for leisure (not hard-working)As S073 claimed, he spent a great deal of time for leisure, such as going out with friends
during weekends or playing games during break hours. He said, "I have much free time.
Compared to my friends, my working hours are less than theirs". He further explained that
"Once I have free time, I actually do not spend my free time on learning. But, I think that I

ISSN: 2189-101X

147

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

can handle my school tasks." However, spending less time on learning for him (S073) led tolower grades. For S093, he claimed that he did not spend much time learning either. She
mentioned that "Instead of studying hard, I rather rest more if I have free time. I think I justneed a regular grade. I go study because I could make more friends". In short, for both ofthem, spending less time on learning or not working hard for tasks became one of the reasonsfor getting lower grades in school.
Second theme: Less social interaction
As indicated in the previous section, those students with higher self-efficacy would like tointeract with peers or teachers, where these positive interactions were beneficial for their selfefficacy development. However, the two students with moderate/higher self-efficacy, both
had less interaction with peers or teachers about their school works. S073 indicated that "As I
said before, I do not spend much time on my school works. In fact, I do not like to interact
with others while learning since it is boring. S093 also mentioned that "I do not study hard. I
have fewer interactions with my classmates or teachers." In brief, the missing of positivesocial interactions with peers or tutors while learning might be the reason that they had lower
achievement.
Third theme: External excuses
Based on Bandura's (1997) perspective, a "sense of control" is one of the crucial factors in
one's self-efficacy development. These two students actually did not fit this perspective,
where they usually attributed their lower grades to external excuses (Chang, 2010). For
example, S073 realized his achievement was not good, but he thought that "I do my best
while learning. I just do not know why my grades were not good enough. Maybe the content
is too difficult for me". S079 had similar conditions, and he said, "Maybe other classmatesare better than me. You know, I think I am not that smart so I do not get better grades." Inshort, these two students did not fit in the "sense of control" theory, but they had
moderate/higher self-efficacy. Thus, it needs more empirical pieces of evidence to confirm
these kinds of findings.
Conclusions
The overriding of this study was to examine the relationships between students' self-efficacy
and their achievement in distance education. Based on data analysis, three main findings wereobtained in this study: (1) There was a significantly positive correlation between targeted
students' self-efficacy and their achievement (whole scales and general self-efficacy), while
there was no significant correlation between targeted students' academic self-efficacy andtheir achievement. (2) Targeted students' self-efficacy effectively predicted theirachievement, with 5.7% (the whole scale) and 9.0% (two sub-scales) variance explained;
besides, the general self-efficacy had the most significant influence (β = .372), while theeffect of the academic self-efficacy was not significant. (3) According to the qualitative
findings, four themes were extracted for those students with lower self-efficacy but higher
achievement: Physical and emotional condition, teaching and learning strategy, positivesocial interaction, and intrinsic motivation. In addition, three themes were extracted for thosestudents with moderate/higher self-efficacy but lower achievement: More time for leisure(not hard-working), less social interaction, and external excuses.

ISSN: 2189-101X

148

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Based on the findings and discussions, along with these limitations, concrete
recommendations were proposed for targeted students as well as for future studies:
Indonesian Open University (i.e., not only the one in Taiwan but also others in different
countries), the findings of this study inform us of two main things: (1) Since the averagerating of targeted students' self-efficacy was comparatively lower (only 73.41% of confidence
in their future learning in distance education), it is recommended that the faculty members
need to find out how to promote these students' self-efficacy belief for future learning. (2)Targeted students' achievement scores were acceptable (i.e., 85.09, out of 100 points). In
addition, targeted students' self-efficacy effectively predicted their achievement, adding to thequalitative findings (themes that were influential for students' self-efficacy and achievement).
Therefore, for the purpose of long-term development, it is suggested that distance educationneeds to provide a more effective learning environment (e.g., more social interactions,employing more teaching and learning strategies) for these students to be successful in
distance learning.
Finally, many interesting and important phenomena were explored in this research, yet we
could not find many reasonable explanations for the results. Several suggestions remain. For
instance, employing more participants in future quantitative studies, conducting this kind of
study on different campuses (in different countries) of distance universities, and conducting
similar qualitative studies to collect rich data for the purpose of finding out how to promote
targeted students' self-efficacy and achievement while studying online.

ISSN: 2189-101X

149

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

References
Bandura, A. (1976). Self-reinforcement: Theoretical and methodological considerations.
Behaviorism, 4(2), 135-155.
Bandura, A. (1997). Self-Efficacy: The Exercise of Control. W. H. Freeman.
Bandura, A. (2000). Exercise of human agency through collective efficacy. Current
Directions in Psychological Science, 9(3), 75-78. https://doi.org/10.1111/14678721.00064
Bandura, A. (2006). Guide for constructing self-efficacy scales. In F. Pajares & T. Urdan(Eds.), Self-efficacy beliefs of adolescents (Vol. 5, pp. 307-337). Information Age
Publishing.
Bates, R., & Khasawneh, S. (2007). Self-efficacy and college students’ perceptions and useof online learning systems. Computers in Human Behavior, 23(1), 175-191.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2004.04.004
Caprara, G. V., Fida, R., Vecchione, M., Del Bove, G., Vecchio, G. M., Barbaranelli, C., &Bandura, A. (2008). Longitudinal analysis of the role of perceived self-efficacy for
self-regulated learning in academic continuance and achievement. Journal of
Educational Psychology, 100(3), 525-534. https://doi.org/10.1037/00220663.100.3.525
Cascio, M. I., Botta, V. C., & Anzaldi, V. E. (2013). The role of self-efficacy and internal
locus of control in online learning. Journal of E-Learning and Knowledge Society,3(9), 95-108. https://doi.org/10.20368/1971-8829/789
Chang, Y. L. (2010). A case study of elementary beginning mathematics teachers' efficacy
development. International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education, 8(2),271-297. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10763-009-9173-z
Chang, Y. L. (2015). Examining relationships among elementary mathematics teachers'
efficacy and their students' mathematics self-efficacy and achievement. Eurasia
Journal of Mathematics, Science & Technology Education, 11(6), 1307-1320.
https://doi.org/10.12973/eurasia.2015.1387a
Cho, M., & Shen, D. (2013). Self-regulation in online learning. Distance Education, 34(3),290- 301. https://doi.org/10.1080/01587919.2013.835770
Crabtree, B. F., & Miller, W. L. (1999). Doing Qualitative Research (2nd ed.). Sage.
Dogan, U. (2015). Student engagement, academic self-efficacy, and academic motivation as
predictors of academic performance. The Anthropologist, (20)3, 553-561.
https://doi.org/10.1080/09720073.2015.11891759
Honicke, T. & Broadbent, J. (2016). The influence of academic self-efficacy on academic
performance: A systematic review. Educational Research Review, 17(2), 63-84.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2015.11.002

ISSN: 2189-101X

150

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Huang, Y. M., Chen, H. C., Hwang, J. P., & Huang, Y. M. (2013). Application of Cloud
Technology, Social Networking Sites, and Sensing Technology to E-Learning. In R.
Huang, Kinshuk, & J. M. Spector (Eds.), Reshaping learning (pp. 343-364). Springer
Berlin Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-32301-0_15
Hussar, W. J., & Bailey, T. M. (2018). Projections of education statistics to 2026 (NCES
2018-019). U.S. department of education. National Center for Education Statistics.
Retrieved from https://nces.ed.gov/pubs2018/2018019.pdf
Jurecska, D. E., Chang, K., Peterson, M. A., Lee-Zorn, C. E., Merrick, J., & Sequeira, E.
(2012). The poverty puzzle: the surprising difference between wealthy and poor
students for self-efficacy and academic achievement. International Journal of
Adolescent Medicine and Health, 24(4), 355-62.
https://doi.org/10.1515/ijamh.2012.052
Kluemper, D. H., Little, L. M., & DeGroot, T. (2009). State or trait: Effects of state optimism
on job-related outcomes. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 30(2), 209-231.
https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1002/job.591
Kumar, R. (2014). Research Methodology: A Step-By-Step Guide for Beginners. Sage.
Luszczynska, A., Scholz, U., & Schwarzer R. (2005). The general self-efficacy scale:Multicultural validation studies. The Journal of Psychology, 139(5), 439-457.
https://doi.org/10.3200/JRLP.139.5.439-457
Menon, V. (2016). Working memory in children's Math learning and its disruption indyscalculia. Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences, 10, 125-132.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cobeha.2016.05.014
Metcalf, D. A., & Wiener, K. K. K. (2018) Academic self-efficacy in a twenty-first-century
Australian university: Strategies for first-generation students. Higher Education
Research & Development, 37(7), 1472-1488.
https://doi.org/10.1080/07294360.2018.1484705
Multon, K. D., Brown, S. D., & Lent, R. W. (1991). Relation of self-efficacy beliefs toacademic outcomes: A meta-analytic investigation. Journal of Counseling
Psychology, 38(1), 30-38. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.38.1.30
Pajares, F., & Schunk, D. H. (2005). Self-efficacy and self-concept beliefs: Jointly
contributing to the quality of human life. In H. W. Marsh, R. G. Craven, & D. M.
McInerney (Eds.), International advances in self-research Vol. II (pp. 95-122). Age
Publishing.
Peechapol, C., Na-Songkhla, A., Sujiva S., Luangsodsa A. (2018). An exploration of factors
influencing self-efficacy in online learning: a systematic review. International
Journal of Emerging Technologies in Learning, 13(9), 64-86.
https://doi.org/10.3991/IJET.V13I09.8351

ISSN: 2189-101X

151The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Phan, H. P. (2011). Interrelations between self-efficacy and learning approach: A
developmental approach. Educational Psychology, 31(2), 225-246.
https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2010.545050
Prat-Sala, M., & Redford, P. (2012). Writing essays: Does self-efficacy matter? The
relationship between self-efficacy in reading and in writing and undergraduate
students' performance in essay writing. Educational Psychology, 32(1), 9-20.
https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2011.621411
Robbins, S., Lauver, K., Le, H., Davis, D., Langley, R., & Carlstorm, A. (2004). Do
psychosocial and study skill factors predict college outcomes? A meta-analysis.
Psychological Bulletin, 130(2), 261-288. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.130.2.261
Rovai, A. (2003). In search of higher persistence rates in distance education online programs.
The Internet and Higher Education, 6(1), 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1016/S10967516(02)00158-6
Shadiev, R., Hwang, W. Y., Huang, Y. M., & Liu, T. Y. (2015). The Impact of Supported andAnnotated Mobile Learning on Achievement and Cognitive Load. Journal of
Educational Technology & Society, 18(4), 53–69.
Siddique, H., LaSalle-Ricci, V., Arnkoff, D., & Diaz, R. (2006). Worry, optimism, andexpectations as predictors of anxiety and performance in the first year of law school.
Cognitive Therapy and Research, 30(5), 667-676. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10608006-9080-3
Stephen, J. S., Rockinson-Szapkiw, A. J., & Dubay, C. (2020). Persistence Model of Nontraditional Online Learners: Self-Efficacy, Self-Regulation, and Self-Direction.
American Journal of Distance Education.
https://doi.org/10.1080/08923647.2020.1745619
Tang, N., & Westwood, P. (2007). Worry, general self-efficacy and school achievement: An
exploratory study with Chinese adolescents. Australian Journal of Guidance andCounselling, 17(1), 68-80. https://doi.org/10.1375/ajgc.17.1.68
Thomas, D. R. (2006). A general inductive approach for analyzing qualitative evaluation
data. American Journal of Evaluation, 27(2), 237-246.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1098214005283748
Tladi, L. S. (2017). Perceived ability and success: which self-efficacy measures matter? A
distance learning perspective. Open Learning: The Journal of Open, Distance and eLearning, 32(3), 243-261. https://doi.org/10.1080/02680513.2017.1356711
Ugwuanyi CS, Okeke CIO. (2020). Motivation and Self-efficacy as Predictors of Learners’
Academic Achievement. International Journal of Higher Education, 9(5), 115-124.
https://doi.org/10.5430/ ijhe.v9n5p115
Universitas Terbuka (2020, March 23rd). 2019 Open University Catalog. Retrieved fromhttps://www.ut.ac.id/en/brief-history

ISSN: 2189-101X

152

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Walberg, H. J. (1982). Educational productivity: Theory, evidence, and prospects. Australian
Journal of Education, 26(2), 115-122. https://doi.org/10.1177/000494418202600202
Wigfield, A., & Eccles, J. S. (2000). Expectancy-value theory of achievement motivation.
Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25(1), 68-81.
https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02794
Yokoyama, S. (2019). Academic self-efficacy and academic performance in online learning:
A mini-review. Frontiers in Psychology, 9(2794).
https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.02794
Zimmerman, B. J. (2000). Self-efficacy: An essential motive to learn. Contemporary
Educational Psychology, 25(1), 82-91. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1016
Contact email: robiatuladawiyah@almaata.ac.id

ISSN: 2189-101X

153

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

ISSN: 2189-101X

154

Official Conference Proceedings

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Implementing Stop Motion in Learning Quadratic Functions to Develop Mathematical andGlobal Competence for Students in Vietnam for the Sustainable Development Goals
Chi Ton Le, To Van On High School, Vietnam
The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023
Official Conference Proceedings
Abstract
In this research, 10th - grade students at To Van On high school in Vietnam participated in a
Project Based Learning (PBL) with three stages. In the first stage, the students collaborated
together to do some research on quadratic functions and Stop Motion technique as well. In
the second stage, the students studied the local social problems focusing on the environmentand discussed the suitable solution for the problems. In the last stage, the students used theapplication Stop Motion Studio combined with their own knowledge of the quadratic
functions to create videos which conveyed things such as “Climate Action”, “Life below
Water”, and “Life on Land”. They are three of seventeen goals of the Global Goals, wereadopted by the United Nationals in 2015. From the research process, we knew that thestudents were not only demonstrating their understanding about mathematical knowledge but
also giving their standpoints and helping raise community awareness on the mentioned goalsof Sustainable Development Goals. Participating in the project helped the students develop
mathematical modeling skills, enhance digital skills as well as thrive global competence. This
research can be seen as an interesting reference for teachers, who want to implement digitaltechnology and global competence in their own practices.
Keywords: Digital Technology, Global Competence, Quadratic Functions, Stop Motion,
Sustainable Development Goals

iafor
The International Academic Forumwww.iafor.org

ISSN: 2189-101X

155

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Introduction
The context of global education of the 21st century demands to educate our next generation
students to become global citizens associated with developing global competence and digitalskills. The Asia society determines that global competence articulates the knowledge andskills students need in the contemporary world which consists of four following domains:
Investigate the world: Students investigate the world beyond their immediate environment.
Recognize perspectives: Students recognize their own and others’ perspectives.
Communicate ideas: Students communicate their ideas effectively with diverse audience.
Take action: Students translate their ideas into appropriate action to improve conditions.
(Asia Society 2005, p. 13)

Figure 1: Global Competence by Asia Society 2005.
Global competence helps connect students’ learning process with real world experiences andin addition well equip students with the necessary skills such as: cross-communication,
critical thinking, problem solving, collaboration and team work skills. “Global competencethus supports the Sustainable Development Goals both by proving the vision of education the
SDSs advocate for, and by encouraging young people to act in the general interest ofcollective-wellbeing and sustainable development that the SDGs embody.” (OECD, PISA
2018, para. 2).
Moreover, we are living in the digital era. Understanding digital technology therefore is asignificantly vital purpose in training global citizens and global workforce. This leads toteaching and learning digital skills is an inevitable educational trend in an ever-changing
world. “The changes have highlighted the need for school to ensure that all students areprepared for the contemporary digital world. The need to provide digital skills for all students
means that digital technology can no longer be taught only as a specialist subject area but
rather needs to be embedded in all subjects across the curriculum.” (Parsons, MacCallum,
Schofield, and Johnstone, 2020).
This very need has required that “Teachers and students will need to work together in newforms of “partnering” in which students do what they do best - for example, using
technology, find information, and create products that demonstrate their understanding.”(Marc Prensky, 2011).
In terms of teaching mathematics at secondary levels, implementing Stop Motion Studio
Application to depict an animate picture of a graph of a function allows the two learning

ISSN: 2189-101X

156

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

processes “learning is relearning” (Kolb, 1984, p. 30) and “learning by making” (Papert andHarel, 1991) to be happened simultaneously. Moreover, “each step in creating an animation isimportant to learning the underpinning science as each activity explores the same concept but
in a different mode. This creates a cumulative semiotic progression with meaning building
from one representation to the next to promote learning” (Wishart, 2017).
Additionally, “When learners generate an animation about a science concept, they experience
the process of clarifying, checking and refining their understanding.” (Hoban, Nielsen andCarceller, 2010’s). Therefore, using stop motion technique in teaching quadratic functions not
only motivates students access digital technique and apply it in their own learning, but also
maximizes their understanding of the properties and graph of the functions. Furthermore, inthis research, Stop Motion Studio is also an actually effective tool which was creatively usedby students to convey their messages about the sustainable development goals to otherpeople.
Reference Theories
In this research we used the anthropological theory of didactics by Yves Chevallard in orderto determine praxeologies associated with knowledge object quadratic functions in themathematics curriculum for 10th grades in Vietnam from 2007-2022. We also applied theconcept of didactic engineering of Michele Artigue to construct a didactic project which is a
PBL focused on developing mathematical modeling, digital, and global competencies forstudents whilst they learn quadratic functions. Besides that, Eight Big Ideas Behind theConstructionist Learning Lab of Seymour Papert, Asia Society’s Global competency
framework, and Solution plan for modelling tasks of Blum and Ferri are used as reference
theories.
Praxeologies Associated with Quadratic Functions in the Mathematics Curriculum for10th Grades in Vietnam from 2007 to 2022
In this period, the concept of quadratic functions in the algebraic curriculum for 10th grades inVietnam was displayed completely in mathematical context. Integrating digital skills anddeveloping global competence for students has not been appeared in textbooks and inreferences used by teachers for planning lessons, constructing tests to evaluate students’abilities.
Through a research process based on Algebra 10 Textbook, Algebra 10 Teacher-book, andAlgebra 10 Workbook which were used to teach Vietnamese students nationally in this time,
we found that there are five praxeologies relating to quadratic function.
Task T1 : “Finding the vertex I of a given quadratic function.”Δ ⎞⎛ bTechnique τ 1 : Student implements the formula of the vertex I ⎜ − ; − ⎟ .
⎝ 2a 4a ⎠Task T2 : “Finding the y -axis and x -axis (if any) of a given quadratic function.”
Technique τ 2.1: Student implements the formula of the y -axis is A ( 0;c ) to find the y -axis.
Technique τ 2.2 : Student solves the quadratic equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0 to find the x -axis.
Task T3 : “Finding the values of a, b, c in the parabola y = ax 2 + bx + c , which is suitablesome given conditions.”

ISSN: 2189-101X

157

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Technique τ 3 : Student solves for a, b, and/or c the simultaneous linear functions.
Task T4 : “Creating a table illustrating the monotonicity properties and sketching the graph ofa given quadratic function.”
Technique τ 4 : Student follows the process: First, is to determine sign of a . Second is todraw a monotone indicating table (illustrated in Algebra 10 Textbook, page 45). Third is tostate increasing and decreasing open intervals of the function. Fourth is to determine thebcoordinate of the vertex I . Fifth is to sketch the axis of symmetry x = −. Sixth is
2adetermine the y -intercept and x -intercept (if any), and other points belonging to the graph.
And last is sketching the parabola passing through the determined points.
Empirical Research
Project
We constructed and studied a PBL because “PBL is an active student-centered form of
instruction which is characterised by students’ autonomy, constructive investigations,
goalsetting, collaboration, communication and reflection within real-world practices.”(Kokotsaki, Menzies, and Wiggins, 2016). The project was expected to pave the way for the
emergence and development of knowledge, competencies and skills “through invention andreinvention, through the restless, impatient, continuing, hopeful inquiry men pursue in theworld, with the world, and with each other” (Paulo Friere, 1974). More specifically, ourresearch focuses on developing students' understanding on quadratic functions. Also students
use these insights to create videos that convey the sustainability goals. Participating in the
project helps students develop two core competencies of the 21st century education as digital
literacy and global competence.
PBL’s opened question: “What realistic movements orbiting a parabola can convey
messages about the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)?”
Introductions for students:
Stage 1: Students implement process of re-learning the knowledge of quadratic functions
and learning how to create video using the Stop Motion Studio application.
Stage 2: Students undertake research on the Seventeen SDGs, followed by observing theoutside world to seek parabolic movements associated with the SDGs. After that they use
the knowledge learned to build a mathematical design for the selected motion.
Stage 3: Students use the Stop Motion Studio app to produce a short video and write ashort essay to voice their standpoints and raise public awareness on the ongoing issues.
Students then take practical actions to improve the issues.
The output of the PBL is uploaded to the Padlet at https://padlet.com/lctonc3tvon/i4wrolnfdk9eayv. Students organize discussions on their products via Google Meet to collaborate tocorrect mathematically and share their messages and visions. During these discussions we areobservers and coordinators.

ISSN: 2189-101X

158

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

A Priory Analysis
In terms of developing mathematical modelling competence
Strategy SGtoF : Students follow the four steps to solve a modeling task suggested by Blumand Ferri.
“Step 1. Understanding task: Read the text precisely and imagine the situation clearly;
Make a sketch.” Students study the project question and discover parabolic movement in thereal world which is suitable to the requirement of the question. They then partially do the task
T4 depicting a chosen movement on paper with Oxy plane.
“Step 2. Establishing model: Look for the data you need. If necessary: make assumptions;
Look for mathematical relations.” Students note down general form of parabolay = ax 2 + bx + c .
“Step 3. Using mathematics: Use appropriate procedures; Write down your mathematicalresult.” In this step students completely practice the task T4 combined with the tasks: T1 , T2 ,and T3 in order to determine correctly the values of the parameters a , b , and c .
“Step 4. Explaining result: Students round off and link the result to the task. If necessary, goback to step first; Write down your final answer.” With the equation found in the previous
step, students re-do the task T4 and display the solution of the task as their mathematicaldesign of the movement. Also, they compare the graph to the real orbit to understandnecessity to constrain the values of x on a closed interval which helps their establishedmathematical model illustrate the orbit more appropriately. Nevertheless, solving quadratic
inequalities will be taught in the next semester, hence determining a suitable function without
restraint on the values of x is still considered as a valid answer.
This is an optimal strategy expected to happen; however, students are anticipated to facechallenges in Step 3. This is able to lead to the appearance of a suboptimal strategy S FtoG .
Strategy S FtoG : Students do Step 1 and Step 2 of the modelling process, and at the end of Step
2 they decide to write a specific quadratic function and skip Step 3. They after that do Step 4
by solving the task T4 . With S FtoG , the chosen function could not illustrate effectively the real
movement; however, it will be able to appear with higher proportion compared to SGtoF .
In terms of developing digital skills
Students actively access the Internet to explore the Stop Motion Studio App and install theapp on their smartphone. To make a short film using this application, students experience afour phase process of “Planning, storyboarding, construction, and reconstruction” (The Mind
Lap, 2020). As a matter of fact, students work together in the environment of paper and pen
to construct a movie background that focuses on the movement of object with the parabolic
orbit whose graph is designed earlier. They then place the object at different positions on thegraph following the direction of motion. At each position, students take a photo by Stop
Motion Studio application. Last, in the environment of Stop Motion Studio, they create and

ISSN: 2189-101X

159

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

edit their video. The whole process poses challenges for students by virtue of highrequirements for the smoothness of video and accuracy of movement. This is acomprehensive process of expressing and re-expressing students’ knowledge in practicalenvironment.
In terms of developing global competence
In the question of the PBL we highlight the aim of the didactic project is to convey messages
about the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals via realistic movements whose
orbit are parabolas. This stimulates students to study the goals on the Internet and investigate
the local or regional issues vis-à-vis their chosen goals. The goals: “Climate Action”, “Lifebelow Water”, and “Life on Land” are looked ahead to be targeted by many students.
Additionally, they initially exchange and recognize perspectives about these problems
together. Furthermore, they communicate proactively their standpoints to others and act
positively to improve the current issues.
A Posteriori Analysis
This PBL was conducted in November 2021, in the context of COVID 19 pandemic and in
Vietnam, students had to learn online. The project had participation of 40 students in grade
10A11 at To Van On high school located at an under-resourced community. The students
have diverse backgrounds and many of them with low achievement and motivation in math.
The teacher's instructions were delivered via email and Google Meet.
In terms of developing mathematical modelling competence
Based on the provided drafts and students’ presentations in the discussions there were sevengroup chose and succeeded with the strategy SGtoF . The strategy S FtoG was picked by theremaining groups. Although six of them initially selected SGtoF , the difficulties expected
earlier in Step 3 forced members of the groups to abandon this strategy. This result was
obviously evident that mathematical modelling competence was established and the students
implemented it to build successfully mathematical design for parabolic orbits. Accompanying
with thriving mathematical modelling competence, our experiment created opportunities forstudents to develop other skills such as creative thinking skills, problem solving skills, andscientific debate skills.

Figure 2: A mathematical design completed by a group with the strategy SGtoF .

ISSN: 2189-101X

160

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

In terms of developing digital skills
The filmmaking process of students showed that this is an interesting process in which
students actually experienced and implemented at least seven of eight ideas suggested in thework Eight Big Ideas Behind the Constructionist Learning Lab. Those ideas are:“learning by doing”, “technology as building material”, “hard fun”, “learning to learn”,“taking time – the proper time for the job”, “you can’t get it right without getting it wrong”,
and “we are entering a digital world where knowing about digital technology is as importantas reading and writing”. Not only does the project aim to develop digital skills for students,
but it also aims to take advantage of the Stop Motion Studio app as an effective tool tocomprehend quadratic functions as well as convey the necessary messages to other audiences.

Figure 3: A screen capture of students’ video depicting the collection of garbage thatbelongs to the goal “Climate Action.”

Figure 4: A screen capture of students’ video picturing dolphins jumping out of
the water that belongs to the goal “Life below Water.”
In terms of developing global competence
The number of groups choosing the goals “Climate Action”, “Life below Water”, and “Lifeon Land” were twelve, three, and five respectively.
Investigate the world: Students have really studied practical issues such as environmental
pollution, the effects of climate change with their lens, understanding, and responsibility.
Students were well aware that this is not just a local or national problem, but a global
problem for which each individual and organization must be responsible.
Recognize perspectives: Students understood and critically absorbed positive and negative
viewpoints on their chosen issues and communicated their viewpoints.
Communicate ideas: In each group, individuals contributed, collaborated and critiqued ideas
from which to implement the project. In the classroom, students shared and commented on

ISSN: 2189-101X

161

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

ideas and messages from the groups' products. At home, students called for responsibility
among members for the issues they were interested in and chosen.
Take action: In addition to conveying the message through videos and short essays withdiverse viewers, students participating in the project ran an environmentally friendly
campaign with the slogan “Each student one green tree”. They were also pioneers in planting
and taking care for trees.
Message one: “Let’s dispose of garbage in the right place to protect the environment andalso protect human health. The environment is our place to live. Protecting the environmentis protecting life. It is the duty of every citizen to fulfill.”
Message two: “Please protect the marine environment because the sea is a very rich anddiverse place in terms of resources, full of potential for diverse economic development. Not
only that, the sea is also an easy place to develop tourism and develop the aquacultureindustry. Let's join hands to prevent marine pollution; you will see its inherent potentials.”
Conclusions
We notice that undertaking a PBL in order to help students in grade 10th in Vietnam todevelop mathematical modeling competence, global competence and digital skills while
teaching and learning the concept of quadratic function is achievable.
The project can foster productively differentiated and student-centered activities. Moreover, italso assisted students in developing critical thinking, creative thinking, problem solving,communicating and collaborating skills.
Students expressed themselves in the roles of designers, directors, art creators, and makers of
products oriented towards sustainable development goals.
PBL and Stop Motion technique are able to create opportunities for teaching mathematicalknowledge in both online and face-to-face teaching contexts such as: Vectors, Functions,
Coordinate Geometry.

ISSN: 2189-101X

162

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

References
Asia Society 2005. What is Global Competence? Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1787/
978926-4289024-en
David A. Kolb (1984). Experiential Learning: Experience as the Source of Learning andDevelopment. ResearchGate.
David Parsons, Kathryn MacCallum, Lynley Schofield, and Anna Johnstone (2020). NextGeneration Digital Curricula for Future Teaching and Learning. Emerging
Techologies and Pedagogies in the Curriculum, 3-19.
Deymour Papert (1999). Eight Big Ideas Behind the Constructionist Learning Lab.
Dimitra Kokotsaki, Victoria Menzies and Andy Wiggins (2016). Project-based learning: A
Review of the Literature. SAGE journals.
Garry Hoban, Wendy Nielsen, and Charles Carceller (2010). Articulating Constructionism:
Learning Science through Designing and Making “Slowmations” (Student-genrated
animations). Conference of the Australasian Society Computers in Learning in
Tertiary Education.
Jocelyn Wishart (2017). Exploring How Creating Stop-Motion Animations Supports Students
Teachers in Learning to Teach Science. Journal of Research on Techology in
Education.
Marc Prensky (2011). From Digital Natives to Digital Wisdom Introduction. From Digital
Natives to Digital Wisdom: Hopeful Essays for 21st Century Education. Corwin Press
2012.
Michele Artigue (1990). Ingéniérie didactique, Recherche en didactique des mathématiques.
Vol. 9.3, p. 218-307, La Pensée Sauvage. Grenoble.
The Mind Lab (2020). Teaching Digial Skills for Sustainable Education.
OECD. PISA 2018. Global Competence. Retrieved fromhttps://www.oecd.org/pisa/innovatio-n/global-competence/
Paulo Friere (1974). Education for Critical Consciousness. Bloomsbury.
Tran Van Hao, Vu Tuan, Doan Minh Cuong, Do Manh Hung, Nguyen Tien Tai (2016).
Algebra 10 Textbook. Vietnam Education Publishing House Limited Company.
Tran Van Hao, Vu Tuan, Doan Minh Cuong, Do Manh Hung, Nguyen Tien Tai (2016).
Algebra 10-Teacher-book, Vietnam Education Publishing House Limited Company.
Vu Tuan, Doan Minh Cuong, Tran Van Hao, Do Manh Hung, Pham Phu, Nguyen Tien Tai(2016). Algebra 10-Workbook. Vietnam Education Publishing House Limited
Company.

ISSN: 2189-101X

163

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Werner Blum, Rita B. Ferri (2009). Mathematical Modelling: Can it Taught and Learnt?
Journal of Mathematical Modelling and Application, Vol. 1, No 1, p. 45-58.
Yves Chevallard (1999). L’analyse des pratiques enseignantes en théorie anthropolo-gique dudidactique. Recherches En Didactique Des Mathématiques 19(2), p. 221-266.
Contact email: tonmath87@gmail.com

ISSN: 2189-101X

164

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

The Influence of Financial Assistance on Student’s Academic Achievement:
A Case-Based Research Study

Fatima Shaikh, Sukkur IBA University, Pakistan
Khalil Ahmed Channa, Sukkur IBA University, Pakistan
Gul Afshan, Sukkur IBA University, Pakistan
Murk Memon, Sukkur IBA University, Pakistan

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023
Official Conference Proceedings

Abstract
Purpose: The motive of this inductive research study was to explore the influence of financial
assistance in the form of scholarship and to identify the factors that affect the academic
achievement of university students. This study also aims to compare the academic
achievement of scholarship and non-scholarship students.
Methodology: 26 Semi-structured interviews and purposive sampling techniques were used tocollect data from the University's scholarship and non-scholarship undergraduate students.
Findings: Analysis of the data elicited that both scholarship and non-scholarship students
work hard to improve their academic achievement. Students consider the scholarship as
motivation and achievement. However, factors such as; financial, psychological, emotional
stress, anxiety, and language barriers affect the academic achievement of scholarshipstudents. Finance was a significant problem for scholarship-seeking students. It was also
explored that scholarship-holding students need to be more participative in other academic
activities, such as sports events, social societies, music, art, and drama society, compared tonon-scholarship-holding students.
Research Implication: The university should design flexible criteria for availing scholarships.
Future research should be done on overcoming factors that cause low academic achievement
among university students. Universities should plan strategies to overcome students' financial
and emotional stress and anxiety. More attention should be paid to students who belong toremote areas to overcome the language barrier and improve academic achievement. Anotherforesight was that the proposed model should be tested empirically.

Keywords: Academic Achievement, Case Study, Financial Assistance, Student's Perception

iafor
The International Academic Forumwww.iafor.org

ISSN: 2189-101X

165

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Introduction
In this contemporary period, education, science, and technology are competitive advantages
for organizations. Predominantly, organizations and governments focus on these coreelements to achieve a competitive advantage. The country's system that provides freeeducation to students through various forms of financial assistance, such as tuition fees, merit
scholarships, and need-based scholarships, builds a robust economic backbone (Noor, Rifat,& Huma, 2016). The standardized formula for the scholarship was designed to identify thefinancial needs of students (Zhang, Min, Frillman, Anderson, & Ohland, 2006).
Merit-based scholarships are considered one of the instruments for selecting students withhigh academic achievement (Lynch, 2019). The number of need-based scholarships increased
more rapidly than merit-based scholarships at all the academic institutions during the latenineteen. However, increases in merit-based scholarships had only sometimes been at theexpense of need-based scholarships. Instead, the merit-based criteria influenced the selectionof need-based scholarships.
Scholarships awarded to students motivate them to improve and maintain their GPA (Grade
Point Average) (Zhang et al., 2006). According to Rubin and Lisa Melanie (2014),
individuals become responsible when scholarships are awarded, creating extrinsic motivation(Rubin & Rosser, 2014). Though, it was not free from the cynic implication as students might
delay their degree by reducing the number of credit hours, i.e., withdrawing from the course
to maintain the required GPA for the eligibility scholarship awarded. Additionally, somestudents may elect to leave the chosen field and can be asked to switch towards a perceived,
more flexible area of study to achieve better grades to meet the scholarship requirements.
This study aims to analyze and compare the academic achievement of university students
availing of financial assistance in the form of scholarships and to identify the factors affecting
academic achievement. Financial assistance in the form of scholarships is consideredfinancial support and motivation in the academic career of university students (Baker, 2010).
Simultaneously, it causes stress, anxiety, and emotional queasiness among students (Shaikh etal., 2004)—the Scholarship increase enrollment but not the completion of the degree(Bettinger, 2004). Policymakers highlight the financial issue for students to complete theirhigher education (Lynch, 2019).
According to the world bank report, awarding a scholarship to students not only increases
enrollment and attendance but also enhances the academic achievement of scholarshipstudents (Patel & Rudd, 2012). Such contradictory research studies have been identified
throughout the literature. The study aims to analyze and compare the academic achievementof scholarship and non-scholarship students.
Similarly, this study identifies factors such as; educational policy, financial issues, or
emotional instability, affecting academic achievement among university students (Ganem &Manasse, 2011). Based on the theory of Tinto's (1993) student integration theory, theobjectives have been designed to investigate that does financial assistance improves theacademic achievement of students who belong to Sukkur IBA University. This inductive
research study compares the academic achievement of scholarship and non-scholarshipuniversity students and also explores the factors which affect the academic achievement of
university students.

ISSN: 2189-101X

166

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Theoretical Approach
Tinto's (1993) integration theory is used to understand the behavior of university students(Chrysikos, Ahmed, & Ward, 2017). A series of research studies were conducted to analyze
the behavior of students from entry to exit, which means from enrollment to completion of adegree program. An increase in the tuition fees of university programs and economic
challenges creates pressure on students to select the program of their choice (Chrysikos et al.,2017). Students' academic achievement depends on integrating students into the policies andpractices of the University (Beekhoven, De Jong, & Van Hout, 2002). Undergraduate
students of HEIs specifically use the theory of integration.
Ganem and Manasse (2011) highlighted in their research study that student integration theory
asserts students' academic achievement and persistence for long-term firmly based on thefinancial assistance in the form of scholarships provided by the University. In their early
academic careers, university students work hard to maintain that scholarship to achieve andaccomplish their academic goals (Beekhoven et al., 2002; Ganem & Manasse, 2011).
Literature Review
A quality education system remains a priority for policymakers around the globe, but asuccessful education system also needs quality teachers, financial assistance, and good
infrastructure to enhance students' learning (Salmi, 2009). The student's academic
achievement in higher education can be augmented by supporting students with financial aid
through scholarships. Awarding scholarships enhances the academic achievement of students.
Students put more effort into maintaining their grades and having financial assistance throughscholarships (Lynch, 2019). At the same time, institutional financial support significantly
impacted the students' overall success (Ganem & Manasse, 2011). However, it has inevitableopposite consequences, such as students reducing the number of credit hours to reduce theworkload. This increases the time for completion of any program or degree, and students
willingly change the area of their interest in maintaining their GPA to avail of scholarships
consistently (Zhang et al., 2006).
Financial hardship significantly impacts students' academics, and there is a need for financial
support from the government, universities, communities, and philanthropist trusties (Milne,
Creedy, & West, 2016). Universities are updating their education system and policies tocompete globally. Specifically, the Higher Education Commission of Pakistan (HEC) is
inclined to invest more in education and increase the number of financial assistance programs
to create a knowledge economy (HEC, 2015-2016). According to a meta-analysis, financial
retention programs have small and short-term benefits for undergraduate students (Valentine
et al., 2011). This research-based case study was conducted at Sukkur Institute of businessadministration University. This University was recognized as a business education entity in
1994. Originally it was associated with the central or head University at Karachi; in 2006, it
got a degree-granting institute charter. It gained a university charter and became University in2017 (University, 2019). The University is a public sector degree-awarding institute charteredby the Government of Sindh and recognized by the Higher Education Commission Pakistan.
This University has five leading central departments; Electrical Engineering, Computer
Science, Business Administration, Department of Education, and Mathematics (University,2019). The University offers scholarships for every program with the extended support ofgovernmental donors, non-governmental donors, and individual philanthropists and trusts.

ISSN: 2189-101X

167

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

The management of the University encourages the students to avail the opportunity ofscholarships from every province of Pakistan to have better education and career
opportunities. There are two types of scholarship programs, i.e., Institutional merit-based
scholarship programs and Institutional needs-based Scholarship Programs, offered by the
University. Both have different policies for awarding scholarships to students. In theInstitutional merit-based scholarship program, two essential scholarships are awarded to
students from each program offered by the five leading departments at the University.
The eligibility criteria for awarding merit-based scholarships account for top GPA (Grade
Point Average) holders from different programs based on fall semester results and thatscholarship only covers tuition fees. In the need-based scholarship program, students areshortlisted by the CDC and interviewed by committee members. If the student cannot
maintain the required GPA at the end of the semester, then two chances of prohibition are
given to those students. Failing to maintain academic achievement leads student enrolment tobe ceased; consequently, the scholarship would be withdrawn and redirected to other needy
or deserving students. The University has two prominent donors of scholarships one is
OGDCL (Oil and Gas Development Company Limited), and the second is the Sindh
Endowment scholarship. OGDCL provides 75 seats of scholarship for every four provinces(Sindh, Punjab, Baluchistan, and (KPK) Khaibar Pakhtun-Khan) of Pakistan.
OGDCL offer a scholarship to students based on CSR (corporate social responsibility) where
they have their oil exploration operation. Scholarship of OGDCL is awarded to students who
secure a 2.2 GPA and 75% class attendance. OGDCL offers complete fees along with Rupees
5000 stipend per month. Sindh endowment scholarship provides 100 scholarships per year to
students with a Sindh domicile along with a 2.5 GPA, income level up to 1.2 million per year,
and scholarships offered to all departments of the University except B.Ed. Department. Sindh
endowment donates total tuition fees and admission fees.
PAK-USAID Merit & Needs Based Scholarship Program provide scholarship forundergraduate (BBA) and graduates (MBA) only. PAK-USAID scholarship is awarded
through ISAC (Institution Scholarship Awarding Committee) comprises internal and external
members. They conduct interviews with students before awarding the scholarship. MPLC
(Mari Petroleum Company Limited) is an oil exploration in district Ghotki, and it is a fullyfunded scholarship, and the stipend is also paid to students.
Other private donors include LU-Continental Biscuit Ltd scholarship program and Ayesha
Memon Scholarship, and Abdul Fatah Memon Scholarship, have their criteria for awarding
the scholarship. A student must have a minimum of 3 GPAs, which cover tuition fees only.
The student's academic achievement and continued persistence within the institute canmeasure the success of an educational institute. Financial aid in the form of tuition fees
reemission, scholarship either merit-based or need-based, facilitates student's success. Higher
education from 1995-2005 has increased the total expenditure by 89% to support students inhigher education (Ganem & Manasse, 2011). Education, specifically higher education, is the
backbone of any country. Higher education provides individuals with a better future with thesupport of their expertise, intelligence, and success. According to the report of Afshan(2016), Pakistan's higher education commission (HEC) offered a third-party scholarshipprogram from 2012-2013. Fourteen sampled universities have offered 6,222 scholarships
awarded to students for a better career and better future (Noor et al., 2016).

ISSN: 2189-101X

168

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Methodology
Research Design and Selection ApproachThis qualitative research study aims to create a model by maintaining an attached approachwith respondents. The qualitative approach is associated with elaborating situations andcontext and analyzing social setup with inductive reasoning. The purposive sampling method
has been used to collect the data from undergraduate students of the University, which could
serve the purpose of the research study. An interview technique has been used to identify andexplore the academic achievement of university students who are availing of scholarships andthose who are not. According to Potter (2015b) interview technique is an efficient way toutilize resources and time to get in-depth information about the reality and lived experienceof participants in naturally occurring data from the field, instead of asking a participant tocomment on it (Silverman, 2015b).
Sample Size
The research study sample was undergraduate students of five leading departments of the
University. The interview was conducted from 26 respondents because small samples canprovide in-depth information about social phenomena in the qualitative data collection
method. Specifically, small samples and open-ended questions provide the open-door facility
to respond to express their feelings, thoughts, and emotions. It facilitates the researcher within-depth information about the issue affecting social behaviors (Yilmaz, 2013). Eleveninterviews were conducted with non-scholarship students and fifteen interviews withscholarship students to overcome the theoretical saturation. Further, to maintain the reliability
and validity of a study, factual data on students availing scholarships have been collectedfrom the CDC (Career Development Center), and record of students' academic achievement
has been collected from the examination department of the University.
Data Collection and Data Analyses
The interview was based on the information provided by CDC. The meeting with students
under consideration of two main aspects, firstly to take interviews from undergraduate
students belonging to the second, third, fifth, sixth, and seventh semesters of all fivedepartments of the University. Secondly, scholarship donor criteria. We took an interview
with students belonging to B.S. (A&F), BBA, B.Ed. And B.E. under the head of six
scholarship donors, such as Sindh Endowment scholarship, PAK-USAID, MPCL (MariPetroleum Company Limited), L.U. Continental, Late Ayesha Memon, and Abdul Ghaffar
Bhadelia.
A semi-structured interview was conducted with students, and oral consent was taken before
the interview for ethical consideration. All interviews from scholarship and non-scholarshipstudents were audio-recorded to maintain the record, reliability, and respondent validity of
the research study. In the interview, students were first asked about the introduction,
educational background, and the University (e.g., How did you come to know about the
University?).
Secondly, students were enquired about the selection criteria for a scholarship, whichscholarship they have and how they are maintaining such scholarship, etc. (e.g., How much
GPA you need to keep to continue awarded scholarship?). Thirdly, students were investigated

ISSN: 2189-101X

169

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

about their GPA for the previous the current semester and the reasons they have declined
their GPA instead of having no financial burden. The first part of the interview with nonscholarship students is the same as above.
In the second part, students were asked about the reason for not availing of any scholarship,
how many times they have tried or applied for the scholarship, and which scholarship; (Meritor need-based). In the third part, students were enquired about their achievements based on
the GPA of the previous and current semesters. Students were also enquired about theirparental involvement in their academic activities and result progress. In the last, students
were asked to compare overall academic achievement with non-scholarship students and viceversa to investigate the emotions, perceptions, and experiences of students affecting theiracademic achievement.
Inductive studies involve three steps in data analysis; first, content analysis; second, groundedtheory; and third, narrative analysis (Silverman, 2015a). Analysis of this research study isbased on the grounded theory introduced by Straus and Corbin (1994), in which asystematical procedure is followed to interpret the data collected from respondents (Strauss &Corbin, 1994).
The audio interview data were transcribed into the text and then organized in three steps tointerpret the findings, first-order or empirical order data, second-order or conceptual orderdata, and the third step analytical order data. We assigned code to each response in first-orderdata and built some categories. According to Gioia (2013), first-order data analysis distilled
the categories and sought to differentiate between similar and different categories (Gioia etal., 2013). In second-order data analysis, we have built themes from relevant categories thattheoretically answer the critical question. Once we had workable themes and concepts, thenthe process of concept development emerged, which means third-order data analyses inwhich we had the "aggregate dimension" of a research study. Then we proceed to data
Structure (Gioia et al., 2013).
1st order code
Aggregated
Theoretical
Dimension

Theoretical Categories

Intermediate from Khairpur city
Intermediated from SZABIST Larkanaschool and college.
I belong to Sukkur
I belong to Raheem-Yar khan Punjab.
Intermediate from Gilgit Baltistan.

Students belong to the interior
Sindh, Punjab, and GilgitBaltistan

Academic
background of
students' 'I'm studying in B.Ed. program 6thsemester B.S. Accounting and Finance(A&F) 3rd semester
Studying in the 3rd semester of B.E.
' 'I'm studying in BBA 5th semester

Bachelor Program

Undergraduate
students

ISSN: 2189-101X

170

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

I came to know through social networks
and banners of IBA Sukkur
I saw an advertisement in theAwareness about the institutenewspaper. I came to know about IBA through social media,
through my brother.
friends and family
A ' 'father's friend told him that it's agood business institute.

Knowledge
about
instituteI have no moral support, but sometimes
my uncle helps me financially
Yes, they are supporting me morally
and financially.
I have moral and financial support.
Yes, my family supports me a lot.

Students belong to the Middle
and lower middle classes

Less Financial
BurdenLow/No family check andbalanceLow parental
involvement

Awareness about institutional
Policy criteria.

Awarenessabout self andInstitution

The sense of distinguishes

Sense ofachievement

Participate in Activities to build
confidence and other skills

Moreparticipativein otheracademic
activities

Yes, my uncle asks about my GPA.
No, they know that ' 'I'm studying
No, the thing that they believe in me.
They do not pressurize me, but they area concern.
Nobody asks me.
Yes, I have applied, for both needbased and merit-based. Yes, I have
tried, but I got rejected.
I have not improved my academic
achievement due to depression.
My GPA was 2.5, then I improve by
2.8, and now it is 2.97. My previous
GPA was 2.5, and now it's 2.9.
One of my class fellows is a 3.0GPA,
and he is working hard to maintain it;
otherwise, he will lose the scholarship.
The scholarship is like a feeling ofachievement.
The scholarship is a motivation forstudents.
Once I have a scholarship, I will work
harder to maintain my GPA. In SIBA
competition
I was O.C. in "dice Vice."
In the welfare and Go green society, I
participated in Global village,
declamation and anchoring.

Table: 1 The data structure of Non-Scholarship Students

ISSN: 2189-101X

171

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

My family supports me morally, but
not financially. A stipend is enough forme and my whole semester.
Motivated, hardworking, andMy family supports me morally, but
reduced financial burden fromfinancially they don't have enoughfamilymoney. There is no pressure because
they know that ' 'I'm hardworking andresponsible.
No, my previous semester's GPA was
2.9, but my current GPA is 2.5 due tomy health issues.
Awareness about institutional
Initially, it was 3.67 then 3.38 andPolicy criteria to maintain GPA
3.4 and now my current CGPA is 3.5.
for continuing availing of
My GPA was 3.56 and then started
scholarshipdecreasing to 3.28, 3.4, and currently, itis 3.33.
Yes 100%, at IBA I will quit and seek
any other option where I can afford myfinancial expenses. I felt it burden thatStudents suffer from desperation
I have to maintain my GPA either I
and psychological stresswill lose my scholarship
We work hard not because we want
grades but as a scholarship holder
Yes, I have joined societies and othercompetitors such as the IEEE
community of IBA
Participate less in academic
No, I 'don't participate in any activity
activities due to fear of loss of
Due to lots of pressure in studies.
scholarship
Every year I participate in themathematics Olympiad
Table: 1.1 Data structure of Scholarship Students

Selfmotivated,
emotionallysensitive, andhardworking

Academic
AchievementLowemotional
stability

Lessparticipative

Findings
The interpretative approach has been used to analyze the attached feedback from respondents.
The finding of all 26 interviews presented in Table 1 and Table 1.1, respectively. Table 1
represents the students who were not availing of scholarships, and Table 1.1 represents
students who were availing the scholarship. They all belonged to Sukkur city, the interior
Sindh region, and a few students belonged to Rahim-Yar khan and Gilgit-Baltistan. All
students had an indigent educational background, and they had done their intermediate fromtheir city town.
They came to know about university either through social media or either through theirfamily, friends, and neighbors. The same response we have received from scholarshipstudents. Non-scholarship students said that they had joined the University due to quality
education, and some said because the University is close to their access. Some even said that
we did not know anything about the University. My cousin and brother suggested I be
admitted here because I have no other option for further study as I belong to a pre-medical
background.

ISSN: 2189-101X

172

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings"I did not know about it as I told you that ''I'm from pre-medical, so I did not know
anything about the University, and I have no other option for study. So, I'm here due
to my cousin and brother's suggestion." (Student Response)
Scholarship students have different opinions regarding joining the University. Most students
at the University were from the Middle or lower-middle class. They need help to afford theirfinancial expenses of admission fees, hostel fees, or even food expenses. While interviewing
scholarship students, they told us they had joined the University because of the scholarship.
"I am here due to a scholarship; if I would not be awarded the scholarship, I might be
at home doing something else." (Student Response)
Students from the engineering department have different opinions that there were few
numbers scholarships for the engineering department, which awarded top GPA holder
students.
"There is a minimal number of scholarships for E.E. department which are awarded
to top merit-based students as a merit-based scholarship that's why I did not get any
scholarship." (Student Response)
Students who belong to Gilgit-Baltistan also have different opinions regarding not availing of
any scholarship because there is no quota for their province.
"Yes, I tried in the first semester when my GPA was 3.3. I went to CDC, and directly
they refused and said there is no seat for Gilgit Baltistan." (Student Response)
In contrast to non-scholarship students, only some scholarship students told us that weapplied for the scholarship, the committee conducted the interview, and we got selected.
Further, scholarship students told us that they have moral support but not financial and nonscholarship students said they have both moral and financial support. Regarding parental
involvement, scholarship students told us that they ask and make us realize that we do ourbest as we are availing of the scholarship. Whereas non-scholarship students told us they did
ask but did not force us to study. Some even said that our parents didn’t have any
involvement in our academic affairs.
"No, they know that I am studying, and another thing is that the policy of the
University is that the student is on prohibition or either he/she got a drop from any
program he/she will go back to their home. If I am studying so, they feel I'm studying
and my career is moving on smoothly. They never interfere and never ask about mystudy, which means they are satisfied with me." (Student Response)
We investigate their academic achievement and their GPA. Non-scholarship students told us
they did not improve their GPA, but overall communication, presentation, and confidence
have developed. Some non-scholarship students said that they had improved in both areas:
their GPA has been enhanced in academics, and their soft skills also improved.
"According to my GPA, I have not improved. In my 1st semester, and my GPA was
3.53; in 2nd semester, my CGPA was 3.29." (Student Response)

ISSN: 2189-101X

173

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings"Yes, of course, in my 1st semester, my GPA was 2.5 then I improve 2.8GPA, and now
it is 2.97GPA." (Student Response)
The students told us that certain other factors affect our academic achievement. Once a year, I
can visit my family and my hometown because we are from Gilgit Baltistan; other factors
such as weather and hostel/mess food do not sustain my health, so my GPA declined.
"I have not improved my academic achievement due to depression, and I have amigraine. As final exams come near, I start taking tense that I will pay the fees. In thelast semester, I fainted and was hospitalized due to tension, and I withdrew from one
subject. Last semester my GPA was 3.33, and it is 2.8 now." (Student Response)"No, my previous semester GPA was 2.9, but my current GPA is 2.5 due to healthissues." (Student Response)
Whereas scholarship students told us that they had improved their academic achievement,
and we worked hard to maintain our GPA so we could have the scholarship.
"My previous semester GPA was 2.44, and currently, it is 3.39." (Student Response)"Of course, my previous semester GPA was 3.3, but my current GPA is 3.5." (Student
Response)
To get in-depth information about students' perceptions, we ask non-scholarship students if
the scholarship is given to them, will you work hard or will your achievement be improved?
We also enquire scholarship students to compare their struggle and hard work with nonscholarship students. They replied that they did not find any difference between being ascholarship or a non-scholarship student, and if the scholarship is given to us, then we will
study as much as we are currently studying. Few students said that; they work hard and they
are bound to study; they even cannot participate in extra-academic activities. Further, theysaid that if the scholarship is given to us, we will work hard and try to maintain consistently
availing of that scholarship.
"I cannot feel any difference between scholarship and non-scholarship students, justthat financially those students need to avail the scholarship. They study as much as
we are studying." (Student Response)"I think scholarship and non-scholarship students both are working hard because
everybody knows the kick-out system of the University." (Student Response)
We enquired from scholarship students whether they would quit their studies if they had noscholarship. Most students said yes, 100%. I would quit my studies because my family could
not afford my study expense. Few said we would leave University and will go for the option
where my family can afford the financial cost. Few said we would try to have any othersource to continue our studies.
"Yes, it was in my mind that if I could not avail myself of the scholarship, I will quit
my studies. There are not that many fees for the B.Ed. program but even that myfamily could not afford for four years." (Student Response)

ISSN: 2189-101X

174

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings"No, I will not quit; I will find any other source to continue my studies, like giving
tuition." (Student Response)
Students have differing opinions about scholarship students. Further, non-scholarshipstudents said they participate in almost every event, such as; sports, social societies, music,
art, and drama society, as any financial pressure of fees or family pressure does not bindthem. They did not participate, and they were just good at academic achievement.
"Yes, in sports and social societies, and I have been executive of society once, andcurrently I'm a coordinator of the community welfare society." (Student Response)"Scholarship students are not active in extracurricular activities. Toppers in my classare very weak in practical work. They can easily memorize and write it in exams, but
non-scholarship students participate in extracurricular activities that try to balance
practical and academic work." (Student Response)On the other-hand scholarship, students told us that initially, we were focusing on our studies.
I had fear in my mind that I could lose my scholarship and will lose my studies. After a few
semesters, I participate in some other academic activities.
"Yes, when I was in THP, I won Math Olympiad national competition, I took part in
the book review competition, and our group was in 6th number through that; I won a
MAC Icore7 laptop and what else I need. Due to lots of pressure in studies, myinfluence in such activities is not that much, but when there is an essay writing or
creative writing competition, then I participate." (Student Response)"Being a scholarship student, we are unable to participate in other activities; if weparticipate, then it becomes risky for our studies, but we have to manage everything."(Student Response)
Last, we asked scholarship students to compare their achievements with non-scholarshipstudents. They told us we work hard due to so many factors; due to lack of financial support
from family, we set specified goals not to lose our scholarship, so they believe they work
hard compared to non-scholarship students.
"Parents of those students who could afford their children's finances have no burdenor tension. And those students who are poor and could not afford their fees work hard
to avail the scholarship." (Student Response)"Well, if I compare myself with them, I am more dedicated. I want to share myexperience that I am following a very tough schedule for my studies. I know that I canonly achieve my goals by working hard. So many of my classmates and friends taunt
me that you are mad; how can you study the whole day, why don't you participate insocial activities and enjoy your life? But I have witnessed those friends who said tome like this, either dropped out, got F in two or three subjects, and transferred to adifferent University. I know that if I do not work hard then I will go back to my home,
I have no other option but they have the option; they know that they have a soundfinancial background and their father can support them. However, I have not any
financial support." (Student Response)

ISSN: 2189-101X

175

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Figure 1: The Proposed Framework Derived from themes
Discussion
This study elaborated on the importance of financial assistance for university students. This
study highlights scholarship and non-scholarship students. Also, it identifies the factors
which affect students' academic achievement and compares the academic achievement ofscholarship and non-scholarship students. Scholarship and non-scholarship students belong to
the middle and lower-middle-class of Sukkur city, interior Sindh, Rahim-Yar Khan, and few
students belong to Gilgit-Baltistan. Both students (Scholarship and non-scholarship) werevery much aware of the policies of the University, from admission, applying for scholarships,
and grading criteria to clear any subject or semester, to dropping out a policy of the
University. Finance remains a significant issue for scholarship students. Scholarship students
contemplate quitting University if they have no scholarship, and they also believe that ascholarship is an achievement or a source of motivation to work hard. The difference wasanalyzed in the performance and academic achievement of scholarship and non-scholarshipstudents.
We analyzed the GPA record of undergraduate students in the 2nd, 3rd, 5th, and seventhsemesters of both scholarship and non-scholarship students. The GPA record collected fromthe CDC (Career Development Center) and the exam office of the University reveals that two
critical factors affect the academic achievement of scholarship students, first, the personal
factors associated with students' academic life, and second, the scholarship donor criteria.
Due to individual elements, the academic achievement of scholarship students has
consistently declined every next semester due to low morale and financial support fromfamily, homesickness (students belonging to Gilgit-Baltistan), and health issues.

ISSN: 2189-101X

176

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

The reason for the decline in academic achievement was the emotions of students. They work
hard to meet the scholarship donor criteria and remain less participative in other academic
activities, clubs, social societies, sports, etc. However, most scholarship students must
improve their grades/GPA the following semester. The human emotional agency generally
suggests that a student's emotions have an impact on the achievement, physical health,psychology, and academic achievement of the student (Pekrun, Goetz, Titz, & Perry, 2002).
There were very few scholarship students whose academic achievement had consistently
improved, but those students needed to be more participative in other academic activities.
They remain under stress and fear of loss of scholarship.
Conclusion
After conducting this lengthy procedure, we concluded that students' academic life is affectedby several factors such as the educational background of students, moral and financial
support, low parental involvement, physical health, the psychology of students, language
barer, and low emotional stability. All these factors' collectivity affects the student's academic
achievement and students' academic achievement will be improved if they have support(Milne et al., 2016). Numerous meta-analysis studies conclude that parental involvement
positively impacts students' academic achievement (Fan & Chen, 2001; Jeynes, 2017). Low
parental involvement means low academic achievement. The majority of students at the
University belong to an indigent educational background. They also need help with language;
because of that, they need help understanding the lecture. Moral and financial problems also
create stress, anxiety, and fear of losing a scholarship or being a failure among students.
Parents and teachers both act as a bridge between students' academic life. Low parental
involvement means no checks and balances on students' academic achievement, which also
influences them. Students in remote areas such as; Gilgit-Baltistan, Rahim-Yar Khan needhelp with health, weather, and communication issues. More attention should be paid to
Baluchistan and Gilgit-Baltistan students for better academic achievement (Noor et al., 2016).
Limitations, Recommendations, and Future Directions
In this research study, we have identified factors that affect the academic achievement ofstudents who belongs to the undergraduate program of this University only, which is thelimitation of the study; the scope of the research study can be broadened. For the current
research study, ungraduated students were considered only. Research scholars can involve
parents to get rich insights into parents and family issues affecting students' academic careers.
Universities should focus on life-long learning and technological facilities because
technology impacts student learning (Khalil-Ur-Rehman, Farooq, & Younas, 2018). The
higher education commission (HEC) should focus on university students' emotional wellbeing and financial assistance. Universities should design flexible scholarship criteria as most
students belong to remote and underprivileged areas and have fewer opportunities for higher
studies. Universities should plan strategies to over students' financial and emotional stressand anxiety. Another foresight is that the proposed model should be tested empirically.
Future research should be done on overcoming those factors that cause low academic
achievement in university students.

ISSN: 2189-101X

177

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

References
Baker, M. (2010). Student financial assistance and scholarship services. Achieving student
success: Effective student services in Canadian higher education, 55-65.
Beekhoven, S., De Jong, U., & Van Hout, H. (2002). Explaining academic progress via
combining concepts of integration theory and rational choice theory. Research inHigher Education, 43(5), 577-600.
Bettinger, E. (2004). How financial aid affects persistence. In College choices: The
economics of where to go, when to go, and how to pay for it (pp. 207-238): Universityof Chicago Press.
Chrysikos, A., Ahmed, E., & Ward, R. (2017). Analysis of Tinto’s student integration theory
in first-year undergraduate computing students of a UK higher education institution.
International Journal of Comparative Education and Development.
Fan, X., & Chen, M. (2001). Parental involvement and students' academic achievement: A
meta-analysis. Educational psychology review, 13(1), 1-22.
Ganem, N. M., & Manasse, M. (2011). The relationship between scholarships and student
success: An art and design case study. Education Research International, 2011.
Gioia, D. A., Corley, K. G., & Hamilton, A. L. (2013). Seeking qualitative rigor in inductive
research: Notes on the Gioia methodology. Organizational research methods, 16(1),15-31.
HEC. (2015-2016). Annual Report.
Jeynes, W. H. (2017). A meta-analysis: The relationship between parental involvement and
Latino student outcomes. Education and Urban Society, 49(1), 4-28.
Khalil-Ur-Rehman, F., Farooq, M., & Younas, W. (2018). Investigating the Factors
Impacting the Student Satisfaction with the Universities In the Era of Artificial
Intelligence: A Comparative Study of Malaysia and Pakistan. Asia Proceedings ofSocial Sciences, 2(3), 5-9.
Lynch, L. K. (2019). The Impact of College Scholarships on Student Success and Positive
Graduation Rates. Wilmington University (Delaware),Milne, T., Creedy, D., & West, R. (2016). An integrated systematic review on educational
strategies that promote academic success and resilience in undergraduate indigenous
students. Nurse education today, 36, 387-394.
Noor, A., Rifat, Q., & Huma, A. (2016). Analysis of Management Support and Teaching
Practices for the Implementation of New Elementary Science Curriculum in
Islamabad Model Schools. Science, Technology and Development, 35, 6-15.
doi:10.3923/std.2016.6.15.

ISSN: 2189-101X

178

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Patel, R., & Rudd, T. (2012). Can scholarships alone help students succeed? Available at
SSRN 2188758.
Pekrun, R., Goetz, T., Titz, W., & Perry, R. P. (2002). Academic emotions in students' selfregulated learning and achievement: A program of qualitative and quantitative
research. Educational psychologist, 37(2), 91-105.
Rubin, L. M., & Rosser, V. J. (2014). Comparing Division IA Scholarship and NonScholarship Student-Athletes: A Discriminant Analysis. Journal of Issues inIntercollegiate Athletics, 7.
Salmi, J. (2009). The challenge of establishing world class universities: The World Bank.
Shaikh, B., Kahloon, A., Kazmi, M., Khalid, H., Nawaz, K., Khan, N., & Khan, S. (2004).
Students, stress and coping strategies: a case of Pakistani medical school. Educationfor Health: Change in Learning and Practice, 17(3).
Silverman, D. (2015a). Data Analysis. In K. Metzier (Ed.), Interpreting Qualitative Data
London: SAGE.
Silverman, D. (2015b). Interpreting qualitative data: Sage.
Strauss, A., & Corbin, J. (1994). Grounded theory methodology. Handbook of qualitative
research, 17(1), 273-285.
University, S. I. (2019). Retrieved from https://www.iba-suk.edu.pk/
Valentine, J. C., Hirschy, A. S., Bremer, C. D., Novillo, W., Castellano, M., & Banister, A.
(2011). Keeping at-risk students in school: A systematic review of college retention
programs. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 33(2), 214-234.
Yilmaz, K. (2013). Comparison of quantitative and qualitative research traditions:
Epistemological, theoretical, and methodological differences. European journal of
education, 48(2), 311-325.
Zhang, G., Min, Y., Frillman, S. A., Anderson, T., & Ohland, M. (2006). Student Strategies
for Protecting Merit-Based Scholarships: Grades, Courseload, and Major Choice.

Contact email: Fatima.phdmgt17@iba-suk.edu.pk

ISSN: 2189-101X

179

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

ISSN: 2189-101X

180

Official Conference Proceedings

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

The Study Conceptual of Professional Learning Community andTeacher’s Practice in School in Thailand
Anchalee Srikolchan, Srinakharinwirot University, Thailand
The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023
Official Conference Proceedings
Abstract
The research aims to study the concept of the teacher professional learning community andthe practice of using the teacher professional learning community process. This researchcollects data from 360 teachers by using online questionnaires. Questionnaires consist ofmultiple choices about general information, the concept of teacher professional learning
community, and rating scale questions about the practice of using the teacher professional
learning community. According to the results, teachers have the proper perspective on theprofessional learning community process. The percentage of "yes" respondents is up from
85%. However, some issues show that teachers need to be more aware of the Professional
learning community process and that implementing discussion results in teaching andlearning needs to be followed up with only 54.7%. Secondly, the Teacher's Practice in theProfessional Learning Community process was moderate. Only some issues are practised at ahigh level, namely, working together in friendship, trusting, and helping each other.
Empowering and empowering each other in solving problems with students and creating
encouragement to work together to solve the issues and welcome each other in success.
Keywords: Professional Learning Community, Teacher’s Practice, Thailand

iafor
The International Academic Forumwww.iafor.org

ISSN: 2189-101X

181

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Introduction
Education in Thailand states that all learners could be learned and develop themselves andmust provide an education that develops learners naturally and to their full potential. Allteachers must seek ways to enable all students to discover following the spirit of the Act. The
innovation teachers must know the Professional Learning Community (PLC), where PLC
stands for Professional Learning Community, which means Community of Practice (CoP). It
is beneficial to society and the nation. "Teachers" are an essential mechanism to drive thequality of education. To be the frontline in developing the quality of the nation's population
to have potential. Competitiveness in the international arena to keep pace with the changing
world in the 21 century.
A professional learning community was a process. Create change by learning from the workof groups of people who come together to work together and support each other. Set learning
goals for learners and monitor and reflect on personal and overall performance through thelearning exchange process. Criticism, collaboration, a collaboration by focusing on
promoting the learning process holistically with at least five actions as follows: 1) Have acommon goal of managing learning/developing learners to their full potential 2) Exchange
learning from the work site / actual situation of the class 3) All parties involved in learningand joining forces / supporting the creation of change according to the goals 4) Criticism
reflects the results of student development and 5) HOPE was created for the team consistingof (1) honesty & humanity. (2) Option & Openness is the selection of the best for the learnerand is ready to reveal/ (3) Patience & persistence is the development of patience anddetermination. (4) Efficacy & enthusiasm built confidence in the results of learning
management methods that are appropriate for learners to learn and are eager to develop
themselves (Rewadee Chaichawarat, 2015) thoroughly.
Key attributes that contribute to professional learning communities, any school with a PLC
must be composed of members of the group mentioned above of individuals. Gathering ofmembers The professional learning community must also include key features, with various
key features that will contribute to PLCs. However, it could summarize the key features thatmake PLCs could be formed in five ways: 1) shared values and vision, 2) collective
responsibility for students learning, 3) reflective professional inquiry, 4) collaboration and 5)
supportive structural arrangements and collegial relationships (Hord, Roussin & Sommers,2009).
Research objectives
1. To study the concept of the professional learning community of teachers
2. To study the practice of using the professional learning community process ofteachers
3. To compare the conceptions and practices of teachers' professional learning
community processes
Scope of research
Variable scope
General data variables included: Teaching experience, School size and academic level of theteacher.

ISSN: 2189-101X

182

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Professional Learning Community Process consists of 1) the teacher's vision; 2) The practiceof teachers in the process of professional learning communities; there are four stages: work
planning, implementing solutions or encouraging students, Monitoring the implementation ofproblem-solving or promoting students and improving work plans.
Scope of demographics and samples
The population for this research is teachers who teach in schools, including elementary,
middle and high schools throughout Thailand. In order to analyze the research data,consisting of comparative analysis of t-test mean and F-test, the researchers determinedvarious values using F-test analysis, which defined effect size f as 0.25, the tolerance level of
0.05, the number of 8 groups, and the number of respondents was 360 samples.
The research methodology
Research tools
The questionnaire consists of 3 parts:
Part 1 General information includes: Grade Level Taught Teaching experience, teacher
status, subject group, and school size.
Part 2: Teachers' Views on Professional Learning Communities There are three responses:
yes, no, and unsure.
Part 3 Teacher Practice in the Professional Learning Community Process Five of the 15 items
are estimated levels. Work Planning Implementing solutions or encouraging students
Monitoring the implementation of problem-solving or promoting students and improving
work plans.
Data Collection
This research collected data by submitting an online questionnaire courtesy letter to theschool director and determining the number of respondents in each school to distribute to all
subject groups, checking the completeness of the questionnaires received. Once 360 copies ofcomplete responses have been received, the online questionnaire system will be turned off.
Data Analysis
This research is quantitative, so the data is analyzed with statistics, consisting of narrative
statistics and inferential statistics, in order to answer the research objectives as follows: A
study of teachers' professional learning communities. First, analyze data with descriptive
statistics. Second, Analyze data with inferential statistics.
Results
This research presented the findings in three parts: 1) the results of the general data analysisof the respondents, 2) the results of the study of the teacher's professional learning
community, and 3) the comparative effects of the teacher's professional learning community

ISSN: 2189-101X

183

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

process when teachers have different teaching experiences, subject groups and school sizes
vary. Detail as follows:
Parts 1: The results of the general data analysis of the respondents
Most teachers have less than ten years of teaching experience, followed by 11-20 years ofexperience—in primary and high school, respectively. Most subjects are taught inmathematics, followed by science and technology learning and religious and cultural studies,
respectively. Teacher's Academic Status It was found that most teachers have a particular
education level, followed by skilled teachers. In terms of school size, most of them teach inextra-large schools, followed by medium-sized ones.
Part 2: Analysis of teachers' views and practices in the professional learning community
In this section, the researchers presented the results of the analysis of teachers' ideas to theprofessional learning community. The teacher considers the question and answers yes, no, or
unsure. If a teacher chooses a "yes" answer, it reflects the teacher's mindset towards the teacher's
professional learning community. The results of the analysis were presented as shown in Table 1.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

Table 1: Teachers' Views on Professional Learning Communities
Percentage of response
Teachers' views on professional learning communities
Yes
No
Not
sure
Development of learning management based on principles PLC
98.1
0.3
1.7
teachers need to have a discussion together.
PLC group members must set goals for learning management in
88.3
7.5
4.2
the same direction.
The main goal of PLC is teacher development.
60.8
29.7
9.4
PLC's main goal is to develop learners.
94.4
2.5
3.9
PLC members must assume leadership and follower roles in the
88.3
8.1
3.6
exchange of learning.
After solving problems in class Teachers and PLC members
95.8
1.4
2.8
must discuss the results.
PLC activities require observation of teaching by peers.
85.8
5.6
8.6
Reflection of teaching observations is necessary in the PLC
91.7
4.7
3.6
process.
Once the results of the discussion have been applied in the
54.7
37.8
92.5
course of the course, it is necessary to follow up on the results.
Performance must always be recorded.
92.8
3.9
3.3
Table 1 shows that teachers have the right mindset towards the professional learning
community process. The percentage of "yes" responses is 85 per cent or higher. However,some issues show teachers must understand the professional learning community process.
Applying the discussion results to the teaching and learning needs to be followed up.
Teachers agree only a hundred 54.7.
Teachers' practice of PLC found that they are implementing solutions or encouraging
students Monitoring the implementation of problem-solving or promoting students, andimproving the work plan, which has a range of points. For example, 1.00 – 2.33 means

ISSN: 2189-101X

184

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedingscommon practice, 2.34 – 3.66 means reasonable practice 3.67 – 5.00 means much practice.
The results of the analysis are shown in Table 2.
Table 2: Teachers' Practices in Professional Learning Community Processes
Compliance with professional learning community processes
You analyze student needs to plan your collaboration with PLC members.

Mean
3.47

SD
1.009

You and PLC members jointly set group performance goals in both the
shaky and long-term phases.
You and members PLC jointly researches information from various sources
for use in planning work.
You and PLC members work together in a friendly way. Have trust andhelp each other.
You solve student learning problems according to the plan set out with PLC
members.
You collect student data during problem-solving operations, such as
observing, discussing, etc.
The solution is reviewed and monitored for collaboration with PLC
members.
You and plc members empower each other to build confidence andencouragement to take action against students.
He observed the teaching of PLC group members as an accompaniment to
the review of student problem solving.
You propose the results of the solution to plc group members fordiscussion and review together.
You and PLC members jointly analyze the strengths and weaknesses of thesolution applied to students.
You improve your plan to work with PLC members based on student
learning outcomes data after receiving a solution.
You are constantly improving your approach or problem-solving model.

3.52

.990

3.51

1.042

3.76
3.56

1.059
1.002

3.60

1.024

3.53

.993

3.67
3.51

1.006
1.012

3.54

1.001

3.56

1.003

3.54
3.53

.987
1.018

3.56
3.71

1.038
1.052

You and your members seek to review solutions and seek new approaches
to solve problems.
You and your members encourage you to work together to solve problems
and rejoice in your success.

Table 2 shows the teachers' practice of professional learning communities was observed.
Most of them are moderate, with only some issues practised to a large extent, including
friendly collaboration, trust and mutual support. Empowering and encouraging each other totake action to solve problems with students, and encouraging them to work together to solve
problems and rejoice in each other in their success.
Part 3: Comparative results of teachers' professional learning community processes Whenteachers have teaching experience, the subject groups that teach the school size andacademic level are different. Details are shown in Tables 3 and 4.

ISSN: 2189-101X

185

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Table 3: Comparison of teachers' professional learning community mindsets(When teachers have different teaching experiences, subject groups and school sizes vary.)
Teaching experience
SS
df
MS
F
Sig.
Between groups
75.001
36
2.083
.936
.578
Within a group718.974
323
2.226
total
793.975
359
Grade Level Taught
Between groups
.055
2
.027
.012
.988
Within a group
793.920
357
2.224
total
793.975359
Strands
Between groups
13.160
6
2.193
.992
.431
Within a group780.815
353
2.212
total
793.975
359
Academic Level
Between groups
7.117
2
3.559
1.615
.200
Within a group786.858
357
2.204
total
793.975
359
Table 3 shows that when comparing teachers' views to professional learning communities,
they were classified as teaching experience, School size and academic level. Not all variables
were found.
Table 4: Comparison of teachers' use of professional learning community processes(When teachers have different teaching experience, subject groups and school sizes vary.)
Comparative results of teachers' practice in using professional learning community
processes Classified by variables
SS
df
MS
F
Sig.
Teaching experience
Between groups
35.489
36
.986
1.144
.269
Within a group278.301
323
.862
total
313.791359
Grade Level Taught
Between groups
.053
2
.026
.030
.970
Within a group313.738
357
.879
total
313.791359
Strands
Between groups
1.149
6
.191
.216
.972
Within a group312.642
353
.886
total
313.791359
Academic Level
Between groups
Within a group
total

ISSN: 2189-101X.797
312.994
313.791

2
357
359

186

.398
.877

.454

.635

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Table 4 shows that when comparing teachers' practices in using professional learning
community processes classified by Teaching experience, School size and academic level, Not
all variables were found.
Conclusion and discussion the findings
This research summarized and discussed the findings in order by research objectives. Details
are as follows:
Objective 1: To study the concept of professional learning communities of teachers. In
conclusion, teachers have an essentially correct view of the professional learning community,
determined by the teacher answering the questions correctly. There are only some issues
where teachers need more accurate views, such as monitoring teaching performance after
discussions on improving teaching and learning due to the practice of teaching and learningin educational institutions. Most of them have a teaching style based on the content set out inthe textbook. As a result, the teaching method must be adjusted according to the content ofeach subject. Once the teaching development guidelines are discussed and implemented,
there is no follow-up.
In addition, in the big picture, Teachers have a strong view of the professional learning
community due to the Office of the Basic Education Commission by the Office of Teacher
Development and Basic Education Personnel conducting training to drive the PLC(Professional Learning Community) process "Professional Learning Community" toeducational institutions for in-service education with a total of 687 students. It can expand theresults for relevant persons and design supervision, monitoring, and encourage school
administrators and teachers to implement the PLC (Professional Learning Community)
process, professional learning community, into practice in educational institutions. The mosteffective way to the school is concrete. Therefore, the Office of the Basic Education
Commission asked the school district office to appoint a steering committee. PLC process"Professional Learning Community" to educational institutions at the level of school district
offices and send six representatives of each school district to attend workshops to drive the
PLC process "Professional Learning Community" to educational institutions. It can beextended to individuals involved in the agency and jointly plan the drive. PLC process, a
professional learning community effectively implement in educational institutions andsustainably develop the quality of education.
Objective 2: To study the practice of using teachers' professional learning community
process. Teachers were mainly moderate, reflecting that teachers may not have fully
implemented the learning community process on all issues. Although this may be due to theintegration of learning, any change or policy to drive the whole system was challenging.
Therefore, schools need to create PLCs that align with the school's professional nature andhave a strong community (Senge, 1990). Have consensus and faith in work. "Teachers forStudents Together" Therefore, the atmosphere of coexistence is an atmosphere of "academic
community" (Surapon Thamromdee, Thasanee Chanin, and Kongkrit Traiyawong, 2010)
characterized by a community of generosity based on "professional power" and "moral
power" (Sergiovanni, 1994).
In addition, there was a high level of teacher practice, including friendly collaboration, trust
and mutual support. Empowering each other to solve problems with students and encouraging
them to work together to solve problems and rejoice in each other in success, all of which are

ISSN: 2189-101X

187

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

part of building morale and empowering each other because PLC affects teachers. The
teacher's teaching work increases the sense of commitment to the school's mission and goals
by increasing the enthusiasm to fulfil the mission actively, resulting in the desire to learn
together and take responsibility for the overall development of the students. In other words,
knowledge and beliefs about teaching methods and learners are discovered throughobservation, attention, and understanding of the subject matter that must be managed to
become more aware of the role and teaching behaviours that will help students learn best. In
addition, the broader and faster acknowledgement of the information necessary for the
profession has a positive effect on improving professional development at any time, resulting
in an inspiration to develop and dedicate the profession to the students, which is both
valuable and morale for the betterment of the work. More importantly, it can also reduce theleave rate compared to schools. The old model has also found progress in adapting howlearning is managed following the learner's characteristics. Moreover, faster than in
traditional schools, there is a bond to create new changes to appear (Office of the Basic
Education Commission, Ministry of Education, 2017).
Objective 3: To compare the views and practices of teachers' professional learning
community processes. When the teacher has teaching experience, the subject group teaches.
Different school sizes and academic levels showed whether the teachers had teachingexperience and the subject groups taught. The mindset and practice of using teachers'
professional learning community process were the same due to the continued expansion andfollow-up of studies.
In conclusion, PLC is based on the concept of the business sector about The ability oforganizations to learn (Thompson, Gregg, & Niska, 2004) is the introduction of theorganizational concept of learning is applied by explaining that comparing a school to an"organization" is probably inappropriate and correct. Indeed, schools are more "community"
than an organization, which is "organization" versus "community." There is a difference inthat community is internally tied together by values; the opposite of "organization" thatinvolves relationships between members in a way that is based on a descending level. It has acontrol mechanism, and a tight structure filled with The rules and culture of the exercise of
power are primary. While the "community" will use the influence of having shared values
and objectives, it is a relationship between professional members who are academicallyfriendly and based on interdependent principles. A collaborative approach to work that aims
to improve learners' learning is a priority. In addition, "organization" also creates certain
features, such as reducing the friendliness of each other. Therefore, if the school is viewed assuch an organization, it will give the school a formal style that creates a feeling. The greater
the interpersonal distance, there are many control mechanisms, and often a focus on thesubject as a technical task. On the other hand, if the school is accepted as having acommunity-based status, then the atmosphere that follows is that the members are Bonding
with each other with a common purpose that involves building intimate relationships andcreating an atmosphere where everyone expresses concern for each other and helps to see andcare for their mutual well-being (Sergiovanni, 1994). Shared care of learning and thecommunity's shared responsibility is to improve learners' learning.
The importance of PLC based on findings by Hord (1997) confirms that the implementationof the PLC model leads to qualitative changes in both professional and student achievementby synthesizing research reports on schools with PLC establishments, using the question ofwhat outcomes are different from those of conventional schools without professional
communities and, if different, how can they benefit teachers and students?

ISSN: 2189-101X

188

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Issue 1: Good for teachers to reduce isolation in teaching work. There is a consolidation,unity, a collaboration of teachers. Administrators and educators in schools As Sergiovanni(1994) has said, PLC is a place for "interaction", reducing the "isolation" of the mass ofprofessional members of the school to work to improve student performance or schoolacademic work, which Hord (1997) viewed in the same perspective. It signifies teachers'collective leadership or allows them to be "presidents" for change (Critic Panich, 2012).
Having shared values and shared vision Collaborative learning and creative application ofwhat we learn This form of incorporation is driven primarily by the needs and interests of plc
members for learning and professional development toward student learning standards(Senge, 1990). Professional development as a "teacher for students" (Critique Panich, 2012)by seeing it as "our disciple" rather than as "my disciple". Change the quality of learning
management that starts from "teacher learning" as the starting point. Learn to see
improvements change. Develop their learning management for the learners as a priority.
Issue 2: Good for learners Found that PLC affects learners; that is, it can reduce the rate ofdropping classes and the number of classes that need to be postponed or delay learning
arrangements. The absenteeism rate is decreasing. The academic field in historical scienceand reading is significantly higher. Compared to the old school. Finally, there is a clear
difference in academic achievement between groups of students with different backgrounds
and an apparent decrease.
In short, PLC has evolved from a level strategy. Organizations that focus on adapting to The
rapid change of society begin with the concept of the learning organization and adapt it to bein line with the school context and collaborative learning in a professional way that has animportant function, namely the responsibility of learning of learners together, according toseveral studies of schools in the country. In the United States, plc operations have been foundto have a positive effect on both the teaching profession and learners, focusing on learners'
development.
Recommendations for the implementation
This research looked at teachers' perspectives and practices towards professional learning
communities. Users of the findings may consider designing PLC processes based on a list ofdifferent issues in this study, which will benefit teachers in reducing their sense of isolation in
their teaching work. First, increase a sense of commitment to the school's mission and goals.
By increasing enthusiasm to actively fulfil the mission, feeling that they need to takeresponsibility for the overall development of the students and jointly take responsibility as agroup for the success of the students, they feel the so-called "powerful learning", which
results in a better performance of teaching in their classrooms. In other words, newknowledge and beliefs were discovered in the way they teach and the learner himself, who
was not previously observed or interested. A better understanding of the subject matter to betaught and knowing the role and behaviour of teaching will help students achieve the bestlearning according to the expected criteria. Good results to improve their professional
development at any time. Teachers are inspired to inspire and continue to learn for students,
increase satisfaction, increase morale and reduce leave rates. Progress has been made inadapting teaching methods to reflect the characteristics of learners more prominently andfaster than those found in traditional schools. There is an obligation to make new changes
visible and sustainable. It wishes to bring about systematic change to the fundamentals of the
aspect.

ISSN: 2189-101X

189

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Recommendations for the subsequent research
PLC process models should be studied from abroad and led to the design and development ofvarious PLC processes following the conditions of the educational institution. Teacher
attributes Course attributes and learner characteristics to make appropriate choices fordifferent contexts.
Acknowledgement
This research was supported by the research scholarship from the faculty of social science’s
income 2021.

ISSN: 2189-101X

190

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

References
Boyd, V. (1992). School context. Bridge or barrier to change? Austin, TX : Southwest
Educational Development Laboratory.
Brandt, R. (1995, November). On restructuring schools : A conversation with Fred
Newmann.Educational Leadership, 53 (3), 70 – 73.
Darling – Hammond, L. (1994, November).The current status of teaching and teacher
development in the United States. New York : Teacher College, Columbia University.
Hord, S.M. (1997). Professional learning communities : Communities of inquiry andimprovement. Austin : Southwest Educational Development Laboratory.
https://journal.oas.psu.ac.th/index.php/asj/article/viewFile/125/688
Leithwood, K.A., et. al (2003). What we know about successful school leadership.
Philadelphia, PA : Laboratory for Student Success, Temple University.
Luis, K.S. & Kruse, S.D. (1995). Professional and community : Perspectives on reforming
urban schools. Thousand Oaks, CA : Corwin Press.
Marquardt, M.J. (1996). Building the learning organization. New York : Mc. Graw – Hill.
Morrison, K. (2002). School leadership and complexity theory. New York : Routledge
Falmer.
Senge, P. (1990). The fifth discipline : The art and practice of the learning organization.New
York : Currency Doubleday.
Sergiovanni, T. (1998). International Journal of Leadership in Education. Vol.1 No.1, P. 37.
Stoehr, J., Banks, M., & Allen, L. (2011). PLCs, DI, & RTI : A Tapestry for school change.
Thousand Oakes, California: Crowin.
Wallace Jr., R.C., et al. (1997). The learning school, Thousand Oaks, CA : Corwin Press Inc.
Contact email: anchalee@g.swu.ac.th

ISSN: 2189-101X

191

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

ISSN: 2189-101X

192

Official Conference Proceedings

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

The Promotion of Technology-Based Analytical Problem-Solving Skills (aPSS) Based on
the Cognitive Apprenticeship Approach and Through Adaptive Tutorial Feedback

Stefan Christian Ferner, University of Hamburg, Germany
Christopher Andre Klupak, University of Hamburg, Germany
Felix Walker, University of Hamburg, Germany

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023
Official Conference Proceedings

Abstract
The need to promote the aPSS of trainees in the technical-commercial sector results fromvarious reasons. On the one hand, the digitalisation and automation of industrial production
processes has led to increased demands on future maintenance staff. On the other hand, at theend of the dual initial training of electronics technicians for automation technology, there wasa discrepancy between the curricular requirements and the actual existing competences. This
results in a need for support, which is to be countered in the sub-study of the TechKom
research project. The aim of the project is to investigate the influence of adaptive tutorial
feedback (ATF) and cognitive modelling on the development of aPSS. ATF is understood to
be information and assistance that adapts to the learning need situationally and provides only
what is actually needed. Based on the need for support and the aim of the project, thefollowing hypothesis is investigated: Trainees who only have access to the video for
cognitive modelling in the "modelling" phase acquire less aPSS than trainees who receive
ATF in the computer simulation while working on problems. To acquire aPSS, an automation
system was digitally simulated. The trainees use the simulation of an industrial automation
plant to carry out strategy-guided troubleshooting. Learning videos (CA approach) and the
ATF were implemented within the digital automation system. In the further course, the first
results about the influence of the adaptive-tutorial feedback will be presented.

Keywords: Analytical Problem-Solving Skills, Adaptive Tutorial Feedback, Cognitive
Apprenticeship-Approach, Computer-Based Environment, Simulated Industrial Automation
Systemiafor
The International Academic Forumwww.iafor.org

ISSN: 2189-101X

193

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Introduction
1) Theoretical preliminary overviewa) Excursus: Industry 4.0 and VET research in Germany
With the arrival of Industry 4.0 in the 2010s came a plethora of expectations, promises,
benefits and technologies, but also increased demands on workers in the industrial sector.
Internet of things, Smart Factory, Intelligence Sensors, Artificial Intelligence (AI) or
Virtual/Augmented Reality (VR/AR) are just a few examples that are listed as key
technologies in Industry 4.0 and pick up on the previously mentioned concepts (Kamarul
Bahrin, Othman, Nor Azli, & Talib, 2016, p. 138; Wichmann, Eisenbart, & Gericke, 2019,p. 2131).
Technological changes in the industrial sector have led to the emergence of new professions,the revision of existing professions or the need to retrain workers (Schäfer, Link, & Walker,
2020, pp. 131–132).
In recent years, due to technological and educational policy developments in Germany, there
have been many efforts to investigate and empirically confirm a competence model for the
training occupation of electronics technician for automation technology (Schäfer & Walker,
2018, p. 68), as the vocational training sector in particular has received little attention to date
(Beck, Landenberger, & Oser, 2016, pp. 9–10).
Within the nationwide research initiative ASCOT1, the sub-project KOKO EA2 wasintegrated, which investigated and validated the competence structure of electronics
technicians for automation technology (Walker et al., 2016, 160, 162-163). This showed thatthe professional competences are made up of two sub-competences (Expert knowledge andproblem-solving skills, see Figure 1).

Different factors: Intelligence, motivation,
basic competencies, teach/learningrequirements

Expert knowledge

Factual knowledge

Problem-solving skills (PSS)

Practical knowledge

Analytical problemsolving skills (aPSS)

constructive
problem-solving
skills (cPSS)

Figure 1: Competence model of professional knowledge (Walker et al., 2016, p. 142)

1

Technology-based Assessment of Skills and Competences in Vocacional Education and Training (Research
project from 2011-2015 in Germany).
2Competency measurement and modeling for electronics technicians for automation technology.

ISSN: 2189-101X

194

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

In addition, the sub-competences addressed can be further differentiated: The factual
knowledge and the practical knowledge form the expert knowledge and the analytical andconstructive problem-solving skills form the superordinate problem-solving competence.
Studies conducted in the KOKO EA project also showed that the participants had weaknesses
in the aPSS, as one third of the participating trainees did not have the curricular requirements
and thus there was a discrepancy between the expected and the actual competences (Walker
et al., 2016, p. 163).
Since the study conducted is specifically concerned with researching and promoting
analytical problem-solving competence, no further differentiation of the competence model ismade, and the focus is placed on the PSS term. PSS is understood as the application of expert
knowledge in problematic action situations (Walker, Link, & Nickolaus, 2015, p. 224). With
this understanding it follows that the expert knowledge is to be regarded as a prerequisite forsuccessful troubleshooting or the software-side expansion of a programmable logic controller(PLC). Thus, troubleshooting represents the aPSS and the concrete use of knowledge about
PLCs - e.g. programming a PLC program - represents the constructive sub-dimension. The
assumption that expert knowledge must be available to be able to deal with a problematic
situation was confirmed by the high influence of specialist knowledge in the areas ofautomation technology (AT)/PLC on fault diagnosis (Walker et al., 2016, p. 163).
Furthermore, it was shown that the analytical and constructive PSS can not only be explained
based on expert knowledge but can also be assumed as independent dimensions with acorrelation value r of 0.58 (Walker et al., 2016, p. 163).
With the confirmation of the competence model presented above as well as the analyticalproblem-solving competence standing on its own and the special need for support located init, the follow-up project TechKom3 resulted, which is embedded in the nationwide transfer
initiative ASCOT+4.
b) Training in computer-based learning environment: Troubleshooting in simulation
systems
To reduce the deficits in aPSS and to address the complexity of error cases, a web-based
simulated industrial automation system (SIAS) was developed with which trainees canprocess various error cases and practice troubleshooting on automation systems. Furthermore,
it was shown that a simulation system can also be used to promote analytical problem-solving
skills (Walker et al., 2016, p. 159).
The error cases implemented in the simulation system cover the areas of mechanics, electricalengineering and PLC to realistically represent professional reality. A real system (see Figure2), which produces a cube from two individual metal pieces in an error-free environment,
served as the basis for development.

3
4Technology-based assessment and promotion of competences.
Follow-up project of the ASCOT project.

ISSN: 2189-101X

195

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Figure 2: Real model from industrial automation system (Own illustration)
Generally, error diagnosis is understood as the process of identifying and interpreting
situations that differ from the nominal situation. For the project, this means that thesimulation system deviates from its nominal state in the individual error cases and thesubjects must make a diagnosis of the actual situation. The need for training in problemsolving skills is not only evident in the findings on curricular discrepancies. In the past two
decades, a number of studies have shown that trainees were inadequately prepared withregard to fault diagnosis in electrical and metal engineering fields (Matthes, Schmidt, Kybart,& Spangenberger, 2021, p. 32). In particular, the studies by Walker, Link, Mohr and Schäfer(2018), Abele, Walker and Nickolaus (2014) and Becker (2009) have shown that there is aneed to promote error diagnosis skills in the form of training.
The web-based simulation system used can be seen in the figure below.

Figure 3: Implemented web-based SIAS - Introduction in LMS (Own illustration)c) Adaptive tutorial Feedback (ATF)
In addition to the error cases, adaptive tutorial feedback (ATF) is implemented. The study
uses the feedback concept according to Narciss (2006). Narciss understands the term
feedback to mean information that is intended to help learners solve a task correctly, which is
why Narciss also speaks of informative feedback. Informative feedback can be combined

ISSN: 2189-101X

196

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

with adaptive learning environments, which are teaching systems that adapt to the needs ofthe learners (Marschner, 2011). The ATF follows from the combination of informative
feedback and adaptive learning environments. The ATF was chosen because previous
research showed that feedback has a positive impact on student achievement (Butler,
Godbole, & Marsh, 2013; Hattie, 2009). In addition, Sweller, van Merrienboer and Paas
(1998) found that the working memory is less stressed when information is provided
according to the situation. Finally, the results of Schaper, Hochholdinger and Sonntag (2004)
should be mentioned, in which the effectiveness of ATF was tested and confirmed.
ATF is presented in the form of a chat. Here, the participants who are assigned to theexperimental group (EG) receive written information from the maintenance manager about
the source of the error (see Figure 4).

presented feedback

Figure 4: Implemented ATF in LMS.
Here: Presented feedback "I am sure it is neither a mechanical nor an electrical error case."(Own illustration)
For the design of the ATF, the design principles according to Narciss (2006) were used. For
example, the subjects are given the opportunity to think about the possible cause of the error after
the help has been given (see Figure 4). In addition, the ATF is only displayed via the chatfunction when a counter, which is active in the background of the browser, recognizes thenecessity. In addition, the help is provided in a gradation that leads the subjects to the source ofthe error in a more and more targeted manner with a correspondingly high processing time. In
this way, the application of the help is always brought to the fore.

d) Troubleshooting strategies according to the Cognitive Apprenticeship-Approach(CAA)
In the study, solution videos were integrated according to the cognitive apprenticeshipapproach (CAA) of Collins, Brown and Newman (1989). Here, an expert demonstrates aprocedure to pass on the expert knowledge to learners, who are supposed to acquire thepractical knowledge and apply it independently. Within the teaching method (six phases intotal), the expert recedes more and more into the background, so that the learner
independently carries out the demonstrated approach. These solution videos are intended tobridge the gap between expert knowledge and the application of this knowledge to problems,
which is not always successful, especially with learners (Collins et al., 1989, p. 454). The

ISSN: 2189-101X

197

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

CAA is associated with improved performance in diagnostic competence in a wide range of
disciplines, including medicine (e.g. Gräsel & Mandl, 1993), nursing (e.g. Küng, Staudacher,& Panfil, 2018) and technology (e.g. Gschwendtner & Geißel, 2020). Furthermore, long-termcompetence acquisition, individual support and clear lesson structuring have been
documented.
At the beginning of the study, video-based support was provided in the modelling phase. The
expert introduced the concept of the simulated industrial plant to help build the mental model.
Subsequently, the participants worked on a practice task ('practice error case') within thecomputer-based learning environment. Within the practice error case, coaching is provided
by the expert. Thus, the first two phases first show the procedure within the simulation
system before feedback is given to the test persons. Subsequently, both in the pre-test and in
the intervention phase, the existing error cases were worked on independently. After thecause of the error has been diagnosed, the error case is documented in the articulation phasewithin an error log. After the articulation of the fault, the above-mentioned expert comes tothe fore again in the form of video-based support and describes the concrete procedure offault diagnosis for the corresponding fault case.
All error cases follow the same procedure, which can be summarized as follows:

Figure 5: Cycle of the first four phases of the CAA.
Here: Implemented method in connection with troubleshooting in the LMS(Own illustration).
In the study conducted, only the first four phases are used. The ATF is made available to thetrainees during the scaffolding phase.
2) Study: Technology-based assessment and promotion of competences (TechKom) inelectrical and metal-technical vocational education and training
The simulation system used was embedded in a Learning Management System (LMS). This
had the advantage that trainees could access the system from anywhere and thus work on theerror cases either in the company or from home. Furthermore, log files and the answers could
be extracted by the LMS and its backend, so that the exact clicking behavior of theparticipants could be investigated in the future. Figure 6 shows the LMS.

ISSN: 2189-101X

198

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Figure 6: Implemented web-based SIAS in LMS (Own Illustration)a) Hypothesis
Trainees who only have access to the video for cognitive modelling in the "modelling" phaseacquire less aPSS than trainees who receive ATF in the computer simulation while working
on problems.
b) Research design
The study features a pretest-intervention-posttest Experimental-Control-Group design (seeFigure 7). In Measuring time 1 (MT1, Pre-test), general test items and eight professional test
items were first inquired among all participants in the form of error cases on the aPSS.
Subsequently, the participants were divided into a Control Group (CG) and Experimental
Group (EG) for the processing phase (intervention phase). After completion of theintervention phase, the participants received eight test items on the second day in Measuring
time 2 (MT2, Post-test), which were identical to those from the Pre-test.

Figure 7: Research Design (Own illustration)c) Method
The methodology behind the study is by means of hypothesis testing in a longitudinal CG-EG
design. Hypothesis testing was conducted using a general analysis of variance (ANOVA) anda t-Test for independent groups.
To be able to test the hypothesis, two procedures of ANOVA were used: (1) the General
Linear Model (GLM) with repeated measures and the Univariate Analysis of Variance(UAV). The first procedure was used to be able to include the temporal influence in the data

ISSN: 2189-101X

199

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

analysis. The t-test was used to be able to analyze the mean value of both groups of the Preand Post-test.
Conclusion
1) Results
Of the total 102 trainees who participated, 97 subjects took the demographic test. Of these 97,
83 stated that they were male and 12 females. In addition, two respondents indicated neither /nor, which includes non-binary. The age range of the subjects was about 17 to 25 years andthe average age was about 20 years and 5 months. Of the 97 subjects, 54 stated that they weretraining to become mechatronics technicians and the remaining 43 to become electronics
technicians for automation technology. For the overall analysis, the IQ value of 91 tended tobe below average.
a) t-Test of independent groups
In Table 1 you can see the group statistics.
Group Statistics
Control- or
Std.
Experimental-group
Mean
Deviation
Std. error(CG/EG)
N
(MV)
(SD)
mean
Total score SIAS – error CG
51
4,16
2,461
,345
cases Pre-test (MT1)
EG
48
3,71
2,212
,319
Total score SIAS – error CG
50
5,36
2,848
,403
cases Post-test (MT2)
EG
45
5,49
3,181
,474
Table 1: t-Test for independent random sample.
Here: Comparison from the achieved Mean of EG/CG in Pre- and Post-test
On the horizontal axis, the achieved points of the Pre-test (MT1) are plotted with the Post-test(MT2), while the groups CG and EG are found on the vertical axis. The MV reflects theaverage error cases solved in SIAS. A MV of 4.12 indicates that subjects assigned to the CG
were able to achieve an average of four (rounded down) points in the MT1. In contrast, in EG
only slightly less than four (MV = 3.76 points). The average MV was 3.95 points in the Pretest and 5.42 points in the Post-test (MT2). If the MV’s of the two groups are compared
between the MT1 and MT2, then it is noticeable that both groups were able to generate anincrease in the average total points achieved. The largest increase can be found within theEG, which increased their MV by +1.73 points to 5.49. The CG increased their MV (= 5.36)
by +1.24 points.
b) Analysis of variance (ANOVA)b.1) General Linear Model (GLM) with repeated measures
After the group statistic, the ANOVA test was performed using the GLM with repeatedmeasures. This was performed with the Within-Subjects Contrasts (see Table 2) and
Between-Subject Effects (see Table 3).

ISSN: 2189-101X

200

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Tests of Within-Subjects Contrasts
Maß: MASS_1

SourceError_cases

Error_cases
LinearError_cases*
LinearGroup (CG/EG)
Error(Error_cases) Linear

Type IIISum ofSquares
104,693df
1

Mean
SquareFSig.
104,693 26,899 <,001

2,882

1

2,882

361,960

93

3,892

,741

,392

Partial Eta
Squared,224,008

Table 2: General Linear Model (GLM) with repeated measures.
Here: Tests of Within-Subjects Contrasts
With a significance value of p < .001*** and thus highly significant, it shows that therepeated measures have a high influence on the data. Furthermore, the partial Eta-square (η2)
indicates the effect size. With a value of η2 = .224, which is above the threshold of .14 forlarge effects, it again shows a large effect of repeated measures on error detection. If the twovalues for the pairing Error_cases*Group (CG/EG) are analyzed, then it is noticeable that thesignificance (p = .392) increases significantly and the η2 (= .008) drops by a multiple. Thus,
because of the exceeded significance threshold and the fallen effect size, the groupmembership does not take a statistically significant influence on the error diagnosis.
In another analysis, the influence of Between-Subjects Effects was examined. The analysis
took fault finding as a constant variable and examined the statistical influence of groupmembership. Here, it can again be seen that repeated measures exerts a highly significant
influence (p < .001*** and η2 = .807 in Table 3) on the Post-test score obtained, while groupmembership again exerts no influence on the Post-test.
Tests of Between-Subjects Effects
Measure: MEASURE_1
Transformed Variable: Average
Type IIISum ofSourceSquares
Df
Intercept
4151,899
1
Group (CG/EG)
Error

ISSN: 2189-101X

,657

1

Mean SquareF
4151,899
388,303
,657

,061

Sig.
<,001

Partial Eta
Squared
,807

,805

,001

994,396
93
10,692
Table 3: General Linear Model (GLM) with repeated measures.
Here: Tests of Between-Subjects Effects

201

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedingsb.2) Univariate Analysis of Variance (UAV)
Tests of Between-Subjects Effects
Dependent Variable: Total score SIAS – error cases Post-test
Type III Sum
Sourceof Squares
df
Mean SquareF
Sig.
a
Corrected Model
277,20110
27,7204,114<,001
Intercept
213,948
1
213,948
31,754 <,001
Group (CG/EG)
3,054
1
3,054
,453
,503
Score_Pre-test
276,808930,756
4,565
<,001
Error
565,957
84
6,738
Total
3635,000
95
Corrected Total
843,158
94
a. R Squared = ,329 (Adjusted R Squared = ,249)
Table 4: Univariate Analysis of Variance (UAV).
Here: Tests of Between-Subjects Effects

Partial Eta
Squared
,329
,274
,005
,328

As in the previous presentations of results, the significance and the η2 are again considered(see Table 4). First, the corrected model is highly significant (p < .001***) and has a higheffect size (η2 = .329). Furthermore, significant statements can be made about the sources'Score_Pre-test'. The Pre-test has a significant influence (p < .001***) on the total scoreachieved in the Post-test. Moreover, because of the partial eta-square, MT1 is shown to take alarge effect size (η2 = .328) on performance in the MT2.
2) Discussions
The mean values showed that there were differences between the groups of participants (CGvs EG). While in MT1 the CG was minimally 'better' (+.36) than the EG in MV, in MT2 it
was the other way around. Thus, the EG took the minimally better results with a MV of 5.49
compared to the CG (MV = 5.36). The increase in the MV achieved in each case also showsthat both groups were able to increase their performance in terms of error diagnosis. With thehigh increase in the score within the EG, it is evident that at first glance individuals with apoorer starting position were able to benefit particularly from training with the simulation
system.
With the analysis of variance, a much broader interpretation and discussion of the test results
is possible. First, it was shown that the repeated measures, in the form of the two error
diagnoses performed, has a statistically highly significant influence on the test results
obtained. In contrast, it was found that the group influence on the two tests performed was
not statistically significant. Thus, it was shown that the repeated measures have a direct effectand the group membership has no direct effect on the results of the Pre- and Post-test. Basedon these findings, further possible interpretations can be formulated. Due to the high effect of
the repeated measures and the increase in performance of both groups of persons, thestatement can be made that the CA-approach and the CBL in the form of the SIAS contributeto the increase in the problem-solving ability of trainees. Based on the non-significant effects
in relation to group membership (CG without ATF; EG with ATF), the statement can bemade that the ATF has a statistically non-significant influence on the test results of theparticipating trainees and thus the division into CG and EG is not statistically relevant forsuccessful error diagnosis.

ISSN: 2189-101X

202

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

With the results and the associated discussion, the hypothesis that was established cannot be
statistically confirmed. Nevertheless, a medium effect size was shown in an analysis ofcovariance between the group with the ATF and the points achieved in the post-test, which is
not shown here, making further analysis of the data and a further survey with a broader
sample necessary.
3) Limitations
There are some limitations to the results. First, the small number of participants should be
mentioned, which does not allow any statistically reliable statements. Especially with the factthat the already small sample of 102 trainees was further divided by the CG-EG design andwithin the group allocation the group was further reduced by invalid statements. The loss ofsubjects was not only observed in the intervention phase, but also in the first measurement
point in the general test parts. Here, a high loss of results was recorded in the intelligencetest. The third limitation was the usability problems of the simulation system. Here, server
problems, blockages by the firewall or the internet speed were significant limiting factors on
the part of the technology. The last point to mention is that no analysis of the log data was
made, but the answers were compared with an evaluation template. A log file analysis of the
problem-solving process would additionally validate the results, as the subjects' log files canbe used to check whether and to what extent the test persons responded to the ATF.
4) Outlook
To statistically validate the results, the main survey was launched in October 2022 and will
be completed in May 2023. The aim of the main survey was to achieve a sample size of n =300. In addition, we worked on the usability problems and reduced the number of error cases
to be processed from eight to six. We have worked with partners from industry and theeducation sector. Because of the cooperation, there was a high level of interest in the research
project and the simulation system on the part of the industry community. The broad use of thesimulation system for other industrial areas (e.g. process and control engineering) and theadded value of training systems in problem-solving were given as positive feedback to us.
The trainees also reported back that the training was a good idea. In addition, further usability
problems were addressed.
Finally, in the future, we will focus on log file analysis to be able to analyze the problemsolving behavior of the subjects more precisely.

ISSN: 2189-101X

203

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

References
Abele, S., Walker, F., & Nickolaus, R. (2014). Zeitökonomische und reliable Diagnostik
beruflicher Problemlösekompetenzen bei Auszubildenden zum Kfz-Mechatroniker.
Zeitschrift Für Pädago-Gische Psychologie, 28, 167–179.
Beck, K., Landenberger, M., & Oser, F. (Eds.) (2016). Wirtschaft - Beruf - Ethik: Vol. 32.
Technologiebasierte Kompetenzmessung in der beruflichen Bildung. Ergebnisse ausder BMBF-Förderinitiative ASCOT. Bielefeld: W. Bertelsmann Verlag.
Becker, M. (2009). Diagnose als Aufgabe in gewerblich-technischen Berufsfeldern. Lernen& lehren. Lernen & Lehren, 24(95), 101–107.
Butler, A. C., Godbole, N., & Marsh, E. J. (2013). Explanation feedback is better than correct
answer feedback for promoting transfer of learning. Journal of Educational
Psychology, 105(2), 290–298. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0031026
Collins, A., Brown, J. S., & Newman, S. E. (1989). Cognitive apprenticeship: Teaching thecrafts of reading, writing, and mathematics. In L. B. Resnick (Ed.), Knowing,
learning, and instruction: essays in honor of Robert Glaser (pp. 453–494). Hillsdale:
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Gräsel, C., & Mandl, H. (1993). Förderung des Erwerbs diagnostischer Strategien in
fallbasierten Lernumgebungen. Unterrichtswissenschaft, 21.
https://doi.org/10.25656/01:8195
Gschwendtner, T., & Geißel, B. (Eds.) (2020). Beiträge zur Technikdidaktik: Vol. 6.
Einblicke in aktuelle Forschungsarbeiten der Technikdidaktik. Berlin: Logos Verlag.
Hattie, J. (2009). Visible learning: A synthesis of over 800 meta-analyses relating toachievement (Reprinted.). London: Routledge.
Kamarul Bahrin, M. A., Othman, M. F., Nor Azli, N. H., & Talib, M. F. (2016). Industry 4.0:
A review on industrial automation and robotic. Jurnal Teknologi, 78(6-13), 137–143.
https://doi.org/10.11113/jt.v78.9285
Küng, R., Staudacher, D., & Panfil, E.‑M. (2018). Ein zentrales pädagogisches Modell für die
Praxisausbildung: „Cognitive Apprenticeship“. PADUA, 13(2), 115–123.
https://doi.org/10.1024/1861-6186/a000424
Marschner, J. (2011). Adaptives Feedback zur Unterstützung des selbstregulierten Lernens
durch Experimentieren (Dissertation). Universität Duisburg-Essen, Essen.
Matthes, N., Schmidt, K., Kybart, M., & Spangenberger, P. (2021). Trainieren derFehlerdiagnosekompetenz in der Ausbildung. Qualitative Studie mit Lehrenden im
Bereich Metall- und Elektrotechnik. Journal of Technical Education (JOTED), 9(1),32–53.

ISSN: 2189-101X

204

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Narciss, S. (2006). Informatives tutorielles Feedback. Entwicklungs- und
Evaluationsprinzipien auf der Basis instruktionspsychologischer Erkenntnisse.
Päädagogische Psychologie und Entwicklungspsychologie: Vol. 56. Münster:
Waxmann.
Schäfer, P., Link, N., & Walker, F. (2020). Assessing Professional Knowledge of Teachers at
Vocational Schools—Using the Example of a Professional Development for
Automation and Digitized Production. In E. Wuttke, J. Seifried, & H. M. Niegemann(Eds.), Research in vocational education: volume 4. Vocational education andtraining in the age of digitization: Challenges and opportunities (pp. 131–154).
Opladen, Berlin, Toronto: Verlag Barbara Budrich.
Schäfer, P., & Walker, F. (2018). Problemlösen im Bereich der Automatisierungstechnik –Entwicklung und Evalua-tion eines Lehrerfortbildungskonzepts. Journal of Technical
Education (JOTED), 6(4), 67–85.
Schaper, N., Hochholdinger, S., & Sonntag, K. (2004). Förderung des Transfers vonDiagnosestrategien durch computergestütztes Training mit kognitiver Modellierung.
Zeitschrift Für Personalpsychologie, 3(2), 51–62. https://doi.org/10.1026/16176391.3.2.51
Sweller, J., van Merrienboer, J. J. G., & Paas, F. G. W. C. (1998). Cognitive Architecture andInstruc-tional Design. Educational Psychology Review, 10(3), 251–296.
https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1022193728205
Walker, F., Link, N., Mohr, F., & Schäfer, P. (2018). Entwicklung eines
Fortbildungskonzepts: auf Basis des Ansatzes zum technologisch-pädagogischen
Inhaltswissen zu Industrie 4.0. Lernen & Lehren, 33(130), 53–59.
Walker, F., Link, N., & Nickolaus, R. (2015). Berufsfachliche Kompetenzstrukturen bei
Elektronikern für Automatisierungstechnik am Ende der Berufsausbildung. Zeitschrift
Für Berufs- Und WIrtschaftspädagogik, 111(2), 222–241.
Walker, F., Link, N., van Waveren, L., Hedrich, M., Geißel, B., & Nickolaus, R. (2016).
Berufsfachliche Kompetenzen von Elektronikern für Automatisierungstechnik –Kompetenzdimensionen, Messverfahren und erzielte Leistungen (KOKO EA). In K.
Beck, M. Landenberger, & F. Oser (Eds.), Wirtschaft - Beruf - Ethik: Vol. 32.
Technologiebasierte Kompetenzmessung in der beruflichen Bildung. Ergebnisse ausder BMBF-Förderinitiative ASCOT (pp. 139–169). Bielefeld: W. Bertelsmann
Verlag.
Wichmann, R. L., Eisenbart, B., & Gericke, K. (2019). The Direction of Industry: A
Literature Review on Industry 4.0. Proceedings of the Design Society: International
Conference on Engineering Design, 1(1), 2129–2138.
https://doi.org/10.1017/dsi.2019.219

Contact email: stefan.ferner@uni-hamburg.dechristopher.andre.klupak@uni-hamburg.de
felix.walker@uni-hamburg.de

ISSN: 2189-101X

205

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

ISSN: 2189-101X

206

Official Conference Proceedings

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Reducing Inequalities in East Asia:
Challenge and Solution of Women in Modern China
Siriporn Dabphet, Srinakharinwirot University, Thailand
The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023
Official Conference Proceedings
Abstract
In this essay, the effects of patriarchy on gender inequities are examined, along with methods
for alleviating them in contemporary East Asian society. This study examines how genderequality has evolved in contemporary China, the social and political movements that haveinfluenced it, as well as the developments in female education and economic reform that havehelped to lessen gender disparities there. It does so by using a historical qualitative researchmethodology. The case study seeks to lessen inequality in China by examining the problems
and solutions faced by Chinese women from the time the Communist Party came to power in1949 to the present. According to the study, patriarchy, a set of interpersonal norms, values,
and beliefs that established a society dominated by men and was ingrained in political andsocioeconomic structures, once prevailed in East Asian civilization. Man and woman
experience gender inequality because of it. Yet, compared to other East Asian nations,particularly South Korea, China currently has superior conditions for women's rights.
According to the report, one of the key elements in lowering patriarchy is the social
revolution of the Chinese Communist Party. Importantly, the Party promoted gender equality
during Mao Zedong's rule by abolishing traditional patriarchal social norms and expanding
the role of women in the nation's development. The Chinese government's reform policies,
which support economic and social reforms, particularly those that support education, are thesecond major element in lowering gender inequality in China.
Keywords: Inequalities, Women, East Asia, China

iafor
The International Academic Forumwww.iafor.org

ISSN: 2189-101X

207

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

IntroductionMore than a century ago, East Asian society was still under norms of Confucianism whichwere roots of people’s way of life, culture and values, and marriage and family values. These
contributed to the society of patriarchy which is a system from five human relationships in
Confucianism, emphasized on social and family hierarchy in which male centered andcontrolled. The role of patriarchy’s social values has still seriously controlled in countries as
Korea and Japan. On the other hand, in China, an origin place of Confucianism, the role ofpatriarchy had gradually decreased. Chinese women today have more rights than Korean andJapanese women, despite the fact that the Chinese society still upholds the idea that the manis the family's head and the primary decision-maker.
This work examines the development and factors that impact on reducing inequalities in East
Asia, taking China as a case study. Although in the 21st century women’s status in terms ofoccupation, education and income are still lower than men, there are many changes that
support reducing gender inequality in China. This study thus analyzes factors that support the
reducing inequality of Chinese women through the processes of educational development andsocial revolution of China since the rule of the Chinese Communist Party. Also, challenge
and solution of women in modern China will be stated. The qualitative research methodology
in history was used through a study of document. Historical approaches on socio-cultural
history and microhistory are applied in the study. Statistics dealing with women andeducation in China and women’s movement and change of women’s status are main sourcesin analyzing the process and progress of reducing gender inequality in contemporary China.
The finding of the study may contribute to solution for unequal society or stimulate people torealize more on social justice and gender equality.
Discussion
1.

Gender Inequalities in East Asia: Past and Present

In traditional East Asian countries, China, Korea, and Japan, through Confucian thought, thesociety and people’s relationship were formed through a system of five human relationships
in Confucianism, emphasized on social and family hierarchy. Confucian influences led to astrongly hierarchical social structure and a stress on the family as the basic social unit. 1 The
family contains the most significant relationships for individuals and forms the roots of allsocial organization. Moreover, this principle contributed to the society of patriarchy, wheremale is a center in all socio-political organizations. By incorporating Confucianism into
traditional society, the roles of the ruler and the ruled, husband and wife, parent and kid, andolder brother and younger brother were all clearly defined. A father or husband is required totreat his wife with dominance and kindness in exchange for her love and obedience, toprovide his children with safety and guidance, and to respect and obey their parents andelders. Filial piety is the society's core virtue.
The traditional family structure was ruled by patriarchy. The father or oldest son was thefamily breadwinner. Traditionally, the mother's job was to handle domestic duties including
caring for kids or elderly relatives, cleaning, and cooking. Usually, the immediate family and
1Insook H. and L.J.Cho. (1995). Confucianism and the Korean Family. Journal of Comparative Family Studies,26: 117-118.

ISSN: 2189-101X

208

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

the extended family lived together. Only very remote cities still make use of this form of
construction nowadays. As a result, gender equality has gained acceptance. The guy was thehead of the family and had the responsibility of supporting his family according to thehierarchical structure of the traditional Chinese family. This responsibility gave him
unlimited control and the final say in all family problems. Women could only work andexercise as a result of family obligations.
Yet, modern East Asian civilization has seen certain changes. Modernization, which began in
East Asian countries in the 19th century, brought new practices and evolving customs. The
20th century did, however, see a number of developments brought about by political andsocial revolutions, economic expansion, and educational reforms, all of which helped
movements for women's rights advance.
Confucianism is still a powerfully significant religion in modern East Asia. Yet, women may
be more in charge of the home than males in some urban regions, like as Beijing andShanghai.2 Also, a lot of women who live in big cities will work to ease their husband's
financial load. Nonetheless, there is still a gender imbalance in both industry and politics.
Women are also expected to take care of the household chores and the children.
2.

China and Reducing Gender Inequalities

2.1

The Turn of the 20th Century and a Chance of Women’s Rights in China

In the 1910s and 1920s, Chinese scholars launched a campaign that was both an intellectual
revolution and a socio-political reform to rebuild society and change old Chinese cultures.
There were numerous activities and movements during these times that attempted to rebuild
Chinese society and culture from the ground up. 3 Criticism of China's traditions was widely
published, and the movement called "New Thought" was launched. One is advocating for
greater gender equality.The development of educational opportunities for women and female
liberation were instituted. As Mitter Rana, a historian and political scientist who specializes
in the history of modern China, said, this time was more open and helpful to women’s rights.4
Throughout these times, reformers and activists sought to elevate the dignity of the country
and change the fundamental makeup of Chinese society. They promoted a new Chinese
culture based on contemporary and Western scientific and democratic viewpoints while
simultaneously criticizing traditional Chinese beliefs and practices. Also, these malereformers attacked patriarchal norms and gender disparities in society. Despite the fact thatthe movement only had a small impact on some women who resided in metropolitan areas
and large cities like Beijing and Shanghai, women had greater access to university educationand employment opportunities in the 1910s than ever before. Hence, the May Fourth
Movement, often known as the first feminist movement, took place in 1919 on May 4th,
when female students and women protested in Beijing. Public awareness of gender equality
and women's liberation issues increased.5

2

Paul J. Treutel. 2011. Confucianism and the Modern East Asian, p. 35.
Ibid.
4
Rana Mitter. (2004). A Bitter Revolution. p.147.
5
Li Changli. (2010). The Social Consequences of the May Fourth Movement: The Establishmentof Women’s Property Rights. Chinese Studies in History, 43(4): 20.
3

ISSN: 2189-101X

209

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Nonetheless, women continued to strive for their freedom from maternal desires and forced
parenthood as well as their rights to vote, receive a divorce, work, and refuse having blind
marriages. 6
2.2

The Communist Social Revolution and Reducing Gender Inequalities

Since 1949, when the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) came to power, China's society has
seen significant change. Traditional standards were being eradicated in an effort to shift
logical knowledge to social practice. Examples of this include outlawing outdated and feudal
conventions and forbidding religious practices.7 The CCP also aimed to advance women's
freedom and gender equality.8
There were attempts to enhance women’s status throughout social movements and law
revision, for instance. As a Chinese scholar, Lin Chun, said:
Women's liberation had been highlighted in the communist agenda from the outset
and, in that sense, the Chinese revolution was simultaneously a women's revolution,
and Chinese socialism a women's cause. 9
To liberate women, the Communist Party launched a radical, extreme agenda. The 1950
Marriage Law, which was passed within the first year of the new government's
administration, provided the first hint of this reform. The Chinese Communists' experience
with marriage reform in the "red areas" and the manifestation of their concept of genderequality peaked with the promulgation of the 1950 Marriage Law. The first article ended thearchaic practice of "supremacy of man over woman" and established one of the most profeminist marriage laws ever. The People's Republic of China's Marriage Law was officiallyadopted on May 1 of that year. The "feudal marriage system" was attacked. According to thelaw, “marriages should be based on the free choice of the partners, on monogamy, equal
rights for both sexes and on the protection of the lawful interests of women and children.” Italso addresses child marriage, concubine use, polygamy prohibition, and divorce freedom. 10 Thislaw affected how women and girls were viewed in society.
Under Mao Zedong's direction, the CCP started the "Cultural Revolution" in 1966 with thegoal of eradicating the "impure" components of Chinese society, such as antiquated beliefs
and customs. The Four Cleanups Movement persisted in criticizing the "Four Olds" aspects
of Chinese society—old concepts, old traditions, old ways of life, and old culture—during the
Cultural Revolution.11 The goal of this movement was to eliminate "the old," such as
patriarchal family ideals and family hierarchy. Chinese society has incorporated both old
Confucian values and "the modern," such as individualism, individual rights, nationalism,
liberalism, women's rights, and belief in "science."

6

Sybilla G. Dorros. (1978). The Status of Women in The People’s Republic of China. p.2. online.
Mao Zedong. (1968). Four Essays on Philosophy. Online.
8
Li Yuhui. (2013). Women’s Movement and Changes of Women’s Status in China. Journal ofInternational Women’s Studies, 1(1): 30.
9
Lin Chun. (2006). The Transformation of Chinese Socialism. p.113.
10
Ilaria Storelli. (2021, 28 June). Marriage in Contemporary China and its Complexities. European Guanxi.
online11
Jonathan D. Spence. (2013). The Search for Modern China. p. 545.
7

ISSN: 2189-101X

210

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

2.3 Economic Reforms and the Improvement of Women’s Status
The Chinese government has started a variety of initiatives and campaigns since theimplementation of reform measures in China in 1978 with the goal of making China a
middle-income nation and boosting its gross national product (GNP) by the year 2000. The
family was abandoned as a unit of production as the Chinese economy changed. The
transition from arranged to free-choice marriages was facilitated by the industrialization andgrowth of education during those years. Communist officials in China had argued for giving
young people more leeway when it came to dating. But they opposed fostering a culture ofdating and trying out premarital sex.12 The 1980 Marriage Law backed the 1979 one-childpolicy, strengthened the Law of 1950, and stressed the significance of giving women andchildren preference when dividing property in the event of a divorce.
China has rapidly advanced from being a developing country to a country with a middle
income. The Chinese economy grew swiftly. Foreign commerce and investment wereprimarily to blame for the high growth rates. The GDP increased from 7.6% in 1979 to 13.5%
in 1985. In the 1980s, the growth rate of agricultural goods increased by a factor of 2.5.
Between 1983 and 1985, China had a huge wave of foreign investment that fueled the
expansion of non-state businesses. 40,000 projects were sponsored between 1979 and 1991
by collaborative investments from Chinese and foreign partners.13
Between the 1990s and the 2000s, the Chinese economy and living standards both increased
steadily. China has become the "world's factory" since its economy has continued to expand
quickly. In 2012, China's GDP overtook that of the United States to claim second position.
Chinese women were also impacted by the economic growth. The second-largest economy in
the world right now is China's. China is making the transition from being a developing
country to one with a high income and an upper middle-income status. China will
successfully eradicate its extreme poverty in 2022, according to the World Bank.14
2.4 Educational Equality and Female Education as a Chance of Reducing Gender
Inequalities
The rise of Communist rule in 1949 and the implementation of economic reform in 1978were two crucial turning points in the history of Chinese women. In Chinese traditionalsociety, there used to be a proverb that declared, "Too much learning does not make avirtuous woman." Women at this time made major sacrifices for their families and gave
domestic work and reproduction a high priority. As a result, they had restricted access toschooling. The Communist Party then, as previously mentioned, attempted to enhance thestatus of women by the legislation passed in 1950 and 1980. In addition to lowering income
inequality and improving living conditions, the national economic reform programs sought toincrease people's levels of education.
To reduce inequality, government funds and private investment were relocated to rural cities.
Social welfare and service improvements were undertaken to boost peoples' levels of living.
12

Xu Xiaohe & Martin K. Whyte (1990). Love Matches and Arranged Marriages: A Chinese Replication.
Journal of Marriage and Family. 52(3): 714.
13
Ibid. p. 417.
14
World Bank. (2022, 1 April). Lifting 800 Million People Out of Poverty – New Report Looks at Lessons from
China’s Experience. Online.

ISSN: 2189-101X

211

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

The opening of schools and colleges as well as the distribution of scholarships to students
across the country increased the number of graduate students enrolled in higher education,
which in turn increased their employability and opportunities.
To lessen inequality in urban and rural China, foster economic sustainability, and enhancepeople's well-being, a number of strategies were developed and put into practice. In an effort
to end poverty, raise living standards, and develop human resources, the government has
focused on closing the economic gap as well as the need to provide basic assistance. Building
and funding for colleges and universities. To raise the quality of education in the nation,
educational officials were dispatched to numerous rural locations to assist in creating local
curricula and train local academic staff. Supporting female education is a crucial step.
To improve the nation's food supply when the PRC was founded in 1949, the Communist
Party mandated that women participate in social production. Figure 1 illustrates the proverb"Women hold up half the sky," which gained popularity.15 When more women start voting intheir communities, socioeconomic changes will result from the increased representation of
women in the workforce in agricultural production and economic diversification. Chinese
women have been freed from "the shackles of tradition" during Communist control.16
After that, the Chinese government supported equal education by giving girls access to
education and starting a literacy program. Only 20% of Chinese citizens could read and writein 1949.17 As a result, many teachers have been dispatched throughout China, significantly
lowering rural illiteracy.18 As a result, from less than 30% in the 1940s to 66% in 1978, theliteracy rate significantly increased. In accordance with an education law passed in 1986, allchildren must attend school for a minimum of nine years. All around China, compulsory
schools have been established. The general literacy rate has also steadily increased, from 20%
in 1950 to more than 85% in 2001, according to the Ministry of Education. The number ofilliterate Chinese decreased by 40 million between 1990 and 2000.19

15

Ibid.
Louise Edwards. (2000). Women in the People’s Republic of China: new challenges to the grandgender narrative. In L. Edwards & M. Roces (Eds). Women in Asia: Tradition, Modernity andGlobalisation. p.59.
17
Xinhuanet.com. (2019, 25 September). How China Can improve its literacy rate to nearly 100 pct. Online.
18
Ted Plafker. (2001, 12 February). China's Long-but Uneven- March to Literacy. The New York Times. online.
19
Ibid.
16

ISSN: 2189-101X

212

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Figure 1: Propaganda posters “Women Hold Up Half the Sky”
Source: https://expandedanimation.net/2015/03/15/women-hold-up-half-the-sky/Industrialization and the shift to a market economy have given competent female workers
exceptional opportunities. Rural populations moved into urban areas in significant numbers
as a result of the high demand for inexpensive labor in coastal areas. Women with educations
benefited from landing a job. Young women from rural cities flocked to urban areas to workin factories because they made more money than people in other occupations, which allowed
them to become independent from their families.
Then, in the 1980s, the One Child Policy of 1980 and the Compulsory Educational Law of1986 were put into effect, having an impact on Chinese women. The one-child rule frequently
altered the mentality of parents. Children, whether girls or boys, were equally nurtured andtreasured because each household only had one child. Moreover, girls received more
attention. The Compulsory Educational Law boosted literacy rates and continued to balanceout educational disparity. 150 million pupils attended the more than 210,000 compulsory
schools that existed in 2018. With 291 million students registered, China had 529,300
educational institutions of various sizes and levels in 2021. There were 18,443,700 full-timeteachers employed. In 2021, there were 207,200 compulsory schools nationwide, with 158
million registered students, 34,880,200 new pupils enrolled, and 10,571,900 full-timeteachers. 20 China and Chinese women will therefore change as a result of these gains in
educational development and educational equality.
Figure 2 demonstrates a consistent rise in the proportion of girls enrolled in pre-primaryeducation. In basic and primary education, the gender pay gap has been gradually closing.
Elementary school enrolment reached 100% in 2018, while the gender gap between boys andgirls narrowed. 46.5% of kids enrolled in obligatory school were female. Indicator ranged
between 46.4% and 46.6% in 2019-2020, showing consistency.

20

Xinhuanet.com. (2019, 25 September). op.cit.

ISSN: 2189-101X

213

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Figure 2: Number and Proportion of Girls in Pre-primary Education, 2010-2020
Source: National Bureau of Statistics of China, 2021, Final Statistical
Monitoring Report on the Implementation of China National Program
for Women’s Development (2011-2020), online

Figure 3: Proportion of Girls in Regular Senior Secondary Education, 2010–2018
Source: http://www.stats.gov.cn/english/PressRelease/202001/t20200103_1721237.htmlX
In addition, there are more girls enrolling in senior secondary schools. 18.65 million girls
were enrolled in senior secondary education in 2018, making up 47.4% of all enrolled pupils,
an increase of 0.3 percentage points from 2010. The senior secondary enrollment ratio
increased by 6.3 percentage points from 82.5% in 2010 to 88.8% in 2018. In ordinary seniorsecondary school, the percentage of female students has increased by more than half since2015. According to Figure 3, it increased by 2.2 points from 2010 to 50.8% in 2018.
In China, "the National Program for Women's Development" (NPA) was continuously carriedout between 1995 and 2000, 2001 and 2010, and 2011 and 2020. The primary goals of the
NPAs are to advance women's position and rights in six different spheres: the economics,
participation in management and decision-making, education, health, law, and environment.21

21

All-China Women’s Federation. (2011). “2NPAS”, Women in China. online.

ISSN: 2189-101X

214

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

The program's two most significant goals are to advance women's development and topromote gender equality.
Increasing gender equality is an aim of the process of women's educational growth since it isa symbol of social development and civilization. The ongoing effort to educate women has
contributed to more women having access to higher education. The effort has made asignificantly above-average contribution to the quick advancement and achievement of
women's education in China and elsewhere. Since 2010, more students have enrolled inhigher education than ever before, from 26.5% in 2010 to 48.1% in 2018, and since 2015, the
NPA target of 40% has been achieved earlier than anticipated before the 2020 deadline.
In 2018, 1.36 million female graduate students, or 49.6% of all graduate students, wereenrolled in higher education. In colleges and universities, there were 14.87 million female
students, accounting for 52.5% of total students, up 1.6 percentage points from 2010.
Additionally, from 2010 to 2015, the proportion of female students in adult programs atcolleges and universities rose by 6.2 percentage points, reaching 3.51 million, or 59.4% of all
students enrolled.22 The growing number of female undergraduate and graduate students in
China's compulsory and higher education systems reflects the expanding social and economic
prospects for women in the country.

Figure 4: Proportion of female students entering higher education level 1978-2015
Source: https://www.sixthtone.com/news/1002051/is-gender-equality-at-chinese-colleges-asham%3F
In metropolitan regions, it appears that Chinese men and women can now access school on an
equal footing. Yet inequality still exists in rural regions. After elementary school, theenrolment rate for girls is still low in rural areas, highlighting the divide between these places
and urban areas in China.23 This disparity has been fully acknowledged by the Chinese
government, which has been working to close it in accordance with its policy on income andwealth inequality.

22

Ibid.
Siriporn Dabphet. (2016). China’s Economic Development: Income Inequality and Ethnicity. Proceedings ofthe 2016 ICBTS International Social Sciences Humanities and Education Research Conference. pp. 87 - 94.
23

ISSN: 2189-101X

215

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Conclusion
Gender equality has benefited from the PRC's processes for economic and educational
growth. Women who are educated are more aware of the importance of gender equality, andmore educated women are questioning established conventions. China implements rules andregulations to grant men and women equal rights to education. People gain from thegovernment's strategy of putting education first and developing it, and it contributes toclosing the educational gap between urban and rural areas. Women's educational situation
increased, greatly boosting their educational level, with the support of balanced developmentof compulsory education and other educational measures. It is incredible how well the goal oferadicating female illiteracy has been achieved. When the PRC was established in 1949, theilliteracy rate for women was significantly greater than it was for men. China has succeeded
in increasing literacy and eliminating illiteracy nationally as a result of numerous efforts,
including the first national education conference held in 1949, the 1956 Resolution to
Eradicate Illiteracy, the Law of Compulsory Education, and the NPAs between 1990 and
2020. As education has advanced, women's social status and equality have improved.
Acknowledgements
As part of the research on “Reducing Inequalities in East Asia: Challenge and Solution ofChinese Women in Modern China” supported by Faculty of Social Sciences,
Srinakharinwirot University, Thailand. I am thankful to the Faculty of Social Sciences forfunding.

ISSN: 2189-101X

216

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

References
All-China Women’s Federation. (2021). “2NPAS”, Women in China. Accessed 13 January
2023. https://www.womenofchina/html1/special/14/2021-1.htm
Branigan, Tania. “Beijing to pump 4tn yuan into economy to offset fall in exports” Accessed
14 October 2022. From http://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/ nov/10/ chinacredit-crunch, 2008.
Chow, Gregory C. China’s Economic Transformation. Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishers
Inc. 2002.
Dabphet, Siriporn. (2016). China’s Economic Development: Income Inequality and Ethnicity.
Proceedings of the 2016 ICBTS International Social Sciences Humanities andEducation Research Conference. Boston, USA. June 28 – July 4, 2016. pp. 87-94.
Diamond, Norma. (1975, Jan). Women under Kuomintang Rule Variations on the Feminine
Mystique. Modern China. 1(1): 3-45
Dorros, Sybilla G. (1978). The Status of Women in The People’s Republic of China. Accessed
2 December 2022. https://www.asj.upd.edu.ph/mediabox/archive/ASJ-161978/dorros-women-china.pdf
Edwards, Louise. (2000). Women in the People’s Republic of China: new challenges to
the grand gender narrative. In L. Edwards & M. Roces (Eds). Women in Asia:
Tradition, Modernity and Globalisation. Michigan: Allen & Unwin and University ofMichigan Press, pp. 59–84
Fairbank, John K. (1992). China A New History. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press.
Fukomoto, Tomoyuki & Muto, Ichiro. “Rebalancing China’s Economic Growth: Some
Insights from Japan’s Experience” Bank of Japan Working Paper Series. No.11-E-5
July 2011 Accessed 14 October 2022. http://www.boj.or.jp/en/
research/wps_rev/wps_ 2011/data/wp11e05.pdf , 2011
GDP Growth in China 1952-2011. Accessed 15 January 2023.
http://www.chinability.com/GDP.htm
Li, Changli. (2010). The Social Consequences of the May Fourth Movement: The
Establishment of Women’s Property Rights. Chinese Studies in History, 43(4): 20-42.
Li, Yuhui. (2013). Women’s Movement and Changes of Women’s Status in China. Journalof International Women’s Studies, 1(1): 30-40.
Lin, Chun. (2006). The Transformation of Chinese Socialism. Durham [N.C.]: Duke
University Press.
Mao, Zedong. (1968). Four Essays on Philosophy. Beijing: Foreign Language Press.
Mitter, Rana. (2004). A Bitter Revolution. New York: Oxford University Press.

ISSN: 2189-101X

217

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

National Bureau of Statistics of China. (2018). 2018 Statistical Monitoring Report on the
Implementation of China National Program for Women’s Development (2011–2020).
Accessed 15 January 2023
http://www.stats.gov.cn/english/PressRelease/202001/t20200103_1721237.html
Park, Insook H. and L.J.Cho. (1995). Confucianism and the Korean Family. Journal ofComparative Family Studies, 26: 117-134.
Plafker, Ted. (2001, 12 Febuary). China's Long - but Uneven -March to Literacy. The New
York Times. Accessed 15 January 2023.
https://www.nytimes.com/2001/02/12/news/chinas-long-but-uneven-march-toliteracy.html
Spence, Jonathan D. (2013). The Search for Modern China. 3nd Edition. New York: W.W.
Norton.
Storelli, Ilaria. (2021, 28 June). Marriage in Contemporary China and its Complexities.
European Guanxi. Accessed 3 January 2023
https://www.europeanguanxi.com/post/marriage-in-contemporary-china-and-itscomplexities
Treute, Paul J. (2011). Confucianism and the Modern East Asian. A thesis submitted to thefaculty of The University of Mississippi.
World Bank. (2022, 1 April). Lifting 800 Million People Out of Poverty – New Report Looks
at Lessons from China’s Experience. Accessed 13 November 2022
https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2022/04/01/lifting-800-millionpeople-out-of-poverty-new-report-looks-at-lessons-from-china-s-experience
Wu, Yingxue. (2022, May 4). Educational Equality Change in China and Its Function for
Gender Equality. Accessed 13 November 2022 https://www.kcl.ac.uk/educationalequality-change-in-china-and-its-function-for-gender-equality (Retrieved on 13
November 2022)
Xinhuanet.com. (2019, 25 September). How China Can improve its literacy rate to nearly 100
pct. Accessed 15 January 2023. http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/201909/25/c_138420577.htm
Xu, Duoduo. (2018). Is Gender Equality at Chinese Colleges a Sham? Accessed 13 November
2022. https://www.sixthtone.com/news/1002051/is-gender-equality-at-chinesecolleges-a-sham%3F
Xu Xiaohe. and Martin K. Whyte (1990). Love Matches and Arranged Marriages: A Chinese
Replication. Journal of Marriage and Family, 52(3), 709-722.

ISSN: 2189-101X

218

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Learning Material by Augmented Reality Technology About Korfball for HealthSuppawan Vongsrangsap, Kasetsart University, Thailand

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023
Official Conference Proceedings

Abstract
This research aimed to 1) develop the learning material by augmented reality technology
about korfball for health according to the performance criteria of 80/80 and 2) study thestudents’ satisfaction after learning with the developed learning material. The samples in thisresearch were the 50-1st year student in Physical Education and Health Education Faculty of
Education and Development Sciences Kasetsart University Kamphaeng Saen Campus, byvoluntarily. The research instruments included the learning material by augmented reality
technology about korfball, the performance evaluation of electronic media by using
augmented reality and a questionnaire on student’s satisfaction. The statistics used in thisresearch was the E1/E2, mean and standard deviation. The result of this research found thatthe efficiency of the developed instruction media was at 80.52/84.06, which was higher than
the specified criteria of 80/80 and the students’ satisfaction was at a highest level (x̅ = 4.87,
S.D. = 0.34).

Keywords: Learning Material, Augmented Reality Technology, Korfball, Healthiafor
The International Academic Forumwww.iafor.org

ISSN: 2189-101X

219

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Introduction
AR technology is an extension of Virtual Reality (VR) technology, which allows users to see
the virtual generated model objects in the background of the real environment. It has been
applied to military, medical, education, entertainment and other aspects. This interaction
technology is based on the real world and is enhanced by virtual data which provides people abetter way to display the learning content, and also builds a space for learners to explore
independently with a more appropriate way. AR technology is very instructive for thepresentation of abstract content. Because of its characteristics, AR technology has great
potential and opportunity for development in education field. The characteristics of AR
technical simulation and interaction can display the abstract and obscure knowledge in amore vivid, intuitive and comprehensive way, and can enhance students' sense of immersion.
Augmented reality (AR) has been slowly but surely following its predecessor virtual reality
in changing the education sector digitizing classroom learning, and making training morediverse and interactive. In this section, current studies in the literature in recent years on the
integration of augmented reality applications into education are given. When these studies are
examined;Çetin (2022) investigated the effect of augmented reality-based stories on reading skills in his
research. In the research, augmented reality-based story text samples were presented toprimary school 3rd grade students (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Augmented reality-based story text samples.
A scoring key was developed for the answers given to the questions prepared by the
researcher to measure the skills of expressing what they read in writing. As a result of theresearch, it was observed that the augmented reality-based stories did not have a significant
effect on the reading motivation and reading comprehension skill levels of the students, butthey created a positive significant difference on their ability to tell what they read in written
and verbal form. In addition, as a result of the research, it was observed that the reactions of
the students towards the texts increased.
As a similar study Baysan and Uluyol (2016) the effect of the use of augmented reality books(AR-books) on the academic success of the students and the students’opinions about theenvironment were investigated in his study. The AR-based teaching material developed by
the HITLibHZ-BuildAR program was used in the laboratory environment for theexperimental group of 22 people and the course was taught by the researcher. As a result;according to the qualitative data obtained from the students, AR is a promising technology.
Educational AR applications should be used in areas that require 3D spatial visualizationsuch as Geometry and Geography rather than technology education. Participants support the

ISSN: 2189-101X

220

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

use of AR in Computer Hardware training, with better developed platforms and more
professional designs (Figure 2).

Figure 2. Augmented reality application book sample.
Almusawi et al. (2021) in their study, they discussed innovation in physical education:teacher’s perspectives on readiness for wearable technology integration. The study is a casestudy and includes semi-structured interviews with 38 public school physical educationteachers. The following scheme was used in the study (Figure 3).

Figure 3. Augmented reality application book sample.
The findings show that physical education teachers have concerns about the design aspects ofwearable technologies in terms of material design and device suitability for physicaleducation. To eliminate these concerns, it is proposed to provide innovative learning
environments that impact technology through collaborative, competitive, engaging andevidence-based learning experiences through wearable technologies that provide comfort,
enhanced wear ability and injury prevention in physical education.
It is understood from the existence of studies in the literature that augmented reality
technologies have been used frequently in medical education recently. When the relevant
studies in the literature are examined (Figure 4).
Kucuk et al. (2015) a new perspective in medical education multimedia applications:
augmented reality has been studied in their research. As a result, it is difficult to understandthe subjects including the structure of the brain and vessels such as neuroanatomy in medical
courses, in this direction, it was emphasized that AR applications could be developed to

ISSN: 2189-101X

221

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

facilitate the learning processes of students in such subjects. Considering the characteristics
of today’s students in the digital citizen group, it has been suggested in the study that students
should be supported with various technological solutions in this process, at this point, thedissemination of medical augmented reality applications that are based on the learning
approach anytime and anywhere and support individual learning.

Figure 4. Use of augmented reality technologies in medical education.
The mobile AR system can strengthen the ubiquitous cooperative and scene learning with thehelp of virtual objects in the real environment. Everything in real life can become a prop for
AR learning, achieving convenience, interactivity, situation, connectivity and personalization.
With the coming of the shallow reading age, more and more learners become less dependent
on books and more inclined to the shallow reading of electronics. AR technology can takecontent out of the screen and books with more entertainment and interactivity. AR digitalpublishing will become an explosive opportunity for the culture education industry.
Korfball is a new sport that has arrived in Thailand for less than 5 years. It is regarded as anequal sport that can be played by both males and females. and modern, interesting in students
to learn and apply the skills of Korfball to play for fun, field and good health. Due to the
COVID-19 epidemic situation, the application of media and technology to use in learning istherefore very important and necessary. In addition, augmented reality technology (AR) can
be counted as creating a virtual learning experience. And it is interesting to access learning.
Researcher as a Korfball academic and coach Therefore, he was interested in developing
learning materials with augmented reality technology about healthy Korfball for the benefitof education and health development for students and other interested parties.
Methods
1. Study and collect information; from the study and analysis the information has been
designed as a Augmented Reality aid. (AR) defines the format Lessons to be a rolemodel.
2. Construction of research tools; by ADDIE MODEL. (Analysis Design Development
Implementation Evaluation)

ISSN: 2189-101X

222

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Figure 5: Research Process.
Conclusions
1) Quality augmented reality technology media in terms of content and production
techniques, the overall media production was at a very good level (Mean=4.65, S.D.=0.29) bycontent quality in a very good level (Mean=4.85, S.D.=0.17)and the quality of media
production techniques is at a good level (Mean=4.94, S.D.=0.29). The efficiency of thedeveloped instruction media was at 80.52/84.06, which was higher than the specified criteriaof 80/80.
One of the most important sectors in which augmented reality technologies are used is theeducation area. Augmented reality applications help students understand abstract concepts inthe learning and teaching process; it provides environments where students can share
information within the group. In addition, it has been supported by studies in the literaturethat these environments significantly increase students’ learning. In addition, it wasemphasized that augmented reality increases the interests, motivations and experiences ofstudents in the field of education and plays a role in transferring the knowledge and skills
gained in the virtual environment to real environments. In all this context; increasing the useof learning environments of augmented reality environments and applications, where theeffectiveness of its use in education has been determined to this degree, in different levels andcourse contents is the most important suggestions of this research (Ezgi Pelin Yildiz, 2021).
2) The students’ satisfaction was at a highest level. (x̅ = 4.87, S.D. = 0.34) In this research, adetailed analysis of the augmented reality environments and applications that are frequently
used in the design of learning and teaching environments in the education sector with thedigitalization process is included. As the general results of the research; today, with theintroduction of technologies into educational environments, different tools and materials havebegun to be used in teaching methods. In this context, it is seen that the inclusion of mobile
tools and mobile applications in learning environments has become widespread recently.
With this rapid development in mobile technologies, new media environments, in whichinteractivity increases, offer an increasing number of services to the user. One of theenvironments where this interaction is provided and which can integrate objects in virtualenvironments with real objects is technologies that offer “Augmented Reality (AR)”. These

ISSN: 2189-101X

223

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

technologies allow virtual objects to be superimposed on real images. AR tools consist ofcamera, computer infrastructure, a marker and tangible objects.
AR applications play a crucial role in gaining desired behaviors in learning and teachingprocesssince students are in an interactive and collaborative environment, they learn throughdoing andexperiencing, it helps students to develop positive attitudes towards lectures and it
enables studentsto reveal different perspectives about topics. When the future of augmented
reality is considered, itwas predicted that AG technology will be one of the technologies
which affect education in the nearfuture and it was also expected that AR technology willplay an important role in education conductedwith wearable technology since 2013 andmobile devices since 2010 in the Horizon report.
The use of AR in sports initially focused on bringing, it applies to athletes and training.
Especially with professional athletes and excelling by creating realistic images in training.
Athletes will be able to train in simulated environments that are suitable and controlled. Thisis because the actual physical environment can be complex and difficult to control. And may
have to travel long distances. It also reduces the risk of injury. and helps reduce damage ordeterioration of sports equipment.
Expensive in training as well, for example, in motor sports, AR technology is used in training
using a virtual simulator that provides an experience close to the real track environment,
coupled with equipment that can accelerate and set the car on the track. Yes (Noury, Polman,
Maloney, & Gorman, 2022).
Although AR technology is currently not a mainstream technology and is widely used, it
tends to be applied to work in each industry more and more. play a greater role Although at
present it is still a new alternative technology in the sports industry. But in the future, thistechnology will be important. It is important and plays an important role in helping to drive
the sports industry in terms of sports science and sports business industry. The application ofthis technology to athletes, clubs and various sports organizations will have the opportunity tooccur directly or indirectly (Sawan et al., 2020).

Acknowledgements
I would like to thank the experts for considering this research tool. For assistance andguidance in developing valuable research tools throughout this research. I am most gratefulfor her teaching and advice. not only research methodology but also many othermethodologies, and this research would not have been complete without your constantsupport.
In addition, we would like to thank teachers, administrators, personnel and research assistant
students from the Department of Physical Education and Sports Faculty of Education andDevelopment Sciences Kasetsart University, Kamphaeng Saen Campus Nakhon Pathom,Thailand and others who provide all advice and assistance. Including all students who
registered for physical education activities. for cooperating in being a sample group in thisresearch until it was accomplished.
Finally, I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my parents and friends for theirsupport throughout the course of this research.

ISSN: 2189-101X

224

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

References
Almusawi HA, Durugbo, C., Afaf, M. (2021). Innovation in physical education: Teachers’
perspectives on readiness for wearable technology integration. Computers andEducation 167, DOI:10.1016/j.compedu.2021.104185
Baysan, E, Uluyol, Ç. (2016). Arttırılmış Gerçeklik Kitabının (AG-KİTAP) Öğrencilerin
Akademik Başarılarına Etkisi ve Eğitim Ortamlarında Kullanımı Hakkında ÖğrenciGörüşleri. Journal of Education and Humanities: Theory and Practice, 7(14), 55-78.
Çetin, S. (2020). Artırılmış gerçeklik uygulamalarının teknik resim dersinde ortaöğretimöğrencilerinin akademik başarıları, tutumları ve uzamsal görselleştirme becerilerine
etkisi. University of Bursa Uludag Turkey.
Ezgi Pelin Yildiz. (2021). Augmented Reality Research and Applications in Education. DOI:
http://dx.doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.99356
Kucuk, S., Kapakin, S. ve Goktas, Y. (2015). Tıp fakültesi öğrencilerinin mobil artırılmış
gerçeklikle anatomi öğrenimine yönelik görüşleri. Journal of Higher Education andScience, 5(3), 316-323.
Noury, P., Polman, R., Maloney, M., & Gorman, A. (2022). A narrative review of the current
state of extended reality technology and how it can be utilised in sport. Sports
Medicine, 52, 1473 - 1489. doi: 10.1007/s40279-022-01669-0
Sawan, N., Eltweri, A., Lucia, C., Cavaliere, L., Faccia, A., & Mosteanu, N. (2020). Mixed
and Augmented Reality Applications in the Sport Industry. In S. Liu (Ed.),
Proceedings of 2020 2ndInternational Conference on E-Business and E-commerceEngineering, Bangkok, Thailand: ACM. Retrieved fromhttps://dl.acm.org/doi/pdf/10.1145/3446922.3446932

ISSN: 2189-101X

225

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

ISSN: 2189-101X

226

Official Conference Proceedings

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

An Investigation on Role of Modern Management in Cultural Values and Spirituality for
Organizational Development

Gannu Praveen Kumar, Sahasra Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, India
Gannu Swetha, Global Services, India

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023
Official Conference Proceedings

Abstract
One of the foremost organizational challenges of the future of work is how to maintain aculture when most, if not all, the employees are virtually distributed and may not even be
employed by the organization in traditional ways. Spiritual values of the personnel are theprerequisites for the organizational health and development. This fact has made manyorganizations to think that personnel spiritual values be viewed as a potential resource inorganization rather than as something to be ignored. There are very few studies that haveinvestigated the role of spirituality as a yardstick for psychological change of personnel. The
diagnostic questionnaire therefore has items with each item in this questionnaire being rated
ranging from agree strongly to disagree strongly. The present study signifies that whenworking with personnel who are spiritually inclined, human resource managers promotebetter functioning by appealing to adopt more spiritually oriented values to guide their workand productivity. The findings with the experts and participants imply that workplacespirituality is one of the factors considered in organizational theory. Organizations must pay
attention to employees spiritual needs to bring their entire self into the organization. In
contrast, empirical findings prove the critical role of workplace spirituality in mediating thespiritual influence of leadership and organizational commitment. Thus, workplace spirituality
can become a revolutionary antidote in overcoming contemporary human resource problems.
This activity can increase employee loyalty, commitment, and performance.

Keywords: Development, Leadership, Management, Organization, Spirituality

iafor
The International Academic Forumwww.iafor.org

ISSN: 2189-101X

227

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

1. Introduction
Organisational Effectiveness is a critical factor to measure the success of an organization.
Researchers and practitioners have studied, presented and practiced various models for theOrganisational Effectiveness. After critical analysis, it is identified that all those models failto answer prominent questions of inner life and higher self of an individual. In purview ofOrganisational Effectiveness, a conceptual model representing Spiritual Intelligence andorganization effectiveness ecosystem is essential for any modern management. The
ecosystem will be helpful in understanding the effectiveness of an organization holistically.
This form of new spiritually inclined organization will identify, develop and present
quantifiable methodological framework to generate index of Spiritual Intelligence andOrganisational Effectiveness for an organization. The personal exploration of spirituality
involves the recognition of a feeling or sense or belief that there is something greater thanmyself, something more to being human than sensory experience and that the greater wholeof which we are part is cosmic or divine in nature. Spirituality means knowing that our lives
have significance in a context beyond a mundane everyday existence at the level of biologicalneeds that drive selfishness and aggression. It means knowing that we are a significant part ofa purposeful unfolding of Life in our universe. Spirituality involves exploring certain
universal themes like love, compassion, altruism, life after death, wisdom and truth, with theknowledge that some people such as saints or enlightened individuals have achieved andmanifested higher levels of development than the ordinary person. Aspiring to manifest the
attributes of such inspirational examples often becomes an important part of the journey
through life for spiritually inclined people. The spiritual journey involves first healing andaffirming the ego so that positive states are experienced; with secure self-esteem, belief in
self-worth and a capacity for love and generosity, a person becomes less constrained by ego
defences. The development of spirituality is generally recognised as requiring some sort ofpractice or discipline in order to make ‘progress'. This can involve the aspirant in paradoxes
such as non-striving, the gateless gate or coming home to oneself. Contemplative practices
such as prayer and meditation are the common denominator of many religions and thefoundation of spirituality. Without them, personal growth is much slower and haphazard. A
teacher or mentor is usually recommended. In outlining a way to overcome reacting to theworld limited by our self-preserving instincts and prior conditioning, Lord Buddha (Fig 1)
advised spirituality as a direction that surpasses the confines of religious doctrine and as suchmay be perhaps part of the fundamental definition of spirituality.

Fig 1: Lord Buddha – The Buddhist spiritualism beyond religion

ISSN: 2189-101X

228

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Lord Buddha’s (Fig 1) path of buddhism is the new form of spiritualism that is beyond
religion. The Four Noble Truths about true spiritualism are all life is suffering, suffering is
caused by desire, suffering can be ended and the end of suffering is NIRVANA. Life involves
suffering, regardless of one’s position or status in life. The constant attachment to things, oreven people, will produce suffering in one’s life. The only true way to end this suffering is toextinguish it, or to reach nirvana. Nirvana is achieved through the Eightfold Path. The
Eightfold Path represents good behaviour. In order to achieve nirvana, one must have the“right” or proper morality, wisdom, and mental discipline which consists of rightunderstanding, right thought, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, rightmindfulness and right concentration. The Eightfold Path is sometimes represented as a wheel
in which all the spokes of the wheel must be present for the wheel to function effectively. The
path to nirvana involves proper thinking, causing no harm to others, not overindulging, nothaving improper thoughts or intentions, being mindful of each moment and what we do, andpracticing mental concentration or meditation. So, The Five Precepts of Buddhist spiritualism
are broad based and provide the foundation for the path to enlightenment and are abstain
from destroying life, abstain from stealing, abstain from sexual misconduct, abstain fromfalse speech and abstain from intoxicants. The Buddhist spiritual teachings and practices canhelp the modern management for a successful organizational development. The Buddhist
spiritual approach is to bring awareness to these problems and say this is suffering and there
is a cure. Then we get to work in a clear, directed and harmless way to resolve issues,eliminate problems and achieve goals. According to (Guruge., 2006) and (Field., 2007),
managers can apply buddhist spiritual teachings to managerial functions. The primaryfunction is to ensure employees right livelihood by giving them appropriate workloads,
proper compensations, company supported health insurance, paid vacations and leave andtime off (Payutto., 1994; Essen., 2010; Zsolnai., 2013). Also, the modern management should
support in developing mindfulness for the organization by improving employees job
satisfaction, job enrichment, job security, self-improvement and self-leadership. It also
repeatedly emphasizes the importance of maintaining sufficient profit to compensate
employees, invest for growth, save for the future and support our societies (Schumacher.,1973) In management principles, appropriate profit allocations are equally crucial to healthy
profit earning. The modern management is expected to allocate profits wisely to bringhappiness to a firm, employees and all stakeholders. Particularly, happiness will come frommaking a firm secure against misfortunes and continuing philanthropic activities throughadequate profit allocations. It is endorsed that the maximization of profit, business expansion,and organization size in extreme directions would create the wrong desire in human beings.
Instead of the extreme orientations, it is suggested that the total profit optimization to
maximize all stake holder overall well-being, including nature, to prevent the lousy desire. It
is said that spiritual leaders must not encourage employee materialism. Mathieu and Peeter etal., 2016 discussed that all products and services should give consumers five types ofhappiness: the happiness of appropriate material comfort, using, being harmless to others andnature, buying and applying for a long time. Generally, it is believed that business cannot be
managed following ethics and human values and spirituality do not hold any importance inthe sphere of running a business. Whenever we talk about Spirituality, we talk about theexecution of our acts following religions, ethics with human values. In fact, Spirituality is
nothing but doing our acts as per the rules and regulations made by the Divine Supreme
power of which we are all a part. We all know that for managing any organization, although
the role of every member is important, the role of a leader is the most important because theleader is the person who shows the right path to his team members. The major conclusions
which emerged from a survey are productivity will improve by 30 to 40% without any extra
finance or make any technological development by improving spiritual leadership ability of

ISSN: 2189-101X

229

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

students, leadership styles taught in schools are not very useful, but the practical approach toleadership should be the basis for any training. This shows that spiritual leadership plays avery important role in the management of any organization. If we look at the history ofvarious organizations, we can see that no organization survived for a long time that violated
the principles of nature. Even the modern Management Thinkers are realizing today that only
those organizations can survive and compete in the 21st century that will follow businessethics, human values and are sincerely responsible for society and environment. From this, it
can be deduced that the best and stable way of Management is the Spiritual way instead of aMaterialistic way. Earlier, there was a general belief that people to be successful needed tohave higher Intelligence Quotient. Gradually this concept gave way to the thinking that
presence of high emotional quotient is required to be successful. But now it is understood that
real success and happiness can be achieved only when a person is spiritually intelligent and agood human being, that is, a person who sees himself in others and others in himself and isguided by larger good. In conclusion, it can be said that managerial effectiveness is the cruxof any successful organization. Based on the literature review and discussion, the importanceof spirituality cannot be ignored and it is highly crucial in today’s times as the stress level andother negative feelings among people have soared which in turn has given rise to too many
challenges at the workplace. Spirituality is one thing which can guide people towards being
more empathetic and compassionate towards each other while attaining organizational goals
with happiness and contentment. However, this is just an initial level study in Indian context,
hence Spiritual Intelligence (SI) directly and indirectly impacts upon the contextual and task
performances of employees and effects organizational effectiveness (Fig 2) (Upadhayay S.,
2012). SI relates to the multiple ways of knowing and to the integration of inner life of mind
and spirit with the outer life of work in the world. After the dominance of Intelligence
Quotient (IQ) for almost decades, Daniel Goleman propounded a very significant type ofhuman intelligence known as Emotional Quotient (EQ). EQ as juxtaposed to IQ relied solely
on an individual’s ability to identify assess and control the emotions of oneself, of others andof groups. A lot of research had been conducted on EQ in relation to performance
management and management effectiveness. However, as IQ fails to understand the
intricacies of human intelligence (Gavrilla., 2005). EQ fails to miserably to answer the callfor creativity in the human spirit. EQ does equip an individual to effectively cope with andmanage emotions but it does not make one realize whether to be in a particular situation. SI
enable a person to make such choices and to take responsibility for a deeper meaning totransform by integrating with the inner self.

Fig 2: Spiritual Intelligence and Organisational Effectiveness

ISSN: 2189-101X

230

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

The spirituality is the indefinable urge to reach beyond the limits of ordinary human existencethat is bounded by unconscious forces and self-interest, and to discover higher values inourselves and to live them consistently in our relationships and roles. It involves developing
practices that aid us in rising and expanding, perhaps beyond the merely good to thetranscendent, in the process of looking inwards rather than outwards for our own morality
and guidance. Above all, it means becoming a more loving and compassionate human being,in thought, word and deed. The spiritual development requires successive degrees of freedom
based on the realisation that thoughts are not facts but simply transient mental phenomena, as
indeed are our emotions. Spiritual leadership is thus a predictor of organizational
commitment and an effort to improve organizational performance. Spiritual leadership is aleadership concept that aims to motivate and inspire through company vision and culture.

Fig 3: Hypothesis of Employees involvement
Spiritual leadership with organizational commitment will strive to facilitate a conducive work
environment so that employees can achieve spiritual goals which increase workplacespirituality (Fig 3) thus are mutually interrelated. Individuals who have a high organizational
commitment remain members of the organization and believe in accepting the organization
values with goals have an instinct to make great efforts (Rustiarini et al., 2021).
2. Research Methodology
The study was conducted among the employees of private colleges majoring in Educational
Institutions. The study comprised 35% women and 65% men, aged 30–40 years. The research
was carried out in southern & Northern India. After obtaining the consent of the management
and the employees on a designated day, the researchers asked to fill in a set of questionnaires.
Each study lasted 30 min on average. After completing the questionnaires, the collected data
were transferred to a spreadsheet and double-checked. The spiritual leadership questionnaire
consists of statements adapted from previous studies (Fry & Cohen., 2009). Measuring
spiritual leadership uses five indicators, including vision, altruistic love, meaning, calling andmembership. Participant responses are measured using a five-point Likert scale with answers
that strongly disagree = 1 to strongly agree = 5. The workplace spirituality variable consistsof statements adapted from the research of (Ashmos & Duchon., 2000). The questionnaire
contains three dimensions of variables, namely a sense of inner life, meaningful work and asense of community. Participants responses are measured using a five-point Likert Scale withanswers that strongly disagree = 1 to strongly agree = 5. The organizational commitment
questionnaire consists of 4 item questions adapted from (Fry & Matherly., 2006). This study
contains four indicators, namely: organizations as part of the family, happy to spend the restof their careers in organizations, organizations as appropriate places to work and assume

ISSN: 2189-101X

231

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedingsorganizational problems as own problems. Participants responses are measured using a fivepoint Likert Scale with answers that strongly disagree = 1 to strongly agree = 5.
3. Results
The results indicated that the spiritual leadership, workplace spirituality and organizational
commitment were directly related with psychological well-being (p < 0.001). Workplacespirituality showed a positive relationship with health-related behaviours (p < 0.001). An
indirect path of spirituality on psychological well-being through organizational commitment
was also distinguished (p < 0.001). The indirect relationship quantified the changes in wellbeing which are predicted by health-related behaviours associated with spirituality aside fromthe direct relationship (Alwin et al., 1975). Although no direct relationship between
psychological well-being and type of education was found, indirect relationships were withspirituality (p < 0.001) and both spirituality and health-related behaviour (p < 0.001), but notwith health-related behaviour alone. The results suggest that acquiring education on
psychosocial health and the human mind might be associated with a stronger relationship ofspiritual leadership and workplace spirituality with organizational commitment. The study
revealed significant relationships between spirituality, health-related behaviours, andpsychological well-being, in terms of the type of acquired education. The results indicate thatboth spirituality and health-related behaviours were associated with psychological well-being.
The research findings may be a valid contribution to the discussion on the development ofstudy programs focused on improving and maintaining various dimensions of human healthand well-being. As demonstrated by (Cotton et al., 2009), spiritual well-being is positively
correlated with emotional and existential well-being in adolescents. In contrast, (Jafari et al.,2010) noted a significant relationship between spiritual well-being and mental health.
Therefore, the results of the present study may find some practical application in the area of
education. The findings of the study supplement the existing literature by indicting thatmultiple pro-health behaviours are positively related to psychological well-being. The study
provides valuable information for employees responsible for curriculum development not
only in the context of higher education but also for the enhancement of the contents of theireducational programs with activities encouraging young people to lead a healthy lifestyle andbuild a healthy and resourceful society. The results of this study imply that these findings
support the spiritual leadership theory and confirms the importance of a spiritual workplacein the organization thus workplace spirituality can enhance employee loyalty andcommitment to the organization.
4. Discussion
This study attempts to examine the relationship between organizational culture traits(involvement, consistency, adaptability and mission), workplace spirituality dimensions(meaningful work, sense of community) and alignment with organizational values. The study
considers knowledge sharing as a significant trait of organizational culture as it is imposed by
the rapidness, creativity, technological advancements and other characteristics that
distinguish our global economy nowadays. The results of this study highlight a positive
relationship between knowledge sharing and work place spirituality dimensions. Such
positive relationship urges to consider knowledge sharing as a vital trait of organizational
culture. Moreover, instead of relying on teacher intentions to exchange knowledge and theirwork-related experience with each other, schools are required to design a planned approach toaccelerate such exchange of experiences (Luthans F., 2011). This may occur through inhouse training and coaching activities. The study results reveal that spiritual leadership

ISSN: 2189-101X

232

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

affects organizational commitment. The spiritual leadership will manage resources
holistically by integrating the four elemental essences of human existence: body, heart, mind,
and soul (Moxley., 2000). Also, spiritual leadership is needed to meet spiritual needs. Thus,
employees will feel the meaning of life more and feel more understood and valued (Fry &Matherly., 2006). Employees will feel they have a community, so they are willing to be
involved in a spiritual organization’s climate. There are opportunities for employees todevelop the self will actively foster psychological attachment to the organization. The mostimportant thing is that employees become more committed and productive (Djafri &Noordin., 2017). The employees consider spiritual needs as inherent and personal aspects
based on personal values and philosophies, not determined by others. A leader with spiritualleadership characteristics will encourage and help employees find work meaningful forthemselves, others and society (Hudson., 2014). This character will motivate employees tothink about themselves and pay attention to the balance between the natural and social
environment. Spiritual leadership will focus on the meaningfulness of work, altruism,
togetherness, and higher life goals (Afsar et al., 2016). They will make a community
consisting of individuals with the same traditions, values and beliefs. These activities create
harmony in the work environment. Thus, spiritual leadership will create workplacespirituality. This study states that workplace spirituality has a positive effect onorganizational commitment. Organizational commitment is the psychological attachment of
individuals to the organization. The stronger the engagement, the smaller the employee
intends to leave the organization (Garg., 2018b) empirical exploration results to prove theexistence of a relationship between workplace spirituality and organizational commitment.
When employees have a deep sense of meaning and purpose at work, they will be creativeand more committed to the organization (Djafri & Noordin., 2017).
5. Conclusion
This study formulates a concept that clearly represents the essence, qualities and attributes oforganizational spirituality and finally it systematizes, categorizes the analysed content. Thereis a shift in the organization focus from purely economic and social activities towards
spiritual development. Leaders cannot rely solely on employee arms but must also understandtheir minds. Workplace spirituality and spiritual leadership become one to align the visionand values of employees with organizational goals. The empirical result reveals thatworkplace spirituality can mediate the relationship between spiritual leadership andorganizational commitment. It can further be empirically tested and validated. The sample
size could be increased to understand and validate the findings that could also be added tohave a broader understanding and more integrated understanding. The discussions generated
as the outcome of this study may be helpful in boosting the moral fences of the organizational
members as well as creating positive attitudinal change. This study can pave a way fordeveloping effective models and techniques for development of spiritualistic management
styles to manage the organizational affairs for achieving goals of the organization throughbetter happiness and contentment. Buddhist education aims at purity of character.
6. New Concept Proposition
Individual spirituality is the primary component of organizational spirituality (Neng Tang etal., 2019) and this mainly refers to the spirituality of the leader. Individual spirituality is apersonal identity, a way of life that represents habits, the pursuit of meaning and purpose,search for transcendence and connection with divinity. Individual spirituality is also acomponent of workplace spirituality because interactions of spirituality within the

ISSN: 2189-101X

233

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedingsorganization occur in the workplace as the members search for meaning in their work so, too,
the work itself is also part of organizational spirituality. The presence of spiritual values(Khari & Sinha., 2018) that are visible in the mission, vision, and organizational values arealso part of spirituality because organizational practices and discourse must be compatible
with spirituality (Pawar., 2017). Alignment between members and organizational spirituality
must exist. In other words, members should identify themselves with the organization, so it isnecessary that members (Kokalan., 2019) and management perceive organizational
spirituality. Once spirituality presents itself as a phenomenon that brings connection between
individuals, enlightening the purpose of their lives, it also connects individuals with othercommunities and generations. Thus, organizational spirituality must create social good andgenerate value. The benefits to organization members are indubitable (Thakur & Singh.,2016), but they ought to be extended to society as a whole and future generations and not justto stakeholders.
7. Future Research Suggestions
The directions for future research suggest areas for further study that would help overcome
these limitations and enrich the field of organizational spirituality research. The future
research should focus on empirically test existing theoretical models and concepts oforganizational spirituality, including the concept proposed in this study. Also, because of theneed to understand the basic movement, future research should use alternative and mixed
methodologies to deepen the study of organizational spirituality, entering deeper into thephenomenon and its results for individuals, the organization, community, and future
generations. The use of samples and measures that allow the generalization of results should
also be considered. The study also indicate that the current research direction focuses on
workplace spirituality, which leaves a gap on the other levels of organizational spirituality
individual and organizational. To fill this gap, the effects of a change in leadership, from nonspiritual leadership to spiritual leadership and vice versa should be investigated along withchanges in members spirituality after this leadership change.

8. Acknowledgements
First of all, I would like express my utmost gratitude to Lord Buddha the God Almighty andthe entire Divinity for showering their blessings untiringly and for giving me the opportunityand guidance in achieving my goal and to be successful in this part of my life’s journey sofar. I would like to acknowledge my indebtedness and render my warmest thanks to my wife
Mrs. Gannu Swetha, who made this work possible. Her friendly guidance and expert advice
have been invaluable throughout all stages of the work. The person with the greatest indirectcontribution to this work is my mother, Mrs Gannu Swarajya Laxmi, who has taught me of
ethical living. I wish to express my gratitude to my father, Late Dr. Gannu Venkateshwarlu
for his constant words of spiritual encouragement and divinity. Special thanks are due to myManagement, Dr. T. Dheeraj, Director, Sahasra Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, for his
continuous support and understanding. I am grateful to my total family members for theirextreme moral support.

ISSN: 2189-101X

234

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

References
Afsar B, Badir Y, Kiani US (2016) Linking spiritual leadership and employee proenvironmental behavior the influence of workplace spirituality intrinsic motivationand environmental passion Journal of Environmental Psychology.45(3): 79-88.
Alwin DF, Hauser RM (1975) The decomposition of effects in path analysis. Am. Sociol.
Rev. 40:37–47.
Ashmos DP, Duchon D (2000) Spirituality at Work a Conceptualization and Measure Journalof Management Inquiry. 9(2): 134-145.
Chen C, -Y, Yang C-F (2012) The impact of spiritual leadership on organizational citizenshipbe havior: A multi-sample analysis. Journal of Business Ethics. 105(1): 107-114.
Cotton S, Kudel I, Roberts YH, Pallerla H, Tsevat J, Succop P, et al. (2009) Spiritual wellbeing and mental health outcomes in adolescents with or without inflammatory bowel
disease. J. Adolesc. Health 44:485–492.
Djafri F, Noordin K (2017) The impact of workplace spirituality on organizational
commitment: A case study of Takaful agents in Malaysia. Humanomics, 33(3): 384396.
Djafri F, Noordin K (2017) The impact of workplace spirituality on organizational
commitment: A case study of Takaful agents in Malaysia. Humanomics. 33(3): 384396.
Essen J (2010) Sufficiency Economy and Santi Asoke: Buddhist Economic Ethics for a Just
and Sustainable World. Journal of Buddhist Ethics 17: 70−99.
Field LM (2007) Business and the Buddha. Boston: Wisdom Publications.
Fry LW, Matherly LL (2006) Spiritual leadership and organizational performance: An
exploratory study. Annual Meeting of the Academy of Management. The paper waspresented at the Academy of Management Meeting, Atlanta, Georgia, in 2006.
Fry LW, Cohen MP (2009) Spiritual leadership as a paradigm for organizationaltransformation and recovery from extended work hours cultures. Journal of Business
Ethics. 84(S2): 265-278.
Garg N (2018b) Workplace spirituality and organizational commitment: An empirical
Exploration. Purushartha, A Journal of Management, Ethics and Spirituality. 10(2): 824.
Garg N, Punia BK, Jain A (2019) Workplace spirituality and job satisfaction: Exploring
mediating effect of organization citizenship behaviour Vision: The Journal ofBusiness Perspective. 23(3): 287-296.
Gavrila L (2005) Redefine What It Means to Be Smart. Management and Socio-Humanities,
85-88.

ISSN: 2189-101X

235

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Guruge AW (2006) Buddhist economics, myth and reality. Hsi Lai Journal of Humanistic
Buddhism. 7:71-129.
Hudson R (2014) The question of theoretical foundations for the spirituality at work
movement. Journal of Management, Spirituality & Religion. 11(1): 27-44.
Jafari E, Dehshiri GR, Eskandari H, Najafi M, Heshmati R, Hoseinifar J (2010) Spiritualwell-being and mental health in university students. Procedia. Soc. Behav. Sci.
5:1477–1481.
Khari C, Sinha S (2018) Organizational spirituality and knowledge sharing: A model ofmultiple mediation. Global Journal of Flexible Systems Management. 19(4): 337-348.
Kokalan O (2019) The effect of organizational cynicism on job satisfaction. Management
Research Review. 42(5): 625-640.
Luthans F (2011) Organizational behaviour. The evidence - based approach 12th, McGraw –Hill International Edition.
Matthieu R & Peeters F (2016) Managing Mindfully—Buddhism and Business—Owner.
Retrieved 2018, from DOCURI.
Moxley RS (2000) Leadership and Spirit. Jossey-Bass.
Nasina MD, Pin D, Pin K (2011). The workplace spirituality and affective commitment
among auditors in big four public accounting firms: Does it matter? Journal of Global
Management 2 (2), 216–226.
Neng-tang H, Hui-lin L (2019) Using instant messaging for collaboration: A study of therelationships among organizational trust justice and spirituality. Springer International
Publishing.
Pawar BS (2017) The relationship of individual spirituality and organizational spirituality
with meaning and community at work: An empirical examination of the direct effects
and moderating effect models. Leadership and Organization Development Journal.
38(7): 986-1003.
Payutto P (1994) Buddhist Economics: A Middle Way for the Market Place. Retrieved 2018from Urbandharma.
Rustiarini NW, Yuesti A, Gama AWS (2021) Public accounting profession and fraud
detection responsibility. Journal of Financial Crime. 28(2): 613-627.
Schumacher E (1973) Small is Beautiful. London: Blond and Briggs.
Thakur K, Singh J (2016). Spirituality at workplace: A conceptual framework. International
Journal of Applied Business and Economic Research 14(7): 5181-5189.

ISSN: 2189-101X

236

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Upadhyay S (2012) Impact Analysis of Spiritual Quotient in Achieving Excellence in
Research Performance of University Teachers in an Indian Context. Proceedings onan International Conference on Spiritual Paradigm for Surmounting Global
Management Crisis. SMS:67.
Zsolnai L (2013) Buddhist Economics for Business. Retrieved 2018, from laszlo-zsolnai.

Contact email: prof.dr.gunn@gmail.com
gpspa2010@gmail.com

ISSN: 2189-101X

237

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

ISSN: 2189-101X

238

Official Conference Proceedings

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Taiwanese University Teachers’ Motivation and Language Choice for
Scholarly Publishing
Shih-Chieh Chien, National Taipei University of Business, Taiwan
The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023
Official Conference Proceedings
Abstract
Within a global trend of academic publishing in English, publication in indigenous languages,
nevertheless, in many contexts, continues to thrive. Multilingual scholars often need tonegotiate international engagement and local commitment by publishing both in English andtheir first language. The study, based on individual in-depth semi-structured interviews with
university bilingual teachers from social sciences in Taiwan, focuses on examining theirmotivation and language choice (i.e., first language only, English only, or both English andfirst language) for publishing their research articles, and factors that may influence theirmotivation and language choice. The study showed that (1) against the widely-held view ofutility in getting published in English as the single most important driving force, it pointed to
a complex picture of Taiwanese university teachers’ motivation and language choice forscholarly publishing; (2) the privilege attached to publishing in internationally indexed
journals stood out as the major factor orienting Taiwanese university teachers toward writingin English and using various strategies to facilitate successful publication; (3) international
publication in English nonetheless increases, but Chinese would still retain its position as thelanguage of research and publication; and (4) the tension in the negotiation was likely togrow with the continuous push toward the globalization of the academia which had a great
impact on university teachers. This study provides useful insight into understanding
university teachers’ motivation and language choice for scholarly publishing. Some
recommendations are made when guiding school planners for helping university teachers tocope with international publication versus local publication.
Keywords: Bi/Multilingual, Motivation, Language Choice, Scholarly Publication

iafor
The International Academic Forumwww.iafor.org

ISSN: 2189-101X

239

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Introduction
As English becomes the global language of scholarship, the past few decades have witnessed
an increasing interest in the research about researchers who use English as a foreign language(EFL) (e.g., Ferguson, 2007; Flowerdew, 2019; Lillis & Curry, 2010; Luo & Hyland, 2016;
Salager-Meyer, 2008; Smirnova et al., 2021). The trend of internationalization in academia
has significant implications particularly in the language choice between English language andthe local language in writing for scholarly publication. It is mainly shown ininternationalizing higher education, and marketizing academia (Altbach, 2009; Mok, 2006;
Smirnova et al., 2021). Such changes exert a great impact on researchers. First, theinternationalization of the higher education usually denotes an increasingly policy-explicit
and assessment-driven requirement for researchers to get articles published in English.
Second, it also leads to the favoring of international journal databases, including A&HCI, SCI,
and SSCI. The marketization of academia indicates not only closer links between universities
and business world, but also quality assurance of academic performance and educational
services provided by universities (Mok, 2006; Postiglione, 2005; Smirnova et al., 2021). In
view of this, universities are at the forefront of these movements, and internationally indexed
databases increasingly become indicators in the assessment criteria for researchers.
Nonetheless, despite the internationalization and spread of English in writing for scholarly
publication, researchers in EFL contexts may still want to write and get their articles
published in local languages. Past studies show that writing for bi/multilingual scholarly
publication takes place in different EFL countries, such as China, Hungary, Japan, Poland,
Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, and Spain (Casanave, 1998; Duszak & Lewkowicz, 2008; Lillis& Curry, 2010; Muresan & Pérez-Llantada, 2014; Zheng & Gao, 2016). According to
Altbach (2009), apart from the need to “function in the international languages of science andscholarship,” universities should also “have a responsibility to disseminate research andanalysis in local languages” and “play a key role in supporting and developing local
languages” (p. 25). In addition, previous studies also reveal the importance for multilingual
researchers to get their articles published in their local languages besides publishing in
English in order to engage with and contribute to different communities (Casanave, 1998;
Curry & Lillis, 2004).
Given that the internationalization of academic publishing in the global world tends to benegotiated in the local society, a central question in the context of Taiwan is what thesituation in getting articles published in English and Chinese might be for Taiwanese
researchers. As suggested by Gnutzmann and Rabe (2014) and López-Navarro et al. (2015),
relatively little attention in previous research was paid specifically to EFL researchers’
motivation and language choice in getting articles published. EFL researchers may bemotivated to get articles published for different reasons, and different disciplines may
influence their motivation and language choice (Baldauf, 2001; López-Navarro et al., 2015).
In light of this, the present study seeks to extend the findings from previous studies to explore
Taiwanese university teachers’ motivation and language choice in writing for scholarly
publication in English and Chinese from social sciences.
Literature Review
Due to the consideration of the primacy of English and the preference of international journal
databases in research assessment, international English publication is usually more admiredcompared with local language publication (Salager-Meyer, 2014). Past studies reveal that

ISSN: 2189-101X

240

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

EFL researchers’ motivations to get articles published in English are related to utility,
self-concept, cost, and intrinsic satisfaction (López-Navarro et al., 2015). For instance, first ofall, their motivations to get articles published in English tend to be linked to utility, such as
having promotion (Martín et al., 2014), gaining international recognition (Luo & Hyland,2019), and receiving monetary incentives (Hanauer & Englander, 2011). Other than utility,
EFL researchers may also get articles published in English to build international networks(Curry & Lillis, 2010).
Nonetheless, EFL researchers’ self-concept and perceived cost may deter them to get articles
published in English in spite of utility (Lillis & Curry, 2010). For example, in the past, a large
body of literature shows language disadvantages of writing for scholarly publication in
English perceived by EFL researchers (e.g., Burgess et al., 2014; Flowerdew, 1999; Li, 2002;
López-Navarro et al., 2015). For example, a majority of the doctoral students in mainland
China (Li, 2002) and the researchers in Hong Kong (Flowerdew, 1999) reported feelingdisadvantaged in comparison with native English-speaking researchers.
Moreover, research shows that getting articles published in English could be extra burdens
for EFL researchers since writing English research articles tends to be more difficult andchallenging (Hanauer & Englander, 2011; Shin et al., 2014) and also having the abilities
necessary to get articles published in English entails additional time and effort (Burgess et al.,2014; Salager-Meyer, 2008). Despite such facts, some research indicates that EFL researchers
do not essentially feel disadvantaged (Ferguson et al., 2011; Hyland, 2016). Native English
researchers may encounter challenges alike since writing for scholarly publication is moreconnected with specialty than with language (Hyland, 2016; Swales & Feak, 2012).
Unlike utilitarian motivations for getting articles published in English, EFL researchers ingetting articles published in their first language tend to be linked to intrinsic satisfaction(Hanauer & Englander, 2011). For example, while researchers could be extrinsicallymotivated for its “greater symbolic capital in terms of recognition” in getting articles
published in English, Gentil and Séror (2014) indicated that researchers could be intrinsicallymotivated for “the intellectual satisfaction of developing deeper insights through bilingual
work” (p. 23). Moreover, EFL researchers may want to get their articles published in theirfirst language due to their connection to their home countries (McGrath, 2014; Salager-Meyer,2014).
In sum, in spite of previous research on EFL researchers’ motivations in writing for scholarly
publication, what remains unknown is between the privileging of English publication and thepotential development of local publication in Chinese (i.e. the perceptions of Taiwanese
researchers toward writing for scholarly publication in English versus Chinese). First, despite
past research revealing EFL researchers’ motivation to publish in different languages (e.g.,
Burgess et al., 2014; Hanauer & Englander, 2011; Martín et al., 2014), it is unclear about
their motivation for getting articles published in English versus Chinese. In addition, there isa need for more research into the factors influencing EFL researchers’ language choice inwriting for bi/multilingual scholarly publication and most importantly, their rationales oflanguage choices in writing for scholarly publication (Gnutzmann & Rabe, 2014; Huang,
2011; López-Navarro et al., 2015). In response to this call, the present study aims to explore
Taiwanese university teachers’ motivation and language choice in writing for scholarly
publication, and factors that may affect their motivation and language choice in writing for
scholarly publication for Taiwanese researchers. This study sets out to address the following
scholarly publication for Taiwanese researchers. This study sets out to address the following

ISSN: 2189-101X

241

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

two research questions:
1. What are Taiwanese university teachers’ motivation for research writing in English andChinese?
2. What are their rationales of language choices in writing for scholarly publication?
Research Method
The method adopted to answer the research questions comprised individual in-depthsemi-structured interviews. The interviews were used to explore Taiwanese university
teachers’ motivation and language choice in writing for scholarly publication. Ten university
teachers from social sciences, including business administration, finance, political science,sociology, and social work in northern Taiwan participated in the interviews. They all had
study abroad experiences and earned their doctoral degrees in English speaking countries,
including United States, United Kingdom, Australia, and Canada. The length of eachinterview ranged from one to two hours. Since each teacher was from different school, thelocation of the interview varied. In this study, each interview was prefaced with an informed
consent statement informing participants of the purpose of the study, their rights not toparticipate, and the commitment to protect confidentiality and anonymity. Pseudonyms wereused for teachers to protect their anonymity.
Data Collection
University teachers were invited to participate in the present study. In contacting potential
participants, the study began by viewing the webpages accessed through the link of ‘staff’
found on the respective departments’ homepage at universities. In order to gain as wide aspectrum of participants as possible, the researcher took into consideration the potential
participants’ disciplines, age, academic rank, as well as their research productivity (as seen in
the publication list and information of research activities provided of the person at his/her
homepage). The researcher also included, where possible, some acquaintances in the potential
pool due to convenient access. Emails were sent to the potential participants explaining the
research purpose and inviting them to participate in the research by accepting an interview at
a time of their convenience.
To examine the influence of publication language, background, and study abroad experienceon teachers’ research writing motivation, in-depth semi-structured interviews were conducted.
Open-ended explanatory questions were used for teachers to reflect on motivation forresearch writing in their language choice, either in Chinese only, English only, or in both
Chinese and English. The interview questions ranged from teachers’ disciplinary
backgrounds, study abroad experiences, motivation and language choice in writing for
scholarly publication, to opportunities and constraints for their scholarly endeavors in thecontext of academic internationalization.
Data Analysis
Qualitative interviews were analyzed and interpreted in an attempt to understand Taiwanese
university teachers’ motivation and language choice in writing for scholarly publication.
Miles and Huberman (1994) argued that one major feature of qualitative research is its focus
on “naturally occurring, ordinary events in natural settings” so researchers and those reading
the work have a good sense of what “real life” is like” (p. 10). Data were analyzed using a

ISSN: 2189-101X

242

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

general inductive approach for qualitative data analysis (Thomas, 2006). The goal of data
analysis was to identify and generate categories in response to research questions, groundedin the data. The next stage was to manipulate the categories, identifying segments that werethen dispersed into different relevant categories and/or research questions or text that was not
relevant to those areas. This analysis process provided appropriate quotes from the research
to identify specific factors related to motivation and language choice in writing for scholarly
publication specified by each teacher.
To make the study credible and rigorous, two different techniques were achieved using
participation review and coding consistency check. First, participation review was achievedby presenting teachers’ voices under each theme and by providing detailed description ofeach of the cases. Triangulation were used consistently with each teacher in general. Each of
the teacher interviewed was asked to review the transcribed interviews to add, delete, oramend any statements made. The transcribed interview documents were then emailed to eachteacher and requested an email response with any comments included in their interview
document. To make sure validity and reliability (Merriam, 2002), member checks were usedby sending interpretations back to teachers by email or via hardcopy to ensure that they were
accurate. In this return email each teacher was asked to give consent that the information
provided in the transcribed interview document was accurate and aligned with their views
and opinions.
Results
The comments made by the teachers about motivation and language choice in writing for
scholarly publication were explored. In the study, the following two main categories resulting
from the transcription and coding of teachers’ responses in the interview data showedmotivation and language choice in writing for scholarly publication from the teachers’
perspectives.
Getting Articles Published in English/internationally indexed journals
In the discussion of getting articles published in English/internationally indexed journals, theteachers tended to refer to their motivations and the strategies they used. They also articulated
some criticisms of the status quo.
Motivations
The teachers’ motivations for getting articles published in English/internationally indexed
journals can be categorized into three major purposes, i.e. to fulfill the assessment criteria, toreach a wide readership, and to target for a high standard.
Assessments are required for teachers who are expected to be proactive in research
productivity. The expectation on teachers to get articles published in internationally indexed
journals is explicit. It is generally well understood and is assimilated by new teachers. As theteacher, Jenny put it:
When our colleagues discuss with each other, naturally the topic would come up.
Potentially there is pressure coming from the school. Therefore, we may refer to,which journal did you submit to? I say I submitted to this journal. ‘The journal is not
SSCI,’ they respond. Such a piece of advice is passed down to a new teacher.

ISSN: 2189-101X

243

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

When it is about the time to report research output or apply for a grant, teachers are aware of
the importance of having internationally indexed journal articles to report. For instance, as
Bill put it, “I know which publications really count. The common response to the need to get
articles published in internationally indexed journals is to fulfill assessment criteria.” Hefurther stated:
Generally, I aim to submit my articles to the top internationally indexed journal, andpreferably, the best journal. However, while I am occupied with loads of teaching andbulk of service, time is limited for me. As I do not have much time and there are manythings to do, I do not avoid submitting my work to local journals.
In light of Bill’s situation, promotion tends to be an urgent need for him. He further madesuch a remark: “If submitting to local journals leads to promotion and a salary rise, then I
would do it. Since submitting to local journals also achieves similar objectives, submitting tointernationally indexed journals may not be the necessary option.”
Apart from striving to fulfill the assessment criteria, the internationally indexed journal isusually the optimal choice in view of reaching a wider readership. For example, John
indicated: “When I write an article, I need to think about where to submit in order to appeal
to a wide readership with academic rigor.” For John, getting articles published ininternationally indexed journals becomes gradually necessary, mainly because of theassessment pressure and his consciousness of the need to interact with researchers worldwide:
I feel I should let more researchers know my thoughts and let those who are interested
in the topic see my work all over the world. Getting articles published ininternationally indexed journals would be an easier avenue for them to read my work.
In addition, getting articles published in internationally indexed journals is an indication of ahigh quality of research. As noted by Sue, “it is good for Taiwanese researchers to have theirarticles published in the world’s top-notch journals in their field since it shows thescholarship can reach the world’s high-quality level.”
Strategies
The strategies adopted by teachers about the ways that they positioned themselves were
through the use of Anglo-American research framework. Three kinds of strategies included
researching issues related to Greater China, using Anglo-American frameworks for exploring
research issues, and enhancing Anglo-American theories.
First, when asked about how Janice chose her research topic, she suggested that Taiwan may
not be of interest to the academia in the global world. “Taiwan is a small island. Researchers
may not be much interested if your research topic is about Taiwan. On the contrary, Greater
China could be of great international interest.” Janice added:
Taiwan may not grab much attention in the globe. Anything that happens in Taiwan
could be unique, but not many researchers may cite it. Nonetheless, if you conduct a
study related to Greater China, a large number of people might be interested inreading what is happening since their government may have trade with Greater China.
They want to know more about it.

ISSN: 2189-101X

244

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Second, in order to get published in internationally indexed journals, a strategy mentioned by
Tom is that he should redesign and conduct the research based on Anglo-American theories.
He commented his approach in writing articles in economics. “In order to get my articles
published in internationally indexed journals, the studies of local issues need to be framed by
Anglo-American theories.”
Finally, Bob noted the importance of enhancing Anglo-American theories. “If I just show
some results, I will not get my articles published.” To get articles published in journals in his
field (political science), he intended to enhance theories by explaining the uniqueness foundin Taiwan:
In the field of political science, the political climate may vary from region to region.
For example, what happens in Eastern societies may not be similar in Western
societies. I put much emphasis on this aspect, something absent in Western societies
but existing in Taiwan. This could be a big selling point and thus enhance theories.
The above three strategies can be interpreted that universities demand teachers to get theirworks published in internationally indexed journals. However, as suggested by Braine (2005),
such journals usually center on audiences in Anglo-American contexts and may not be muchinterested in research from non-Western contexts. Since researching issues related to Greater
China, using Anglo-American frameworks for exploring research issues, and enhancing
Anglo-American theories are highlighted in particular, it seems to indicate that practicing
such strategies may be significant for the peripheral participation (Lave & Wenger, 1991) in
the international academic community.
Struggle
As stated in the previous section, getting articles published in internationally indexed journals
increasingly becomes a requirement. However, it could also be a struggle in response to suchassessment. For example, Jenny indicated concern about the veneration of internationallyindexed journals. “Some of the research topics fit within the Chinese context can be best
written in Chinese rather than in English. Also, not all articles published in English are of aninternational standard.” The idea of what is ‘international’ may also denote hegemony. Jennyadded:In the English speaking countries such as UK and US, markets are large enough to beinternational, although most of the articles published in social sciences are basically
about research in the local context. Certainly, there is a kind of hegemony due tolanguage and scale of the research community. Consequently, people from otherplaces need to be affiliated with such research community in order to be international.
On the other hand, Alice argued that internationally indexed journals may not be allappropriate for social sciences researchers. She indicated that it is questionable to privilege
getting articles published in internationally indexed journals. Such board criteria adopted innatural sciences (i.e. SCI) are applicable, but may blindly extend across social sciences (i.e.
SSCI). In other words, the means of evaluation in the scholarship of social sciences could be
different from those in natural sciences. For instance, Alice noted:
I think adopting SSCI as the only criterion may somehow be inappropriate. In social
sciences, a lot of research is on local issues and thus should use local discourses to

ISSN: 2189-101X

245

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

exchange among colleagues. A single-minded concern with publishing in theseindexed journals may impede disinterested quest of scholarship and limit academic
vision.
Being under pressure to publish particularly in the internationally indexed journals makes
James feel perplexed. The feeling was articulated by him as follows:
It is hard to escape from the evaluation yardstick. The pressure comes all the way
from the school research and development division to the department. In order tosurvive, I need to set a good example to my younger colleagues and get articles
published in internationally indexed journals. It is very difficult to break out of thisdilemma.
Getting Articles Published in Chinese
Although getting articles published in internationally indexed English journals is almost thedefault target that university teachers aimed at for evaluation, nevertheless, they held apositive attitude toward getting articles published in Chinese. It is noted that generally
university teachers had different purposes in mind.
To bring in western perspectives and transform the local academia
Helen, apart from seeking to get articles published in English, also wrote in Chinese andsubmitted papers to journals in Taiwan. She pointed out that she wanted her work to be seen
by international as well as local readers. She felt the need to get articles published in journals
in Taiwan since it would help to bring western perspectives into Taiwan:
I think there is a need of writing in Chinese for journals in Taiwan. I hope Taiwanese
will know about western perspectives. They can compare and contrast similarities anddifferences between east and west, and gain some insights to make changes. Different
perspectives can be complementary.
In view of this, her commitment to the local academia is clear. She aimed to participate in theconversation in the local academia, by targeting to make a difference, in particular on the
research in Taiwan. In other words, it was important for her to write in Chinese to bring inwestern perspectives and to transform the local academia.
To influence policy making
Another motivation to write in Chinese is articulated by Sandy, hoping her research tofacilitate discussion and have an influence on policy making in Taiwan. “I hope that I can get
my articles published in Taiwan and play a role in policy making. Since my research interest
is in such an area, it may expedite discussion in Taiwan.”
Sandy has got her articles published in a number of journals written in Chinese. In addition,
she wrote articles in local magazines and newspapers. She also served on several committees
for the university as well as the government. In other words, she was keen to take part in the llocal society and her publications in Chinese showed what she aimed to promote in policy
making.

ISSN: 2189-101X

246

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

To guide practice for local readers
Jason pointed out that in addition to fulfilling the requirement in getting articles published ininternationally indexed journals, due his own personal interest, he also wrote guidebooks in
Chinese for local readers:
I do not care much about whether guidebooks written in Chinese are counted by theuniversity or not. Nevertheless, writing guidebooks helps me earn reputations for
local societies. I feel a need to propagate my research and ideas to local readers.
Indeed, Jason considered that writing in Chinese allowed him to fulfill his own personal
aspiration and delivered messages to local readers. He derived great satisfaction from acollegial link to local societies.
To serve and educate Taiwanese people
Jean served as a member of the academic board in a Chinese research journal in Taiwan.
Although the journal was faced with the difficulty of survival, nonetheless, she put stress on
its importance in educating Taiwanese people. “Although the concepts of globalization andinternationalization are vital, nevertheless, the importance of localization cannot be
overemphasized. After all, many people are reading Chinese. We need to produce some
Chinese materials to serve and educate people, and let them read and learn.” With her
service-mindedness, she tried to forge the nexus between research and education. By reachinga wide readership in the local society, she foresaw the possibility of nurturing the readership,
fostering discussion, and making an impact.
It is noted that the Jean did not regard English and Chinese publications as mutually
exclusive. In particular, she stated that Chinese scholarship had much to offer to the West. For
example, recently she had a publication of a translated version of her Chinese book into
English. She hoped that the English version could serve as a reference for potential English
readers. As she pointed out, “I do not think that only the West has theories to provide. Taiwan
can offer a lot to be explored.” The above comment obviously aimed to change the status quothat marginalized non-English scholarship. She believed her translated book (from Chinese to
English) could facilitate mutual understandings between East and West scholarship.
Discussion and Conclusion
The purpose of the study is to investigate Taiwanese university teachers’ motivation andlanguage choice in writing for scholarly publication. The findings indicate that getting
articles published in internationally indexed journals was a major reason leading the
Taiwanese university teachers to write in English, despite the fact that the teachers also
wanted to have their publications reaching as wide a readership as possible and showing ahigh quality scholarship. A number of strategies were adopted with the aim of successful
publication in internationally indexed journals, including researching issues related to Greater
China, using Anglo-American frameworks for exploring research issues, and enhancing
Anglo-American theories. However, there was an obvious struggle in response to assessment
to get articles published in internationally indexed journals. What the teachers considered that
this struggle was the adoption of Western criteria or criteria in internationally indexed
journals more suitable for natural sciences than for social sciences. Meanwhile, the teacherssought to get articles published in Chinese to bring in western perspectives and transform theISSN: 2189-101X

247

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

local academia, to influence policy making, to guide practice for local readers, or to serve andeducate Taiwanese people.
The above results can be explained and interpreted as follows. First, apparently, getting
articles published in internationally indexed journals is the process of the internationalizationof the academia in response to globalization of higher education (Mok, 2006; Smirnova et al.,2021). In the case of Taiwan, this may denote a reproduction of Western criteria in evaluating
scholarship since getting articles published in Anglo-American journals is usually viewed ahigher status than local publication. In spite of this, it is particularly worth noting that theteachers in the study also tried to get articles published in Chinese, for the purpose of serving
Taiwanese society. In particular, they may also seek to get articles published in local
magazines and newspapers with insights mainly from their research disciplines. The result
coincides with what Altbach (2009) indicates the university’s responsibility “to disseminate
research and analysis in local languages” (p. 25). To enhance visibility of scholarship such as
Taiwanese scholarship in the global world with the center in Anglo-American academia(Galtung, 1971), efforts can be made such as encouraging researchers’ participation ininternational academia, with particular reference to Greater China.
Second, although university teachers need to accommodate the assessment that favors
internationally indexed journals over local journals (Chou, 2008; Chou & Ching, 2012),
nonetheless, it seems that publication in English may be encouraged without either sacrificing
their beliefs in getting articles published in Chinese or eroding Chinese as an academic
language. This is not to deny the problem about the struggle in seeking to get articles
published in internationally indexed journals for Taiwanese university teachers and inovercoming the English language obstacles encountered by them when it comes to writing for
publication in English. The finding of the study also indicates that the university teachers
would try to strike a balance between international participation and engagement “in civic
discourse on topics of societal importance” (Altbach, 2009, p. 22) in the local society.
Finally, despite the spread of English as an international language for research (Liu, 2017),
Chinese still remains to be a vibrant language for publication for Taiwanese university
teachers, and getting articles published in English and Chinese tends to be a common practice.
Their past study abroad experiences coupled with their abilities to write in English werelikely to be the major reasons leading university teachers to get articles published in English.
However, it is worth noting that in spite of such tendency, the teachers did not to get theirarticles published in English only. This may in turn suggests that English has not replaced
Chinese as the language for publication for Taiwanese university teachers (Huang, 2011).
Publishing in languages other than English in academic writing thus deserves attention, inview of the fact that the publishing activities in different languages all over the world are
vibrant (Curry & Lillis, 2022). Along with other findings discussed earlier, the current study
offers evidence against the spread of English for scholarly publication and the widely-heldview of utility as the single most important driving force, and reveals a complex picture of
Taiwanese university teachers’ motivation and language choice in writing for scholarly
publication.
The findings of this study can provide some useful implications. First, the connections
between past study abroad experiences and abilities to write in English provide Taiwanese
university teachers with the possibility of getting articles published in both Chinese andEnglish rather than in Chinese only. In addition, against the backdrop of international
scholarship, as noted in this study, because of the assessment pressure to get articles

ISSN: 2189-101X

248

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

published in internationally indexed journals, Taiwanese university teachers need to prioritize
writing in English, which could lead to inform a wider pubic and make an impact in the
global world. They also start to use Anglo-American frameworks for exploring researchissues and enhancing Anglo-American theories. The ideological gap between Eastern andWestern scholarship may therefore gradually be reduced.

ISSN: 2189-101X

249

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

References
Altbach, P. G. (2009). Peripheries and centers: Research universities in developing countries.
Asia Pacific Education Review, 10, 15-27.
Braine, G. (2005). The challenge of academic publishing: A Hong Kong perspective. TESOL
Quarterly, 39, 707-716.
Burgess, S., Gea-Valor, M. L., Moreno, A. I., & Rey-Rocha, J. (2014). Affordances andconstraints on research publication: A comparative study of the language choices of
Spanish historians and psychologists. Journal of English for Academic Purposes, 14,
72-83.
Casanave, C. P. (1998). Transitions: The balancing act of bilingual academics. Journal of
Second Language Writing, 7, 175-203.
Chou, C. P. (2008). The impact of neo-liberalism on Taiwanese higher education. In David P.
B. & Alexander W. W. (eds.), The worldwide transformation of higher education (pp.
297-311). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.
Chou, C. P., & Ching, G. (2012). Taiwan education at the crossroad: When globalization
meets localization. VA: Palgrave Macmillan.
Curry, M. J., & Lillis, T. M. (2004). Multilingual scholars and the imperative to publish in
English: negotiating interests, demands, and rewards. TESOL Quarterly, 38, 663-688.
Curry, M. J., & Lillis, T. M. (2010). Academic research networks: Accessing resources forEnglish-medium publishing. English for Specific Purposes, 29, 281-295.
Curry, M. J., & Lillis, T. M. (2022). Multilingualism in academic writing for publication:
Putting English in its place. Language Teaching, 1-14.
Duszak, A., & Lewkowicz, J. (2008). Publishing academic texts in English: A Polishperspective. Journal of English for Academic Purposes, 7, 108-120.
Ferguson, G. (2007). The global spread of English, scientific communication and ESP:
Questions of equity, access and domain loss. Ibérica, Journal of the European
association of Languages for Specific Purposes, 13, 7-38.
Ferguson, G., Pérez-Llantada, C., & Plo, R. (2011). English as an international language ofscientific publication: A study of attitudes. World Englishes, 30, 41-59.
Flowerdew, J. (1999). Problems in writing for scholarly publication in English: The case of
Hong Kong. Journal of Second Language Writing, 8, 243-264.
Flowerdew, J. (2019). The linguistic disadvantage of scholars who write in English as anadditional language: myth or reality. Language Teaching, 52(2), 249-260.
Galtung, J. (1971). A structural theory of imperialism. Journal of Peace Research, 8, 81-117.

ISSN: 2189-101X

250

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Gentil, G., & Séror, J. (2014). Canada has two official languages-Or does it? Case studies ofCanadian scholars’ language choices and practices in disseminating knowledge.
Journal of English for Academic Purposes, 13, 17-30.
Gnutzmann, C., & Rabe, F. (2014). ‘Theoretical subtleties’ or ‘text modules’? German
researchers’ language demands and attitudes across disciplinary cultures”. Journal of
English for Academic Purposes, 13, 31-40.
Hanauer, D. I., & Englander, K. (2011). Quantifying the burden of writing research articles ina second language: Data from Mexican scientists. Written Communication, 28,
403-416.
Huang, J. C. (2011). Attitudes of Taiwanese scholars toward English and Chinese as
languages of publication. Asia Pacific Journal of Education, 31, 115-128.
Hyland, K. (2016). Academic publishing and the myth of linguistic injustice. Journal of
Second Language Writing, 31, 58-69.
Lave, J., & Wenger, E. (1991). Situated learning: Legitimate peripheral participation.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Li, Y. (2002). Writing for international publication: The perception of Chinese doctoral
researchers. Asian Journal of English Language Teaching, 12, 179-193.
Li, Y., & Hu, G. (2017). Chinese management academics’ English-medium scholarly
experience: Comparative perspectives on overseas-trained and home-trained scholars.
Ibérica, Journal of the European association of Languages for Specific Purposes, 33,
71-96.
Lillis, T. M., & Curry, M. J. (2010). Academic writing in a global context: The politics andpractices of publishing in English. London: Routledge.
Liu, W. (2017). The changing role of non-English papers in scholarly communication:
Evidence from Web of Science’s three journal citation indexes. Learned Publishing,30(2), 115-123.
López-Navarro, I., Moreno, A. I., Quintanilla, M. Á., & Rey-Rocha, J. (2015). Why do I
publish research articles in English instead of my own language? Differences in
Spanish researchers’ motivations across scientific domains. Scientometrics, 103,939-976.
Luo, N., & Hyland, K. (2016). Chinese academics writing for publication: English teachers as
text mediators. Journal of Second Language Writing, 32(3), 43-55.
Luo, N., & Hyland, K. (2019). “I won’t publish in Chinese now”: Publishing, translation andthe non-English speaking academic. Journal of English for Academic Purposes, 39,
37-47.
McGrath, L. (2014). Parallel language use in academic and outreach publication: A case studyof policy and practice. Journal of English for Academic Purposes, 13, 5-16.

ISSN: 2189-101X

251

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Merriam, S. B. (2002). Assessing and evaluating qualitative research. In S. B.
Merriam & Associates (eds.), Qualitative research in practice: Examples for discussion andanalysis (pp. 18-33). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Miles, M. & Huberman, M. (1994). The expanded sourcebook: Qualitative data analysis.
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Mok, K. H. (2006). Education reform and education policy in East Asia. Abingdon:
Routledge.
Muresan, L. M. & C. Pérez-Llantada (2014). English for research publication anddissemination in bi-/multiliterate environments: The case of Romanian academics.
Journal of English for Academic Purposes, 13, 53-64.
Postiglione, G. A. (2005). The academic profession in Hong Kong. In A. Welch (Ed.), The
professoriate: Profile of a profession (pp. 193-204). Dordrecht: Springer.
Salager-Meyer, F. (2008). Scientific publishing in developing countries: Challenges for the
future. Journal of English for Academic Purposes, 7, 121-132.
Salager-Meyer, F. (2014). Writing and publishing in peripheral scholarly journals: How toenhance the global influence of multilingual scholars?. Journal of English for
Academic Purposes, 13, 78-82.
Shin, J. C., Jung, J., Postiglione, G. A., & Azman, N. (2014). Research productivity of
returnees from study abroad in Korea, Hong Kong, and Malaysia. Minerva, 52,
467-487.
Smirnova, N. V., Lillis, T, & Hultgren, A. K. (2021, in press). English and/or Russian medium
publications? A case study exploring academic research writing in contemporary
Russian academia. Journal of English for Academic Purposes.
Swales, J., & Feak, C. (2012). Academic writing for graduate students (3rd ed.). Ann Arbor:
University of Michigan Press.
Thomas, D. R. (2006). A general inductive approach for qualitative data analysis. American
Journal of Evaluation, 27(2), 237-246.
Zheng, Y., & Gao, X. (2016). Chinese humanities and social sciences scholars’ language
choices in international scholarly publishing: A ten-year survey. Journal of Scholarly
Publishing, 48, 1-16.

ISSN: 2189-101X

252

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

A Perception Study of Multicultural Values:
Applying Hofstede’s Values Survey Module in the Thai Setting
Pradit Wanarat, NIDA School of Business Administration, Thailand
Maneewan Chat-uthai, NIDA School of Business Administration, Thailand
Tatchawan Kanitpong, NIDA School of Business Administration, Thailand
The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023
Official Conference Proceedings
Abstract
This paper aims to track the changes in Thailand's cultural dimension score over a decade.
The research methodology includes the target dissemination of Hofstede's Value Survey
Module 2013 to collect data online from corporate employees with 264 usable responses.
Demographic data of respondents are majority female (54%), age 36 years and above (77%),
graduated with a master’s degree (66%), and having a managerial title (54%). Data analysis
consists of the formula calculation of mean scores into the dimensions, including power
distance, individualism, masculinity, uncertainty avoidance, long-term orientation, andindulgence. The dimension scores further require a designated constant computed from theshift, using seven particular Asian countries as a reference region. The final dimension scoreresults show an increase and decrease from the originals. The surveyed power distance scoreis 40, a 24 points reduction from the original score of 64, indicating a shift in the lower valueof seniority and hierarchy among the respondents. The remaining dimensions have higherscores than the previous, ranging from 8 to 34. The highest changed score is masculinitychanging from the original 34 to 68, reflecting an increase in competitive and winning value.
The minimal change score is uncertainty avoidance, from 64 to 72, indicating a slightincrease in how people value the necessity of rules. Perceived benefits of this study include
updated perceptions of Thai respondents as a fresher view after the original and how to apply
the VSM formula index to obtain a new score in the future study.
Keywords: Multicultural Dimensions, Hofstede's VSM, Thailand's Cultural Dimension
Scoresiafor
The International Academic Forumwww.iafor.org

ISSN: 2189-101X

253

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Introduction
As time passes along with significant disruptions and changes, such as financial instability,
pandemic, and political conflicts, it may be time to reinvestigate how people's perceptions
may have changed. Therefore, this research assumes that changes may inevitably occur
during the past decade. Hofstede's Multicultural Dimensions has been popular among thoseinterested in learning about cross-cultural values. Six dimensions include power distance,
individualism, masculinity, uncertainty avoidance, long-term orientation, and indulgence. A
set of questions and manual of Value Survey Module or VSM 2013 have been available forresearchers to conduct a replicate study.
Research Methodology
The study aims to track the changes in the cross-cultural perception of Thai people over time.
The research uses a survey question from Hofstede's Value Survey Module or VSM 2013, a30-item questionnaire developed by Geert Hofstede and Michael Minkov, to compare
culturally influenced values of countries. The manual clearly stated that the VSM2013 is not
for the individual level, not for comparing organizations, nor for disapproving the publishedscores. The reason is that comparisons must use matched respondents from an original IBM
subsidiary population. All questions require the target groups to give their perception rating
on a five-point scale (1-5). There are formulas set to compute each dimension as follows:
1. Power Distance Index (PDI)
The extent to which the less powerful members of institutions and organizations within asociety expect and accept that power is distributed unequally.
Index Formula: PDI = 35(m07 – m02) + 25(m20 – m23) + C(pd)Note: C(pd) is a constant (positive or negative) chosen to shift the found PDI scores to values
between 0 and 100.
2. Individualism Index (IDV)
Individualism reflects a loose tie between individuals; a person is expected to look after
themself and their immediate family only; Opposite is collectivism, in which people frombirth onwards are integrated into strong, cohesive in-groups, which continue to protect themthroughout their lifetime in exchange for unquestioning loyalty.
Index Formula: DV = 35(m04 – m01) + 35(m09 – m06) + C(ic)
Note: C(ic) is a constant (positive or negative) chosen to shift the found IDV scores to values
between 0 and 100.
3. Masculinity Index (MAS)A society in which social gender roles are distinct: men are supposed to be more assertive,
challenging, and focused on material success; women are supposed to be more modest,
tender, and concerned with the quality of life.
Index Formula: MAS = 35(m05 – m03) + 35(m08 – m10) + C(mf)Note: C(mf) is a constant (positive or negative) chosen to shift the found MAS scores tovalues between 0 and 100.

ISSN: 2189-101X

254

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

4. Uncertainty Avoidance Index (UAI)The extent to which the members of institutions and organizations within a society feelthreatened by uncertain, unknown, ambiguous, or unstructured situations.
Index Formula: UAI = 40(m18 - m15) + 25(m21 – m24) + C(ua)Note: C(ua) is a constant (positive or negative) chosen to shift the found UAI scores to values
between 0 and 100.
5. Long-Term Orientation Index (LTO)
A society that fosters virtues oriented towards future rewards, in particular, adaptation,perseverance, and thrift; the Opposite is a short-term orientation that enables virtues related tothe past and present, in particular, respect for tradition and fulfilling social obligations
Index Formula: LTO = 40(m13 – m14) + 25(m19 – m22) + C(ls)Note: C(ls) is a constant (positive or negative) chosen to shift the found LTO scores to values
between 0 and 100.
6. Indulgence versus Restraint Index (IVR)
A society that allows relatively free gratification of some desires and feelings, especiallyleisure, merrymaking with friends, spending, and consumption; restraining is a society that
controls such gratification and where people feel less able to enjoy their lives
Index Formula: IVR = 35(m12 – m11) + 40(m17 – m16) + C(ir)Note: C(ir) is a constant (positive or negative) chosen to shift the found IVR scores to values
between 0 and 100.
Demographic of Respondents
The total 264 respondent profiles are as follows:
Gender:Male 121 (46%) ; Female 143 (54%)
Age:
21 -35 Years 202 (77%); 36 Years and above 62 (23%)
Education:
Bachelor Degree 89 (34%); Master Degree and higher 175 (66%)
Position:
Operational Staff 121 (46%); Managerial Staff 143 (54%)
Data Gathering and Analysis
The questionnaires were administered online to company employees, with a total usable
response of 264. Data analysis includes each question's mean score and the index formulacalculation.
The sample calculation is as follows:
Notes: VSM recommends a two-decimal mean score.
Q7
Be consulted by your boss in a decision involving your work
Q2
Have a boss you can trust
Q20 Subordinates afraid to contradict their boss
Q23 Two bosses should be avoided at all costs

Mean score = 3.43
Mean score = 1.00
Mean score = 4.48
Mean score = 1.53

Formula Index for PDI = 35(m07 – m02) + 25(m20 – m23) + C(pd)ISSN: 2189-101X

255

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

The first score derived from the formula for Power Distance without the constant C(pd) is
159.
As the VSM manual recommends applying a constant to shift the score to values between 0
and 100, the researcher has to calculate the constant through reference to others. For the PDI
index, the reference score used is 76, thus making the constant C(pd) equal to minus 119.
The final PDI score becomes 159 + (-119) = 40. In this regard, the newfound PDI for
Thailand is 40, which is less than the original Hofstede score of 64.
Details of dimension index constant and final scores are shown in the following tables.
PDI
Found Scores
Shift + ?
Hofstede Scores
Distracted to get Constant

Shift +?

Thailand
159
183
64
– 119

25

PDI
Q7 PDI_be consulted by your boss indecisions involving your work
Q2 PDI_ have a boss you can respect

Mean
Score
3.43

ConstantC(pd)Reference Others
76
100

NEW
PDI

H.PDI

1.00

Q20 PDI_subordinates afraid to
4.48
contradict their boss_
Q23 PDI_two bosses should be
1.53
avoided at all costs
Net PDI Scores
159
–119
40
64
Table 1: Calculation of Power Distance Dimension Scores
IDV
Found Scores
Shift + ?
Hofstede Scores
Distracted to get Constant

Shift +?

Q4 IDV_have security of employment
Q1 IDV_have sufficient time for yourpersonal or home life
Q9 IDV_have a job respected by yourfamily and friends
Q6 IDV_do work that is interesting
Net IDV Scores

ISSN: 2189-101X

Thailand
97
72
20
– 52

–25

IDV

Differenc
e

Mean
Score
2.90

ConstantC(pd)25

Reference Others
25
0

NEW
IDV

H.IDV

Differenc
e

1.50
3.40
1.50

97
–52
45
20
Table 2: Calculation of Individualism Dimension Scores

256

–25

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

MAS
Found Scores
Shift + ?
Hofstede Scores
Distracted to get Constant

Shift +?

Thailand
114
80
34
– 46

–34

MAS

Mean
Score
3.40

Q5 MAS_have pleasant people towork with

Official Conference Proceedings

Q3 MAS_get recognition for good
performance

1.50

Q8 MAS_live in a desirable area

3.40

ConstantC(pd)Reference Others
34
0

NEW
MAS

H.MAS

Q10 MAS_have chances for1.50
promotion
Net MAS Scores
114
–46
68
34
Table 3: Calculation of Masculinity Dimension Scores
UAI
Found Scores
Shift + ?
Hofstede Scores
Distracted to get Constant

Shift +?

UAI
Q18 UAI_your state of health thesedays
Q15 UAI_feel nervous or tense

Thailand
127
119
64
– 55

–8

Mean
Score
3.90

Constant
C(pd)

–34

Reference Others
8
0

NEW
UAI

H.UAI

Difference

2.00

Q21 UAI_be a good manager without
3.90
answer to subordinate's question
Q24 UAI_rules should not be broken
1.50
even for the company's interest
Net UAI Scores
127
–55
72
64
Table 4: Calculation of Uncertainty Avoidance Dimension Scores

ISSN: 2189-101X

Difference

257

–8

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

LTO
Found Scores
Shift + ?
Hofstede Scores
Distracted to get Constant

Shift +?

Thailand
139
110
32
– 78

–30

LTO

Mean
Score
2.90

Q13 LTO_do a service to a friend

Official Conference Proceedings

ConstantC(pd)Reference Others
30
0

NEW
LTO

H.LTO

Q14 LTO_thrift (not spending more
1.00
than needed)
Q19 LTO_proud to be a citizen of your 4.40
country
Q22 LTO_persistent efforts are the
1.50
surest way to results
Net LTO Scores
139
–78
62
32
Table 5: Calculation of Long-term Orientation Dimension Scores
IVR
Found Scores
Shift + ?
Hofstede Scores
Distracted to get Constant
IVR

Shift +?

Thailand
127
96
45
– 51

–31

Mean
Score
2.90

Constant
C(pd)

258

–30

Reference Others
31
0

NEW
IVR

H.IVR

Q12 IVR_have security of
employment
Q11 IVR_have security of
1.00
employment
Q17 IVR_have security of
3.90
employment
Q16 IVR_have security of
1.50
employment
Net IVR Scores
127
–51
76
45
Table 6: Calculation of Indulgence vs. Restraint Dimension Scores

ISSN: 2189-101X

Difference

Difference–31The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Results and Discussions
The final result of the study is shown in the followings:
Cultural Index Score
This study
Power Distance Index (PDI)
40
Individualism Index (IDV)
45
Masculinity Index (MAS)68
Uncertainty Avoidance Index (UAI)72
Long Term Orientation Index (LTO)
62
Indulgence vs. Restraint Index (IVR)
76
Table 7: Summary of New Found Index Scores

Hofstede Score
64
20
34
64
32
45

Perception of 264 respondents showed a 24 score decrease from the original Hofstede in the
power distance index, indicating less acceptance of the distribution of power in society.
Concerning the individualism index, the respondents moved toward a loose tie in thecommunity where the concentration is on their immediate family, not all others. The
masculinity index score increased toward a more assertive, competitive, and concerned-formaterial. The uncertainty avoidance index showed a slight increase from an alreadymoderately high threat of risks. The long-term orientation index was on the rise to a moreconcern towards the future. Lastly, the indulgence versus restraint index showed increased
leisure and free gratifications.
Conclusion
As reminded by the VSM, the results found are not comparable to published scores due to thechanging time, places, and sample groups. It is, therefore, virtually impossible to make acomplete comparison. However, the VSM is still a good tool for enthusiastic researchers to
explore cultural dimensions following Hofstede's trail of thought. Though there is no means
to change the original score, the researcher thinks this study may serve as a preview of what
has been happening in society. As the faithful witness of the world, the researcher agrees withthe found scores in all six dimensions. Much appreciation for the VSM tool; there should be
more studies of this kind elsewhere in the future.

ISSN: 2189-101X

259

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

References
Brewer, P., & Venaik, S. (2012). On the misuse of national culture dimensions. International
Marketing Review, 29(6), 673-683.
Brewer, P. & Venaik, S. (2014). The ecological fallacy in national culture research.
Organization Studies, 35(7), 1063-1086.
Differences – A Triumph of Faith a Failure of Analysis, Human Relations, 55.1, 89–118.
Value Survey Model. http://www.geerthofstede.nl/vsm
Gerhart, B. & Fang, M. (2005) National Culture and Human Resource Management:
Assumptions and Evidence, International Journal of Human Resource Management,
16.6, 971–986.
Hofstede, G. (2001). Culture's Consequences: comparing values, behaviors, institutions, andorganizations across nations (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications.
Hofstede, G. & Hofstede, G. J. (2005). Cultures and organizations: software of the mind
(Revised and expanded 2nd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
Hofstede, G. (2001). Culture’s Consequences: Comparing Values, Behaviors, Institutions,and Organizations Across Nations. Sage Publications. McSweeney, B. (2002a)
Hofstede's Identification of National Cultural.
Hofstede, G. & Minkov, M. (May 2013). Values Survey Module 2013 Manual.
www.geerthofstede.eu
Hofstede Insights (2022). Country Scores. Available online at https://www.hofstedeinsights.com/product/compare-countries/ (accessed 22 August 2022).

ISSN: 2189-101X

260

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Developing Students’ Transferable Skills Through Service Leadership of
Inclusive Learning Community

Atara Sivan, Hong Kong Baptist University, Hong Kong SAR
Vicky C. W. Tam, Hong Kong Baptist University, Hong Kong SAR
Tony L. F. Chow, Hong Kong Baptist University, Hong Kong SAR

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023
Official Conference Proceedings

Abstract
One important aim of higher education is to develop students’ attributes and skills that can beapplied in their future career. Apart from contributing to employability, the skills students
gain during university experience can enhance personal and social capacity and prepare
students to take leadership roles in the community. This paper presents a study examining thedevelopment of university students’ transferable skills through active participation in an
inclusive learning community consisting of adolescents with and without special educational
needs. University students received training to take service leadership role of the learning
community as part of a general education capstone course. The study adopted a mixedmethods design. Pre- and post-course questionnaire survey and follow-up interviews wereconducted with a sample of 27 university students enrolled in the course. Data analysis
revealed a statistically significant increase in the scores of attributes related to appreciation ofdiversity, respect, contribution to society, and civic engagement after completing the course.
Thematic analysis of the qualitative data indicated demonstration of service leadership skills,
enhanced understanding of social inclusion, and cultivation of community engagement
values. Students demonstrated empathy, respect and effective communication. They
delegated roles to others and reflected on their leadership experience. Results of the study
highlight the importance of empowering university students to undertake leadership oflearning community involving diverse populations in real-life settings. This authentic
experience contributes to the development of important skills and attributes for students’personal and social development.

Keywords: Transferable Skills, Service Leadership, Learning Community, Higher Education,
Hong Kong

iafor
The International Academic Forumwww.iafor.org

ISSN: 2189-101X

261

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Introduction
Graduates of universities must now have a set of skills that enhance both their personal lifeand employability. As the number of graduates continues to rise and job market
competition intensifies, it has become crucial to exhibit and substantiate skills that exceed
the technical and subject-specific knowledge. These skills are known as transferable skills
and they include interpersonal and intrapersonal skills, critical thinking, problem solving
communication, teamwork and leadership (Mello & Wattret, 2021; Yate, 2017). Nowadays,
graduates are not only expected to master these skills but also to demonstrate social values
and respect to others (Hinchliffe & Jolly, 2011). While there is an increasing need for theseskills, there remains a gap between skills that graduates possess and what employers
require (Heaviside, Manley & Hudson, 2018). To best develop transferable skills there is aneed for employing experiential and student-centered approaches (Calvaho, 2016). Mello andWattret (2021) argue that the development of transferable skills requires the incorporation of
student self-reflection process. Moreover, these skills can be best acquired if learning takes
place outside the classroom through community engagement (Hinchliffe & Jolly, 2011).
Studies investigating the development of transferable skills were mainly conducted on
specific discipline subjects (e.g., Carvalho, 2016; Valero et al., 2020). While these studies
indicated a positive impact on students’ skills such as information searching and teamwork inthese disciplines, a need exists to find out more about the development of skills across thedisciplines, especially in preparation of graduates for global working environment (Malm etal., 2022). One study conducted by Collins-Nelsen and associates (2022) examined students’development of transferable skills utilizing experiential learning beyond discipline-specificcontext. Results of the study indicated an increase in students’ self-assessment of leadership,
problem solving, knowledge translation, and knowledge mobilization. The research teamrecommended to further study the context in which the learning activities are held. They also
raised the need for more pre- and post-learning research utilizing interviews to elicit students’voices about their learning process and the development of transferable skills.
The present study aimed to respond to these recommendations by examining aninterdisciplinary university course incorporating experiential learning in the community andits contributions to students’ development of transferable skills. Taking on board theimportance of active engagement in learning community, students were involved inestablishing and leading a learning community outside the campus. We further utilized abefore-and-after research design to gauge changes in students’ leadership skills andcommunity engagement values.
Leadership entails a combination of numerous transferable skills and a demonstration of
professional values highly sought by employers (Yate, 2017). The present study focused on
the model of service leadership which is much needed to cater for the growth in the service
industry (Shek & Lin, 2015). In this model, service leaders provide service to everyone theycome in contact with including themselves, others, communities, systems and environments(Shek & Lin, 2015). Educating students to become service leaders involves the developmentof leadership competencies, moral characters and caring disposition (Shek & Li, 2015). These
three elements align closely with social values and respect for others that are sought after by
employers (Hinchliffe & Jolly, 2011). Service learning activities have been highly
recommended for the development of caring disposition (Shek & Li, 2015). Service learningrefers to students’ engagement in experiential and authentic community service which
benefits both the recipients and the students (Furco, 1996). Service leadership and

ISSN: 2189-101X

262

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

community engagement components were incorporated in the interdisciplinary course
examined in the present study. We investigated students’ development of service leadershipcharacteristics, understanding and appreciation of social inclusion, and community
engagement values.
The study was conducted on a semester credit bearing course entitled “Service Leadership in
Learning Communities” which is a general education capstone course offered by a major
university in Hong Kong. According to the university’s descriptions, capstone courses aim toequip students with broad-based knowledge, transferable skills and a deeper understanding ofpeople and issues through making connections at different levels. Students attending thesecourses are coming from different disciplines and they are required to apply their discipline
knowledge to address real-life issues faced by the local, regional, and global community
through engagement in teamwork. The course “Service Leadership in Learning
Communities” integrates theories from psychology, sociology, and education, and employs
experiential and action-learning approaches both in and outside of the classroom. It
provides students with the opportunities to develop service leadership skills by applying
elements of leadership, service-learning, and learning community in designing andimplementing learning activities. Students plan and implement inclusive learning activities
together with adolescents with and without special educational needs (SEN). Apart fromlearning the theories and concepts of service leadership, learning community, action
learning and youth development, students participate in a workshop on social inclusion andspecial educational needs and pay a visit to a special school for adolescents with special
educational needs. The present study aimed to investigate the contribution of the course to
students' development of service leadership qualities, understanding of social inclusion, andcultivation of community engagement values.
Methods
Research Design
A mixed-methods design was adopted combining elements of quantitative and qualitative
research. Questionnaire surveys and individual and focus group interviews were conducted
before the course and after its completion.
SampleThe sample consisted of two cohorts of students (N = 27) who enrolled in the general
education capstone course “Service Leadership in Learning Communities” in academic year
2021-2022. These were students in their third and fourth year of study and they came fromdifferent disciplines: Arts, Business, Communication, Creative Arts, Science, Chinese
Medicine, and Social Sciences. Participation in the study was on a voluntary basis. Students
gave inform consent and they were briefed and obtained a cash coupon upon completion of
the study. All research procedures were reviewed and approved by the Research Ethics
Committee of the university.
Data Collection and Analysis
The data were collected before the beginning of the course and after its completion using
questionnaire survey and individual and focus group interviews.
Questionnaire. A 23-item research instrument was designed and administered to the sample.
The questionnaire included seven dimensions related to leadership qualities, social inclusionand civic engagement: diversity; respect; teamwork; inclusiveness; emotional sensitivity;

ISSN: 2189-101X

263

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

contribution; and civic engagement. The 23 items were designed with reference made toexisting scales including Teamwork Scale for Youth (Lower, Newman, & Anderson-Butcher,2015) Positive Youth Development Inventory (PYDI) (Arnold, Nott, & Meinhold, 2012), andCivic Engagement Scale (Doolittle & Faul, 2013). Each item was rated by the respondents ona five-point scale (1 = “not like me at all” and 5 = “very much like me”). Scores for each
subscale were calculated by averaging the rating of respective items. Higher score indicates ahigher self-perceived competency in that dimension. The Cronbach’s alpha of the entire 23item instrument was .89, varying between .55 and .86 among the subscales.
Individual/Focus Group Interview. Individual and focused group interviews were conductedwith the participants to elicit their understanding of service leadership and social inclusion,
perception of SEN youth, and their personal development. Interviews were conducted faceto-face or online via Zoom by a trained researcher. All interviews were audiotaped withrespondents’ consent.
Results
Data collected through the pre- and post-course questionnaire surveys were analyzed using
IBM SPSS version 27. Both descriptive and inferential analyses were conducted. Dependentsample t-tests were performed to compare self-report ratings of the seven dimensions ofservice leadership before the course and after its completion. There was a statisticallysignificant increase in the scores of diversity, respect, contribution, and civic engagement
dimensions after completing the course. Slight but insignificant improvement in teamwork
and inclusiveness were reported.
The qualitative data collected through individual and focus group interviews were analyzed
using thematic analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2006). After familiarization with the data, an open
coding process was conducted. Codes with similar content were then combined to form initial
themes of the three foci of the study: development of service leadership qualities,
understanding of social inclusion, and cultivation of community engagement values. The
initial themes were further reviewed and discussed within the research team. Quotations thatenriched and solidified the themes were identified. Students’ accounts indicated an enhanced
understanding of service leadership and demonstration of these skills in their activities. There
was a change in their perceptions of social inclusion and knowledge of special needs youth.
Students also expressed their motivation to become involved in the community and undertake
leadership role. The main themes and examples of corresponding quotations are presented inTable 1 below.

ISSN: 2189-101X

264

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Main Themes
Development of Service
Leadership Qualities

Quotations
1) “Being a service leader has changed my idea of what aservice leader is like. It is more about patience,
willingness to listen to others, giving the rights andpowers to others to be involved in the decision-making
process instead of you making all the decision. This is
not about dominance. This is not about intelligence. It is
more about social intelligence and how you encourageothers to be part of it. These are more crucial.” (Student
K1)2) “I now like to listen to others’ opinion first before
expressing mine. I think I have learnt to be an active
listener and learn from others. It has nothing to do withthe theories in the paper. I am willing to listen to others’
and assimilate their ideas into mine.” (Student B2)
Understanding of Social 1) “The society really needs to let go of its prejudice
Inclusion
towards SEN youth. There were things that we thought
they could not do or that they needed our help.”(Student E1)
2) “Social inclusion is not about giving SEN youth
preferential treatment. You don’t need to see them as
special. You just need to offer them respect and treat
them like the way you treat everyone else. You don’t
have to label and isolate them. No one wants to be seen
as ’problematic‘. This is about finding a balance andhaving mutual respect.” (Student I2)
Cultivation of1) “I would like to do more. I think we have a better
community engagement
understanding of each other. It is great for both sides.
valuesRegardless of what we - both myself, secondary school
students and SEN youth - will do in the future, we havegrown because of this experience. This experience ofworking together helps.” (Student C2)2) I gained this sense of satisfaction, and it enriched mylife experience. I would like to work with people ofdifferent backgrounds. This allows me to connect toother people in the society and I learn more about
myself.” (Student D2)
Table 1: Themes and corresponding students’ quotations
Conclusion
This study examined the contribution of an interdisciplinary general education course to thedevelopment of students’ transferable skills related to leadership, social values and respect toothers. Results of the study indicated the development of service leadership qualities,
understanding of social inclusion and acquisition of community engagement values among
university students who participated in the course. Undertaking a leadership role in planningand implementing inclusive activities in a learning community involving adolescents withand without special educational needs provided an opportunity for university students to learn
about others’ needs and exhibit the caring disposition which is an important element ofservice leadership. The positive results of the study confirmed the importance of engaging

ISSN: 2189-101X

265

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

university students in experiential learning within the community for the development oftransferable skills. The results also support the use of action learning to facilitate students’reflection and thus the acquisition of these skills. It is recommended to offer more courses ofthis kind and to examine their contribution to the development of transferable skills acrossdifferent disciplines and contexts.

Acknowledgment
This study was funded by the William & Fung Foundation Ltd. We would like to thank theuniversity staff for their support. We also extent our heartfelt thanks to students of thecourse Service Leadership in Learning Communities who participated in the study.

ISSN: 2189-101X

266

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

References
Arnold, M. E., Nott, B. D., & Meinhold, J. L. (2012). The Positive Youth Development
Inventory Full Version. Oregon State University.
Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Researchin Psychology, 3(2), 77-101.
Carvalho, A. (2016). The impact of PBL on transferable skills development in management
education. Innovations in Education and Teaching International, 53(1), 35–47.
Collins-Nelsen, R., Koziarz, F., Levinson, B., Allard, E., Verkoeyen, S., & Raha, S. (2022).
Social context and transferable skill development in experiential learning. Innovations
In Education and Teaching International, 59(4), 421–430.
Doolittle, A., & Faul, A. C. (2013). Civic Engagement Scale: A validation study. Sage
Open, 3(3). 2158244013495542
Furco, A., (1996). “Service-Learning”: A Balanced Approach to Experiential Education.
Expanding Boundaries: Service and Learning. Washington DC: Corporation for
National Service, 2-6.
Heaviside, H. J., Manley, A. J., & Hudson, J. (2018). Bridging the gap between educationand employment: a case study of problem-based learning implementation in
Postgraduate Sport and Exercise Psychology. Higher Education Pedagogies, 3(1),463-477.
Hinchliffe, G. W., & Jolly, A. (2011). Graduate identity and employability. British
Educational Research Journal, 37(4), 563-584.
Lower, L. M., Newman, T. J., & Anderson-Butcher, D. (2017). Validity and reliability of the
teamwork scale for youth. Research on Social Work Practice, 27(6), 716-725.
Malm, J., Collins, J., Nel, C., Smith, L., Carey, W., Miller, H., Khagram, K., & Zaccagnini,
M. (2022). Transferable skills gained by student leaders in International SI-PASS
Programs. The International Journal of Learning in Higher Education;
Champaign, 29(1), 65-82.
Mello L. V., & Wattret, G. (2021). Developing transferable skills through embeddingreflection in the science curriculum. Biophysical Reviews, 13, 897- 903.
Shek, D. T. L., & Lin, L. (2015). Core beliefs in the service leadership model proposed by theHong Kong Institute of Service. International Journal on Disability and Human
Development, 14(3), 233–242.
Shek, D. T. L., & Li, X. (2015). The role of a caring disposition in service leadership.
International Journal on Disability and Human Development, 14(4), 319–332.

ISSN: 2189-101X

267

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Valero, M. D. R., Reid, T., Dell, G., Stacey, D., Hatt, J., Moore, Y., & Clift, S. (2020).
Embedding employability and transferable skills in the curriculum: a practical,
multidisciplinary approach. Higher Education Pedagogies, 5(1), 247-266.
Yate, M. (2017). Knock'em dead: The ultimate job search guide. Simon and Schuster.

ISSN: 2189-101X

268

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Exploring Chinese Secondary Teachers’ Perception of Critical Thinking in
Mathematics Teaching
Wei Liu, Hillcrest Christian College–VIC, Australia
The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023
Official Conference Proceedings
Abstract
The significance of developing students’ critical thinking has been widely recognized byeducators. Critical thinking has been regarded as an important and necessary educational
achievement as it empowers students to creatively contribute to their future chosen careers.
Quantitative and qualitative methods are used in this study to examine the definition ofcritical thinking espoused by teachers in China. This study aims to further investigate
teachers’ perceptions of critical thinking skills within their teaching, and how they promotecritical thinking among their students. This study expects to provide significant insight into
critical thinking within different educational cultures.
Keywords: Critical Thinking, Critical Thinking in China, Chinese Education Culture

iafor
The International Academic Forumwww.iafor.org

ISSN: 2189-101X

269

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Introduction
Critical thinking
The history of critical thinking
Critical thinking can be traced back to Socrates, over 2500 years ago in ancient Greece. By amethod of probing questions, Socrates demonstrated that people could think profoundly
before they accept ideas and can justify their claims of knowledge by asking deep questions.
In the 20th century, William Graham Sumner recognized the urgent need for critical thinking
throughout life and education. In her book, Folkways (1906), Sumner stated: “Education in
the critical faculty is the only education of which it can be truly said that it makes good
citizens” (Paul, Elder, & Bartell, 1997, p.633). Early philosophers did not form a formal
definition of critical thinking, however, contemporary scholars have since developed theirown. Contemporarily, strands of critical thinking are defined differently in different fields,such as philosophy, psychology, and education (Coney, 2015). For this particular study, thediscussion and definition of critical thinking are in the strand of education.
Recent development in critical thinking
From Socrates to contemporary scholars, critical thinking as an educational ideal has been
consistently regarded as essential and necessary for educational achievement (Forawi, 2016;
Howe, 2004; Siegel, 2010). Although the term critical thinking is widely used in Westerncountries, the definition of critical thinking is an ongoing theoretical debate amongst manyscholars of different cultures. Dewey (1938) argued that learning to think is the fundamental
objective of education. Critical thinking is reflective thinking—the thinker determines theimplication of ideas after actively questioning and considering them (Dewey, 1938). Ennis(1962) initially defined critical thinking as “the correct assessing of statements” (p. 83). Later
Ennis was critical of his early work (Ennis,1996) in which he modified the definition to“critical thinking is reasonable reflective thinking focused on deciding what to believe or do”(Ennis, 1993, p. 180). Dewey (1938) and Ennis (1996) addressed that critical thinking isreflective thinking, but the weakness is that the definitions do not point out how to process
information before making a decision. Glaser (1941) ascribed three main elements of criticalthinking: considering issues and concerns within one’s experiences, knowing how to reason,and using reasoning methods for problem-solving. Facione (1990, p.6) defined criticalthinking as “purposeful, self-regulatory, judgment, which results in interpretation, analysis,
evaluation, and inference, as well as an explanation of evidential, conceptual,
methodological, or contextual considerations upon which that judgment is based.” Facione(2013) later distinguished the definition of critical thinking using six core skills:
interpretation, analysis, explanation, evaluation, self-regulation, and inference. Frequently,
the notion of critical thinking is defined as the development and evaluation of arguments(Facione,1984). Critical thinking through “purposeful, reflective judgment, increases the
chances of producing a logical conclusion to an argument or solution to a problem” (Dwyer,
Hogan & Stewart, 2014, p.13). Critical thinking includes abilities such as applying available
information to new situations, analysing causes or motives for situations, and evaluating
opinions on subjects (Cheng & Wan, 2017). Considering definitions of critical thinking that
Facione (1984), Dwyer et al. (2014), and Cheng and Wan (2017) formulated, in this study,
critical thinking is understood as skills that make individuals think, question and challenge
ideas, generate solutions to problems and make intelligent decisions based on analysis andevidence. In mathematics, critical thinking may involve logical reasoning and skills while

ISSN: 2189-101X

270

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

separating facts from opinions. Individuals who think critically can understand logicalconnections between ideas, detect mistakes in induction and deduction reasoning, and cometo a logical decision while solving problems.
Chinese culture and critical thinking
In this section, two contradictory opinions about how to develop critical thinking skills in
students are discussed. Some scholars agreed that critical thinking is a western cultural term
and is not adapted to Chinese culture, while others believe that rather than culture, nurturing
is a more impactful method of developing these skills.
According to Ku and Ho (2010), cultural heritage is a great obstacle while nurturing criticalminded citizens. In the Western context, diversity in opinion is respected and valued,
judgment is characterized as analysis. Contrasting, traditional Chinese Confucian ideas placea higher value on respect towards authority, tradition, and harmony (Chen, 2017). Under thiseducational culture, students tend to prioritize consensus and avoid arguments (Liu, He & Li,2015). Although researchers and scholars do not explicitly claim that Chinese culture lacks
elements of critical thinking, their arguments suggest that critical thinking is culturally based
and a typically Western term (Tian & Low,2011). For example, multiple scholars (McBride,
Xiang, Wittenburg, & Shen, 2002; Tiwari, Avery, & Lai, 2003) have demonstrated that
Chinese students scored lower than Western students in most dispositions of critical thinking
through the use of the California Critical Thinking Dispositions Inventory (CCTDI). As
education in the Chinese classroom is heavily teacher-guided, students are thought to be rotelearners. Therefore, those researchers (Clark & Gieve, 2006; Heng, 2016, as cited in Chen,
2017) question whether critical thinking can be applied to Chinese educational culture.
Tian and Low (2011) expressed different opinions. They pointed out how CCTDI wasdeveloped in the United States, so it is impossible to eliminate social and cultural prejudice
within it. Hence, test results may undervalue Chinese students because the results areparadoxical to the finding that show Chinese students perform better in mathematics andother scientific subjects (Cai & Hwang, 2002; Turner, 2006). For example, Chinese students
have higher achievement scores compared to US students in solving complex mathematicalproblems (Cai & Hwang, 2002). Complex mathematical problems need students to have theability to draw inferences and evaluate the judgements and methods they use while solving
problems. All these skills are attributes of critical thinking. Also, high-ability students candeal with complex problems and tasks in flexible and creative ways, and cannot be
considered rote learners (Wolfle,1986). Critical thinking is an unconsciously developed social
product, it is related to cultural thinking and is a kind of social practice (Atkinson,1997). If
Chinese students are quiet, and hesitant to ask questions in class, this does not mean that they
are inevitably uncritical in the way they think (Tian & Low, 2011).
NurtureAccording to Paton (2005), rather than culture, nurturing is a larger key factor that affects
Chinese students’ critical thinking. Kenney (2013,) further echoed that critical thinking is not
an inherent skill but is an inclusion of both skills and habit (Cheng & Wan, 2017). For thisreason, not only Chinese students but also students from all countries need to be nurtured to
be able to apply critical thinking skills (Tian & Low, 2011). Both Bruner and Vygotsky(Wood, Bruner, & Ross, 1976) emphasize a child's environment, particularly social
environments. Both agree that adults should play an active role in assisting a child's learning.

ISSN: 2189-101X

271

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Schools, colleges, and universities are the main educational environments that develop theseskills in students (Alwadai, 2014). Developing students’ critical thinking requires teachers
who possess critical thinking skills themselves and are well-educated in terms of content
knowledge and pedagogical skills (Aktaş & Ünlü, 2013). For example, teachers who possess
advanced critical thinking strategies may, in turn, improve the critical analytical skills of theirstudents (Mei-Yun, Swee, Jung, & Leah, 2003; Paul et al., 1997).
Many studies show that teachers who understand the concepts and teaching strategies ofcritical thinking perform better in teaching critical thinking skills (Onosko,1992; Semmar &Fakhro, 2009; Zhang, 2001). Onosko (1992) found that teachers who reflect on their practice,value their thinking, and emphasize the depth of content often create a thought-provoking
atmosphere in the classroom. Onosko (1992) suggested that investigating how teachers think
about critical thinking may provide data for teaching theory, which in turn can provide
information for pedagogical practices Zhang (2001) found a relationship between teaching
methods and the way of thinking in teaching. Teachers who value and commit to criticalthinking within teaching are more likely to demonstrate reflective teaching methods. Studies
that collected teachers' perceptions of critical thinking found that although most teachers
indicated that critical thinking was a part of their teaching, many people could not express
how to effectively teach it (Howe, 2000; Paul et al.,1997). Since there is a lack of explanationof, and guidelines on critical thinking for both teachers and students (Bissell & Lemons,2006;
Turner,2006), the method of teaching critical thinking is repeatedly reported as a concern. In
this case, teachers are advised to use different teaching methods to support and enhance
students' critical and logical thinking, as well as problem-solving skills. To meet thisrequirement, teacher education programs should aim to improve these skills for teacher
candidates (Incikabi, Tuna, & Biber, 2013). Teachers need the training to be more effective
as they teach critical thinking skills (Innabi & Sheikh, 2006). In this context, to support
teachers that are infusing critical thinking skills within mathematics, future teacher education
programs should allocate more courses for critical thinking. In this way, prospective teachers
can become models of critical thinking and make the subject easier and more understandable
for the students.
Research questions
As critical thinking is a western expression, are Chinese teachers committed to thinking
critically to the same degree as western teachers? How do Chinese mathematics teachers
define critical thinking? How do those teachers promote critical thinking in theirmathematics lessons? These research questions attempt to investigate critical thinking within
the Chinese educational culture and explore how teachers in Chinese mainland schools
interpret critical thinking. This will provide a springboard for future discussion and research,such as teaching approaches, pedagogies, curriculum, and policy reform within China’s
education.
Methods
Quantitative and qualitative research methods are used collaboratively in this study.
Quantitative data was collected via survey. The survey method was utilized to obtain arepresentation of Chinese teachers’ definitions of critical thinking. Distribution of values,
such as mean, median and mode were utilized to seek out the average of the distribution with
SPSS. Qualitative data was collected via questionnaires and interviews. The importance of
critical thinking was explored through a questionnaire to collect a broad range of perceptions

ISSN: 2189-101X

272

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedingsof critical thinking within mathematics. Data were categorised based on skills. An in-depth
interview was applied to obtain further details about participants’ responses, which highlights
information about their understanding of critical thinking.
The participants of this study are all secondary school mathematics teachers from China. An
invitation email and snowballing were used to recruit participants. Eventually, 98 secondary
mathematics teachers responded to the survey, but 46 were excluded due to missing data.
Therefore, only the data of 52 teachers were included in the final analysis.
Results and discussion
1: How do Chinese mathematics teachers define critical thinking?
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%

Figure 1. Chinese secondary mathematics teachers’ definitions of critical thinking
Figure 1 shows the different definitions of critical thinking that teachers in China value. Eachof the definitions is sorted in descending order. The top five definitions were drawing
inferences (88%), analysis (87.8%), scepticism (82.3%), logical (82%), reasoning(80.4%) andapplication (80.4%).

N

Valid 49
Missing 3
Mean
4.18
Std. Deviation .755

ISSN: 2189-101X

Evaluation

Self-directed

Application

Deductive

Inductive

Scepticism

Clarifying ideas
Draw conclusion

LogicalProblem-solving

Reasoning
Drawinginferences

AnalysisTable 1 Mean and Standard Deviation (SD) of definitions of critical thinking

51 51 50 50 50 51 511 51 51 51 50 50
1
1
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
3.98 4.14 3.90 4.02 3.98 3.71 4.16 3.96 3.92 4.10 3.98 3.94
.812 .670 .831 .820 .937 .965 .857 .891 .891 .878 .915 .913

273

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

As can be seen from Table 1, participants expressed their strong agreement (M=4.18) withthe definition ‘analysis’, with the second highest mean (M=4.16) being for the definition‘scepticism’. With a high mean score of (M=4.14), participants agreed with ‘drawing
inferences’. In addition to this, a high agreement (M=4.10) was recorded for ‘application.’
Chinese secondary mathematics teachers were found to hold positive opinions on criticalthinking. Chinese teachers’ definitions of critical thinking are consistent with the definitionsof Facione’s (1990), they tended to emphasize skills that incorporate deeper understanding
such as drawing inferences, and reasoning. This analysis supports the view of Howe’s (2004)
study that shows Japanese teachers’ conceptions of critical thinking correlate with concretelearning outcomes. Chinese teachers also endorse scepticism and logic while defining criticalthinking, showing that Chinese mathematics teachers encourage probing questions andcritical responses.
The qualitative data from subsidiary question one was collected regarding teachers’ opinions
on the importance of critical thinking (Innabi & Sheikh,2006., Howe,2004).
A broader view of their opinion could be obtained by investigating the ranking of the top 5
definitions. Results were sorted into four categories as shown in Table 2.
Table 2 Teachers’ explanation of the importance of critical thinking
Category
Board understanding
Themed phrases
Thinking
Helps to develop students' logicallogical thinking
thinking
mathematical thinking
Improves mathematical thinking ability
independent thinking
Practice independent thinking
Can cultivate the ability to think
independently
rational thinking
Practice independent thinking
This is an important indicator of rational creative thinking
thinking
thinking skills
Can improve the quality of students'
thinking ability
thinking
To guide students to think creatively
problem -solving
Helps develop students' divergent
thinking skills
Improve students' thinking ability
With critical thinking, we can startsolving problems
Solve problems independently
Processes
Cultivate students' logical thinking
logicalImproved ability to analyse problems
analysis
Draw inferences about other cases from drawing inferences
one instanceStudy the issue from all sides
Questioning, analyzing, and concluding drawing a conclusion
are the most important learning skills
Critical thinking is the process of questioning &questioning and demonstrating unity
demonstrating

ISSN: 2189-101X

274

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Learning

Dispositions

It is a learning ability
Learning is inheriting existingknowledge
since it is inheritance, a certain degree ofcritical thinking helps students better
understand the nature of learning
Knowledge comes from practiceThe spirit of doubt and criticism
Questioning, not blindly obeying
authority
Thinking independently, and having an
academic spirit, not blindly obeying
authority
With the ability to think critically can an
independent personality be formed
Can better improve the ability to
distinguish between right and wrong

Official Conference Proceedings

learning ability
understand the nature oflearning
practice
scepticism

innovate
detect mistakes

Responding to the subsidiary question, a considerable percentage of teachers showed a
restricted or inadequate understanding of some of the above-mentioned aspects of criticalthinking. The results present the teachers’ four ways of perceiving critical thinking. A
majority of teachers perceive that critical thinking is a method of thinking, such as creative
thinking, and mathematical thinking. Other teachers think critical thinking involves theprocess of reasoning, such as analysis, drawing inferences and conclusions, which in turnhelps students improve their learning ability. The results show that Chinese teachers are more
focused on students acquiring knowledge and learning to reason and analyse rather than themreflecting and making a judgment. This finding is in line with the previous finding of Howe
(2004). Howe found out that compared with Canadian teachers who related critical thinking
more to the cognitive domain, Japanese teachers tended to correlate critical thinking withconcrete learning outcomes.
A very interesting finding is that Chinese teachers favour application as a definition of criticalthinking, which is not established as a definition of critical thinking within other studies (e.g.
Duron et al., 2006; Howe,2004; Riddell, 2007). This implies that the Chinese teacher’s
definition of critical thinking is a tool to help students in applying their mathematicalknowledge into practice. This further verifies Chinese teachers’ opinions that critical thinking
can be used as a tool in enriching students’ knowledge and learning outcomes. To avoid
common mistakes, students need to practice until the information is retained.
2. How do teachers promote critical thinking in their mathematics lessons?
Different key phrases from research question two were provided by teachers. These responses
are grouped into three categories. The first category includes all the strategies that teachers
usually apply in mathematics classes, that are not closely related to critical thinking. The
second category includes strategies that are related to critical thinking. Teachers in thiscategory are considered to have a good understanding of critical thinking and can apply
strategies within teaching to improve students’ critical thinking. The third category includes
strategizing that is not connected to critical thinking and reflects a lack of knowledge of it.

ISSN: 2189-101X

275

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Table 3. Teachers’ strategies in promoting critical thinking skills
Category
Related phrases
General strategies (34%)
Motivate students
Individual/ group work
Provides a problem/pose a question
Application
Peer teaching and assessment,
Demonstrate problem-solving methods forstudents.
Using different teaching methods or
strategies.
Providing students enough time to think
Discussion
Providing students with direct instructions
about how to analyse and solve the problem
Strategies related to critical thinking (52%) Cultivate students' logical thinking abilities
Students are asked to express their opinions
through discussions
Analysis, reasoning in detecting themistakes
Giving the wrong solutions and asking
students to detect the error
Posing questions, asking students to analyseand make judgments
Clarify all points and provide evidence tosupport the judgment
Pointing out mistakes made by teachers or
peers and providing evidence
Combine known information, makeinferences and draw conclusions
Multiple solutions, draw inferences from
one instance
Infuse critical thinking skills in mathematics
thinking, through making evaluations andreflecting
critical thinking (14%)
Students improve thinking skills throughpractices
Table 3 shows that only 52% of teachers’ strategies that are applied in mathematics classes
are connected to critical thinking. This reflects that nearly half of the teachers do not haveadequate knowledge and understanding of critical thinking, they lack strategies that assist
students in learning and developing critical thinking skills. The results of this study are in linewith other studies (Bissell & Lemons, 2006; Turner, 2006) that demonstrate a lack of
explanation and guidelines for teachers to follow while teaching students critical thinking
skills. Furthermore, 14% of teachers thought that critical thinking can be developed throughlots of practice. This result reveals that Chinese teachers do not have adequate knowledge of
how to teach critical thinking. This finding is consistent with other studies (Alwadai, 2014;
Gashan, 2015; Howe, 2004; Innabi & Sheikh, 2006) that point out that in a culture in which
critical thinking is not the dominant cultural paradigm, teachers require more support indeveloping their knowledge on it.

ISSN: 2189-101X

276

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Scepticism and independent thinking are the most frequently appearing terms in teachers’
responses. Chinese teachers place more importance on scepticism, which counters thestereotypical notions that criticism is always connected with scepticism, challenge, doubt andquestioning (Shao, 2013). Chinese teachers hold the disposition that critical thinking isneeded only when there is a conflict or when different opinions are opposed, they do not view
critical thinking as a habit of the mind. This finding is consistent with the findings of otherstudies (Alwadai, 2014; Gashan, 2015; Howe, 2004; Innabi & Sheikh, 2006). This viewreflects how cultural patterns dominate teachers’ beliefs.
Conclusion
The study found that the majority of secondary school mathematics teachers that participatedin the survey do not have a comprehensive view of critical thinking. There were about 47%
of participants did not respond to the first questionnaire on the definition of critical thinking,demonstrating that critical thinking is not a familiar term for everyone in a secondary Chinese
education setting. About half of the Chinese teachers could not identify strategies essential to
critical thinking, their responses reveal that they are more focused on students acquiringknowledge. They believe critical thinking is a tool to improve students’ learning but not anessential part of it. Critical thinking is more frequently thought to be scepticism, which showsthat teachers’ perceptions of critical thinking are influenced by their culture.

ISSN: 2189-101X

277

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

References
Awadhi, M.A. (2014). Islamic teachers’ perceptions of improving critical thinking skills in
Saudi Arabian elementary school. Journal of Education and Learning, 3(4), 37-48.
Aktas,G.S.,& Ünlü, M.(2013). Critical thinking skills of teacher candidates of elementary
mathematics. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Science,93,831-835.
Atkinson,D.(1997). Higher education: a critical business. Milton Keynes: SRHE and Open
University Press.
Bissell, A. N., & Lemons, P. P. (2006). A new method for assessing critical thinking in theclassroom. BioScience,56(1), 66-72.
Cai, J., & Hwang, S. (2002). Generalized and generative thinking in US and Chinese
students’ mathematical problem solving and problem posing. The Journal of
Mathematical Behaviour, 21, 401-421.
Chen, L. (2017). Understanding critical thinking in Chinese sociocultural contexts: a casestudy in a Chinese college. Thinking Skills and Creativity, 24,140-151.
Cheng, M.H.M., & Wan, Z.H. (2017). Exploring the effects of classroom learning
environment on critical thinking skills and disposition: a study of Hong Kong 12th
graders in liberal studies. Thinking Skills and Creativity,24, 152-163.
Clark, R., & Gieve, S. N. (2006). On the discursive construction of ‘the Chinese learner’.
Language, Culture and Curriculum,19(1),54-73.
Coney, C. L. (2015). Critical Thinking in its contexts and in itself. Educational Philosophy
and Theory, 47(5), 515-528.
Dewey, J. (1938). Experience and education. New York: Collier Books.
Duron, R., Limbach, B., Waugh, W. (2006). Critical thinking framework for any discipline.
International Journal of Teaching and Learning in Higher Education, 17(2),160-166.
Dwyer, C.P., Hogan, M. J., & Stewart, I. (2014). An integrated critical thinking framework
for the 21st century. Thinking Skills and Creativity,12, 67-77.
Ennis, R. H. (1962). A concept of critical thinking. Harvard Educational Review, 29, 128136.
Ennis, R. H. (1993). Critical Thinking Assessment. Theory into Practice, 32, 179-186.
doi.org/10.1080/00405849309543594
Ennis, R. H. (1996). Critical thinking dispositions: Their nature and assess ability. Informal
Logic, 18(2), 165–182.
Facione, P. A. (1984). Toward a theory of critical thinking. Liberal Education,70, 253-261.

ISSN: 2189-101X

278

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Facione,P.A.(1990). Critical Thinking: A Statement of Expert Consensus for Purposes of
Educational Assessment and Instruction. Research Findings and Recommendations.
American Philosophical Association. Retrieved from ERIC Document Reproduction
Service.
Facione,P.A.(2013). Critical thinking: What it is and why it counts. Milbrae, CA: California
Academic Press.
Forawi, S. A. (2016). Standard-based science education and critical thinking. Thinking Skills
and Creativity, 20, 52-62.
Glaser, E. M., & Watson, M. (1941). An experiment in the development of critical thinking.
New York: Teachers College of Columbia University, Bureau of Publication.
Gashan, A. K. (2015). Exploring Saudi pre-service teachers’ knowledge of critical thinking
skills and their teaching perceptions. International Journal of Education & Literacy
Studies, 3(1), 26-33.
Howe, E.R.(2000). Secondary school teachers’ conceptions of critical thinking in British
Columbia and Japan: a comparative study, thesis, University of British Columbia,
Canada.
Howe, E. R. (2004). Canadian and Japanese teachers’ conceptions of critical thinking: A
comparative study. Teachers and Teaching, 10(5), 505–525.
Incikabi, L., Tuna, A., Biber, A.C. (2013). An analysis of mathematics teacher candidates’
critical thinking dispositions and their logical thinking skills. Journal of International
Educational Research, 9(3), 257-266.
Innabi, H., El Sheikh, O.(2006). The change in mathematics teachers’ perceptions of criticalthinking after 15 years of educational reform in Jordan. Educational Studies inMathematics, 64(1), 45-68.
Kenney, J. (2013). Fostering critical thinking skills: Strategies for use with intermediate
gifted readers. Illinois Reading Council Journal, 41(2), 28-40.
Ku, K.Y.L., & Ho, I.T. (2010). Dispositional factors predicting Chinese students’ criticalthinking performance. Personality and Individual Difference, 48, 54-58.
Liu, Z. K., He, J., & Li, B.(2015). Critical and creative thinking as learning processes at topranking Chinese middle schools: possibilities and required improvements. High
Ability Studies, 26(1), 139-152.
McBride,R.E., Xiang,P., Wittenburg,D., & Shen,J.H.(2002). An Analysis of Pre-service
Teachers' Dispositions Toward Critical Thinking: A cross-cultural Perspective. AsiaPacific Journal of Teacher Education, 30(2), 131-140. doi:
10.1080/13598660220135649
Mei-Yun, L., Swee, L., Jung, M., & Leah, A.(2003). What Hong Kong teachers’ and parents
think about thinking. Early Child Development and Care, 173(1), 147-158.

ISSN: 2189-101X

279

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Onosko, J. J.(1992). Exploring the thinking of thoughtful teachers. Educational Leadership
49 (7), 40-44.
Paton,M.(2005). Is critical analysis foreign to Chinese students? In E.Manalo & G.Wong-Toi(Eds.), Communication skills in university education: The international
dimension(pp.1-11). Auckland: Pearson Education.
Paul, W, R., Elder, L., & Bartell, T.(1997). California Teacher Preparation for Instruction in
Critical Thinking: Research Findings and Policy Recommendations. Foundation for
Critical Thinking.
Riddell, T. (2007). Critical assumptions: thinking critically about critical thinking. Journal of
Nursing Education,46(3),121-126.
Semmar,Y., & Fakro, A.(2009). Investigating critical thinking skills practices in Qatarielementary schools. International Journal of Learning,16(1), 13-23.
Shao,W.(2013). 谈批判性思维培养与主动性知识构建在当代高等教育中的核心地位. A
brief review of the core value of nurturing critical thinking and self-directed
knowledge construction in current higher education. University Education, 14, 41-52.
Siegel, H. (2010). Critical thinking. International Encyclopedia of Education, 6, 141-145.
Https://doi.org./10.1016/B978-08-044894-7.00582-0
Tian, J., & Low, G. D. (2011). Critical thinking and Chinese university students: a review ofthe evidence. Language, Culture and Curriculum, 24(1), 61-67.
Tiwari, A., Avery, A., & Lai, P. (2003). Critical thinking disposition of Hong Kong Chineseand Australian nursing students. Journal of advanced Nursing, 44,298–307.
Turner,Y. (2006). Students from mainland China and critical thinking in postgraduate
business and management degree: teasing out tensions of culture, style and substance.
International Journal of Management Education, 5(1),3-11.
Wolfle, J. A. (1986). Enriching the mathematics program from middle school gifted students.
Roeper Review,9,81-85.
Wood, D. J., Bruner, J. S., & Ross, G. (1976). The role of tutoring in problem
solving. Journal of Child Psychiatry and Psychology, 17(2), 89-100.). The role oftutoring in problem solving. Journal of Child Psychiatry and Psychology, 17(2), 89100.
Zhang, L.(2001). Approaches and thinking styles in teaching. The Journal of
Psychology135(5), 547–561.

ISSN: 2189-101X

280

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Work From Home and Distance Learning: Its Impact on Working Students’ Performance
Vivi Viyati Yudha Hadijaya, Universitas Indonesia, Indonesia
Sari Wahyuni, Universitas Indonesia, Indonesia
The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023
Official Conference Proceedings
Abstract
This study aims to analyze the impact of work from home and distance learning on working
students’ performance directly or mediated by work motivation, job satisfaction, and work
life balance. The analysis is based on quantitative method. The population was working
students at the Business and Economy Faculty in Indonesia Postgraduate Program, and had
worked for more than six months, both permanent and contract employees. Data collection
techniques through surveys, with research instruments using questionnaires. The samplingtechnique is proportionate stratified random sampling. The analysis technique useddescriptive analysis, multiple linear analysis, and path analysis. The results show that workfrom home have positive and significant influence on working students’ performance directlyor mediated by work motivation, job satisfaction, and work-life balance. distance learning has
positive and significant influence on working students’ performance directly or mediated bywork motivation, job satisfaction, and work life balance. Work motivation mediates theimpact of work from home on working students’ performance, but job satisfaction and worklife balance have no role in mediating the impact of work from home and distance learning
on working students’ performance. These findings in relation to the extant literature and its
implication for companies providing working student with opportunities to manage theirpriorities between work, study, and personal life better.
Keywords: Work From Home, Distance Learning, Working Students’ Performance

iafor
The International Academic Forumwww.iafor.org

ISSN: 2189-101X

281

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Introduction
COVID-19 spread quickly around the world and became a pandemic. The large-scale
outbreak of this pandemic affects human health, and various aspects of human life in asignificant way (Huang et al., 2020). In Indonesia, issued a government regulation to closeschools in the second week of March 2020. Some schools continue teaching with different
motors. Interim lessons of face-to-face learning due to an emergency crisis are called remote
emergency learning (Hodges et al., 2020).
Work from home has become a mainstay of many companies as an alternative strategic
policy to break the chain of transmission of COVID-19. This policy certainly has the sameobligations and responsibilities as working from an office. Work from home creates
flexibility in time and place. However, Work from home has drawbacks such as poor teamperformance and less than optimal supervisory systems by managers (van der Lippe &Lippényi, 2020).
Within the scope of higher education, it is important for educational institutions to properly
implement online learning models and support students (Daumiller et al., 2021). Distancelearning has similarities with work from home, because learning is also done remotely. The
implementation of distance learning gave birth to several variations of distance learning
programs such as virtual schooling, cyber schooling, online charter schooling, to blended
learning programs (Hasler-Waters et al., 2017).
In the context of the effect of work from home and distance learning, three variables are
assumed to be able to partially mediate the effect of work from home and distance learning
on working students’ performance (Chaney et al., 2017; Farooq & Sultana, 2021; Omar etal., 2018; Prasetyaning et al., 2021; Timsal & Awais, 2016). The three intermediary variables
are presented in this model, because it is interesting to know whether work from home anddistance learning influence work motivation, job satisfaction, and work-life balance.
Literature Review
Research on the productivity and involvement of remote and on-site workers, found thatenjoyment of work locations or comfortable Work from home was positively andsignificantly correlated with better performance than working at work (Amador et al., 2016).
Work from home can increase work productivity (Noonan & Glass, 2012). Across Europe
working professionals find their new working conditions mostly positive as they appreciate
the benefits of work from home, whereas managers find the situation more challenging (Ipsen
et al., 2021).
In research to determine the correlation between job satisfaction and job performance,
proving a positive and significant relationship between job satisfaction and job performance(Judge et al., 2001). There is positive social relationships is another factor associated withhaving a positive work-life balance. In a study based in Sri Lanka, found relationshipbetween work-life balance and working students’ performance (Malalasekara, 2019).
There are many studies regarding the impact of work from home on working students’performance (Amador et al., 2016; Mardianah et al., 2020; Noonan & Glass, 2012; Rawat etal., 2021). However, there is a research gap between these researchers proving that workfrom home has a positive and significant effect on working students’ performance (Amador

ISSN: 2189-101X

282

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

et al., 2016; Mardianah et al., 2020; Noonan & Glass, 2012). A different effect for work fromhome on working students’ performance, because it depends on employee intention as amediator variable (Rawat et al., 2021).
The need for a mediator variable between work from home and working students’performance (Rawat et al., 2021). Researchers present three intermediary variables, namely
job satisfaction, work motivation, and work-life balance. The justification for using thesethree variables as intermediary variables is due to several reasons. First, the need for a
mediating variable between work from home and working students’ performance. The second
and third variables (job satisfaction, work motivation, and work-life balance) have been
partially proven in previous research to affect working students’ performance. Job
satisfaction is proven to affect working students’ performance (Judge et al., 2001), Work-lifebalance is proven to affect working students’ performance (Malalasekara, 2019). Work
motivation is proven to affect working students’ performance (Hanaysha & Majid, 2018;
Firdiansyah & Pamungkas, 2021; Widyaningrum & Hamdan, 2018; Priarso et al., 2019;
Sembiring et al., 2020; Chien et al., 2020; Izzah et al., 2020; Thamrin & Riyanto, 2020;
Suryani et al., 2021).
Another impact of work from home on work-life balance, as empirically proven by (Crosbie& Moore, 2004; Gajendran & Harrison, 2007) that work from home is useful in supportingbalance between work and work-life balance. Distance learning has a positive effect on
working students’ performance. Distance learning is proven make students feel more
comfortable in learning compared to face-to-face learning systems, and motivates students tolearn further (Caroline et al., 2015). Distance learning provide flexibility for employees tomanage time so that they can work more productively than working while having to attend
lectures at campus.
The role of mediation, assumptions of work motivation, job satisfaction, and the mediating
effect of work-life balance on work from home on working students’ performance. In
addition, job satisfaction and work-life balance mediate the effect of distance learning on
working students’ performance. The causality model with a path analysis format consists of
two independent variables or exogenous variables, three endogenous intermediary variables:
work motivation, job satisfaction, and work-life balance; and endogenous variable: working
students’ performance.

Figure 1: Research Framework

ISSN: 2189-101X

283

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Methods
The analysis is based on quantitative method. The population was working students at theBusiness and Economy Faculty in Indonesia Postgraduate Program, and had worked for morethan six months, both permanent and contract employees. Data collection techniques throughsurveys, with research instruments using questionnaires. The population was 750 working
students’ students. The sampling technique is proportionate stratified random sampling, theminimum sample size is 109 respondents. The analysis technique used descriptive analysis,
multiple linear analysis, and path analysis using Partial Least Square (PLS) SEM Analysis.
ResultReliability Indicator
All outer loading indicators are > 0.70, so outer loading is sufficient.

Figure 2: Outer Processing ModelAll outer loading values in the second test pass the indicator reliability test of the 43
indicators, 27 were omitted because they did not meet the criteria for the indicator reliability
test, so the remaining 16 indicators.
Discriminant Validity
This explains that indicators have good discriminant validity in forming their respective
variables. In the variable distance learning with the indicators DL5, DL6, and DL7, it has ahigher value for the parent variable than the other indicators. All indicators in this study
passed the discriminant validity test with cross loading.

ISSN: 2189-101X

284

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Table 1: Discriminant Validity Results with Cross Loading

The discriminant validity test uses the Fornell Larcker measure, namely the comparison value
between the AVE value and the quadrant of the correlation value between constructs orcomparing the AVE root with the quadrant of the correlation value between constructs.
Fornell Lacker each latent variable must be greater than the correlation between latentvariables. The six variables were declared to have passed the Discriminant Validity test with
Fornel Larcker values.
Table 2: Discriminant Validity Results with Fornell Larcker

Internal Consistency
The internal consistency test uses indicators of composite reliability and Cronbach's Alpha.
The accepted cut-off value for the composite reliability level, for exploratory research is ≥0.6. Composite reliability does not assume the convenience of booting from each indicator,
while Cronbach's Alpha assumes the convenience. The four variables of this study havepassed the internal consistency test, which means that they support the internal consistency

ISSN: 2189-101X

285

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

test. Job satisfaction and work from home variables have values below 0.6 so they do notpass the Cronbach's Alpha test.
Convergent Validity
The results of the AVE values of the four variables fulfill the convergent validity testing,which has a value above 0.5. The four variables were declared to have passed the convergent
validity test.
Multicollinearity Test
All VIF values in the relationship between variables are smaller than 10. There was no
phenomenon of two or more independent variables or highly correlated exogenous
constructs, which means that there is a strong intercorrelation between latent variables,
causing the predictive ability of the model to be poor.
Coefficient of Determination
R-Square for work from home, distance learning, work motivation, job satisfaction, work-lifebalance simultaneously has a positive effect on working students’ performance, with RSquare value 0.531 (53.10%) The magnitude of the influence of 53.10% is between the effectvalue of 0.33 and 0.67, indicating that the strength model is moderate. R-Square for workfrom home and distance learning simultaneously have a positive effect on job satisfaction
with R-Square 0.189 (18.90%). The magnitude of the influence of 18.90% is under the
influence value of 0.19 indicating that the model is weak. R-Square for work from home anddistance learning simultaneously have a positive effect on working students’ performance,
work-life balance with the value of R-Square 0.256 (25.60%). The magnitude of theinfluence of 18.90% is under the influence value of 0.19 indicating that the model is weak. RSquare for work from home and distance learning simultaneously have a positive effect onwork motivation with R-Square 0.358 (35.80%). The magnitude of the influence of 35.80% is
below the value of the strength of influence of 0.33 indicating that the model is moderate.
Effect Size Test
If the F Square value is less than 0.02 or <0.02, the effect is ignored or considered to have noeffect; the value of F Squared with a range between 0.02 to 0.15 is called small influence
between variables; the F-Square value with a range between 0.15 to 0.35 is referred to as themoderate effect among the variables; and the F-Square value > 0.35 is referred to as the
major influence among the variables. The F-Square value for each relationship variable is on
average small, then very small, and only one F-square value has a large effect, namely F
Square X2 on M1 (0.557).
Path Coefficient
The path coefficient value of the effect of distance learning on work from home is 0.267;
distance learning on job satisfaction is 0.330. Distance learning to work-life balance is 0.321.
Job satisfaction with work from home is 0.156.; Work-life balance against work from home
is -0.026. Work motivation towards work from home is 0.283; Work from home against workfrom home is 0.283. the value of job satisfaction is 0.159.; Work from home to work-life

ISSN: 2189-101X

286

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedingsbalance is 0.258. Work from home on work motivation is 0.598. The direction of thisinfluence is positive and significant with moderate correlation strength.
Q-Square Predictive RelevanceThe results of calculating Q2 Square predictive relevance for the effect of work motivation,
working students’ performance, distance learning, job satisfaction, and work-life balance on
work from home is that the value of Q2 is greater than 0 (zero). This shows that work
motivation, working students’ performance, distance learning, job satisfaction, and work-lifebalance have predictive value relevance to working students’ performance.
Hypothesis Test

Figure 3: Hypothesis Test
Hypothesis 5 (Effect of Work-life balance on working students’ performance)
The path coefficient value is 0.235, coefficient of determination (R2) is (0.235)2 = 0.0552(5.52%). Significance test is t = 2.242 (> 1.96) and the p-value is 0.025 (< alpha 0.05), whichmeans that work from home has a positive and significant effect on working students’performance. Hypothesis 1a is proven.
H1b: Work from home has a positive effect on job satisfaction
The path coefficient value of work from home to job Satisfaction is 0.159, coefficient ofdetermination (R2) is (0.159)2 = 0.0252 (2.52). Significance test value t = 1.463 (<1.96) andp-value 0.144 (> alpha 0.05), which means that work from home has a positive but notsignificant effect on job satisfaction. Hypothesis 1b is not proven.
H1c: Work from home has a positive effect on work-life balance
The path coefficient value of work from home to work-life balance is 0.258, coefficient ofdetermination (R2) is (0.258)2 = 0.066564 (6.65%). The significance test is t = 2.409 (> 1.96)
and the p-value is 0.016 (> alpha 0.05), which means that work from home has a positive andsignificant effect on work-life balance. Hypothesis 1c is proven.

ISSN: 2189-101X

287

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

H1d: Work from home has a positive effect on work motivation
The coefficient value of the work from home path on work motivation is 0.598, coefficient ofdetermination (R2) is (0.598)2 = 0.3576 (35.76%). Significance test t = 8.825 (> 1.96) and pvalue 0.000 (< alpha 0.05), which means that work from home has a positive and significant
effect on work motivation. Hypothesis 1d is proven.
H2a: Distance learning has a positive effect on working students’ performance
The path coefficient value of distance learning to work from home is 0.267, coefficient ofdetermination (R2) is (0.267)2 = 0.0712 (7.12%). Test the significance value of t = 2.452 (>1.96) and the p-value is 0.015 (> alpha 0.05), which means that distance learning has apositive and significant effect on working students’ performance. Hypothesis 2a is proven.
H2b: Distance learning has a positive effect on job satisfaction
The path coefficient value of Distance Learning on Job Satisfaction is 0.330, coefficient ofdetermination (R2) is (0.330)2 = 0.1089 (10.89%). Significance test t = 3.262 (> 1.96) and pvalue 0.001 (<alpha 0.05), which means that distance learning has a positive and significant
effect on job satisfaction. Hypothesis 2b is proven.
H2c: Distance learning has a positive effect on work-life balance
The path coefficient value of Distance Learning to Work-life balance is 0.321, the coefficientof determination (R2) is (0.321)2 = 0.1030 (10.30%). Significance test with a t = 3.040 (>1.96) and a p-value of 0.002 (< alpha 0.05), which means that distance learning has a positiveand significant effect on work-life balance. Hypothesis 2c is proven.
H3: Work motivation has a positive effect on working students’ performance
The path coefficient value of work motivation towards Work from home is 0.283, coefficientof determination (R2) is (0.283)2 = 0.08008 (8%). Test the significance value of t = 2.550 (>1.96) and the p-value is 0.011 (> alpha 0.05), which means that work motivation has apositive and significant effect on working students’ performance. Hypothesis 3 is proven.
H4: Job satisfaction has a positive influence on working students’ performance.
The path coefficient value of job satisfaction to work from home is 0.156, coefficient ofdetermination (R2) is (0.156)2 = 0.02433 (2.43%). Test the significance value of t = 1.862(<1.96) and the p-value is 0.063 (> alpha 0.05), which means that job satisfaction has apositive but not significant effect working students’ performance. Hypothesis 4 is not proven.
H5: Work-life balance has a positive influence on working students’ performance
The Work-life balance path coefficient value for Work from home is -0.026, coefficient ofdetermination (R2) is (-0.026)2 = 0.00067 (0.067%). The significance test is t = 0.273 (>1.96) and the p-value is 0.785 (> alpha 0.05), which means that work-life balance has anegative and insignificant effect on working students’ performance. Hypothesis 5 is notproven.
H6: Work from home has a positive effect on working students’ performance with work
motivation as a mediating variable
VAF value 41.87% (20% -80%), only partial mediation. Work motivation plays a role inmediating the effect of Work from home on working students’ performance. Hypothesis 6 isproven.

ISSN: 2189-101X

288

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

H7a: Work from home has a positive effect on working students’ performance with Job
Satisfaction as a mediating variable
VAF value of 9.57% (<20%), no mediation. Job satisfaction does not play a role in mediating
the effect of work from home on working students’ performance. Hypothesis 7a is notproven.
H7b: Distance Learning has a positive effect on working students’ performance with Job
Satisfaction as a mediating variable
VAF value of 16.30% (<20%), no mediation. Job satisfaction does not play a role inmediating the effect of distance Learning on working students’ performance. Hypothesis 7b
is not proven.
H8a: Work from home has a positive effect on working students’ performance with work-life
Balance as a mediating variable
The VAF value is 3.05% (<20%), meaning there is no mediation. Work-life balance does notplay a role in mediating the effect of work from home on working students’ performance.
The H8a hypothesis is not proven.
H8b: Distance learning has a positive effect on working students’ performance with work-lifebalance as a mediating variable
VAF value of 3.08% (<20%), no mediation. Work-life balance does not play a role inmediating the effect of distance learning on working students’ performance. The H8ahypothesis is not proven.
Discussion
The effect of work from home on working students’ performance
The results of the study show that work from home has a positive and significant effect on
working students’ performance. Means the first hypothesis is proven. The results of this study
support that work from home has a positive and significant effect on working students’performance (Mardianah et al., 2020). Work from home can increase work productivity(Amador et al., 2016; Noonan & Glass, 2012). However, the results of this study contradict)that work from home has a negative effect on working students’ performance (Farooq &Sultana, 2021).
The effect of work from home on job satisfaction
The results showed that work from home had a positive but not significant effect on job
satisfaction. The results of this study are in line with (Irawanto et al., 2021) which werecarried out for employees from major islands in Indonesia. Work from home has a positiveand significant effect on job satisfaction.
The effect of work from home on work-life balance
The results showed that work from home had a positive and significant effect on work-lifebalance. These results support (Biron & van Veldhoven, 2016; Cavalcanti et al., 2021) who
found a relationship between work from home and work-life balance. Work from home has
also been proven to improve the balance between work and personal life because it gives
employees the opportunity to do both work and non-work-related things better.

ISSN: 2189-101X

289

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

The effect of work from home on work motivation
The results showed that work from home had a positive and significant effect on work
motivation. These results support that work from home has a positive effect on work
motivation (Amsak & Indriati, 2021) The results of this study indicate that aspects oftechnology, information and communication (ICT) that can be used while employees are
doing work from home, have become important factors to increase their work motivation.
The effect of distance learning on working students’ performance
The results of the study show that distance learning has a positive and significant effect on
working students’ performance. The meaning of the results of this study is that technology,
information, and communication (ICT) factors have a role for employees who do distancelearning to keep working optimally. In addition, distance learning has a positive andsignificant effect on the performance of employees who work while studying. This is because
distance learning provides opportunities for college employees to manage their time better.
The effect of distance learning on job satisfaction
The results of the study show that distance learning has a positive and significant effect on
job satisfaction. However, no previous research has been found that examines the effect of
distance learning on job satisfaction, so the results of this study cannot be compared withprevious studies. The meaning of these indicators is that employees have a positive
perception of distance learning, so that it also has a positive impact on job satisfaction.
The effect of distance learning on work-life balance
The results of the study show that distance learning has a positive and significant effect on
work-life balance. However, no previous research has been found that examines the effect of
distance learning on work-life balance, so the results of this study cannot be compared withprevious studies. Distance Learning improves Work-life balance because it allows employees
who work while studying to have the opportunity to divide their time between study, workand personal life activities in a more balanced manner.
The effect of work motivation on working students’ performancethe results of the study show that work motivation has a positive and significant effect on
working students’ performance. The results of this study are in line with (Chien et al., 2020;
Firdiansyah & Pamungkas, 2021; Izzah et al., 2020; Priarso et al., 2019; Sembiring et al.,2020; Thamrin & Riyanto, 2020; Widyaningrum & Hamdan, 2018) that employees needexternal and non-financial motivation to encourage these employees to improve theirperformance.
The effect of job satisfaction on working students’ performance
The results showed that job satisfaction has a positive but not significant effect on working
students’ performance. Job satisfaction affects work performance. This means that so far
management has not provided enough support to employees to further improve theirperformance.(Judge et al., 2001) Another explanation why the effect of Job Satisfaction is not
significant on working students’ performance.
The effect of work-life balance on working students’ performance
The results of the study show that the Work-life balance has a negative and insignificant
effect on working students’ performance. These results are in accordance with (Malalasekara,2019) who found that there is a relationship between work-life balance and employee
workplace performance So far, management is perceived to be insufficient in providing

ISSN: 2189-101X

290

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

various policies or incentives to lighten work, especially those that can provide a balance
between workload and employees' personal lives.
The role of work motivation in mediating the effects of work from home on working
students’ performance
The results of the study show that Work Motivation plays a role in mediating the effect ofWork from home on working students’ performance. However, no previous research has
been found which proves that work motivation mediates the effect of work from home on
working students’ performance. Only found the results of research regarding the influence ofintervariables partially. Work from home has a positive and significant effect on working
students’ performance, work from home can increase work productivity (Amador et al.,2016; Noonan & Glass, 2012) As is known work productivity is part of working students’performance. (Amsak & Indriati, 2021) prove that work from home has a positive effect onwork motivation.
The role of job satisfaction in mediating the effect of work from home on working
students’ performance
The results of the study show that job Satisfaction does not play a role in mediating the effectof work from home on working students’ performance. The effect of work from home on
working students’ performance is proven, among others, work from home has a positive andsignificant effect on working students’ performance.(Mardianah et al., 2020) Work fromhome had a positive and significant effect on job satisfaction.(Irawanto et al., 2021) Job
satisfaction affects work performance (Judge et al., 2001) This research is one of the newstudies that proves that job satisfaction does not play a role in mediating the effect of workfrom home on working students’ performance.
The role of job satisfaction in mediating the effect of distance learning on working
students’ performance
The results of the study show that job satisfaction does not play a role in mediating the effectof distance learning on working students’ performance. However, no previous research has
been found which proves that Job Satisfaction mediates the effect of distance learning on
working students’ performance. Only found the results of research regarding the influence ofeach of the variables partially as mentioned in the previous hypothesis. Why Job Satisfaction
does not play a role in mediating the effect of distance learning on working students’performance can be explained statistically that the role of mediation will be high if each
influence is partly in the path model, all of which have a significant effect (Baron & Kenny,1986).
The role of work-life balance in mediating the effects of work from home on working
students’ performance
The results of the study show that the Work-life balance does not play a role in mediating theeffect of work from home on working students’ performance. However, no previous researchhas been found which proves that Work-life balance mediates the effect of work from home
on working students’ performance. Only found the results of research on the influence
between variables partially. Statistically, the role of mediation will be high if each effect ispartially in the path model, all of which have a significant effect (Baron & Kenny, 1986). The
requirement for a mediating role must have a significant effect on the direct relationship andthe indirect relationship with the dependent variable.

ISSN: 2189-101X

291

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

The role of work-life balance in mediating the effects of distance learning on working
students’ performance
The results of the study show that the work-life balance does not play a role in mediating theeffect of distance learning on working students’ performance. However, no previous researchhas been found which proves that work-life balance mediates the effect of distance learning
on working students’ performance. Only found the results of research regarding the influenceof each of the variables partially as mentioned in the previous hypothesis. Statistically, therole of mediation will be high if the partial influence in the pathway model is all significant(Baron & Kenny, 1986). Work-life balance has a positive but not significant effect on
working students’ performance; It is understandable if the Work-life balance does not play arole in mediating the effect of distance learning on working students’ performance.
Conclusion
Work from home has a positive and significant effect on working students’ performance.
Work from home has a positive but not significant effect on job satisfaction. Work fromhome has a positive and significant effect on work-life balance. Work from home has apositive and significant effect on work motivation. Distance learning has a positive andsignificant effect on working students’ performance. Distance learning has a positive andsignificant effect on job satisfaction. Distance learning has a positive and significant effect on
work-life balance. Work motivation has a positive and significant effect on working students’performance. Job satisfaction has a positive but not significant effect on working students’performance. Work-life balance has a negative and insignificant effect on working students’performance. Work motivation plays a role in mediating the effect of work from home on
working students’ performance. Job satisfaction does not play a role in mediating the effectof work from home on working students’ performance. Job satisfaction does not play a rolein mediating the effect of distance learning working students’ performance. Work-lifebalance plays no role in mediating the effect of work from home on working students’performance. Work-life balance does not play a role in mediating the effect of distancelearning on working students’ performance.
Implications
The managerial implication of this research is the management dimension that must be
considered in work from home, so that work from home policies can support the working
students’ performance. Management must consider the balance between work and the needsof their families. Management improves the completeness of ICT facilities and improves
employee skills in using ICT. Management reduces the additional burden that burdens
employees. Distance learning can be an alternative for employees to get a balance of life.
Management needs to take the right motivating steps for employees, both in the form offinancial and non-financial motivation.

ISSN: 2189-101X

292

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

References
Amador, F., Nobre, A., & Barros, D. (2016). Towards a model of a didactics of elearning: anapplication to education for sustainable development. Handbook of Research on
Engaging Digital Natives in Higher Education Settings, April, 396–415.
https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-5225-0039-1
Amsak, U. I., & Indriati, F. (2021). The effect of work from home and long-distanceleadership on employee perfomance. International Journal of Business and Social
Science, 12(4), 120–126.
Baron, R. M., & Kenny, D. A. (1986). The moderator–mediator variable distinction in social
psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. Journalof Personality and Social Psychology, 51(6), 1173–1182.
Biron, M., & van Veldhoven, M. (2016). When control becomes a liability rather than an
asset: comparing home and office days among part-time teleworkers. Journal of
Organizational Behavior, 37(1317–1337). https://doi.org/10.1002/job.2106
Caroline, K. S., Mugun, B. J., & Loice, M. (2015). Knowledge storage, retrieval andemployee performance: the moderating role of employee engagement. International
Journal of Small Business and Entrepreneurship Research, 3(6), 356–366.
Cavalcanti, A. P., Barbosa, A., Carvalho, R., Freitas, F., Tsai, Y. S., Gašević, D., & Mello, R.
F. (2021). Automatic feedback in online learning environments: a systematic
literature review. Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence, 2.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.caeai.2021.100027
Chaney, B. H., Eddy, J. M., Dorman, S. M., Glessner, L. L., Green, B. L., & Lara-Alico.
(2017). Premier on quality indicators of distance education. Health Promotion
Practice, 10(2), 1–11.
Chien, G. C. L., Mao, I., Nergui, E., & Chang, W. (2020). The effect of work motivation on
employee performance: Empirical evidence from 4-star hotels in Mongolia. Journalof Human Resources in Hospitality & Tourism, 19(4), 473–495. doi:
10.1080/15332845.2020.1763766
Crosbie, T., & Moore, J. (2004). Work–life Balance and working from home. Social Policy
and Society, 3(3), 223–233. doi:10.1017/S1474746404001733
Daumiller, M., Rinas, R., Hein, J., Janke, S., Dickhäuser, O., & Dresel, M. (2021). Shiftingfrom face-to-face to online teaching during COVID-19: The role of university faculty
achievement goals for attitudes towards this sudden change, and their relevance forburnout/engagement and student evaluations of teaching quality. Computers in
Human Behavior, 118(February). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2020.106677
Farooq, R., & Sultana, A. . (2021). The potential impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on workfrom home and employee productivity. Measuring Business Excellence.

ISSN: 2189-101X

293

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Firdiansyah, Y., & Pamungkas, H. P. (2021). Analisis persepsi mahasiswa terhadap
penggunaan kahoot sebagai media evaluasi pembelajaran pada mata kuliah teori
ekonomi moneter. JEKPEND: Jurnal Ekonomi Dan Pendidikan, 4(1), 1.
https://doi.org/10.26858/jekpend.v4i1.15549
Gajendran, R. S., & Harrison, D. A. (2007). The good, the bad, and the unknown abouttelecommuting: Meta-analysis of psychological mediators and individual
consequences. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92(6), 1524–1541.
Hanaysha, J. R., & Majid, M. (2018). Employee motivation and its role in improving the
productivity and organizational commitment at higher education institutions. Journalof Entrepreneurship and Business, 6(1), 17–28. https://doi.org/10.17687/jeb.0601.02
Hasler-Waters, L., Menchaca, M., & Borup, J. (2017). Parental involvement in K-12 online
and blended learning. In R. Ferdig & K. Kennedy (Eds.), Handbook of research on K12 online and blended learning 2017 edition (pp. 403–422). IGI Publishing.
Hodges, C., Moore, S., Lockee, B., Trust, T., & Bond, A. (2020). The difference between
emergency remote teaching and online learning. Educause Review, March, 27,
https://er.educause.edu/articles/2020/3/the-differ
Huang, R., Tlili, A., Yang, J., & Chang, T.-W. (2020). Handbook on facilitating flexible
learning during educational disruption: the chinese experience in maintaining
undisrupted learning in covid-19 outbreak artificial intelligence in e-learning viewproject m-developer view project. Smart Learning Institute of Beijing Normal
University (SLIBNU), September 2021, 1–43.
Ipsen, C., Veldhoven, V., M., Kirchner, K. ., & Hansen, J. P. (2021). Six key advantages anddisadvantages of working from home in Europe during COVID-19. International
Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(4), 1826.
https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18041826
Irawanto, D. W., Novianti, K. R., & Roz, K. (2021). Work from home: measuring satisfaction
between work–life balance and work stress during the COVID-19 pandemic in
Indonesia. Economies, 9(3), 1–13.
Izzah, N., Rini, N., & Poernomo, B. (2020). The influence of non-physical work environment
and job characteristics on employee performance at PT. Daliatex Kusuma in
Bandung. International Journal of Social Sciences Perspectives, 4(1), 22–37.
https://doi.org/10.33094/7.2017.2019.41.22.37
Judge, T. A., Thoresen, C. J., Bono, J. E., & Patton, G. K. (2001). Fudge-et-al_2003. 127(3),376–407.
Malalasekara, C. D. (2019). Relationship of work-life balance and work place performance of
employees in Sri Lanka. Texila International Journal of Management, 2016, 70–81.
https://doi.org/10.21522/tijmg.2015.se.19.01.art008

ISSN: 2189-101X

294

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Mardianah, L., Hidayat, S., & Hamidah, &. (2020). Empirical study of the impact of workfrom home (wfh) policy and top management support on employee performance.
Journal of Research in Business, Economics, and Education, 2(5), 1039–1045.
http://e-journal.stie-kusumanegara.ac.id
Noonan, M. C., & Glass, J. L. (2012). The hard truth about telecommuting. Monthly Labor
Review, 135(6), 38–45.
Omar, N. D., Hassan, H., & Atan, H. (2018). Student engagement in online learning: learners
attitude toward e-mentoring. Procedia—Social and Behavioral Sciences, 67, 464–
475. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2012.11.351
Prasetyaning, Vitasari, M., & Wilujen, I. (2021). Development of guided inquiry-oriented
science interactive e-module on wave and disaster themes. Jurnal Penelitian Dan
Pembelajaran IPA, 7(2), 134. https://doi.org/10.30870/jppi.v7i2.12058
Priarso, M. T., Diatmono, P., & Mariam, S. (2019). The effect of transformational leadershipstyle, work motivation, and work environment on employee performance that inmediation by job satisfaction variables in PT. Gynura Consulindo. Business andEntrepreneurial Review, 18(2), 165–176. https://doi.org/10.25105/ber.v18i2.5334
Rawat, R. B., Bhardwaj, P., & Waghulkar, S. (2021). A study on work from home during
covid-19 pandemic: A sem of employee performance. Indian Journal of Economics
and Business, 20(1), 147–165.
Sembiring, M. J., Fatihudin, D., Mochklas, M., & Holisin, I. (2020). Banking Employee
performance during pandemic covid-19: remuneration and motivation. Journal of
Xi’an University of Architecture & Technology, XII(VII), 64–71.
https://doi.org/10.37896/JXAT12.07/2304
Suryani, Y., Ningrum, A. R., Hidayah, N., & Dewi, N. R. (2021). The effectiveness of
blended learning-based scaffolding strategy assisted by google classroom toward thelearning outcomes and students’ self-efficacy. IOP Conference Series: Earth andEnvironmental Science, 1796(1). https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/1796/1/012031
Thamrin, M., & Riyanto, S. (2020). The Effect of work motivation, work environment, andwork life balance on employee performance at PT. Angkasa Pura I (Persero) Sultan
Aji Muhammad Sulaiman Sepinggan Airport-Balikpapan. IOSR Journal of Dental
and Medical Sciences, 19(August), 40–47. https://doi.org/10.9790/0853-1906044047
Timsal, A., & Awais, M. (2016). Flexibility or ethical dilemma: an overview of the workfrom home policies in modern organizations around the world. Human Resource
Management International Digest, 24(7), 12–15. https://doi.org/10.1108/HRMID-032016-0027
van der Lippe, T., & Lippényi, Z. (2020). Co-workers working from home and individual andteam performance. New Technology, Work and Employment, 35(1), 60–79.
https://doi.org/10.1111/ntwe.12153

ISSN: 2189-101X

295

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Widyaningrum, M. E., & Hamdan, A. L. (2018). Effect of Compensation, motivation andwork environment on employee performance in national family planning
coordinating. E-Paper Incops 2018 9(September), 141–149.

ISSN: 2189-101X

296

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Strengthening Higher Order Critical Thinking Skills of C1 Level Students in
a Classroom Environment
Ganzul Gantuya, University of Finance and Economics, Mongolia
The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023
Official Conference Proceedings
Abstract
Higher-order critical thinking skills are essential in university settings because they enable
students to succeed in their studies. However, they cannot be learned solely by course
materials and articles; nevertheless, they must develop a critical thinker's attitude or
disposition. The two main objectives of this study were to examine whether students wereenhancing their higher-order thinking abilities through vocabulary, grammar, discourse,
reading, engaging with the text, and externalizing from the text. In addition, instructor-related
questions were asked to identify how higher-order thinking skills were applied in theclassroom. This study will target first-year students at the C1 level of the undergraduate
academic English program. We will answer how essential higher-order critical thinking skills
are for fostering learning strategies for academic skills such as vocabulary, grammar,
discourse, reading, engaging with a text, and externalizing from a text. Furthermore, astandardized Cambridge self-assessment survey on critical thinking was conducted among 52
students to measure their critical thinking skills and evaluate the success/failures of students.
Using the qualitative and quantitative methods, the results of the study showed that students
could use vocabulary (54.5%), sentence-level grammar (51.3%), discourse (49%), reading &
listening (48.7%), engage with a text (53.5%), and externalize from a text (51.4%) often.
Although most students concluded that instructors always support them well in the learning
environment, results showed their skills need to develop better. Furthermore, we will
examine how this correlation can improve and how concepts can be put into practice.
Keywords: Higher-Order Critical Thinking Skills, Vocabulary, Grammar, Discourse,
Reading, Engaging With a Text, Externalizing From a Text, Learner-Centered Pedagogy

iafor
The International Academic Forumwww.iafor.org

ISSN: 2189-101X

297

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Introduction
Critical thinking is a crucial skill that should be acquired and enhanced in higher education
among students by studying and reading and by being an active listener, speaker, and thinker.
Improving teaching and learning can be beneficial to cultivate students’ mental abilities
through the practice and application of critical thinking in academic English in the classroom
setting. Specific reading, listening, reading, and writing abilities are necessary at the C1 levelof Academic English to comprehend complex sentence structures and information, develop a
research paper and arguments, use sources, cite and reference them correctly, adhere toacademic conventions, and consider cultural and psychological factors. The literature lacks
research investigating whether students in the process of improving their academic reading
and writing skills in English have the necessary background, understanding, or experience in
critical reading and writing in English and how explicit instruction of these skills contributes
to their understanding of critical reading and writing (Bilki & Irgin, 2022). Although
researchers in Mongolia have researched critical thinking skills, there is insufficient
information on how learners can develop themselves, and educators support their skills in
Academic English. The University of Finance and Economics (UFE) started a new
curriculum of Academic English with critical thinking in 2015 using ‘Qskills’ Oxford course
books. In 2021, considering the necessity of global skills, the course changed textbooks to‘University Success’ from Stanford University, which integrated challenging academic
content and critical thinking. As this C1 course is in its second year at the university, students
still face difficulties. Secondary schools in our country do not develop pupils’ criticalthinking skills, thus affecting their performance when they enter university.
This study examined how essential higher-order critical thinking skills of C1 level students
foster skills in vocabulary, grammar, discourse, reading, engaging with a text, andexternalising from a text. Also, we found out how instructors contribute to strengthening
students’ higher-order thinking skills. According to our findings, some of the significant
abilities that Mongolian students lack are reading comprehension, listening, and discourse
through higher-order critical thinking. Therefore, these skills need to be considered crucial
for high-order critical thinking and learning rather than a means of information transfer.
English is a foreign language in Mongolia, where students must be tested to discover theirproficiency level, and courses are provided accordingly. Therefore, this study will target firstyear students at the C1 level of the undergraduate Academic English program at the UFE
who only studied this course for one semester. The survey used quantitative and qualitative
methods in Google Form. The significance of the study is to propose some strategies for thelearners’ improvement of higher-order critical thinking skills. This research includes relevant
literature review, methods, discussions, results, recommendations, conclusions, andreferences.
Literature Review
Many studies have been done on critical thinking skills integrating academic English as asecond or foreign language. Adams et al. (2018) suggest critical thinking in EAP is realisedin two ways: thinking about the language (analysing how English is used to express ideas)
and thinking through the language (participating actively in using the language to explore andpresent ideas and arguments). Tricia, H. (2020) stated that good readers recognise, anddecode quickly and accurately, words, grammatical structures, and other linguistic featuresand unaware of the process as they engage in this. In other words, a fluent reader knows

ISSN: 2189-101X

298

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

language structure well and can recognise a wide range of vocabulary automatically (Tricia,2020). Therefore, educators should support, encourage, and guide their learners to foster
critical thinking skills. Mongolian students must learn how to find and differentiate the truth
and fallacy, reasons for something, the truth and validity of an argument, or draw aconclusion based on the interpretation of data, evidence, facts, and opinions. Also, instructors
need to assist them in discovering to evaluate their own beliefs depending on their priorknowledge and distinguishing the facts and opinions using lingual devices.
Higher-order thinking skills involve the cognitive processes of analysing, evaluating, andcreating. In this paper, we will try to find whether our C1 level learners developed higherorder thinking skills in a semester and what instructors can do to enhance their abilities in theclassroom environment. Anderson, L. and Krathwohl, D. suggested that ‘analyse’ breaks thematerial into its constituent parts and determines how the parts relate to one another and/or toan overall structure or purpose (Anderson et al., 2001). According to Anderson, L. andKrathwohl, D., evaluate means making judgments based on criteria and standards. The lastlevel of higher-order thinking is ‘create’, which means combining elements as a new coherent
or functional whole; reorganising elements into a new pattern or structure (Anderson, et al.,2001).
Davies and Barnett (2015) identified three main threads, summarising critical thinking as
reflective thinking skills, critical thinking as dispositions, and critical thinking as criticalpedagogy. Regarding reflective thinking skills, Wilson (2019) stated, ‘critical thinking cannot
exist in a vacuum, so accessing and understanding content – sound and reliable knowledge
about a particular topic – is essential. It is the first challenge for non-native speakers whenreading. Further, higher-order thinking enables students to apply, analyse and evaluate
information, and on this basis to reason and to create new ideas and knowledge.’ It is true thatlearning academic English and developing students’ criticality related to higher thinking ischallenging for both non-native educators and learners. It is arguably the responsibility of
EAP teachers to push their students to think and question beyond their comfort zone and toengage with issues in the modern world (Wallace, 2003). A critical-thinking classroom
depends on genuine, higher-order questions – questions which challenge but are answerable
and which come from the students as well as the teacher. Group work and think-pair-shareactivities can provide non-threatening, supported opportunities for students to practise criticalthinking (Wilson, 2019). When reading critically and actively, it is essential to know how tointerpret and to reflect upon what is read through writing and discussing it with others. It
means that students relate and engage with the text so that they will be able to think about
how and why it is written and who the audience is. Most importantly, they can ask
themselves how to create or produce a text, essay, or paper using various science-related
topics and real-life cases. It concluded that teaching critical thinking was vital, and educators
had to be good critical thinkers. The reason is that knowledge and abilities are inherited fromone another. Bilki, Z. and Irgin, P. (2022) stated “to be able to externalise from the text aspart of critical reading; readers need to make notes from the text and write about the text topresent their position by synthesising from a range of texts and using their constructedmeaning in what they produce as a writer. At this point, reading is linked to writing” (Bilki &Irgin, 2022). While academic reading requires identifying authors’ positions, views,
audience, arguments, inferences and so on in specialised texts such as Sociology, Humanities,
Biology, and Economics, academic writing needs research, analysis, comparison, evaluating
and synthesising, integrating sources, summarising and creating a paper based on a specifictopic which means they look for deeper information to understand life, cases, reasons, andlogics. Listening and speaking could also be related to these sub-skills. The reason is that

ISSN: 2189-101X

299

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

when they listen, they have to make a conclusion on a given topic. When learners speak, they
select words to say, arguments to make, and evidence to provide in the academic setting. In
other words, they think critically using those sub-skills of higher-order thinking to produce
the language, ask questions, and present their positions and views in English. According toBilki, Z., and Irgin, P. (2022), expressing ideas and arguments clearly, logically, andreflectively on a paper is fundamental to critical thinking.
Fahim and Mirzaii (2014) concluded that “the ability to write argumentatively cruciallydepends on EFL/ESL learners’ being equipped with an intellectual capacity for thinking in a
critical manner” (p.8), which shows the importance of training learners on language skills byembedding critical thinking skills into them. Pei, Zheng, Zhagn, and Liu (2017) explored thecorrelation between EFL learners’ argumentative writing and critical thinking. Although theyfound out an insignificant correlation between critical thinking skills and English writing
proficiency, textual analysis of student essays showed that “strong critical thinking learners
outperformed weak critical thinkers in relevance, clarity, logicality, profundity, and flexibilityof argumentative writing” (p. 31). Amir, P. and Amina, O. (2018) noted, “as language
acquisition processes engage learners’ higher-order thinking skills to negotiate meaning, atthe same time, better language skills and active language use activate critical thinking skills.”
Critical thinking is related to high-order cognition thinking like analysing, synthesising, andevaluating (Fuad et al., 2015). Teachers should consider the significance of critical thinking
to plan and conduct learning that can improve students’ thinking skills and conceptual
understanding (Mamu, 2015). Due to the additional time and effort required for the learning
process, giving students challenging assignments may assist in boosting both teachers’ andstudents’ motivation. Because dealing with arduous, intense, debatable themes and subjects
helps to increase their stimulus in the classroom. As a result, learners, who are motivated tolearn, are more likely to desire to study harder and learn more.
Methods
This quantitative and qualitative data aimed to determine the students’ higher-order thinking
skills with the help of open and closed questions in the questionnaire at the Institute ofForeign Languages, UFE. In addition, it was administered to investigate how language
teachers feel about critical thinking and how it is used in the classroom. The study was
grounded on the interpretive approach that “allows the researcher to conduct a study in its
natural setting” (Al Riyami, 2015, p.413). The survey was carried out over four weeks using
Google Form.
The following research questions were used during the study:
1. How were students’ higher-order critical thinking skills? If their skills are poor, how
can we push them to improve during one semester in the classroom?
2. How did teachers support their learners to foster their higher-order critical thinking
skills from the students’ view during the lesson?
3. What could teachers do to develop these skills?
This study included 52 Mongolian participants who were non-native speakers and werestudying Academic English at the C1 level for one semester at the university. The
participants’ ages were between 17-21 years old. At the university, first-year students muststudy this course according to the curriculum at the higher education level. Learners’
proficiency tests were conducted before the course started in 2022. Twenty-three statements
relating to students’ experiences and 13 statements regarding lecturers’ support from their

ISSN: 2189-101X

300

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

perspectives were asked to select one considering answer from the multiple choice. In
addition, one open-ended question was requested to complete by their answers. In total, there
were 37 questions. The texts were transferred to percentages. The students’ survey was donein accordance with Student Self-Assessment Critical Thinking Questionnaire designed byCambridge Life Competencies Framework in 2019. Furthermore, 16 statements with multiple
choice and two open-ended questions on higher-order thinking skills improvement andacquisition were asked to complete the questionnaire from 4 instructors, who taught
Academic English in the Fall semester of 2022, two of them were native speakers from Fijiand the USA, others were non-native Mongolian speakers. The instructor from the USA has
one and a half years of experience while Mongolian and Fiji teachers have above 15 years ofexperience.
Yan, Z. (2021) stated in her research “teachers with the ability to think critically is good
problem solvers and when facing a problem during the class, they can have greater reasoning
skills so as to find a solution to the problem” which the belief of a good thinker can be
inherited from time to time to the students. As stated by Vdovina and Gaibisso (2013),
critical thinking is relevant to quality thinking that enables learners to communicate withothers, gain knowledge, and deal with ideas, attitudes, and beliefs in a more skillful way.
Shirkhani and Fahim (2011) proposed “critical thinking is an integral factor in many ways.
The first reason that can be taken into consideration is that when language learners takeresponsibility for the way they think; they can evaluate the way they learn in a more
successful way. Secondly, critical thinking causes learners to experience a meaningfulprocess of learning in which learning a language is meaningful to them. Thirdly, criticalthinking and learners’ achievement are positively correlated.” If the teachers show how tothink critically, students learn a language proficiently. Crocker and Bowden (2010) proposedusing a content-based approach as a way of merging the notional-functional approach withcritical thinking in a language course, which means that “self-correction, clarifying ideas,
making distinctions, giving reasons, formulating appropriate questions, making connections
and comparing” could be the examples (p.3). Likewise, among scholars, it is believed thatrote learning and ready-made materials cannot develop learners’ higher-order thinking skills.
Victoria, T. & Saleh, I. (2017) noted that learning strategy instruction is also considered aneffective approach to teaching critical thinking skills in the language classroom. According tothem, language teachers can promote their students’ critical thinking by teaching themlearning strategies. In doing so, students can develop their metacognitive awareness.
Furthermore, teachers can encourage students to describe and share their own learningtechniques and strategies (Victoria & Saleh, 2017). From the survey, we attempted to find out
the answers to those three research questions and propose some strategies for improving thelearners' higher-order critical thinking skills.
Instruments and Data Analysis
The qualitative method investigated students’ academic English awareness and teachers’
assistance with critical thinking as higher-order skills in the classroom. The questionnairerefers to teachers and is quantitative because it comprises statistics gathered from thequestionnaire to identify how teachers support learners' higher-order thinking skills.
The raw data were analysed using Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) andExcel programs. The survey questionnaire was put into the Google Form to collect the data.
We identified students’ improved higher-order critical thinking skills and the following
abilities: Vocabulary, Sentence-level grammar, Discourse, Reading & Listening, Engaging

ISSN: 2189-101X

301

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

with a text, Externalizing from a text, and Lecturer related questions. Each part of these skills
was explained in the Google Form to ensure everything was clear for students. Finally, todetermine the correlation between students’ and teachers’ perspectives, we conductedteachers’ surveys on how they supported their learning to foster higher-order thinking skills.
Findings
The figures below demonstrate participants’ age and gender rates. The participant's ages were
between 17-21, as mentioned before. Therefore, 44.2% and 42.3% were the highest
proportion of 18- and 19-year-old students. Furthermore, as we can see from Figure 2, 55.8%
were females, whereas the male population was smaller than females, which means 44.2%
were male students.
At the beginning of each skill, the descriptions of the skills are given to identify students'
skills by themselves. Table 1 below shows how they were described in the survey.
From Table 2, it is clear that learners often explain (63.5%), know (61.5%) what the
implication of particular word choices is, and they have the ability to choose (40.4%) words
for a different audience. At the C1 level, it is not a secret that vocabulary is not taught or
learnt. Because at this level, students must be able to acquire and strengthen their awarenessbased on prior knowledge. Usually, the coursebooks for C1 level learners are not designed tolearn new words. They are designed to analyse, evaluate, and predict the word meanings fromthe context. It shows that students can explain different vocabulary but must carefully selectwords for an academic audience. In terms of Sentence-level Grammar, according to Table 3,
although 48.1% have some difficulties comparing and explaining the use of grammaticalforms in different genres, 55.8% and 57.7% of the students said they have abilities to use
grammar in complex sentences as well as identify author's purpose in the text.
Figure 1 Participants’ ages

ISSN: 2189-101X

Figure 2 Participants’ gender

302

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Table 1 Skills and descriptions related to higher-order critical thinking

Table 2 Vocabulary

ISSN: 2189-101X

Table 3 Sentence-level grammar

303

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Table 4 Discourse

Regarding discourse, half of our learners (51.9%) have the capabilities to analyse academic
text, (53.8%) compare genres, and (53.8%) evaluate evidence in a text or research paper. On
the other hand, although they have these abilities, they have some challenges (36.5%) inusing citations to synthesise ideas. Therefore, teachers must motivate them to master using
in-text citations to integrate or synthesise ideas.
During one semester, teachers provided students with guidelines and consultations on how towrite a research paper, include APA in-text citations, use them in the speech, feedback wasgiven on each student’s work to strengthen their critical thinking skills.
Although half of the participants can make predictions about thoughts, events, outcomes, andconclusions as they read, 26.9% cannot hear the author’s argument and points of view fromrecordings. We believe that if they read and write more out of classroom activities, theirlistening skills in the academic environment will enhance at the C1 level.

ISSN: 2189-101X

304

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Table 5 Reading and Listening

Table 6 Engaging with text

The ‘Engaging with text’ skill focuses on whether students can relate to and evaluate theirprior knowledge of the author’s ideas, arguments, views, and implications and whether theycan evaluate their position within the author’s views. Although learners are able to relate
meanings to other texts using their prior knowledge (53.8%), examine views (51.9%), andconsider implications (59.6%), they have some needs to improve the skills such as listening
for bias, assumptions, stance, as well as inference which are crucial at the C1 level.

ISSN: 2189-101X

305

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Table 7 Externalising from text

Table 7 shows that our learners can present their ideas using the text (57.7%) and synthesise
information from various types of texts (53.8%). However, we need to focus on developing
their skills to take notes, summarise (46.2%) given texts as well as talk and write (48.1%).
Any university student must acquire these skills to lead academically and think critically.
Figure 3 Lecturer related statements

The last section of the survey was lecturer-related statements on how they were encouraged
to foster higher-order critical thinking skills. We also asked our colleagues how they
supported and motivated their learners to enhance their skills and tried to identify whether

ISSN: 2189-101X

306

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

teachers’ and students’ perspectives overlapped. As a result of the findings, both instructors
and students considered themselves motivated, enhanced, and most importantly, cultivatedhigher-order thinking skills. Instructors improved students’ abilities to think critically,
including problem-solving, analysing and evaluating information as well as one’s ideas,
integrating data, and distinguishing facts and opinions at the academic level. In addition, they
assisted students in learning using the APA style, selecting appropriate research papers,
recognising the author’s purposes and arguments and so on. According to the table below,
one teacher was hesitant about whether the students acquired the skill of drawing reasonable
inferences from observations and understanding perspectives and values of this subject. On
the other hand, we strongly believe they raised their ethical awareness regarding plagiarism
by reading, analysing, and writing a research paper.
Table 8 Questions and population were chosen by teachers

Questions 16, 17, and 18 were open-ended for teachers to specify whether the student-centred
learning method affected the cultivation of their higher-order critical thinking skills. As theymentioned, Instructor 1: student-centred learning method makes students feel more
comfortable expressing their opinions openly without criticism. It will encourage students to
explore ideas more critically and discuss opposing views.
Instructor 2: The course developed my students’ autonomy to some extent - when I mainly
focused on thinking creatively and critically related questions and tasks at the beginning andend of each unit.

ISSN: 2189-101X

307

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Instructor 3: I believe it is more beneficial to students’ learning if they participate in several
sessions. There could be a sign-up sheet during the first week of class, where students
commit to attending consultations over the semester.
Instructor 4: Group or pair work enabled students to discuss topics openly. It led students tolearn from each other.
All four teachers were asked to select a role as a teacher. Interestingly, three of them consider
their roles as ‘Helping students develop higher-order thinking skills’, and another teacher
finds herself/himself as fostering student development and personal growth.
The responses to the final questions were:Instractor 1: Gave students different opinions/ideas/situations to openly discuss andexplore.
Instractor 2: Asked Critical thinking/ Analytical questions every time to support mystudents’ higher-order thinking skills.
Instractor 3: I think I supported my students’ higher-order thinking skills through “warmups”. I wrote a series of questions on the board related to course content andthese were discussed in pairs.
Instractor 4: Different types of open-ended questions were asked to get their answers.
Also, I tried to guide them to think in depth and evaluate responses.
Figure 4 Skills

The results of the study showed that students were able to use vocabulary (54.5%), sentencelevel grammar (51.3%), discourse (49%), reading & listening (48.7%), engage with a text
(53.5%), and externalise from a text (51.4%) often. In addition, teachers motivated theirlearners to strengthen their higher-order thinking skills. Students considered that they weresatisfied and encouraged by their teachers. However, some results, including discourse(49%), reading and listening (48.7%), should be developed much more than other skills.
Discussion
Critical thinking skills are strongly associated with students’ academic ability (Kanbay, Isik,
Aslan, Tektas, & Kilic, 2017). Students’ academic ability may vary across grades. Thus, theISSN: 2189-101X

308

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

student’s academic ability must be considered when designing a lesson because theanticipated result is reducing the gap between different groups of students and theimprovement in academic ability (Mahanal et al., 2019). We strongly believe that studentcentred learning helps students make proper decisions, analyse, evaluate, and synthesise
information to create relevant work. According to Bali, M. (2015), there are three differencesamong students that may make teaching critical thinking challenging: their cultural capitaland exposure to critical thinking before college; their exposure to pedagogies that promotecritical thinking before college; and their linguistic ability, which impacts their ability toread/write critically. Herein, it considers that students with different cultural backgrounds andworld views affect their learning. In other words, their higher-order critical thinking skills
were promoted differently in one semester in C1-level environments. Also, Mongolia is an
Asian nation that highly respects the elderly, which means youngsters do not or avoid saying
anything in opposition to elders or teachers. According to Bali, a third issue relates tolinguistic competence and how it can hinder student capacity to read and write critically, as
well as their confidence in expressing themselves orally. These three areas represent diversity
among student and to be considered when teaching critical thinking (Bali, 2015). Thesephenomena impact and challenge the learners to strengthen their ability to think critically inthe university setting.
Moreover, foreign language educational systems of high schools are based on rote learning in
the land of nomads; however, the systems developed to modify the curriculum, including
enhancement of student-centred learning and critical thinking. On the other hand, althoughhigher educational institutions such as the UFE have been continuously changing their
Academic English curriculum to improve academic and critical thinking skills, it is notenough to support learners’ thinking.
Based on the results above, continual communication is one of the most important aspects ofkeeping the students challenged while supporting them. In other words, they must frequently
quiz one another throughout conversations, dialogues, or discussions.
Conclusion
Throughout the term, students must be educated in critical thinking, especially in higherorder thinking skills. Regular assignments that challenge higher-order critical thinking must
be assigned and given to them such as writing a research paper. It allows learners to upgrade
their abilities to think critically. Lecturers, instructors, and professors must observe how they
are doing to foster their higher-order thinking skills. To do so, learners can be observed bypeers and classmates by reviewing each other’s work.
To improve higher-order critical thinking skills, they must be practised consistently
throughout the course by working together as groups or pairs to learn from each other.
Discussions during the course will help them strengthen their abilities to analyse, evaluate,interpret, and integrate sources to create their research papers and complete their given
assignments and tasks. Instructors must provide an example for their learners of how to
conduct higher-order critical thinking, and they must help them become critical thinkers byoffering them practice opportunities and providing feedback. Instructors should stop asking
students to memorise new words and the contents they have learnt. If instructors are aware ofhigher-order thinking skills and are good thinkers, then students become excellent thinkers.
Therefore, showing and modelling them could be the best way to enhance their thinking skills
in higher order. In addition, it will be possible to strengthen learners’ higher-order thinking

ISSN: 2189-101X

309

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

abilities if we let them create their presentations, ideas, theories, papers, activities, andactions rather than trying to impart our knowledge to them. Also, when designing thecurriculum, there must be ideas for cultivating these skills at tertiary level studies.

ISSN: 2189-101X

310

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

References
Adams, K., Baker, L., Brinks Lockwood, R., Dimond-Bayir, S., Jordan, N., Kennedy, A.,
Lansford, L., Lewis, M., O’Neill, R., Ostowska, S., Peterson, S., Russell, K., Sowton,
C., Wastebrook, C., White, N., & Williams, J. (2018). Prism. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Al Riyami, T. (2015). Main approaches to educational research. International Journal of
Innovation and Research in Educational Sciences, 2(5), 412–416.
Amir, P., & Amina, O. (2018) Critical thinking and academic success of English language
students’ life and school : journal for the theory and practice of education, Vol. LXIV
No. 2.
Bali, M. (2015). Critical thinking through a multicultural lens. In M. Davies & R. Barnett(Ed.), The Palgrave handbook of critical thinking in higher education, 31-47. New
York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Bali, M. (2015). Critical thinking through a multicultural lens. In M. Davies & R. Barnett(Ed.), The Palgrave handbook of critical thinking in higher education, 317–334. New
York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Bilki, Z., & Irgin, P. (2022). Towards becoming critical readers and writers: ELT students’
perceptions on the effectiveness of critical reading and writing instruction.
International Online Journal of Education and Teaching (IOJET), 9(2). 987-1003.
Brown, G. (1994). Modes of understanding. In G. Brown, K. Malmkjxr, A. Pollitt, & J.
Williams (Eds.), Language andunderstanding (pp. 10-20). New York: Oxford
University Press.
Crocker, J. L., & Bowden, M. R. (2011). Thinking in English: A content-based approach. In
A. Stewart (Ed.), JALT2010 Conference Proceedings. Tokyo: JALT.
Fahim, M., & Mizraii, M. (2014). Improving EFL argumentative writing: A dialogic criticalthinking approach. International Journal of Research Studies in Language Learning,
3(1), 3-20.
Fuad, M. N., Zubaidah, S., Mahanal, S., & Suarsini, E. (2015). The Profile of Students'
Learning Outcomes, Critical, and Creative Thinking skills and Learning Strategy on
Junior High School Teachers in District of Kediri. Biology National Conference
Proceeding, Mathematics and Science Faculty, Department of Biology, Universitas
Negeri Malang.
Kanbay, Y., Elif, I., Özgür, A., Pınar, T. & Nurhayat, K. (2017). Critical Thinking Skill andAcademic Achievement Development in Nursing Students: Four-year Longitudinal
Study. American Journal of Educational Research and Reviews, 2:12.
DOI:10.28933/ajerr-2017-12-0501

ISSN: 2189-101X

311

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Mahanal, S., Zubaidah, S., Sumiati, I. D., Sari, T. M., & Ismirawati, N. (2019). RICOSRE: A
Learning Model to Develop Critical Thinking Skills for Students with Different
Academic Abilities. International Journal of Instruction, 12(2), 417-434.
Mamu, H.D. (2015). Profile of Critical Thinking skills and Metacognition of Students in
Biology Science Lesson in Junior High School. Journal of UNTAD.
Pei, Z., Zheng, C., Zhang, M., & Liu, F. (2017). Critical thinking and argumentative writing:
Inspecting the association among EFL learners in China. English Language Teaching,
10(10), 31-42.
Rubin, J. (1979). What the 'good language learner' can teach us. In J. B. Price (Ed.),
Sociolinguistic aspects of language learning and teaching (pp. 17-26). London:
Oxford University Press.
Shirkhani, S., and Fahim, M. (2011). Enhancing critical thinking in foreign language learners.
Proc. Soc. Behav. Sci. 29, 111–115.
Tricia, H. (2020) Teaching and Learning in the Language Classroom, London: Oxford
University Press, p.192.
Vdovina, E., and Gaibisso, L. (2013). Developing critical thinking in the English Language
classroom: a lesson plan. ELTA J. 1, 54–68.
Wallace, C. (2003). Critical reading in language education. Basingstoke: Palgrave.
Wilson, K. (2019). Critical thinking in EAP: a brief guide for teachers. Part of the Cambridge
Papers in ELT series. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Yan, Z. (2021). English as a Foreign Language Teachers’ Critical Thinking Ability and L2Students’ Classroom Engagement. Front. Psychol. 12:773138.
Contact email: zulaana@gmail.com

ISSN: 2189-101X

312

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

The Silk Road of Siam the Country in the Western Central Region

Krittagan Charlie Dhoppupa, Muban Chombueng Rajabhat University, Thailand
Noppadon Tumchuea, Muban Chombueng Rajabhat University, Thailand
Chaowarit Phanthong, Muban Chombueng Rajabhat University, Thailand
Wichitra Keingbath, Muban Chombueng Rajabhat University, Thailand
Raktawan Siritawon, Muban Chombueng Rajabhat University, Thailand
Vasidtee Saisudjai, Muban Chombueng Rajabhat University, Thailand
Suchart Phettianchai, Muban Chombueng Rajabhat University, Thailand
Pongphan Phanpong, Muban Chombueng Rajabhat University, Thailand
Wattanapong Oonnum, Muban Chombueng Rajabhat University, Thailand

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023
Official Conference Proceedings

Abstract
This research has 4 objectives, but this presentation presents only one objective, which is to
study the history of cultural tourism in the western central region. This research is a R&D
research. The research hierarchy is 1) R1: Study documents and research related to thehistory of the central west region, 2 provinces, namely Kanchanaburi (Sam Ong Pagoda Pass)
and Ratchaburi (Ban Bang Kaeo) by focusing groups of people in the central west region to
obtain comes with all-around information. 2) D1: Use the information obtained from R1 toanalyze and develop issues related to cultural tourism in the central and western areas. (on thearea where the history of the 2nd Ayutthaya War was known as Krung Taek). 3) R2: Let 3
experts in finding the IOC value and the Focus Group check the accuracy and completenessfrom D1. 4) D2: bring the results from R2 to create cultural tourism innovations for thecentral and western areas designated in 2 provinces, namely Kanchanaburi (Sam Ong Pagoda
Pass) and Ratchaburi (Ban Bang Kaeo). The results of this research: It was found that thewestern central region with its historical stories and evidence showing its prominence can be
developed as a cultural tourism learning center and developed into an educational curriculum,
namely; The area in Kanchanaburi and Ratchaburi provinces that has such a history since the
Ayutthaya period is known as "The 2nd Ayutthaya War (Krung Tak)."

Keywords : The Silk Road, Siam, Country in the Western Central Region

iafor
The International Academic Forumwww.iafor.org

ISSN: 2189-101X

313

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Introduction
In the midst of the advancement of technology known as the digital age, it is an innovationthat is rapidly leaping forward for Thai society. The west central region is an area that has ahistory story. Long time since the Sukhothai period, continuing to the Ayutthaya period until
the present. For example, Kanchanaburi before it became the name of Kanchanaburi
Province. Originally, in the Ayutthaya period, it maintained its status as a city in the border ofthe Kingdom of Siam. It is a frontier town in the central region of the west of Siam.
Especially when the Thai-Burma war occurred. since the reign of King Chai Rachathirat until
the turn of the city was lost in 1767.
Next in line is Ratchaburi Province, which is considered the inner city that protects theindependence of Siam. It is also the city chosen by the King to be the settlement of theimmigrants who came to seek refuge in His Majesty the King and those who were prisonersof war. resulting in cultural integration of up to 8 groups.
The history of each area is a trace of civilization that reflects the way of life. Including thearts and culture of that area, especially Siam, a country that has been through the era for
hundreds of years. Since the creation of the land of Siam until the Sukhothai period
Ayutthaya, Thonburi and the present Rattanakosin. From Siam to Thailand Stories in thehistory of Siam country The western central region has always been a land that is like the firstline of defense to protect Siam from Burma's wars.
For example,- The Three Pagoda Pass (ด่านเจดีย์สามองค์) is the main route for the Burmese army.
Currently in Kanchanaburi.
- Ban Bang Kaeow (บ้านบางแก้ว) in the battle of Ban Bang Kaeo in 1774. At present, it
is located at Khao Chang Num Sub-district, Photharam District, Ratchaburi Province.
And there are many areas with historical stories that can lead to the development of cultural
tourism. As well as develop into learning and career development courses to generate
sustainable income for communities along the Silk Road.
However, learning about historical stories in the western central region where there areimportant traces dating from the Ayutthaya period There will always be civilization in art andculture. Because any prosperity or decline in every society has its roots in art and culture thatgo hand in hand. For this reason, in Kanchanaburi and Ratchaburi provinces, which arecentral and western areas that have been written in history for hundreds of years. Therefore, it
is very interesting how to make these stories valuable and valuable without fading, fading, ordisappearing from Thainess.
Which is related to the learning theory according to Bloom's Taxonomy Revised, 2001,
which is defined in 6 steps:
1) Remembering
2) Understanding3) Applying4) Analyzing5) Evaluating
6) Creating

ISSN: 2189-101X

314

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

In learning, if you want to develop what you have learned to be better, you need to becreative, which means creating, planning and producing in order to survive and continue aswell as learning about the history and arts and culture of Kanchanaburi and Ratchaburiprovinces. This is the central west region that will have to be built, planned and produced. By
using innovations to create cultural tourism Continuing the development of this Silk Road
learning curriculum Including career development to generate sustainable income for thecommunity.
For such a reason, it is of interest to the research about how to make the history of the history
that have passed, leaving only traces in the land that appears with the ruins. There is a culture
as a tool to tell stories for people of this generation and beyond to learn under thedevelopment of a learning curriculum and develop a sustainable income generation for thecommunity.
Objective
To study the history of cultural tourism in the western central region.
How to conduct research
1. This research is a R&D research (Research and Development). The research procedures
are as follows.
R1 - Study documents and research related to the history of the western central
region. Set in 2 provinces: Kanchanaburi and Ratchaburi.
- Focus Group people in the central west region to obtain all-round information.
D1 - Uses the information obtained from R1 to analyze and develop issues related to
cultural tourism in the central west region. (on the area where the history of the
2nd Ayutthaya War was known as Krung Taek).
R2 - Have 3 experts complete validation with IOC process from D1.
- Let the group that made the Focus Group (from R1) verify the integrity from
D1.
D2 - Brings results from R2 to create cultural tourism innovations for the central west
region. Set in 2 provinces: namely Kanchanaburi (Sam Ong Pagoda Pass) and
Ratchaburi (Ban Bang Kaeo).
From the aforementioned steps, it can be schematically written as follows.
R1
D1
R2
D2

2. Content scope: study information from documentary evidence recorded in the form of
research, textbooks, books, and other documents related to the story of the 2nd Ayutthaya
War (Krung Taek), which was the route between Kanchanaburi Province (Sam Ong
Pagoda Pass) to the province Ratchaburi (Ban Bang Kaeo).
3. Scope of time: Research period 1 academic year.

ISSN: 2189-101X

315

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

4. Area Boundary: study only the central and western region known as the Silk Road. are
Kanchanaburi (Sam Ong Pagoda Pass) and Ratchaburi provinces (Ban Bang Kaeo).
5. The scope of experts: 3 experts in IOC evaluation.
Whose details are as follows:
Qualifications of 3 experts for the evaluation of the IOC are:- Must have completed a Master's degree or Ph.D. in the field of
curriculum and teaching or the field of tourism or cultural management
or related fields.
- Must have outstanding academic performance.
- Must have at least 2 research experience in related fields.
6. Qualifications of those who will do the Focus Group of 20 peoples are:
6.1 Must be a person who has domiciled and resided in the area for at least 20
years and at least 50 years of age.
6.2 Must be a person who has lived in the area for at least 20 years and must be atleast 50 years old.
7. Research tools
7.1 IOC Evaluation Form
7.2 Focus Group Data Collection
8. Preliminary Agreement
8.1 This evaluation of the IOC value is to confirm and support the true results of
the IOC evaluation from experts.
8.2 Focus Group data collection is a true collection of data from people whoknow in the area, making the data reliable.
8.3 Processing from IOC and Focus Group determinations is reliable data
confirmation.
8.4 All 3 experts located in different areas and is assessed through that document
It did not affect the assessment in any way.
9. Research Process
9.1 Study documents and research on historical tourism in the western central
region. Especially during the 2 nd Ayutthaya War (Krung Tak) is
Kanchanaburi (Sam Ong Pagoda Pass) and Ratchaburi (Ban Bang Kaeo).
9.2 Collect spatial data from focus groups of 20 peoples.
9.3 Compare the data from item 9.1 with the data in item 9.2 and combine theresults to summarize the body of knowledge.
9.4 Take the information obtained from item 9.3 to 3 experts to find the IOC value
and at the same time take the information from item 9.3 back to the focus
group for examination to confirm the knowledge gained. In detecting IOC
values with results from Focus Group, it is a form of data verification toensure the most completeness of the data.
9.5 Take the information from item 9.4 to write a story about the Silk Road ofSiam in the central and western region of Thailand.

ISSN: 2189-101X

316

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Research Results
Presentation of the results of this research, it is only presented according to objective number
1, which is to study the history of cultural tourism in the western central region. Before
moving on to the development of the Silk Road of Siam country curriculum in the central andwestern areas that can be used for people interested in all levels.
From finding the IOC value by all 3 experts and doing a Focus Group from approximately 20
informants, resulting in the research results from finding the IOC value of all 20 questions at
a level of 0.98, which is considered valuable. Very good straightness it can be explained one
by one as follows:
1. The question on the coverage of the body of knowledge obtained from the study of
documents combined with the Focus Group was at a level of 1.00.
2. The question on the depth of knowledge obtained from the study of documents
combined with Focus Group was at a level of 0.98.
3. The question on the appropriateness of knowledge categorization obtained from thestudy of documentation combined with the Focus Group was at a level of 1.00.
4. The question on applying the knowledge gained from the study of documentary works
combined with the Focus Group to develop a course on the Silk Road of Siam in theCentral West Region that can be used for interested people at all levels is at the 1.00.
In addition, there is an interesting point from the Focus Group. It was found that the
informant suggested that these stories should be able to do anything in a concrete way thateveryone could study and learn. As well as likely to develop learning resources to be concretein the future which corresponds to what the researcher has set other 3 objectives, which are initems 2-4, namely:
Objective No. 2 To create cultural tourism innovation in the central west region. This
innovation will be produced in the form of 3D media, located in 1 location in
Kanchanaburi Province (Sam Ong Pagoda Pass) and 1 location in Ratchaburi
Province (Ban Bang Kaeo), so that everyone can learn about historical tourism in the
beginning.
Objective No. 3 To develop a curriculum on the Silk Road of Siam in the central
region. West Coast that can be used for people interested in all levels. Developed to
be used for learning management in the form of a local curriculum.
Objective No. 4 To develop the community economy on the Silk Road in the central
west region to generate sustainable income. This item is an extension to add market
value to the community. This is to develop products and create a product brand andgenerate income for the community in a sustainable manner.
Conclusions
It can be concluded that the results of the IOC estimation combined with the Focus Groupconfirmed that the first objective of the research was successfully met. Because the research
results from this first objective can be developed into a course on the Silk Road of Siam in
the central and western areas of Thailand. As mentioned in the research results that thepresenting of this research is the presentation of the results from the IOC evaluation by thethree experts, combined with the results from the Focus Group, both of which will be used toverify the accuracy of each other reliably. And when the results are completed Researchers
will continue to develop a Silk Road curriculum in the central and western region of Thailand

ISSN: 2189-101X

317

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedingsthat can be applied to interested people at all levels. According to the written research
process.
Discussion of Research Results
From the objectives of this research to study the history of cultural tourism in the western
central region, the results can be discussed as follows:
1. The question on the comprehensiveness of the body of knowledge obtained from thestudy of the documentary work combined with the Focus Group. This issue is consistent
with the research on Cultural Tourism Route improvement for Valuable Architecture
Learning In Lan Na Civilization Route by Tassanee Krachangchom and others (2018) andresearch on The Study of Approaches to Develop Cultural Tourism in Muang District,
Uthaithani Province by Sukanya Wongcharoenchaikul (2018). It can be concluded thatcollecting information from the preliminary documents can be used to determine thedirection of the next research. And able to provide concrete information to that research
as well. The question of coverage of the body of knowledge derived from this paper studyof the researcher was also combined with results from the Focus Group, thus making thedata extremely comprehensive and complete.
2. Questions on the depth of knowledge gained from the study of the paper, combined with
the Focus Group. The research results in this issue are consistent with the research on The
Development of Cultural Tourism in Bang Namphung Community Samutprakarn
Province by Tosaporn Mitwong (2017) and research on Cultural Tourism Route
improvement for Valuable Architecture Learning In Lan Na Civilization Route by
Tassanee Krachangchom and others (2018). It can be concluded that the acquisition ofdeep information. It must arise from the synthesis of results from detailed studies ofvarious documents and also requires integrated qualitative research. Therefore, it isbelieved that the determination of the IOC combined with the results of the focus group in
this aspect of the researcher is complete.
3. The question on the appropriateness of knowledge categorization obtained from the studyof documentation combined with the focus group on this issue is consistent with theresearch on A Study of Experience Design for the Development of Cultural Tourism by
Khemika Thiraphong (M.P.A.) and research on Cultural Tourism Management in
Authenticity and Creative Tourism: A Case Study of Muang Mallika R.E. 124,
Kanchanaburi Province by Sarocha Amornpongmongkol (2018). It can be concluded thatwhen collecting data from various documents, the researcher must categorize those data
for ease of study and use for the benefit of research work. Also, categorizing thisknowledge can shed light on issues that may be missing or incomplete. In particular, thefocus group of the researcher this time was able to review the data between the IOC
determination and the results from the focus group as well thus making it easy tocategorize knowledge.
4. Questions on applying the knowledge gained from the study of document work,
combined with the Focus Group, to develop a course on the Silk Road of Siam Country inthe central and western region that can be applied to interested people at all levels. Thisissue is consistent with the research on Development of a Curriculum Model in the
Historical Tourism Course for Upper Secondary School Students by Wichai Wongsuwan
and others (2013) and research on Developing the quality of historical tourism in the

ISSN: 2189-101X

318

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Northeast by Prapawee Wongbutsri (2012). It can be concluded that if each successful
research can be developed into a curriculum to manage learning for interested people at
all levels, it would be very good. Especially the development of local curriculum used inteaching and learning at the basic education level. Therefore, this research is able toanswer this issue very well. Because after the result of the first research, it will lead to thedevelopment of the silk road study curriculum of Siam country in the central and westernareas.
Epilogue
From this study, The Silk Road of Siam the country in the western central region, only the
results from objective 1 are presented is to study the history of cultural tourism in the western
central region before moving on to other objectives. Therefore, the results obtained this timeare very important as the first step towards the destination. However, research in this field in
Thailand still pays little attention to the central and western regions. In this regard, thisresearch is an integration of tourism research with education and marketing at the same time.
This is considered to be very diverse in research. And it is expected that if this research iscompleted with all research objectives, it may cause a huge increase in spatial changes in the
future.

ISSN: 2189-101X

319

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

References
Khemika Thiraphong. (M.P.A.) A Study of Experience Design for the Development ofCultural Tourism. Journal of Fine Arts. Pages 1-15.
Pairat Pibulrungroj. (2022). How to get started with research on tourism supply chains.
[online]. http://www.tourismlogistics.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=172:champ-tcm-how-to&catid=66:2008-12-10-04-54-26&Itemid=80
Prapawee Wongbutsri. (2012). Developing the quality of historical tourism in the Northeast.
[online]. http://www2.rsu.ac.th/hospita/?p=404
Sarocha Amornpongmongkol. (2018). Cultural Tourism Management in Authenticity andCreative Tourism: A Case Study of Muang Mallika R.E. 124. Kanchanaburi
Province. [online]. http://ethesisarchive.library.tu.ac.th/thesis/2018/TU_2018_
6023110056_8107_10060.pdf
Sukanya Wongcharoenchaikul. (2018). The Study of Approaches to Develop Cultural
Tourism in Muang District, Uthaithani Province. [online]. http://ithesisir.su.ac.th/
dspace/bitstream/123456789/2046/1/59602716.pdf
Tassanee Krachangchom and others. (2018). Cultural Tourism Route improvement for
Valuable Architecture Learning In Lan Na Civilization Route. [online].
http://tourismlibrary.tat.or.th/medias_full.pdf
Tosaporn Mitwong. (2017). Cultural Tourism in Bang Namphung Community Samutprakarn
Province. [online]. http://libdcms.nida.ac.th/thesis6/2561/b204863. Pdf
Wichai Wongsuwan and others. (2013). Development of a Curriculum Model in the
Historical Tourism Course for Upper Secondary School Students. Narathiwat
Rajanagarindra University Journal Year 5 Issue 3, September - December 2013 (pages
66 - 80).

Contact email: ck.dhoppupa@gmail.com

ISSN: 2189-101X

320

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Theoretical Framework on the Use of Art-Inspired Pedagogy in Early Childhood to
Mitigate Urban Barriers

Thi Tran Khanh, KU Leuven, Belgium
Kieu Thi Kính, University of Da Nang - University of Science and Education, Vietnam
Pham Thi Thu, National College of Education Hanoi, Vietnam
Dang Minh Thu, Life Art Vietnam, Vietnam
An Thu Tra, Vietnam Museum of Ethnology, Vietnam
Kelsey Anne Carlton, VVOB-Education for Development, Vietnam
Dang Thi Ngoc Lan, VVOB-Education for Development, Vietnam

The Asian Conference on Education & International Department 2023
Official Conference Proceedings

Abstract
Cities around the world are changing rapidly, putting new pressures on the education system.
Vietnam has particularly seen a period of rapid economic growth in many of its major cities.
These urban environments can create both barriers and opportunities for learning. This paper
aims to answer the question of if and how art-inspired pedagogy (AIP) can be used tomitigate the urban barriers in the early childhood education system. Through a rapid literature
review of 48 papers, we discovered how AIP can contribute to children’s holistic
development (particularly in social emotional learning and literacy) and what conditions areneeded to implement AIP in Southeast Asia. Additionally, CITIES, a 3-phase programme in
Da Nang, Vietnam with 29 schools, provides a practical lesson learned on how AIP can fit
within the existing system and support the new early childhood curriculum in Vietnam, andwhat still needs to be in place for this to be successful. This paper provides a theoreticalframework, based on literature and practice, for implementing AIP in the urban environment
in Vietnam.

Keywords: Early Childhood, Art, Urban Education, Art-Inspired Pedagogy, Learning
Through Play, Vietnam

iafor
The International Academic Forumwww.iafor.org

ISSN: 2189-101X

321

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

1. Introduction
Vietnam's recent economic growth has been among the highest in Southeast Asia (SEA),
framed as an 'economic miracle' leading to rapid urbanization (Van & Sudhipongpracha,2015). Da Nang, the sixth largest city in Vietnam, is a prime example of rapid urbanization
given its current economic growth and foreign investment (World Bank, 2013). Whileurbanization is seen as a driver of economic growth and poverty alleviation (UN Habitat,2016), the process also creates specific social challenges, particularly for children. Da Nang
is now home to a considerable number of migrants workers from neighboring provinces who
fill the need for low-income labor, seasonal jobs in construction and food sales, and as street
vendors (Chatterjee, 2015). This economic growth has contributed to the marginalization ofcertain populations by pushing up land and rental prices, thus widening the economic
disparities within the city. Certain adverse experiences resulting from urban growth have thepotential to affect child development, such as poor social and emotional development and ahigher risk of mental health problems, which can hinder school readiness for preschoolers(Perry and Conners-Burrow, 2016, cited in Solis Schnyder et al, 2020).
1.1 VVOB CITIES Programme
To analyze and respond to the potential educational challenges resulting from urban growthin Da Nang, VVOB’s CITIES programme aimed to strengthen teacher capacities to discover
the urban barriers that hinder children's development, learning, and well-being and to developinterventions to mitigate them. In this first phase, teachers and school leaders identified
common barriers such as, limited access to green spaces and interaction with surroundings,
changes in social cohesion, lack of parental time, and increased screen time, highlighting
similar factors as mentioned by Perry and Conners-Burrow, 2016 (VVOB, 2019).
To address the above-mentioned challenges, teachers created learning activities based on artinspired pedagogy (AIP) using professional learning communities (PLCs). These activities
were introduced into teaching and learning environments as part of innovative practices forteachers to tackle these challenges. VVOB defines art-inspired pedagogy1 as a creative
approach that stems from the foundation of 'learning through play.' It leverages thearts as a vehicle that teachers can use to promote creativity and exploration while
meeting set learning goals. AIP is a pedagogical approach that uses one or more art forms2
to deepen understanding and support learning objectives in the classroom (Burnaford, Aprill& Weiss, 2009; Dohahue & Stewart, 2010; PCAH, 2011; Silverstein & Layne, 2010).
Because the CITIES programme was in Da Nang, a city rich with culture, history, and arts;
the city’s identity3 was also leveraged to mitigate the urban barriers children are facing.
1.2 Rationale for Framework
Little is known about the casual effects of AIP in preschool education in Vietnam on theholistic development of children. Because of this, primary research through harvesting1

Many terms are used to describe similar approaches, such as "arts-based" and "art integration." VVOB has
chosen to use "art-inspired pedagogy" as “art” is a technique used to meet learning goals rather than art products
or art education being the end goal.
2
Art forms include visual arts such as painting and drawing or performing arts such as music, drama, or dance.
3
City identity in VVOB CITIES programme: what a city or urban environment can offer in terms ofpedagogical opportunities

ISSN: 2189-101X

322

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings(consisting of interviews, group discussions and a survey) and secondary research through arapid literature review were conducted to answer the research questions. Due to the high levelof interest, and teacher-reported effectiveness in AIP shown through the harvesting, VVOB,
in collaboration with national and international education experts, has developed empiricalresearch to create a theoretical framework for the use of AIP to mitigate urban barriers. The
initial harvesting results show the participants’ positive perceptions of AIP in enhancing theprofessional capacity of teachers as well as in creating an active and engaging learning
environment for children. However, the question to be raised is what the effects on theholistic development of children are and how this approach can be applied systematically andeffectively in preschool education.
2. Methodology
2.1. Research questions and sub-questions
The following research questions were answered through the rapid literature review andproject data collection.
Main research question: “What is known about the effect of art-inspired pedagogy on theholistic development of children in early year childhood education in urban environments?”.
Sub-questions:
1. How can art-inspired pedagogy facilitate the development of preschool children?
2. What is the evidence that art-based pedagogy helps to mitigate urban barriers faced bychildren in urban environments?
2.2. Rapid review
Conventional literature reviews provide an overview of the relevant scientific literature
published on a topic, however; it’s trustworthiness is often low (Briner, 2014). Clear criteria
for inclusion are often lacking and studies are selected based on the researcher’s individual
preferences or theorizing perspective. Here, a ‘rapid review’ method is being used whichaims to identify the most relevant studies on a specific topic as comprehensively andstructured as possible and to select appropriate studies based on explicit criteria 4. The rapid
review is transparent, verifiable, and reproducible, and as a result, the likelihood of bias isconsiderably smaller. In this case, there were two separate rapid reviews conducted, one on
AIP in general on an international scale and one specifically focused on Southeast Asia
(SEA) and AIP.
2.3. Project Data Collection
Along with the rapid review, the CITIES programme reports have been collected andcarefully reviewed. Harvesting was completed after programme implementation to gain
insight into the interest, practicality, and effectiveness of AIP from the perspectives ofgovernment officials, school leaders, and teachers. The harvesting employed a mixed-method
approach, combining both qualitative and quantitative data collection tools and methods
including survey questionnaires, in-depth interviews, and focus group discussions. Data
collection activities were applied with 98 teachers from 29 preschools, 29 school leaders from
4

The inclusion criteria for the rapid reviews can be found in Annex 1.

ISSN: 2189-101X

323

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

29 preschools, 7 officials from Bureaus of Education and Training (BOET) and 1 Departmentof Education and Training (DOET) official.
Harvesting was conducted to understand how and at what level the teachers applied and plan
to apply AIP with children and to provide evidence of the changes that were institutionalized
in the schools’ operations. The results present the successes and challenges on the groundwhen implementing AIP and the effects that teachers, school leaders, and government
officials saw after implementation. In addition, it discusses the practicality of AIP to fit inwith and enhance the current curriculum and systems in place in early childhood education(ECE), from the perspective of DOET, BOET, and school leaders.
3. Research Findings
3.1 General Findings
3.1.1 AIP on Holistic Development
Whilst extensive research has demonstrated the positive effect of AIP on children’sdevelopment in learning and wider outcomes, there is still very little scientific understandingof the causal effect of this relation. There is strong evidence that the use of art activities in theclassroom could contribute to children’s academic outcomes and psychological and social
outcomes such as the attitude towards achievement, creativity, critical thinking,communication skills and emotional intelligence. The arts can serve as a tool for crossdomain integration and can enhance both the teaching methodology and the learning process(Stoycheva & Perkins, 2018).
One domain that tends to show positive effects from AIP is in literacy outcomes. In Taiwan,
pilot research found that AIP could foster young learners’ Chinese language ability byfacilitating their pronunciation and word memorization (Chen, Chien-Hsu, et al., 2007). Otherfindings suggest that DBP has a significant positive effect on achievement. Through drama,
students could learn about characters, thematic understanding, complex language, as well as
increase enjoyment of and persistence with interpreting and creating stories (Lee et al., 2020).
Music interventions also generally had a positive and significant effect on the teaching ofreading skills, though they were inconsistent across studies. Song lyrics often containelements of reading comprehension and practice for visual decoding skills, and listening
stations allow students engage in repetition that is not perceived as drilling (Standley, 2008).
Visual arts can play a strong role in teaching emergent literacy skills. Arts instruction could
help children pay more attention to forms and detail, leading to an increase in their reading
readiness scores. Burger and Winner (2000) carried out meta-analyses that supported thatwhen reading instruction was integrated with art instruction, children became more motivated
to read as they find art activities engaging compared to traditional reading curricula.
3.1.2 Possible Moderators
To gain a nuanced understanding of the effect of AIP on children’s development, it isimportant to understand possible moderators that might influence the intervention. This
review found two possible moderators, namely instructors and structure of the intervention.

ISSN: 2189-101X

324

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Instructors
Lee et al., (2015) conducted moderator analyses on the type of instructor to understand thepotential moderating effects of the facilitator. In sum, interventions directed by the researcher
or classroom teacher had significantly more positive effects than interventions led by ateaching artist for achievement and 21st-century skills whereas the opposite pattern showed
when the interventions led by teaching artists had more positive effects on attitudes towards
school. This raises the question of teachers’ training and preparation on how to combine
pedagogical teaching skills and a strong understanding of the arts and its application. Ifschools opt for teaching artists as leaders in a class context, it is essential to provide themwith extensive training in pedagogy and content knowledge to be more effective in theclassroom (Lee et al., 2015). It is relevant to note that the achievement moderator analysis has
the strongest effect in preschools.
In the meta-analysis regarding the effect of DBP on literacy-related outcomes, Lee et al(2020) also found that the leader of the DBP is the crucial moderator of studies. The largest
effect is for studies reporting the classroom teacher leading the DBP which is significantly
larger than treatments led by the researcher and treatments led by teaching artists.
Structure of the Intervention
The second possible moderator is the structure of the intervention5, including the duration andmodel of the given intervention. According to Stanley (2008), music for reading achievement
functioned better when it was added to ongoing music education activities than when it
replaced regular music education in the general curriculum. Studies that employed more than
60 hours of music instruction in the given period showed no significantly greater effects thanthose with less than 20 hours of intervention even when spread across the entire school year.
On the contrary, the duration of intervention plays an essential role in the effect of DBP on
children’s academic-related outcomes (Lee et al., 2015, 2020). This shows that the effect ofthe duration is likely dependent on the specific art form being used.
In the research on the effect of DBP on literacy outcomes, Lee et al (2020) used theintervention duration as coded as the number of hours. The largest average effect is for the 310 hours of lessons which is significantly greater than all other categories. Studies reporting
11-20 hours are significantly more positive than more than 20 hours of lessons. Lee et al(2020) recommended that DBP learning experiences are more impactful when informed by afocused inquiry and by learning theory and practice. The requirement of sufficient time in
instruction highlights the specific feature of DBP which focuses on the process-oriented andreflective experience rather than the final product or theatrical outcome.
A randomized experimental study of Çetin (2021) also argued that artistic activities should beprocess-oriented rather than product-oriented. Artistic learning is the creative process
between the individual and the work through planned, meaningful relationships created in
pre-programmed aesthetic activities between the teacher and the learner. This explains why
they proposed a modular art education program guided by a researcher in 7 weeks for 54
5

The intervention can be expressed in two main forms, including visual arts, and performing arts. Visual arts
focus on what children see and how they develop their artistic awareness, for example, painting, drawing,
photography, etc. while performing arts consider the activities related to body movements such as dance, drama,
and music activities.

ISSN: 2189-101X

325

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedingspreschoolers. As a result, Çetin (2021) identified that the emotional and social developmentof children in the experimental group is significantly different from those of the control group
after participating in modular art education.
3.1.3 AIP and Urban Barriers
Although no high-quality studies are identified on the role of AIP on the relationship between
urban barriers and preschool children’s development explicitly, this review acknowledges
that AIP could foster children's development and study-related outcomes, fitting in thegeneral practice of ‘play-based learning’. Given the context of urban environments, art-based
programs seem to support urban children to develop self-esteem, creativity, and social skills
as well as their coping skills to overcome adversities. Certain types of performing arts havebeen shown to help increase emotional intelligence skills like self-confidence, well-being,
self-control, and efficiency in interpersonal relationships (San-Juan-Ferrer & Hípola, 2020).
This rapid review indicates some studies showing how city context could convert urbanrelated challenges into learning opportunities for young children. One of the ways that
researchers recommended is to rethink city infrastructures as ‘spaces of learning’ (Face &Buchczyk, 2019; Tuitjer & Muller, 2020). The lessons conducted in the combination of artsand city materials not only could improve children’s creativity, social and emotional skills
but also create occasions for them to learn more about ‘what is there’ in their city and comeup with ideas how they would like to make their city better.
Using the city as a space for learning creates unique moments in which students canexperience, explore and be more attentive to their surroundings. Careful attention inspires
children to take more active roles, raise questions, communicate with others, and feel moreconnected to their living places. This might help to improve social cohesion between thechild with the space and place they are living as the idea of an assemblage of the city. City
infrastructures such as public art spaces have the potential to invite the children’s gaze,arouse their curiosity, stimulate different ways of seeing as well as offer them chances tothink about how city center spaces might be designed as more aesthetic and playful places
supportive of public life. In other words, the employment of art in this case highlights thevalue of a city's identity and its resources in which children do not simply learn about thecity, but rather they learn with it.
3.2 AIP in Asia
Despite many Asian countries adopting child-centered ECE policies, studies in several East
Asian countries suggest that children still find their curriculum consisting of scripted
instruction, repetitive learning, and standardized testing (Hui & Yuen, 2010; Lee & Yelland,
2017; Lim-Ratnam, 2013). Lee and Yelland (2017) report that parental expectation is thatpre-school teaching shall bring about academically rigorous instructions, as well as conduct
regular assessments to acquaint children with high-stakes testing. Equivalently, creative and“outside-the-box” thinking is obliquely downplayed in the major parts of Asia which are stillinfluenced by Confucian principles of modesty, particularly in the Chinese traditions (Hui &Yuen, 2010). Because of these expectations many Asian families and teachers have forpreschool students, AIP has not been a widely adopted practice in this context, therefore
providing us with limited research on its effectiveness in this context as well as a need toanalyze the relevance and adaptability of this model.

ISSN: 2189-101X

326

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Despite the challenges presented above, there are some schools and organizations in theregion that are applying AIP. In Singapore, the “Nurturing Early Learners'' (NEL) approachbased on AIP has been increasingly adopted to facilitate children’s creative thinking and selfexploration. Also in Singapore, Bautista et al. (2018) found some promising results as to thepositive effects of AIP, including students’ positive attention, generating enthusiasm, and/or
curiosity, self-expression, creativity in children, and tailoring arts-related activities tostudents’ interests.
There have been a variety of AIP initiatives starting in Asia which show a growing interest in
the methodology as well as provide us with some lessons learned. Creative Arts Activities(CAA) program in Malaysia, for instance, has deployed a five-step creative process to inspire
teachers' and school leaders’ new ideas in the teaching and learning (Kuong, Ling Pik et. al.,2012). Research in Indonesia also implied that certain elements, namely adequate facilities,
and infrastructure; teachers’ creativity; teacher-children cooperation; and parents’ assistanceare key factors for the effective implementation of AIP (Trisnawati & Sugito, 2020).
Moreover, the implementation of AIP poses some challenges which consist of facilitating
different students’ creativeness, the requirement of teachers’ high competency to manage theclassroom, and the need to attend to children’s queries and expectations. In the Asian context,
teaching is often highly structured, and children’s needs are seldomly used in lesson planningcreating a need for specific professional development to support teachers in implementing
AIP (Lim-Ratnam, 2013).
3.3 AIP in Practice: Programme Findings
In Vietnam’s education system, AIP is a new methodology both in policies and practice. In
CITIES, AIP was introduced to schools to improve children's learning and to overcome urban
barriers. The programme left valuable results and lessons learned in the application of AIP inpreschools and the needed conditions of human capacity and institutional systems to support
its implementation. It provides us with a promising model that should be explored on a larger
scale and in different contexts to validate its relevance and effectiveness.
3.3.1 Knowledge, Attitude and Practices (KAP)The end-project KAP survey indicated a proficient level of knowledge and understanding ofart-based innovation among the programme participants, demonstrating the effectiveness of
the AIP training. Teachers have utilized arts in experimental activities as well as activities toachieve foundational skills, such as learning numbers, shapes, and letters. To enhance thepractice, teachers shared what they had tried and learned via teacher professional learning
communities (PLCs). In CITIES, PLCs were used as a platform for teachers to tackle
teaching and learning challenges, such as urban barriers, through a collaborative process of
co-designing, trying out, and reflecting on the application of innovative methods such as AIP.
This provides us with encouraging results that with focused training and coaching, teachers
can make significant advances in their teaching practices.
3.3.2 Interest and application
The KAP survey revealed that arts/innovative activities were applied in all schools to varying
degrees. Most teachers (98%) showed their willingness and commitment to continue
integrating art-based innovations in their work. There is a correlation between the way
teachers select activities to continue in their work and the difficulties teachers have

ISSN: 2189-101X

327

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

experienced in implementing art-based activities in the previous school years. These results
lead us to believe that while teachers are motivated to apply AIP, there are conditions needed
to do this successfully (VVOB, 2021).
3.3.3 EffectivenessAccording to the teachers in CITIES, applying AIP in activities has helped remove urban
barriers to learning. Many teachers observed that students participating in art-based activities
spent more time exploring the materials and the environment, expressed their ideas andthoughts in more creative ways, and asked more questions in comparison with how they werein the previous activities. Teachers recognized that their students improved their linguistic,social, emotional, and cognitive skills, however; full impact research would need to be
conducted to prove statistical significance. It was stated by a teacher of a 4–5-year-old classthat her students learned shapes and numbers faster when they made or created the shapes
and numbers by themselves through the given materials such as clay, paint, or wood (VVOB,
2021).
Throughout the programme implementation, government officials demonstrated their positive
perspectives on the success of AIP in enhancing the capacity of teachers to create an active
learning environment. DOET officials expressed that the innovative methods have allowed
teachers to become flexible in designing educational activities which are play-based and offer
experiential opportunities for children at different ages. They emphasized that AIP could go
hand in hand with the national curriculum and they are able to see the effectiveness of this
implementation in mitigating barriers related to urban contexts. Many school leadersconsistently stated that AIP created a comfortable teaching environment for teachers and an
active learning environment for children. In terms of effectiveness in dealing with barriers tolearning, 86% of BOETs asserted that the applied arts/innovation activities have beeneffective in mitigating barriers related to urban contexts (VVOB, 2021).
4. Theoretical Framework
4.1 Basis for the Framework
While there is still a lot to be discovered in terms of AIP’s ability to mitigate urban barriers
and improve students' holistic development, the rapid review and practical experience
provide promising information to allow this theoretical framework to be designed. AIP has
been shown to be effective in increasing students' social-emotional and literacy skills. Manyof the urban related barriers to student learning center on the high stress city environments
and lack of social cohesion, therefore; leading us to believe the AIP could be used as a tool in
the classroom to mitigate some of these barriers. While there may be some challenges in theimplementation in SEA, new student-centered policies in ECE lend themselves to theadoption of methodologies such as AIP. With this theoretical framework, we hope to provide
readers with a practical way to implement student-centered policies while increasing students'
holistic development and mitigating urban barriers.
4.2 Explanation of the Framework
This framework aims to support school leaders and teachers in the implementation of theemerging ECE curriculum that emphasizes holistic development through child-centeredpedagogy. AIP complements this approach by providing specific methods that integrate art

ISSN: 2189-101X

328

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

into teaching and learning for preschools. AIP is one way that child-centered pedagogy canbe implemented and could be a preferred method for ECE as art-based activities are alreadycommonly used. AIP is a pedagogy that allows art to be integrated into daily lessons andactivities to increase engagement and interest, which often leads to improved wellbeing andinvolvement and learning outcomes.
The CITIES programme proposed 8 art-inspired activities as a toolkit for teachers to
implement in their classrooms. However, the ways in which AIP can be included in the daily
ECE curriculum are vast and should be explored further. The goal of AIP is for teachers todevelop the mindset and skills necessary to take ownership of this pedagogical approach andimplement it as part of their daily lessons, while meeting the necessary ECE standards. The
below model can help explain how AIP fits in the existing push for a child-centered approachin the new Vietnamese ECE curriculum and what the intended holistic development
outcomes are.

Figure 1. Holistic Development of Children
4.3 Implementation of the Framework
The desired environment for an art-inspired pedagogy framework consists of four pillars:teachers’ capacity, art-inspired activities, school support, and professional learning
communities (PLCs). The four pillars are interconnected, and the framework best supports
the application of art-inspired pedagogy when all four components are in place andsupporting each other. They take into account the two factors of instructors and structures ofintervention as discussed in section 3 and expand on what other conditions might be needed
to successfully implement AIP based on experience in the field.
Teacher capacities for implementing AIP include the toolset, skill set, and mindset for
implementation. AIP can require unique materials and environments to be implemented. Not
only the physical tools are needed but also the foundational tools of methodologies such as

ISSN: 2189-101X

329

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

process-orientated child monitoring (POM)6 and learning through play. Teachers also need a
specific skillset that includes understanding AIP, facilitation skills, ability to adapt andmodify curriculum implementation while meeting the desired government standards andmanaging the classroom during these activities. It includes a teacher’s ability to reflect, giveand receive feedback and adjust teaching practices accordingly. The last, and arguably mostimportant feature, is the mindset. It is not just applying prescribed art activities or games, butrather an ability to internalize the essence of AIP and learning through play to apply it
systematically and consistently. As mindset shifts are a complex process, school leaders must
provide close coaching to ensure they are able to transfer this into practice.
Art-inspired activities refer to the blending of the arts into class activities. This requires
looking into the current curriculum to identify the opportunities to integrate arts to enhanceslearning outcomes. Teachers can consider a variety of visual and performing arts as themeans to help achieve educational goals. Activities that are inspired by arts have different
dynamics, allowing for more child-led exploration meaning that student learning will require
more teacher facilitation rather than direct teaching.
Specifically, for those in urban environments, teachers are encouraged to explore the featuresand resources in the city that can enrich the learning experience for the children which will
provide students with meaningful experiences to connect with their community and with thecurriculum. Some characteristics that ought to be included in AIP include (but are not limited
to):• Integrating song, dance, painting, drama, etc. into the lesson while maintaining set
learning objectives• Using open materials• Engaging in meaningful tasks• Using the 5 senses in activities• Using natural materials• Visiting community cultural centers
School support includes instructional guidelines and school leadership. The framework
recommends that a set of guidelines be provided to schools that would give an overview of
AIP and suggestive instructions on how to integrate in teacher professional development(TPD) activities. The guidelines provide core steps and examples to help schools applying
AIP approach and at the same time will give space for the schools to adjust to suit theschool’s needs. The CITIES 8-activity toolkit could be used as the starting point for thecreation of AIP guidelines for schools.
School leaders must also possess the mindset necessary for AIP and that they create a healthy
environment for learning, sharing, and reflecting. School leadership also includes the rightpolicies and incentives to encourage the application and sustain AIP practice in the school
based TPD system.
Professional Learning Communities (PLCs) are an essential component of this frameworkas they provide a platform for teachers and educators to share experiences in applying AIP. A
6

POM is a tool developed by VVOB to monitor the well-being and involvement of the child and act steps toimprove those aspects. More information can be found here:
https://vietnam.vvob.org/sites/vietnam/files/20210720_vvob_pom_for_endorsement_en-light.pdf

ISSN: 2189-101X

330

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

PLC is a group of educators that come together to discuss teaching challenges, come up withpossible solutions, try them out in practical environments and evaluate their effectiveness.
PLCs can be created among teachers from a school, school leaders, and/or other stakeholders
in art education. Harvested results indicated the two most favorable learning channels of theteachers are learning from doing and from exchanges with colleagues. AIP is new to schools
and teachers; therefore, PLCs will facilitate exchange and feedback between teachers as they
try out these new methods.

Figure 2. Art-Inspired Pedagogy Pillars
4.4 AIP and the ECE National Curriculum
In the Vietnamese ECE curriculum, art is included as a means of aesthetic education forpreschool children. According to this framework, art is not only for aesthetic education, butalso for language, physical, cognitive, social-emotional skills. According to one government
official who participated in the CITIES progamme, “The schools made plans and allocatedfunds for the activities so that the teachers had opportunities to apply activities in parallelwith the MOET’s curriculum that focuses on the child-centered approach" (VVOB, 2021).
After review, a governmental official stated that the framework supports the current
curricular which promotes the empowerment of ECE preschool teachers and school leaders to“supplement educational contents and methods” to ensure the best learning outcomes for theirstudents. She finds the framework highly feasible in this context and stressed the importanceof teacher capacity and motivation to respond to the individual needs and interests of children(Le Thi Dieu Thuy, 2022).
4.5. Limitations
Within this study and the theoretical framework, two main limitations have been identified:(i) research gaps particular in SEA; (ii) the project scale of the CITIES programme.
The research team used some extended key words: “education through art” OR “Art-related
pedagog*” OR “Music pedagog*” OR “learning through art” OR “learning with art” yet there
is limited research focused on documenting what AIP looks like in actual preschoolclassrooms, particularly in SEA countries.

ISSN: 2189-101X

331

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Regarding the project scale, most activities were conducted in Da Nang, a central coastal cityof Vietnam which may not be representative of all urban environments in Vietnam. The factthat the scale of this project is quite small and no baseline and endline studies wereconducted, makes it insufficient to make conclusive or casual statements regarding
effectiveness. We also acknowledge that other approaches might be more beneficial in
mitigating urban barriers and that more research would need to be done to prove that AIP is
the most effective for this. Given the shortage of evidence on the causal impact of arts, Seeand Kokotsaki (2016) recommended considering the effect of arts as a bonus if it leads toimprovements in academic attainment and other affective outcomes when integrating it inteaching and learning environments. Full impact research and further consultation with otherpolicy makers would help make conclusive statements to answer the above researchquestions.
5. Conclusion
Art-inspired pedagogy and its connection to the mitigation of urban barriers is a topic withstill a lot to be discovered. In Vietnam, where rapid urbanization is underway and the effects
this is having on the early childhood sector is becoming more pronounced, governments andschools must begin to try new models and expand research on how the school system can best
support the ECE students. This framework provides a starting point for the discussion on theeffects of urbanization on children and possible solutions. The current trend shows that the
population and economic growth in Vietnams major cities will continue into the next decade.
The education system must be prepared to recognize its effects on the ECE system andprovide school leaders and teachers with practical tools to support their students. The above
proposed framework, including the CITIES activities tool kit provides a starting point forteachers, school leaders and government officials to explore the possibility of AIP to integrate
the child-centered approach in the new policies and mitigate the urban barriers that rapid
urbanization induces.

Acknowledgments
We thank Ms. Le Thi Dieu Thuy (Da Nang Department of Education and Training, Early
Childhood Education Department) for her valuable insights and contributions throughout the
CITIES programme that led to the development of this paper. We also thank VVOB staff(Hans de Greve, Ha Huong Thi Thu and Silvija Pozenel) and KU Leuven staff (Jeroen
Stouten and Katrien Vangrieken) who provided valuable feedback in the development of thepaper.

ISSN: 2189-101X

332

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

References
Aerila, J., Rönkkö, M., & Grönman, S. (2016). Field Trip to a Historic House Museum withPreschoolers: Stories and Crafts as Tools for Cultural Heritage Education. Visitor
Studies, 19(2), 144-155.
Barends, E.,&, J., Rousseau, D., & Briner, R.(2017). Guideline for Critically Appraised
Topics in Management and Organizations. The Center for Evidence-BasedManagement, 1(1), 1-7.
Barker, T & Üngör, M (2019) Vietnam: The next asian Tiger? The North American Journalof Economics and Finance, 47: 96-118
Bautista, A., Moreno-Núñez, A., Bull, R., Amsah, F., & Koh, S.-F. (2018). Arts-related
pedagogies in preschool education: An Asian perspective. Early Childhood Research
Quarterly, 45, 277–288. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2017.12.005
Bautista, A., Tan, L. S., Ponnusamy, L. D., & Yau, X. (2016). Curriculum integration in arts
education: Connecting multiple art forms through the idea of ‘space.’ Journal ofCurriculum Studies, 48(5), 610–629. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220272.2015.1089940
BỘ Văn Hóa Thể Thao và du Lịch. Bộ Văn hóa Thể thao và Du lịch. (n.d.). Retrieved fromhttps://bvhttdl.gov.vn/
Bowell, P., & Heap, B. S. (2001). Planning Process Drama. London: David Fulton
Publishers, Ltd.
Briner, R., & Walshe, N. (2014). From Passively Received Wisdom to Actively Constructed
Knowledge: Teaching Systematic Review Skills As a Foundation of Evidence-BasedManagement. Academy of Management Learning & Education, 13(3), 415-432.
Burger, K., & Winner, E. (2000). Instruction in Visual Art: Can It Help Children Learn toRead? The Journal of Aesthetic Education, 34(3/4), 277-293.
Burnaford, G., Aprill, A., & Weiss, C. Eds. (2001). Renaissance in the Classroom: Arts
Integration and Meaningful Learning. Lawrence Ehrlbaum: NJ.
Catterall, J., & Peppler, K. (2007). Learning in the visual arts and the worldviews of young
children. Cambridge Journal of Education, 37(4), 543-560.
Çetin, Z. (2021). The effect of a modular art education programme on the personal-social
development of preschool children. South African Journal of Childhood Education,
11(1), E1-E7.
Chatterjee, S (2015) Climate Change Risks and Resilience in Urban Children in Asia
Synthesis Report for Secondary Cities: Da Nang, Khulna, and Malolos. Asian Cities
Climate Resilience Working Paper Series 21
Chen, Chien-Hsu, Su, Chun Chin, Lee,Po-Yen, & Wu, Fong-Gong. (2007). Augmented
interface for children Chinese learning. 268–270.

ISSN: 2189-101X

333

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Chumark, C., & Puncreobutr, V. (2016). Developing Basic Mathematical Skills of PreSchool Children by Using Plasticized Clay. Journal of Education and Practice, 7(12),180-183.
Da Nang, Vietnam Metro Area Population 1950-2022. MacroTrends. (n.d.). Retrieved July22, 2022, from https://www.macrotrends.net/cities/22455/da-nang/population
Dohahue, D. & Stewart, J. (2010). Artful Teaching: Integrating the Arts across the K-8
Curriculum for Understanding. Teachers College Press.
Facer, K., & Buchczyk, M. (2019). Understanding Learning Cities as discursive, material andaffective infrastructures. Oxford Review of Education, 45(2), 168-187.
Facer, K., & Buchczyk, M. (2019). Towards a research agenda for the 'actually existing'
Learning City. Oxford Review of Education, 45(2), 151-167.
Heino, J. (2020). Creating Connections to Land through Art: Allowing Curiosity to Take theLead in Urban Spaces. Journal of Childhood Studies (Prospect Bay), 45(1), 48-55.
Hui, A. N. N., & Yuen, T. C. M. (2010). The blossoming of creativity in education in Asia:
Changing views and challenging practices. Thinking Skills and Creativity, 5(3), 155–
158. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsc.2010.10.003
Kuong, Ling Pik, Puteh, Sharifah Nor, & Toran, Hasnah. (2012). Using Visual Art Activities
ForCreativity Development In Early Childhood Education. 4th National Early
Childhood Intervention Conference Family-centred practices – early childhoodintervention and beyond, Sibu Malaysia. http://agapesibu.org/necic2012/
Lee, B., & Cawthon, S. (2015). What predicts pre-service teacher use of arts-based
pedagogies in the classroom? an analysis of the beliefs, values, and attitudes of preservice teachers. Journal for Learning through the Arts: A Research Journal on Arts
Integration in Schools and Communities, 11(1). https://doi.org/10.21977/d911119691
Lee, B., Patall, E., Cawthon, S., & Steingut, R. (2015). The Effect of Drama-Based Pedagogy
on PreK–16 Outcomes: A Meta-Analysis of Research From 1985 to 2012. Review of
Educational Research, 85(1), 3-49.
Lee, I.-F., & Yelland, N. J. (2017). Crafting Miniature Students in the Early Years: Schoolingfor Desirable Childhoods in East Asia. International Journal of Early Childhood,
49(1), 39–56. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13158-017-0183-7
Lim-Ratnam, C. (2013). Tensions in defining quality pre-school education: The Singapore
context. Educational Review, 65(4), 416–431.
https://doi.org/10.1080/00131911.2012.707641
Luftig, R. (2000). An investigation of an arts infusion program on creative thinking,academic achievement, affective functioning, and arts appreciation of children at threegrade levels. Studies in Art Education, 41(3), 208-227.

ISSN: 2189-101X

334

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Mason, M., & Chuang, S. (2001). Culturally-based after-school arts programming for lowincome urban children: Adaptive and preventive effects. The Journal of Primary
Prevention, 22(1), 45-54.
Perry, D. F., & Conners-Burrow, N. (2016). Addressing early adversity through mental healthconsultation in early childhood settings. Family Relations.
Phillips, R., Gorton, R., Pinciotti, P., & Sachdev, A. (2010). Promising Findings on
Preschoolers’ Emergent Literacy and School Readiness In Arts-integrated Early
Childhood Settings. Early Childhood Education Journal, 38(2), 111- 122.
Schnyder, S., Wico, D., & Huber, T. (2020). Theater arts as a beneficial and educational
venue in identifying and providing therapeutic coping skills for early childhood
adversities: A systematic review of the literature. International Electronic Journal of
Elementary Education, 13(4), 457-467.
Schuermans, N., Loopmans, M., & Vandenabeele, J. (2012). Public space, public art andpublic pedagogy. Social & Cultural Geography, 13(7), 675-682.
See, B., & Kokotsaki, D. (2016). Impact of arts education on children's learning and wider
outcomes. Review of Education (Oxford), 4(3), 234-262.
Silverstein, L., & Layne, S. (2010). What is arts integration? The John F. Kennedy Center for
the Performing Arts. Retrieved 7/12/2013: http://www.ocde.us
Smith, B., & Cline, J. (2016). Zebras and Jaguars, Oh My! Integrating Science andEngineering Standards with Art during Prekindergarten Block Time. Journal of STEM
Arts, Crafts, and Constructions, 1(1), 62-74.
Stan, Liliana & Popa, Nicoleta Laura. (2014). The formative significance of aesthetic
contents in early childhood education. An analysis of Romanian preschool
curriculum. Review of Artistic Education, 7/8, 282–290.
Stanley, J. (2008). Does Music Instruction Help Children Learn to Read? Evidence of a
Meta-Analysis. Update: Applications of Research in Music Education, 27(1), 17-32.
Stoycheva, D., & Perkins, L. (2016). Three- and four-year-olds learn about gears through arts
incorporation. Journal of STEM Arts, Crafts, and Construction, 1(2), 67-83.
Tuitjer, L., & Müller, A. (2021). Re‐thinking urban infrastructures as spaces of learning.
Geography Compass, 15(1), N/a.
Turkcan Burçin. (2019). Cultural Heritage Studies Through Art Education: An Instructional
Application in the Ancient City of Aizanoi. Eurasian Journal of Educational
Research, 19(83), 29-56.
UN-Habitat (2016) Habitat III: The New Urban Agenda, Available: www.habitat3.org[Accessed:January 2020]

ISSN: 2189-101X

335

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Van, V. B., & Sudhipongpracha, T. (2015). Exploring government budget deficit andeconomic growth: Evidence from Vietnam's economic miracle. Asian Affairs: An
American Review, 42(3), 127–148. https://doi.org/10.1080/00927678.2015.1048629
VVOB. (2019). Communities of Practice Inspiring Teaching Innovations in the Early
Education System in Vietnam (CITIES).
VVOB. (2021). Harvesting Report. Communities of Practice Inspiring Teaching Innovationsin the Early Education System in Vietnam - 3 (CITIES 3).
World Bank (2013) Energizing Green Cities in Southeast Asia. Washington DC: World Bank
Yazıcı, E (2017). The Impact of Art Education Program on the Social Skills of PreschoolChildren. Journal of Education and Training Studies, 5(5), 17-26
Yeni, Indra & Dilfa, Alriska Hairi. (2019). Paradigm of Early Childhood Art’s Education.
396–399. https://www.atlantis-press.com/article/125926535.pdf

Contact email: Kelsey.carlton@vvob.org

ISSN: 2189-101X

336

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Digital Piracy Case of Learning Materials in China:
A Tough Challenge to Chinese Copyright Law
Dan Liu, University of the Cordilleras, Philippines
Marcelino M. Agnawa Jr., University of the Cordilleras, Philippines
The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023
Official Conference Proceedings
Abstract
Digital piracy of learning materials is arguably considered as unlawful behavior of students
under Copyright Law of the People's Republic of China (hereinafter referred to as “Chinese
Copyright Law”), which has caused great harm to the copyright owners and licensed users.
This study aims to examine the reasons for digital piracy of learning materials and thedefense against copyright infringement, i.e. fair use regarding private study and research,classroom teaching and scientific research according to Article 24 (1) and Article 24 (6) of
Chinese Copyright Law. This study focuses on three questions: whether university students
have the awareness of digital piracy of learning materials and the copyright infringement
arising from digital piracy, what is the attitude of university students toward digital piracy oflearning materials, and how to protect the copyright of digital learning materials under
Chinese Copyright Law. There are two instruments in collecting data, questionnaire andsemi-structured individual interviews with different university students currently studying in
Beijing. Findings suggest that most students had the experience of piracy of learningmaterials without the awareness of copyright infringement, and they supported digital piracyof learning materials due to the habit, ease, common practice and no charge of digitallearning materials. The copyright of digital learning materials could be effectively protectedby not charging fees for digital learning materials, collaborating with relevant academic
associations to allow students to download at a lower price, and utilizing technical barriers toprevent illegal downloading.
Keywords: Digital Piracy, Learning Materials, Copyright, Fair Use

iafor
The International Academic Forumwww.iafor.org

ISSN: 2189-101X

337

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 Rational
The development of high Internet has facilitated the access to digital information. It also
brings opportunity for students to acquire a great number of digital leaning materials. As
students take advantage of the convenience brought by online file downloading and sharing,some students have been involved in digital piracy and copyright infringement, which might
be exempted from legal liabilities with the defense of fair use under Chinese Copyright Law.
Digital piracy is defined as the illegal act of uploading, downloading, copying, sharing,
trading digital materials, such as digital documents, audios, videos, software, and othercopyrighted materials without permission from, and without payment of remuneration to the
copyright owner (Gopal et al., 2004; Higgins et al., 2006). For students, examples of digitalpiracy include copying digital learning materials published by for-profit educational
institutions, downloading digital learning materials from illegal websites, and using certain
avoiding or destroying technical measures to obtain digital learning materials, which may
cause copyright infringement liability, administrative responsibility, and even criminal
responsibility to them.
It seems clear that a student who has committed digital piracy shall be liable for the copyright
infringement. However, there is a defense against copyright infringement called “fair use”,
which allows a work to be exploited “without the permission from, and without payment of
remuneration, to the copyright owner” in an exhaustive list of cases. From the perspective ofeducation and scientific research, it is a common practice for Chinese students to rely on the
Article 24(1) or 24(6) to negate the copyright infringement. The Article 24(1) and 24(6) of
Chinese Copyright Law will be elaborated by the researcher in the following sections.
1.2 Research Objectives
The purpose of this study is to identify whether students have the awareness of copyright
infringement against digital piracy of learning materials, what attitude they have toward
digital piracy of learning materials, and how to protect the copyright of digital learningmaterials under Chinese Copyright Law. This study will be beneficial to students to assess
their current practices and gain insights into copyright infringement. It shall also be
significant to legislators and policy makers to improve copyright protection subject to thedefense of fair use under Chinese Copyright Law. Finally, it may help the whole society
create a good academic atmosphere to realize one of the Sustainable Development Goals,
which is to “ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning
opportunities for all.”
1.3 Research Questions
RQ 1: Are university students aware that some illegal acts constitute digital piracy? Are theyaware of the copyright infringement arising from digital piracy of learning materials?
RQ 2: What attitude do university students have toward digital piracy of learning materials?
Why do they support or object to the digital piracy of learning materials?
RQ 3: How to protect the copyright of digital learning materials under Chinese Copyright
Law? How do university students evaluate the effectiveness of those solutions?

ISSN: 2189-101X

338

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

2. LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Digital Learning Materials
Digital learning materials are typically used by teachers and students for the purpose of
online education. According to Mendes (2000), the resources for online education include
handouts, PowerPoint slides, papers, tutorial and assignment problems, teaching audio-visual
works, and examination questions prepared by the teachers and professors to facilitate thedelivery of online courses. Among them, the most pervasive forms of learning materials in
China are handouts, PowerPoint slides, papers and audio-visual works.
2.2 Digital Piracy
Digital piracy is considered a civil infringement and an administrative violation in China. In
more serious cases, it even constitutes criminal offense under Chinese Criminal Law. Taylor
et al. (2009) indicated a lower digital piracy rate could lead to economic growth, lower
unemployment rate and innovation. Existing literature found that digital piracy was linked to
low self-control (Higgins, 2005). It was also affected by the sense of thrill, excitement, andrisk (Higgins et al., 2006). Some infringers committed digital piracy because they did notview digital piracy as an illegal or unethical act (Hinduja, 2007; Ingram & Hinduja, 2008;
Morris & Higgins, 2009; Peace et al., 2003). Absence of penalties, absence of a code of
ethics, low risk of being caught and the ease of piracy were other factors that facilitateddigital piracy (Cheng et al., 1997; Limayem et al., 2004; Triandis, 1980). Other studies foundthat deterrence and guilt are the important factors to reduce instances of digital piracy(Higgins et al., 2006; Paternoster, 1987; Yu & Liska, 1993). However, Bhattacharjee et al.
(2006) found that both the threat of litigation and the consumer education against digitalpiracy failed to affect the prevention of digital piracy. Sulaiman and Kamel (2020) found thatboth religion and awareness treatment were significant to reduce the intention toward digitalpiracy, while the law system was not essential to reduce digital piracy. Belleflamme and Peitz(2012) divided digital piracy into two types, namely commercial piracy where for-profit
companies reproduce and distribute copyrighted products to generate high profit margins, and
end-user piracy where consumers themselves illegally reproduce copyrighted works. For
students, they are more likely to commit end-user digital piracy, which is much more
complex than commercial piracy as to the nature of private study or research.
2.3 Fair Use“Fair use” is a defense to negate the copyright infringement that allows a work to be
exploited “without the permission from, and without payment of remuneration, to the
copyright owner” in a exhaustive list of cases. In China, fair use is stipulated in the Article 24
of Chinese Copyright Law. For students being caught for digital piracy, it is a common
practice to rely on the Article 24(1) or 24(6) to negate copyright infringements, which allows
them to reproduce “for the purposes of the user’s own private study, research”, or reproduce“in a small quality of copies... in classroom teaching or scientific research”. However, in asituation where students illegally share digital learning materials online, it is not an absolutedefense under Article 24(1) because sharing could not be construed as purely for private
study or research. In a situation where students illegally reproduce digital learning materials,
Article 24(6) is not sufficient because it is arguably beyond the limits of “classroom teachingor scientific research” and “in a small quality of copies.”

ISSN: 2189-101X

339

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

3. METHODOLOGY
3.1 Research Methods
This research will use mixed methods to study the research questions. Quantitative method
will be used to determine whether university students have the awareness of digital piracy oflearning materials and the copyright infringement arising from digital piracy (RQ1), and how
to protect the copyright of digital learning materials under Chinese Copyright Law (RQ3).
Qualitative method will be used to indicate what attitude university students have toward thedigital piracy of learning materials (RQ2).
3.2 Population and Locale of the Study
The researcher used 136 university students currently studying in Beijing as the respondents
to determine RQ1 and RQ3, as they were the ones who often used digital learning materials
and were vulnerable to digital piracy issues. Among them, 10 students were used as the key
informants to indicate RQ2. The researcher attempted to diversify the majors of the key
informants as much as possible to attain variation (Juliet & Anselm, 2008).
ID

GenderMajor

ID

Gender

Major

S1
S3
S5
S7

F
F
M
M

Economics
Law
Computer Science
Medical Science

S2
S4
S6
S8

F
M
F
M

Literature
Civil Engineering
Accounting
Mechanical Automation

S9
F
Human Resources
S10
M
Mathematics
Table 1: Summary of the Basic Information of Interviewed University Students
3.3 Instrumentation
The researcher used questionnaire and semi-structured interview to gather data. The
questionnaire included the basic information, personal experience regarding digital piracy oflearning materials, awareness of the digital piracy of learning materials, awareness of
copyright infringement (RQ1), and how to evaluate the solutions to protect the copyright ofdigital learning materials (RQ2). The interview guide to answer RQ2 was based on theexperience of key informants. Interviews were hosted by the researcher specializing in
copyright law and education, in order to identify potential misinterpretation and ensure
a common standard of the research questions for different key informants.
3.4 Data Analysis
The researcher used multiple choice questions to collect data on RQ1. Thematic analysis wasused to indicate the common responses of the key informants about RQ2. A thematic coding
process was used to identify, analyze, and interpret patterns of meaning within large bodies oftext (Williams & Moser, 2019). The respondents also rated the effectiveness of different
solutions to protect copyright of learning materials, from 1-“not effective at all” to5-“completely effective”, and average scores for each protection measure were calculated for
RQ3.

ISSN: 2189-101X

340

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

4. FINDINGS & DISCUSSION
In this section, the researcher will report the findings with discussions on digital piracy oflearning materials. The major themes emerging from this study can be categorized into: 1)
awareness of digital piracy and copyright infringement; 2) attitude toward digital piracy oflearning materials; 3) legal protection against digital piracy of learning materials. These are
the results gathered from the respondents.
4.1 Awareness of Digital Piracy and Copyright Infringement

Handouts

45

PowerPoint Slides

59

23

Papers

85
35

Audio-visual Works

28
81

18
0

32

20

55
20

63

40

60

Never committed digital piracy

80

100

120

140

Committed but unaware of digital piracy

Committed and aware of digital piracy

Figure 1: Students’ Awareness of Digital Piracy of Different Types ofLearning Materials
According to the result in Figure 1, most university students had the experience of digitalpiracy of learning materials, no matter what types of the learning materials were. For thosestudents with the experience of digital piracy of handout, PowerPoint slides and papers, mostof them were unaware that their illegal acts constituted digital piracy. For those who had
committed digital piracy of audio-visual works, the number of university students aware ofdigital piracy is slightly larger than those who were unaware of the digital piracy.

Figure 2: Students’ Awareness of Copyright Infringement of Digital Piracy
Among those students who had awareness of committing digital piracy of learning materials,
the researcher further studied whether they considered digital piracy of learning material as
copyright infringement. Figure 2 illustrates that 21.88%, 17.86% and 45.00% of the

ISSN: 2189-101X

341

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

university students were aware that digital piracy of handouts, slides and papers might
constitute copyright infringement, while 65.08% of those who ever committed digital piracy
of audio-visual learning materials were aware that digital piracy of audio-visual works might
constitute copyright infringement.
4.2 Attitude toward Digital Piracy of Learning Materials
Digital piracy lies in different types of learning materials, ranging from handouts, PowerPoint
slides, papers to audio-visual works. For the key informants who had experienced digitalpiracy of learning materials, their attitude varied from person to person.
ID
S1
S3
S5
S7
S9

Major
AttitudeID
Major
Economics
SupportS2
Literature
Law
Not clear
S4
Civil Engineering
Computer Science
Support
S6
Accounting
Medical Science
SupportS8
Mechanical Automation
Human Resources
ObjectS10
Mathematics
Table 2: Attitude toward Digital Piracy of Learning Materials

Attitude
ObjectSupportSupportNot clear
Support

Table 2 shows that 6 out of 10 key informants supported digital piracy of learning materials,
even though some had the awareness of digital piracy and/or copyright infringement. It issurprising to observe that for some university students majoring in law, computer science,
medical science that require a higher level of copyright protection, their attitude toward
digital piracy of learning materials is not much different from that of students in other majors.
As to the key informants who supported digital piracy of learning materials, as mentioned by
S1, S4 and S10, digital piracy was committed out of habit, and it is easy and common to
download digital learning materials from illegal websites and share digital learning materials
without obtaining permission and paying to the copyright owners. It can be explained by theneutralization theory (Sykes & Matza, 1957) which asserts that individuals are inclined toneutralize their illegal acts by justifying as “normal” (Hinduja, 2007). S6 indicated that
university students were too poor to purchase accounts on paid educational platforms orpurchase the copyrighted digital learning materials from paid websites. S1, S7 and S10
justified by noting that reproducing, purchasing, and sharing digital learning materials would
not cause damage to anybody. S7 added that it would contribute to the improvement of theacademic level for the whole society. These findings support previous research that the mostprevalent reason for digital piracy is the unwillingness to pay for the digital content (Sadiku
et al., 2021).
For those who objected to digital piracy of learning materials, S2 indicated that the digitallearning materials should be protected by copyright law, so as to create a safe academic
environment for teachers, students and researchers to produce their academic work. As
mentioned by S9, the illegal act of digital piracy might constitute copyright infringement, andeven criminal offence, which deterred some students from committing digital piracy. In
previous study by Paternoster (1987), legal deterrence was also found as a major factor forthe resistance of digital piracy.
In terms of the key informants with unclear attitude, S3 relied on “fair use” doctrine to
explain why students were free to commit digital piracy. However, S3 was uncertain about

ISSN: 2189-101X

342

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

whether digital piracy of learning materials could fall into the scope of fair use under Chinese
Copyright Law. S8 viewed digital piracy of learning materials as an unethical but legal act,
which should be judged and punished by the ethics rather than the laws concerning copyright
infringement.
4.3 Legal Protection against Digital Piracy of Learning Materials
According to Sadiku et al. (2021), legislators and policy makers could protect the copyrightof digital learning materials by removing the incentives, raising awareness of copyright
infringement, enhancing collaboration with communities, adding watermark on copyrighted
works, and utilizing technical barriers to prevent digital piracy. In light of these findings, theresearcher summarized the solutions to protect copyright of learning materials against digitalpiracy as not charging fees for digital learning materials, increasing education about digitalpiracy and copyright infringement, collaborating with relevant academic associations so as toallow students to download learning materials at a lower price, adding watermark on thelearning materials to highlight the statement of copyright, and utilizing technical barriers toprevent illegal downloading.
Solution
1. Not charging fees for digital learning materials
2. Increasing education about digital piracy and copyright infringement
3. Collaborating with academic associations to download at a lower price4. Adding watermark to highlight the statement of copyright
5. Utilizing technical barriers to prevent illegal downloading

Average
Score
4.15
2.03
3.71
2.78
3.20

Level
High
Low
MediumLow
MediumTable 3: Effectiveness of Solutions to Protect Copyright of Learning Materials
Table 3 illustrates that the most effective solution to protect the learning materials against
digital piracy is not charging fees for digital learning materials with the average score of 4.15,
which is consistent with the result of RQ2 that suggests the most prevalent reason for digitalpiracy was the unwillingness to pay for the digital learning materials. Accordingly, allowing
university students to download and share digital learning materials without any charges
could significantly reduce the instances of digital piracy. The protection solution ofcollaborating with relevant academic associations to allow downloading learning materials at
a lower price is moderately effective with the average score of 3.71, followed by utilizing
technical barriers to prevent illegal downloading with the average score of 3.20. It is worth
nothing that during the semi-structured interview, S5 indicated that the technical barriers
might not as effective as ordinary students considered because it is easy for some students touse circumvention techniques or disruptive techniques to overcome technical barriers.
Adding watermark to highlight the statement of copyright and increasing education about
digital piracy and copyright infringement are less effective, with the average scores of 2.78
and 2.03 respectively. As illustrated in Figure 1 and Figure 2, most of the respondents were
unaware of the digital piracy and copyright infringement issues. However, Table 3 illustrates
that raising the awareness of digital piracy and copyright infringement by increasing legal
education and adding watermarks was not sufficiently effective to reduce digital piracy oflearning materials, provided that university students have already gained adequate awarenessof copyright infringement as the nature of illegal act. It is worth noting that, as indicated by
S9, although the education regarding legal consequences for copyright infringement would

ISSN: 2189-101X

343

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

not directly reduce digital piracy, it might have significant deterrence effect on potential
infringers.
5. CONCLUSION
In this paper, the researcher has studied whether university students have the awareness ofdigital piracy of learning materials and awareness of copyright infringement arising fromdigital piracy, what attitude university students have toward the digital piracy of learningmaterials, and how to protect the copyright of digital learning materials. This research
involves a survey covering 136 university students in Beijing and semi-structured interviews
with 10 university students from different majors. The findings suggest that most university
students have the experience of digital piracy of learning materials without the awareness of
copyright infringement. They support digital piracy due to the habit, ease, common practiceand no charge of downloading and sharing digital learning materials. The researcher further
suggests that the copyright of digital learning materials could be effectively protected by not
charging fees for digital learning materials, collaborating with academic associations to allow
students to download learning materials at a lower price, and utilizing technical barriers toprevent illegal downloading.
Based on the findings of this study, it is recommended to improve the pricing system ofdigital learning materials, develop a collaborative relationship with relevant academic
associations to provide digital learning materials at a lower price, and utilize technicalbarriers to prevent illegal downloading, so as to balance the interests of students and teachers,
create a better academic atmosphere and achieve one of the Sustainable Development Goals,
which is to “ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning
opportunities for all.”
6. LIMITATIONS
Since this study focused on university students currently studying in Beijing, the result may
not be necessarily generated to other populations or geographical regions. Further researchshould focus on the students at other educational levels from other cities, in order to have abetter understanding of the digital piracy of learning materials. Another limitation in thisstudy involved the small size of the key informants because only 10 out of 136 students werewilling to be further interviewed. Future qualitative studies could focus on larger size of the
key informants.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I am grateful to all my professors and classmates in University of the Cordilleras during the
conduct of this research, especially my supervisors in research - Dr. Marcelino M. Agnawa
Jr., Dr. Thelma Palaoag and our dean Dr. Ramir Austria. My thanks should also go to the 136
respondents from different universities in Beijing. Lastly, I would express thanks to myfamily, especially my parents and spouse, for their love that kept me inspired and motivatedduring the entire process.

ISSN: 2189-101X

344

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

REFERENCES
A. Graham Peace, Dennis F. Galletta, & James Y.L. Thong. (2003). Software Piracy in the
Workplace: A Model and Empirical Test. Journal of Management Information
Systems, 20(1), 153–177. https://doi.org/10.1080/07421222.2003.11045759
Belleflamme, P., & Peitz, M. (2012). Digital Piracy: Theory. Oxford Handbooks
Online. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195397840.013.0018
Bhattacharjee, S., Gopal, R., Lertwachara, K., & Marsden, J. (2006). Impact of Legal Threatson Online Music Sharing Activity: An Analysis of Music Industry Legal Actions. The
Journal of Law and Economics, 49(1), 91–114. https://doi.org/10.1086/501085
Cheng, H. K., Sims, R. R., & Teegen, H. (1997). To Purchase or to Pirate Software: An
Empirical Study. Journal of Management Information Systems, 13(4), 49–60.
https://doi.org/10.1080/07421222.1997.11518142
Gopal, R. D., Sanders, G. L., Bhattacharjee, S., Agrawal, M., & Wagner, S. C. (2004). A
Behavioral Model of Digital Music Piracy. Journal of Organizational Computing andElectronic Commerce, 14(2), 89–105. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327744joce1402_01
Higgins, G. E. (2005). Can Self-control Theory Help Understand the Software Piracy
Problem? Deviant Behavior, 26, 1-24.
Higgins, G. E., Fell, B. D., & Wilson, A. L. (2006). Digital Piracy: Assessing theContributions of an Integrated Self-Control Theory and Social Learning Theory Using
Structural Equation Modeling. Criminal Justice Studies, 19(1), 3–22.
https://doi.org/10.1080/14786010600615934
Hinduja, S. (2007). Neutralization Theory and Online Software Piracy: An Empirical
Analysis. Ethics and Information Technology, 9(3), 187–204.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10676-007-9143-5
Ingram, J. R., & Hinduja, S. (2008). Neutralizing Music Piracy: An Empirical
Examination. Deviant Behavior, 29(4), 334–
366. https://doi.org/10.1080/01639620701588131
Juliet M. Corbin, & Anselm L. Strauss. (2008). Basics of Qualitative Research : Techniques
and Procedures for Developing Grounded Theory. Published in 2008 in Los Angeles
Calif by SAGE Publications Inc.
Limayem, M., Khalifa, M., & Chin, W. (2004). Factors Motivating Software Piracy: A
Longitudinal Study. IEEE Transactions on Engineering Management, 51(4), 414–425.
https://doi.org/10.1109/tem.2004.835087
Mendes, P. (2000). Online Delivery of Education: Copyright Issues in Universities. Journalof Law and Information Science, 11(2), 196-215.

ISSN: 2189-101X

345

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Morris, R. G., & Higgins, G. E. (2008). Neutralizing Potential and Self-Reported Digital
Piracy. Criminal Justice Review, 34(2), 173–195.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0734016808325034
Paternoster, R. (1987). The deterrent effect of the perceived certainty and severity ofpunishment: A review of the evidence and issues. Justice Quarterly, 4(2), 173–217.
https://doi.org/10.1080/07418828700089271
Sadiku, M. N. O., Ashaolu, T. J., Ajayi-Majebi, A., & Musa, S. M. (2021). Digital Piracy.
International Journal of Scientific Advances, 2(5).
https://doi.org/10.51542/ijscia.v2i5.22
Sulaiman Al-Rafee, Kamel Rouibah. (2020). The Fight against Digital Piracy: An
Experiment. Telematics and Informatics 27 (2010) 283–292.
Sykes, G. M., & Matza, D. (1957). Techniques of Neutralization: A Theory of Delinquency.
American Sociological Review, 22(6), 664. https://doi.org/10.2307/2089195
Taylor, S. A., Ishida, C., & Wallace, D. W. (2009). Intention to Engage in Digital Piracy.
Journal of Service Research, 11(3), 246–262.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1094670508328924
Triandis, C. H. (1980). Values, Attitudes and Interpersonal Behaviour. Paper presented atProceedings Nebraska Symposium Motivation, 1979: Beliefs, Attitudes and Values,
Lincoln, NE, 1980, pp. 159-295.
Williams, M & Moser, T. (2019). The Art of Coding and Thematic Exploration in Qualitative
Research. International Management Review, 15(1), 45.
YU, J., & LISKA, A. E. (1993). The Certainty of Punishment: A Reference Group Effect and
Its Functional Form. Criminology, 31(3), 447-464.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-9125.1993.tb01137.x
Contact email: liudan_llm2015@163.com
mmagnawa@uc-bcf.edu.ph

ISSN: 2189-101X

346

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

The Development of Mathematics Teachers’ Proficiency Framework for Sustainable andStandardised Assessment in Southeast Asia (SEA)
Uki Rahmawati, SEAMEO Regional Centre for QITEP in Mathematics, Indonesia
Gusnandar Yoga Utama, SEAMEO Regional Centre for QITEP in Mathematics, Indonesia
Farida Nurhasanah, SEAMEO Regional Centre for QITEP in Mathematics, Indonesia
Miftahul Hidayah, SEAMEO Regional Centre for QITEP in Mathematics, Indonesia
The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023
Official Conference Proceedings
Abstract
No education can exceed the quality of its teachers. This statement indicates that teachers'
competence is important in the education system. A professional teacher must have specificknowledge and skills, which are related to pedagogy, content, and technology in providing
good quality mathematics teaching and learning in the 21st century. The knowledge andskills need to be improved from time to time to fit the recent issues suitable for advancing
technology information and global society. An assessment framework and tools formathematics teachers' proficiency are needed, considering the importance of assessing
mathematics teachers' knowledge for sustainable improvement. This study aims to develop arigorous region-wide teacher proficiency assessment framework to evaluate mathematics
teachers' knowledge. This research is an ongoing project funded by the Ministry of
Education, Culture and Technology of Indonesia which involved two lecturers, two analysts,
and seven researchers. The method used in the study is the ADDIE instructional design ofwhich steps are Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation, and Evaluation. This paper
produced an assessment framework with the twelve sub-indicators for Pedagogical Content
Knowledge (PCK), six for Technological Content Knowledge (TCK), and ten forTechnological Pedagogical Knowledge (TPK), which cover mathematics teachers'
proficiency components. By using this framework, it is expected that an assessment test formathematics teachers in Southeast Asia can be developed in the near future.
Keywords: Mathematics
Framework, TPCK

Teachers,

Teachers

Proficiency

iafor
The International Academic Forumwww.iafor.org

ISSN: 2189-101X

347

Framework,

Assessment

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Introduction
A professional teacher must have specific knowledge and skills to provide high-quality
mathematics teaching and learning in the 21st century. There are at least two knowledge
areas that need to be accomplished by mathematics teachers regarding the content andpedagogy, which will then be conveyed to students. In the teaching and learning practice,content and pedagogical knowledge are two pieces of knowledge that are not mutually
exclusive. For this reason, having knowledge of standalone content and general pedagogicalstrategies was not enough to grasp the knowledge of good teachers.
As we are now living in the digital era, In the digital era, the use of ICT has become prevalent(Chai et al., 2013) and even becomes one of the most critical components in the classroom(Ozudogru & Ozudogru, 2019). Consequently, teachers are intended to master technology,
specifically the technology to be integrated into the learning process. In line with the content
and pedagogical knowledge, technological knowledge must combine with the content andpedagogical in the learning process. Thus, to become ready to facilitate students inmathematics teaching and learning to develop 21st century skills, teachers must keep
evaluating and maintaining their knowledge and skills regarding the content, pedagogy, andtechnology.
The teachers' knowledge and skills need to be improved occasionally to fit the recent issues
suitable for advancing technology, information and global society. Handal et al. (2013)
emphasized the two main reasons teachers' competence in integrating technology in theteaching and learning process needs to be evaluated. First, ensuring the quality of teaching is
as essential as ensuring the students have novel technologies exposure in the classroom.
Second, evaluating the teacher's competence in integrating the technologies into the teaching
and learning process can be a strategic way to provide the appropriate teacher professional
development programs.
There is a need to assess mathematics teachers' knowledge for their sustainable improvement.
Moreover, there are various types of research regarding the assessment of teachers'
knowledge, specifically on TPCK. However, the researches that have done had various focus
areas and different perspectives. Most research used questionnaires or self-report instruments
to measure the TPCK (Handal et al., 2013; Malubay & Daguplo, 2018; Pamuk et al., 2015;
Schmidt et al., 2014). Scherer et al. (2017) also had measured the technology-dimensions in
the Technological, Pedagogical, and Content Knowledge (TPACK) using questionnaires or
self-report. Baier & Kunter (2020) developed a knowledge-based instrument to measure the
TPK on the TPCK model, or it called as using the cognitive perspective to assess theteachers’ TPK. Thus, the researcher teams considered developing the teachers' proficiency
framework, envisioned for sustainable and standardized assessment for primary school
teachers and junior high school mathematics teachers within Southeast Asia (SEA) countries.
Theoretical Framework
No education can exceed the quality of its teachers. This statement indicates that teachers'
competence is essential in the education system. It is supported by the statement of Tican &Deniz (2019) that is teachers should be qualified enough to support the development of 21st
century skills in education. The teachers’ competencies are related to the content, pedagogy
and technology in order to be able to provide a good quality of 21st century learning. In otherwords, to deliver the appropriate 21st century learning competently, a teacher needs to know

ISSN: 2189-101X

348

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

and use technology to be used to teach specific content subjects in a classroom effectively. In
the educational research filed, there is Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge(TPCK) framework to understand the teacher knowledge needed to effectively integratetechnology in teaching and learning (Mishra & Koehler, 2006).
The TPCK framework was then renamed to TPACK to make it easier to remember andrepresented a more integration of technology, pedagogy, and content knowledge (Schmidt etal., 2014). This framework consists of seven components as depicted in the picture below.

Figure 1. TPACK framework from tpack.org
In TPACK framework, there are there basic components – content (C), pedagogy (P),technology (T); its interrelated knowledges - pedagogical content knowledge (PCK),
technological content knowledge (TCK), technological pedagogical knowledge (TPK); andall three interplay knowledge – technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPCK)(Mishra & Koehler, 2006). This framework emphasized more on the complex interrelation
between the components, rather than treated separately on each three basic knowledges forhaving a good teaching.
One of the basic components is content knowledge (CK). Mishra & Koehler (2006) statedthat the content knowledge (CK) was the knowledge of the content that a teacher will convey
to the students. Besides the content knowledge, a teacher must also understand about theways to deliver the teaching and learning processes that involve how students learn, how tomanage the classroom, how to develop lesson plans and how to assess the student. Thisknowledge then is called pedagogical knowledge (PK) (Mishra & Koehler, 2006).
The intersection of content and pedagogy is the Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK). It isargued that it is not good enough for teacher to teach particular subject matter using theknowledge of contents and general pedagogy knowledge (Shulman, 1986). A good teacher
must have a knowledge on how to teach a particular subject. With the same notions with
Shulman, Mishra & Koehler (2006) mentioned that PCK is a specific content knowledge that
focuses on the applicability of the content to be delivered for students.

ISSN: 2189-101X

349

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

PCK as the intersection of content knowledge and pedagogy, Pamuk et al (2015) mentionedthat it is also a specific part of pedagogical knowledge that focus on the teaching strategies
that incorporate appropriate conceptual representations to address learner difficulties andmisconceptions. Further, PCK claimed as teacher competence to foster meaningfulunderstanding on a specific content (Depaepe et al., 2013). Some experts also mentioned that
PCK is not only related to content and teaching, but also knowledge of contents and students(Hill et al., 2008; Marks, 1990) as well as knowledge of curriculum (An et al., 2004; Hill etal., 2008; Lannin et al., 2013). Specifically for mathematics teachers in SEA, SEAMEORECSAM (2013) mentioned that a teacher with professional teaching and learning processincludes the knowledge of mathematical task and discourse; planning for learning processes;
implementing teaching strategies; monitoring, assessment, and evaluation; and reflection ofteaching and learning.
Besides content and pedagogy, in this digital era teachers need to master technology to be
integrated in the mathematics classroom. Mishra & Koehler (2006) defined the Technological
Knowledge (TK) as knowledge about standard technologies, such as a ruler, chalk andblackboard, and more advanced technologies, such as the computer and internet, that involves
the skills to operate software tools such as word processors, spreadsheets, browsers, and email. The nature of TK must be updated since the technology is constantly changing in theshift time.
In line with the content and pedagogical knowledge, the technological knowledge mustcombine with the content and pedagogical in the learning process. Mishra and Koehler(2006) then defined technological content knowledge (TCK) as the knowledge about how
technology and content are reciprocally related. On the other hand, TCK can also be definedas the knowledge and skills to select and use technology to support content or concept (Harris& Hofer, 2009; Koehler et al., 2013; Lux et al., 2011; Pamuk et al., 2015). In the context ofmathematics teachers, SEAMEO RECSAM (2013) also mentioned that a professional
specifically in teaching mathematics, a teacher must have the knowledge of how particulartechnology supports a mathematics concept, and the knowledge of use of ICT to model
context and solve problems.
Mishra and Koehler (2006) also define technological pedagogical knowledge (TPK) as
knowledge of how various technologies are used in teaching and learning settings andknowledge of how teaching might change as the result of using a particular technology. On
the other hand, TPK means the knowledge related to how to integrate technology aboutenhancing the pedagogical practices (Heitink et al., 2017; Lux et al., 2011; Pamuk et al.,2015). Since, pedagogical practices are related to the process to support students' learning,
Sahin (2011) mentions that teachers that have TPK means they have knowledge in using
computer applications to support students' learning.
The intersection between PCK, TCK, and TPK that are defined as TPACK (Technological
Pedagogical Content Knowledge) should be mastered by teachers to be a good teacher incompounding content, pedagogy and technology representing an efficient teaching andlearning process through technology (Handal et al., 2013). Mishra & Koehler (2006)
described in details regarding the TPACK as follows:
TPCK is the basis of good teaching with technology and requires an understanding of
the representation of concepts using technologies; pedagogical techniques that use
technologies in constructive ways to teach content; knowledge of what makes

ISSN: 2189-101X

350

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

concepts difficult or easy to learn and how technology can help redress some of the
problems that students face; knowledge of students’ prior knowledge and theories of
epistemology; and knowledge of how technologies can be used to build on existingknowledge and to develop new epistemologies or strengthen old ones. (p.1029)
By having the TPACK, a teacher will teach a subject matter with the suitable pedagogicalmethods and technologies (Schmidt et al., 2014).
Many researchers had worked on assessing the teachers’ perception of their content,pedagogy and technology understanding. Some of them were using surveys on the TPCK
domain and required a long time study (Schmidt et al., 2014). Furthermore, (Kabakci
Yurdakul et al., 2012) also had developed a TPACK deep scale to gather the information
about blending technology, pedagogy and content knowledge in the teaching and learning
process. However, the TPACK framework consisted of seven components in it. In thisconnection the researchers needed to define which components that could effectively reflect
the mathematics teacher’s proficiency.
Methodology
This research is a part of the project on developing a rigorous region-wide instrument tomeasure mathematics teachers' proficiency in Southeast Asia. This paper will report on themain question: how to develop Mathematics Teachers’ Proficiency Framework for
Sustainable and Standardised Assessment in Southeast Asia (SEA)?
This study used the ADDIE instructional design of which steps are Analysis, Design,
Development, Implementation, and Evaluation. It involved two lecturers, two analysts, andseven researchers during the assessment framework development processes. The process ondeveloping the assessments framework consisted of the following phases:
Analysis
The process of developing the theoretical and methodological assessment frameworks began
using the collaborative inquiry approach aimed to systematically examine the existingteachers’ standards either in international or national level from several resources. This
process administered using the online meeting platform in order to facilitate the experts onmathematics teachers and education from Malaysia, Australia and the Ministry of Education,
Research and Technology of Indonesia to discuss and brainstorms the existing standards ofprofessional mathematics teachers in Southeast Asia.
DesignAfter getting the notions and advisors from the expert on defining the standards ofprofessional mathematics teachers, the research teams were grouped into three teams – TPK
teams, PCK teams, and TCK teams. Each team consisted of three experienced researchers onmathematics education and teacher professional development field to further review theliterature regarding the TPK, TCK, and PCK.
DevelopThe TPK teams, PCK teams, and TCK teams then defined the appropriate indicator and sub
indicator of each domain of teachers’ proficiency. Furthermore, the researcher teams alsocollaboratively defined the most possible and appropriate type of questions that can represent
the evidence of each indicator or sub indicators.

ISSN: 2189-101X

351

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Implementation
The researchers invited the experts from Malaysia and Australia to share the initial draft of
the assessment framework via online meeting platform. The online discussion sessions aimed
to provide the room to describe the work done by the researchers and to confirms the ideas
from the researchers.
Evaluation
Right after the implementation phase, the researcher teams send the initial draft of theassessment framework to validate the construct and get feedback from experts. This phase
involved two experts on mathematics education and teacher professional development fromuniversity and a regional institution.
Result and Discussion
Developing the theoretical and methodological assessment framework
The domain of the assessment framework of mathematics teachers’ proficiency pointed on
the three main domains as depicted in the picture below.

PedagogicalContent
Knowledge(PCK)

Mathematics
Teachers’Proficiency

TechnologicalContent
Knowledge(TCK)

Technological
Pedagogical
Knowledge(TPK)

Figure 2. Mathematics Teachers Proficiency Domains
On the domain of PCK, 9 articles had been reviewed to break down the indicators reflecting
the knowledge of pedagogy and subject matter content. The results are described on thefollowing table.
Table 1. Summary of literature review on PCK
Reference
Definitions
SEARS-MT
Professional teaching and learning standards consist of
1. Mathematical task and discourse(SEAMEO
2. Planning for learning processes
RECSAM, 2013)
3. Implementing teaching strategies
4. Monitoring, assessment, and evaluation
5. Reflection of teaching and learning

ISSN: 2189-101X

352

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Shulman (1987)

An et al. (2004)
Lannin et al.
(2013)
Marks (1990)

Pamuk et al.
(2013)

Shulman (1986)
Depaepe et al.
(2013)
Hill et al. (2008)

Official Conference Proceedings

1. knowledge of learners and their characteristics
2. knowledge of educational context
3. knowledge of educational ends, purposes and values, andtheir philosophical and historical bases.
4. content knowledge
5. general pedagogical knowledge
6. curriculum knowledge
1. knowledge of content
2. knowledge of curriculum
3. knowledge of teaching
1. knowledge of curriculum for math
2. knowledge of instructional strategies for math
3. knowledge of student understanding within mathematics
4. knowledge of assessment for math
1. knowledge of student understanding
2. knowledge of subject matter for instructional purposes.
3. knowledge of media for instruction
4. knowledge of instructional processes
1. Determining the teachability of the content
2. Understanding content related difficulties and easiness
3. Organizing and teaching content according to students’levels and contextual factors.
4. Developing alternative strategies for components ofteaching (i.e.) assessment, classroom management,
motivation, individual differences)
5. Knowledge of teaching methods for different types ofsubject matters
6. Knowledge of representing and formulation of the content
7. Enriching teaching and understanding with examples,
analogies, representations.
1. Knowledge of instructional strategies and representations
2. knowledge of students’ (mis)conceptions
1. common content knowledge
2. specialized content knowledge
3. horizon content knowledge
1. Knowledge of content and students (KCS)
2. knowledge of content and teaching (KCT)
3. knowledge of curriculum

Based on the above literature review result, the indicators for PCK domain were identified on
the following table.
Table 2. General indicators for Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK)
Knowledges
General Indicator
Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK) Knowledge of mathematical task and discourse
Knowledge of instructional strategies
Knowledge of assessment and evaluation
Knowledge of reflection of teaching and learning

ISSN: 2189-101X

353

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Within the Southeast Asia context, there is the SEA-BES Common Core Regional LearningStandards (CCRLS) in Mathematics which provide the mathematics contents strands formathematics activity in primary and junior high school (Mangao et al., 2017)
Table 3. Mathematics Strands based on SEA BES CCRLS in Mathematics
Key Stage
Mathematics Strands
Key Stage 1
Numbers and Operations
covers Grades 1 to 3
Quantity and Measurement
Shapes, Figures and Solids
Pattern & Data Representations
Key Stage 2
Extension of Numbers and Operations
covers Grades 4 to 6
Measurement and Relations
Plane Figures & Space Solids
Data Handling and Graphs
Key Stage 3
Numbers and Algebra
covers Grades 7 to 9
Relations and Functions
Space and Geometry
Statistics and Probability
Since the assessment framework will be implemented for primary and junior high schoolmathematics teachers, then the specific mathematics content will be based on all those three
key stages on table 3.
On the domain of TCK, 5 main articles had been reviewed to break down the indicatorsreflecting the knowledge of content and technology. The results are described on thefollowing table.
Reference

Table 4. Summary of literature review on TCK
Definition

SEARS-MT(SEAMEORECSAM,2013)

a. Knowledge of how particular technology supports amathematics conceptb. Knowledge of use of ICT to model context and solve
problems

Koehler et al.,(2013)

a. Knowledge of the way the subject matter (or the kinds ofrepresentations that can be constructed) can be changed by theapplication of particular technologies.
b. Knowledge of which specific technologies are best suited for
addressing subject-matter learning in their domains.
c. Knowledge of how the content dictates or perhaps evenchanges the technology—or vice versa.
a. Transformation of the content
b. Organization of the content
c. Make unobservable content more explicit (observable)
d. Emerging different perspectives on the content
e. Communicating with particular content
f. Representation of the subject matter with technology
g. Use of technology to support varied representations

Pamuk et al.,(2013)

ISSN: 2189-101X

354

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

h. Use of technology to ensure flexibility navigating acrossrepresentations
i. Data collection and analysis
Harris & Hofer,(2009)Lux et al.,(2011)

a. Knowledge to select technologies to communicate particular
content.
b. Knowledge to use technologies to communicate particular
content.
a. Knowledge to select affordable technology to support thecontent.
b. Knowledge to select appropriate technology based on types ofcontent ideas.
c. Knowledge to improve the quality content representation
using technology

Finally, as for Technological Content Knowledge (TCK), there are two general indicators andsix sub indicators as shown on Table 1.
Table 5. General Indicators for Technological Content Knowledge (TCK)
Knowledges
General Indicator
Technological Content
Knowledge of how particular technology supports a mathematics
Knowledge (TCK)
concept
Knowledge of use of ICT to support mathematical activities
Furthermore, there are six main articles that had been reviewed to define the element of TPK.
The summary of the literature review process is as follows.
Table 6. Summary of literature review on TPK
Reference
Definition
SEARS-MT
Dimension 1: Professional Knowledge(SEAMEO RECSAM,
a. Knowledge of ICT
2013)
Dimension 2: Professional Teaching and Learning Process
a. Planning for Learning Processb. Implementing teaching strategies
c. Monitoring, assessment, and evaluation
d. Reflection of teaching and learning
Indicator
a. Knowledge of motivational and engagement levels ofstudents for learning mathematics
b. Knowledge of strategies for supporting creativity andinnovationc. Knowledge of strategies for developing students' higher
order thinking skills in mathematics

ISSN: 2189-101X

355

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedingsd. Knowledge for making complex relations between
representations of core topics
e. Knowledge of ICT integration in teaching and learning1234
f. Knowledge of how to use ICT to model context and solve
problems
g. Engage and enrich students in mathematical thinking
through discourse
h. Communicate thinking through various means ofrepresentation and reasoningi. Plan for an effective and safe learning environment to caterto the diversity of all students
j. Use of effective communication and promotion ofclassroom discussion
k. Develop and use a range of appropriate assessment tasks
and strategiesl. Analyze students’ learning through assessment
AustralianProfessional standards
for teachers (Dyson etal., 2018)a. Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of strategies fordifferentiating teaching to meet the specific learning needsof students across the full range of abilities.
b. Implement teaching strategies for using ICT to expand
curriculum learning opportunities for students.
c. Demonstrate knowledge of a range of resources, including
ICT, that engage students in their learning.
d. Demonstrate an understanding of the relevant issues andthe strategies available to support the safe, responsible andethical use of ICT in learning and teaching.
e. Demonstrate an understanding of the purpose of providing
timely and appropriate feedback to students about theirlearning.

Koh & Sing (2011)a. Knowledge of how to use technology to construct different
forms of knowledge
b. Knowledge of how to use technology to plan and monitor
students’ learning

Cox (2008)

ISSN: 2189-101X

a. Technological pedagogical knowledge is an understandingof the application of technology without reference to a
specific content

356

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Lux et al. (2011)

Official Conference Proceedingsa. Knowledge of how to integrate technology into teaching
and learning in order to help students achieve specifics
pedagogical goals and objectives
b. Knowledge to adapt technologies to better support
teaching and learningc. Knowledge to reconfigure technology and apply it to meet
instructional needs

Pamuk et al.(2015)

a. TPK is knowledge about enhancing pedagogical practices,components (teaching, assessment, motivation etc.) with
the implementation of technology into teaching andlearning activities
b. Knowledge of how to use technologies to assess students’learning
c. Knowledge of how to use technologies to identify
differences among students
d. Knowledge of how to use technology to advance teachingand students’ learninge. Knowledge of how to use technology to bring students’
individual differences (learning preferences, content
background, academic level) into the classroom

In connection to the above literature review on TPK, then it was defined the general indicatorof TPK on this assessment framework as follows.
Table 7. General indicators for Technological Pedagogical Knowledge (TPK)
Knowledges
General Indicator
Technological Pedagogical
Knowledge of how to use ICT to plan for and implement
Knowledge (TPK)
joyful and meaningful teaching and learning
Knowledge of how to use ICT to provide joyful andmeaningful monitoring, assessment and evaluation.
Knowledge of how to use ICT to reflect of teaching andlearning
The assessment framework developed referred to SEARS – MT, which includes standards forteachers in the Southeast Asian region. In addition, for the content components covered by
TCK and PCK, we used The SEAMEO Basic Education Standards (SEA-BES) and theCommon Core Regional Learning Standards (CCRLS) in Mathematics. At SEA BES CCRLS
in Mathematics, standard mathematics learning content has been provided for countries inSoutheast Asia.
Reviewing and finalizing the assessment framework
The framework was reviewed by the two experts from Australia and Malaysia. Each expert
gives reviews on indicators, sub indicators and descriptions on each component of TPK, PCK

ISSN: 2189-101X

357

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

and TCK. The review results on the TCK component mentioned that all content domains arecovered and linked to the applicable technology. The same result goes to the TPK
component. All sub indicators and descriptions covered the technological and pedagogicalknowledge domains. Then, for the PCK component, one reviewer gave the additionalcomment to include the mathematical content to the sub indicators. The feedback has been
followed up by providing the content or mathematics for every sub indicator.
In previous research, many instruments have been developed to measure TCK, PCK, or TPK.
this study adopts a cognitive perspective, meaning that the teacher's attribute can be measured
separately from actual classroom teaching by means of questionnaires or tests (Depaepe etal., 2013). This assessment framework will be then followed up by developing theknowledge-based test as the assessment tools.
Conclusion
After all the phases of the development, it was produced an assessment framework with thetwelve sub-indicators for Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK), six for TechnologicalContent Knowledge (TCK), and ten for Technological Pedagogical Knowledge (TPK), which
cover mathematics teachers' proficiency components. The author plan by using thisframework, it will be carried out the development of an assessment test for mathematics
teachers in Southeast Asia in the near future.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank Ministry of Education, Culture, Research, and Technology
who has funded this research. Furthermore, we would like to express our thanks to ourpartners such as SEAMEO Recsam and Professor Allan L White, who has been the colleagueof the research.

ISSN: 2189-101X

358

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

References
An, S., Kulm, G., & Wu, Z. (2004). The Pedagogical Content Knowledge of Middle School,
Mathematics Teachers in China and the U.S. Journal of Mathematics Teacher
Education, 7(2), 145–172. https://doi.org/10.1023/b:jmte.0000021943.35739.1c
Baier, F., & Kunter, M. (2020). Construction and validation of a test to assess (pre-service)teachers’ technological pedagogical knowledge (TPK). Studies in Educational
Evaluation, 67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.stueduc.2020.100936
Cox, S. (2008). A conceptual analysis of technological pedagogical content knowledge. In
Framework (Issue July).
Depaepe, F., Verschaffel, L., & Kelchtermans, G. (2013). Pedagogical content knowledge: A
systematic review of the way in which the concept has pervaded mathematics
educational research. Teaching and Teacher Education, 34, 12–25.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2013.03.001
Dyson, M., Plunkett, M., & McCluskey, K. (2018). Australian Professional Standards for
Teachers. In Success in Professional Experience.
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108550703.014
Handal, B., Campbell, C., Cavanagh, M., Petocz, P., & Kelly, N. (2013). Technological
Pedagogical Content Knowledge of Secondary Mathematics Teachers. Contemporary
Issues in Technology and Teacher Education, 13(1), 22–40.
http://www.citejournal.org/vol13/iss1/mathematics/article1.cfm
Harris, J., & Hofer, M. (2009). Instructional planning activity types as vehicles for
curriculum-based TPACK development. Research Highlights in Technology andTeacher Education 2009, 2009(2), 99–108.
Heitink, M., Voogt, J., Fisser, P., Verplanken, L., & van Braak, J. (2017). Eliciting teachers’
technological pedagogical knowledge. Australasian Journal of Educational
Technology, 33(3), 96–109. https://doi.org/10.14742/ajet.3505
Hill, H. C., Ball, D. L., & Schilling, S. G. (2008). Unpacking pedagogical content
knowledge: Conceptualizing and measuring teachers’ topic-specific knowledge ofstudents. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 39(4), 372–400.
https://doi.org/10.5951/jresematheduc.39.4.0372
Kabakci Yurdakul, I., Odabasi, H. F., Kilicer, K., Coklar, A. N., Birinci, G., & Kurt, A. A.
(2012). The development, validity and reliability of TPACK-deep: A technologicalpedagogical content knowledge scale. Computers and Education, 58(3), 964–977.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2011.10.012
Koehler, M. J., Mishra, P., & Cain, W. (2013). What is Technological Pedagogical Content
Knowledge (TPACK)? Journal of Education, 193(3), 13–19.
https://doi.org/10.1177/002205741319300303

ISSN: 2189-101X

359

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Koh, J. H. L., & Sing, C. C. (2011). Modeling pre-service teachers’ technologicalpedagogical content knowledge (TPACK) perceptions: The influence of demographic
factors and TPACK constructs. ASCILITE 2011 - The Australasian Society for
Computers in Learning in Tertiary Education.
Lannin, J. K., Webb, M., Chval, K., Arbaugh, F., Hicks, S., Taylor, C., & Bruton, R. (2013).
The development of beginning mathematics teacher pedagogical content knowledge.
Journal of Mathematics Teacher Education, 16(6), 403–426.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10857-013-9244-5
Lux, N., Bangert, A., & Whittier, D. (2011). The development of an instrument to assess
preservice teacher’s technological pedagogical content knowledge. Journal of
Educational Computing Research, 45(4), 415–431. https://doi.org/10.2190/EC.45.4.c
Malubay, J., & Daguplo, M. S. (2018). Characterizing mathematics teachers’ Technological
Pedagogical Content Knowledge. European Journal of Education Studies, 4(1), 199–
219. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.1160586
Mangao, Ahmad, N. J., & Masami, I. (2017). SEAMEO Basic Education (SEA-BES):
Common Core Regional Learning Standards (CCRLS) in Mathematics: A Tool for
Enhancing STEM Education. Publication Unit SEAMEO RECSAM.
https://doi.org/10.2991/incomed-17.2018.33
Marks, R. (1990). Pedagogical Content Knowledge: From a Mathematical Case to a Modified
Conception. Journal of Teacher Education, 41(3), 3–11.
https://doi.org/10.1177/002248719004100302
Mishra, P., & Koehler, M. J. (2006). Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge: A
Framework for Teacher Knowledge. Teachers College Record: The Voice ofScholarship in Education, 108(6), 1017–1054.
https://doi.org/10.1177/016146810610800610
Ozudogru, M., & Ozudogru, F. (2019). Technological pedagogical content knowledge ofmathematics teachers and the effect of demographic variables. Contemporary
Educational Technology, 10(1), 1–24. https://doi.org/10.30935/cet.512515
Pamuk, S., Ergun, M., Cakir, R., Yilmaz, H. B., & Ayas, C. (2015). Exploring relationships
among TPACK components and development of the TPACK instrument. Education
and Information Technologies, 20(2), 241–263. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-0139278-4
Sahin, I. (2011). Development of survey of technological pedagogical and content knowledge(TPACK). Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology, 10(1), 97–105.
Scherer, R., Tondeur, J., & Siddiq, F. (2017). On the quest for validity: Testing the factor
structure and measurement invariance of the technology-dimensions in theTechnological, Pedagogical, and Content Knowledge (TPACK) model. Computers
and Education, 112(May), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2017.04.012

ISSN: 2189-101X

360

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Schmidt, D. A., Thompson, A. D., Koehler, M. J., & Shin, T. S. (2014). CIE 2014 - 44th
International Conference on Computers and Industrial Engineering and IMSS 2014 9th International Symposium on Intelligent Manufacturing and Service Systems, Joint
International Symposium on "The Social Impacts of Developments in Informat. CIE2014 - 44th International Conference on Computers and Industrial Engineering and
IMSS 2014 - 9th International Symposium on Intelligent Manufacturing and Service
Systems, Joint International Symposium on "The Social Impacts of Developments inInformat, 42(2), 2531p.
SEAMEO RECSAM. (2013). Southeast Asia Regional Standards for Mathematics Teachers(SEARS-MT).
Shulman, L. S. (1986). Those Who Understand Knowledge. Educational Researcher, 15(2),4–14.
Shulman, L. S. (1987). Knowledge and teaching: Foundations of the new reform. Harvard
Educational Review, 57, 1–22.
Tican, C., & Deniz, S. (2019). Pre-service teachers’ opinions about the use of 21st century
learner and 21st century teacher skills. European Journal of Educational Research,
8(1), 181–197. https://doi.org/10.12973/eu-jer.8.1.181
Contact email: uki.rahmawati@gmail.com

ISSN: 2189-101X

361

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

ISSN: 2189-101X

362

Official Conference Proceedings

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Assessing ASEAN Students’ Competencies and Readiness in Learning Mathematics
Through MaRWA Diagnostic Test
Wisnuningtyas Wirani, SEAMEO QITEP in Mathematics, Indonesia
Ummy Salmah, SEAMEO QITEP in Mathematics, Indonesia
Bungkus Dias Prasetyo, SEAMEO QITEP in Mathematics, Indonesia
Uki Rahmawati, SEAMEO QITEP in Mathematics, Indonesia
The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023
Official Conference Proceedings
Abstract
MaRWA is a Southeast Asia regional mathematics assessment based on PISA and TIMSS,
initiated by SEAMEO QITEP in Mathematics. This paper aims to determine students’ type ofcorrect and incorrect answers on the assessment. A total of 882 students in grades 5, 8, and
10 from 26 schools in regional wide were involved in this study. For each level of education,
there were 30 mathematics problems, which were classified into 20 multiple choice questions
and 10 essay questions. These items were generally made to determine students’competencies and readiness in learning school mathematics, specifically to measure theirorder of thinking level. There were four types of correct answer and six types of incorrect
answers. The quantitative data is the students’ scores, while the qualitative data is coded
students’ answers. It was found that students’ average scores for the primary to senior highschool levels were in a low category, and most of the participants were struggling to solve
HOTS problems. Moreover, most students in all levels left problems in blank. We foresee
this study can contribute to bridge the students’ HOTS by improving the practice of teaching
and learning throughout Southeast Asia.
Keywords: Mathematics Assessment, Types of Error, Higher Order Thinking Skill,
Mathematics Teaching and Learning, ASEAN

iafor
The International Academic Forumwww.iafor.org

ISSN: 2189-101X

363

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Introduction
Introduction to SEAMEO QITEP in Mathematics
The Southeast Asian Ministers of Education Organization (SEAMEO) is a regional
intergovernmental organisation established in 1965. Its objective is to nurture cooperation
among Southeast Asian countries governments in three areas named education, science, andculture. For education, there are seven priority areas: achieving universal early childhoodcare and education; addressing barriers to inclusion; promoting resilience in the face of
emergencies; promoting technical and vocational education and training; revitalising teacher
education; harmonising higher education and research; and adopting a 21st century
curriculum.
The executive arm of the Council and the centre of SEAMEO organisations is SEAMEO
Secretariat which located in Bangkok, Thailand. Among 26 SEAMEO regional organisations
spread in Southeast Asian countries, three regional centres are categorised in the education
cluster and focused on improving teachers and education personnel quality. One of which is
SEAMEO Regional Centre for Quality Improvement of Teachers and Education Personnel(QITEP) in Mathematics (SEAQiM) which is located in Yogyakarta, Indonesia. Thisinstitution has major goals such as catering for the needs to improve the quality ofmathematics teachers and education personnel in Southeast Asia; promoting sustainable
teacher professional development in the area of mathematics education; establishingextensive networks, information exchange, and best practice sharing in mathematics
education among SEAMEO member countries; and providing intellectual forums onmathematics education innovation (SEAQiM, 2012).
SEAQiM runs many programmes to improve mathematics teachers’ quality throughout
Southeast Asia. It has a flagship programme named regular course with different themes suchas Differentiated Instruction, Lesson Study, Realistic Mathematics Education, STEM
Education, Joyful Learning, Teacher-Made Teaching Aids, and Clinical Supervision. The
regular course usually holds three to four times in a year.
Other than course, SEAQiM also develop an assessment for mathematics learning, especiallyin determining students’ higher order thinking skills (HOTS) in learning mathematics. This
programme is called Mathematics Regional Wide Assessment (MaRWA) and will be
described in the next section.
MaRWA
MaRWA is a Southeast Asia regional assessment which aims at determining students’readiness in learning mathematics. It is a diagnostic test for students across Southeast Asia in
grade 5 (primary level), grade 8 (junior high level), and grade 10 (senior high level). This
programme was established in 2012, considering the importance of regional benchmarking.
Why developing MaRWA? Why do not we just believe the result of other international
assessment such as The Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) or Trends
in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS)? Both PISA and TIMSS areinternational assessments. In PISA, the test items are different to what students usually havein school as the test is not about remembering what students have learned but school, but how
students can use their knowledge for problem solving (Schleicher, 2019). There are critics

ISSN: 2189-101X

364

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

addressed to PISA (Hopmann, 2008; Eivers, 2010; Sjøberg, 2015; Forestier & Adamson,
2017; Zhao, 2020). Some critics are regarding its implementation, statistical analysis,
interpretations, and immense influence on a country’s education. Another critique is on theuse of context for the problems which is incompatible with the culture of the country-testtaker as assessing mathematics achievement is related to a country’s educational activities(Lamichhane, 2018). Thus, to ascertain of more valid and constructive results, a country
should develop its own localised assessment, in which its contexts and characteristics is inaccordance with a country’s culture (White, 2017; White, 2018).
Developed items for MaRWA used PISA and TIMSS as the references. However, one ofimportant points is that, MaRWA test items should not duplicate test items on PISA andTIMSS as it is an ASEAN localised assessment. Moreover, this is a diagnostic test, not a test
to rank participants as its result will be used to detect students’ strengths and weaknesses inlearning mathematics. Through the result, MaRWA is expected to help mathematics teachers
in recognising the problems of students learning and provide inputs for teacher education
providers to conduct relevant teacher professional development for mathematics teachers inSoutheast Asia.
Developing MaRWA Items
In 2012, numbers of experts in mathematics assessment from different countries, for instanceAustralia, Japan, Malaysian, and Indonesia, developed MaRWA items for grade 5 and grade
8 in the form of multiple choice, explanation, and short answer. As previously mentioned,
MaRWA items were referring to PISA, in which to assess students’ HOTS. These coveraspects of HOTS such as students’ ability to select relevant information to solve problems, touse different strategies, and to utilise critical thinking and metacognition (OECD, 2021).
After developing these items, a pilot was conducted in 2013 in Indonesia, Vietnam,
Philippines, and Cambodia. It was resulted in items which were readable and had a good
discriminant factor. Then, an extended try-out was employed in 2014 at several schools in
Cambodia, Indonesia, Thailand, Timor Leste, and Vietnam. More items were developed in2016, and on that year the level was added, grade 10 senior high. These items were tested inschools in Indonesia through paper test and online test. From then on, SEAQiM hascommitted to implement the assessment online.
Error Categories
Newman (1977, as cited in Clements, 1980) created five error categories: encoding, processskills, transformation, comprehension, and reading. Problems in MaRWA involves contexts.
Therefore, we used comparation of Newman’s error categories and Blum and Leiss’modelling process (Wijaya, van den Heuvel-Panhuizen, Doorman, & Robitzsch, 2014). It
turned out that the error categories and the coding is in line with the modelling process andmathematisation stages of PISA. To determine students’ error, we used error categories of
Wijaya et al. (2014) which classified the errors into comprehension, transformation,mathematical processing, encoding, and unknown. Compared to Newman’s and Wijaya’s,
who constructed five error categories, we also added an error type in which students left the
problem in blank, did not answer the problem, or gave irrelevant answer. This will be written
in details in Methodology section.

ISSN: 2189-101X

365

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Based on the abovementioned sections, this study aims at examining ASEAN students’competencies in working with mathematics problems of different levels thinking skills
through MaRWA. Therefore, in this study we expect to determine what is the common typeof error and correct students’ answers, especially on HOTS items, in MaRWA.
Methodology
MethodThis study employed case study research design. According to Creswell (2007), case study isa qualitative approach to determine a specific case for periods of time. Moreover, thisresearch design is appropriate for exploring a phenomenon in a real-life context (Yin, 2003).
Mixed method is commonly used in case study research design. Therefore, in this study weanalysed the collected data quantitatively and qualitatively. This paper was focused on
identifying the most common type of errors and correct of students’ answers during MaRWA
2020.
Participants of MaRWA 2020
A total of 882 students in grades 5, 8, and 10 from 26 schools in regional wide were involvedin this study. These 26 schools were located in three countries: Indonesia, Malaysia, andPhilippines. In details, there were 204 students grade 5 from 10 schools in Indonesia,
Malaysia, and Philippines; 169 grade 8 students from nine schools in Indonesia; and 509
grade 10 students from seven schools in Indonesia.
Test Items
For each level of education, there were 30 mathematics problems, which were classified into
20 multiple choice questions and 10 essay questions. These items were generally developed
to determine students’ competencies and readiness in learning school mathematics,
specifically to measure their order of thinking level. Three levels of thinking: higher order
thinking skill (HOTS), middle order thinking skill (MOTS), and lower order thinking skill(LOTS); were embedded in the set of problems. Items of MaRWA covered strands such
numbers, geometry and measurement, algebra, and statistics. In details, the strands and levels
are presented in Table 1.
Table 1: Strands of MaRWA Items for Each Level
Level
Primary

Junior High

Senior HighISSN: 2189-101X

Strands
Numbers and operation
Quantity and measurement
Shapes, figures, and solids
Data handling and statistics
Numbers
AlgebraGeometry
Statistics and probability
AlgebraGeometry
Trigonometry
Statistics and probability

366

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

These items were developed and revised in 2012 and 2016. As MaRWA has been employed
for more than 10 years, these mathematics problems have been tested to more than 200
students in Southeast Asia region on each level.
Test Implementation
The test of MaRWA 2020 was carried out on June to July 2020, it was during COVID-19
pandemic. Moreover, as the budget of MaRWA implementation was limited, we digitalised
the developed test items and uploaded these into a platform named Quia. The platform issuitable for test items in the form of multiple choice and essay. It enables students in writing
their arguments in details.
To take the test, the mathematics teacher registered the school by sending an email tomarwa@qitepinmath.org to set the test date. Before the test, SEAQiM ensured that theinternet connection in the school was stable through confirmation of the mathematics teacher.
Once the date set, SEAQiM shared the test link, it was different links for each school, andstudents will be given 90 minutes to work on the test. During the test, students had to fill in
their names.
Analysing Test Items
The data in this study is students’ answers. As mentioned before, the test items of MaRWA
included multiple choice and essay questions. There were two ways in analysing students’answer. For multiple choice answers, we utilised statistical analysis such as finding out the
maximum, the minimum, and the average score by using Excel. As for essay questions, we
distinguish between correct and incorrect answer. We categorised answers on essay questions
based on classification of correct and incorrect (error) answers as displayed in Table 2 andTable 3. To add, we also utilised statistical analysis to determine percentage of correct andincorrect answers types on essay questions.
Table 2: Correct Types and Codes for Analysing MaRWA Results
Type

CodingStudent only writes the final answers

B0

Student writes incorrect strategy/procedure

B1

Student writes mysterious or undefined
strategy/procedure

B2

Student writes correct strategy/procedure

B3

Table 3: Error Types and Coding Scheme for Analysing MaRWA Results
Error Type

Sub-type

Comprehension

Misunderstanding the
instruction

Student incorrectly interprets
what s(he) is asked to do

Misunderstanding a
keywordStudent misunderstands a
keyword, which is usually amathematical term

ISSN: 2189-101X

Explanation

367

Coding
E1

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Transformation

Mathematical
Processing

ISSN: 2189-101X

Official Conference Proceedings

Error in selecting
information

Students is unable to distinguishbetween relevant andirrelevant information (e.gusing all information
provided in a task orneglecting relevant
information) or is unable togather required information
which is not provided in thetask.

Procedural tendency

Student tends to directly use amathematical procedure suchas formula or algorithm
without analysing whether or
not it is needed.

Taking too muchaccount of thecontext

Student’s answer only refers to
the context or real-world
situation without taking theperspective of themathematics.

Wrong mathematicaloperation/concept

Student uses mathematicalprocedures or concepts which
are not relevant to the tasks.

Treating a graph as a
pictureStudent treats a graph as a literal
picture of a situation. (S)heinterprets and focuses on the
shape of the graph, instead ofon the properties of the graph.

Algebraic error

Error in solving algebraic
expression or function

Arithmetical error

Error in calculation

Error in mathematicalinterpretation of data
representation (e.gchart, graph, etc.)

Student mistakenly focuses on asingle point rather than on aninterval.

Measurement error

Student cannot convert between
standard units (e.g. fromm/minute to km/h) or from a
non-standard unit to a
standard unit (e.g. fromstep/minute to m/minute) androunding errors.

Student does not use the slope ofthe graph but only focuses on
the vertical distance.

368

E2

E3

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Improper use of scaleStudent cannot select and use
the scale properly.

Unfinished answer

Student uses a correct
procedure, but (s)he does notfinish it.
Student is not able to answer the
final answer that is caused by
the previous error in the
problem-solving.

Encoding

UnknownNo
Answer/Invalid
AnswerStudent is unable to correctlyinterpret and validate themathematical solution interms of the real-world
problem. This error isreflected by an impossible or
not realistic answer

E4Type of error could not be
identified due to limited
information from student’s
work.

E5

Students did not answer the
problem or gave irrelevant
answerE6

To determine the category for students’ average score, we used Table 4 to describe.
Table 4: Categories for Students’ Average Score
Category

Average Score

Very high86 – 100High

76 – 85.99

Moderate

60 – 75.99

Low

55 – 59.99

Very low< 54

Results and Discussion
In this section, we will answer the research question “What is the common type of error andcorrect students’ answers, especially on HOTS items, in MaRWA?” based on findings oneach level. To add, we will also present examples of students’ answers based on the level ofstudents thinking skills in three categories: HOTS, MOTS, and LOTS.

ISSN: 2189-101X

369

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Primary Level
From 30 items, there were 8, 14, and 8 questions for HOTS, MOTS, and LOTS, respectively.
In other words, the number for MOTS items is the greatest of all. According to the analysis, it
was found that the students’ average score is very low. Furthermore, compared to otherlevels, primary school average score is the highest among all. The statistical result for
students in primary school is displayed in Table 5.
Table 5: Statistical Data on Primary Level
Statistical Data

Score (maximum of 100)

Maximum

83.33

Minimum

0

Average26.54

To have a deeper comprehension on students’ answer for essay questions which contains
three levels of thinking skills, we ran statistical analysis. Figure 1 shows a pie chart on thepercentage of correct answer types. We found that most students who answered correctly on
essay questions were able to explain in an appropriate strategies or procedures (B3). Based on
the findings, less than 2% of primary students were able to write a correct final answer but
failed to provide appropriate strategies or procedures (B1).

Figure 1: The percentage for each correct answer type on primary levelNot only statistical analysis for correct answer, we also ran for incorrect answer on essay
questions as showed in Figure 2. According to findings, most primary students were unable
to provide answer or they provided invalid answer (E6). Another error type that usuallyoccurred is that students’ strategy could not be identified due to limited explanation (E5).

ISSN: 2189-101X

370

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Figure 2: The percentage for each error type on primary level
According to statistical analysis, the correct and error type for HOTS items is in line withfindings the percentage for correct and error type on essay questions. For HOTS items on
essay questions, most students were fall into error type E6 (43%) and correct type B3(74.4%).
HOTS Items for Primary Level
Figure 3 illustrates the percentage of students’ answer for HOTS items. More than 70% of
students on primary level were unable to answer correctly for all HOTS items. These top
three items: question 3, question 17, and question 29, were HOTS items with the highest
unsolved percentage of all.

Figure 3: The percentage of primary students’ answer for HOTS items
To illustrate, we provide question 29 and samples of students’ answer in Figure 4.

ISSN: 2189-101X

371

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Figure 4: A sample of HOTS item for primary level, question 29
Samples of students’ error:• 18×17×36×8×8×15=4.700.160 (E1)
• 8×17×36 = 4896
8×15×36 = 4320
4896 – 4320 =576 (E1)
These two samples are illustrating the error type of comprehending the problem (E1). The
problem is asking for amount of water that is thrown out of the container when it is tilted.
However, the first sample provides us an information that the student was unable to use
information to solve the problem. Rather than determining the volume of a prism thensubtracting it with the amount of thrown water, this student multiplied all numbers on thequestion. The student has failed to comprehend in determining the volume of a prism.
As for the second sample, the student has failed to determine the volume of thrown water
when the container is tilted. Rather than determining the volume of triangular prism, based on
the explanation, the student assumed that the height for the tilted container is 15 cm.
Therefore, the second step of the student was multiplying 8, 15, and 36.
Based on Figure 3, less than 10% of primary students were able to work on the problem
correctly. We provide a sample of students’ correct answer.
Sample of students’ correct answer.
V container = 36cm×17cm×8cm=4896cm3
V tilted = ½×8cm×8cm×15cm=480cm3
Thus, the thrown water is=480cm3 (B3)
The correct answer sample is illustrating that the student came up with the correct answer andable to solve the problem with correct strategies or procedures.
Junior High Level
From 30 items, there were 8, 14, and 8 questions for HOTS, MOTS, and LOTS, respectively.
In other words, the number for MOTS items is the greatest of all. According to the analysis, it
was found that the students’ average score is very low. To add, the maximum score for junior

ISSN: 2189-101X

372

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

high level is lower than the maximum score on primary level. The statistical result for
students in junior high school is displayed in Table 6.
Table 6: Statistical Data on Junior High Level
Statistical Data

Score (maximum of 100)

Maximum

73.33

Minimum

0

Average

30.85

Figure 5 presents a pie chart on the percentage of correct answer types. We found that most
students who answered correctly on essay questions were able to explain in an appropriate
strategies or procedures (B3). Based on the findings, the number of students who were able todetermine the correct final answer but the strategies could not be identified as these were
mysterious or undefined (B2), was at the very least. There is a slight difference amongcorrect type B0, B1, and B2 compared to correct type B3.

Figure 5: The percentage for each correct answer type on junior high level
As for the incorrect answers, we also determined its type of error illustrated by Figure 6.
According to findings, most junior high students were unable to provide answer or they
provided invalid answer (E6). Another error type that usually occurred is that students’strategy could not be identified due to limited explanation (E5). The very least type of error
occurred was encoding (E4).

Figure 6: The percentage for each error type on junior high level

ISSN: 2189-101X

373

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

According to statistical analysis, the correct and error type for HOTS items is in line withfindings the percentage for correct and error type on essay questions. For HOTS items on
essay questions, most students were fall into error type E6 (42.8%) and correct type B3(86.8%).
HOTS Items for Junior High Level
Figure 7 illustrates the percentage of students’ answer for HOTS items. For question 23, noneof junior high students were able to answer the problem. In addition, there are two items,
following question 23, which is more than 90% of students failed to answer, those arequestion 22 and question 30. Compared to primary school HOTS essay questions, there is
one HOTS item in junior high level which can be solved by more than a half of students
grade 8 in MaRWA test, that is question 25.

Figure 7: The percentage of junior high students’ answer for HOTS items
To illustrate, we provide question 30 and samples of students’ answer in Figure 8.

Figure 8: A sample of HOTS item for junior high level, question 30
Samples of students’ error:• Moving 3 units to the left means the x becomes -1 (E1)
• Because it intersects both (E5)

ISSN: 2189-101X

374

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Above are two samples of error answers in different types. For the first sample, we generatethat the student was failed to comprehend information provided in the problem (E1) as it
simply determined the intersection between g(x) and x axis. This student was probably notaware that translating a line affects the line equation. For the second error sample, the student
has failed to provide clearer information in solving the problem (E5). Indeed, the first line
and the translated line intersect both x axis and y axis. However, this student wrote a limited
explanation which could not be comprehend.
two samples are illustrating the error type of comprehending the problem (E1). The problem
is asking for amount of water that is thrown out of the container when it is tilted. However,the first sample provides us an information that the student was unable to use information tosolve the problem. Rather than determining the volume of a prism then subtracting it with theamount of thrown water, this student multiplied all numbers on the question. The student has
failed to comprehend in determining the volume of a prism.
As for the second sample, the student has failed to determine the volume of thrown water
when the container is tilted. Rather than determining the volume of triangular prism, based on
the explanation, the student assumed that the height for the tilted container is 15 cm.
Therefore, the second step of the student was multiplying 8, 15, and 36.
Based on Figure 7, less than 1% of junior high students were able to answer the problem
correctly. In other words, there was only one correct answer among all. Here, we provide theonly correct answer for question 30 MaRWA 2020.
Sample of students’ correct answer.
gy will pass through -1,0 and -3,-4 = a line equation which passes through these points
are y=2x+2 (B3)
The correct answer sample is depicting the student’s ability in comprehending information onquestion 30. The student translated the line and it knew that when the line moved three units
to the left, it intersects point (-1,0) and (-3,-4). Even though, it did not provide the process on
determining the line equation, the student knew that a line equation which passes through thetwo points is y=2x+2, which is the correct answer (B3).
Senior High Level
Similar to the other two levels, among 30 items on senior high level, there were 8, 14, and 8
questions for HOTS, MOTS, and LOTS, respectively. In other words, the number for MOTS
items is the greatest of all. According to the analysis, it was found that the students’ averagescore is very low. In addition, the average score in senior high level is the lowest among all.
The statistical result for students in senior high school is displayed in Table 7.
Table 7: Statistical Data on Senior High Level
Statistical Data

ISSN: 2189-101X

Score (maximum of 100)

Maximum

66.67

Minimum

0

Average

24.52

375

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Figure 9 displays a pie chart on the percentage of correct answer types. According to theanalysis, most students who answered correctly on essay questions were able to explain in an
appropriate strategies or procedures (B3). Based on the findings, the number of students who
were able to determine the correct final answer but provided incorrect strategies (B1), was atthe very least. This is similar to the occurrence in junior high level. Compared to other levels,the percentage of students in senior high, who only wrote correct answer without providing
any detailed explanation (B0), is the highest.

Figure 9: The percentage for each correct answer type on senior high level
According to findings on incorrect answers as displayed in Figure 10, most senior highstudents were unable to provide answer or they provided invalid answer (E6). It turns out thaterror type E6 is the most happening on three levels. Another error types that usually occurred
are comprehension type (E1) and unknown type (E5). Encoding error type (E4) appears theleast on all levels.

Figure 10: The percentage for each error type on senior high level
According to statistical analysis, the correct and error type for HOTS items is in line withfindings the percentage for correct and error type on essay questions. For HOTS items on
essay questions, most students were fall into error type E6 (38.9%) and correct type B3 (53.1%).

ISSN: 2189-101X

376

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

HOTS Items Senior High Level
Figure 11 illustrates the percentage of students’ answer for HOTS items. Answers for all
HOTS items are mostly incorrect. It is similar to the finding on the primary level HOTS
items. In specific, more than 70% of senior high students answered incorrectly for all HOTS
items. Question 29 got the highest incorrect answer percentage among others, followed byquestion 27.

Figure 11: The percentage of senior high students’ answer for HOTS items
To illustrate, we provide question 30 and samples of students’ answer in Figure 12.

Figure 12: A sample of HOTS item for senior high level, question 29
Samples of students’ error:• ( 3 -2) (x) = (2)(-4 4) (y) = (0)3x – 2x = 2
x=2-4y + 4y = 0
y = 0 (E2)
• If ( 3 -2) (x) then x+2y is 16 (E5)-4 4 (y)Above are two samples of error answers in different types. For the first sample, the student
was failed to use a proper procedure to solve the problem, which fell into error typetransformation (E2). Rather than working on matrix linear equation system, 3x – 2y = 2 and 4x + 4y = 0, the student directly subtracted the first row to determine the value of x andsubtracted the second row to determine the value of y. In other words, the student was unable
to utilised linear equation system on matrix and just proceeded with the calculation.

ISSN: 2189-101X

377

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

The second student noted down the given information, that is the left side of the linear
equation system. However, the student it was obscure how it came up with 16. As there wasno detailed information, this means that the student fell into type error unknown (E5), in
which error type cannot be identified as the strategy used by the student provided limited
information.
From the three levels, we found that the biggest portion and the most common type ofstudents correct answer for essay questions is B3, while the least type of students correct
answer differs, either B1 or B2. To add, the most occurred common error is E6, followed by
E5 and E1. In contrast, it is rare for error type E4 to happen. Each level has eight HOTS
items. In general, the percentage of incorrect answers for HOTS items is higher. Almost on
all levels, none of correct answer on HOTS items percentage is higher than the incorrect
answer, except for junior high level for question 25.
Conclusion
HOTS is one of parameters to measure students’ ability in using critical thinking during
problem solving and flexibilities to choose a strategy, which also becomes the reflection ofmathematics learning. MaRWA, a diagnostic test assessing students’ readiness in learning
mathematics, found that the average score of students on all levels across Southeast Asia in
2020 was very low. Most students struggled to work on HOTS problems and tended to doerror type E6, in which they left the answer blank or provided invalid final answer without
providing any strategy or reasoning in detail. This can happen when students are not familiar
in utilising their critical thinking skills. This indicates that the mathematics teaching andlearning has not provide rooms for students to use their prior knowledge in solving problems.
To respond to students’ struggles, we encourage teachers to adjust teaching and learning into
students-centred. It is also important to give students an opportunity to have discussion with
their peers. When students having different strategies in working on the problem, the teacher
can facilitate students by asking questions or to bridge one strategy to another to close thegap of conceptual construction. We also would recommend institution which caters teacher
professional development to design a course related to students’ HOTS and more pedagogy
on allowing students to be flexible and open about their ideas.

ISSN: 2189-101X

378

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

References
Clements, M. A. (Ken). (1980). Analyzing Children’s Errors on Written Mathematical Tasks.
Educational Studies in Mathematics, 11, 413–420.
Creswell, J. W. (2007). Qualitative Inquiry and Research Design Choosing Among Five
Approaches. SAGE Publications Inc.
Eivers, E. (2010). PISA: Issues in implementation and interpretation. Irish Journal of
Education, 38, 94–118. https://www.jstor.org/stable/20789130
Forestier, K., & Adamson, B. (2017). A critique of PISA and what Jullien’s plan might offer.
Compare: A Journal of Comparative and International Education, 47(3), 359–373.
https://doi.org/10.1080/03057925.2016.1273095
Hopmann, S. T. (2008). No child, no school, no state left behind: Schooling in the age ofaccountability. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 40(4), 417–456.
https://doi.org/10.1080/00220270801989818
Lamichhane, B. R. (2018). Assessment Practices in Mathematics: Local to Global Contexts.
Saptagandaki Journal, 9(February), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.3126/sj.v9i0.20876
OECD. (2021). Innovation in PISA: Frequently Asked Questions ( FAQs ) What are the PISA
innovative domain assessments? https://www.oecd.org/pisa/innovation/FrequentlyAsked-Questions.pdf
Schleicher, A. (2019). PISA 2018: Insights and Interpretations. In OECD.
SEAQiM. (2012). Working Paper 10: Concept Paper on Mathematics Regional Wide
Assessment.
Sjøberg, S. (2015). PISA and global educational governance - A critique of the project, its
uses and implications. Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science and Technology
Education, 11(1), 111–127. https://doi.org/10.12973/eurasia.2015.1310a
White, A. L. (2017). Mathematics Literacy: An Australian Perspective and Experience.
Southeast Asian Mathematics Education Journal, 7(1), 31–42.
https://doi.org/10.46517/seamej.v7i1.43
White, A. L. (2018). Australian Mathematics Literacy Perspectives: Assessment. Southeast
Asian Mathematics Education Journal, 8(1), 69–82.
https://doi.org/10.46517/seamej.v8i1.65
Wijaya, A., van den Heuvel-Panhuizen, M., Doorman, M., & Robitzsch, A. (2014).
Difficulties in solving context-based PISA mathematics tasks: An analysis of
students’ errors. Mathematics Enthusiast, 11(3), 555–584.
https://doi.org/10.54870/1551-3440.1317
Yin, R. K. (2003). Case Study Research: Design and Methods. SAGE Publications.

ISSN: 2189-101X

379

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Zhao, Y. (2020). Two decades of havoc: A synthesis of criticism against PISA. Journal of
Educational Change, 21(2), 245–266. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10833-019-09367-x
Contact email: tyaswirani@staff.qitepinmath.org

ISSN: 2189-101X

380

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Curriculum Review of the BS Pharmacy Program of a Local University in the NCR,
Philippines: A Mechanism for Quality Assurance
Maria Fay Nenette M. Cariaga, University of Makati, Philippines
Justine Marie A. Ocampo, University of Makati, Philippines
Estela DV Barasi, University of Makati, Philippines
The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023
Official Conference Proceedings
Abstract
The Bachelor of Science in Pharmacy program at a local university in the NCR was officiallyapproved on February 10, 2012 by virtue of the Board Resolution No. 2012-029. Curriculum
enhancements were made in order to align with the thrust of the local university. On
December 2021, the new PSGs for BS Pharmacy program was officially released for
implementation. This study, conducted from March to April 2022, aimed to determine
students’ level of achievement of the PLOs; strengths, limitations, recommendations and over
all impressions on the program; evolved themes based qualitative responses, serving as bases
for creating an action plan. Sequential, mixed-method approach was used: review of
documents, online survey (Aquino, et al., 2018) and FGDs. Through purposive andconvenience sampling, thirty-six (36) Levels 3 and 4 students were administered with the
instrument. FGDs with students (N=55), alumni (N=6), faculty members (N=8) and industry
partners (N=4) were also conducted. Results show that students’ strengths are along PLO1B(3.53, SD.136 & 3.50, SD .074), Store and dispense drugs following appropriate guidelines;
and PLO5 (3.4630 SD .13436 & 3.4040 SD.13968), Provide pharmaceutical care including
counseling on medicinal use, medication error and medication safety. However, they need to
improve on PLO 1A (3.0574, SD.188 & 3.1289 SD .239) Identify, compound, andmanufacture of drugs. Three (3) main themes were difficulty or rigor of the program, best
features, and opportunities for continuous improvement. Timely curriculum review is pivotal
in the quality assurance of education.
Keywords: Curriculum Review, BS Pharmacy Program, Outcomes-Based, Continuous
Quality Improvement

iafor
The International Academic Forumwww.iafor.org

ISSN: 2189-101X

381

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Introduction
In June 2012, the local university started offering Bachelor of Science in Pharmacy with its
unique incorporation of the Associate of Applied Science in Pharmacy Technology, andembedded enhancements in Pharmaceutical Management, marketing, and entrepreneurship.
The program followed the CMO No. 3 s of 2006 or the policies, standards, and guidelines(PSGs) for pharmacy education in the country and the outcomes-based education framework.
In 2018, a provisional curriculum was adopted based on the CMO No. 8 s. 2018 whichallowed HEIs to submit the final new or revised curricula aligned to the new PSGs within thefirst term of AY 2018-2019. On November 5, 2021, CMO No. 25 s 2021, or the new PSGs
for Pharmacy program was officially released.
This research aimed to conduct a review of the existing curriculum as a basis for continuous
quality improvement in preparation for the implementation of the (sample) new curriculum in
the CMO 25 s. 2021 for AY 2022-2023. Through quantitative self-assessment, achievementof program learning outcomes was established by 3rd and 4th-year students during AY 20212022. Qualitative feedback was also gathered from the same students and alumni together
with other stakeholders like faculty members and industry partners.
Methodology
Both quantitative and qualitative approaches (mixed-method, sequential) were used in thisstudy; particularly a review of documents such as the existing and new BS Pharmacy
curriculum of the local university, pertinent course plans, CHED Memorandum Order 5 s.
2021; analysis of the strengths, limitations, recommendations, and overall impression fromfocus group discussions; and online survey using the local university’s Pharmacy program
learning outcomes questionnaire (Aquino, et al., 2018). The informed consent process wasproperly observed. Non-random methods, purposive and convenience sampling were
employed. Currently enrolled levels 3 and 4 students together with the alumni wereadministered with a survey questionnaire. After which, focus group discussions with students(N=55), alumni (N=6), faculty members (N=8), and industry partners (with active MOA)
(N=4) were conducted through a series of virtual meetings conducted from March to April
2022 at the local university of a premiere city in the NCR. Descriptive and inferential
statistics particularly mean ratings, SD and T-test were used to analyze the quantitative data.
Thematic analysis was used to analyze the qualitative data.
Results and Discussion
Program Learning Outcomes Assessment by the Students
The local university’s BS Pharmacy program learning outcomes questionnaire (Aquino, et al.,2018) was administered online to Level 3 and 4 students during the AY 2021-2022. Thirtysix (36) students willingly answered the said tool.
PLO 1A (Identify, compound, and manufacture ofdrugs following appropriate guidelines, standards,
and specifications)

3rd yrmean

4th yr
mean

Mean

SD

1. Determining biological activities of phytochemical 3.05
constituents in PMPs

3.19

3.11

0.68 C

ISSN: 2189-101X

382

Desc

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

2. Applying the appropriate method of extraction andpurification
3. Writing and naming chemical formula of pharm’lagents
4. Classifying inorganic and organic pharmaceuticalagents based on properties and structures
5. Identifying the uses of organic and inorganic
compounds based on structures
6. Categorizing inorganic and organic substances
7. Performing tests for quality and purity ofrepresentative drugs in the official monograph
8. Conducting qualitative methods of analysis foreach of the natural products or constituents.
9 Interpreting the results of the different chemical,
physical and biological methods of drug analysis
10 Formulating pharmaceutical dosage forms basedon the properties, types, and incompatibilities ofsubstances
11 Selecting the most appropriate pharmaceutical aid
and/or, necessity, organic and inorganic compounds
to be used in preparing product formulation
12 Selecting the most appropriate type of water
and/or other appropriate solvents to be used indifferent compounding situations.
13 Synthesizing simple organic and inorganic
compound products.
14 Application of PICS (Pharmaceutical Inspection
Co-operation Scheme) Guidelines and (GoodManufacturing Practice) GMP for ASEAN Countries
in industrial pharmacy practice.
15
Performing
theactualprocedureofextemporaneous compounding of TPNs and paper
tablets, among others.
16 Manufacturing different dosage forms based on
the basic pharmaceutical principles, processes,
methods, and techniques.
17 Evaluating the most appropriate container to be
used for different dosage forms and in considerationof the characteristics of drugs to be prepared
18 Designing the appropriate product packaging
including product container, compatibility, label
format and product insert
19 Labelling the product properly (i.e. legible,
comprehensible and complete).
Grand Mean and SD

Official Conference Proceedings

3.21

3.31

3.26

0.51 C

3.00

3.38

3.17

0.71 C

3.26

3.13

3.20

0.68 C

2.89

3.25

3.06

0.73 HC

3.37
3.11

3.31
3.00

3.34
3.06

0.59 HC
0.64 C

2.79

2.81

2.80

0.76 C

2.95

3.06

3.00

0.69 C

3.11

3.13

3.11

0.72 C

3.00

3.19

3.09

0.66 C

3.21

3.06

3.14

0.69 C

3.05

3.06

3.06

0.76 C

2.63

2.94

2.77

0.91 C

2.89

2.56

2.74

0.85 C

2.89

2.88

2.89

0.96 C

3.26

3.13

3.20

0.76 C

3.21

3.50

3.34

0.68 HC

3.21

3.56

3.37

0.77 HC

3.06

3.13

3.09

C

Legend: 3.25-4.00 highly capable (HC), 2.50-3.24 capable (C), 1.75-2.49 somewhat capable (SC), 1.00 -1.74not capable (NC)

Table 1. Overall Mean and SD for PLO1A learning outcomes

ISSN: 2189-101X

383

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Out of the 19 learning outcomes in PLO1A, students assessed themselves as highly capable
only in 4 learning outcomes, to wit: Labelling the product properly (i.e., legible,
comprehensible and complete) (3.37, 0.77); categorizing inorganic and organic substances(3.34 .59); designing the appropriate product packaging including product container,
compatibility, label format and product insert (3.34, 0.68); and identifying the uses oforganic and inorganic compounds based on structures (3.06, 0.73). The compounding of
medications is a fundamental part of pharmacy practice. Pharmacists are responsible inensuring that dispensed products are of correct identity, pure, of proper strength and arelabeled accurately and appropriately for the end user (ASHP Guidelines on Compounding
Sterile Preparations, 2022).
The learning outcomes with the lowest mean ratings came out to be the following:
Performing the actual procedure of extemporaneous compounding of TPNs and paper
tablets, among others (2.74, 0.85), followed by the Application of PICS (Pharmaceutical
Inspection Co-operation Scheme) Guidelines and (Good Manufacturing Practice) GMP for
ASEAN Countries in industrial pharmacy practice (2.77, 0.91), and Manufacturing different
dosage forms based on the basic pharmaceutical principles, processes, methods, andtechniques (2.89, 0.96).
Based on the results, students need to enhance their competencies in extemporaneouscompounding, bulk compounding, and the production of pharmaceutical products inaccordance with GMP. These competencies are emphasized during laboratory classes andexperiential pharmacy practice in Pharmaceutical Manufacturing, which, due to thepandemic, were delivered using remote online learning.
PLO 1B (Store and dispense drugs following
appropriate guidelines, standards, andspecifications)
1. Demonstrating proper handling and storage
conditions to ensure stability of the products.
2. Receiving the prescriptions for drugs
properly (e.g., cross-checking the name andidentity of the patient on the prescription)
3. Asking proper screening questions before
dispensing.
4. Assessing the authenticity and validity of theprescription, assessing the accuracy of
information in the prescription, and not fillingthe violative and impossible prescriptions.
5. Rechecking the original label of the productagainst the prescription.
6. Indicating number and date on theprescription accordingly (if completely filled or
partially filled).
7. Issuing medicine to the patient with clear
instructions and advice (e.g Proper
reconstitution of powders/granules.)

ISSN: 2189-101X

384

3rd yrmean

4th yr
mean

Mean

SD

desc

3.32

3.38

3.34

0.76

HC

3.58

3.50

3.54

0.66

HC

3.37

3.50

3.43

0.70

HC

3.68

3.56

3.63

0.60

HC

3.42

3.44

3.43

0.65

HC

3.63

3.63

3.63

0.49

HC

3.58

3.50

3.54

0.56

HC

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

8. Using consistent and repeated gooddispensing procedures in ensuring that errors
are detected and corrected
Grand Mean and SD

Official Conference Proceedings

3.63

3.50

3.57

5.53

3.50

3.51

0.56

HC
HC

Legend: 3.25-4.00 highly capable (HC), 2.50-3.24 capable (C), 1.75-2.49 somewhat capable (SC), 1.00 -1.74not capable (NC)

Table 2. Overall Mean and SD for PLO1B learning outcomes
It is gleaned from the table that students assessed themselves as highly capable in all of thelearning outcomes of PLO1B with the following in the top 3: Indicating the number and dateon the prescription accordingly (if completely filled or partially filled) (3.63, 0.49); Assessing
the authenticity and validity of the prescription, assessing the accuracy of the information in
the prescription, and not filling the violative and impossible prescriptions (3.63, 0.60); andusing consistent and repeated good dispensing procedures in ensuring that errors aredetected and corrected (3.57, 0.56). On receiving a prescription, it should be screened andvalidated by the pharmacist to ensure that it is for the correct patient and it complies with therequirements. Adherence to good dispensing procedures is integral in ensuring that medicines
are dispensed correctly. Any error which may occur during the dispensing process should be
detected and rectified before medicines are handed to the patient or caregiver (Guide to Good
dispensing practice, 2016). Patient counseling being the last point of contact between thepatient, pharmacist, and medication in the dispensing process is by far the most important
strategy that every pharmacist must adopt in order to minimize dispensing errors. In addition,
reporting errors as they occur and when they occur will help in learning from the mistakes
and ultimately prevent such errors in the future (Ismail, 2020; and Aquino et. al., 2019).
PLO 2A (Practice pharmacy in accordancewith existing laws, legal and regulatory
standards)

3rd yrmean

1 Complying with the laws, regulations,
3.53
and ethical responsibilities of pharmacists
to protect and ensure the well-being of
their patients.
2 Continuing professional knowledge of
3.21
regulatory policies and laws by keeping
abreast of current regulations.
3 Being involved in the planning and
3.16
implementation of establishing practical,
technical, ethical, and regulatory policies
within the organization
4 Providing all necessary information
3.05
regarding the Substandard and Falsified
Medical Products to support applications or
submission
5 Reporting and handling Adverse Events 3.05
(AEs), Adverse Drug Reactions (ADRs),
and Substandard and Falsified (SF)medical

ISSN: 2189-101X

385

4th yr
mean

Mean

3.44

3.49

0.66

HC

3.50

3.34

0.68

HC

3.19

3.17

0.92

C

3.19

3.11

0.87

C

3.50

3.26

0.89

HC

SD

Desc

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

6 Evaluating Adverse Events/Adverse
2.84
Drug Reactions and Salesforce (SF) reports
and submission of findings to regulatory
authorities
7 Illuminating the role of Pharmacist in
3.05
Post-marketing Surveillance and Risk
management Plan
8 Engaging stakeholders to participate in
3.11
the reporting and managing of Adverse
Effects/Adverse Drug
9 Handling product complaints and3.11
product integrity issues.
10 Sampling randomly from drug outlets
3.11
which are needed for quality testing
11 Recalling products from the market in
3.05
accordance with organizational andregulatory policies and procedures
12 Communicating the recall with
2.68
regulatory authorities.
13 Ensuring that the organizational
2.89
policies and procedures implemented by
the company are documented properly.
14 Ensuring that the manufacturing and
2.79
quality controls conform consistently tothe specifications documented in theregistration file
15 Obtaining documents required to ensure 3.11
compliance of business operations
16 Enacting the laws relevant to the
3.16
pharmacy practice into day-to-day
activities.
Grand Mean and SD
3.06

Official Conference Proceedings

3.44

3.11

0.90

HC

3.50

3.26

0.82

HC

3.31

3.20

0.83

C

3.25

3.17

0.92

HC

3.00

3.06

0.87

C

3.19

3.11

0.87

C

3.19

2.91

0.98

C

3.44

3.14

0.88

C

3.38

3.06

0.84

C

3.44

3.26

0.78

C

3.31

3.23

0.81

C

3.33

3.18

C

Legend: 3.25-4.00 highly capable (HC), 2.50-3.24 capable (C), 1.75-2.49 somewhat capable (SC), 1.00 -1.74not capable (NC)

Table 3. Overall Mean and SD for PLO2A learning outcomes
Out of the 16 learning outcomes in PLO2A, students assessed themselves as highly capablein 6 learning outcomes, top 3 is as follows: Complying with the laws, regulations and ethicalresponsibilities of pharmacists to protect and ensure the well-being of their patients. (3.49,
0.66); Continuing professional knowledge of regulatory policies and laws by keeping abreastof current regulations. (3.34, 0.68); Obtaining documents required to ensure compliance withbusiness operations (3.26, 0.78); Reporting and handling Adverse Events (AEs), Adverse
Drug Reactions (ADRs), and Substandard and Falsified (SF) medicines (3.26, 0.89). These
indicators fall under the course, Legal Pharmacy and Ethics with Regulatory Pharmacy.
An essential part of medication therapy is to ensure that patients are receiving the intended
effects of the medication they are taking and are not experiencing any undesired side effects,
which are also known as adverse events. Pharmacists in a clinical setting could access patient
information that allows them to monitor and report adverse events when it occurs while in the

ISSN: 2189-101X

386

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

community setting, the pharmacist may notice a potential adverse event while counseling orinteracting with patients (Aquino et.al., 2019; and Viswanathan et.al., 2014).
The learning outcomes with the lowest mean ratings came out to be the following:
Communicating the recall with regulatory authorities (2.91, 0.98); Ensuring that the
manufacturing and quality controls conform consistently to the specifications documented in
the registration file (3.06, 0.84); and Sampling randomly from drug outlets which are neededfor quality testing (3.06, 0.87). Pharmaceutical regulations are the combination of legal,
administrative, and technical measures that governments take to ensure the quality, safety,
and efficacy of medicines (Pharmaceuticals Regulation EU Drug Discovery anddevelopment, 2013). Students need to enhance their competence in aspects that pertain to theregulatory pharmacy in the Experiential Pharmacy Practice (EPP), preferably in the hybrid orin-person mode, as this is taken up only as one of the topics in the 4 unit-course,
Pharmaceutical Manufacturing. Further, these indicators can be strengthened through inperson, onsite experiential pharmacy practice experience.
PLO 2B (Practice pharmacy in accordance withethical and moral standards)

3rd yrmean

4th yr
mean

Mean

SD

Desc

1 Enacting the code of ethics for pharmacists
relevant to the pharmacy practice into day-today activities.
2 Applying knowledge of personal, social,
ethical and moral principles of the pharmacy
practice
3 Practicing what a Filipino pharmacist took
oath to do in concordance with ethics andmorality.
4 Working ethically and effectively in thepractice areas of pharmacy Engaging in lifelong
learning with a passion to keep current withnational and global developments in general
and with pharmacy and health developments.
5 Engaging in lifelong learning with a passion
to keep current with national and global
developments in general and with pharmacy
and health developments.
Grand Mean and SD

3.16

3.31

3.23

0.65

C

3.37

3.44

3.40

0.65

HC

3.32

3.44

3.37

0.65

HC

3.37

3.31

3.34

0.64

HC

3.42

3.31

3.37

0.60

HC

3.33

3.36

3.34

HC

Legend: 3.25-4.00 highly capable (HC), 2.50-3.24 capable (C), 1.75-2.49 somewhat capable (SC), 1.00 -1.74not capable (NC)

Table 4. Overall Mean and SD for PLO2B learning outcomesStudents assessed themselves as capable in 1 out of 5 learning outcomes: Enacting the codeof ethics for pharmacists relevant to the pharmacy practice (3.23, 0.65). They assessed
themselves as highly capable in the other 4 indicators, highest of which is the learning
outcome: Applying knowledge of personal, social, ethical and moral principles of thepharmacy practice (3.40, 0.65). Students have a firm grasp of the practice of pharmacy inaccordance with ethical and moral standards. They embody the principles that form thefundamental basis of their roles and responsibilities which are based on moral obligations andvirtues as specified in the Philippine Pharmacists Association Code of Ethics for Pharmacists.

ISSN: 2189-101X

387

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

These principles based on moral obligations and virtues are established to guide pharmacists
in their relationship with their patients, other health professionals, and society (Aquino et. al.,2019; American Pharmacist Association, 2018; and Maitreemit et al., 2008).
PLO 3 (Collaborate and communicate
effectively with other members of the HCteam in safeguarding the overall health andwellness of the individuals and thecommunity in general)

3rd yrmean

1 Actively participating in the functions andadhering to policies of the Pharmacy andTherapeutics Committee (PTC).
2 Applying knowledge of the roles andresponsibilities of other healthcare teammembers to patient care
3 Developing a good network and readily
approaching peers, co-workers and/or
superior for assistance as necessary.
4 Collaborating with other members of thehealth care team to achieve optimal patient
outcomes across the continuum of care
5 Communicating effectively in counseling
patients and/or the patient’s caregiver about
the patient’s medication following the correct
process
6 Contributing to the development of a healthvigilance system within the organization
7 Communicating to the regulatory
authorities, any changes in the formulations,manufacturing process, testing procedure,and supplier of raw materials and otherpertinent details of a registered product.
Grand Mean and SD

4th yr
mean

Mean

SD

Desc

3.05

3.00

3.03

0.86

C

3.58

3.25

3.43

0.65

HC

3.47

3.31

3.40

0.55

HC

3.68

3.19

3.46

0.66

HC

3.68

3.44

3.57

0.56

HC

3.11

3.38

3.23

0.88

C

2.84

3.25

3.03

0.92

C

3.49

3.24

3.38

HC

Legend: 3.25-4.00 highly capable (HC), 2.50-3.24 capable ©, 1.75-2.49 somewhat capable (SC), 1.00 -1.74-not
capable (NC)

Table 5. Overall Mean and SD for PLO3 learning outcomesStudents rated themselves as highly capable in 4 out of 7 learning outcomes. Top 2 are as
follows: Communicating effectively in counseling patients and/or the patient’s caregiver
about the patient’s medication following the correct process (3.57, 0.56); and collaboratingwith other members of the health care team to achieve optimal patient outcomes across thecontinuum of care (3.46, 0.66). In addition to professional courses, every semester, theCollege conducts activities like Grand case presentation and OBE Fair where students fromPharmacy, Nursing, and Radiologic Technology collaborate to accomplish a given clinicalcase. An interdisciplinary healthcare approach can improve patient outcomes, healthcare
processes, and levels of satisfaction. Further, effective open-ended questioning and active
listening are essential skills for gathering and relaying information to patients (Aquino et. al.
2019).

ISSN: 2189-101X

388

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

The lowest mean ratings are with the following learning outcomes: Actively participating in
the functions and adhering to policies of the Pharmacy and Therapeutics Committee (PTC).
3.03 0.86; Communicating to the regulatory authorities, any changes in the formulations,manufacturing process, testing procedure, and supplier of raw materials and other pertinentdetails of a registered product. 3.03, 0.92; Contributing to the development of a healthvigilance system within the organization 3.23, 0.88. These indicators include specific roles ofpharmacists that can be fully acquired by students through in-person, onsite, and supervised
experiential pharmacy practice.
PLO 4 (Provide relevant drug and health-related
information to patients)
1 Interpreting laboratory test and physicalassessment results.
2 Evaluating the patient’s need to identify theamount of education and type of informationneeded to optimize his/her medication use
3 Relating various physiologic andpathophysiologic conditions of normal andspecial populations to effects in pharmacokinetics
of drugs
4 Identifying problems arising fromabnormalities in of endocrine functions
5 Describe risk factors for hypertension and theimpact on cardiovascular diseases/conditions
such as angina, arrhythmia and congestive heart
failure6 Designing and documenting accurately amedication counseling plan to address the needsof individual patients and a monitoring plan
towards the desired therapeutic outcomes
7 Providing an appropriate drug information
based on prescription to achieve the goal oftreating the infectious disease.
8 Providing usable information topatients/customers relating to natural products
which are used as ingredients of herbal
supplement
9 Identifying and prioritizing patient problems
and medication-related needs.
Grand Mean and SD

3rd yrmean

4th yr
mean

Mean

SD

Desc

3.37

3.31

3.34

0.59

HC

3.47

3.38

3.43

0.65

HC

3.26

3.25

3.26

0.70

HC

3.16

3.00

3.09

0.70

C

3.53

3.44

3.49

0.51

HC

3.47

3.31

3.40

0.60

HC

3.42

3.31

3.37

0.73

HC

3.37

3.56

3.46

0.61

HC

3.16

3.25

3.20

0.63

C

3.36

3.31

3.34

HC

Legend: 3.25-4.00 highly capable (HC), 2.50-3.24 capable ©, 1.75-2.49 somewhat capable (SC), 1.00 -1.74-not
capable (NC)

Table 6. Overall Mean and SD for PLO4 learning outcomesStudents rated themselves as highly capable in 7 out of 9 learning outcomes. The top 3 are as
follows: Providing usable information to patients/customers relating to natural products
which are used as ingredients of herbal supplements (3.46, 0.61); Describe risk factors for
hypertension and the impact on cardiovascular diseases/conditions such as angina, arrhythmia

ISSN: 2189-101X

389

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

and congestive heart failure (3.49, 0.51); Evaluating the patient’s need to identify the amountof education and type of information needed to optimize his/her medication use (3.43, 0.65).
These indicators all relate to ensuring patient safety and education which are critical in order
to complete an assessment that will appropriately address all of the patient’s medicationrelated needs. The lowest ratings were found with the following learning outcomes:
Identifying problems arising from abnormalities in of endocrine functions (3.09, 0.70), andIdentifying and prioritizing patient problems and medication-related needs (3.20, 0.63). It is
crucial that student pharmacists are capable of identifying and prioritizing patient problems
and medication-related needs because it is ultimately the healthcare practitioner’s
responsibility to assure that all of the necessary information about the patient is collected andthat the data is accurate. These indicators can be enhanced through pharmacotherapy courses
and patient medication counseling cases (Aquino et. al., 2019; and Armor et.al., 2014).
PLO 5 (Provide pharmaceutical care including
counseling on medicinal use, medication error,
and adverse event prevention – medication
safety)1. Identifying relevant drug interactions based on
pharmacokinetic principles.
2. Probing what the doctor has told him/her about
the drug that has been prescribed.
3. Asking proper relevant screening questions
before dispensing.
4. Providing non-drug related counseling (e.ghealth and wellness maintenance) before
dispensing
5. Preventing relevant drug interactions based on
pharmacokinetic principles
6. Resolving relevant drug interactions based on
pharmacokinetic principles
7. Proposing drug delivery system and routes ofadministration suitable for individualized
therapeutic objectives (including economic
considerations)
8 Evaluating the medication regimen of thepatient.
9 Addressing medication-related problems
10 Suggesting modifications in dosing anddosage regimens, when necessary, in normal andspecial populations and using data from
Therapeutic Drug Monitoring (TDM).
11 Designing dosing regimens in standard andspecial populations including those with alteredphysiologic states and economic considerations.
12. Developing/initiating therapeutic plans
13. Evaluating drug therapy for appropriateness,
effectiveness, safety, adherence, and affordability

ISSN: 2189-101X

390

3rd yrmean

4th yr
mean

Mean

SD

Desc.

3.58

3.44

3.51

0.61

HC

3.47

3.56

3.51

0.56

HC

3.53

3.56

3.54

0.61

HC

3.53

3.50

3.51

0.61

HC

3.68

3.50

3.60

0.50

HC

3.42

3.25

3.34

0.59

HC

3.37

3.25

3.31

0.63

HC

3.63

3.56

3.60

0.55

HC

3.63
3.42

3.50
3.44

3.57
3.43

0.61
0.61

HC
HC

3.37

3.13

3.26

0.78

HC

3.58
3.42

3.38
3.50

3.49
3.46

0.61
0.61

HC
HC

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

14 Evaluating the evidence-based treatment planfor patients with renal disorders based on race,
concomitant disease, drug adverse effects & druginteractions
15 Evaluating the treatment plan for patients with
GI disorder based on the etiology of ulcer &motility disorders
16 Evaluating the treatment plan for patients with
auto-immune disorders, dermatologic andhematologic disorders.
17 Evaluating the treatment plan for patients withhypertension based on race, concomitant disease,drug adverse effects, & drug interactions
18 Following up and monitoring the outcomes oftherapeutic plans.
19 Strictly follow a proper system ofarrangement of drugs and supplies.
20 Identifying and tagging high alert medicines(HAM) and sound alike, look alike ones
(SALADs).
Grand Mean and SD

Official Conference Proceedings

3.42

3.38

3.40

0.50

HC

3.47

3.13

3.31

0.63

HC

3.26

3.25

3.26

0.70

HC

3.53

3.44

3.49

0.61

HC

3.47

3.44

3.46

0.66

HC

3.37

3.31

3.34

0.76

HC

3.11

3.56

3.31

0.90

HC

3.46

3.40

3.44

HC

Legend: 3.25-4.00 highly capable (HC), 2.50-3.24 capable (C), 1.75-2.49 somewhat capable (SC), 1.00 -1.74not capable (NC)

Table 7. Overall Mean and SD for PLO5 learning outcomesStudents rated themselves as highly capable along all the 20 learning outcomes of PLO5,
with the following as top 3: Preventing relevant drug interactions based on pharmacokinetic
principles (3.60, 0.5); Evaluating the medication regimen of the patient. (3.60, 0.55);
Addressing medication-related problems (3.57, 0.61). These indicators fall under Dispensing
1 (Dispensing process, reading and interpreting the prescription and other medicine orders)and Dispensing 2 (Medication-Related Problems, Medication Safety, MedicationCounselling, and Other Pharmacy Services) which are the most utilized courses acrossPharmacy practice and are appropriate as it is aligned with the fundamental role of thepharmacists (Ongpoy, et. al., 2019).
PLO 6 (Practice effective management andleadership skills in all given settings or practicesites)
1 Assigning priorities to task in accordancewith goals and objectives to manage efficiently
time and other resources.
2 Properly doing the role of pharmacist inpurchasing and inventory management.
3 Implementing changes to improve own
practice or incorporating learning into practice.
4 Performing the functions of as deemednecessary (e.g planning, leading, organizing
and controlling).

ISSN: 2189-101X

391

3rd yrmean

4th yr
mean

Mean

SD

Desc

3.32

3.44

3.37

0.69

HC

3.21

3.31

3.26

0.70

HC

3.21

3.25

3.23

0.60

C

3.16

3.31

3.23

0.69

C

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

5 Applying the appropriate and suitable
management approaches. (eg. Management by
objectives (MBO), Management by Exemption(MBE), Management by Culture (MBC)
6 Solving conflicts using appropriate resolution
management strategies suitable for thesituation.
7 Identifying, respecting corporate hierarchies
and observing proper channel ofcommunication.
8 Promoting strong team relationships inpractice setting.
9 Understanding training needs anddevelopment.
10 Conducting performance evaluation byusing relevant tools.
11 Levelling expectation by solving, judging
and managing a situation in a given setting orpractice area.
Grand Mean and SD

Official Conference Proceedings

2.32

2.75

2.51

1.01

C

3.16

3.31

3.23

0.73

C

3.26

3.25

3.26

0.70

HC

3.47

3.56

3.51

0.66

HC

3.42

3.63

3.51

0.56

HC

3.32

3.50

3.40

0.55

HC

3.32

3.38

3.34

0.64

HC

3.20

3.34

3.26

HC

Legend: 3.25-4.00 highly capable (HC), 2.50-3.24 capable (C), 1.75-2.49 somewhat capable (SC), 1.00 -1.74not capable (NC)

Table 8. Overall Mean and SD for PLO6 learning outcomesStudents rated themselves as Highly Capable in 7 out of 11 learning outcomes. The top 3 is asfollows: Promoting strong team relationships in the practice setting. (3.51, 0.66)
Understanding training needs and development. (3.51, 0.56), Conducting performance
evaluation by using relevant tools. (3.40, 0.55). The collaboration among health care
professionals is one of the values that is strengthened in the College, activities are done suchas Grand Case Presentation and Skills Fair which involve the student pharmacists, student
nurses, and student radiologic technologists working together as a team to solve a patient case(Aquino et al., 2019). Moreover, the study by Maitreemit et. al. (2008) suggested thatleadership, human relation skills, respect for authority, moral sense, emotion control, creative
thinking, patience, and responsibility, among others, are the important attributes regarding
pharmacists’ character traits.
The lowest ratings were found with the following learning outcomes: Applying theappropriate and suitable management approaches. (e.g., Management by objectives (MBO),Management by Exemption (MBE), Management by Culture (MBC) (2.51, 1.01);
Implementing changes to improve own practice or incorporating learning into practice. (3.23,0.6); Performing the functions of as deemed necessary (e.g., planning, leading, organizing,
and controlling). (3.23, 0.69); Solving conflicts using appropriate resolution management
strategies suitable for the situation. (3.23, 0.73). The results may be attributed to the very few
references available on management and administration based in the Philippine setting. It is
important that the Center further strengthens these indicators because they are one of thecritical processes in the healthcare delivery system. Furthermore, these functions are essential
and must be evident in the managerial role of a pharmacist in the management of humanresources, financial resources, marketing, inventory, information resources, and space
management of the pharmacy (Aquino et. al., 2019; and Kelsch and Werremeyer, 2011).

ISSN: 2189-101X

392

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

PLO 7 (Manage drug establishments based on soundentrepreneurial practice integrating pharmaceuticalcare principles)
1 Performing opportunity assessment with deep
understanding of environment and its opportunities
2 Following the concepts of entrepreneurship as a
spirit frame by understanding dilemmas of anentrepreneur.
3 Performing the concepts of a complete
entrepreneur by understanding holistic attributes ofan entrepreneur and the necessities of being creativeand innovative.
4 Performing the competence of a successful
entrepreneur by understanding the concepts of selfmastery, situational mastery and enterprise mastery.
5 Applying SWOT (Strength, Weaknesses,
Opportunities and Threats) analysis in concordancewith Porter’s analysis.
6 Performing benchmarking by understanding
item/store improvement, basic factors, and creating
position articulations
7 Performing the integration of all entrepreneurial
marketing concepts by demonstrating competence inbusiness appraisal.
8 Utilizing relevant and innovative concepts ofentrepreneurship.
9 Performing the habits (e.g. disciplined, openminded, confident among others) of successful
entrepreneurs.
10 Applying the working knowledge of theprinciples of entrepreneurship to analysis andproblem solving
11 Applying concepts of business plan byunderstanding the concepts and importance ofpharmaceutical business plan.
12 Performing contents of the summary and businessdescription and drafting a business plan.
13 Applying concepts of Pharmaceutical Industry
Analysis by reviewing Porter’s Analysis and PESTE(Political, Economic, Social, Technological andEcological) Analysis
14 Utilizing pharmaceutical entrepreneurshipconcepts on a broader context.
15 Conducting financial analysis to guide allocation
and use of organizational resources.
16 Performing financial analysis of different aspectsof the business.
17 Creating a viable business plan (SMARTER) thatwill increase the pharmaceutical ventures chances ofsuccess

ISSN: 2189-101X

393

Official Conference Proceedings

3rd yrmean

4th yr
mean

Mean

SD

Desc

3.32

3.31

3.31

0.58

HC

3.26

2.94

3.11

0.76

C

3.32

3.19

3.26

0.74

HC

3.21

3.13

3.17

0.66

C

3.63

3.38

3.51

0.61

HC

3.37

3.19

3.29

0.71

HC

3.32

3.19

3.26

0.70

HC

3.26

3.38

3.31

0.63

HC

3.47

3.56

3.51

0.61

HC

3.32

3.44

3.37

0.69

HC

3.37

3.50

3.43

0.65

HC

3.47

3.56

3.51

0.61

HC

3.42

3.00

3.23

0.88

C

3.11

3.25

3.17

0.79

C

3.05

3.25

3.14

0.81

C

3.05

3.25

3.14

0.77

C

3.11

3.31

3.20

0.76

C

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

18 Illustrating and discussing the pharmaceutical
healthcare industry and the health care business in
the Philippines
19 Identifying the core pharmaceutical marketing
concepts.
20 Applying pharmaceutical marketing strategy inbuilding customer relationships by strategicplanning, marketing process and marketing effort
21 Performing pharmaceutical marketing in bothtraditional and non-traditional way.
Grand Mean and SD

Official Conference Proceedings

3.26

3.44

3.34

0.80

HC

3.21

3.31

3.26

0.78

HC

3.21

3.31

3.26

0.89

HC

3.16

3.38

3.26

0.85

HC

3.28

3.30

3.29

HC

Legend: 3.25-4.00 highly capable (HC), 2.50-3.24 capable (C), 1.75-2.49 somewhat capable (SC), 1.00 -1.74not capable (NC)

Table 9. Overall Mean and SD for PLO7 learning outcomesStudents rated themselves as highly capable in 14 out of 21 learning outcomes, top 3 is asfollows: Applying SWOT (Strength, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats) analysis inconcordance with Porter’s analysis. (3.51, 0.61); Performing the habits (e.g., disciplined,
open-minded, confident among others) of successful entrepreneurs. (3.51, 0.61); Performing
contents of the summary and business description and drafting a business plan. (3.51, 0.61).
The local university incorporated enhancements along Pharmacy Administration, Marketing,and Entrepreneurship in order to balance with Pharmaceutical Sciences and Pharmaceutical
Care competencies. This PLO shows that pharmacy students at the university are alreadyexcelling in integrating administration, marketing, and entrepreneurial practice withpharmaceutical care (Aquino, et. al., 2019).
The lowest ratings are found along the following: Following the concepts of entrepreneurshipas a spirit frame by understanding the dilemmas of an entrepreneur (3.11, 0.76); Performing
the competence of a successful entrepreneur by understanding the concepts of self-mastery,situational mastery, and enterprise mastery (3.17, 0.66); Conducting financial analysis toguide allocation and use of organizational resources (3.14, 0.81); Performing a financial
analysis of different aspects of the business (3.14, 0.77). These indicators must be
strengthened in the instructional delivery given that marketing and entrepreneurship areamong the keys to the development of a range of health services in the community andhospital sectors. It is important to note, however, that pharmacy students can only fullyacquire and develop such competencies when they are already exposed to the actual setting.
PLO 8 (Conduct scientific research methods andprocesses for the development of noble drugs
which are pro-Filipino and for the improvement ofexisting drug products and the practice of theprofession itself)
1 Understanding the importance of research in the
different fields of practice of pharmacy.
2 Demonstrating competence in research, technicalwriting and data analysis in the workplace.
3 Writing the different parts of a researchmanuscript.
4 Conducting research in accordance with existing
protocols related to pharmaceutical sciences,education, and practice.

ISSN: 2189-101X

394

3rd yrmean

4th yr
mean

Mean

SD

Desc.

3.21

3.56

3.37

0.84

HC

3.16

3.38

3.26

0.85

HC

3.32

3.44

3.37

0.81

HC

3.11

3.56

3.31

0.87

HC

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

5 Integrating relevant information from literatureand studies or devising methodologies
operationally.
6 Critiquing contents of a published researchmanuscript based on established criteria.
7 Presenting and defending the said research paper
to a technical panel
8 Disseminating the results of the said research at
a level appropriate to the level of capacity of theaudience
Grand Mean and SD

Official Conference Proceedings

3.26

3.44

3.34

0.76

HC

3.21

3.50

3.34

0.84

HC

3.47

3.63

3.54

0.82

HC

3.26

3.44

3.34

0.76

HC

3.25

3.49

3.36

HC

Legend: 3.25-4.00 highly capable (HC), 2.50-3.24 capable (C), 1.75-2.49 somewhat capable (SC), 1.00 -1.74not capable (NC)

Table 10. Overall Mean and SD for PLO8 learning outcomes
As gleaned from the table, students rated themselves as highly capable along all the learning
outcomes of PLO8, with the top 3 as follows: Presenting and defending the said research
paper to a technical panel (3.54, 0.82), Understanding the importance of research in the
different fields of practice of pharmacy. (3.37, 0.84); Writing the different parts of a researchmanuscript. (3.37, 0.81). Pharmacy students obtain a deeper understanding of why research isimportant by conducting researches and presenting and defending these researches totechnical panels in Pharmacy Research Methods with Pharmaceutical Statistics, andPharmacy Research and Thesis Writing. Further, pharmacy students were taught at the onset
how to do research as part of their task assessments in courses such as Pharmaceutical Botany
with Taxonomy, Pharmaceutical Pharmacognosy and Plant Chemistry, Pharmaceutical
Inorganic Chemistry, Drug Delivery Systems, Pharmaceutical Microbiology, andParasitology, among others. According to Deal et. al. (2016), regardless of the practicesetting, it is imperative that pharmacists be able to participate in generating new knowledge
or use the ever-expanding body of literature and studies to guide patient care, and by adopting
and establishing an evidence-based practice.
PLO 9 (Contribute to the enhancement ofoverall social, mental, emotional, and physicalhealth of individuals, communities, and thecountry as a whole)
1 Understanding and contributing to existing
policies, laws, interventions and programs that
address public health issues
2 Appreciating the roles of pharmacists in acollaborative health care setting in addressing
public health issues.
3 Applying concepts, methods, strategies,
interventions addressing Public Health issues
and concerns.
4 Providing appropriate pharmaceutical careservices to the patient and the community (e.g.,patient counseling, medication review andmedication reconciliation, among others).

ISSN: 2189-101X

395

3rd yrmean

4th yr
mean

Mean

SD

Desc

3.26

3.31

3.29

0.75

HC

3.32

3.44

3.37

0.73

HC

3.32

3.44

3.37

0.73

HC

3.37

3.38

3.37

0.73

HC

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

5 Lobbying and working for overall health andwellness sustainability, cultural adaptability andpoverty alleviation in the community andcountry as a whole.
Grand Mean and SD

Official Conference Proceedings

3.32

3.39

3.35

HC

Legend: 3.25-4.00 highly capable (HC), 2.50-3.24 capable (C), 1.75-2.49 somewhat capable (SC), 1.00 -1.74not capable (NC)

Table 11. Overall Mean and SD for PLO9 learning outcomesStudents rated themselves as highly capable in all of the learning outcomes of PLO 9, withthe top 3 as follows: Appreciating the roles of pharmacists in a collaborative health caresetting in addressing public health issues. Applying concepts, methods, strategies, andinterventions addressing Public Health issues and concerns, and providing appropriate
pharmaceutical care services to the patient and the community (e.g., patient counseling,
medication review, and medication reconciliation, (3.37, 0.73). The course, Public HealthPharmacy introduces the students to community health that includes both private and public
efforts of individuals, groups, and organizations to promote, protect, and preserve the healthof those in the community. Community pharmacists work closely with the public and would
be expected to highly value the care of primary health and drug use plans of the community(Maitreemit et.al., 2008).
Significant difference in the mean self-assessment levels of Level 3 and Level 4 students
along the PLOs

PLO 1A
PLO 1B
PLO 2A
PLO 2B
PLO 3
PLO 4
PLO 5
PLO 6
PLO 7
PLO 8
PLO 9
Grand Mean &SD

3rd year
MeanSD
3.0574.18782
3.5262.135853.0562.19462
3.3280.100353.4283.281383.3790.145943.4630.13436
3.1973.307543.3500.115333.2500.10981
3.3175.045003.30
0.15

4th yearMeanSD
3.1289.239003.5012.074153.3294.148793.3620.071203.2617.156133.3310.156093.4040.139683.3355.23162
3.2918.182803.4938.08366
3.3925.061853.35
0.10

Grand Mean &
SD
3.09
0.05
3.51
0.02
3.19
0.19
3.35
0.02
3.35
0.12
3.36
0.03
3.43
0.04
3.27
0.10
3.32
0.04
3.37
0.17
3.36
0.05
3.33
0.04

Desc
C
HC
C
HC
HC
HC
HC
HC
HC
HC
HC
HC

Legend: 3.25-4.00 highly capable (HC), 2.50-3.24 capable (C), 1.75-2.49 somewhat capable (SC), 1.00 -1.74not capable (NC)

Table 12. Summary of grand mean and SD of the PLOs
A T-test was conducted to determine if a significant difference exists between the two (2)year levels of students along their mean self – assessment ratings:

ISSN: 2189-101X

396

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

PLO 1A
PLO 1B
PLO 2A
PLO 2B
PLO 3
PLO 4
PLO 5
PLO 6
PLO 7
PLO 8
PLO 9

3rd
3.0574
3.5262
3.0562
3.32803.34433.37903.46303.19733.28103.25003.3175Mean

T
4th
3.1289-1.54
3.5012.764
3.3294-4.6803.3620-.669
3.2600.690
3.33101.368
3.40401.636
3.3355-3.9573.2986-.429
3.4938-6.1853.3925-2.754
Table 13. T-test results

Official Conference Proceedings

P-Value

Interpretation

.141
.470
.000
.540
.516
.204
.118
.003
.673
.000
.071

NS
NS
Sig
NS
NS
NS
NS
Sig
NS
Sig
NS

Based on the results, Level 4 students are significantly superior than Level 3 students basedon their self-assessment of the following learning outcomes: Practice pharmacy in accordancewith existing laws, legal and regulatory standards); Practice effective management andleadership skills in all given settings or practice sites; and Conduct scientific researchmethods and processes for the development of noble drugs which are pro-Filipino and for the
improvement of existing drug products and the practice of the profession itself. This is
primarily because level 4 students have already undergone experiential pharmacy practice inthe five areas, to wit: community, hospital, institutional, industrial, public health &regulatory. Experiential learning is a very important component of pharmacy education as it
gives the students the opportunity to practice and apply what they have learned, be able tointeract with their peers and other health care professionals, and be exposed to actual cases or
scenarios that evoke higher-order thinking skills. Internship plays an essential part in thepharmacy education program. The integration of formal and informal learning activities
during an internship, including raising awareness of incidental learning, is important tofurther support students’ learning of the professional practice of pharmacy (Wallman, 2010).
Strengths, Limitations, Overall Impression and Recommendations of Stakeholders
The table below shows the qualitative inputs of the students, faculty, alumni, and industry
partners. Students and faculty members were asked the guide questions: What are thestrengths of the BS Pharmacy curriculum? What are the limitations of the BS Pharmacy
curriculum? What is your overall impression of the BS Pharmacy curriculum? What
recommendations can you suggest to enhance the BS Pharmacy curriculum? while thealumni and industry partners’ insights on the competencies that graduates must possess to
become practice-ready and thus, employable, were sought in addition to theirrecommendations for the improvement of the curriculum.

ISSN: 2189-101X

397

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

STAKEHOLDERSSTUDENTSFACULTY

ISSN: 2189-101X

Official Conference Proceedings

STRENGTHS

LIMITATIONSOVERALL
IMPRESSION

There is always
something new
to learn;organized,
accurate,
advanced,interconnected
and outcomesbased. Contains
collaborative
activities;
Comprehensive,
holistic andflexible.;practice/Field
readiness;
Teachers are
passionate andhandle thecourse very
well.; Students
are pushed to
study more.;
Resilient andinnovative;
More job
opportunities
and diverse
career selection;
Pre-requisite
courses are inplace; proper
placement ofinternships
Holistic
approach toprepare thestudents forentry level
practice,
laddered,
Enhancement
courses: PHAD;
Catered towards
the practice sideof the profession

Bulky;
laboratory
application andimmersions in
actual premises(Pandemicdriven); Per
level“standing” isrigorous; OBE
should not beapplied in all
courses; Small
number of units
allocated forsome courses
e.g., HealthTechnology
Assessment andSocial and
Administrative
Pharmacy,
Curriculum
may not berecognized inother countries.
Some require 5
years

Challenging yet
effective; Worthit after 3rd year;
Opens spectrumof possibilities in
the future;
Unique andDynamic; Bringsout best in each
student; Makes
students resilient;
Satisfied withlearnings; Verytiring; Good
especially if you
will pursue
medicine; Helpsin theachievement ofgoal;
Enhancement of
PHAD courses isgood; Helps
students tobecomeknowledgeableand gooddecision makers

Activity-time ratio
for assessment
task; Exclude some
topics that are notnecessary; Larger
time allocation forsome courses;
More effective
pharmacy teachers;
There should be a
study group headedby higher level
students; Include
immunization
topics; Outsideschool immersions,
i.e., FDA visits
Minor pharmacy
subjects/gen ed
courses should be
discussed briefly;
More laboratory
work and hands-on
activities;
Additional course:
Human Physio 2;

Co-requisites
and Prerequisites
should bealigned; Virtual
classroom isn't
a good avenue
for students tolearn chemistry,
especially onlabworks/techniques; Really

Should berevisited fromtime to time toassess whether it
is still suitable tocurrent situation;
Challenging;
Exceptional dueto that fact that
there wereadditional
embeddedcourses; BS

Continuous
consultation withstakeholders
includinggovernment
agencies.
Benchmarking,Work closely withthe healthcare
industry
practitioners/emplo
yers; Pharmacists
to have focused

398

RECOMMENDATIONSThe Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

packed withmany courses(both major andminor); Bulky.

Official Conference Proceedings

Pharmacy
Curriculum inthe local
university iscompetent, as
evidenced by its
consistent verysatisfactory
passing rate;
Overall, it isgood

track. Re-alignmentof some of thecourses in the
curriculum;
Provision foradding laboratory
units for ClinicalPharmacy;Comprehensive
exams at the end of
every
semester/year;
Curricular mapping(to show acontinuity in thelessons and avoid
redundancy).

Table 14. Qualitative responses of stakeholders: students and faculty members

STAKEHOLDERSALUMNI AND
INDUSTRY
PARTNERS

Employable competencies/skills they
think graduates should possess inorder to become practice-ready

RECOMMENDATIONSTechnical and soft skills; Decisionmaking skills; Critical thinking skills;
Pharmaceutical industry systemknowledge, People smart,communication skills verbal andwritten, resilience and negotiation;
Perseverance and the enthusiasm tolearn; Leadership roles and researchoriented (statistics); Competency and
Skills in Drug Therapy Management,
Health Technology Assessment andEvidence-based PracticeSpecialized topics;
Immunization; add peopleskill task for students; Careertalks from the alumni,
Brainstorming sessions toimprove specific issues in
Philippine pharmacy
practice, research analysis
and interpretationcompetence enhancement;
To have PharmD course orClinical Pharmacy.
Enhancing Pharmacotherapy
Subjects with applications ofDrug Therapy Assessment;
Evidence-based practice and
HTA

Table 15. Qualitative responses of stakeholders: Alumni and industry partners
The University of Sydney Careers Centre (2022) specifies that employability skills refer to aset of transferable skills and key personal attributes highly valued by employers and essential
for effective performance in the workplace. Compared with technical competence, they are
generic in nature, rather than job-specific, and are common to all work roles and workplacesacross all industry types. Examples are teamwork, communication, planning and organizing,

ISSN: 2189-101X

399

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

problem-solving, among others. Personal attributes that contribute to overall employability
include commitment, adaptability, honesty and integrity, reliability, ability to deal withpressure, motivation, and cultural fit with the employing organization. The pharmacy
program curriculum must be able to cultivate in its students these employability skills also
often referred to as soft skills, in order to prepare them for the challenges and dynamics ofpharmacy practice.
According to the International Pharmaceutical Federation Global Framework (2014),
education has been a strong driver of change in practice, but sometimes it could be
disconnected from the needs and realities of practice. Quality assurance systems thatproactively engage with practice, education, and regulation can also be drivers for quality
advancement in education. It is important to ensure that at no stage do any of the “gaps”
among the three (education, practice, and regulation) get too wide, because this leads to an
overt disconnect, creating tensions, dissatisfaction, or frustration. If, for example, pharmacy
educators have a vision for pharmacy practice and education and implement a model that is
not supported by practitioners and/or regulators, graduates may become disillusioned if thepractice or regulatory environment does not allow them to practice in the manner conveyed
by the academic program. It is therefore imperative that inputs of the stakeholders such as theindustry sector be considered in curriculum enhancement activities of schools.
Thematic analysis of the stakeholders’ qualitative responses
Overall, three (3) main themes were evident:
Rigor
The difficulty of professional courses in the curriculum was encountered. This was madeprominent by the following: Year level fulfillment of requirements “level standing”; OBE
implementation in “highly cognitive” courses; lack of contact hours for some courses; systemof co-requisites and pre-requisites, “bulky”, activity-time ratio for assessment tasks.
According to Mintrom (2014), a culture of excellence is an organizational context
encouraging
behaviors
that,
when
deployed,
continuously
improvetask
performance. Systematically orienting students towards the pursuit of excellence produces
cultures of excellence resulting to short-term and long-term gains for them. Rigorous
application of evidence-based, continuous improvement in pedagogical practice cultivates
excellence, eventually producing social and economic progress when they populate theworkplace. Excellence in pharmacy practice must start in cultivating excellence in education.
Rigor is necessary in order to foster agility that is needed in the very dynamic pharmacy
practice. There is a need however, to prevent or lessen the controllable factors that can further
contribute to its difficulty, for example, overwhelming student tasks and requirements given a
low contact hour for a course.
Best features
Organized and accurate; Interconnected.; Outcomes-based. Laddered. Advanced
Collaborative; self-directed. Comprehensive, holistic and flexible.; Practice/Field readiness;
Passionate and dedicated teachers.; Resilient and innovative. Diverse career opportunities;
Internships properly placed, Enhancement courses: PHAD; great curriculum in academics.

ISSN: 2189-101X

400

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

CMO 25 s. 2021 states that the outcome-based program (on a minimum), is at least a four(4)-year degree program with a total of 169 credit units, equivalent to 4,515 hours. The
program offers a good mix of general education courses, which have relevant applications in
the profession of pharmacy, and professional courses, that will help prepare the graduates inacquiring competencies necessary in the workplace. Foundation courses in pharmaceuticalchemistry, pharmaceutics, and the life sciences enhance the understanding of pharmaceuticalproduct development and their applications in pharmacy practice. It also includes experiential
pharmacy practice programs in the 4th year that involve assigning students to different
CHED-accredited affiliation establishments covering a minimum of 1,200 hours. Theintern/student, during the course of the EPP experience, will be exposed to a variety ofopportunities in practice areas preparing them for the different roles expected of them upon
graduation. Being the local university of a premiere city, it has infused enhancements inpharmaceutical administration, management, marketing, and entrepreneurship in addition tohaving an associate degree after the second year. The same CMO also mentions that HEls areallowed to design curricula suited to their own contexts and missions provided they candemonstrate that the same leads to the attainment of the required minimum set of outcomes,
albeit by a different route. The best features of the BS pharmacy curriculum of the local
university are anchored on the salient features of the program as mentioned in the said CMO.
In addition, enhancements done were considered significant in the same manner as mentors’
passion and commitment.
Continuous Improvement
Specialized topics like immunization; More practical applications of theories to actual
practice settings; Add people-skill tasks for students to make them more well-rounded.;
Career talks from the alumni on different fields of practice; Brainstorming sessions aiming to
improve specific issues in Philippine pharmacy practice, involving all year levels;
reinforcement of statistics, evidence-based practice, and pharmaceutical sciences research
topics; additional year/s of study to cater to specialization like PharmD/ Clinical Pharmacy
program.
As emphasized in CMO 25 s. 2021, the curriculum should be designed in accordance with theneeds-based professional education model of the International Pharmaceutical Federation(FIP) (published in the 2012 FIP Global Pharmacy Workforce Report) with consideration of
the needs of professional practice and the Filipino society, the scope of the practice ofpharmacy as stipulated in Section 4, Article 1 of the Philippine Pharmacy Act (RA 10918),
the Philippine Qualifications Framework (PQF), the Philippine Practice Standards for
Pharmacists (PhilPSP) and other international professional competency standards. There arealso mandated topics for integration in the relevant professional courses in the curriculum
such as Patient Safety and quality risk management, good pharmacy practices, leadership andmanagement, and interprofessional education, Counterfeit Medicines and SSFFC(Substandard, Spurious, falsely labeled, Falsified and Counterfeit medical products),
Pharmaceutical Promotion & Ethics, Philippine Practice Standards for Pharmacists (PhilPSP)
and Pharmaceutical Supply Chain Management. The local university will continuously workfor the improvement of its BS Pharmacy program using this as a guidepost.

ISSN: 2189-101X

401The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Program
Learning
Outcomes(PLOs)
PLO 1A(Identify,
compound, andmanufacture ofdrugs
following
appropriate
guidelines,
standards andspecifications)

Quantitative

Qualitative

Competencies alongextemporaneouscompounding andmanufacture of drugs:

PICS Guidelines and
GMP for ASEANCountries in industrial
pharmacy practice(2.77, 0.91),

Revisit course plan of
relevant courses

Communicating therecall with regulatory
authorities (2.91,
0.98);

Limitation inlaboratory
applications andimmersions/internships in actual
premises (Pandemicdriven)
Difficulty inprofessional courses
amplified by lack ofcontact hours forsome courses;“bulky”, activitytime ratio forassessment tasks

Manufacturing andquality controls
conform consistently
to the specifications in
the registration file
(3.06, 0.84);

Revisit allotment ofunits for possibility ofenhancement
Hyflex/Hybrid mode-laboratory courses
Research topics tocover pharmaceuticalsciences, drug
discovery anddevelopment
Competencies alongpractice of pharmacy inthe industry(manufacturing andregulatory):
Revisit course plan of
relevant courses
Revisit allotment ofunits
Hyflex/ Hybrid mode-laboratory courses andindustrial pharmacy
internshipSampling randomly
from drug outlets
which are needed for
quality testing (3.06,
0.87).

ISSN: 2189-101X

Identified gaps andPlan of action

Extemporaneouscompounding of TPNs
and paper tablets,
among others. (2.74,0.85),

Manufacturing
different dosage forms
based on the basic
pharmaceuticalprinciples, processes,
methods, andtechniques (2.89,0.96).
PLO 2A(Practice
pharmacy inaccordancewith existinglaws, legal andregulatory
standards)

Official Conference Proceedings

402

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

PLO 3
(Collaborate
andcommunicate
effectively
with othermembers of the
HC team insafeguarding
the overall
health andwellness of theindividuals andthe community
in general)

PLO 4(Provide
relevant drug
and healthrelatedinformation topatients)

PLO 6(Practiceeffective
management
and leadershipskills in all
given settingsor practicesites)

Participating in thefunctions and adhering
to policies of thePharmacy andTherapeutics
Committee (PTC).
3.03 0.86;
Communicating toregulatory authorities,changes in theformulations,manufacturing
process, and otherpertinent details of aregistered product.
3.03, 0.92;
Contributing to thedevelopment of ahealth vigilancesystem within theorganization 3.23,
0.88.
Identifying problems
arising fromabnormalities in
endocrine functions(3.09, 0.70)
Identifying andprioritizing patient
problems andmedication-related
needs. (3.20, 0.63

Limitation inlaboratory
application andactual immersions in
actual premises(Pandemic-driven)
Difficulty inprofessional courses
amplified by lack ofcontact hours forsome courses;“bulky”, activitytime ratio forassessment tasks

Difficulty inprofessional courses(Example:
Pharmacology
Clinical Pharmacy)
amplified by lack incontact hours forsome courses;“bulky”, activitytime ratio forassessment tasks

Applying management
approaches (2.51,
1.01);
Implementing changes
to improve own
practice (3.23, 0.6);
Performing themanagement functions
as deemed necessary(3.23, 0.69);
Solving conflicts

ISSN: 2189-101X

403

Official Conference Proceedings

Competencies oncommunication andinterprofessional
collaboration (hospitaland industry):
Revisit course plan of
relevant courses
Revisit allotment ofunits
Hyflex/ Hybrid mode-laboratory courses,
hospital and industrial
pharmacy internship

Competencies on
pharmaceutical care(medication therapy
management):
Revisit course plan of
relevant courses
Revisit allotment ofunits
Hyflex/ Hybrid mode-laboratory courses andhospital pharmacy
internship

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

PLO 7
(Manage drug
establishments
based on soundentrepreneurial
practice
integrating
pharmaceuticalcare principles)using appropriate
strategies. (3.23,0.73).
Entrepreneurship as a
spirit frame (3.11,0.76);
Concepts of selfmastery, situational
mastery and enterprisemastery (3.17, 0.66);

Difficulty inprofessional courses(Example: Marketingand Entrepreneurship2) amplified by lackin contact hours forsome courses;“bulky”, activitytime ratio forassessment tasks

Financial analysis toguide allocation anduse of organizational
resources (3.14, 0.81);

Official Conference Proceedings

Competencies on
Pharmacy management
and entrepreneurship:
Revisit course plan of
relevant courses
Revisit allotment ofunits
Hyflex/ Hybrid mode-laboratory courses andindustrial pharmacy
internship

Financial analysis ofdifferent aspects of thebusiness (3.14, 0.77).
Table 16. Integration of quantitative and qualitative findings: Identified gaps andplan of action
Based on FIP Global Framework (2014), institutions that offer pharmacy education –universities, schools, or colleges should play a key role in assuring the quality of education.
Both students and academic staff members’ assessments, evaluation, and improvement of thecurriculum, implementing innovations, involving preceptors in the academic program,development of students’ competency lists, and implementation of contemporary teaching
methodologies are some of the essential components of the quality assurance process.
Students’ feedback can also influence the quality, but cannot provide the full scope of
required perspectives. Hence, integrating the inputs of other stakeholders like faculty
members, alumni, and industry partners is very integral. The above table of integrated inputs
clearly shows the areas that need to be improved through the indicated plan of action. It isnote-taking to say, however, that the pandemic has affected the delivery of pharmacy
education thus the need for recovery interventions mainly through the adoption of the hybrid
to full face-to-face modality, especially for laboratory and supervised experiential pharmacy
practice courses.
Conclusion and Recommendation
Periodic or timely curriculum review is pivotal in the quality assurance of education(ensuring “fitness for purpose”); direction setting, curricular changes, and enhancements
should be strongly built on sound process and meaning-making of available data. Moreextensive studies must be done to cover alumni (2019 to 2021) and employers. It is
recommended that the plan of action be implemented in the enhancement of the new
curriculum for the BS Pharmacy program for the academic year 2022-2023.

ISSN: 2189-101X

404

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Acknowledgement
The researchers sincerely express gratitude to the contributors of this research, thestakeholders of the Center – students, alumni, faculty members, and industry partners forgenerously taking time and effort to participate actively in this worthwhile endeavor. The
highest praise and gratitude go to God Almighty, who is the main reason for all that we do.

ISSN: 2189-101X

405

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

References
Aquino, et al., (2019). Program Learning Outcomes of BS Pharmacy at a Local University in
the NCR. COAHS Book of Abstracts. Volume 6. ISSN:2507-8631.
Armor, B.L., Bulkley, C.F., Truong, T., and Carter, S.M. (2014). Assessing Student
Pharmacists’ Ability to Identify Drug-Related Problems in Patients Within a PatientCentered Medical Home. Am J Pharm Educ. 2014 Feb 12; 78(1): 6. doi:
10.5688/ajpe7816. PMCID: PMC3930254PMID: 24558274
ASHP Guidelines on Compounding Sterile Preparations https://www.ashp.org//media/assets/policy-guidelines/docs/guidelines/compounding-sterilepreparations.ashx. Retrieved on Nov 28, 2022
Commission on Higher Education (2006). CMO No. 03 Series of 2006. Policies, Standards,
and Guidelines for Pharmacy Education. Available at: https://ched.gov.ph/wpcontent/uploads/2017/10/CMO-No.03-s2006.pdf
Commission on Higher Education (2018). CMO No. 8 Series of. 2018 Extension Period in
the Submission of new or revised curricula of HEIs for AY 2018-2019.
https://chedro1.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/CMO-No.-8-series-of-2018Extension-Period-in-the-Submission-of-New-or-Revised-Curricula-of-HEIs-for-AY2018-2019.pdf
Commission on Higher Education (2021). CMO No. 25 series of 2021 – Policies, Standards,
and Guidelines for the Bachelor of Science in Pharmacy Program.
https://ched.gov.ph. https://ched.gov.ph/wp-content/uploads/CMO-No-25-series2021-PSG-for-BS-Pharmacy.pdf
Deal, E.N., Stranges, P.M., Maxwell, W.D., Bacci, J., Ashjian, E.J., DeRemer, D.L., KaneGill, S.L., Norgard, N.B., Dombrowski, L., and Parker, R.B. (2016). The Importanceof Research and Scholarly Activity in Pharmacy Training. American College ofClinical Pharmacy. Pharmacotherapy. 2016 Dec;36(12):e200-e205.
doi:10.1002/phar.1864. Epub 2016 Nov 25. PMID: 27885711,
DOI:10.1002/phar.1864
Guide to Good dispensing practice 2016 1st edition
https://www.pharmacy.gov.my/v2/sites/default/files/document-upload/gdsp-2016final.pdf. Retrieved on Nov 28, 2022.
Ismail, K. (2020). Role of Pharmacist in Controlling Medication Errors. Retrieved fromhttps://www.expertmdcat.com/role-of-pharmacist-in-controling-medication-errors/ on
November 29, 2022.
Kelsch, Michael and Werremeyer, Amy (2011). Poster Project to Emphasize Public Health in
the Pharmacy Curriculum. American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education, 2011; 75(1) 2.

ISSN: 2189-101X

406

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Maitreemit, P., Pongcharoensuk, P., Kapol, N., Armstrong, E.P. (2008). Pharmacist
Perceptions of New Competency Standards. Pharmacy Practice 2008 JulSep;6(3):113-120.
Mintrom, M. (2014). Creating Cultures of Excellence. Strategies and outcomes, Cogent
Education. Retrieved fromhttps://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/2331186X.2014.934084 on November
29, 2022.
Ongpoy, R.C. Jr., David, P.P., Capistrano, N.B., Obliosca-Ongpoy, J., and Francisco, F.M.
(2019). Revisiting the Philippine BS Pharmacy Curriculum After 13 Years: A Survey
on Pharmacist Practitioners for The Upcoming Curriculum Revision. European
Journal of Education Studies, Volume 6, Issue 4.
Pharmaceuticals Regulation EU Set of Pharmaceutical Regulations, Directives andGuidelines from Drug Discovery and Development 2nd edition (2013).
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/pharmacology-toxicology-and-pharmaceuticalscience/pharmaceuticals-regulation . Retrieved on Nov 28, 2022.
Quality Assurance of Pharmacy Education: the FIP Global Framework 2nd Edition (2014)
International Pharmaceutical Federation (FIP).
https://www.fip.org/files/fip/PharmacyEducation/Quality_Assurance/QA_Framework_2nd_Edition_online_version.pdf. Retrieved on December 4, 2022.
The University of Sydney Careers Centre. Employability Skills. Retrieved fromhttps://www.sydney.edu.au/careers/students/career-advice-anddevelopment/employability-skills.html on December 4, 2022.
Viswanathan, M., Kahwati, L.VC., Golin, C.E., Blalock, S., Coker-Schwimmer, E., Posey,
R., and Lohr, K.N. (2014). Medication Therapy Management Interventions in
Outpatient Settings. Comparative Effectiveness Reviews, No. 138. Agency for
Healthcare Research and Quality (US); 2014 Nov. Report No.: 14(15)-EHC037-EF.
Wallman, A. (2010). Pharmacy Internship. Student’s Learning in a Professional Practice
Setting. Acta Universitas Upsaliensis. Digital Comprehensive Summaries of Uppsala
Dissertations from the Faculty of Pharmacy 120. 95pp. Uppsala. ISBN 978-91-5547725-7.
Contact email: mariafaynenette.cariaga@umak.edu.ph

ISSN: 2189-101X

407

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

ISSN: 2189-101X

408

Official Conference Proceedings

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

The Effectiveness of Interdisciplinary Learning on 21st Century Skills for
Taiwanese Elementary School Students

Ya-Ting Yang, National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan
Chih-Chan Cheng, National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023
Official Conference Proceedings

Abstract
The World Economic Forum has proposed a vision of Education 4.0 in 2022, pointing outthat innovative pedagogies and emerging technologies should be applied to place students atthe center of learning and develop their ability to solve real-world problems. This study
implemented STEAM project-based learning (PBL) combined with emerging technologies in
Taiwanese elementary schools, hoping to improve students’ 21st century skills(communication, collaboration, and problem solving). Seven experimental schools with 343
students from grades 4-6 participated in this study. Each school had an experimental group
and a comparison group. There were 173 students in the experimental group and 170 students
in the comparison group. The experimental group received STEAM PBL combined withemerging technologies, and the comparison group received traditional pedagogy. Both groups
completed pre- and post-test questionnaires on communication, collaboration, and problem
solving. Considering the differences in pedagogical background between the seven schools,
this study applied meta-analysis to calculate the overall effect size to obtain more accurate
results. The results found that the experimental group was more effective than thecomparison group in improving students’ communication, collaboration, and problem
solving, all of which achieved medium effect sizes. It shows that STEAM PBL combinedwith emerging technologies can effectively increase students’ 21st century skills, which is ofgreat help to their future learning performance and career development.

Keywords: Interdisciplinary Learning, 21st Century Skills, Emerging Technologies

iafor
The International Academic Forumwww.iafor.org

ISSN: 2189-101X

409

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Introduction
World Economic Forum proposed Education 4.0 to enable students to acquire Industry 4.0
skills for future career development (World Economic Forum, 2022). Education 4.0 pointed
out that it is necessary to cultivate students’ 21st century skills (such as communication,
collaboration, and problem solving skills) through interdisciplinary learning, innovative
pedagogies, and emerging technologies to enhance global economic prosperity (World
Economic Forum, 2022). STEAM project-based learning (STEAM PBL) is an innovativeinterdisciplinary pedagogy that integrates science, technology, engineering, arts, andmathematics (Lu et al., 2022). STEAM PBL uses real-world problems to put students at thecenter of learning. Students actively apply interdisciplinary knowledge and emerging
technologies to develop problem-solving products (Fernández-Morante et al., 2022). In theprocess of developing products, students need to constantly discuss and cooperate with theirgroup members, stimulating collective intelligence to solve problems effectively (Lu et al.,2022). In addition, emerging technologies can support students to interact with the real world
more frequently and develop products that are closer to real needs (Mota-Valtierra et al.,2019). However, there is still insufficient empirical research on STEAM PBL for students’21st century skills, so it is necessary to verify the effectiveness of STEAM PBL with
empirical evidence (Perignat & Katz-Buonincontro, 2019).
According to the above research objectives, this study can be divided into the three researchquestions:
1. Is STEAM PBL combined with emerging technologies better for elementary school
students’ communication skills than traditional instruction?
2. Is STEAM PBL combined with emerging technologies better for elementary school
students’ collaboration skills than traditional instruction?
3. Is STEAM PBL combined with emerging technologies better for elementary school
students’ problem solving skills than traditional instruction?
Methods
Participants
The participants in this study came from 7 elementary schools, with a total of 343 students ingrades 4-6 (170 in the experimental group and 173 in the comparison group). All sevenschools participated in Taiwan’s advanced interdisciplinary project for K-12 schools of the
Ministry of Education. This project aims to promote STEAM PBL combined with emerging
technologies to all K-12 schools in Taiwan, cultivating students’ interdisciplinary knowledge,
21st century skills, and global competence.
Experimental procedure
Each of the seven schools had an experimental group and a comparison group. The
experimental group received STEAM PBL combined with emerging technologies, and thecomparison group received traditional instruction. Both groups received the pretests on 21st
century skills before the course was implemented, and the posttests after the course ended(one semester). STEAM PBL will apply the K-12 P5BL theory modified by Yang et al. (2022)
from Fruchter (1998) to design learning activities. K-12 P5BL includes five phases: 1)
problem; 2) project; 3) product; 4) process; and 5) place. Problem means meaningful real-

ISSN: 2189-101X

410

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

world problems. Project means the learning activities related to the project. Product means
authentic product. Process means students use higher order thinking skills and metacognition
to optimize their products. Place means the product connects with the community andsupports the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals. The emerging technologies
used by the seven schools include artificial intelligence of things (AIoT), augmented reality(AR), virtual reality (VR), and drone.
Materials
This study used the communication scale (12 questions), the collaboration scale (9 questions)and the problem solving scale (17 questions) developed by Yang et al. (2022) as researchtools. The three scales were all 5-point Likert scales, and the Cronbach’s α ranged from .90 .93, which had good reliability and validity.
Data analysis
Firstly, this study used analysis of covariance to calculate the effect size of each school in thethree 21st century skills. Since each school had different background factors (e.g., teachingcontent), meta-analysis was used to integrate an overall effect size to obtain a conclusion.
Hedges’s g was used to identify the effect size in small sample size because mostexperimental and comparison groups were less than 30 people (Borenstein et al., 2009). A g
between .20 to .49 is defined as small effect size, a g between .50 and .79 is defined as
medium effect size, and a g greater than or equal to .80 is defined as large effect size (Cohen,1988).
Results and Discussion
Communication
As shown in Fig. 1, the effect sizes of the seven schools ranged from .13 to .87. The overall
effect size was .55, and the p-value was less than .05. The overall result reached a medium
effect size. Therefore, the experimental group had better communication improvement thanthe comparison group. It means that STEAM PBL combined with emerging technologies caneffectively improve students’ communication skills.
When developing solutions to real-world problems, students are constantly discussing themost feasible solution with group members (Rahmawati et al., 2022). After translating theirsolution into an authentic product, students introduce the functions and value of the productto peers, teachers, and community members (Miller et al., 2021). Therefore, students
continue to practice communication skills throughout the learning process (Turcotte et al.,2022).

ISSN: 2189-101X

411

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Study name

Official Conference Proceedings

Statistics for each study
Hedges's Standardgerror

School_01
School_02
School_03
School_04
School_05
School_06
School_07

0.67
0.49
0.13
0.32
0.87
0.80
0.70
0.55

0.34
0.24
0.29
0.28
0.31
0.28
0.31
0.11

Variance

Lower
limit

Upper
limit

0.11
0.06
0.08
0.08
0.09
0.08
0.10
0.01

0.01
0.02
-0.44
-0.24
0.26
0.25
0.09
0.34

1.33
0.96
0.70
0.87
1.47
1.34
1.32
0.77

Hedges's g and 95% CI
Z-Value p-Value

1.99
2.03
0.45
1.12
2.82
2.88
2.25
5.08

0.05
0.04
0.65
0.26
0.00
0.00
0.02
0.00
-4.00

-2.00

0.00

Figure 1: Effect sizes of communication of the sevenschools.
Favours
A

2.00

4.00

Favours B

Collaboration
Meta Analysis

As seen in Fig. 2, the effect sizes of the seven schools ranged from .13 to 1.16. The overall
result was significant with a medium effect size (g = .51, p < .05). It showed that theexperimental group had a better improvement effect in terms of collaboration. As a result,
STEAM PBL combined with emerging technologies can improve students’ collaboration
skills.
At the beginning of the course, students need to cooperate with group members to collectinformation and explore the causes of real-world problems, and build a sense of
responsibility toward teamwork (Melguizo-Garín et al., 2022). With the support of simulated
scenarios created in AR and VR, students can brainstorm with group members to find thebest solution, increasing their confidence in collaborative problem solving (Papanastasiou etal., 2019). Therefore, STEAM PBL combined with emerging technologies provides students
with many opportunities for cooperative learning and develops their collaboration skills(Cheng et al., 2022).
Study name

Statistics for each study

Hedges's g and 95% CI

Hedges's Standard
Lower Uppergerror
Variance limit
limit Z-Value p-Value

School_01
School_02
School_03
School_04
School_05
School_06
School_07

0.14
0.62
0.16
0.13
1.07
0.44
1.16
0.51

0.33
0.24
0.29
0.28
0.31
0.27
0.33
0.11

0.11
0.06
0.08
0.08
0.10
0.07
0.11
0.01

-0.50
0.15
-0.41
-0.42
0.45
-0.09
0.51
0.30

0.78
1.10
0.73
0.68
1.69
0.97
1.80
0.73

0.43
2.57
0.54
0.45
3.40
1.64
3.52
4.69

0.66
0.01
0.59
0.65
0.00
0.10
0.00
0.00
-4.00

-2.00

0.00

Figure 2: Effect sizes of collaboration of the seven schools.
Favours A

Meta Analysis

ISSN: 2189-101X

412

2.00
Favours B

4.00

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Problem solving
As shown in Fig. 3, the effect sizes of the seven schools ranged from .14 to 1.01. The overresults showed that the experimental group had a better effect on enhancing students’problem solving skills (g = .53, p < .05). It means that STEAM PBL combined with emerging
technologies can positively enhance students’ problem solving skills.
The real-world problems in students’ lives can stimulate students’ problem solving interest(Lu et al., 2022). As students develop meaningful products through hands-on activities, theirmotivation to solve problems increases (Mursid et al., 2022). AIoT allows students to interact
frequently with the real world and improve their problem solving experience through trial anderror (Auerbach et al., 2018). Therefore, the authentic situated learning created by STEAM
PBL combined with emerging technologies can effectively enhance students’ problem
solving skills (Fernández-Morante et al., 2022).
Study name

Statistics for each study
Hedges's Standard
Lower
g
error
Variance limit

School_01
School_02
School_03
School_04
School_05
School_06
School_07

0.59
0.54
0.34
0.14
0.80
0.42
1.01
0.53

0.33
0.24
0.29
0.28
0.31
0.27
0.32
0.11

0.11
0.06
0.09
0.08
0.09
0.07
0.10
0.01

-0.06
0.07
-0.23
-0.41
0.20
-0.10
0.38
0.31

Hedges's g and 95% CI

Upper
limit Z-Value p-Value

1.24
1.01
0.91
0.70
1.40
0.95
1.64
0.74

1.77
2.24
1.16
0.51
2.62
1.58
3.13
4.84

0.08
0.03
0.25
0.61
0.01
0.11
0.00
0.00
-4.00

-2.00

0.00

Figure 3: Effect sizes of problem solving of the seven schools.
Favours A

2.00

4.00

Favours B

Conclusions and Recommendations
Meta Analysis

In order to cultivate interdisciplinary talents required by Education 4.0, this study
demonstrated that STEAM PBL combined with emerging technologies can improve students’21st century skills (communication, collaboration, and problem solving skills). 21st century
skills can enhance students’ future learning performance and career development, andpromote global economic development (World Economic Forum, 2022). In addition,
creativity and critical thinking skills are 21st century skills and higher order thinking skills
that are very important for students’ learning growth (Wijnen et al., 2021). It is suggested thatthe effectiveness of STEAM PBL combined with emerging technologies on students’creativity and critical thinking skills can be further analyzed in the future.

Acknowledgements
This study is grateful for the fully support from Taiwan’s advanced interdisciplinary projectfor K-12 schools of the Ministry of Education, and the assistance of all the project teammembers, professors, teachers, and students who participated in this study, enabling its
successful completion.

ISSN: 2189-101X

413

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

References
Auerbach, J. E., Concordel, A., Kornatowski, P. M., & Floreano, D. (2018). Inquiry-basedlearning with RoboGen: An open-source software and hardware platform for robotics
and artificial intelligence. IEEE Transactions on Learning Technologies, 12(3), 356369. https://doi.org/10.1109/TLT.2018.2833111
Borenstein, M., Hedges, L. V., Higgins, J. P. T., & Rothstein, H. R. (2009). Introduction tometa-analysis. Wiley. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470743386
Cheng, L., Wang, M., Chen, Y., Niu, W., Hong, M., & Zhu, Y. (2022). Design my music
instrument: A project-based science, technology, engineering, arts, and mathematics
program on the development of creativity. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 763948.
https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.763948
Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Lawrence
Erlbaum Associates.
Fernández-Morante, C., Fernández-de-la-Iglesia, J. D. C., Cebreiro, B., & Latorre-Ruiz, E.
(2022). ATS-STEM: Global teaching methodology to improve competences ofsecondary education students. Sustainability, 14(12), 6986.
https://doi.org/10.3390/su14126986
Fruchter, R. (1998). Roles of computing in P5BL: Problem-, project-, product-, process-, andpeople-based learning. AI EDAM, 12(1), 65-67.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S0890060498121091
Lu, S.-Y., Lo, C.-C., & Syu, J.-Y. (2022). Project-based learning oriented STEAM: the caseof micro–bit paper-cutting lamp. International Journal of Technology and Design
Education, 32, 2553-2575. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10798-021-09714-1
Melguizo-Garín, A., Ruiz-Rodríguez, I., Peláez-Fernández, M. A., Salas-Rodríguez, J., &Serrano-Ibáñez, E. R. (2022). Relationship between group work competencies andsatisfaction with project-based learning among university students. Frontiers in
Psychology, 13, 811864. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.811864
Miller, E. C., Reigh, E., Berland, L., & Krajcik, J. (2021). Supporting equity in virtual
science instruction through project-based learning: Opportunities and challenges inthe era of COVID-19. Journal of Science Teacher Education, 32(6), 642-663.
https://doi.org/10.1080/1046560X.2021.1873549
Mota-Valtierra, G., Rodríguez-Reséndiz, J., & Herrera-Ruiz, G. (2019). Constructivism-based
methodology for teaching artificial intelligence topics focused on sustainable
development. Sustainability, 11(17), 4642. https://doi.org/10.3390/su11174642
Mursid, R., Saragih, A. H., & Hartono, R. (2022). The effect of the blended project-basedlearning model and creative thinking ability on engineering students’ learning
outcomes. International Journal of Education in Mathematics, Science andTechnology, 10(1), 218-235. https://doi.org/10.46328/ijemst.2244

ISSN: 2189-101X

414

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Papanastasiou, G., Drigas, A., Skianis, C., Lytras, M., & Papanastasiou, E. (2019). Virtualand augmented reality effects on K-12, higher and tertiary education students’ twentyfirst century skills. Virtual Reality, 23, 425-436. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10055-0180363-2
Perignat, E., & Katz-Buonincontro, J. (2019). STEAM in practice and research: An
integrative literature review. Thinking Skills and Creativity, 31, 31-43.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsc.2018.10.002
Rahmawati, Y., Taylor, E., Taylor, P. C., Ridwan, A., & Mardiah, A. (2022). Students’
engagement in education as sustainability: Implementing an ethical dilemma-STEAM
teaching model in chemistry learning. Sustainability, 14(6), 3554.
https://doi.org/10.3390/su14063554
Turcotte, N., Rodriguez-Meehan, M., & Stork, M. G. (2022). This school is made for students:
Students’ perspectives on PBL. Journal of Formative Design in Learning, 6, 53-62.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s41686-022-00066-0
Wijnen, F., van der Molen, J. W., & Voogt, J. (2021). Measuring primary school teachers’
attitudes towards stimulating higher-order thinking (SHOT) in students: Development
and validation of the SHOT questionnaire. Thinking Skills and Creativity, 42, 100954.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsc.2021.100954
World Economic Forum (2022). Catalysing education 4.0: Investing in the future of learning
for a human-centric recovery. https://www.weforum.org/reports/catalysing-education4-0-investing-in-the-future-of-learning-for-a-human-centric-recovery/
Yang, Y.-T. C., Lin, C.-P., Lin, T.-B., & Lin, S. S. J. (2022). 2022 yearly report on Taiwan’s
advanced interdisciplinary project for K-12 schools. Ministry of Education.

Contact email: yangyt@mail.ncku.edu.tw
evonnehikki@gmail.com

ISSN: 2189-101X

415

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

ISSN: 2189-101X

416

Official Conference Proceedings

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Designing Integrative STEM Learning Materials for Junior High School
Mathematics Classroom: What Works (and Not)?
Russasmita Padmi, SEAMEO QITEP in Mathematics, Indonesia
Ummy Salmah, SEAMEO QITEP in Mathematics, Indonesia
Pasttita Ayu Laksmiwati, Johannes Kepler University Linz, Austria
Wahid Yunianto, Johannes Kepler University Linz, Austria
Uki Rahmawati, SEAMEO QITEP in Mathematics, Indonesia
The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023
Official Conference Proceedings
Abstract
The demand to make science and mathematics learning more relevant and meaningful leads
to integrative stem learning, a teaching approach that integrates science, technology,
engineering, and math (STEM) into a cohesive and interdisciplinary learning experience.
Even though STEM has been consistently increasing in popularity in Indonesia, the lack oflearning materials is persistent. This paper reports the first stage of design research aimed atdeveloping integrative STEM learning materials for junior high mathematics classroom. The
result is three sets learning materials that is compatible with the national mathematics
curriculum of Indonesia. The development process suggests that feasible learning materials
can be developed by matching science and mathematics standards, then tie it with appropriate
problem context.
Keywords: Integrative STEM, Design Research, Mathematics Education

iafor
The International Academic Forumwww.iafor.org

ISSN: 2189-101X

417

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

1.

Official Conference Proceedings

Introduction

STEM is an acronym for Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics that was first
introduced by the National Science Foundation (NSF) to acknowledge the growing
significance of these four disciplines in various fields such as national security, immigration
policy, and education (B.Gonzales & J.Kuenzi, 2012). STEM subjects are traditionally taught
separately in schools, but the demand for Science and Mathematics curricula to be more
relevant and applicable in the real-world gave rise to the idea of integrating the four fields(English, 2016; White & Delaney, 2021). Hence, in this paper, the term STEM refers tointegrative STEM, which is a learning approach where students utilize knowledge and skills
from all four disciplines to resolve real-world problems (English & Mousoulides, 2015;
Hourigan & Leavy, 2020; Margot & Kettler, 2019; Shaughnessy, 2013).
Although integrative STEM has not been officially recognized in Indonesian national
curriculum, it has gained widespread attention within the education community. This has
resulted in a proliferation of workshops, seminars, conferences, and training programs on
STEM organized by both private and government institutions. These events are primarily
targeted towards educators and promoted as a means of enhancing classroom instruction. As
a result, the implementation of STEM education in Indonesian schools is predominantly
driven by the initiative of individuals or institutions rather than government. While there havebeen studies on the incorporation of STEM education in the classroom, the majority of thesestudies are focused on science education (Hanif et al., 2019; Jauhariyyah et al., 2017;
Khaeroningtyas et al., 2016). The recent national curriculum, the Emancipated Curriculum,
mandated that the students should participate in at least three project-based learning a year,
which is a strong support for teachers interested to implement integrative STEM activities.
Despite its popularity, there is a considerable lack (if not absence) of research-based, readyto-use STEM resources for teachers. Teachers in countries which are more seasoned in
implementing STEM education, such as United States, have vast option of ready-to-use
STEM curriculum, either paid or free. As a comparison, teachers in Indonesia interested in
implementing STEM usually have to make it themselves or use online resources whichcannot be accounted for. This create issues because teachers often cannot be sure about thequality of STEM teaching materials they make or use. Reliable online resources are often in
English, which creates language barrier for the teachers.
To tackle this issue, this project aims to develop STEM learning materials for junior highschool mathematics classrooms through design research (Gravemeijer & Cobb, 2006). This
paper will report the first phase (Design), which results in the initial drafts of the learningmaterials. This paper is expected to provide points of consideration for educators, especiallyin mathematics, who are interested in developing integrative STEM activities to enhance theirclassroom. The research question this study aims to answer is how to develop integrative
STEM learning materials for junior high school mathematics classroom?
2.

MethodThe methodology used in this study to address the research question is design research, which
focuses on developing theories related to the process of learning and designing the means to
aid in that learning process (Gravemeijer & Cobb, 2006). Considering the research questionand goals, this approach is considered the most well-suited. Design research involves three

ISSN: 2189-101X

418

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

stages - preparation and design, classroom experiment, and retrospective analysis - as shownin Figure 1 according to van Eerde (2013).

Figure 1: The stages of design research
Each letter – K, R, D, and E – denotes each stages and is explained as follow. The research
process starts with the existing knowledge (K), including literature review, curriculum
documents, perspective and experience of related stakeholders, and exemplary STEM
activities, to prepare and design (D) the learning activities. These activities are then tested in
the classroom during the classroom experiment (E) stage, and the researcher reflects on the
results (R) in order to obtain new information with which the learning materials will berevised and refined. This process is repeated in cycles, leading to the development of a local
instruction theory that includes both instructional activities and a theory of how students'
understanding may develop.
The learning materials were developed by four academic specialists of SEAMEO QITEP in
Mathematics. All specialists took part in the preparation and design phase, but then worked
independently to draft the learning materials. The preparation and design phase took aroundthree months in duration.
3.

Result

The preparation and design phase was started by reviewing literature review, curriculum
documents, and exemplary STEM activities, as well as interviewing several teachers. This
process resulted in a list of several aspects that needs to be considered in designing thelearning materials. These aspects, which is referred to as Design Consideration, is describedin Table 1, which is adapted from Li et al. (2022).

ISSN: 2189-101X

419

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Dimension
Process
DesignDesignDecision
Designed
according to
the national
curriculum
usingembeddedapproach

Description

Official Conference Proceedings

Supporting literatures

The task is designed(Roberts & Cantu, 2012)according to the national
curriculum. To circumventthe traditional school
curriculum which still teach
STEM subjects in siloedapproach, embedded
approach is used.
Starting from
The priority is put on the(Nicol et al., 2019)
content
mathematics and science
contents taught in the sameyear/semester. The contextual
problem is then chosen
accordingly, where themathematics and science
contents can be applied.
Task Design Disciplinary
Integration of the four STEM (English & Mousoulides,
integration
subjects is achieved by
2015; Hourigan & Leavy,
throughhaving the students apply the 2020; Margot & Kettler,
contextual
knowledge and skills from the 2019; Shaughnessy,
problemsubjects to solve problems set 2013).
in real-life contexts.
Inquiry-based
The students are encouraged(Leung, 2018)
learning
to do investigation andexploration aimed toformulate hypotheses andbuild knowledge.
Emphasize on Through Engineering Design (Cunningham, 2018).
engineering
Process, an iterative process
consisting of five stages (Ask,Imagine, Plan, Create,
Improve), in applying STEM
knowledge and skills todevise solution for real-life
problems; and theestablishment of criteria andconstraint of successful
solution.
Low-floors,
The activities are designed(English, 2017)
high-ceiling,such a way that it can bewide walls
solved by students withactivities
different levels of content
knowledge attainment.
StrategyGroup work
Students are divided into
(Goodsell, 1992)
Designmixed-ability groups during
the task.
Table 1: Instructional design decision for integrative STEM learning materials

ISSN: 2189-101X

420

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

The design of the learning materials was conducted with these decisions as guidelines,
resulting in three draft of learning materials each for grade 7, 8, and 9. The details of thelearning materials are provided in Table 2.
Title
Parachute for isolated
disaster areas

Grade
Description
7
Difficulty in distributing aid often happens after natural
disaster occurs, especially in remote and isolated areas.
One of the solutions that can be used to tackle thisproblem is using parachute to deliver the aids. In thisactivity, the students will use the knowledge and skills
related to areas of quadrilateral, coupled with engineering
principles and technology, to design ideal parachute thatcan be used to land aids in isolated disaster areas.

Disability-friendly
environment with ramp

8

It is important for students to understand that allindividuals, including those who have to use wheelchairs
due to disabilities, are entitled to equal access to public
facilities as part of social justice. To teach this, students
will apply the principles of gradients and simple
machines, as well as engineering principles andtechnology, to build ramps that provide an alternative tostairs in public buildings.

Earthquake-resistantbuilding

9

As a country located on the Pacific Ring of Fire,earthquakes happen frequently in Indonesia. Throughengineering design process, this lesson provides
opportunities for the students to apply the knowledge andskills related to volume and surface area of solids todesign earthquake-resistant residential buildings.

Table 2: The details of the initial draft of the integrative STEM learning materials
Conclusion
The growing popularity of integrative STEM as innovative teaching approach in Indonesia is
not supported by the availability of research-based learning materials applicable to be usedwith the national curriculum. Through first stage of design research, draft of learningmaterials is designed that are potential to be used in accordance to Indonesia national
curriculum. The design consideration including the process, strategy, and task design is
expected to be able to provide points of consideration for educators interested to attemptsimilar learning materials. Some of the useful approach identified namely starting by
matching science and mathematics content followed by identifying relevant problem context,
allocating time twice or three times longer that is planned for classroom implementation, as
well as emphasizing the constraint and successful criteria to students, not only to incorporate
engineering, but to secure convergence for such an open learning approach.
As this paper only report the first stage of design research, the limitation is that the learningmaterials still need to go through classroom experiment and retrospective analysis to beconsidered final. The learning materials are also drafted only by mathematics education

ISSN: 2189-101X

421

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

specialist and might be biased to one subject. Future studies are encouraged to incorporate
perspective from multiple experts in different subjects.

ISSN: 2189-101X

422

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

References
B.Gonzales, H., & J.Kuenzi, J. (2012). CRS Report for Congress Specialist in Education
Policy. In Congressional Research Service.
English, L. D. (2016). STEM education K-12: perspectives on integration. International
Journal of STEM Education, 3(1), 3. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40594-016-0036-1
English, L. D. (2017). Advancing Elementary and Middle School STEM Education.
International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education, 15(S1), 5–24.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10763-017-9802-x
English, L. D., & Mousoulides, N. G. (2015). Bridging STEM in a Real-World Problem.
Teaching Children Mathematics, 20(9).
Goodsell, A. S. (1992). Collaborative Learning: A Sourcebook for Higher Education.
National Center on Postsecondary Teaching, Learning, and Assessment.
Gravemeijer, K., & Cobb, P. (2006). Design research from a learning design perspective. In
J. van den Akker, K. Gravemeijer, S. McKenney, & N. Nieveen (Eds.), Educational
Design Research. Routledge Taylor and Francis Group. https://doi.org/10.1007/9781-4614-3185-5_11
Hanif, S., Wijaya, A. F. C., & Winarno, N. (2019). Enhancing Students’ Creativity through
STEM Project-Based Learning. Journal of Science Learning, 2(2), 50.
https://doi.org/10.17509/jsl.v2i2.13271
Hourigan, M., & Leavy, A. M. (2020). Using integrated STEM as a stimulus to developelementary students’ statistical literacy. Teaching Statistics, 42(3), 77–86.
https://doi.org/10.1111/test.12229
Jauhariyyah, F. R., Suwono, H., & Ibrohim. (2017). Science, Technology, Engineering, andMathematics Project Based Learning ( STEM-PjBL ) pada Pembelajaran Sains. Pros.
Seminar Pend. IPA Pascasarjana UM, 2, 432–436.
Khaeroningtyas, N., Permanasari, A., & Hamidah, I. (2016). STEM learning in material of
temperature and its change to improve scientific literacy of junior high school
students. Jurnal Pendidikan IPA Indonesia, 5(1), 94–100.
https://doi.org/10.15294/jpii.v5i1.5797
Leung, A. (2018). Exploring STEM Pedagogy in the Mathematics Classroom: a Tool-based
Experiment Lesson on Estimation. International Journal of Science and Mathematics
Education.
Li, J., Luo, H., Zhao, L., Zhu, M., Ma, L., & Liao, X. (2022). Promoting STEAM Educationin Primary School through Cooperative Teaching: A Design-Based Research Study.
Sustainability, 14(16), 10333. https://doi.org/10.3390/su141610333

ISSN: 2189-101X

423

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Margot, K. C., & Kettler, T. (2019). Teachers’ perception of STEM integration andeducation: a systematic literature review. International Journal of STEM Education,6(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40594-018-0151-2
Nicol, C., Bragg, L. A., Radzimski, V., Yaro, K., Chen, A., & Amoah, E. (2019). Learning toteach the M in/for STEM for social justice. ZDM - Mathematics Education, 51(6),1005–1016. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11858-019-01065-5
Roberts, A., & Cantu, D. (2012). Applying STEM instructional strategies to design andtechnology curriculum. Technology Education in the 21st Century. Technology
Education in the 21st Century, 73, 111–118.
Shaughnessy, J. M. (2013). Mathematics in a STEM Context. Mathematics Teaching in the
Middle School, 18(6), 324.
van Eerde, D. (2013). Design research: Looking into the heart of mathematics education.
Proceeding The First South East Asia Design/ …, 1–11.
http://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&btnG=Search&q=intitle:Design+research:+looking+into+the+heart+of+mathematics+education#0
White, D., & Delaney, S. (2021). Full STEAM ahead, but who has the map for integration? A PRISMA systematic review on the incorporation of interdisciplinary learning into
schools. Lumat, 9(2). https://doi.org/10.31129/LUMAT.9.2.1387
Contact email: r.sripadmi@gmail.com

ISSN: 2189-101X

424

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Reflection of the Current Practice in Psychological Diagnostics ofLanguage-Based Diagnostic Tools
Lothar Filip Rudorfer, Charles University, Czech Republic
The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023
Official Conference Proceedings
Abstract
This Article contribution focuses on the language-based psychological test, batteries anddiagnostic tools used worldwide and their psychometric standardisation. The author follows
in his research from his diploma thesis Analytical Methods in Psycholinguistic Research ofPerception (Rudorfer, 2019), in which the author addressed the psycholinguistic andstatistical approach in language performance tests and provided a number of analytical tools
due to their focus and work with specific subjects using language (Czech, English,
Hungarian, Japanese and German), their perceptual, cognitive skills and language
intelligence, which are key aspects of research study research. The proposed research study
follows up on the dissertation and diploma thesis of the main researcher of the project. It
expands it mainly with a specific focus on specific diagnostic tests and psychometric analysis
options for proper revision and standardisation for use in professional practice. The
dissertation will focus on analytical methods for psychological diagnostic methods with afocus on literacy and language performance tests and their standardization. The project also
corresponds to the long tradition of the Department of Psychology, Faculty of Education,Charles University, whose area of interest is primarily issues of literacy, functional literacy
and specific learning disabilities.
Keywords: Language-Based Testing, Language Performance, Standardization, PsychometricStandards, Comparative Study, Descriptive Statistics

iafor
The International Academic Forumwww.iafor.org

ISSN: 2189-101X

425

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Introduction
It has been the goal of many psychological associations and recent regulations in the Czech
Republic 1, EU and Worldwide to support the publishing of psychological tests, batteries andcollections of diagnostic tools to be available to the majority of psychologist and educational
professionals alike. The main issue is regulation, and review factors coinciding with thereplication crisis in psychology that divides the psychological and educational experts alike.
This project builds on the current research survey and Czech academic experience in the field(e.g. Urbánek et al, 2021), Cígler (2020) or Ježek (2021). A great advantage is cooperation
with leading experts on this topic working in the Department of Psychology, Faculty of
Education, Charles University (FoE CUNI). The acquired knowledge can be transferred inthis way to the relevant subjects provided by the Department of Psychology, both in the fieldof educational psychology (especially in the follow-up master's programmes, in which future
counselling experts in education are prepared), and in all teaching disciplines as well where
teachers and education experts can use the outputs of this research project to their benefit.
The primary goal of the presented project is to map the awareness of the professional
psychological public about psychometric standards as described by Harvill (1991) or Revelle(2015) and psychodiagnostic tools used, which have a component focused on language
performance, as many Czech pedagogical and psychological methods do not contain all
information about data processing, whether and how often they are reviewed. and the extent
to which the diagnostic tool meets psychometric standards of validity and reliability. (APA,
2017). Two screening questionnaires in Czech and English (one for psychologists frompractice, the other for researchers in the field of pedagogy and psychology) helped us todetermine the level of awareness of the professional and academic community in the areas of
the use of standardization procedures.
The project is currently in its data processing phase, during which we already have at our
disposal a list of commonly used diagnostic tools worldwide. In addition to the list of used
tests, we are conducting a questionnaire study2 which should help us better understand what
factors are dependent on the use of a particular language-based psychological diagnostic tool.
Based on a specific theoretical framework we presume that language-based performance is a
key indicator for the majority of achievement, personality and even cognitive skill
psychological tests and batteries.
Psychologically speaking, language performance can be defined as the ability of anindividual to use language effectively and appropriately in various contexts. This includes theability to understand, process, and produce language in a manner that is consistent with theindividual's age, education, and culture. Language performance can be measured by various
standardized tests, such as those that assess vocabulary, grammar, comprehension, and1Core regulations in the Czech Republic are mainly vyhláška č. 72/2005 Sb. o poskytování poradenských služeb
ve školách a školských poradenských zařízeních, ve znění vyhlášky č. 116/2011 Sb., vyhláška č. 27/2016, theEUs Mutual evaluation of regulated professions Overview of the regulatory framework in the health services
sector – psychologists and related professions Ref. Ares(2016)2257345 - 13/05/2016. Similar regulations arebeing put forward worldwide in order to better regulate who can administer a particular psychologicaldiagnostic/performance test under specific conditions. The internal regulations also imply that all useddiagnostic tools should include verification or a test study supporting any psychometric validity and reliabilityof a particular psychological test or battery used.
2

Questionare for psychologists and administrators of test is available athttps://sites.google.com/view/gauk316722

ISSN: 2189-101X

426

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

fluency. In addition to these objective measures, language performance can also be evaluatedsubjectively based on the individual's ability to communicate effectively and appropriately insocial interactions.
Factors that can affect language performance include cognitive abilities, such as memory,
attention, and executive function, as well as social and emotional factors, such as motivation,
self-esteem, and anxiety. Additionally, the cultural and linguistic background can also impact
language performance, particularly in individuals who are bilingual or multilingual.
Language-based diagnostic tools can be helpful in identifying language disorders or delays,
such as developmental language disorders, specific language impairments, or language-basedlearning disabilities. They can also be useful in determining the appropriate treatment andintervention strategies for individuals with language difficulties.
It is important to note that language-based diagnostic tools should always be administeredand interpreted by qualified professionals, such as speech-language pathologists or
psychologists, who have expertise in language assessment and diagnosis.
The main research questions of the research project questionnaire screening are thefollowing: What are the main obstacles to the use of properly standardized diagnostic
methods in professional practice? Who decides on the purchase and use of the tool, is there acomprehensive procedure, the effect of authority, custom or economic factors? Who performs
and can perform psychodiagnostic/administration tools? Which institutions are responsible
for the quality of the instrument? Is there a real demand for a controlling body that canrecommend/review psychodiagnostic tools? How should such a body function and from whatshould it draw its authority? What are the most frequently used tools in pedagogicalpsychological practice? What performance language tools are the most used in practice? Do
frequently used tools meet psychometric standards? Is the proposed and frequently useddiagnostic method sensitive enough to detect the problem? Some of these questions havebeen answered already with the catalogue of psychological diagnostic tools since these arewidely used in practice and therefore can be analysed further.
Another partial goal is to map and catalogue the most frequently used psychodiagnostic tools,
which include items that are related to language performance and then process them into asingle overview study, which this article contains.
Based on the collected data, a digital repository catalogue of diagnostic tools3 and methods
has been created for the end user (psychologist, education psych major, teacher, special
educator, etc.) for specific use. The monitored sample contains 74 psychological tests and thefinal number will be growing in the future (see the appendix of this article for the list of the
included psychological diagnostic tests). The sample was filtered and processed via the46 のテスト機器とその専門記事、レビュー、専門マニュアル、いくつかのテスト バッテリーを管理する国内外の組織の推奨
文書 (APA、ミシガン大学、MSMT-13319/2019-1、PedF CUNI 診断機器アーカイブ、American Guidance Service, Inc . , 京都大学
京都大学, UC Berkeley, FSS MUNI Test Forum, Universität München). カテゴリ: 名前、略語、タイプ、分類、標準化、標準化のサ
ンプル、改訂、チェコ共和国で利用可能、チェコ共和国での標準化、発行国、グループ管理、価格、通貨、評価、サブテストの数、および年齢グルー. A preview of the catalogue available at3

https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/1CrR7oSxh715pSctkh8rX18KJJv1tm69o/edit?usp=sharing&ouid=1092
48543351033847896&rtpof=true&sd=true. See also appendix of this article for the list of diagnostic tools
included

ISSN: 2189-101X

427

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

PRISMA4 methodology standard. The following flowchart illustrates the overall inclusive
criteria process.

Figure 1: Flowchart of the psychological test catalogue according to
the PRISMA methodology
Based on the flowchart structure we are able to create an online catalogue for psychologists
containing categories such as: ID, name, acronym of the test, classification, type of test, yearof standardisation, standardisation sample size, year of revision, price, number of subtests
and evaluation. We want the catalogue to be able to filter based on these categories as well.
Based on these parameters the following UML diagram can be applied:Figure 2: Sample UML for online catalogue
The catalogue then includes also an ad hoc categorisation of the results of reviews andvalidation studies conducted with these selected psychodiagnostic tools and a framework of
9-scale assessment categorisation has been added to the catalogue, see table 1 for examples.
4

The PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) methodology is a
widely used approach for conducting systematic reviews and meta-analyses in various fields, including healthsciences and social sciences. Published in the PLoS Medicine article titled "Preferred Reporting Items for
Systematic Reviews by Moher et al., published in 2009. Accesible via: http://www.prisma-statement.org/

ISSN: 2189-101X

428

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Catalogue
grade

Evaluation/assessment criterion

Suitable for self-examination without supervision in the application area(s)defined by the distributor.
1
Suitable for supervised use in the area(s) defined by the distributor, by any user
with general competence in test use and administration.
2
Only suitable for use by an expert user under controlled conditions or in very
limited application areas
3
Suitable for use in the area(s) defined by the distributor by users who meet
4
special qualification requirements.
poor ratings, inadequate, insufficient
5
Research tool only. Not for practical use.
6
It requires further development. Suitable for research use only.
7
Possible administration by a teacher/spec. teacher in the language field
8
Assessment/Validation study or review not yet conducted
9
Table 1: 9 point scale assessment categories of the included psychodiagnostic tests
As it is apparent from the scale, we counted in cases where the psychodiagnostic tests are
suitable for open access and self-examination, as well as those which are only suitable forsupervised use. Some frequently used diagnostic tools however are lacking a review study, or
one has not yet been conducted. Such case has been found in 9 out of all tests and batteries(namely TEWL-2, TNL, TWS-5, Word test 2-E, Word test 2-A, DAR-TTS, ZAREKI, T-239,
Czech DysTest). The vast majority (23 tests out of 74 total) scored evaluation 3, meaningsuch tests are suitable only for use by an expert user under controlled conditions or in very
limited application areas, which was an expected outcome (see the appendix for details),
especially for tests such as WAIS, CELF, MMPI, etc.
The catalogue has recently been added with aptitude tests such as MLAT, PLAB, LLAMA,CANAL-F, DLAB, VORD, Hi-LAB, MENYE (see the appendix table of catalogue tests fordetails) which all contain units or subtests that measure different aspects of language learning
aptitude, including phonological memory, working memory, grammatical sensitivity, andlanguage analytic ability. The subtests are administered in a fixed order, and there arescheduled breaks between some of the subtests. The test is typically administered in acomputerised format, and participants are given detailed instructions and practice items
before beginning each subtest. The majority of these unfortunately however are not forcommercial use or use in psychological practice (yet) as they were mainly used as a researchtool, thus receiving the evaluation grade 6 in the catalogue.
Conclusion
In conclusion, language performance is an important aspect of psychological assessment, as itprovides insight into an individual's cognitive functioning, communication abilities, andoverall mental health. There are several psychological diagnostic tools that focus on language
performance, including language assessment tests, the MMPI (Butcher et al., 2016), theWAIS, the CELF, and the BDAE (Goodglass & Kaplan, 1983). These tests are essential for
identifying cognitive deficits, diagnosing language-based learning disabilities and mental
health issues, and developing appropriate treatment plans. The use of psychologicaldiagnostic tools focused on language performance is essential in the assessment and

ISSN: 2189-101X

429

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

diagnosis of mental health issues. These tools provide valuable information about anindividual's cognitive functioning, communication abilities, and overall mental health, which
are critical in identifying cognitive deficits, language-based learning disabilities, and mental
health issues such as depression, anxiety, and personality disorders.
The language assessment test, MMPI, WAIS, CELF (Wiig et al., 2013), and BDAE are someof the most commonly used psychological diagnostic tools that focus on language
performance. Each of these tests has its own unique strengths and limitations, and theirselection depends on the specific needs and goals of the assessment.
For instance, the language assessment test can help identify language-based learning
disabilities, while the MMPI provides insight into an individual's personality traits andemotional functioning. The WAIS measures an individual's cognitive abilities, including
language skills, while the CELF (Wiig et al., 2013) assesses an individual's language abilities
across multiple domains. Finally, the BDAE (Goodglass & Kaplan, 1983) is specificallydesigned to assess language abilities in individuals with aphasia.
Overall, the use of these psychological diagnostic tools, in combination with otherassessment methods, can provide a comprehensive understanding of an individual's mental
health status. This information is critical in developing appropriate treatment plans andinterventions to help individuals overcome their mental health challenges and achieve theirfull potential. It is, however, necessary to point out that the categorisation of frequently used
tests for specific case use is an essential activity that can help psychologists and education
researchers to pick the right test or psychodiagnostic battery with the knowledge of its
psychometric properties, data sample used in review study and the standardisation processes.
Acknowledgements
The project is funded by Charles University Grant Agency, grant no. 316722, grant ID:
3167/2022 and EU grant Horizon2020 AMASS Grant agreement ID: 870621.

ISSN: 2189-101X

430

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Appendix
List of diagnostic tools and batteries added to the digital repository catalogue reported to be
in use at the time of publishing of this paper
Title of the psychodiagnostic tool containing language-based subtest/items

abbreviation

Year ofpublishing

Assessing Linguistic Behaviors Communicative Intentions Scale

ALB

1987

Clinical Evaluation of Language Fundamentals, Fifth Edition

CELF-5

1997

Clinical Evaluation of Language Fundamentals-Preschool, Second Edition

CELF-Preschool 2

1992

Comprehensive Assessment of Spoken Language

CASL

1999

Developmental Indicators for the Assessment of Learning

DIAL-31998

Comprehensive Test of Phonological Processing, Second Edition

CTOPP-2

2013

Expressive One-Word Picture Vocabulary Test, Fourth Edition

EOWPVT-4

2011

Expressive Vocabulary Test, Second Edition

EVT-2

1993

MacArthur Communicative Development Inventories-Words and Gestures

CDI

1993

Oral and Written Language Scales: Written Expression

OWLS Written Expression

1996

Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test, Fourth Edition

PPVT-42007

Preschool Language Scale, Fourth Edition

PLS-4

2002

Receptive-Expressive Emergent Language Test, Third Edition

REEL-32003

Receptive One-Word Picture Vocabulary TestROWPVT

2000

Test of Auditory Comprehension of Language, Third Edition

TACL-3

1999

Test of Auditory Processing Skills, 3rd Edition

TAPS-3

2005

Test of Early Written Language 2

TEWL-2

2001

Test of Narrative Language

TNL

2004

Test of Pragmatic Language

TOPL

1992

Test of Written Language, Fourth Edition

TOWL-42009

Test of Written Spelling, Fifth Edition

TWS-5

2013

The Word Test 2: Elementary

Word test 2-E

2004

The Word Test 2: Adolescent

Word test 2-A

2005

The Diagnostic Assessments of Reading with Trial Teach Strategies

DAR-TTS

1991

Gray Oral Reading Tests, Fifth Edition

GORT-52012

ISSN: 2189-101X

431

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Gray Silent Reading Tests

GSRT

2000

The Nelson-Denny Reading Test of Vocabulary, Reading Comprehension, andReading Rate

NDRT

1993

Qualitative Reading Inventory, Fifth Edition

QRI-5

1994

Test of Word Reading Efficiency, Second Edition

TOWRE 2

2012

Woodcock Reading Mastery Tests-Revised

WRMT-R

1998

Kaufman Test of Educational Achievement, Second Edition Comprehensive Form

KTEA-II

2004

Wechsler Individual Achievement Test, Second Edition

WIAT-II

2001

Woodcock-Johnson III Tests of Achievement

WJ III ACH

2001

Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children, Second Edition

KABC-II

2004

McCarthy Scales of Children’s Abilities

MSCA

1972

Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales for Early Childhood, Fifth Edition

Early SB5

2005

Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, Fourth Edition Integrated

WISC-IV Integrated

2004

Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence, Third Edition

WPPSI-III

1991

Woodcock-Johnson III Tests of Cognitive Abilities

WJ III COG

2001

Arizona Articulation Proficiency Scale, Third Revision

Arizona-3

2000

Goldman-Fristoe Test of Articulation, Second Edition

GFTA-2

2000

Kaufman Speech Praxis for Children

KSPT

1995

Khan-Lewis Phonological Analysis

KLPA-2

1986

Photo Articulation Test–3rd Edition

PAT-3

1997

Ages and Stages Questionnaires: A Parent-Completed, Child-Monitoring System,
Second Edition

ASQ

1980

Test of Problem Solving 3: Elementary

TOPS-32005

Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales, Second Edition

Vineland-II

2005

The Beery-Buktenica Developmental Test of Visual-Motor Integration, 5th Edition Beery VMI

2004

Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development-Third Edition

Bayley-III

2006

Peabody Developmental Motor Scales, Second Edition

PDMS-2

2000

Snijders-Oomen nonverbalní intelligenční test

SON-R 2½ – 7

2006

Inteligenční a vývojová škála pro děti ve věku 5—10 let

IDS

2009

Test mapující připravenost pro školu

MaTeRS

2013

ISSN: 2189-101X

432

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Diagnostika struktury matematických schopností

DISMAS

2013

Baterie testů fonologických schopností

BTFS

2013

Stanford-Binetova inteligenční škála IV. Revize (T-35)

S-B IV

1960

Test kognitivních schopností

T-22

1998

Neuropsychologická baterie testů ke zpracovávání čísel a počítání u dětíZAREKI

2006

Diagnostika specifických poruch učení

T-239

2002

Baterie testů pro diagnostiku specifických poruch učení u studentů vysokých škol auchazečů o vysokoškolské studium
DysTest2014

Hamburger Lesetest für 3.und 4. Klassen

HAMLET 3-4

1995

Knuspels Leseaufgaben

KNUSPEL-L

1995

Salzburger Lese- und Recht-schreibtest

SLRT

1997

Würzburger Leise Leseprobe

WLLP

1997

Hamburg-Wechsler-Intelligenztest für Kinder

HAWIK-III

1995

かな文字の失読症検出ツール

DTVP

2014

Modern Language Aptitude Test

MLAT

1959

Pimsleur Language Aptitude Battery

PLAB

1966

Language Aptitude Tests

LLAMA

2005

Measurement of foreign language learning ability: The CANAL-F theory and test

CANAL-F

2000

Defense Language Aptitude Battery

DLAB

1976

Parry & Child aptitude test

VORD

1990

Doughty et al., Linck et al. aptitude test

Hi-LAB2010

Magyar Egyetemes Nyelve´rze´kme´ro (Hungarian General Aptitude Test)

MENYE

1996

Japanese Dyslexia detection tool of kana characters

ISSN: 2189-101X

433

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

References
American Psychological Association. (2017). Language assessment. In APA handbook of
testing and assessment in psychology (Vol. 1, pp. 551-563). American Psychological
Association.
Butcher, J. N., Williams, C. L., Graham, J. R., Archer, R. P., Tellegen, A., & Ben-Porath, Y.
S. (2016). MMPI-2: Minnesota multiphasic personality inventory-2. University of
Minnesota Press.
Cígler, H. (2019). Experiences in Close Relationships: České verze metod pro měření vazby
vycházející z dotazníku ECR. E-psychologie, 13(4), doi. 10.29364/epsy.359
Ciharova, M., et al. (2020). Beck depression inventory, second edition, Czech version:
Demographic correlates, factor structure and comparison with foreign data.
International Journal of Psychiatry in Clinical Practice, 1-9,
doi:10.1080/13651501.2020.1775854
Dudek, F. J. (1979). The Continuing Misinterpretation of the Standard Error of Measurement.
Psychological Bulletin, 86(2), 335-337. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.86.2.335
European Commission. (2016). The EU's Mutual evaluation of regulated professions:
Overview of the regulatory framework in the health services sector – psychologists
and related professions. Ref. Ares (2016)2257345 - 13/05/2016.
European Federation of Psychologists' Associations (2009). Model recenze podle EFPA pro
popis a hodnocení psychologických testů. Formulář recenze testu a poznámky pro
recenzenty, Verze 3.41. Testfórum, 0. Dostupný z WWW: http://www.testforum.cz/
European Federation of Psychologists’ Associations (2005). European test user standards fortest use in work and organizational settings. Version 1.92. Dostupné z www:
http://www.efpa.eu/download/2d30edd3542f33c91295487b64877964
Goodglass, H., & Kaplan, E. (1983). The assessment of aphasia and related disorders (2nded.). Lea & Febiger.
Harvill, L. M. (1991). Standard Error of Measurement. Educational Measurement: Issues andPractice, 10(2), 33–41. doi: 10.1111/j.1745-3992.1991.tb00195.x
Ježek, S. (2021). Jak číst statistické výsledky aneb všechno je jen regresní koeficient[Workshop presentation].
Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports of the Czech Republic. (2005). Vyhláška č. 72/2005
Sb. o poskytování poradenských služeb ve školách a školských poradenských
zařízeních, ve znění vyhlášky č. 116/2011 Sb. [Decree No. 72/2005 Coll. on theprovision of counseling services in schools and educational counseling facilities, as
amended by Decree No. 116/2011 Coll.].

ISSN: 2189-101X

434

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

PRISMA Group. (2009). PRISMA 2009 Checklist. In: Moher D, Liberati A, Tetzlaff J,
Altman DG, editors. Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and MetaAnalyses: The PRISMA Statement. PLoS Med, 6(7): e1000097. DOI:
10.1371/journal.pmed.1000097
Revelle, W. (2015). Chapter 7: Classical Test Theory and the Measurement of Reliability. In
W. Revelle, An introduction to psychometric theory with applications in R, pp. 205–
239.
Rudorfer, F. L. (2019). Analytické metody v psycholingvistickém výzkumu percepce metafor[Analytic methods in psycholinguistic research of metaphor perception]. (Master's
thesis). Univerzita Jana Evangelisty Purkyně v Ústí nad Labem, Pedagogická fakulta[University of Jan Evangelista Purkyně in Ústí nad Labem, Faculty of Education].
Retrieved April 18, 2023, from https://theses.cz/id/q77r88/
Urbánek, T., Chvojková, E., Palíšek, P., & Ťápal, A. (2021). Woodcock-Johnson IV – Testy
kognitivních schopností: Technický manuál [Chapter in a book]. In: (Title of theBook), (Page range of the chapter).
Wechsler, D. (2008). Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (4th ed.). The Psychological
Corporation.
Wiig, E. H., Secord, W. A., & Semel, E. M. (2013). Clinical Evaluation of Language
Fundamentals–Fifth Edition (CELF-5). Pearson.
Contact email: lotharfilip.rudorfer@pedf.cuni.cz

ISSN: 2189-101X

435

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

ISSN: 2189-101X

436

Official Conference Proceedings

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

The Best Practices in STEAM Education: Using Local Wisdom to
Improve Innovators' Competence
Suwicha Wansudon, Srinakharinwirot University, Thailand
Trai Unyapoti, Srinakharinwirot University, Thailand
Phatcharida Inthama, Srinakharinwirot University, Thailand
Pawanrat Wattana, Srinakharinwirot University, Thailand
Kongkhwan Tipoaksorn, Srinakharinwirot University, Thailand
The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023
Official Conference Proceedings
Abstract
It is a challenge for elementary school teachers to design learning activities that blend local
wisdom about Thai handicrafts with STEAM education management. Proactive learning
management and local wisdom card games are used to help learners develop innovator
competencies through the engineering design process. To inspire curiosity and innovation
among learners. Take systematic and scientific action and develop innovator competencies in
conjunction with local wisdom to develop a learning community for the transfer ofknowledge, social processes, and local culture by means of local philosophers. The bestpractices were studied by 1) local philosophers and 2) teachers from all four regions ofThailand. There were interview forms and questionnaires used for the study. The content
analysis of the data revealed that the best practices in STEAM knowledge management using
local wisdom to develop innovator competency comprised eight components. 1) Thai culturalcommunication and local wisdom; 2) engineering design methods. 3) Educationalinnovations 4) STEAM education learning activities; 5) integrated learning activities 6)
Inventions of innovators 7) assessment, and 8) development.
Keywords: The Best Practice, STEAM Education, Local Wisdom

iafor
The International Academic Forumwww.iafor.org

ISSN: 2189-101X

437

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Introduction
The researcher places a heavy emphasis on how children and adolescents learn. The objectiveof cultivating student innovation competencies is to promote creativity and attract moreacademically curious students. It focuses on six characteristics of innovators: a focus on the
future, social networking, creativity, project management, content knowledge and practicalskills, and personality. A few examples are Wasan Suttawat and Pitak Siriwong (2015), Dyeret al. (2011), Couros (2014), Eriksson (2013), Hackney (2016), and Maeda (2013). The
Engineering Theory of Innovation, upon which this study is based, posits that an essential
aspect of innovation depends on innovators' analytic reasoning skills (Freeman & Socte,2013). In engineering, learners must also continuously employ their skills, particularly
through the use of the Engineering Design Process (EDP) as a tool for critical thinking andmethodical practice, in order to acquire new knowledge. It comprises each of the six
aforementioned innovation competencies. This study also references the Social Network
Theory of Innovation, which was derived from the Engineering Innovation Theory, in orderto establish a connection between learning and the development of innovative competencies.
The establishment of a network for the transmission of information via traditional healers,
local sages, indigenous groups, etc. (McMarsh, 2000).
Various learning activities, such as the study of the integrated STEAM Education curriculum,
are implemented to help students improve their abilities. It is a learning management systemthat encourages students to solve problems and adapt to 21st-century changes. STEM
education is the foundation of STEAM education. STEAM education makes a compellingargument for fostering creativity by extending STEM education by incorporating art
disciplines to improve the efficacy of the right brain. And cultivate student satisfaction inaccordance with the function of both hemispheres of the brain and, consequently, the growthof reasoning. According to Kim & Park (2012), p. 693-698, creativity and thinking go handin-hand with the development of cognitive abilities (Hellige, 1990). Utilizing liberal arts
increases students' math and science learning achievements. In addition, learning is lasting
due to practical application and tangible innovation.
According to Ostler (2012) and Supak Olapiriyakul (2019), the advancement of technology
has caused education to take the form of STEAM education. And the requirement to enhance
students' knowledge and abilities so that they have more applicable knowledge and abilities
Therefore, the researcher focused on the development of learning activities. In other words,
the Engineering Design Process (EDP) plays a significant role in STEAM-based education. It
is the process of designing educational activities that encourage students to think
synthetically. Students' problem-solving skills should be honed through creative thought,
especially for situations that arise in everyday life. The engineering design process is anindispensable instrument for fostering systemic thought. Extend the students' knowledge andperspectives by encouraging the growth of creative and analytic thought, which will enable
them to solve a variety of problems exhaustively and accurately using original ideas that willlead to the development of new technologies. And enhance the performance and aptitude of
students in accordance with the characteristics that students of the 21st century should
possess (Suthida Karimi, 2017: 24). Six phases comprise the engineering design procedure:
Identification of the problem; Researching Related Data 3) Solution Creation 4) Construction
and Planning Evaluation, testing, and design enhancement; and presentation. The engineering
design method can be adapted to the requirements of the learner. or approaches to problemsolving and developing innovations that meet customer needs (Ozkan & Umdu Topsaka,
2021; Sutida Karimi, 2017, pp. 23–34).

ISSN: 2189-101X

438

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

It is a fascinating concept to use indigenous knowledge as a learning instrument. Because themodern generation is found to be interested in the social realm and to neglect it. As a corpus
of information or a means of assisting locals with problem-solving, local knowledge is not
given much weight. As a result of ongoing transmission from ancestors Residents of the area
are the owners of the intellectual property. For locals to coexist in harmony, they must learn
and transmit a way of life through rituals, cultures, and traditions through the social
production process. Saneh Jamrik (1998) and the National Education Commission's Office(1998) Through STEAM education, students have the opportunity to study by applying local
knowledge to learning administration and skill development. Develop your innovative andcritical thinking skills. The local significance is valued by the students. Bahri et al. (2017)
found that cultivating coffee trees in East Java necessitates a combination of STEAM
education and indigenous knowledge. Indonesia can enhance academic performance. Similar
to the research conducted by Oktoriyadi (2020), which combines STEAM education with
regional knowledge from Indonesia, such as zoning, architecture, customs, and folk melodies.
Additionally, instruct students in the cognitive, affective, and psychomotor domains.
Based on the study of related research cited above, Thus, the researcher recognizes thesignificance of preparing students to be innovators in all six areas by coordinating a learning
management process using steam education and local knowledge. This study seeks to develop
students in basic education. Focusing on the upper elementary level in the Bangkok region,
including institutions under the university Office of the Private Education Commission
Bangkok Education Office and Bangkok Primary Educational Service Area Office, canimpart local knowledge. Incorporating village academics from the four regions into thedesign of the learning management unit In order for students to be able to innovate throughlearning in accordance with the STEAM education approach and engineering design process.
Students learn independently. Encourage the self-learning of students. Therefore, the researchteam is interested in establishing a set of learning management activities using STEAM
studies and indigenous knowledge to promote innovators' competence. For Senior Students in
Elementary School.
Literature Review
STEAM education
STEAM education is a learning management system that encourages students to solve
problems and adapt to 21st-century changes. Incorporating arts subjects (Arts: A) in addition
to STEM education, which concentrates on developing left brain skills in numbers,
calculation, reasoning, and science. Consequently, STEAM education excels at stimulating
creativity and increasing the satisfaction of the students. This reflects the function of the twobrains that alternately collaborate. Therefore, the development of both reasoning andcreativity is necessary for the growth of cognitive abilities (Hellige, 1990; Kim & Park,
2012). In addition, Ostler (2012) and Supak Olapiriyakul (2019) discussed the significance ofsteam studies, which Ostler (2012) and Supak Olapiriyakul (2019) outlined. As a result oftechnological advancements, learning in the form of steam education has occurred. And thenecessity to improve students' practical abilities and knowledge.

ISSN: 2189-101X

439

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Local wisdom
The Royal Institute Dictionary (1999, p. 619) and Angkul Somkanay (1999, p. 264) define
the term "local wisdom" as the knowledge, ability, and experience of villagers acquired
through a lifetime of living and learning. Connecting with one another in all fields Not
divided into disciplines Combine and interconnect them all. by transmitting knowledge
acquired through the development process in accordance with the times. This is consistent
with Samart Chantrasoon's (2000, p. 12) assertion that villagers can conceive of anything
based on their potential. And it can be used to solve local problems in a contemporary
manner. considered to be intelligent It is all the villager's knowledge."
Engineering Design Process; EDP
Because it encourages students to think synthetically, the Engineering Design Process (EDP)
is an integral component of both STEM and STEAM education. Along with creative thinking
in order to develop individualized problem-solving skills, particularly in commonplace
problem situations.
Suthida Karimi (2017, p. 23–27; Keane & Keane, 2016; Khine, 2019; Ozkan & Umdu
Topsaka, 2021) described the six-step engineering design procedure. Adaptable to learners' or
problem-solving methods' ways of thinking and capable of innovating in response torequirements.
Suthida Karimi's (2017, p. 24) six-step engineering design procedure Step 1: Problem
Identification Step 2: Search for Related Information Step 3: Step 4: Planning andConstruction Steps 5 Testing, Design Improvement, and 6 Presentation.

Figure 1: Suthida Karimi's (2017, p. 24) six-step engineering design procedure is
depicted in this diagram

ISSN: 2189-101X

440

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Conceptual Framework- Take off lessons- Local Wisdom- STEAM Education- Engineering Design Process- Learning theory

Lesson taking process
for best practice
STEAM education byusing local wisdom toimprove innovators’competence

The best practiceof STEAM
education isusing local
wisdom to
improveinnovators’competence.

- Innovator competency
Figure 2: Conceptual Framework
Thailand is a small country. Asia is a tourism destination. On the basis of knowledge, culture,and custom, Thailand can be divided into four major regions. Thailand possesses diverse
regional cultures. Every region has a unique identity. Thailand can be divided into four
distinct regions, each with its own characteristics. Additionally, the handicrafts are intriguing.
Crafts created for the purpose of preserving local traditions and culture.
The Bangkok's and other metropolitan areas' pupils continue to lack knowledge of crafts.
Students continue to be unaware of local knowledge. Additionally, there are problems withlearning management due to students' lack of creative thinking. Science's technological andprocedural proficiency Consequently, this is where the research began.

Figure 3: Diagram showing examples of local wisdom

ISSN: 2189-101X

441

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

The initiative investigated in this study In order to develop learning management principles
that encourage student innovation, fundamental information has been analyzed. Using
information from four geographic regions: 1. elders knowledgeable about local wisdom; and2. educators involved in the supervision of the learning process for STEAM education
Faculty of Education administrators, educators, and instructors, as well as supervisors andgraduate students.
Examine the perspectives of those who contribute to local knowledge. Examining theperspectives of local wisdom practitioners and educational personnel involved in learning
management in educational institutions It is the application of study results, document
analysis, and document synthesis as guidelines for examining opinions. By developing aninterview form and a survey to collect opinions on local wisdom. In order to obtain in-depth
knowledge, specificity is required. Four regions comprised the research areas: the northern,
central, northeastern, and southern regions.
Each region contained the provinces of Khon Kaen, Chiang Mai, Suphan Buri, and Surat
Thani. Bangkok was acquired by deliberate selection. 45 individuals were interviewed(people involved with local wisdom and educational personnel engaged in learning
management in educational institutions via local wisdom). 100 individuals (those involved
with local wisdom and educational personnel involved in learning management ineducational institutions through local wisdom) responded to the survey.
Methodology
Procedure
1. Examine concepts, theories, and fundamentals
2. Examine the science subject group's content, subject matter, learning standards,
indicators, learning outcomes, and fundamental learning subject matter. The Fundamental
Education Core Curriculum
3. Examine the method of learning management with STEAM; examine using indigenous
knowledge to promote innovator competency
4. Examine the perspectives of those involved in local wisdom
5. Lesson transcription procedure Visit the area and examine preliminary data gathered
through in-depth interviews
6. Based on information gathered from in-depth interviews with village sages andpedagogical personnel in four regions of Thailand, five areas were identified
7. Include information gathered through interviews and questionnaires
Interview questionnaire and form
1. Examine concepts, theories, and relevant research
2. A questionnaire and interview form were created for the research project consultant toreview the content's accuracy and completeness
3. Adjust the language of the acquired queries to be more succinct and clear before applying
them in accordance with the suggestions of the experts
4. Modify interview forms and questionnaires based on the suggestions of experts. The
modified questionnaire was then utilized to acquire actual data
5. Data Acquisition
6. Data analysis

ISSN: 2189-101X

442

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Procedure
1. Study, analyze, and synthesize
needs and basic information.
2. Analyze the course of study.
Step 1studying basic
informationand taking
lessons

Step 2
Design anddevelopmentof learningmaterials,
educationalboard games

1. The process of extracting bestpractices in STEAM learning
management
2. Study the opinions of relevant
informants. by using interviews andquestionnaires.

Design and development of anactivity package for STEAM
education by using local wisdom andeducational board games

1. Activity package for STEAM
education by using local wisdom toenhance the competency ofinnovators.
2. Local wisdom board game basedon the concept of STEAM education
to promote innovator skills

Best practice in
STEAM education isusing local wisdom toimprove innovators’competence.

Activity package for
STEAM educationby using local
wisdom to enhance
the competency ofinnovators for senior
students inelementary school

Figure 4: Procedure
Discussion
The best practices in STEAM education knowledge management utilizing local wisdom tocultivate innovator competency consisted of eight components. 1) Thai culturalcommunication and local wisdom; 2) engineering design methods. 3) Educationalinnovations 4) STEAM education learning activities; 5) integrated learning activities 6)
Inventions of innovators 7) assessment, and 8) development.

ISSN: 2189-101X

443

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Figure 5: The best practices in STEAM education: using local wisdom toimprove Innovators' competence.
Conclusion
Local philosophers and instructors from each of Thailand's four regions examined the bestpractices. The research utilized interview forms and questionnaires. The content analysis of
the data revealed that the best practices in STEAM education knowledge management
utilizing local wisdom to cultivate innovator competency consisted of eight components.
1) Thai cultural communication and local wisdom; 2) engineering design methods.
3) Educational innovations 4) STEAM education learning activities; 5) integrated learning
activities 6) Inventions of innovators 7) assessment, and 8) development.
It is a challenge for elementary school instructors to design learning activities that combine
STEAM education management with local knowledge about Thai handicrafts. Through theengineering design process, proactive learning management and local wisdom card games areused to help learners develop innovative competencies. To inspire learners' inquiry andcreativity.
Create a learning community for the transmission of knowledge, social processes, and local
culture by means of local philosophers by taking systematic and scientific action anddeveloping innovator competencies in conjunction with local wisdom.
Acknowledgements
The corresponding author would like to acknowledge Prof. Rungtiwa Yamrung for his inputs
and suggestions, as well as the support and help at the Faculty of Education, Srinakharinwirot
University, Thailand.

ISSN: 2189-101X

444

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

References
Angkul Somkanay. (1999). Teaching documents for the course. Information for study andresearch. Nakhon Ratchasima : Nakhon Ratchasima Rajabhat Institute. Page 264.
Bahri, S., Kusumawati, L., & Nuraini, L. (2017). STEAM education based on local wisdom ofcoffee plantation in jember to improve the competitiveness at 21st century. Pancaran
Pendidikan, 6(3).
Chaemchoy, S. (2020). SECONDARY SCHOOL MANAGEMENT INNOVATION FOR
CREATING INNOVARTORS. Journal Of Education Naresuan University, 22(2),193-213.
Couros, G. (2014). 8 characteristics of the “Innovator’s Mindset”. Fromhttps://georgecouros.ca/blog/archives/4783
Dyer, Jeff and et al. (2011). “The Innovator’s DNA: mastering the five skills of disruptive
innovators.” Harvard Business School Publishing.
Eriksson, J. (2013). The five characteristics of successful innovators. From https://bearingconsulting.com/2013/10/the-five-characteristics-of-successful-innovators/
Freeman, C., 2013. Economics of industrial innovation. Routledge. p.135.
Hackney, R. (2016). The traits of an innovator. From https://www.theodysseyonline.com/thetraits-of-an-innovator
Hellige, J. B. (1990). Hemispheric asymmetry. Annual review of psychology, 41(1), 55-80.
Kim, Y., & Park, N. (2012). The effect of STEAM education on elementary school student’s
creativity improvement. In Computer applications for security, control and systemengineering (pp. 115-121). Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg.
Maeda, J. (2013). Stem+ art= steam. The STEAM journal, 1(1), 34.
Marshall, E.M., (2000). Building trust at the speed of change: The power of the relationshipbased corporation. ON: American Management Association. (pp. 64-87). Toronto.
Office of the National Education Commission. (1998). Guidelines for promoting Thai
wisdom in education management. Bangkok: Print D, 23.
Oktoriyadi, O., (2020). The Implementation of Steam Integrated Thematic Learning Based on
Local Wisdom of Kapuas Hulu in Elementary School. JP2D (Jurnal Penelitian
Pendidikan Dasar) UNTAN, 3(1), 42-48.
Ostler, E. (2012). 21st century STEM education: A tactical model for long-range success.
International Journal of Applied Science and Technology, 2(1), 28-33.

ISSN: 2189-101X

445

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Ozkan, G., and Umdu Topsaka, U. (2021). Exploring the Effectiveness of STEAM Design
Processes on Middle School Students’ Creativity. Int. J. Technol. Des. Educ. 31 (1),
95–116. doi:10.1007/s10798-019-09547-z
Saneh Jamrik. (1998). Sufficiency economy in globalization. Bangkok: National Human
Rights Commission, 11.
Samart Chantrasoon. (2000). What is folk wisdom and how? Folk wisdom. Bangkok: Officeof the National Cultural Commission. Page 12.
Supak Olapiriyakun (2019). STEAM EDUCATION: Innovative Education Integrated into
Learning Management. Journal of Research and Curriculum Development, Year 9,
Issue 1, 1-16.
Suthida Karimi. (2017). Using the engineering design process to enhance creativity. andproblem-solving skills. Technological Awareness, 46 (209). 23-27.
Wasan Sutthawat and Pitak Siriwong. (2015). Innovators in Basic Education in Public Sector:
A Study of Foundation Theory. Academic Journal Veridian E-Journal, Silpakorn
University, Year 8, Issue 2, 281-300.
Contact email: suwichaw@g.swu.ac.th

ISSN: 2189-101X

446

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Local Wisdom Board Game Based on the Concept of STEAM Education to
Promote Innovator Skills

Suwicha Wansudon, Srinakharinwirot University, Thailand
Phatcharida Inthama, Srinakharinwirot University, Thailand
Trai Unyapoti, Srinakharinwirot University, Thailand
Pawanrat Wattana, Srinakharinwirot University, Thailand
Kongkhwan Tipoaksorn, Srinakharinwirot University, Thailand

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023
Official Conference Proceedings

Abstract
The objectives of this research were: 1) to develop local wisdom board game media based on
the STEAM education concept to promote efficient innovators’ competency; and 2) to study
the level of satisfaction of students towards the local wisdom board game media. Based on
the STEAM education concept to promote innovators’ competency. The tools used in the
research were: 1) learning materials for board games of local wisdom based on the concept of
STEAM education to promote innovators’ competency; 2) handbooks for learning materials
for board games of local wisdom based on the concept of STEAM education to promote
innovators’ competency; and 3) a questionnaire to measure students’ satisfaction towards
learning media for local wisdom board games based on the STEAM education concept topromote innovators’ competency. The sample consisted of fifth-grade students. One study
group of 30 students was obtained by simple random sampling. The results showed that
evaluation results of the quality of learning media, board games, and local wisdom based on
the concept of STEAM education promote innovators’ competency. The quality is very good.
And the students were satisfied with the learning materials, board games, and local wisdom
based on the concept of STEAM education to promote innovators’ competency. At the mostsatisfactory level.

Keywords: Board Game, STEAM Education, Local Wisdom

iafor
The International Academic Forumwww.iafor.org

ISSN: 2189-101X

447

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Introduction
Thailand is changing swiftly today. It is a continuous consequence of entering the era of theindustrial revolution. Adaptability to change is a challenge the world faces. Therefore, thedrive for Thailand's 4.0 policy (Thailand 4.0) is of vital importance. Human resource capitalthat is able to adapt to such changes will be the determining factor in the ability to deal with
global change. Australia, the United Arab Emirates, and Israel ranked first, second, and third,
respectively, in the 2017 International Institute of Management's International
Entrepreneurial Skills Rankings, while Thailand placed twenty-first. Thailand ranked 34th interms of quality of life, while Norway, Switzerland, and Austria rated first, second, and third,
respectively (IMD: 2017). In 2018, it was determined that Lithuania, the United ArabEmirates, and Israel ranked first, second, and third, respectively, while Thailand ranked
twenty-fourth. Thailand was ranked 37th in terms of quality of living, behind Austria,
Norway, and Switzerland. First, second, and third, with Thailand falling in both categories. It
was also determined that the country ranked 53rd in terms of national income deficit and 49thin terms of investment impact. (IMD: 2018) Thailand's prior national development hasemphasized economic prosperity. The development of information technology by placing apremium on innovation and introducing new products. Promoting scientific process skills is
the starting point for developing science teacher students' practical skills and critical thinking
skills in order to extend to the creation of learning materials. Educational Board Game
Design Learning Management Design Science Learning Activities to Expand Youth Access
Therefore, it should be encouraged to integrate the development of scientific process skills
into the process of learning management. For young people to recognize the significance of
honed practical skills and imaginative thinking abilities So as to integrate and apply thedesign of learning management in daily life. Therefore, learning management thatemphasizes empirical process skills should be prioritized. As a result of enhancing the skillsof higher education students in the field of education.
Educational resources Educational board games Students pay close attention to board games
as a form of learning media. Because the game's content is challenging, entertaining, andenticing, it also serves to promote the players learning in the following ways: 1) Develop
pondering skills (pondering skills) Board games can aid in the development of learners'
information-gathering skills. From comprehending the objective of the activity toremembering the norms and engaging in critical thinking while playing. 2) Develop problemsolving abilities. (Aptitude for Problem Solving) Board games frequently simulate situations
in which participants must solve problems with limited resources and time. When aparticipant repeats an action at the optimal rate, their abilities will be effectively enhanced,
and their self-esteem will also be bolstered. 3) Develop social competencies (social emotional
learning competencies). The board games that are played in partnerships or teams which
students must be able to divide the tasks and listen to one another's perspectives Consider
your own motives. Encourage children to discover the feelings and motives of others. 4)
Developing morals (ethical characteristics) Players must adhere to the rules of play during
play. When he became corrupt, whether intentionally or unintentionally, he had the courageto acknowledge his error. This is an internal responsibility. and result in self-respect (selfesteem). 5) Developing self-esteem (high self-esteem) when first discovering something
Indecisiveness may not be clearly known because not all data can be collected. However, by
playing continuously, learners will be able to improve their performance until they reach theirobjectives (Wachirawit Iamwilai, 2020).

ISSN: 2189-101X

448

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

The researcher intends to conduct a study to develop learning media and a board game toinvestigate local wisdom. to promote innovators' competence As part of the development of aset of STEAM learning management activities, investigate the promotion of innovators'
competency through the use of indigenous knowledge. For upper elementary students.
Literature Review
An educational game is an activity designed to help students develop their observational andlogical reasoning skills. that are distinct from common games Generally, games willemphasize the importance of enjoyment. relationship and delight, but an educational gameWill emphasize the significance of transformations within the individual. and cause external
modifications. There are a variety of game-based learning formats, including board games,
introduction games, assessment games, and recreational games, among others. The
educational value of board games After the students have completed playing the game, atranscript of their reasoning will be provided. that throughout the game Why each character
determines to act, why, and how events in the game can be related to real life to see eachother's perspective (Nuchanat Nuchmee, Naruemon Sirawong, Kanokkorn Chantarungphak,2021). The majority of board games foster decision-making skills, communication,interpersonal relationships, and a desire to hear others' perspectives.
Using board games as an instructional medium is a method for achieving learning objectives
with students. By having students play board games according to the rules and conveying thecontents and information of board games, you can teach them about board games. The
learners' playing behavior, playing methods, and board game results were used to summarize
their learning in the discussion (Napasri Sueng and Tiparat Sitthiwong, 2020). entertainment
for students Players must adhere to the established guidelines. Encourage students to learn,
remember, and reflect. Lessons are simple, and abilities for learning how to collaborate are
acquired rapidly. The process of working and living together is ongoing. Evaluation of player
accomplishments There could be a loss, a triumph, or no match. And there might be positive
incentives to participate, such as points, candies, etc., as rewards. In the process of integrating
lessons, teaching, or lesson summaries, board games can be used to support instruction.
Board game advertising improves intelligence. Students should be able to play board games
individually or in groups with straightforward rules. Board games will help students observe,reflect, and reason (Sueng, Sueng, & Sittiwong, 2020).
Utilizing board games for education It highlights the significant potential of the game. To
answer the query, learning is enjoyable when it requires action or a decision. and feelingengaged in the conditions, constraints, and outcomes of that decision This is not somethingeasily gleaned from standard lectures. but engaging educational games It's not for pleasurealone. But must still prioritize answering the essential concerns of learning. 1) Knowledge:
the learner has acquired the expected knowledge, such as an understanding of the theory of
economic cooperation. 2) Attitude: As a result of playing the game, the learner's perspectives
on certain topics, such as the limitations of certain actors in society, have shifted. 3)
Procedures. Issues learned, for instance, can influence whether or not other participants
cooperate (Chananann Areekul, 2020).
Examine the perspectives of those who contribute to local wisdom. Examining theperspectives of local wisdom practitioners and educational personnel involved in learning
management in educational institutions It is the application of study outcomes, document
analysis, and document synthesis as guidelines for examining opinions. By developing an

ISSN: 2189-101X

449

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

interview form and a survey to collect opinions on local wisdom. In order to attain in-depth
knowledge, it is necessary to provide specifics. The northern, central, northeastern, andsouthern regions comprised the four research divisions.

Figure 1: Local wisdom map
Conceptual Framework
Utilizing a learning management system that emphasizes student participation, the researcher
has applied the concept of learning development to learners. Learn through enjoyable
activities. Active learning management, which involves interacting with a diversity oflearning activities through hands-on activities, serves as a conceptual framework for thefollowing research:- Development oflearning materials- Educational gameboard
- Innovator competency- STEAM education- Local wisdom- Active Learning
Educational Board
Game Design Using
ADDIE Model- Analysis- Design- Development- Implementation- Evaluation

Learning
administration
Using
educationalboard games
based on theconcept ofsteam education
to enhanceinnovators'
skillsFigure 2: Conceptual Framework

ISSN: 2189-101X

450

6 innovators'
competencies- proactive- social networks- Creativity- Project Management- Content knowledge andpractical abilities- personal personality

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Methodology
Procedure

Step 1:
Fundamental data
research

1. Examine, analyze, andsynthesize requirements andfundamental data.
2. Analyze the course content
3. Analyze the design anddevelopment of educationalboard games as learning media.

Basic information onlearning management
utilizing local wisdomboard games based on
the concept of STEAM
education to foster
innovator competency.

Examine the perspectives of
pertinent informants. using aquestionnaire

Step 2: Design anddevelopment ofeducational
materials andboard games

Step 3: Bringlearning materials
and developed
educational board
games to test.

Step 4: Evaluate
the efficacy of
local wisdomboard gamelearning media
based on theconcept of
STEAM education
in fostering
innovator
competency.

Design and development ofeducational resources andboard games
To promote innovator
competency, a board gamebased on the concept of
STEAM education thatemphasizes local wisdom

To promote innovationcompetency, bring learningmaterials, board games, and local
wisdom based on the concept of
STEAM education. Plan
educational activities withstudents.

1. Determine the effectiveness oflearning media, board games, andlocal wisdom based on theconcept of STEAM education inorder to advance innovator
competency.
2. Evaluation of contentment

Figure 3: Procedure

ISSN: 2189-101X

451

To promote innovator
competency, a board
game based on theconcept of STEAM
education thatemphasizes local wisdom

Innovator competency

To promote thecompetency ofinnovators, learning
media, board games, andlocal wisdom based on
the concept of STEAM
education are utilized.

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

ProcedureThis research consisted of four steps: 1) a fundamental information study; 2) the design anddevelopment of educational board game learning media; 3) the trial use of educational board
game media; and 4) the evaluation of learning materials for educational board games.
Steps: 1 A fundamental information study.
1. investigate the concepts, theories, and principles underlying the development ofeducational materials and board games.
2. Examine the content of indigenous knowledge and the guidelines for creating learning
media and educational board games.
3. Examine the perspectives of those involved with educational board game learningmaterials. To investigate the perspectives of individuals involved with educational
materials and board games.
4. Utilize the study's findings, analysis, and synthesis of documents as guidelines forresearching the opinions of those involved in learning media and educational board
games. And educational personnel engaged in learning management in educational
institutions via educational materials and board games Creating interview forms andquestionnaires to collect feedback on educational materials and board games Number ofinterviewees: 30 individuals 30 participants responded to the survey. Gather informationin order to construct the next game board.
Steps: 2 The design and development of educational board game learning media.
The research tools consisted of 1) educational board game learning media and 2) aquestionnaire to measure students' satisfaction with the board game educational media. The
steps are as follows:
Educational board game learning media
1. Examine documents and research pertaining to the creation of educational materials andboard games. and planning educational activities using instructional materials andeducational board games.
2. Examine the content specifics.
3. Development of educational materials and board games.
4. Using the ADDIE Model, this investigation developed an educational board game.
5. Bring along educational materials and game boards. Validate the content's
appropriateness, the language's usage, the coverage, and the objectives' conformity. thenmake improvements.
6. Bring learning materials and educational board games for evaluation by five specialists.
The specialists are experts in the creation of instructional materials and pedagogical board
games.
7. Bring learning materials and revised educational board games to test with sixty students
in order to improve.
8. Introduce instructional materials and educational board games.

ISSN: 2189-101X

452

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Examples of local wisdom board games

Figure 4: Examples of local wisdom board games
A questionnaire to measure students' satisfaction with the board game educational media
The satisfaction survey was used as a measure of sentiment. Students have both positive andnegative opinions of learning materials and educational board games. which seeks to measure
the satisfaction assessment form's behavior The researcher determined the behavior tomeasure based on five factors: 1) learning media components, educational board games; 2)learner performance; 3) STEAM education concepts; 4) local wisdom; and 5) classroom
environment. Using instructional materials, educational board games, and number 25 items inaccordance with the steps below:
1. Examine the concept of developing a satisfaction evaluation form. and developing asatisfaction survey covering the content and objectives.
2. Develop a satisfaction evaluation form that expresses emotions. Students have both
positive and negative opinions of learning materials and educational board games. The
researcher establishes the measurement of behavior based on 5 factors with 5 items foreach category, for a total of 25 items.

ISSN: 2189-101X

453

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

3. Present the satisfaction evaluation form to the research project consultant for verificationof its contents.
4. Utilize the customer satisfaction evaluation form to evaluate the Index of Concordance byhaving five experts evaluate the questions' validity in terms of their content and clarity.
5. Twenty questions from the revised satisfaction assessment questionnaire wereadministered to 60 students, per the recommendation of the expert.
6. Using Cronbach's alpha coefficient procedure, the confidence value of the entire versionof the satisfaction rating was calculated; this yielded the confidence value of the entire
version. and to truly use the customer satisfaction survey.
Steps: 3 The trial use of educational board game media.
This research is a quasi-experimental research in the form of One group pretest-post test
design.
Steps: 4 The evaluation of learning materials for educational board games.
1. The fundamental statistics used to interpret the satisfaction survey were: 1) mean, 2)
standard deviation, 3) percentage, and 4) learning media effectiveness. Using E1/E2
formulas, comprehend the educational game board.
2. To calculate the content validity index (IOC) and to calculate the confidence value of thesatisfaction questionnaire, the statistics were used to determine the quality of the
instruments.
3. t-tests for dependent samples and t-tests for a single sample were used to verify the
hypothesis.
Discussion
The results indicated that student satisfaction with the local wisdom board game in all fivecategories was as follows: The first aspect of learning media components, educational board
games, was at a satisfactory level; the second was learner performance; the third was STEAM
education concepts; the fourth was local wisdom; and the fifth was the classroom
environment.
Conclusion
The objectives of this research were: 1) to develop local wisdom board game media based on
the STEAM education concept to promote efficient innovators' competency; and 2) to study
the level of satisfaction of students towards the local wisdom board game media. Based on
the STEAM education concept to promote innovators' competency. The tools used in the
research were: 1) learning materials for board games of local wisdom based on the concept of
STEAM education to promote innovators' competency; 2) handbooks for learning materials
for board games of local wisdom based on the concept of STEAM education to promote
innovators' competency; and 3) a questionnaire to measure students' satisfaction towards
learning media for local wisdom board games based on the STEAM education concept topromote innovators' competency. The sample consisted of fifth-grade students. One study
group of 30 students was obtained by simple random sampling. The results showed that
evaluation results of the quality of learning media, board games, and local wisdom based on
the concept of STEAM education promote innovators' competency. The quality is very good.
And the students were satisfied with the learning materials, board games, and local wisdom

ISSN: 2189-101X

454

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

based on the concept of STEAM education to promote innovators' competency. At the mostsatisfactory level. The results indicated that student satisfaction with the local wisdom board
game in all five categories was as follows: The first aspect of learning media components,
educational board games, was at a satisfactory level; the second was learner performance; thethird was STEAM education concepts; the fourth was local wisdom; and the fifth was theclassroom environment.

Acknowledgements
The corresponding author would like to acknowledge Prof. Rungtiwa Yamrung for his inputs
and suggestions, as well as the support and help at the Faculty of Education, Srinakharinwirot
University, Thailand.

ISSN: 2189-101X

455

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

References
Chananporn Areekul. (2020). The Development of Board Game Learning Innovation to
Enhance Strong Citizenship of Undergraduate Students. Panyapanithan Journal, 5(2),137-150.
IMD WORLD COMPETITIVENESS CENTER. (2017). IMD WORLD DIGITALCOMPETITIVENESS RANKING 2017. Retrieved fromfile:///C:/Users/Macbook/Downloads/world_digital_competitiveness_yearbook_2017.
pdf
IMD WORLD COMPETITIVENESS CENTER. (2018). IMD WORLD DIGITALCOMPETITIVENESS RANKING 2017. Retrieved fromfile:///C:/Users/Macbook/Downloads/imd_world_digital_competitiveness_ranking_20
18.pdfNapasri Kwang and Tiparat Sittiwong. (2020). The study of the use of board games inteaching science subject Ecology to promote analytical thinking ability. for students
Grade 3, Srisamrong Chanupatham School. Humanities-Social Sciences Journal, 3(2),1-11.
Nuchanat Nuchmee, Naruemon Sirawong, Kanokporn Chantanarungphak. (2021). The
development of board games based on an investigational learning management
approach. computer crime story To promote systematic thinking of Mathayomsuksa 6
students. Journal of Educational Research Faculty of Education Srinakharinwirot
University, 16(2), 24-36.
Wachirawit Iamwilai. (2020). THE DEVELOPMENT OF BOARD GAME BASED ON
CRITICAL THINKING TO ENHANCED DIGITAL CITIZENSHIP OF 7TH GRADESTUDENTS. Educational Technology Program graduate school Srinakharinwirot
University.

Contact email: suwichaw@g.swu.ac.th

ISSN: 2189-101X

456

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

A Case Study of Pre-service Teachers’ Physics Laboratory Skill in Measurement
and Uncertainty
Trai Unyapoti, Srinakharinwirot University, Thailand
Suwicha Wansudon, Srinakharinwirot University, Thailand
Phatcharida Inthama, Srinakharinwirot University, Thailand
Thanida Sujarittham, Bansomdejchaopraya Rajabhat University, Thailand
The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023
Official Conference Proceedings
Abstract
In a physics laboratory, an experimental result and its uncertainty are significant because they
permit others to evaluate the quality of the experiment. This is the most essential competency
for high school science teachers. The purpose of this study was to explore laboratory skills inphysics, particularly measurement and uncertainty. Data were collected from pre-service
science teachers and pre-service physics teachers during the academic year 2022. The
participants were given a measurement and uncertainty exam during class. Their responses
were analyzed using the following procedures: reading an estimated value and uncertainty
from a measurement, giving the uncertainty from the repeated measurement, propagating
uncertainty, and writing the final results. The test revealed that the majority of responses
lacked knowledge of uncertainty and the propagation of uncertainty. They provided incorrect
answers and were unable to provide reasonable responses. In this work, the results will be
discussed, along with the future direction of the research.
Keywords: Physics Laboratory Skill, Measurement, Uncertainty, Pre-service Teacher

iafor
The International Academic Forumwww.iafor.org

ISSN: 2189-101X

457

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Introduction
An accuracy of an experimental result is essential for the scientific process. Eachmeasurement has an associated uncertainty; therefore, for the accuracy of the interpretation,
the measured data need to be accurate and precise. Normally, high school physics courses
connect physics theory with practicing in order to help students improve experimental skills(Parappilly et al., 2018; Ruhaisa & Jiradawan, 2018). This is an important skill for physics
teachers to help engage the students learning correctly. For our investigation, we found thatthe students who completed the fundamental physics laboratory courses often neglect themeasurement uncertainty. In addition, this can lead to the problem that students consider adata record as a number without interpreting its significant figure (Jirungnimitsakul &Wattanakasiwich, 2017; Ruhaisa & Jiradawan, 2018).
This study investigates the high school physics laboratory skill, in particular, measurement
and uncertainty from pre-service science teachers, pre-service physics teachers, and inservice teachers. This practical skill is important for the pre-service teachers to understandhow to teach physics laboratory.
Methodology
Participants
Data were obtained in the academic year 2022 from undergraduate students including, 23
pre-service science teachers and 21 pre-service physics teachers. The researches wereextended to 11 in-service physics teachers who have an experience to teach high school
physics laboratory.
Measurement and data collection
In this study, the Thai version of the measurement and uncertainty test was constructed basedon physics textbooks (Taylor, 1997). The test was distributed to the participants during thelaboratory class. There were five open-ended questions designed to evaluate students’
understanding and skills of measurement and uncertainty. The students were asked to solve
and find the final answer to each question. The students were required to complete the test in
30 minutes. The data from the in-service teachers were collected at the same condition. All of
their responses were analyzed based on reading an estimated value and uncertainty from ameasurement, giving the uncertainty from the repeated measurement, making propagation of
uncertainty, and writing the final answers.
The questions
Question 1: The result of measuring the diameter of a five-baht coin by using a ruler isshown in figure 1.

Figure 1: Measurement with a ruler

ISSN: 2189-101X

458

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

What is the diameter of the coin including its uncertainty from a single
measurement that should be reported in the result?
Question 2: The result from measuring the diameter of a five-baht coin by using a verniercaliper is shown in figure 2.

Figure 2: Measurement with a vernier caliper
What is the diameter of the coin including its uncertainty from a single
measurement that should be reported in the result?
Question 3: Select the appropriate diameter of a coin, between the answer in Questions 1
and 2, to calculate the area of a coin including its uncertainty.
Question 4: Measure the length of an object. The length of this object should be reported 6
times (in millimeters) with an instrument with an uncertainty of 0.1 mm. The
length is measured to be 23.1, 22.8, 22.7, 33.2, 23.0 and 22.6 respectively.
How the object length should be reported?
Question 5: The length of the spring hanging in a vertical line with a stand is 56.1 ± 0.2
cm. After that, hang the lower end of the spring with clips, the length of thespring then becomes 59.56 ± 0.06 cm. What is the change in the length of thisspring including its uncertainty?
Scoring and analysis
After the process of data collection, the answers of this work were analyzed by giving fivemarks for a full score. Each question was given one mark for the correct an estimated value
and uncertainty. If they provided only the estimated value without the uncertainty, we gavethem 0.5 mark. Another incorrect answer was zero. The answers of all participants weremarked by the same researcher.

Figure 3: The incorrect answers were from question 3: (a) the answer from pre-service
science teachers and (b) the answer from pre-service physics teachers

ISSN: 2189-101X

459

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Results and discussion
Overall, all three groups average scored higher than 50%. In-service physics teachers had thehighest average score. The average scores and standard deviation are presented in Table 1.
All groups performed the lowest scores on question 3, propagation of uncertainty. Examples
of incorrect answer in the question 3 is shown in figure 3. The students handed on the answer
without the calculation part of an error and gave the error from the radius r. Actually, thepossible answer could be 4.471 ± 0.007 cm2. In this case, they might just understand error of
propagation from the theory, but they did have difficulties in applying it to the real context.
Table 1: The mean score and standard deviation for each question in each grouppre-service
pre-service
in-service
sciencephysics
physics
teachers
teachers
teachers(N=23)(N=21)(N=11)
Question 1 (a single measurement)
0.74 ± 0.44
0.90 ± 0.29
0.77 ± 0.39
Question 2 (a single measurement)
0.59 ± 0.48
0.86 ± 0.35
0.68 ± 0.44
Question 3 (propagation of
0.35 ± 0.48
0.10 ± 0.20
0.68 ± 0.32
uncertainty)
Question 4 (repeated measurement)
0.64 ± 0.22
0.69 ± 0.13
0.75 ± 0.24
Question 5 (propagation of
0.54 ± 0.41
0.62 ± 0.26
0.82 ± 0.39
uncertainty)
Overall test (full = 5.00)
2.86 ± 0.42
3.17 ± 0.30
4.08 ± 0.37
From the results shown in Table 1, it can be seen that there is a difference between eachgroup. The in-service physics teacher will have the highest score at 4.08 ± 0.37. The lower
scores were the pre-service physics teachers and the pre-service science teachers at 3.17 ±0.30 and 2.86 ± 0.42, respectively. Comparing the scores in questions 3 and 5 of pre-service
science and physics teachers to the in-service physics teachers, we found that the lower
scores were from misunderstandings for finding the propagation of uncertainty. These aresimilar to other studies and important data for using for improving their laboratory skill(Jirungnimitsakul & Wattanakasiwich, 2017; van Kampen & Gkioka, 2021).
Conclusions
The results from the test revealed that the pre-service science and physics teachers had lower
skill than the experienced teacher especially the propagation of uncertainty. Measurements
and uncertainty are the core of physics, and it is important that the student teachers develop
an understanding of this topic for transferring in future teaching. The possible reason is thatstudents lacked studying and practicing the prior knowledge of measurement for high school
physics. This may cause their weakness to apply the concept to real situations (José Luis,
1999). The results would be benefit to this research and the other researchers to use as a
guideline to improve the quality of teaching and learning physics laboratory for pre-service
teachers.
Acknowledgments
We would like to thank Physics Education Network of Thailand (PENThai) for their valuablesuggestions. This project is supported by Faculty of Education, Srinakharinwirot University.

ISSN: 2189-101X

460

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

References
Jirungnimitsakul, S., & Wattanakasiwich, P. (2017). Assessing student understanding of
measurement and uncertainty. Journal of Physics: Conference Series, 901(1), 012121.
https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/901/1/012121
José Luis, G. (1999). On reporting uncertainties of the straight-line regression parameters.
European Journal of Physics, 20(5), 343. https://doi.org/10.1088/0143-0807/20/5/307
Parappilly, M., Hassam, C., & Woodman, R. J. (2018). Race to improve student
understanding of uncertainty: Using LEGO race cars in the physics lab. American
Journal of Physics, 86(1), 68-76. https://doi.org/10.1119/1.5003812
Ruhaisa, D., & Jiradawan, H. (2018). Students’ learning in Physics laboratory. Journal of
Physics: Conference Series, 1144(1), 012188. https://doi.org/10.1088/17426596/1144/1/012188
Taylor, J. R. (1997). An Introduction to Error Analysis: The Study of Uncertainties inPhysical Measurements. University Science Books.
https://books.google.co.th/books?id=ypNnQgAACAAJ
van Kampen, P., & Gkioka, O. (2021). Undergraduate students’ reasoning about the qualityof experimental measurements of covarying secondary data. European Journal of
Physics, 42(4), 045704. https://doi.org/10.1088/1361-6404/abfd27
Contact email: trai@g.swu.ac.th

ISSN: 2189-101X

461

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

ISSN: 2189-101X

462

Official Conference Proceedings

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Content and Language Integrated Learning for CSL Students Using a Picture-Book
Approach: An Action Research in Hong Kong Kindergartens
Karen Chingching Cheung, Hong Kong Baptist University, Hong Kong SAR
The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023
Official Conference Proceedings
Abstract
This paper examines the function of content and language integrated learning (CLIL)
approach in complementary multilingual kindergarten classrooms for non-Chinese-speaking(NCS) children learning Chinese characters in Hong Kong. The module of this study was
implemented with a picture-book approach. The participants comprised 28 learners ofChinese in the third year of kindergarten (K3) from both two kindergartens in Hong Kong.
The student participants came from Nepal, Pakistan, the Philippines, and India. The
participants’ learning of vocabulary was tested using a pre-test and delayed post-test design.
The results reveal that the CLIL module with picture modulest desighad similar positiveeffects on both speaking and reading. The lessons were videotaped, and the teachers wereinterviewed after the one-year intervention. The results of the pre-test analyses are discussed
along with how they could inform researchers, and pedagogical implications for teachers arepresented.
Keywords: CLIL, Teaching Chinese as a Second Language, Picture-Book Approachiafor
The International Academic Forumwww.iafor.org

ISSN: 2189-101X

463

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Introduction
Before Hong Kong’s handover to China in 1997, learning Chinese language was notmandatory for South Asian students in government-funded schools as the language subject
could be replaced with a European language subject, such as French or German. However,since transfer of sovereignty, ‘biliteracy and trilingualism’ has officially become theestablished language policy for education in the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region(HKSAR). The goal is for all residents of Hong Kong, regardless of ethnicity, to develop areasonably good command of written Chinese and English, as well as spoken Cantonese,
English, and Putonghua. Therefore, Chinese proficiency has become an obligatory
requirement for Hong Kong citizens. In this regard, ethnic-minority students who were bornin Hong Kong are required to learn Chinese like the majority of ethnic Chinese students.
However, catering to NCS students with varied Chinese-language capabilities has become amajor difficulty for teachers.
According to an annual report from Oxfam (2018), non-Chinese-speaking (NCS) children
have 20,000 hours less experience with listening to and speaking Chinese at the time when
they are enrolled in Hong Kong kindergartens (at approximately 3 years old) than Chinesechildren who learn Chinese as their first language. While Chinese children are able to raise
their hands and answer teachers’ questions in the classroom, NCS children still struggle tocomprehend what teachers are talking about. Due to the multilingual and multicultural
backgrounds of NCS learners, especially kindergarten learners who are emerging bilinguals,
it is difficult to help young NCS learners acquire Chinese in Hong Kong in such amultilingual context. Therefore, this study draws attention to the theory of content andlanguage integrated learning (CLIL) to accommodate NCS children’s diverse linguistic
practices in a multicultural early-childhood classroom.
This paper examines the function of a content and language integrated learning (CLIL)
module in two kindergartens and how their students create a variety of learning spaces
through a CLIL module. The implications of CLIL are discussed in the context of language
education for NCS learners, along with implications for future research.
Background
Teaching and Learning of Chinese in Hong Kong Kindergartens
In Hong Kong, it is normal for young Chinese children to start to learn basic Chinesecharacters when they are about 32 months old in their first year of kindergarten. However,learning content through Chinese is very challenging to both teachers and NCS students inHong Kong kindergartens due to the lack of teaching training and learning materials. Thus,
there is an urgent need to find more efficient ways to teach and learn Chinese, which is one of
the major reasons why attention is being paid to CLIL. The term ‘CLIL’ was coined in 1994
by David Marsh and Anne Meijer’s (among others) as an umbrella term to encompass a wide
range of situations related to ‘the experience of learning non-language subjects through aforeign language’ (Marsh, 2012: 28).
CLIL is considered to be an alternative path to conventional classroom and is believed to be a
way to transcend the perceived weaknesses of traditional teaching. It has become popular,
and CLIL programmes have spread all over Europe in the last decade. In the past, learning
content through a second language was limited to very specific social groups, but with CLIL

ISSN: 2189-101X

464

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

initiatives, a wider range of learners can now have access to this type of language education,
not only those from privileged or elite backgrounds (Arantxa, David, 2015). Nevertheless,education authorities need to evaluate these new programmes and research particular projects
to find out what the real benefits and limitations of CLIL might be. This is particularly
necessary in Hong Kong, where kindergartens have many NCS children, and programmesthat promote Chinese learning are often perceived as a new challenge. As a result, those
programmes have been considered highly controversial.
This study considers the potential benefits and challenges of implementing CLIL for NCS
children in light of existing research. It highlights the relative lack of attention that has been
directed towards CLIL at kindergarten levels so far. Furthermore, a particular pedagogy thatmight be suitable for CLIL implementation with NCS children in Hong Kong is suggested.
Literature Review
CLIL and Second Language Learning‘CLIL is an approach in which a foreign language is used as a tool in the learning of a nonlanguage subject in which both language and the subject have a joint role’ (Marsh in Coyle:2006).
CLIL is a teaching approach in which an additional language is used for the teaching andlearning subjects with a dual focus on language and content. According to Coyle et al.
(2010), CLIL is a post-method pedagogy model that has been influenced by different theories
that have traditionally had an enormous impact on education. Some of the commonly
mentioned benefits of CLIL include the triggering of high levels of communication between
teachers and learners and among learners themselves, as well as improving overall language
competence in the target language, particularly oral skills (Arantxa , David, 2015).
As Brown (2006: 91) notes, there are a multitude of reasons why children may have difficultyacquiring a second language, including complex personal, social, cultural, and politicalfactors. In response to these, the CLIL approach may offer greater and more flexible
opportunities to improve language learning. According to Marsh (2000), CLIL offers young
learners more realistic and natural opportunities to learn and use an additional language insuch a way that they soon forget about learning the language as such and focus only on
learning the content.
CLIL and Vocabulary Learning
A widely discussed topic in language acquisition is the learning of vocabulary. Consequently,
CLIL approaches have given special attention to this topic. It is argued that in a CLIL setting,there are more opportunities to learn vocabulary because it is used in contexts for realcommunication. As a result, learning takes place in a more meaningful way. Many studies
seem to support the idea that CLIL has a positive effect on the acquisition of general
vocabulary of a target language, with receptive vocabulary being more clearly affected than
productive (Arantxa, David, 2015).
Nevertheless, more evidence is needed for the impact of the CLIL approach on more specific,
content-related vocabulary in both production and reception. In order to fill this gap in theliterature, this study examines the content-related vocabulary in both production and

ISSN: 2189-101X

465

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

reception in pre-test and post-test phases. The main target is specific content-related
vocabulary. Picture books were made based on eight unit topics that are commonly used bykindergartens. The reason for choosing the vocabulary used is that learning vocabulary is oneof the objectives of the curriculum. By targeting this particular type of vocabulary, we focus
on how well NCS students learn Chinese by CILI approach, which is an area that has notbeen greatly researched.
Second Language Acquisition Theory
Second Language Acquisition (SLA) theory refers to the study of learning a second or
additional language aside from one’s first language. The first language is referred to as L1,
while the secondary language is referred to as L2 or the target language. Dale, van der Es,
and Tanner (2010, pp. 20-21) provide a useful overview of four areas of SLA theory that are
relevant to CLIL teachers: input theory, intake theory, output theory, and social models of
second language acquisition. Language input theories in SLA emphasize that the input given
to learners (the language they read and hear) needs to be meaningful, relevant, and realistic. It
should also be at a slightly higher level than the current level of the learner (i+1, where irepresents the current language level) (Krashen, 1985). Input theory also recognises thatlearners will be able to understand more language than they are able to produce in the target
language.
Intake theory also focuses on the input learners receive but places more focus on the need forlearners to encounter L2 frequently, as well as the time needed to process this language(Long, 1983). Output theory argues that learners have to produce the second language inorder to learn it. By speaking or writing, learners can then notice the differences between
what they can produce and what they want to produce(Swain, 1985). Furthermore, output
theory emphasizes the need for learners to be creative and make mistakes with the second
language. Language production is key to learning L2 according to output theories of SLA(Swain, 1995).
CLIL in Early Childhood Education
Marsh (2012) has observed that since the mid-1990s, CLIL has expanded considerably inEurope, where ‘early language learning, whether at kindergarten, pre-school or primary,inevitably involved forms of CLIL’ (p. 133). He notes a number of new European initiatives
to implement CLIL with pre-secondary learners, although it seems that not much data are
available on the relative success of any of these, and it is necessary to admit that CLIL
‘statistics are particularly hard to obtain on kindergarten and pre-schooling’ (p. 175). There
have been some specific studies on CLIL with pre-secondary learners (e.g. Buchholz (2007)),
but again, they are mostly from Europe, which highlights the general lack of research on
CLIL for young learners worldwide.
Part of the reason for this may be that in many regions, there is little practical knowledge
about what CLIL and related approaches really represent and how to implement them, not tomention resources to carry out quality educational research. Even where such knowledge andresources are available, CLIL may often be understood as an approach that is more suitablefor older children who are already equipped with more advanced academic/cognitive skills,
as well as perhaps some competence in the vehicular language. However, it is also the casethat CLIL approaches become less CLIL-like with younger children; in other words,
educational approaches involving additional languages with younger children have long been

ISSN: 2189-101X

466

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

more CLIL-like than is appreciated by many educators (Marsh, 2012). Indeed, Coyle, Hood,and Marsh (2010) emphasize that ‘it is often hard to distinguish CLIL from standard forms ofgood practice in early language learning,’ in which children’s ‘main focus is on the doing –be it playing, singing, drawing, building models, or other activities’ (p. 17). This reflects thefindings of a European Commission study on teaching additional languages to very young
learners (Edelenbos, Johnstone & Kubanek, 2006). Thus, good practice in teaching additional
languages to children (see Bialystok, 2008; Cameron, 2001) is indeed also good CLIL
practice to a certain extent.
This study considers the potential benefits and challenges of implementing CLIL for NCS
children in light of the existing research. The study highlights the relative lack of attention
that has been directed thus far towards CLIL in early-childhood education in Hong Kong.
There are few research-based empirical studies that investigate the function of CLIL with apicture-book approach, particularly among NCS children. Therefore, the main aim of thisaction research is to investigate the impact of CLIL on learning Chinese characters among
NCS students in Hong Kong kindergartens.
Methods and Participants
The Action Research
The present study is based on the hypothesis that a CLIL picture-book approach can help
students with learning Chinese characters in a more effective manner than the traditional
educational methodology. Two kindergartens were examined with regard to Chinese
language teaching. The research questions are the following:
1) Can CLIL with a picture-book approach facilitate the learning of Chinese charactersamong NCS kindergarten students?
2) What is the function of CLIL for NCS children’s learning of Chinese in Hong Kong
kindergartens?
The participants in this study were 28 learners in the third year of kindergarten (K3) from twokindergartens in Hong Kong. The student participants came from Nepal, Pakistan, thePhilippines, and India. An action research method was used to compare the performance of
these NCS learners with respect to three aspects of Chinese character mastery: shape, sound,and meaning recognition. Data obtained from lesson observations and recordings of student
interactions during the lessons. Audio and video recordings were taken, and semi-formalinterviews were conducted with both of the teachers involved. All teacher participants wereformally interviewed twice per year, and the researchers took detailed notes. Student work
samples and other items were collected from the school and classroom, and video or audio
were recorded from lesson observations and classroom discourses for detailed analysis.
Planning and participants
Two kindergartens (A and B) collaborated with us in this project. The students ofKindergarten A are entirely NCS children , whereas those in Kindergarten B are mainly local
ethnic Chinese children. Prior to the trial teaching, staff of the research team visited the twopartner schools to understand their usual teaching situations, prepared teaching materials anddiscussed the arrangement of the pre-test with the schoolteachers . The time schedule andarrangement of teaching materials were decided according to each kindergarten’s school-

ISSN: 2189-101X

467

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

based curriculum. In addition, samples of NCS students’ exercises and tests were collected toprepare for the comparative analysis in later stages. 20 NCS children from Kindergarten A
and 8 NCS children from Kindergarten B took part in the pre-test and the post-test.
The curriculum content of CLIL approach
When organising curriculum content, fragmented and trivial learning content is notrecommended, and in order to connect different learning area the researcher team had selectfamiliar experiences or events related to children’s daily life as the learning themes based on
their interests, pace of development, abilities and prior knowledge. Featuring the 4 C
elements of CLIL suggested by Coyle et al. (2010), the aim of the curriculum is to develop
NCS students’ interest in learning Chinese characters and culture, as well as to reinforce theirunderstanding of Chinese language. The CLIL approach was taken as a reference for thecharacter recognition strategy used in this study to examine the effectiveness of this approachin assisting NCS students’ acquisition of Chinese characters. As a result, the existing Chinesecharacter-recognition pedagogies can then be reflected upon and modified. The theoreticalframework of the CLIL picture-book approach for Chinese characters is shown in Figure 1.
• Speaking
and listening• Role play

• Chinesecharacterrecognition

Communication

Cognition

CultureContent•• Picture bookreading• Chinese
idom story
telling

Figure 1: The theoretical framework of CLIL with picture-book approach forlearning Chinese characters
Chinese Picture Books and Related Learning Materials
The contents of our picture books were based on eight unit topics that are commonly used byHong Kong kindergartens. An integrated approach that coherently connects different learning
areas, e.g. schools, families, friends and relatives, food, transportation, community, four
seasons and festivals, etc. were adopted to facilitate a balanced development of children in
the domains of ethics, intellect, physique, social skills. The picture book themes consists of aseries of learning experiences (See Figure 2: The themes of picture books connecting
different learning areas with an integrated approach).

ISSN: 2189-101X

468

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Chapter 1
FamilyChapter 8
Community

Chapter 2
Food

Chapter 7
Transportation

Chapter 3
AnimalChapter 6
SeasonChapter 4
Festival
Chapter 5
Body

Figure 2: The themes of picture books connecting different learning areas withan integrated approach
The Rationale for Using Picture Books
Picture books are an important medium through which young children acquire new language
and concepts (Strouse, Nyhout, & Ganea, 2018). Recent research on picture books has
attempted to identify what features of such books support or hinder children’s learning andtransfer of information to the real world (e.g., Ganea, Pickard, & DeLoache, 2008; Ganea &Canfield, 2015). Looking at picture books can be considered as an early form of reading. A
picture book tells stories through pictures and words, and its visual and intuitive style ofpresentation matches the psychological features of children, as promoted by the Kindergarten
Education Curriculum Guide (Education Bureau, 2019). The curriculum guide encourages
teachers to guide children with observation, saying food names or the meanings of pictures,and to enhance their speaking and expression capabilities using pictures. The stories inpicture books match children’s life experiences, interests, and prior knowledge and arecreated with suitable levels of difficulty of text and repetitive sentences. The way of
combining pictures and words also helps students establish in their minds a connection
between the orthography and semantics of characters. Based on these characteristics, picture
books were chosen as the main vehicle for reading materials in this study.
The picture books, worksheets, and character cards were all related as a set of learningmaterials. They had orthographic, phonological, and semantic inputs of Chinese characters aswell as comprehensible output. Conducted in different forms of lesson organization, anothergoal of the study was to re-emphasize knowledge points at different time periods based on a
set repetition frequency and repetition period. Frequent repetition helps students convert
short-term memory to long-term memory and form a mental lexicon. Figure 3 shows theteaching process of picture-book approach for character recognition.

ISSN: 2189-101X

469

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Comprehensible
Input• Character
recognition• Scaffolding• Reading

Official Conference Proceedings

Speaking
Listerning andwriting

Comprehensible
output• Read aloudapproach• Card game
• Worksheet• Ending
imagination• Role play

Figure 3: The teaching process of CLIL with a picture-book approach
The Assessment Tools
After finishing the preliminary work and the production of content-related materials, sevenmonth lesson observations and paired readings were performed twice a week. There were
three lesson observations for each school and a total of 18 paired readings in the wholeacademic year. At the end of the experimental period, the children were given a post-learningassessment (post-test), which contained the same evaluation tools and contents as the prelearning assessment given at the start of the experimental period. The study evaluated theeffectiveness of the CLIL picture-book approach based on the results of the two assessments
and analysed the differences in the children’s Chinese proficiency.
Results and Analysis
Pre- and Post-Test Performance Comparisons
Table 3 and Table 4 show the average scores of the 28 NCS students in the pre-test and posttest and the comparisons using the paired-sample t-test from the two kindergartens in thethree assessments. The statistics show that the NCS students from the two kindergartens had
significant improvements in their overall results after the picture-book teaching, especially at
Kindergarten B (p = 0.00, paired-sample t test). For the 20 students from Kindergarten A, theaverage pre-test score was 37.5, and the average post-test score significantly increased to48.5 (p < 0.05, paired-sample t test; Table 3).

ISSN: 2189-101X

470

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Score

Pre-test
Average
score

n =20
Standard
deviation

Post-test
Averagescore

n=20
Standard
deviation

Recognising characterswith pictures

30

10.9

6.76

14.63

8.27

Distinguishingpronunciations

20

8.8

5.04

9.58

3.86

Associating words
with pictures

30

8.57

9.63

17.54

7.8

Total score*P<0.01

80

37.5

21.29

42.17

21.05

Test items

Table 3: Pre- and post-test results of Kindergarten A(whose students are entirely NCS children)
Score

Pre-test
Averagescore

n =8Standard
deviation

Post-test
Averagescore

n=8Standard
deviation

30

9

4.14

8.25

8.03

20

4.75

4.65

7.5

4.87

30

3.75

6.71

23.5

8.67

80

21.87

16.67

49.06

21.50

Test items
Recognising characterswith pictures
Distinguishingpronunciations
Associating words
with pictures
Total score*P<0.01

Table 4: Pre- and post-test results of Kindergarten B(whose students are mainly local children)
A much greater increase was observed for the 8 students from Kindergarten B with anaverage post-test score of 39, which is double the pre-test score of 20.5 (Table 4). The reason
for this difference could be the fact that all students in Kindergarten A were entirely NCS
students, but Kindergarten B had mainly native Chinese-speaking students. Therefore, theNCS children from Kindergarten B might have more exposure to Cantonese than those from
Kindergarten A as a result of the interactions with ethnically Chinese children. According to
the teachers from Kindergarten B, some of the NCS students made friends with the Chinesespeaking classmates, so they had many opportunities to hear and speak Cantonese in their
daily conversations. This difference in the natural language environment may explain thediscrepancies between the two groups of NCS students, as well as highlight the importantrole of real-life spoken communication in NCS students’ acquisition of Chinese.
The improvement in speaking-related test on associating words with pictures at both schools
was the most remarkable (p < 0.05, paired-sample t-test). The results indicate that the CLIL
picture-book approach is very efficient in helping NCS students develop both of speaking(vocabulary production) and reading (vocabulary reception) by connecting character soundswith meaningful context. Compared to the other areas, the evidence shows that students’

ISSN: 2189-101X

471

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

content related lexicons grew richer, and their decoding ability was sharpened with the helpof pictures. The results from the three assessments and lesson observations revealed that NCS
children’s improvement of vocabulary production was far more than the improvement invocabulary reception due to much greater exposure to the comprehensible output.
The results of the assessment support that the CLIL picture-book approach can facilitate
kindergarten NCS children’s acquisition of Chinese characters, especially for their speaking
development, as well as improve overall competence in the target language, particularly oral
skills. The CLIL pedagogy provides NCS students with more real-life experience for them tobecome creative speakers with Chinese in the CLIL classroom.
The results of the assessments and lesson observations also indicated that improving learners’
affective dimension has also been a beneficial effect of the proposed approach. NCS students
seem to feel more motivated to learn and speak Cantonese in the classroom. This could result
from experiencing less stress and anxiety in a learning environment where the focus is not
only on language forms, but also meaning and real-life experience. Thus, we suggest that the
CLIL picture-book approach helps to make the process of learning Chinese characters moremeaningful and less stressful for NCS students.
Pedagogical Implications
Teacher Training in CLIL
An excellent teaching force is an important part of language education. It is obvious thatteachers’ continuous enhancement of professional knowledge can improve teaching quality,and facilitate the progress of development. To enhance professional competence, there is aneed to provide indications to teacher-education institutions called upon to train CLIL
teachers. It is suggested that some specific teacher-training courses in this area be provided
for kindergarten teachers.
One highlighted aspect of teacher training for CLIL lessons is the teachers’ lack ofunderstanding of the role of language in learning. According to the interviews with the twokindergarten teachers, there is no normal training provided to a non-language subject teacher.
It is probably not wholly considered in the training of second language teachers either as
attention tends to focus on issues of language and language learning rather than on the role oflanguage in learning in general. The teachers become unaware of the issues and of the need tohave strategies for facing related problems. For this reason, certain aspects are highlighted fora CLIL training course, which the kindergarten teachers feel are important and needed
despite their previous training and accumulated experience in the field. The needs highlighted
are:a. Understanding the skill to promote NCS students speaking Chineseb. Understanding knowledge to create exercises and activities in CLIL lessonsc. Knowing strategies to overcome problems of comprehension in CLIL lessons
In order to construct a CLIL classroom, it is essential for teacher to sustain and enhancechildren’s learning interest and motivation in learning Chinese, thus it is advised to focus on
the teachers training by the following expects:

ISSN: 2189-101X

472

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

1. Provide children with opportunities to explore freely, discover knowledge and validate
their discovery in learning Chinese by real life experience.
2. Take note of learner’s difficulty and differences, encourage children to learn by using
their senses and multilingual repertoire.
3. Promote all-round development by choosing real-life themes and provide children withinteresting learning experiences by CLIL approach.
Given the paucity of CLIL materials, teachers need to be able to adapt for the specific needs
and aims or objectives of the course and lessons. It is suggested that there are three possible
ways for kindergarten teachers to acquire this competence: 1) working with language teachers
to co-construct the curriculum; 2) joint work among teachers to develop and discussmaterials, websites, and their use; 3) creation of specific CLIL websites on content areas,
published periodicals for different subjects, and periodical newsletters on different themes. In
addition, the government could centralize resources for the development and research ofmulti-model teaching materials in the future.
Conclusion
This study has investigated the function of CLIL for teaching Chinese to NCS children in
Hong Kong kindergartens. After one year of trial teaching and lesson observations, the CLIL
approach with picture books was found to be beneficial to the NCS children’s oral skills. The
results show that the proposed approach can also enrich their mental lexicon and possibly
facilitate the transition between kindergartens and primary schools.
Although the project has made certain contributions to the teaching of Chinese characters to
NCS children, there is still much to be explored. The present study is subject to several
limitations. It adopted only two cases and the sample size of kindergarten B with a small
number of NCS children. The findings cannot be generalised to other school contexts.
Therefore, it is recommended that the scope of future study be extended to a larger group of
NCS children and their teachers, so as to examine the impact of CLIL approach on a wider
range of NCS children for a longer period of time.

ISSN: 2189-101X

473

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

References
Arantxa Heras, David Lasagabaster (2015) Language Teaching Research 2015, Vol.19(1)70–88 DOI: 10.1177/1362168814541736 ltr.sagepub.com
Baker, C. (1996). Foundations of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, (2°edition).
Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.
Brown, H. D. (2006). Teaching by principles: An interactive approach to language pedagogy(5th ed.). White Plains, NY: Longman.
Census and Statistics Department (2017). 2016 Hong Kong Population By-Census. HongKong: HKSAR Government.
Census and Statistics Department (2018). Hong Kong Poverty Situation Report on Ethnic
Minorities 2016. Hong Kong: HKSAR Government.
Coyle, D. (2005). CLIL planning tools for teachers.
https://www.unifg.it/sites/default/files/allegatiparagrafo/20-01Coyle, D. (2008). CLIL: A pedagogical approach from the European perspective. In N. Van
Deusen-Sholl & N.H. Hornberger (Eds.), Encyclopaedia of language and education:
Volume 4: Knowledge about language (pp. 97–111). New York: Springer.
Coyle, D. (2010). Foreword. In D. Lasagabaster & Y. Ruiz de Zarobe (Eds.), CLIL in Spain:
Implementation, results and teacher training (pp. vii–viii). Newcastle upon Tyne:
Cambridge Scholars Publishers.
Coyle, D., Hood, P., & Marsh, D. (2010). CLIL: Content and language integrated learning.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
D. Nunan, Second language teaching and learning. Boston: Heinle & Heinle, 1999.
Dai R.Q. (1998). Zhongguo neidi shizi jiaoxue [Teaching Chinese Characters in Mainland
China]. In R.Q. Dai, S.K. Tse, & J.J. Hao (Eds.), Hanzi Jiao Yu Xue (pp. 110-307).
Shandong: Shandong Educational Press.
Dale, L., van der Es, W. and Tanner, R. (2010) CLIL skills. Leiden: ICLON, Leiden
University.
Education Bureau. (2017). Kindergarten Education Curriculum Guide. Hong Kong:
Education Bureau, HKSAR Government.
Education Bureau. (2019). Kindergarten Education Curriculum Guide. HongKong:Education Bureau, HKSAR Government.
Erni, J.N., & Leung, L. (2014). Understanding South Asian Minorities in Hong Kong. HongKong: Hong Kong University Press.

ISSN: 2189-101X

474

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Ganea, P.A., & Canfield, C. (2015). Learning from picture books: from infancy to earlyschool days. In B. Kummerling-Meibauer, J. Meibauer, K. Nachtigaller, & K,
Rohlfing (Eds.), Learning from Picturebooks: Perspectives from Child Development
and Literacy Studies (pp. 33-50). New York, NY: Routledge.
Krashen, S. D. (1985). The input hypothesis: Issues and implications. Addison-WesleyLongman Ltd.
Lee, M.T.N., Tse, S.K., & Loh, E.K.Y. (2011). The impact of the integrative perceptual
approach on the teaching of Chinese characters in a Hong Kong kindergarten. Early
Child Development and Care, 181(5), 665-679.
Marsh, D. (2000). Using languages to learn and learning to use languages: An introduction tocontent and language integrated learning for parents and young people (D. Marsh &G.
Langé, Eds.). Jyväskylä, Finland/Milan, Italy: TIE-CLIL, University
ofJyväskylä/Ministero della Pubblica Istruzione.
Marsh, D. (2012). Content and language integrated learning (CLIL): A development
trajectory. Córdoba, Spain: University of Córdoba.
Marsh, D., & Frigols Martín, M. J. (2012). Content and language integrated learning. The
encyclopedia of applied linguistics. Boston, Blackwell Publishing.
M. Mattheoudakis, T. Alexiou, and C. Laskaridou, (2013). „To CLIL or not to CLIL? The
Case of the 3rd Experimental Primary School in Evosmos‟. Available at
http://clil.web.auth.gr/links/To_CLIL_or_not_to_CLIL.pdf
Oxfam Hong Kong (2018). Hong Kong Inequality Report. Hong Kong: Oxfam.
P. Mehisto, (2008, January). ‘CLIL Counterweights: Recognizing and Decreasing
Disjuncture in CLIL’, International CLIL Research Journal, vol. I. Available at
http://www.icrj.eu/11/article8.html
P. Mehisto, D. Marsh and M. J. Frigols, Uncovering CLIL. Content and Language Integrated
learning in Bilingual and Multilingual Education. Oxford: Macmillan, 2008.
Swain, M. (1985). Communicative competence: Some roles of comprehensible input andcomprehensible output in its development. In S. Gass & C. Madden (Eds.), Input insecond language acquisition (pp. 235-253). Rowley, MA: Newbury House.
Swain, M. (1995). Three functions of output in second language learning. In G. Cook and B.
Seidhofer (Eds.), Principles and practise in applied linguistics (pp. 125-144). New
York: Oxford University Press.
Swain, M. (1998). Focus on form through conscious reflection. In C. Doughty and J.
Williams (Eds.), Focus on form in classroom second language acquisition (pp. 6481). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

ISSN: 2189-101X

475

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Swain, M. (2000). The output hypothesis and beyond: Mediating acquisition throughcollaborative dialogue. In J. P. Lantolf (Ed.), Sociocultural theory and second
language learning (pp. 97–114). New York: Oxford University Press.
Strouse, G.A., Nyhout, A., & Ganea, P.A. (2018). The role of book features in young
children’s transfer of information from picture books to real-world contexts. Frontiersin Psychology, 9, Article 50.
Tse, S.K., Marton, F., Ki, W.W., & Loh, E.K.Y. (2007). An integrative perceptual approachto teach Chinese characters. Instructional Science, 35, 375-406.

ISSN: 2189-101X

476

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Procedural Checkpoint-Infused Laboratory Activity: Impact on the Attitude Towards
Physics Among STEM Students With Varying Academic Achievement
Gian May M. Morgado, San Beda University, Philippines
Jhoanne C. Orillo, De La Salle University, Philippines
The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023
Official Conference Proceedings
Abstract
As learners are now back in the classroom since the COVID-19 pandemic outbreak, it wasobserved that there is a growing negative attitude towards physics among the grade 12 STEM
students. Self-assessment was used as a basis to enhance hands-on laboratory activities byinfusing procedural checkpoint questions in laboratory worksheets that will elicit students’
active participation during the activity. The researcher determined the impact of enhancedlaboratory activities on the attitudes towards physics of students with different academic
achievements. Groups of high achieving and low achieving students were exposed tolaboratory activities based on traditional (TLA) and enhanced (PCILA) structure. Four factorsof attitude towards physics course were measured using the Physics Course Attitude Scale(PCAS) by Cermik and Kara (2020), specifically the students’ F1) interest F2) unwillingness
F3) academic self and F4) necessity. Two-way ANOVA was used to determine theinteraction of the factors on the attitude toward the physics course. Data reveals that among
the factors of attitude, only interest is influenced by academic achievement of the learners
and that neither academic achievement nor laboratory activities can be a predictor of
students’ attitude toward physics. Furthermore, the interaction of academic achievement andtype of laboratory activity doesn’t significantly change students’ attitude toward physics
course.
Keywords: Attitude, Physics, Achievement

iafor
The International Academic Forumwww.iafor.org

ISSN: 2189-101X

477

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Introduction
Science education is an integral part of students’ primary and secondary education. Amongthe science courses which appears problematic learners is Physics. Studies have revealed thatmost high school students perceive introductory physics as difficult particularly theapplication of knowledge into real-life and problem solving (Nava & Camarao, 2017). Apartfrom the cognitive requirement of the course, the transition to distance learning due to
COVID in the last two years have contributed to students’ negative view on physics. Some
problems that contributed to such negative view are technical problems i.e., inter-connection,lack or resources at home, limited communication between teachers and classmates, and the
reduced experimental activities (Stefanidou, 2022). As learners are now back in theclassroom it was observed that there is a negative attitude towards physics among the grade
12 STEM students.
Students’ Attitude towards Physics and their Achievement in the Course
The negative attitude of students towards Physics among grade 12 students poses a concern intheir achievement in Physics. A key factor in the realm of learning has been found to affectstudents’ achievement in science, one of which is the attitude towards the subject. The
relationship of students’ attitude towards science and achievement has been widely exploredover the years. Correlational studies show that the attitude toward science of students in thesecondary level has a significant relationship with their achievement in subject (Wilson,
1983; Shabbir Ali & Awan, 2013; Mao et. al., 2021). Research have cited that there issignificant relationship between students’ attitude and achievement in Physics. It implies thatstudents with positive attitude towards physics are more likely to achieve in the subject. Thus,
students' attitude can be a predictor of achievement in physics (Martinko & Vorkapić, 2017).
It has also been recently found that the attitudes of students towards Physics is a crucial
requirement for students who are new to learning Physics in order to continue and enhance
the learning process (Hernanez-Suarez, et. al, 2022).
Laboratory Activities and Students’ Attitude Towards Physics
Several pedagogical approaches have been developed in order to increase students’ interest in
Physics and one of which is the integration of hands-on laboratory experiments. OrganBekiroglu (2017) found that provision of technology supported and laboratory-based
instructions to students leads to an increase in positive attitude toward physics. The study also
showed that the impact on students’ attitudes towards Physics is not significantly different
than the impact of technology-based instructions. Furthermore, integrating technology andlaboratory experiments such as virtual laboratory can enhance students’ problem solving,
critical thinking, creativity, conceptual understanding, science process skills, lab skills,
motivation, interest, perception, and learning outcomes (Firman & Iwarto, 2017).
A substantial amount of research show that the use of nontechnology-based laboratory
activities in Physics courses has a significant impact on the attitude of students in science.
The integration of hands-on laboratory programs and instructions can positively improve theattitude of students towards science (Freedman, 1997; Adesoji & Raimi, 2004).
However, recent studies prove otherwise. Hands-on experiments do not significantly affectstudents' interest and perceived usefulness of the experiment. And that most students feel that
more effort is needed in laboratory activities (Snetinova, et. al., 2018). Applying real and

ISSN: 2189-101X

478

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

virtual laboratory activities does not directly affect students learning outcomes neither can theachievement motivation be a predictor of student's learning outcomes (Ernita, et. al., 2021).
These recent developments pose a question whether enhancing hands-on laboratory activities
can still be utilized to enhance students’ attitude toward science.
Procedural Questions as Self-Assessments on Students’ Motivation and Attitude
Mcmillan & Hearn (2008) found in their study that greater student involved in the selfassessment process, that is involvement in reflection and monitoring of learning and thinking,results to greater student motivation by providing a greater sense of ownership andresponsibility. There is also a strong correlation between self-assessment and motivation
among learners (Prataman, 2018). Furthermore, as self-assessment has been proven to
positively affect students' academic skills, it is also a strong chance of increasing secondary
students’ academic intrinsic motivation for self-assessment enables students to criticallyassess their work and provides them skills that they may utilize for their academic future(Bengston, 2020).
Some studies revealed that students' attitude towards physics subjects and motivation areinterconnected such that there is a unidirectional relationship between motivation andattitude. If students' motivation rises, then the attitude rise, and if the motivation drops thenthe attitude drops as well (Astalini, et. al., 2019). In the Philippine context, the same
relationship between motivation and attitude were found (Guido, 2020). Since the motivationand self-assessments may influence students’ attitudes then, such connection may be
implored to enhance hands-on experiments in order to be a tool to scaffold students’ attitudes
toward science.
Research Questions
Self-assessment will be used as a basis to enhance hands-on laboratory activities by infusing
checkpoint questions in the worksheets that will elicit students’ active participation during theactivity. The researcher wants to determine if enhanced laboratory activities have an impact
on the attitudes towards physics of students with different academic achievements.
Specifically, the researcher wanted to know (a) if the infusing checkpoint questions in thelaboratory activities will influence the attitude of the students toward the physics course (b)does the academic achievement of students influence their attitude toward the physics course(c) is there a significant interaction between students’ achievement and the type of laboratory
activity and whether they could influence the attitude of students toward physics.
Hypothesis 1: There is no significant difference between the students who answered thecheckpoint infused laboratory activity in relation to their attitude toward physics course.
Hypothesis 2: There is no significant difference between the students with high achievement
and low achievement in their attitude toward the physics course in terms of the following
factors: a) their interest towards the subject; b) unwillingness to learn the subject; c) academic
perspective of themselves in the subject; d) necessity to learn the subject.
Hypothesis 3: There is no significant interaction between the type of laboratory activity taken
by students and their achievement level in relation to their attitude towards the physics
course.

ISSN: 2189-101X

479

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Methods
SampleThis study examined 48 grade 12 students under the age of 17 to 18 years of age and areenrolled in the Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM). The
participants were from the Biomedical and Information, Communication, & Technology
specializations who are taking the General Physics 1 course in their first semester. Foursections from the said specializations were used with participants consisting of 19 males and
29 females. The said number of participants were grouped according to their academic
achievement in their physics course. The academic achievement in physics of the students
were determined using their midterm grade in the course. Only the students with extreme
scores, the students with the highest and lowest marks, were allowed to participate in the
study. A parent/guardian consent form was also provided to the participants before
participating in the study.
Table 1. Descriptive statistics of the Achievement Level of Participants
No. ofStudents
Percent
High
24
50.0
Achievement
Low
24
50.0
Achievement
Total
48
100.0
Male
19
39.6
Female
29
60.4
Total
48
100.0
Measures
Four factors in the attitudes towards physics were measured, which are 1) Interest, 2)
Unwillingness, 3) Academic self, and 4) Necessity using the Physics Course Attitude Scale(PCAS) by Cermik and Kara (2020). The survey is a Likert Scale with positive and negative
statements about the four factors of attitude specifically, interest (n = 4), unwillingness (n =6), academic self (n = 5), and necessity (n = 5). The students’ achievement levels were also
determined using their midterm grades in their physics course which is a numerical report oftheir performance in the subject. Their academic achievement level in their physics course
was used in determining the groups in the study.
Procedures
The researcher designed an enhanced laboratory activity with checkpoint questions thatwould serve as students’ self-assessment as they are conducting the activity. The traditional
laboratory activity had the usual parts pf a laboratory activity such as (a) objectives, (b)introduction, (c) procedure, (d) data and results, (e) analysis and (f) guide questions while theenhance laboratory activity were infused with checkpoint questions that would enable
students to become more involved in the activity. The enhanced laboratory activity was called
Procedural Checkpoint Infused Laboratory Activity (PCILA). Sample procedural questions
and their corresponding domains are shown in Table 2. These procedural questions infused in

ISSN: 2189-101X

480

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

the laboratory activity were validated by group of professional physics teachers before thedeployment of the enhanced laboratory activity.
Table 2. Sample Procedural Checkpoint Questions and Laboratory Domains
Domains
Question
Active Reflection
Checkpoint 1:
Which part of the procedure is difficult to conduct and how do you
think this step would affect the data in the experiment?
Pre-Data Analysis
Checkpoint 2:
Based on the current trend of the data gathered, what are theindependent and dependent variables?
Troubleshooting
Checkpoint 3:
What are the percent errors/percent differences of your data and theactual data? What do you think contributed to these errors?
Extension
Checkpoint 4:
How would the procedures change if the equation for the acceleration
due to gravity is modified into
𝒂 𝒎𝟏 + 𝒎 𝟐
𝒈=
𝒎𝟐 − 𝒎 𝟏
instead of the initial𝒂 𝒎𝟏 + 𝒎 𝟐
𝒈=
𝒎𝟏 − 𝒎 𝟐
The participating sections were grouped into four according to their achievement levels on
the basis of their midterm grades. Each groups had equal number of high and low achieving
students. Two groups were given the Procedural Checkpoint Infused Laboratory Activities(PCILA) and two groups received the Traditional Laboratory Activity (TLA). After theactivity, the students answered the Physics Course Attitude Scale in the next session. Each
response in the survey were sorted by factor. The hypotheses were tested by analyzing thegathered data using the Analysis of Variance (Two-Factorial) without repeated measures.
Table 3. Groupings Formed in the Study
GroupsPCILA TLA
High Academic Achievement
G-I
G-II
Level
Low Academic Achievement
G-III G-IV
Level
Note: Procedural Checkpoint-infused Laboratory Activity (PCILA) & Traditional Laboratory
Activity (TLA)
Due to the limited sample size in the study, the Shapiro-Wilk test and Levene’s test of
homogeneity were done to determine the normality and variability of the sample data. The
preceding tables in the results present the normality and variability of the data as well asshow how both the motivation groups and laboratory groups are normally distributed with pvalues greater than 0.05 in all factors of students’ attitude towards physics tested.
Furthermore, results of the Levene’s Test in each of the four factors of attitude towardphysics specified in the PCAS reveal that variances are equal across each group. With such
results, the researcher then proceeded with using a parametric test in testing the hypotheses.
The hypotheses were tested by utilizing the Analysis of Variance (Two-Factorial) without

ISSN: 2189-101X

481

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

repeated measures since the effect of two variables, achievement in physics and laboratory
activities based on traditional and enhanced laboratory activity structure, were tested and thatno pre and post assessments were done in the study.
Results
The researchers tested the influence of two independent variables, students’ academic
achievement level and the laboratory activity based on the traditional and enhanced
checkpoint-infused laboratory activity structure, on the dependent variable, attitude towards
physics of students using the Two-way Analysis of Variance (with no repeated measures).
The statistical tool proved to be efficient in determining if each of the independent variables
have a significant interaction with the dependent variable and if the interaction of the
independent variables can significantly influence the dependent variable.
The interaction of the independent variables was tested on the four factors of attitude towardphysics specifically, F1) Interest, F2) Unwillingness, F3) Academic Self, and F4) Necessity.
Interest (F1)The Shapiro-Wilk test and Levene’s Test in Table 4 and Table 5, respectively show that thedata gathered from the sample are normally distributed and that there are equal variancesacross each group. These are enough to satisfy the assumptions for a parametric test to test
the hypothesis.
Table 4. Shapiro-Wilk Test of Normality (F1)
Shapiro-Wilk
Motivatio
FactornStatisticdf
Sig.
Interest High
.967
24
.605
(F1)
Low
.830
24
.001
Lab
Activity
Statisticdf
Sig.
Interest PCILA
.885
24
.010
(F1)
TLA
.945
24
.207
*p < .05
Table 5. Levene’s Test of Equality of Error Variance (F1)
F
df1
df2
Sig.
1.008
3
44
.398
Note: Tests the null hypothesis that the error variance of the dependent variable is equal
across groups.

ISSN: 2189-101X

482

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Table 6. Analysis of Variance Between Effects of Academic Achievement and Type of
Lab Activity on Interest (F1)Type III Sum
Partial Eta
Sourceof Squares
df Mean SquareF
Sig.
SquaredCorrected Model
5.796a
3
1.932
2.774
.052
.159
Intercept
457.8761457.876 657.511
.000
.937
Achievement Category
3.126
1
3.126
4.489
.040
.093
Type of Lab Activity
1.980
1
1.980
2.844
.099
.061
Achievement Category
.689
1
.689
.989
.325
.022
* Type of Lab Activity
Error
30.641
44
.696
Total
494.31348
Corrected Total
36.43647
Note: At 95% confidence intervals
The results for ANOVA (Two-Factorial) as shown in Table 6 present that the p value foracademic achievement is less than .05 which indicates that the interest of students in physics
is influenced by their academic achievement in their physics course. This means thatstudents’ performance in physics as measured from their numerical grades may influenceinterest to learn physics. Such result agrees with the results found in some earlier studies
about the positive correlation between attitude and academic achievement of students(Wilson, 1983; Shabbir Ali & Awan, 2013; Mao et. al., 2021; Martinko & Vorkapić 2017). In
contrary to the results for academic achievement factor, it can be gleamed from Table 6 thatthe type of laboratory activity factor has a p = .099 which indicates that the said factor has no
significant influence on students’ interest to learn physics. The type of laboratory activity
taken by the students whether based on traditional or enhanced structure does not influence
the attitude of the students in terms of the interest factor.
The interaction of the academic achievement factor and type of laboratory activity doesn’t
influence students’ interest as indicated by the value p > .05. This means that the interactionof two factors is independent of students’ interest to learn physics.
Though the p value for the interaction of the independent factors was not statisticallysignificant, the interaction of the factors as shown in Figure 1 reveals that the group who took
the PCILA had higher averages in F1 than the group that took the TLA. However, there is alarge gap between the averages of the high and low achieving students who took the PCILA.
This indicates that the academic achievement of the students may affect their interest (F1)averages.

ISSN: 2189-101X

483

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Figure 1. Academic Achievement and Type of Lab Activity Interaction
Note: Procedural Checkpoint-infused Laboratory Activity (PCILA) & Traditional Laboratory
Activity (TLA)
Unwillingness (F2)
The test of normality and homogeneity of the data as shown in Table 7 and Table 8,
respectively, shows that the gathered data are normally distributed and have equal variancesacross each group. Thus, the assumptions for the parametric test that was utilized aresatisfied.
Table 7. Shapiro-Wilk Test of Normality (F2)
Shapiro-Wilk
Motivatio
Factor n
Statisticdf
Sig.
Unwilli High
.947
24
.236
ngness Low
.964
24
.528
(F2)
Lab
Activity
Statisticdf
Sig.
Unwillin PCILA
gness
.963
24
.495
(F2)
TLA
.985
24
.967
*p < .05
Table 8. Levene's Test of Equality of Error Variances (F2)
F
df1
df2
Sig.
.656
3
44
.584
Note. Tests the null hypothesis that the error variance of the dependent variable is equal
across groups

ISSN: 2189-101X

484

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Table 9. Analysis of Variance Between Effects of Academic Achievement and Type of
Lab Activity on Unwillingness (F2)Type III Sum
Mean
Partial Eta
Sourceof Squares
df
SquareF
Sig.
SquaredCorrected Model
2.718a
3
.906
1.408
.253
.088
Intercept
348.4811
348.481 541.791
.000
.925
Achievement
1.687
1
1.687
2.624
.112
.056
Category
Type of Lab
1.021
1
1.021
1.587
.214
.035
Activity
Achievement
Category * Type of
.009
1
.009
.014
.905
.000
Lab Activity
Error
28.301
44
.643
Total
379.500
48
Corrected Total
31.01947
Note: at 95% confidence interval
Table 9 reveals that the two factors, academic achievement and type of laboratory activity,
have no significant influence on the F2 of student’s attitude towards physics with p = .112
and p = .214, respectively. This indicates that students’ unwillingness to learn physics course
is influenced by their neither academic achievement nor the type of laboratory activity thatthey take. Furthermore, the interaction of the academic achievement factor and type oflaboratory activity, has no significant effect on students’ unwillingness to learn physics.
Nevertheless, Figure 2 shows how the group who took the PCILA were recorded to havelower averages for F2, that is the students who answered the enhanced laboratory activity
were less unwilling to learn the physics course.

Figure 2. Academic Achievement and Type of Lab Activity Interaction
It can also be gleaned from the plots in Figure 2 that the less performing students are more
unwilling to learn the physics course and the high achieving students are less unwilling tolearn the physics course regardless of the type of laboratory activity that they take.

ISSN: 2189-101X

485

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Academic Self (F3)
The data gathered from the sample are normally distributed and there are equal variancesacross each group for the third factor of attitude towards physics, academic self. Just as theother factors, interest and unwillingness, the assumptions for a parametric test are met.
Table 10. Shapiro-Wilk Test of Normality (F3)
Shapiro-Wilk
FactorMotivati Statisti
on
c
df
Sig.
Academic High
.951
24
.288
Self (F3)
Low
.969
24
.641
Lab
Statisti
Activitycdf
Sig.
Academic PCILA
Self
.940
24
.159
(F3)
TLA
.978
24
.862
*p < 0.05.
Table 11. Levene's Test of Equality of Error Variances (F3)
F
df1
df2
Sig.
1.831
3
44
.155
Note. Tests the null hypothesis that the error variance of the dependent variable is equal
across groups.
Table 12. Analysis of Variance Between Effects of Academic Achievement and Type of
Lab Activity on Academic Self (F3)Type IIISum ofMean
Partial Eta
SourceSquaresdf
SquareF
Sig.
SquaredCorrected Model
3.345a
3
1.115
1.746
.172
.106
Intercept
379.8751379.875 594.844
.000
.931
Achievement
1.367
1
1.367
2.140
.151
.046
Category
Type of Lab
.827
1
.827
1.295
.261
.029
Activity
Achievement
Category * Type of
1.151
1
1.151
1.803
.186
.039
Lab Activity
Error
28.099
44
.639
Total
411.31948
Corrected Total
31.44447
Note: at 95% confidence interval
A similar result from the two previous factors of attitude can be seen for both academic
achievement and type of laboratory activity in terms of the academic self factor. With p > .05,
it indicates that the academic achievement of the students and the laboratory activity based on

ISSN: 2189-101X

486

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

the traditional and enhanced structure have no significant effect on the way students view
themselves as academically successful in their physics course.

Figure 3. Academic Achievement and Type of Lab Activity Interaction (F3)
Figure 3 shows that compared to the group who took the TLA, the students in the group who
took the PCILA lesser deviation in the averages in the third factor, academic self. This
indicates that the students in the PCILA with either high or low achievement in the physics
course see themselves as successful in their physics course. Furthermore, the students who
took the traditional laboratory activity and have low achievement in physics view themselves
as more unsuccessful in the physics course than any other groups.
Necessity
Table 13. Shapiro-Wilk Test of Normality (F4)
Shapiro-Wilk
FactorMotivati Statisti
on
c
df
Sig.
Necessity High
.904
24
.026
(F4)
Average
.953
24
.322
Lab
Statisti
Activitycdf
Sig.
Necessity
PCILA
.938
24
.149
(F4)
TLA
.908
24
.032
*p < 0.05.
Table 14. Levene's Test of Equality of Error Variances
F
df1
df2
Sig.
3.373
3
44
.027
Note. Tests the null hypothesis that the error variance of the dependent variable is equal
across groups.
It can be gleaned from the results of the results of the Shapiro-Wilk test and the Levene’s
Test that the data for the factor being measured is not normally distributed and that thevariances are equal in each group. Although this is the case the Two-way ANOVA can

ISSN: 2189-101X

487

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

tolerate small violations such as the normality of the distribution especially since the sample
sizes of each group in the study are equal. Thus, ANOVA (Two-Factorial) was still utilized totest the hypothesis.
Table 15. Analysis of Variance Between Effects of Motivation and Type of Lab Activity on
Necessity (F4)Type III Sum
Partial Eta
Sourceof Squares
df Mean SquareF
Sig.
SquaredCorrected Model
.617a
3
.206
.367
.777
.024
Intercept
541.3631
541.363 965.936
.000
.956
Achievement
.333
1
.333
.595
.445
.013
Category
Type of Lab Activity
.270
1
.270
.482
.491
.011
Achievement
Category * Type of
.013
1
.013
.024
.878
.001
Lab Activity
Error
24.660
44
.560
Total
566.640
48
Corrected Total
25.27747
Note: at 95% level of significanceGiven by the p > .05 presented in Table 15 for the independent variables (academic
achievement and type of activity) indicates that the two factors do not significantly influence
the way students view studying physics as necessary to be studied. Such value dictates thatthe null hypothesis is ones again failed to be rejected. The interaction of the two variables
neither enhance nor limits the students to view physics as a course necessary to be studied.
Furthermore, Figure 4 reveals that students with higher academic achievement tend to view
physics as a necessity more than the students with lower academic achievement. The group
who was given the PCILA had higher averages for the necessity factor (F4) than the group
who was given the TLA.

Figure 4. Academic Achievement and Type of Lab Activity Interaction (F4)
Discussion
The study demonstrated how students’ academic achievement and enhanced laboratory
activity may be related to students’ attitude towards their physics course in the hopes to

ISSN: 2189-101X

488

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

address students’ negative attitude towards physics. The individual effects variables wereanalyzed as well as their interaction to have a more wholistic view of the study.
Academic Achievement and Attitude Toward Physics
The results of the study conducted as summarized in Table 16 reveals that among all thefactors of attitude toward physics measured only the interest (F1) to study physics course of
the students is influenced by the factor academic achievement. Such result agrees with thepreviously conducted studies on the relationship between achievement and attitude towardphysics (Wilson, 1983; Shabbir Ali & Awan, 2013; Mao et. al., 2021). However, this result
suggests that other aspects of students’ attitude toward physics may not always be directly
related to or influence by the academic achievement of students.
Table 16. Analysis of Variance for Academic Achievement and Attitude Towards Physics
Attitude Towards Physics Factors F
SigInterest (F1)
4.489 .040
Unwillingness (F2)2.624 .112
Academic Self (F3)2.140 .151
Necessity (F4).595 .445*p < .05.
Physics Laboratory Activity and Attitude Towards Physics
The results for the effect of the laboratory activity based on traditional and enhanced structure
on students’ attitude toward physics course of its four factors is uniform. The laboratory
activity taken by the students with either the traditional and enhance structure appears to haveno different effect on attitude towards physics who have high and low academic achievementin physics. This result was not initially predicted as the two structures were although visuallysimilar, the additional questions were considerably cognitive and reflective. These results
may have been influenced by the limited sample size used in the study since using a bigger
sample size would statistically increase the likelihood of rejecting the null hypothesis.
Table 17. Analysis of Variance for Laboratory Activity and Attitude Towards Physics
Attitude Towards Physics Factors F
SigInterest (F1)2.844 .099
Unwillingness (F2)
1.587 .214
Academic Self (F3)1.295 .261
Necessity (F4).482 .491*p < .05.
Interaction of Academic Achievement and Laboratory Activity
As it was found that the academic achievement and laboratory activity based on traditional(TLA) and enhanced structures (PCILA) have no significant effect on no significant students’attitude toward physics, the following are the significant findings drawn from the data:a) Students with high academic achievement and provided with the PCILA had thegreatest average for interest (F1) in physics.
b) The students with either high or low academic achievement who took the PCILA had
are more willing to learn physics than the students who took the TLA.

ISSN: 2189-101X

489

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedingsc) The group who answered the enhanced laboratory activity (PCILA) view themselves
to be successful in their physics course more than the group who took the TLA. This
result could be attributed to the complexity of the questions and time factor added by
the enhanced laboratory activity. Accomplishing the enhanced laboratory activity
boosted the academic self-view of the students even with low academic achievement.
d) Regardless of the academic achievement, the group who took the PCILA are reported
to have viewed physics course as necessary for them to learn for their future academic
path more than the group who took the TLA.
Conclusions
Despite the negative views of learners toward learning physics, it remains as an essential andintegral part of the basic education curriculum especially in the STEM strand (Nava &Camarao, 2017). Although academic achievement was found to have a positive relationshipwith attitude toward physics (Wilson, 1983; Shabbir Ali & Awan, 2013; Mao et. al., 2021)
the result of the study tells us that other factors associated with students’ attitude may not bedirectly influenced by academic achievement. A significant finding of the study is howneither the academic achievement level nor laboratory activity based on traditional andenhanced laboratory activity can influence all the factors of attitude toward physics. The
overarching results reveal that the academic achievement and laboratory activities cannot be adirect predictor students’ attitude toward physics. Furthermore, the interaction of the twovariables was revealed to have no direct influence on student’s attitude toward physics. These
results are associated with the limited participants included in the study as well as thedelimitations set by time constraints. Nevertheless, these results verify the results in recent
studies on the interaction attitude and laboratory activities particularly addressing theincongruence in the older and newer results of studies about the effect of laboratory activities
on students’ attitudes. The results of the current study agrees more with the results of therecent studies than the older studies. This study contributes to the growing premise in physics
education that laboratory activities doesn’t directly influence students’ attitude towards
physics and thus, must not be a basis for students’ positive view of physics. (Snetinova, et.
al., 2018; Ernita, et. al., 2021).
The researcher recommends replicating the study with greater sample size to better represent
the population and to decrease the likelihood of committing a type II error. Repeatedmeasures such as pre-and-point test must be conducted for a firmer result. Further
investigation about the effect of laboratory activity on attitude toward physics isrecommended, perhaps the variable connecting the affective aspect of attitude and cognitive
aspect of laboratory activity.

ISSN: 2189-101X

490

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

References
Adesoji. F.A. & Raimi. S.M. (2004). Effects of Enhanced Laboratory Instructional Techniqueon Senior Secondary Students' Attitude Toward Chemistry in Oyo Township. Oyo
State. Nigeria. Journal of Science Education and Technology. 13(3). 377-385.
Astalini, A., Darmaji, D., Pathoni, H., Kurniawan, W., Jufrida, J., Kurniawan, D. A., &Perdan, R. (2019). Motivation and Attitude of Students on Physics Subject in the
Middle School in Indonesia. International Education Studies, 12(9), 15.
https://doi.org/10.5539/ies.v12n9p15
Bengtson, R. A. (2020). Self-Assessment and Academic Intrinsic Motivation SelfAssessment and Academic Intrinsic Motivation. https://spark.bethel.edu/etd/61
Ernita, N., Muin, A., Verawati, N. N. S. P., & Prayogi, S. (2021). The effect of inquiry
learning model based on laboratory and achievement motivation toward students’physics learning outcomes. Journal of Physics: Conference Series, 1816(1).
https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/1816/1/012090
Firman Ramadhan, M., & Irwanto. (2017). Using Virtual Labs To Enhance Students’
Thinking Abilities, Skills, And Scientific Attitudes.
Freedman. M. (1997). Relationship Among Laboratory Instruction. Attitude Toward Scienceand Achievement in Science Knowledge. Journal of Research in Science Teaching.
34(4). 343-357.
Hamerski, P. C., McPadden, D., Caballero, M. D., & Irving, P. W. (2022). Students’perspectives on computational challenges in physics class. Physical Review Physics
Education Research, 18(2). https://doi.org/10.1103/PhysRevPhysEducRes.18.020109
Hernánez-Suarez, C. A., Gamboa-Suárez, A. A., & Suarez, O. J. (2021). Attitudes towards
physics. A study with high school students from the Colombian
context. Journal of
Physics: Conference Series,2118(1). https://doi.org/10.1088/17426596/2118/1/012019
Lang, J. W. B., & Fries, S. (2006). A revised 10-item version of the achievement motives
scale: Psychometric properties in German-speaking samples. European Journal of
Psychological Assessment, 22(3), 216–224. https://doi.org/10.1027/10155759.22.3.216
Mao, P., Cai, Z., He, J., Chen, X., & Fan, X. (2021). The Relationship Between Attitude
Toward Science and Academic Achievement in Science: A Three-Level MetaAnalysis. In Frontiers in Psychology (Vol. 12). Frontiers Media S.A.
https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.784068
Martinko, S., & Vorkapić, S. T. (2017). Could Students’ Attitudes towards Learning Physics
Significantly Predict their Learning Outcomes: Implications for Innovative Methods
in Teaching Physics. International Journal for Talent Development and Creativity,(Vol. 5, Issue 1).

ISSN: 2189-101X

491

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Mcmillan & Hearn (2008). Student Self-Assessment: The Key to Stronger Student
Motivation and Higher Achievement.
Nava, F. J., & Camarao, M. K. (2017). High School Students’ Difficulties in Physics.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/320980117
Ogan-Bekiroglu, F., & Oymak, O. (2017). Can We Change Attitude Toward Physics?
Outcomes Of Technology Supported And Laboratory Based Instructions. ResearchHighlights in Education and Science.
Pratama. (2018). The Correlation between Self-Assessment and Motivation in Learning
English of the Second Grade Students of SMP Negeri 6
Palembang.
https://media.neliti.com/media/publications/256872-the-correlation-between-selfassessment-390b19d2.pdf
Shabbir Ali, M., & Awan, A. S. (2013). Attitude Towards Science And Its Relationship With
Students’ Achievement In Science. Interdisciplinary Journal Of Contemporary
Research In Business.
Snětinová, M., Kácovský, P., & Machalická, J. (2018). Hands-on experiments in theinteractive physics laboratory: Students’ intrinsic motivation and understanding.
Center for Educational Policy Studies Journal,8(1), 55–75.
https://doi.org/10.26529/cepsj.319
Stefanidou, C., Kyriakou, K., Mandrikas, A., Stavrou, I., & Skordoulis, C. (2022). Students’Views on Physics Teaching at a Distance in the Context of COVID-19 Pandemic.
European Journal of Science and Mathematics Education, 10(3), 284–297.
https://doi.org/10.30935/scimath/11880
Willson, V. L. (1983). A meta-analysis of the relationship between science achievement andscience attitude: Kindergarten through college. Journal of Research in Science
Teaching, 20(9), 839-850.

ISSN: 2189-101X

492

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Teaching Science in Remote Schools: The Struggles and Successes of Teachers From
the Perspective of an Ethnographer

Kenneth Adu-Gyamfi, University of Cape Coast, Ghana
Isaiah Atewini Asaki, University of Cape Coast, Ghana

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023
Official Conference Proceedings

Abstract
The remote population in Ghana has been on the increase in the last decade with the numberof males being slightly higher compared to females. This affected the share of educational
resources as the remote schools were disadvantaged in human and material resources.
However, the basic schools in the remote communities had their students in the junior highschools sit for the basic education certificate examination (BECE) together with their agemates in the urban communities. We, therefore, studied the struggles and successes of two
teachers (a male and a female) in an attempt to teach science concepts to students in remotebasic schools effectively. The two teachers met our main selection criteria of gender andhave taught science in a remote school for 5 years and above. Through observer
participation, interviews, and field notes qualitative data were collected from teachers, bothduring school hours and outside school hours, over a period of 14 weeks. The data in a formof text were broken into units of analysis using content analysis procedures. It was foundthat being a female teacher and a family woman and teaching science in a remote school
was challenging. Though teachers struggled to effectively teach science to students inremote schools there were instances some students had attained grade 1 in science in the
BECE. Implications of the findings are discussed.

Keywords: Female, Male, Remote Communities, Science Teachers, Teaching Science

iafor
The International Academic Forumwww.iafor.org

ISSN: 2189-101X

493

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Introduction
With the advent of the technology arises an increasing need for scientific literacy (Laidlaw,
Taylor, & Fletcher, 2009), enabling the individual to invent, foster economic development,
and aid problem-solving to make life worth living and much easier for humans’ existence.
One goal of science education is to prepare students to apply science in their everyday lives
and society (Kahn, 2021). Scientific knowledge and science-based technology play a pivotal
role in individuals’ personal, social, and professional lives, and a comprehension of scienceand technology is thus central to a young person’s preparedness for life (OECD, 2017). It is
in light of these, the UN, World Bank, and OECD emphasize countries ensuring quality
education and production of scientifically literate citizens. If there is an appropriate timescientific literacy would be of the essence to us, then, it is now as globally, humanity faces
major challenges in providing sufficient water and food, controlling diseases, generating
sufficient energy, and adapting to climate change (UNEP, 2012). This scientific literacy isdeveloped through providing quality science education (OECD, 2019) to the citizenry.
In an attempt to instill scientific literacy among citizens exist a great disparity between theurban and rural (remote) areas (Murphy, 2022; Sumida & Kawata, 2021) despite asignificant proportion of the population being remote settlers (Cheung, 2021). For example,
Ghana has a total rural population of 43.3% of the total population, 30,832.019 (Ghana
Statistical Service [GSS], 2021; World Bank, 2023) but there exist disparities between urban
and rural education. In the case of the US, approximately 11.4 million children weregrowing up in remote areas, compared to 14.6 million in urban areas but remote scienceeducation was given little attention (Avery, 2013). Characteristically, remote areas are
isolated with low population densities (Williams in Avery, 2013), and have fewer students
in school/class perhaps because of the little to no priority given to education by the remotesettlers (Pryor & Ampiah, 2003). Remote communities are often surrounded by fertile lands
that are designed naturally to support their agricultural activities. Because, much of theresearch work into remote education has often found that the smaller number of children
enrolled in schools in remote areas is a result of their engagement in agricultural activities(Pryor & Ampiah, 2003).
The existence of these disparities creates a major challenge for teachers teaching in remoteareas. It is globally acknowledged that teaching in remote areas could be challenging(Avery, 2013; Cheung, 2021; Shikalepo, 2020; Zinger, Sandholtz, & Ringstaff, 2020). The
challenges of teaching in remote areas are inadequate instructional resources, inadequate
infrastructure, language barriers, unavailability of teacher professional development
programs, community indifference to the education of children, and unavailability of social
amenities (Adams & Woods, 2015; Buczynski & Hansen, 2010; Darling-Hammond, 2017;
Garcia & Weiss, 2019; Shikalepo, 2020) For instance, Pryor and Ampiah (2003) reported
that teachers expressed demotivation to teach in remote areas because of the conditions andbehaviors of parents and students towards learning, hampering the work of teachers.
Besides, some of the teachers in remote areas are young men (and women) from an urban
background who intend to leave at the earliest possible to a community of urban
characteristics. Those teachers disdain remote situations and were in pain to differentiatethemselves from village people. For Adams and Woods (2015), when teachers who havebeen brought up and trained in urban areas are sent to remote and isolated communities toteach, they tend to have a monoculture that is different from their own. In Alaska, theweather conditions and cross-cultural classroom issues become major challenges to thoseteachers in adapting to the communities and providing instructions to students, and this is

ISSN: 2189-101X

494

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

worsened for beginning teachers. Leech, Haug, Rodriguez, and Gold (2022) asserted thatthose teachers who stay grew up in the area, already lived there as an adult, and/or had a
spouse/partner with a job in the area. For Mulkeen (2006), children in remote areas may beconsidered more difficult to educate because they are likely to have less parental
encouragement to go to school, and more alternative demands on their time, such as helping
with agricultural tasks. When those children attend school, they may find the curriculum
less relevant to their lives, and find less support for their learning from the homeenvironment.
In professional development, teachers that need stronger support are those in remote areas(Garcia & Weiss, 2019). These professional supports such as the provision of professional
development training will serve as the antidote to the deficiencies in pedagogical content
knowledge (PCK) of the science teachers (Buczynski & Hansen, 2010). Teachers in remoteareas need support but the support should transcend normal professional development to aprofessional learning community that provides teachers the opportunity to learn specificscience domains and innovative practices for teaching science (Panizzon, 2011). However,in the US, the inequity in the provision of quality education to remote areas was further
exacerbated by the lack of continuous provision of professional support to the teachers
teaching in remote areas (Darling-Hammond. 2017).
In remote teaching, language is another strong factor in effective teaching. That is, ininstances where the teacher does not speak the native language of the people, instruction issolely in English. However, students in these remote areas can form only a few phrases inEnglish (Pryor & Ampiah, 2003), when the teacher’s medium of instruction is English, he or
she faces the challenge of explaining concepts to the understanding of students. In Ghana,
the language policy for teaching and learning spelled out that the Ghanaian language is onlyused in kindergarten to primary school 3, and English is used in primary school 4 to 6
onwards (USAID, 2020). Consequently, science teachers in remote schools could be
struggling to teach and observe the language policy.
In the context of science teaching, Cheung (2021) agreed with the literature that the low
quality of education in remote areas is a result of the backwardness of curriculum content
and instructional methods, insufficient funding, aging facilities, and shortage of teachers andteaching conditions. Sumida and Katawa (2021) in analyzing the gap between remote andurban education attributed the challenges to school and family characteristics. It is
indisputable that science teachers play a pivotal role in guiding students to acquire theneeded science knowledge and literacy, it is important that we pay attention to the teacher’senvironment, giving them the needed professional development training, and granting themaccess to the science instructional materials (Irby et al., 2021). Hence, providing science
instruction should be a sustained priority (Zinger et al., 2020). However, it has remained achallenge and remote areas are the most affected. It must be noted that lack of content
knowledge, time constraints, materials for hands-on activities and curriculum needs,
isolation, and lack of professional development are the challenges the remote scienceteacher faces in their quest to instruct science. Similarly, John (2019) found that lack oflaboratory equipment and poor implementation of practical experiments, a lack of qualified
teachers, inadequate or poor status infrastructure, teachers had deficiencies in their PCK andwere unable to explain science concepts well. These challenges may persist because
attention has not been paid to teaching science in remote areas and no professional support
might have been provided to the science teachers to be successful. On their part, Laidlaw etal. (2009) asserted that primary science is not being taught as effectively as it might be

ISSN: 2189-101X

495

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

because of low levels of teacher confidence and competence in relation to scientific PCK,
insufficient resources, time constraints, and lack of support in the form of professional
development.
Empirically, teachers in Ghanaian basic schools face a myriad of challenges in their quest toteach science (Adu-Gyamfi, 2014; Parker, Osei-Himah, Asare, & Ackah, 2018; Quansah,
Sakyi-Hagan, & Essiam, 2019; Somuah & Orodho, 2016). For instance, the studies ofQuansah et al. (2019) involving some remote junior high schools (JHS) in the Effutu
Municipality in the Central Region, Ghana revealed that inadequate instructional materials
and poor proficiency of learners in the English affected teaching and learning Integrated
Science. Similarly, Adu-Gyamfi (2014) found the challenges to include loaded scienceexamination papers, the attitude of students toward school science, the concept of
improvisation, and students’ preparedness toward new science lessons. In a related study,
Tamanja and Pagra (2017) reported that lack of teaching and learning materials, a low pupilteacher ratio, inadequate infrastructural facilities, a language barrier, and stress from thelong ride of both pupils and teachers.
The results of the struggles of the remote science teacher have led to many of them seeking
earlier transfers when posted to teach in remote areas (Leech et al., 2022; Pryor & Ampiah,2003). Consequently, the shortage of high-quality science teachers is recorded in theseremote areas (Cheung, 2021) because of the persistent difficulties in retaining teachers(Leech et al., 2022). In countries like the US and Japan (Cheung, 2021) and sub-SaharanAfrican countries such as Mozambique, Lesotho, and Uganda (Mulkeen, 2006) to introduce
remunerations and incentives with the view of attracting teachers to remote areas. However,
Mulkeen (2006) argued that deploying teachers to remote schools remains a very daunting
task and that countries that have strived to place incentives to attract teachers to remoteareas have only gotten a minimal impact. Because such incentives have not been sufficient
to match the numerous advantages the urban schools come with.
Another finding from the literature is the challenge of getting female teachers to teach inremote areas (Mitchell & Yang, 2012; Pryor & Ampiah, 2003). It is reported that systemic
failures and designs have succeeded in denying women access to educational structures
including not only teaching in remote areas but in urban areas as well (UNESCO, 2001).
However, not that women are denied but they are simply not ready to teach in remote areasfor varied reasons (Mulkeen, 2006; Pryor & Ampiah, 2003). Pryor and Ampiah (2003)
found out that it was difficult to attract and retain women teachers in remote areas and thatthe only female teacher who was available moved there with her husband and regrets it.
Mulkeen (2006) noted that in Malawi, female teachers rarely accept postings to remote areas
unless they are with their husbands otherwise if even posted to the remote areas they request
transfers based on marriage. Also, there have even been times when female teacherspresented themselves as married to enable them to seek transfers. In analyzing teachers’
gender in some African countries, it was reported that in Malawi, 82% of the teachers in theurban areas were females while 31% were females in the remote areas; in Mozambique,about 80% of the teachers were females, but they were unwilling to accept postings to theremote areas, and in Uganda and Tanzania, most female teachers are concentrated in urban
areas and that it was difficult to attract female teachers to remote areas (Mulkeen, 2006). In
Sekyere Odumasi District, Ghana, in 10 primary schools and five JHS in remote areas,
Azewara, Korankye, Amankwah, and Takyi (2021) reported that there were only four
female teachers in the JHS compared to 27 male teachers, and no female teacher in the
primary compared to 35 males in the primary.

ISSN: 2189-101X

496

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

There are also widespread beliefs that women are ‘natural’ teachers for young children(Mitchell & Yang, 2012). Most studies have paid little attention to the experiences of female
teachers both as teachers and as women, and when a remote component is also factored in,there is even less that is known about women’s experiences. More in-depth studies ofwomen teachers and their experiences, and study and expand pre-service teacher education
programs that seek to provide experiences for new teachers in remote areas will be needed(Mitchell & Yang, 2012). In the midst of these challenges, we ask an overarching question;
What are the struggles and successes of the teacher teaching science in remote areas?
Research Area, Participants, and Methods
This ethnographic study was conducted in two remote schools in the Bawku West District[BWD] of the Upper East Region, Ghana. BWD was divided into 13 educational circuits,
with 257 public and private educational institutions. There were 91 kindergartens, 99
primary schools, 55 JHS, five senior high schools, one vocational institute, and one craft
center. The unprofessional teacher ratio was 1:168 for KG, 1:90 for primary schools, and1:35 for JHS. BWD had 174 communities with the following health facilities. One hospital,
nine health centers, eight clinics, 31 National Community Health Planning and Services(CHPS) compounds with structures and six CHPS zones without structures, two
supplementary feeding centers, one nutrition rehabilitation center, and five recognizedchemical shops (BWD, 2021). BWD was one of the 15 districts and municipalities in theUpper East Region. BWD was located in the northeastern section of the region, with Zebillaas its administrative capital. BWD was bordered to the north by the Republic of Burkina
Faso, to the east, by Binduri District, to the west, by Nabdam District, and to the south, by
East Mamprusi District. Significantly, two tributaries of the Volta River (White Volta and
Red Volta) run contiguous to the district’s eastern and western boundaries respectively.
BWD was created in 1988 under the local government system by Legislative Instrument
1442 (GSS, 2014). BWD covered an area of approximately 1,096m and had a population
density of 131.5 BWD was the biggest district in the region in terms of land area (GSS,2014). It had the highest population of 144,189, comprising 49.1% males and 50.9%
females, sharing 11.1% of the total population of the region (GSS, 2021). Of thispopulation, 15.1% were settlers with urban infrastructure and 84.9% were remote settlers
without urban infrastructure (GSS, 2021). The main Ghanaian language spoken in the
district was Kusaal though other languages such as Mosie, Bisa, Frafra, and Twi, werespoken among minority ethnic.
In this research, two teachers teaching in schools located in communities where access totelecommunication networks was a challenge despite some few houses having access toelectricity. The communities had a CHPS center that rendered health services to the
inhabitants who were predominantly subsistence farmers, rearing livestock, and cultivating
crops. The participant, John was a professional teacher, now pursuing a bachelor of
education via sandwich mode. He taught science in this school for 5 years. John was not anative of the community but was posted there to teach after the completion of his initialteacher training. The second participant, Magdalene, was a professional teacher. She hadtaught science in a school in another remote community for 3 years before this present
station where she had been teaching science for the past 5 years. Her highest academic
qualification was a master's degree. She was born and bred in BWD.

ISSN: 2189-101X

497

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

The authors identified the schools and the science teachers in these schools during a teacher
union sensitization tour. Author saw the environment of the school, interacted with theteachers, and sought for their consent to undertake research with them. Initially, only John
was happy and gave his consent to participate. However, there were only three female
teachers identified to teach science in the JHS in BWD. At first, one agreed to participate
but declined days later with reasons that the researcher might be an investigator who wanted
to seek information about her and subsequently use it against her job. Discussions with therest of the female science teachers continued until one, Magdalene agreed to participate in
the study. Magdalene like her other peers had married. She had three children, two of whom
have started their primary education and the last one was still breastfeeding. After theparticipants had agreed to participate in the study, their headteachers were contacted. The
purpose of the study was explained to the headteachers and permission was sought toconduct the study. The headteachers and the teachers were assured of confidentiality.
Author2 collected data using observer participation, observing how the teachers delivered
their lessons, how their students show interest, and ask questions; inspecting their lesson
notes, attendance register, instructional materials available, and teaching timetable, how
they interact with colleague teachers and headteacher, and interviews in the form of normal
conversation. A total of 14 weeks was spent collecting data. In week one, Author2 spent
Monday to early Wednesday at about 9:45 am in the school of John and Wednesday from12:15 pm to Friday with Magdalene. On Saturday and Sunday, Author2 visited the maleparticipant at his residence. In the second week, Author2 spent Monday with the personnel
in the district education directorate. This helped Author2 better understand and reconcile
some of the issues raised by the participants. Author2 then visited the two participants from
Tuesday to Sunday, a visit was paid to John at home as well. The activities in week1 andweek2 continued till the 14 weeks were over. Both participants did not know about
themselves until the last day of data collection. The data collected were carefully readthrough and themes were made out. The results and any inductive reasoning made of themwere given to both John and Magdalene to critique to accept as true observations made.
Teaching-learning resources
Observations made in John’s school showed inadequate teaching-learning resources forteaching science, an obsolete thermometer that was no longer functioning as the
instructional material. John had well-prepared lesson plans, stating the relevant instructional
materials required for the effective delivery of the lessons but the materials were notavailable. During his lesson delivery, he practically used exposition and one could see aclear difficulty in the conceptualization of concepts being communicated by John. John
mentioned:
I will say today’s lesson went well, though I needed to use some instructional
materials to explain… but I don’t have them. You know, without the materials thestudents cannot understand how you want them to.
Even furniture for students to sit on and learn was woefully inadequate in Magdalene’s
classroom environment. It was not conducive enough for teaching and learning science.
Observations of the classroom revealed students often compete for the little spaces of theirdual desks. Magdalene had a well-prepared lesson plan showing indicators and the expected
performance of her students. She indicated the instructional materials that needed to be usedin teaching her lessons but no such material was available in the lesson delivery. Author2

ISSN: 2189-101X

498

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

enquired from her why she stated them even though she does not have them. Magdalene
mentioned:…If I do not indicate that, anybody supervising the lesson later may think I do nothave a correct conception of science and its methodology.
When Author2 enquired about her improvising, she responded:…Yes, I can improvise but that takes time and I don’t have much time. You see thecharts, I need to look for colors, sit down and draw and that will take time.
Magdalene added that she recently acquired a laptop and that is what she uses to download
pictures to show her students.
The laptops they distributed. I mean the one teacher, one laptop, I received one. So,
these days that is what I use to download pictures for my lessons. These days I don’t
think of improvisation.
Teacher professional development
Teacher’s content knowledge, teacher pedagogical content knowledge, and technologicalpedagogical content knowledge are major determinants of the teacher’s success in
explaining scientific concepts to students. Deficiencies in these are sometimes compensatedfor by providing continuous professional development to the teacher. John mentioned:
Some teachers say for the biology and Agricultural aspects, they can teach but forthe chemistry and physics part they are afraid of those areas ...Yes. I believe inservice training will afford me the opportunity to learn and learn from others...
Observations made from his lesson notebook suggested consistently for 3 years John nevertaught some of the science topics in the JHS curriculum. For instance, John struggled torecall the topic of basic electronics as part of the JHS curriculum. John expressed:
You see this topic West African Examination Council does not construct their test
items on it besides the materials are not there and we do not have a sciencelaboratory.
Magdalene recalled there were only three teachers for the entire JHS. Hence, she opted toteach mathematics and science. Since then, she has been teaching science and had
developed an interest in teaching it. However, she had only attended one science workshop
in the recent training for the implementation of the new science curriculum. Magdalene
expressed:
No, I don’t attend in-service training. It was just last year they invited us for the
training for the new curriculum…
Language barrier
Another challenge so identified was John’s struggle to choose a medium of instruction. It
was observed that at some point in time, John tried to use the native language of the students

ISSN: 2189-101X

499

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

to communicate some of the science concepts. Because most of the students could not
express themselves well in English. John was always met with frustrations. He at a point
quizzed:What do you want me to do? Teach you English or ‘Kusaal’?
Largely, the class remained dominant by the few who could express themselves in English.
Even so, that was not without errors. Those few students appeared to make John excited andmost often called on them to work on any given task:
As you can see, when you came to my class, they could not speak English very well.
If had I understood the local language, I would have used that one. ...but that is also
not allowed.
Absenteeism
Observations of the class register and students’ attendance to lessons showed that John’s
students often absent themselves from school. During observations of John’s lesson, of the
expected 22 students, eight were absent. John expressed:
Oh! it is a common thing for students to be absent themselves here. You will notalways get all the students in school. Today is even better...
When Author2 visited John at his residence, I was taken to some illegal mining sites where
we saw some of his students working there though they were young.
The duality nature of a female science teacher
One major challenge Magdalene faced was her combining household work with teaching.
At home, she attends to her children and family chores. Though Magdalene was staying in a
nuclear family, she had to prepare family meals, fetch water and wash their clothes.
Magdalene mentioned:
Saturdays are so tight may be Sundays after church is better… Because of thepressure at home, I usually prepare only Monday lessons on Sunday evenings andprepare for the rest of the week on Tuesdays. …If you look at how women have somany things to do at the home, it is difficult being a good science teacher and afemale…
Teacher successes
Amidst the language barrier, lack of teaching-learning resources, and professional
development programs for John, he managed to always get some of his students to do wellin the external examinations (Basic Education Certificate Examination [BECE]). Analysisof their 2019 results revealed that of the 23 students who sat for the BECE, eight attained
grades 1-5; 10 attained grades 6-8; and five attained grade 9. John mentioned:
My students’ results. Hmm!!! Not bad though but I wish my students perform better
than that. For grades 1, 2,3, and so on in science, …two of my students attained
grade 1 in science. Some too got 2, 3 but most of them attained 7, 8, or 9.

ISSN: 2189-101X

500

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

It thus, appears that John does a great deal of work in helping his students to succeed in theiracademic pursuits. John sometimes organizes a supplementary class for the few students
who will come to help guide them learn the science, and that has helped greatly in thestudents’ performance.
Beyond the challenges that Magdalene faced, she appeared to be excited about teachingscience. Magdalene expressed:…Eiii, the science, there is a lot. …But I just realise I like the subject. ...I don’t needto struggle. If you are teaching a subject that you struggle with, you may beboredom.
Like John, Magdalene’s students also do well in the external examinations. She noted that
her students also attained grades 2, 3, 4, 5, and so on in the BECE.
Conclusion
The finding that science teachers in remote areas lack adequate instructional materials forthe effective delivery of lessons resonates with the assertion of (Adu-Gyamfi, 2014; John,
2019; Parker et al., 2018; Quansah et al., 2019; Somuah & Orodho, 2016) that the teachers
do not have adequate instructional materials. It is not out of place to reason that the absenceof these instructional materials will further widen the existing disparities (Cheung, 2021;
Murphy, 2022; Sumida, & Kawata, 2021) between the quality of scientific literacy (OECD,2019) inculcated into the students in the remote areas. Since teachers use instructional
materials as alternative channels of communication (Samuel, 2009), their absence implies
that the science teacher will consequently resort to guiding students to rote learning. Thoughteachers made conscious efforts at some point in time to improvise these materials, lapses in
improvisation also have repercussions on scientific conceptions by students. It could evenbe that the lack of instructional materials makes science teachers struggle and will want toleave the remote areas for urban areas (Leech et al., 2022; Pryor & Ampiah, 2003). The way
forward will be granting them access to the science instructional materials to help in theirinstructions.
The findings that teachers teaching science in remote areas of Ghana for several years
without receiving regular professional development training confirms teaching basic scienceis problematic because these remote teachers do not get support in the form of professional
development (Darling-Hammond, 2017; Laidlaw et al., 2009; Zinger et al., 2020). Hence,
we must pay attention to the teacher’s environment, giving them professional development(Irby et al., 2021). Because, like any other teacher, remote teachers might have deficiencies
in their PCK and will probably need to address that through professional development(Buczynski & Hansen, 2010). The Ministry of Education through the Ghana Education
Service may have to extend professional development support to the remote teachers who soneed it most (Garcia & Weiss, 2019) to help them develop professional learning
communities (Panizzon, 2011).
The findings that remote teachers struggle in teaching science as a result of the language
barrier agree with Zinger et al. (2020) that the challenge remote teachers face was thelanguage barrier. The study further agrees with Pryor and Ampiah (2003) that, students inremote areas can make or form only a few phrases in English, and when the teacher’s
medium of instruction is English, he/she faces the challenge of explaining concepts to the

ISSN: 2189-101X

501

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

understanding of students. However, the national policy on the medium of instruction isEnglish, hence, teachers must make a conscious effort to guide students to increase their
vocabulary level and their ability to communicate in English, less remote science teachers
will continue to struggle.
In remote schools, absenteeism is a major challenge to science teachers. Poised as they may
be to instruct the science concepts to students, they are often met with student absenteeism.
This finding resonates with the assertion of Pryor and Ampiah (2003) that the smaller
number of children enrolled in schools in remote areas is a result of their engagement inagricultural activities, being the dominant occupation of their parents. Thus, parents pay no
attention to their ward’s education (Averey, 2003). This makes the remote science teachers
frustrated as they keep on repeating lessons due to students’ absenteeism. This struggle
might be why most of the teachers posted to the remote areas tend to leave as early as
possible (Leech et al., 2022).
Also, working as a family woman and teaching science is a very herculean task. Because
female teachers are surrounded by many activities both at home and school. The
overwhelming nature of home duties makes women unable to prepare lessons and organize
teaching-learning resources for the week. However, male teachers are likely to use
Saturdays and Sundays to prepare lessons for the week. These untold stories of female
teachers agree with Mitchell and Yang (2012) that attention has not been paid to theexperiences of female teachers both as teachers and as women, and it is direr when a ruralcomponent is also a factor. There is even less that is known about women’s experiences. We
may begin to re-examine this untold part of women teachers teaching science in remoteareas, and this is a duty call on science educators and researchers.
The finding that fewer females teach science in remote areas is worth noting. Because isreported from earlier studies that there are few female teachers in remote areas (Azewara etal., 2021; Mulkeen, 2006). It is not just systemic failure (UNESCO, 2001) but the female
teachers are not ready to accept postings to teach science in remote areas (Azewara et al.,2021; Mitchell & Yang, 2012). The justification for staying and teaching science in a remotearea on the basis of being a native and having family living around (Pryor & Ampiah, 2003)
is not good for professionalism. This in part, may explain why not so many women areteaching science in remote areas.
In this ethnography, two teachers were studied in teaching science in remote schools.
Though the two teachers were experienced teachers, they had their struggles and successes
in teaching science in remote schools in terms of teaching-learning resources, language
barrier, and teacher professional development. Teachers in remote communities throughinsufficient teaching-learning resources managed to have their students attain grade 1 inscience in BECE. Hence, MOE through the Ghana Education Service and non-governmentalorganizations should pay attention to the provision of instructional materials to these remoteschools for effectively teaching science to bring out the best in their students. In addition,
there were few numbers of female teachers teaching science in remote communities in thestudied area, and they were confronted with managing their homes as wives and teachingscience effectively to students, hence, the Government and its development partners should
decipher a policy that will attract females into science, and in particular teaching science inremote schools.

ISSN: 2189-101X

502

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

References
Adams, B. L., & Woods, A. (2015). A model for recruiting and retaining teachers in
Alaska's rural K–12 Schools. Peabody Journal of Education, 90(2), 250-262.
https://doi:10.1080/0161956X.2015.1022115
Adu-Gyamfi, K. (2014). Challenges face by science teachers in the teaching of integrated
science in Ghanaian junior high schools. Journal of Science and Mathematics
Education, 6(2), 59-80.
Avery, L. M. (2013). Rural science education: Valuing local knowledge. Theory into
Practice, 52(1), 28-35. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07351690.2013.743769
Azewara, M. A., Korankye, O., Amankwah, E., & Takyi, M. (2021). The realities of teacher
distribution in primary and junior high schools in Ghana: Experiences of rural areasin Sekyere Central District. Social Education Research, 2(2), 230-240.
http://ojs.wiserpub.com/index.php/SER/
Buczynski, S., & Hansen, C. B. (2010). Impact of professional development on teacher
practice: Uncovering connections. Teaching and Teacher Education, 26, 599-607.
https://doi:10.1016/j.tate.2009.09.006
Cheung, A. C. K. (2021). How should education in rural areas be reformed? Science
Insights Education Frontiers, 9(1), 1113-1117.
https://doi.org/10.15354/sief.21.co015
Darling-Hammond, L. (2017). Teacher education around the world: What can we learn frominternational practice? European Journal of Teacher Education, 40(3), 291-309.
https://doi:10.1080/02619768.2017.1315399
Garcia, E., & Weiss, E. (2019). The role of early career supports, continuous professional
development, and learning communities in the teacher shortage. The fifth report in
the Perfect Storm in the Teacher Labor Market’ series, USA. Economic Policy
Institute.
Ghana Statistical Service. [GSS]. (2014). 2010 population and housing census. District
analytical report, Bawku West. Accra: Author.
Ghana Statistical Service. [GSS]. (2021). Ghana 2021 population and housing census;
General report volume 3A. Populations of regions and districts. Accra: Author.
Irby, B. J., Tong, F., Lara-Alecio, R., Tang, S., Guerrero, C., Wang, Z., & Zhen, F. (2021).
Investigating the impact of a literacy-infused science intervention on economicallychallenged students’ science achievement: A case study from a rural district in
Texas. Science Insights Education Frontiers; 9(1), 1123-1141.
https://doi:10.15354/sief.21.or033
John, M. (2019). Physical sciences teaching and learning in Eastern Cape rural schools:
Reflections of pre-service teachers. South African Journal of Education, 39(1), 1-12.
https://doi.org/10.15700/saje.v39ns1a1660

ISSN: 2189-101X

503

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Kahn, S. (2021). No child too young: A teacher research study of socio-scientific issues
implementation at the elementary level. Socio-scientific Issues-Based Instruction for
Scientific Literacy Development. 1-30. https://doi:10.4018/978-1-7998-4558-4.ch001
Laidlaw, K., Taylor, N. & Fletcher, P. (2009). Teaching primary science in rural andregional Australia: Some challenges facing practicing and pre-service teachers.
Journal of Science and Mathematics Education in Southeast Asia, 32(2), 105-130.
Leech, N. L., Haug, C. A., Rodriguez, E., & Gold, M. (2022). Why teachers remain teachingin rural districts: Listening to the voices from the field. The Rural Educator, 43(3),1-9. https://doi.org/10.55533/2643-9662.1340
Mitchell, C., & Yang, K. (2012). Woman teacher rural: Bringing gender into the policy
framework on teacher deployment in rural areas (Research to practice policy
briefs). Montreal: Institute for the Study of International Development.
Mulkeen, A. (2006). Teachers for rural schools: A challenge for Africa. Rome: FAO.
Murphy, S. (2022). Science education success in a rural Australian school: Practices andarrangements contributing to high senior science enrolments and achievement in an
isolated rural school. Research in Science Education 52, 325-337.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11165-020-09947-5
National Research Council. (1999). Selecting instructional materials: A Guide for K-12
Science. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
https://doi.org/10.17226/9607
OECD. (2017). PISA for development assessment and analytical framework: Reading,Mathematics and Science, Preliminary Version, OECD Publishing, Paris.
OECD. (2019). PISA 2018 Assessment and Analytical Framework, PISA, OECD
Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/b25efab8-en
Panizzon, D. (2011). Teaching secondary science in rural and remote schools: Exploring thecritical role of a professional learning community. In D. Corrigan, J. Dillon, & R.
Gunstone (Eds.), The professional knowledge base of science teaching. (pp. 173188). Dordrecht: Springer.
Parker, J., Osei-Himah, V., Asare, I., & Ackah, J. K. (2018). Challenges faced by teachers inteaching integrated science in junior high schools in Aowin Municipality-Ghana.
Journal of Education and Practice, 9(12), 65-68.
Provasnik, S., Kewal, R. A., Coleman, M. M., Gilbertson, L., Herring, W., & Xie, Q.
(2007). Status of education in rural America (NCES 2007-040). National Center for
Education Statistics, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education.
Pryor, J., & Ampiah, J. G. (2003). Understandings of education in an African village: The
impact of information and communication technologies. chromeextension://efaidnbmnnnibpcajpcglclefindmkaj/https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/705
2384.pdf

ISSN: 2189-101X

504

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Quansah, R. E., Sakyi-Hagan, N. A., & Essiam, C. (2022). Challenges affecting the teaching
and learning of integrated science. Science Education International, 30(4), 329-333.
https://doi.org/10.33828/sei.v30.i4.10
Samuel, A. (2009). The importance of instructional materials in our schools an overview.
New Era Research Journal of Human, Educational and Sustainable Development, 2,
61-63.
Shikalepo, E. E. (2020). Challenges Facing Teaching at Rural Schools: A Review of Related
Literature. International Journal of Research and Innovation in Social Science, 4(5),211-218.
Somuah, B. A., & Orodho, J. A. (2016). Challenges inhibiting effective implementation of
integrated science by science teachers at the junior high schools in Kwahu West
Municipality, Ghana, International Journal in Management and Social Science 4(4).
398-411.
Sumida, S., & Kawata, K. (2021). An analysis of the learning performance gap between
urban and rural areas in sub-Saharan Africa, South African Journal of Education,
41(2), 1-17. https://doi.org/10.15700/saje.v41n2a1779
Tamanja, E., & Pagra, M. (2017). Teaching and learning challenges of teachers in rural
areas in Ghana: the case of basic schools teachers in the Wa West District, 10 th
Annual International Conference of Education, Research and Innovation,
pp. 4790-4800. https://doi:10.21125/iceri.2017.1277
UNEP. (2012). 21 Issues for the 21st century: results of the UNEP foresight process on
emerging environmental issues. https://wedocs.unep.org/20.500.11822/8056
UNESCO. (2001). Women Teachers in Rural India. New Delhi: Author.
USAID. (2020). Language of instruction country profile. Ghana. chromeextension://efaidnbmnnnibpcajpcglclefindmkaj/https://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PA00
X9JT.pdf
World Bank. (2017). Quality education: Ensure inclusive and equitable quality educationand promote lifelong learning opportunities for all. 20-25.
https://wedocs.unep.org/20.500.11822/21426
World Bank. (2023). Macrotrends: Ghana rural population 1960-2023.
https://www.macrotrends.net/countries/GHA/ghana/rural-population
Zinger, D., Sandholtz, J. H., & Ringstaff, C. (2020). Teaching science in rural elementary
schools: Affordances and constraints in the age of NGSS, The Rural Educator,
41(2), 14-30. https://doi:10.35608/ruraled.v41i2.558

Contact email: kenneth.adu-gyamfi@ucc.edu.gh

ISSN: 2189-101X

505

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

ISSN: 2189-101X

506

Official Conference Proceedings

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Delphi Surveys for Development of Sub-domains, Factors, and Items ofMusical Self-Concepts Scales for Korean Secondary Students
Joo Yeon Jung, Ewha Womans University, South Korea
The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023
Official Conference Proceedings
Abstract
Musical self-concepts affect people’s musical development and learning, and there have been
several psychometric scales to measure musical self-concepts mainly in Western contexts. In
order to develop Korean version of musical self-concept scales for secondary students, thisstudy conducted Delphi surveys to identify sub-domains, factors and items of the scale. From
November 2021 to May 2022, 21 experts in music education and psychometric assessment
gave opinions on preliminary sub-domains, factors and items for musical self-concept scales.
The Delphi surveys were conducted in two stages. First Delphi questionnaire consisted ofLikert scales for validation of developed 4 sub-domains and 25 factors with open-ended
questions was distributed to 15 experts; collected data and opinions were analyzed andreflected to the revised version of the scales, which consisted of 4 sub-domains and 23
factors. Second Delphi questionnaire was for validation of 138 scale items that are based onrevised sub-domains and factors. 11 experts responded to the Likert scales forappropriateness of each item and gave open-ended opinions about them; items were revised
based on statistical analysis of the collected data. Through the two-stage Delphi survey,
Korean version of musical self-concept scales for secondary students consisted of 4 subdomains, 23 factors and 138 items were arranged for Exploratory Factor Analysis of thescales.
Keywords: Musical Self-Concept Scales, Musical Identity, Korean Secondary Students,
Musical Preference, Scale Development

iafor
The International Academic Forumwww.iafor.org

ISSN: 2189-101X

507

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Introduction
This paper reports the process of verifying the validity of sub-domains, factors andquestionnaire items of newly developed psychometric scales, the Musical Self-Concept
Scales for Korean Secondary Students by using the expert Delphi technique. Musical selfconcept is 'perception of who I am in the music field' (Svengalis, 1978; Vispoel, 1993;
Spychiger, 2017; Jung, 2021a). In the modern society, self-directed life has become
important (McLean & Syed, 2015), and the research and discussions on self-understanding
and identity have recently made meaningful progress. This trend is also in the field of music
and music education, and studies have discussed that musical self-understanding or musicalself-concept have a great influence on musical development in relation to one’s motivation
for musical learning and activities (Hargreaves, MacDonald, Miell, 2002; 2012). It is becausemusical self-concepts affect one’s thoughts and behaviors by allowing one to predict anddecide what one should and can do. Musical self-concept is closely related to forming one’s
musical identities, which is more holistic view about myself in music. There have been manystudies conducted to develop psychometric scales to measure individuals’ musical selfconcepts (Fiedeler & Spychiger, 2017; Morin, et al., 2017; Spychiger, 2017; Svengalis, 1978;
Vispoel, 1993), and most of them were developed in the Western culture contexts.
Musical self-concept is influenced by various contexts of a society such as history, culture,and education to which the individual belongs (Yeong, 2005), and thus the sub-domains andfactors of the musical self-concept should be set differently depending on the given context.
Therefore, beyond using the musical self-concept scales developed in the context of Western
society as it is, this study was conducted to develop a musical self-concept scales for Korean
secondary students considering their cultural or educational contexts. According to theaffective domain psychometric instrument development procedure (McCoach, et. Al., 2013;
DeVellis, 2022), the range of factors of musical self-concept was explored through literature
review and analyzing prior Western based scales (Jung, 2021b).
The following matters were considered in developing the preliminary sub-domains andfactors in the previous research stage. First, 'Self-understanding of musical ability' iscommonly included in all prior scales, so it is also included to the preliminary sub-domain;
and the factors of musical ability are ‘music cognition’, ‘singing’, ‘instrumental playing’,‘music creation’, ‘body movement’, ‘reading scores’, and ‘overall musical ability’. Second,in order to reflect the tendency of the recently developed scales to measure the degree ofindividuals’ participation in musical activities other than musical ability, ‘Voluntary
participation on musical activities and training’ was included as a sub-domain, by which tomeasure the “performative” aspect of musical identity (Hargreaves & Lamont, 2017). Third,'Values of music' was set as a sub-domain to measure how much one put importance to thevalues or roles of music or musical activities such as ‘regulation of emotion’, ‘social
interaction’, and ‘willingness to continue musical activities. Finally, in order to develop a
new scale to determine the degree of formation of music preferences and tastes, which isimportant in recent discussions on musical identity, Marcia (1980)’s four stages of identity
development were applied to ‘Development of musical preferences/taste’ sub-domain (Dys,et al., 2017).
Subsequently, for the research stage of this paper, it aimed to verify the appropriateness ofthe developed preliminary sub-domains and factors for the context of Korea from experts'
point of view followed by verifying the questionnaire items. In results of this phase of thestudy, a preliminary scale questionnaire items will be produced, and the final scale

ISSN: 2189-101X

508

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

questionnaire items will be selected through student surveys. Therefore, the researchquestions of this research stage are as follows.
1. 1st Delphi survey: What are the experts’ opinions on the content validity of preliminary
sub-domains and factors of the Musical Self-concepts Scales for Korean Secondary
Students?
2. 2nd Delphi survey: What are the experts' opinions on the contents validity of preliminary
questionnaire items developed according to the sub-domains and factors of Musical Selfconcepts Scales for Korean Secondary Students?
Research Method
1.

Research Procedure

Table 1 summarizes the entire research procedure for developing Musical Self-concepts
Scales for Korean Secondary Students, and phase 2 and 3 are the process of validating thescales by Delphi surveys.
Phase

Procedure

Research Method

Results1

Development of Preliminary
Sub-domains and Factors of thescales•Literature review•Analysis of former scales•Interviews on Korean
secondary students•Set preliminary sub-domains and factors of thescales:•4 sub-domains, 25 factors

2

Validation of Preliminary
Scale Sub-domains andFactors•Delphi Surveys fromexperts(1st) and Validation•Confirmation of sub-domains•4 sub-domains, 23 factors•Development of preliminary
questionnaire items

3

Validation of Preliminary
Questionnaire Items•Delphi Surveys fromexperts(2nd) and Validation•Item selection•Development of preliminary survey
scales4Preliminary Test: Factor
Analysis and Item Selection•Conduct preliminary survey to
Korean secondary students•Exploratory factor analysis

Extracting factors and item selection- Development of main survey scales

5

Conducting Main Test andAnalysis•Conduct main survey to
Korean secondary students•Exploratory factor analysis,
confirmation factor analysis•Optimizing scale length•Production of final version survey scales

Table 1: Research Procedure for Scale Development2.

Research Participants

In order to validate the appropriateness of the sub-domains of the scales established throughprior research and interviews, Delphi surveys were conducted by 15 experts for the 1st and
11 experts for the second (Ayre & Scally, 2014; DeVellis & Thorpe, 2022; McCouch, et al.,2013). The general characteristics of experts who participated in the Delphi survey are shownin Table 2.

ISSN: 2189-101X

509

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Features

GenderAge

1st Delphi survey(15명)

2nd Delphi survey(11명)nPercentage(%)

nPercentage(%)

Male

3

20

2

18.2

Female

12

80

9

81.8

25~30

0

0

1

9.1

30~39

1

6.7

4

36.4

40~49

5

33.3

1

9.1

50 above

9

60

5

45.4

11(2)

73.3(13.3)

5(2)45.4(18.2)

1

6.7

1

9.1

2(1)

13.3(6.7)

5

45.5

1~3

0

0

1

9.1

3~5

1

6.7

0

0

5~10

2

13.3

2

18.2

10~15

3

20

2

18.2

15 above

9

60

6

54.5

Doctoral

13

86.7

6

54.5

Master’s

2

13.3

4

36.4

Other

0

0

1(Artist Diploma)

6.7Music Edcuation

13

86.6

9

81.8

1

6.7

1

9.1

6.7

1(Voice)9.1

College
Professors(Former)
Position

Official Conference Proceedings

College Instructors
Secondary School
Music
Teachers(Former)

CareerYears

Final
DegreeMajor of

Educational

Final

Psychometry/Statistics

DegreeOther

1(Gifted
Education)

Table 2: Information of Experts for Delphi Survey
3.

Data Collection and Analysis

1)First Delphi Survey

The 1st Delphi survey was done from November 27 to December 11, 2021. The maincontents and structure of the survey paper are as follows.
••••

Study Overview and Description
Defining and explaining the main concepts of the study: the definition of musical selfconcept and its relationship to musical identity
Overview of preliminary sub-domains and factors of the scales: 4 sub-domains and 25
factors (Table 3)
Explanation and definition of each sub-domain and factor and 5-point Likert scale andopinions to evaluate the appropriateness

ISSN: 2189-101X

510

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

After collecting expert response results, the appropriateness of each preliminary sub-domain
and factor was reviewed. The analysis criteria are as follows. First, among the Likert scale
responses of the expert group for each sub-domain and factor, it was judged to be appropriate
if the response rate of 4 or 5 points was 80% or more, and the standard deviation was low(sd<0.9). If the standard deviation is less than sd≧0.9 and the average value is less than 4, theappropriateness of the sub-domain and factor was examined more closely, whether to modify
or delete it by reflecting the experts’ suggestions (Lynn, 1986).
2)

Second Delphi Survey

Reflecting the analysis of the results after the 1st Delphi survey, some sub-domains andfactors were modified, deleted, and added; in result, 4 sub-domains with 23 factors wereconfirmed. Then, a total of 138 questionnaire items (6 for each factor), and the 2nd Delphi
survey was conducted to validate the appropriateness of them. The survey was conducted
about for two weeks from May 5 to 23, 2022. In the second survey, a 4-point scale was used
to clarify the positive/negative judgment for each item (McCoach, et al., 2013, p.103). The
main contents and composition of the survey are as follows.
••••

Study Overview and Description
Definition and explanation of the main concepts of the study: the definition of musicalself-concept and its relationship with musical identity
Overview of sub-domains and factors of the scales: 4 sub-domains and 23 factors (Table
5)
Description of each sub-domain and factor, 6 items for each factor and 4-point Likert
scale and opinions to evaluate the appropriatenessAfter collecting expert response results, the appropriateness of 138 individual items wasreviewe. The analysis criteria are as follows. First, it was judged that it was appropriate if the
response rate of 3 or 4 points was more than 80%, and the standard deviation was low(sd<0.9). If the standard deviation is high(sd≧0.9), and the average value is less than 3, theappropriateness of the sub-domain was examined more closely, whether to modify or delete itby reflecting the experts’ suggestions (Lynn, 1986).
Results
1.

First Delphi Survey

The results of the 1st expert survey are shown in <Table 4>. The sub-domain variable nameis numbered to MS, which stands for Musical Self-concept, respectively, 'MS1. Selfunderstanding of musical ability', 'MS2. Voluntary participation in musical activities andtraining', and 'MS3. Musical values' and 'MS4. Development of musical preference and taste'.

ISSN: 2189-101X

511

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Code.
Sub-domain

Official Conference Proceedings

Code.

Code. Factors

Code. Factors

Sub-domain

MS3.1. Regulation of Emotion

MS1.1. Music Perception
MS1.

MS1.2. Singing

Self-

MS1.3. Instrument Playing

MS3.2. Social Interaction
MS3.3. Self-Expression
MS3.

Understanding MS1.4. Music Creationof musicalMS1.5. Body Movement with MusicabilityMS1.6. Reading

MS3.4. Important Hobby

Musical values

MS3.5. Seeking Musical CareersMS3.6. Overall Importance/Value of Music
MS3.7. Willing to Continue MusicalMS1.7. Overall Musical Ability

Activities

MS2.1. Music Listening
MS2.
Voluntary
participationin musicalactivities andtraining

MS2.2. Music Training
MS2.3. Music Making(Playing and Creation)
Activities
MS2.4. Participation to Music Events
MS2.5. Searching Music Related Information

MS4.
Developmentof musicalpreference/taste

MS4.1. Achievement
MS4.2. Moratorium
MS4.3. Foreclosure
MS4.4. Diffusion

MS2.6. Writing about Music
MS2.7. Finance Expenses to Musical
Activities

Table 3: Preliminary Sub-domains and Factors
Response
Code

Rate on 4,

Response
M

SD

Code

5

Rate on 4,

M

SD

5

MS1

86.7

4.40

0.737

MS3

73.3*

4.27

1.033***

MS1.1

73.3*

4.27

1.033***

MS3.1

80.0

4.27

1.280***

MS1.2

93.3

4.67

0.617

MS3.2

93.3

4.73

0.594

MS1.3

80.0

4.47

0.834

MS3.3

100.0

4.93

0.258

MS1.4

73.3*

4.07

0.961***

MS3.4

100.0

4.67

0.488

MS1.5

60.0*

3.93**

1.033***

MS3.5

86.7

4.20

1.082***

MS1.6

86.7

4.47

0.915

MS3.6

86.7

4.40

1.121***

MS1.7

66.78*

4.13

1.060***

MS3.7

86.7

4.53

0.743

MS2

100.0

4.67

0.488

MS4

80.0

4.40

0.828

MS2.1

93.3

4.60

0.632

MS4.1

86.7

4.40

1.121***

MS2.2

93.3

4.60

0.632

MS4.2

66.7*

4.13

1.246***

MS2.3

100.0

4.80

0.414

MS4.3

73.3*

4.13

1.457***

MS2.4

100.0

4.67

0.488

MS4.4

66.7*

3.93**

1.438***

MS2.5

86.7

4.53

0.915

MS2.6

73.3*

4.20*

1.146***

MS2.7

86.7

4.33

0.900

(*Response rate on 4,5<80%, **M<4, ***SD≧0.9)

Table 4: Results: 1st Delphi Survey

ISSN: 2189-101X

512

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

The analysis of expert opinion results for each sub-domain and factor, and explanations andmodifications are as follows.
(1)

MS1: Self-understanding of Musical Ability

First, the response rate of MS1.1 was lower than 80% and had high standard deviation, andthere were opinions on the appropriateness of using music ‘perception’ for the factor namedue to the wide range of meaning and differences for ‘perception’ among scholars. Hence,
the name of the MS1.1 was changed to 'Music cognition and discrimination', and thedefinition was modified to 'evaluation of the ability to listen to music and distinguish or
identify its characteristics.'
Second, the response rate of MS1.4 was lower than 80%, and there were many opinions on
including more specific musical terms such as ‘composition’, ‘arrangement’, and‘improvisation’ other than ‘creation’ to clarify the meaning. Therefore, those three terms
were included to the factor name of 1.4 as ‘music creation (Composition, Arrangement,
Improvisation).’Third, MS1.5 did not satisfy the standards, and there were many opinions on if ‘body
movement with music’ is for musical ability because it could be confused with dance or
sports activities. Since there were also diverse discussion on ‘body movement with music’during student interviews (Jung, 2022), it seems difficult to reach a common consensus onpresenting body movement with music as a factor. Therefore, it was decided to exclude.
Fourth, MS1.7 did not satisfy the standards, and there were many opinions on whether it wasnecessary to present the ‘overall musical ability’. Some of the preceding foreign scales
included a factor or items asking for the evaluation of overall musical ability, in addition tofactors such as singing, instrumental playing, and composition (Spychiger, 2107; Svenalis,
1978; Vispoel, 1993). Paying attention to the psychometric expert's opinion that the overall
musical ability can be measured by statistically combining the value results of musical ability
factors, this factor was excluded.
Additional opinion about the MS1 was that the presented factors of musical ability werefocused on musical performance, but understanding musical knowledge such as music theory
also needs to be included in the range of ability. This has not been included as a musicalability in previous studies, but it is reasonable to consider the Korean music education
context, which emphasizes the curriculum to understand music concepts and elements. Also,
during the student interviews, many students expressed confidence for their musical ability
based on their understanding of musical knowledge. Therefore, it was decided to add‘Understanding and Knowledge in Music’ as a factor of MS1.
(2)

MS2: Voluntary Participation in Music Activities and Training

For the MS2, although the standards of response rate and standard deviation were satisfied,there were opinions of using term ‘training’ because it could be considered too serious fornon-music major students. Therefore, the name of MS2 was changed to ‘Voluntary
participation in music activities and learning (practice).'
Factor MS2.6 needed to be reviewed because the response rate was less than 80%, and thestandard deviation is above the standard. Experts’ opinions on MS2.6. ‘writing about music’

ISSN: 2189-101X

513

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

are as follows. ‘listening’ and ‘writing’ are highly related activities, so there was an opinion
on integrating them rather than put it as an individual factor. Therefore, the factor was
excluded because the writing activity may not be universally carried out activity and that it
may not play an appropriate role as a factor due to its high correlation to other factors.
(3)

MS3: Value of MusicFor MS3.5(Seeking Musical Careers), there were opinions that questioned theappropriateness of it as a component of musical self-concept because it overlaps
MS3.7(willing to continue musical activities). In the case of MS3.6(overall importance/valueof music), there was an opinion on whether it was a necessary factor because it wasconsidered to be the sum of other factors. In addition, there was a suggestion to include theaesthetic value of music. Accordingly, the researcher added the ‘aesthetic value in music’factor instead of excluding ‘willing to continue musical activities’ and ‘overall
importance/value of music.’(4)

MS4: Development of Musical Preference/Taste

Sub-domain MS4 satisfied the validity criteria, while the factors in MS4 did not reach thestandards. First of all, there were many opinions on use of more appropriate translation words
for factors rather than using the terms from the theory as they were because the terms such as‘achievement’, ‘moratorium, foreclosure, and diffusion’ are somewhat hard to understand.
Therefore, the factor names for MS4 were changed to ‘MS4.1: well-defined, MS4.2:
suspended, MS4.3: conforming, and MS4.4: indifferent’. Second, the psychometric expert
suggested that the measurement method for MS4 should be different from other sub-domains
because the four factors of the MS4 shows the developmental phases of musical preference
and taste. Hence, the statistical analysis method for MS4 will be reviewed based on the
preliminary and main test results.
2. Second Delphi Survey
After the first Delphi, scales were revised and confirmed as 4 sub-domains and 23 factors(Table 5). Then, the second Delphi survey was conducted to verify the validity of 138 items
developed for each factor. This section reports what was considered while developing
questionnaire items for each sub-domain, and discusses experts' opinions on items, subdomains, and factors that have not reached the validity criteria without presenting every
analysis result.

ISSN: 2189-101X

514

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Code.

Code.

Code. Factors

Sub-domain

Official Conference Proceedings

Sub-domain

Code. Factors

MS1.1. Music Cognition and Discrimination
MS1.2. Singing

MS3.1. Regulation of Emotion

MS1.

MS1.3. Playing Instruments

MS3.2. Social Interaction

Self-

MS1.4. Music Creation(Improvisation,

MS3.

MS3.3. Self-Expression

understanding ofComposition, Arrangement)

musical ability

MS1.5. Score Reading

MS3.5 Aesthetic Value in Music

MS1.6 . Understanding and Knowledge inMS3.6. Will to Continue Musical Activities

Musical Values

MS3.4. Meaningful Activity

Music
MS2.1. Music Listening
MS2.
Voluntary
Participation on
Musical Activity
andLearning(Practice)MS2.2. Music Learning(Practice)MS2.3. Music Playing
MS2.4. Music Creation
MS2.5. Participation to Music Events: Audience

MS4.
Development ofMusicalPreference/Taste

MS2.6. Searching Music Related Information

MS4.1. Well-definedMS4.2. Suspended
MS4.3. Conforming
MS4.4. Indifferent

MS2.7. Finance Expenses to Musical Activities

Table 5: Confirmed sub-domains and factors(4 sub-domains, 23 factors)(1)

MS1: Self-understanding of Musical Ability

MS1 is a sub-domain that evaluates what one thinks of one's ability in musical activities.
According to previous studies, perception on one’s own musical ability is influenced byabsolute and relative (compare with others) evaluations along with others’ feedback throughvarious music experiences (Schmitt, 1979); also, those evaluations include not only current
ability but also future development potential (Spychiger, 2017). Therefore, 36 scale items
were developed with sentences that include the findings from those studies. As a result of thecontent validity analysis individual items in the MS1, only 1.1.6 (Friends ask me for help
when it is difficult to identify characteristics of music while listening: 3,4 response ratio-72.7,
M=3.18, SD=0.874) did not reached validity criteria. 1.1.6 was the only item that contains therequest of others to mean others’ recognition of one’s musical ability, which is from a
preceding scale (Austin, 1990). There were opinions that such an expression was likely notnecessarily based on the others’ perception of one’s abilities but because of social friendshipor personality. Accordingly, the item was revised to ‘People around me admit that I'm goodat identifying characteristics of music while listening.’(2)

MS2: Voluntary Participation in Music Activities and Learning (Practice)

The MS2 consists of items to evaluate whether one is participating in musical activities andlearning(practice) with one's own initiative, which aims to assess musical self-concept
according to one's participation in various musical activities based on one's own will
(Müllensiefen, et al., 2014). Individual items for each factor were whether one participates inmusic activities(e.g., I listen to music because I want to do); whether one participates inmusic activities in one’s spare time (e.g., Whenever I have time, I use my time to sing,practice musical instruments, and study music); whether one considers a waste ofresources(time, money, etc.) to participate in music activities (e.g., I don't feel thatcreating/arranging music is waste of my time, I don't feel that musical activity is waste ofmoney); whether one is immersed to musical activities(When I perform music, I lose track of

ISSN: 2189-101X

515

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

time and immerse myself in it); whether one prioritizes music activities (e.g., If I am given a
variety of activities to choose from in and out of the school, I prefer to participate inonline/offline concerts as an audience); and whether actively participating in music activities(When I don't understand something about music, I don’t feel shame to ask my teacher orfriends who know music better). As a result of the content validity analysis of 42 individual
items in MS2, all met the validity criteria except 2.6.4 (I find, organize, and write about the
information of music I want to know: 3, 4 response ratio-72.7, M=3.27, and SD=0.905). This
item was revised to 'I find, organize, and record information about the music I am interested
in.'
(3)

Value of MusicMS3 consisted of items asking how meaningful and important the roles of music or music
activities are to the respondents. As a result of the content validity analysis of 36 individual
items in the MS3, all of the items except 3.4.3 (I don't want to live in a world without music:
3,4 response ratio-72.7, M=3.27, and SD=0.905) met the validity criteria. For the item, there
were opinions that the expression of the item could be somewhat misleading and extreme
expression. Accordingly, the item was revised to ‘I don't want to stay in a place withoutmusic.’(4)

MS4: Development of Musical Preference.Taste

In MS4, six items were presented to explain the characteristics of each stage by dividing thefactors into four developmental phases of musical preference/taste ‘well-defined / suspended/ conforming / indifferent’ to determine how much one’s musical preferences and tastes havebeen formed. To this end, it was intended to include the meaning of presence or absence of
search for various music, and whether the commitment to a specific musical genre is high tomake an item. Examples of items for each factor reflecting this include ‘well-defined: Thereis definitely certain sort of music that I usually listen to’, ‘suspended: I listen to various music
regardless of the atmosphere of music, ‘conforming: I listen to or play a certain music
because my parents and teachers recommended it’, and ‘indifferent: I think it's a waste oftime to look for and listen to various music.’
As a result of the content validity analysis of 24 individual items in the MS4, all items met
the validity criteria and that each item was appropriate for evaluating the factors. However,
the individual items in the MS4 were revised and supplemented by reflecting some experts’opinions that the expression of the items was somewhat difficult or unclear. In addition, likethe first Delphi, there is an opinion of a psychometric expert that the analysis method
between the MS4 and other sub-domains should be differentiated, so it should be decided
based on the results of preliminary tests.
Conclusion
This study used the Delphi survey to verify the validity of the sub-domains, factors, andquestionnaire items of newly developed Musical Self-Concept Scales for Korean Secondary
Students. As a result, 4 sub-domains, 23 factors, and 138 items were confirmed. Through theexpert verification process, the sub-domains, factors, and items of the scale appropriate forthe context of Korea were embodied, and the scales were differentiated and specialized frompreceding scales in the following aspects.

ISSN: 2189-101X

516

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

First, in the MS1, the ‘body movement with music’ factor was excluded from the ‘Selfunderstanding of musical ability’ sub-domain, and the ‘understanding of knowledge inmusic’ factor was included. ‘Body movement’ had been included in several prior scales due
to its high connectivity with music from various perspectives (Vispoel, 1993; Morin et al.,2017; Spychiger, 2017; Fiedeler & Spychiger, 2017). On the other hand, there was no priorscales that suggested the degree of knowledge understanding, such as music theory, as amusical ability. But when considering student interviews and Korean national music
curriculum which put importance on understanding musical knowledge, including the‘understanding of knowledge in music’ as a factor of musical ability seems reasonable.
Second, MS2 and MS3 considered the musical participation of non-musical majors
developing the sub-domain names, factors, and items. Reflecting the expert's opinion that‘training’ may be to serious for non-music majors, MS2 was revised to ‘Voluntary
participation in music activities and learning (practice)’. In addition, if the ‘seeking musicalcareer’ is included in the MS3 as a factor, non-music majors’ test results is likely to be low.
Therefore, the factor is excluded.
Third, in accordance with recent discussions that value the relationship between music
preferences/tastes and musical identity, ‘Development of music preferences and tastes’ wasset as an MS4, and the developmental phases were presented as a factor based on Marcia(1980)’s theory. Since the MS4 is four factors that show step-by-step differences, it isnecessary to use a different method from other sub-domains to analyze the results.
Accordingly, based on the results of the preliminary and main student surveys in the future, itis necessary to devise analyzation method for MS4.
Based on the questionnaire items developed and confirmed through this expert verification,
preliminary and main surveys should be conducted for secondary school students to further
verify the validity of factors and items through exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis.
After the future process, the factors that make up the Musical Self-Concept Scales for Korean
Secondary Students will be more systematic, and the scales will be standardized by selecting
discriminating items from among a number of items included in the preliminary test.
Note: This research was supported by the Ministry of Education of the Republic of Korea andNational Research Foundation of Korea (No. 2021S1A5A8071433).

ISSN: 2189-101X

517

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

References
Austin, J. (1990). The relationship of music self-esteem to degree of participation in school
and out-of-school music activities among upper elementary students. Contributions toMusic Education, 17, 20-31.
Ayre, C., & Scally, A. J. (2014). Critical Values for Lawshe’s Content Validity Ratio:
Revisiting the Original Methods of Calculation. Measurement and Evaluation inCounseling and Development, 47, 79-86.
DeVellis R. F. & Thorpe C. T. (2022). Scale development : theory and applications(5th ed.).
Thousand, Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications.
Dys, S, P., E. G. Schellenberg, and K. C. McLean, Musical Identities, Music Preferences, andIndividual Differences. In R. MacDonald, D. J. Hargreaves, and D. Miell (Eds),
Handbook of Musical Identities (pp. 247–266). Oxford: Oxford Academic.
Fiedler, D., & Spychiger, M. (2017). Measuring “musical self-concept” throughout the yearsof adolescence with MUSCI_youth: Validation and adjustment of the Musical SelfConcept Inquiry (MUSCI) by investigating samples of students at secondary
education schools. Psychomusicology: Music, Mind, and Brain, 27(3), 167–179.
Hargreaves, D. J., MacDonald, R. A. R., & Miell, D. E. (2002). What are musical identities,
and why are they important? In R. A. R. MacDonald, D. J. Hargreaves, & D. E. Miell(Eds.), Musical Identities (pp. 125-142). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Hargreaves, D. MacDonald, R., & Miell, D. (2012). Musical identities mediate musicaldevelopment, in G. McPherson and G. Welch (Eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Music
Education, 1 (pp. 125-142). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Hargreaves, D. J. & Marshall, N. A. (2003). Developing identities in music education. Music
Education Research, 5(3), 263-273.
Hargreaves, D. J. & Lamont, A. (2017). The Psychology of Musical Development. Cambridge
University Press.
Jung, Joo Yeon (2021a). Literature Review on Musical Identities and Implications on Future
Research in South Korea. The Journal of Future Music Education, 6(1), 161-191.
Jung, Joo Yeon (2021b). An analysis of Foreign Scales to Develop a Musical Self-Concept
Inventory for Korean Secondary Students. The Korean Journal of Arts Studies, 34,
119-141.
Jung, Joo Yeon (2022). Interview Research to Identify Sub-domains and Factors of MusicalSelf-Concept Scales for Korean Secondary Students. The Journal of Future Music
Education, 7(1), 21-47.
Lynn, M. (1986). Determination and quantification of content validity. Nursing Research,
35(6), 382–385.

ISSN: 2189-101X

518

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Marcia, J. E. (1980). Identity in adolescence. In J. Andelson (Ed.) Handbook of adolescent
psychology (pp. 159-187). New York: Wiley.
McCoach, D. B., Gable, R. K., & Madura, J. P. (2013). Instrument Development in the
Affective Domain. Research Methodology, 8.
McLean, K. C. & Syed, M. (Eds.) (2015). The Oxford handbook of identity development.
Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Müllensiefen, D., Gingras, B., Musil, J., & Stewart, L. (2014). The musicality of nonmusicians: An index for assessing musical sophistication in the general population.
PLoS one, 9(2), 1-23.
Morin, A. J. S., Scalas, L. F., Vispoel, W., Marsh, H. W., & Wen, Z. (2016). The music selfperception inventory: Development of a short form. Psychology of Music, 44(5), 530549.
Schmitt, M. C. J. (1979). Development and validation of a measure of self-esteem of musicalability. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. University of Illinois at UrbanaChampaign.
Spychiger, M. (2017). Musical self-concept as a mediating psychological structure. Frommusical experience to musical identity. In R. MacDonald, D. J. Hargreaves, & D.
Miell (Eds.), Handbook of musical identity (pp. 267–287). Oxford: Oxford University
Press.
Svengalis, J. N. (1978). Music attitude and the preadolescent male. Unpublished doctoral
dissertation. University of Iowa.
Vispoel, W. P. (1993). The development and validation of the arts self-perception inventory
for adolescents. Educational and psychological measurement, 53(4), 1023-1033.
Yeung, S. S. (2005). Reconsidering the measurement of student self-concept: Use and misuse
in a Chinese context. In H. W. Marsh, R. Craven, and D. M. McInerney (Eds.), New
Frontiers for Self Research, vol. 2 (pp. 223-256). Charlotte, NC: IAP.
Contact email: jung.jooyeon@ewha.ac.kr

ISSN: 2189-101X

519

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

ISSN: 2189-101X

520

Official Conference Proceedings

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Getting Ready for F2f Learning: Teaching Factory in the Fashion Design Program
Dhany Efita Sari, Universitas Muhammadiyah Surakarta, Indonesia
Aghna Ima Zukhrifa, Universitas Muhammadiyah Surakarta, Indonesia
Sabar Narimo, Universitas Muhammadiyah Surakarta, Indonesia
Rochman Hadi Mustofa, Universitas Muhammadiyah Surakarta, Indonesia
Noor Lela Ahmad, Universiti Pendidikan Sultan Idris, Malaysia
Tiara, Universitas Jember, Indonesia
The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023
Official Conference Proceedings
Abstract
This study investigates the implementation of teaching factory learning at SMKN 1 Bancak
in Semarang Regency, Indonesia, for the 2021/2022 academic year. The research utilizes aqualitative methodology, including observations and interviews with vice principals andteachers to gather primary data. The study aims to assess the readiness of SMKN 1 Bancak inimplementing teaching factory learning and identify the obstacles that arise during the
preparation process. The study found that the school's readiness for teaching factory learning
is satisfactory, based on seven critical aspects of implementation. However, the study also
identifies obstacles such as a lack of equipment and materials, limited teacher personnel who
master fashion competence, and limited work equipment. The school has taken steps toovercome these challenges, including borrowing equipment from industrial partner, procuring
uniforms and work equipment, and providing education and training for teachers. This study
provides valuable insights into the readiness of a school for implementing teaching factorylearning and identifies the challenges that may arise during the preparation process.
Keywords: Teaching Factory, School Readiness, F2F Learning, Online Learning, Fashion
Design Program

iafor
The International Academic Forumwww.iafor.org

ISSN: 2189-101X

521

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

INTRODUCTION
Vocational High Schools (SMK) are educational institutions aimed at developing life skills
by training students to master the skills needed in the workforce (including the business andindustrial sectors). The provision of education in vocational schools must produce graduateswith skills relevant to their fields. Referring to Government Regulation No. 19 of 2005
concerning National Education Standards, which also clearly states the competency standardsof SMK graduates in order to improve intelligence, knowledge, personality, noble character,skills, and the ability to live independently and pursue higher education according to theirjobs. Schools need to equip students with skills and competencies in line with the needs ofthe job market.
One of SMK's efforts is to equip students with direct work experience in the business andindustrial world, especially through the workshop teaching model. This refers to the
Guidelines for Factory Training Implementation issued by the Professional Development
Branch, which states that Factory Training is a learning model in SMK/Manufacturing
Services related to applicable standards and procedures in the industry and takes place in an
atmosphere similar to what happens in the industry. (Amin, 2020). This factory training is
now known as teaching factory.
Teaching factory is a learning concept in a real-life environment, which can bridge thecompetency gap between industry needs and school knowledge. Teaching factory is abusiness and production-oriented learning. Innovative learning and productive practice are
educational methods that are oriented towards managing students in learning to be in linewith industry needs or demands (Kuswantoro, 2014). The establishment of teaching factories
in vocational schools can close the skills gap between industry demands and the skills createdby vocational schools. The implementation of teaching factories requires the absolute
involvement of industry stakeholders in assessing the quality of educational outcomes in
SMK.
Teaching factory learning ran smoothly before the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (Covid-19)
pandemic, but after the Covid-19 pandemic appeared, the implementation of teaching factorylearning could not be carried out. The implementation of social distancing as an effort to
reduce the spread of COVID-19 caused the government to eliminate face-to-face learning inschools starting from the primary level, junior high school, senior high school/vocational
school, to university. There was a total change in the learning system or learning process. The
learning process that used to be face-to-face in the classroom is now done remotely or online.
In the current situation, after the vaccination program runs smoothly, the government plans tohold face-to-face learning but still under health protocols, or called learning in the newnormal conditions. The implementation of teaching factory learning in the new normal era is
related to human "compromise" against the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (Covid-19). Therefore,
the new normal era is a new normalcy, which is a normal human life but with a new way ofliving. This new lifestyle is associated with the application of health procedures such as
physical distancing, regular hand washing with soap or hand sanitizer, wearing masks, and soon. This will happen in all aspects of community life in Indonesia, including education.
"The lesson plan for face-to-face learning in the new normal after nearly 1.5 years of online
learning requires readiness from schools and students. Readiness, according to Slameto, is thecondition of someone who feels prepared to take an action, respond, or answer in a certain

ISSN: 2189-101X

522

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

way to a situation (Slameto, 2005). One's readiness is influenced by three aspects, namely: 1)
physical, mental, and emotional condition; 2) needs, motives, and goals; and 3) skills,
knowledge, and understanding that have been acquired.
The implementation of Teaching Factory (TEFA) requires preparation from the school. There
are several components that need to be prepared, starting from conditioning the school,
determining the product-service, learning tools, human resources, management, industrial
relations, and information on products and/or services. The readiness of the school in
implementing TEFA can be seen from these components. The level of readiness of eachcomponent will affect the results of TEFA implementation. The better the school's readinessin each component, the better the implementation of TEFA will be, so that the objectives of
TEFA can be achieved.
Observations at SMKN 1 Bancak, especially in the fashion program, show that the students
have good practical skills. The facilities for fashion practice are also fully available, but due
to online learning, students rarely use them. The research by Hasanah & Purnamawati
revealed that vocational schools are considered ready for TEFA implementation if theinfrastructure is available, supported by a good curriculum, and management (Hasanah &Purnamawati, 2017). The preparation (planning) for TEFA includes: human resources,
production, and finance (Suryana et al., 2019). Some things that need to be prepared for
Teaching Factory in the fashion program are human resource competencies, partnerships withthe business/industrial world, availability of facilities, and products that support Teaching
Factory learning (Santosa, 2018).
Based on the background of the problem above, the research problem is formulated asfollows: 1) How prepared is SMKN 1 Bancak in teaching factory learning at F2F learning?;
2) What are the obstacles that arise and their solutions in preparing for teaching factorylearning at F2F leaning in SMKN 1 Bancak?
METHOD
Research Design

This study is a qualitative-research conducted in the field. Qualitative research, according to
Sutama (2016), aims to understand social phenomena from the participants' perspective. Thisqualitative research is used to describe the readiness of the school in implementing TEFA
learning in F2F learning. The research design uses a single case study. The case study designin this research is intended to describe the readiness of the school in implementing TEFA
learning in F2F learning at SMKN 1 Bancak, Semarang Regency. The aspects of readinessstudied include school conditioning, product-service determination, learning tools, humanresources, management, industrial relations, and product information.
Procedure of Collecting Data
The data used in this study are primary data obtained from interviews with informants,
including the head of the expert group, vice principal, and teachers at SMKN 1 Bancak.
Secondary data sources were obtained from documentation. Data collection techniques usedin this study include interviews, observation, and documentation. Interviews were conductedwith informants, while observation was used to observe the implementation of TEFA
learning in the classroom. Documentation was used to record archives and documents.

ISSN: 2189-101X

523

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Data Validity
Data validity was ensured using source and technique triangulation, which involved
comparing data from different sources. Data from interviews were cross-checked with datafrom observations and documents.
Data Analysis
Data analysis used an interactive qualitative analysis process, which included data collection,
data condensation, data reduction, data presentation, and conclusion drawing.
FINDINGS
The readiness of SMKN 1 Bancak in Teaching Factory Learning for F2F Learning
1.

Preparing learning facilities for F2F learning

The readiness of the implementation of Teaching Factory learning in SMKN 1 Bancak in the2021/2022 academic year has been well-established. This can be seen from the sevenimportant aspects of Teaching Factory application, namely the aspects of preparing learningfacilities, product-service determination, learning tools, human resources (HR), management,
industrial relations, and product information.
Table 1. Preparing Learning facilities for F2F learning
Findings
1. School conditioning is related to the condition of
Preparing learningschool rooms, especially the practice rooms
facilities for F2F(laboratories) where TEFA is carried out.
learning
2. Referring to the guidance of the Directorate of
Vocational Education and Training, laboratory rooms
should be clean, tidy, and equipped with supporting
facilities and furniture.
3. Safety lines/signs/markings should be implemented
between work areas and public areas to ensure safety.
4. Facilities for cleanliness, first aid, fire extinguishers,
signs, instructions, explanations, and work safety
warnings should be available.
5. The arrangement of a workspace that reflects theindustrial work environment will help students toadapt more easily to the work environment in the
future.
6. Schools can optimize their available resources todevelop a work environment similar to that in theindustry.

Based on the research findings, it can be concluded that appropriate educational facilities andinfrastructure in accordance with industry standards will support learning activities. Suchfacilities and infrastructure essentially shape work habits similar to those in the industry. The
facilities and infrastructure referred to are production facilities in the form of equipment andmaterials used to support teaching factory learning activities in vocational high schools, interms of quality, quantity, use, and maintenance. In terms of quality, facilities and

ISSN: 2189-101X

524

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

infrastructure are closely related to feasibility and compliance with industry standards. In
terms of quantity, it is related to adequate facilities and infrastructure. Use and maintenanceare related to compliance with industry procedures. Therefore, it is crucial to optimize theresources available in vocational schools to develop a conducive learning environment thatmirrors real-world industry settings.
2.

Product-service determination
Table 2. Product service determination
Findings
Product service
determination for TEFA
learning

1. The selection of products produced in TEFA
learning has represented the competencies neededin the Fashion department.
2. The production volume is to fulfill the productuser needs from the partnering company
3. The main consideration in determining the
product in the implementation of TEFA at SMKN
1 Bancak is that the product must be able todeliver student competency achievement.
4. The selected product must have good market
potential to meet external needs.
5. The selected product must be able to be producedwith available resources.
6. The selected product must be developed andimproved sustainably in relation to production
volume.
7. The selected product type should be closely
related to the basic competencies in thecompetency curriculum.
8. The production process activities carried out by
students essentially manifest the learning process
to master those competencies.
9. The fulfillment of students' competencies may beachieved through the completion of several typesof products, either goods or services, inaccordance with the competencies they arelearning.
10. One type of product may require the involvementof basic competencies from other majors or
programs at the school

Overall, the findings suggest that the selection of the appropriate product is crucial for the
success of TEFA learning. The product should not only fulfill the needs of the partnering
company but also allow students to achieve their competency goals. In addition, the selected
product should have good market potential, be producible with available resources, and haveroom for sustainable development and improvement. The product type should be closely
related to the basic competencies in the competency curriculum, and the production process
should allow students to master those competencies. Finally, the completion of several typesof products may be necessary to fulfill all the competencies, and the involvement of othermajors or programs may be required in certain cases.

ISSN: 2189-101X

525

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

3.

Official Conference Proceedings

Teaching material
Table 3. Preparing teaching material
Findings
Preparing teachingmaterial for TEFA
learning

1. Teachers at SMKN 1 Bancak have prepared several
teaching materials for TEFA learning, including
syllabi, lesson plans, media, assessment
instruments, and schedules.
2. These teaching materials are essential for creating
and completing a product in the TEFA learning
process, whether it is a good or a service.
3. The preparation of teaching materials is done after
analyzing whether the product to be createdcontains the competencies that students need tomaster.
4. The TEFA learning process aims to integrate theculture and activities of the partnering company
into the learning process.
5. The teaching materials are a manifestation of thevocational curriculum and should be closely related
to the competencies in the curriculum.
6. The TEFA learning process is designed to simulate
the production process in the partnering company,
and students are expected to perform the same tasks
as workers in the company, including following therules and regulations of the workplace.

In conclusion, the findings highlight the importance of preparing teaching materials in the
TEFA learning process. These materials should be carefully crafted to reflect thecompetencies in the curriculum and the product being created. Moreover, TEFA aims tointegrate the culture and activities of the partnering company into the learning process,making it a more immersive and practical experience for students. The simulation of the
production process in the partnering company is also a critical aspect of the TEFA learning
process, as it enables students to perform the same tasks as workers in the company and learn
to follow workplace rules and regulations. Overall, the TEFA learning process offers avaluable opportunity for students to gain practical skills and prepare for the workforce.
4.

Preparation of human resources
Table 4. Preparing of human resources
Preparation of humanresources

Findings
1. The preparation of human resources is important
for the success of the TeFa learning process.
2. Teachers with appropriate competencies in fashion
design are assigned to facilitate the TeFa learning
process.
3. The learning process is aimed to apply theindustrial work culture to the students throughteacher guidance and partnership with the industry.

ISSN: 2189-101X

526

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

4. Teachers need to understand and be familiar withthe production process in the partnering company
to provide appropriate guidance to the students.
5. Teacher readiness is crucial in measuring thereadiness for implementing the teaching factory, as
they are directly involved with the students in theprocess.
6. According to Permendiknas No. 16/2007, ateacher's qualification is determined by theiracademic qualifications and competencies, which
can be obtained through formal education or
certification.

In SMKN 1 Bancak, the preparation of human resources, particularly teachers withappropriate competencies, is important for the success of the TeFa learning process. The
learning process aims to apply industrial work culture to the students through teacher
guidance and partnership with the industry. The readiness of the teacher is crucial inmeasuring the readiness for implementing the teaching factory. Therefore, teachers need tounderstand and be familiar with the production process in the partnering company to provide
appropriate guidance to the students. The teacher's qualifications are determined by theiracademic qualifications and competencies, which can be obtained through formal educationor certification.
5.

Teaching factory management

TEFA management operates based on seven guiding principles, including independence,accountability, responsibility, transparency, partnership, effectiveness, and efficiency.
Table 5. Teaching factory management
Findings
Teaching factory
management

1. Independence means that TEFA operates
autonomously without relying on external parties
for guidance or direction.
2. Accountability refers to the responsibility of
TEFA to document and report on its activities tothe school leadership.
3. Transparency in TEFA management helps tofoster trust and prevent suspicion among
stakeholders.
4. Partnership is essential in TEFA management,
where the goal is to establish mutually beneficial
relationships that are interactive, active, andpositive.
5. Effectiveness is a critical measure of TEFA's
success in achieving its desired outputs and goals.
6. Efficiency is another essential factor in TEFA
management, as it ensures that the required
outcomes are achieved with minimal resource
sacrifice, particularly cost, time, and effort.

Based on the Table 5, these principles ensure good governance and prevent deviations andmismanagement. Independence means operating autonomously without relying on external

ISSN: 2189-101X

527

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

guidance. Accountability involves documenting and reporting activities to school leadership,
while transparency fosters trust among stakeholders. Partnership aims to establish mutually
beneficial relationships, and effectiveness measures TEFA's success in achieving its goals.
Efficiency ensures achieving outcomes with minimal resource sacrifice.
The study shows that SMKN 1 Bancak's preparation for implementing cooperation withindustrial partners has been successful. This success can be attributed to the use of TEFA,
which requires a link and match between the school's learning patterns and the industry's
needs. This link and match are established through the development of an industry
relationship or industrial partnership. Here are some further explanations about industrial
partners in preparing TEFA learning.
Table 6. Industrial partners
Findings
Industrial partners in
preparing TEFA learning6.

1. The implementation of TEFA requires the school
to align its curriculum and teaching methods with
the needs of the industry to provide relevant
training and practical experience to students.
2. Industrial partnership or relationship is crucial in
TEFA implementation, as it provides students
with exposure to real-world situations andenhances their employability.
3. An effective partnership between the school andindustry requires a clear understanding of eachother's needs, goals, and expectations to ensure
mutual benefit.
4. TEFA's success in developing an industry
relationship depends on the school's ability toestablish trust, maintain transparency, andcommunicate effectively with the industry.
5. The link and match between the school's learning
patterns and the industry's needs facilitate thetransfer of knowledge and skills, making students
more job-ready and competitive.
6. Industrial partnership or relationship in TEFA
implementation provides a platform forcollaboration between the school and the industry,
promoting innovation, and sharing best practices.
7. The implementation of TEFA in schools cancontribute to the development of a skilled andcompetent workforce that can support the growthof the industry and the economy.

Product information

The research shows that SMKN 1 Bancak has made efforts to inform the public about its
products. However, it is stated that the responsibility for marketing the products belong to theindustrial partner. The school is only helping with the marketing process and is not fully
involved in it. The school's focus is on production, and marketing has not been fully
integrated into its operations. In conclusion, the findings suggest that SMKN 1 Bancak needs
to improve its marketing efforts and work more closely with its partner company to promote

ISSN: 2189-101X

528

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

its products effectively. The school should also consider integrating marketing into its
operations to ensure that it meets its goals for product promotion and sales.
Barriers to TEFA Learning through F2F (face-to-face) Learning
The research findings indicate that the preparation for TEFA learning in the Fashion
Department of SMKN 1 Bancak has been carried out optimally, but some obstacles havebeen identified, including constraints in the areas of infrastructure and human resources.
Table 7. Barriers to TEFA Learning through F2F (face-to-face) Learning
Constraints
Explanation
Solutions
Facilities andLack of equipment,
The school borrows
equipments
materials, and work
equipment and materials fromequipment.
their industrial partner
Facilities and infrastructure SOP has been established for
were incomplete and nonstudents to comply with theuniform work equipment,
use of masks and gloves
with many students notusing gloves and masks.
Human resources The lack of teachers with
Several teachers will beappropriate competencies in assigned to assist in TEFA
the Fashion Department.
learning and will be provided
with education and training on
fashion competencies before
the implementation
The supervising andassign additional teachers
technical implementing
from the school to assist withteachers from the partner
the implementation of the
DUDI company only
TEFA program. Beforehand,consist of one person eachthese teachers should receive
education and training on thecompetencies required in thefield of fashion. This
education and training cantake the form of a training
program provided by thepartner DUDI company. By
increasing the number ofsupervising and technicalimplementing teachers, theschool can ensure that the
TEFA program is adequately
supported and implemented
effectively.
DISCUSSION
The excerpt discusses the importance of educational facilities, infrastructure, and industrial
relations in vocational education. According to Barnawi & Arifin (2012), educational
facilities are all equipment, materials, and furniture used directly in the educational process,

ISSN: 2189-101X

529

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

while infrastructure refers to all school equipment that indirectly supports the learning
process. In accordance with the National Education Ministry Regulation No. 40 of 2008 on
the Standards of Education Infrastructure for Vocational High Schools (SMK), an SMK musthave infrastructure categorized into general learning spaces, support spaces, and special
learning spaces, along with equipment in each room.
The excerpt also emphasizes the importance of industrial relations in vocational education.
As stated by ATMI Biz-Dec (2015), a school-industry relationship can support practicalactivities that apply industrial culture, such as quality standards, target times, production
process efficiency, shift work, clear work procedures, practical results as a source of income,clear functions and responsibilities for each accountable person, a safe and comfortableworking environment, and smooth learning activities. Through collaboration with industries,
schools can benefit from training and facilities that will create an industrial culture within theschool. This collaboration will provide schools with a standardization of production-basedlearning activities similar to those in the industrial world.
In line with TEFA Learning Guide issued by the SMK Development Directorate (2020), thework uniform worn by students during TEFA learning must comply with safety and healthrequirements as a standard work procedure. Gloves are required for production activities. The
requirement for safety and health compliance in TVET programs is mandated by government
regulations and guidelines. In Indonesia, for example, the Directorate of Vocational HighSchool Development released a guide for TVET learning in 2020, which stipulates the use of
appropriate personal protective equipment, including gloves, during practical activities(Direktorat Pembinaan SMK, 2020). This emphasizes the importance of creating a safe andhealthy learning environment for students (Al-Dhafiri, A. A., Al-Shammari, N. M., Al-Jabri,
M. M., & Al-Atawi, A. M., 2021; Oyewale, O. S., & Olowolaju, T. O, 2019; Nwaru, J. C., &Adogu, P. O. U., 2021).
The goal of the school-industry internship program (teaching factory) in vocational schools,
according to Amin (2020), is to support work readiness, combine skills, and enhance theprofessional character of SMK graduates according to the needs of the business world andcompanies. This is achieved through product/service-based learning activities that take placein an environment, atmosphere, governance, and actual business/ company standards.
Wahjusaputri & Bunyamin (2021) also state that teacher and student competencies can beenhanced through training such as the TF-6M program tailored to industry needs, online
learning through the KKSI (Creative Camp for Indonesian Vocational Schools), and facilities
such as laboratories or workshops that must comply with industry standards.
CONCLUSION
In conclusion, the readiness of implementing the teaching factory in SMKN 1 Bancak for theacademic year 2021/2022 has been running well. This can be seen from seven important
aspects of teaching factory implementation, including school conditioning, determination of
product-services, learning tools, human resources (HR), management, industrial relations,and product information. However, there are some obstacles found in the preparation of
TEFA learning in SMKN 1 Bancak, such as the lack of equipment, materials, work
equipment, and limited personnel who master the competency of fashion. Efforts to overcome
the lack of equipment include borrowing equipment and materials from DUDI partners,
providing uniforms and work equipment, and conducting education and training for teachers.

ISSN: 2189-101X

530

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

These efforts can improve the quality of the teaching factory and provide a better learning
experience for the students.
Based on the conclusions drawn, it is suggested that the school should plan more carefully forthe implementation of TEFA, particularly in terms of the school's human resources. The
school should conduct training for the fashion teachers before implementing TEFA.
Moreover, the school should improve its ability to allocate budget for the implementation of
TEFA to avoid the shortage of equipment and materials.
Following the TEFA guidelines from the Directorate of SMK Development, the school needs
to evaluate the implementation of Teaching Factory in terms of target clarity, market
segments, market reach, and adjust methods and actors in promotional activities. The school
should develop a plan for Teaching Factory product information and its implementation inaccordance with the predetermined product targets. Communication media for Teaching
Factory include brochures, leaflets, online media, and other forms of media that the school
can use to provide information on the Teaching Factory's product.
The school needs to have various ways to provide information about the Teaching Factory's
products, such as brochures, leaflets, websites, and other forms of media. The productinformation aspect is essential to develop marketing skills in students. The school needs tomanage the marketing media that can be utilized while minimizing expenses, considering thatthe school's funding structure does not accommodate the needs of funding for promotional
activities.
Based on the conclusions drawn, here are some suggestions for teachers and students toimprove the implementation of TEFA. Suggestions for teachers: 1) Conduct an evaluation of
the TEFA implementation and identify areas of improvement; 2) Provide training to teachers
who need to improve their competencies in the area of fashion design; 3) Plan and allocate
the budget for the TEFA implementation more effectively, to avoid a shortage of equipment
and materials; 4) Implement regular monitoring and evaluation to ensure that the quality of
TEFA implementation is improving. Suggestions for students; 1) Increase motivation andenthusiasm for learning and participating in TEFA activities; 2) Identify and maximize theirtalents in fashion design, so that they can contribute to the success of the program; 3) Take
advantage of the learning opportunities offered by TEFA to develop entrepreneurship skills
and prepare for future careers in the fashion industry.
Overall, the success of the TEFA program depends on the collective efforts of all
stakeholders involved, including the school, teachers, and students. By working together andtaking these suggestions into consideration, the quality of TEFA implementation can be
improved and the program can better achieve its goal of producing quality and skilled
entrepreneurs in the fashion industry.

ISSN: 2189-101X

531

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

References
Al-Dhafiri, A. A., Al-Shammari, N. M., Al-Jabri, M. M., & Al-Atawi, A. M. (2021). The
Importance of Safe and Healthy Learning Environments for Students: An Analytical
Study. Journal of Education and Learning, 10(3), 295-304.
Amin, M. (2020). Panduan pelaksanaan Teaching Factory. Jakarta: Direktorat Pembinaan
Sekolah Menengah Kejuruan, Direktorat Jenderal Pendidikan Dasar dan Menengah,
Kementerian Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan.
Amin, M. (2020). The Effect of Factory Teaching Program on the Work Readiness ofVocational School Students. Journal of Education and Vocational Research, 11(1), 110.
ATMI-BizDec. (2015). Teaching Factory Coaching Programme. Jakarta: Kemendikbud.
Barnawi, B., & Arifin, A. (2012). Prinsip Dasar Pendidikan Teknologi dan Kejuruan. Jakarta:
Kencana Prenada Media Group.
Direktorat Jenderal Pendidikan Dasar dan Menengah Kementerian Pendidikan dan
Kebudayaan. (2019). Panduan Pengembangan Teaching Factory. Jakarta: Direktorat
Pembinaan SMK Direktorat Jenderal Pendidikan Dasar dan Menengah Kementerian
Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan.
Direktorat Pembinaan SMK. (2020). Panduan Pembelajaran TEFA. Retrieved fromhttps://simpuh.kemdikbud.go.id/portal/upload/dokumen/Dokumen_1599057929.pdf
Fitrihana, N. (2018). Rancangan Pembelajaran Teaching Factory di SMK Tata Busana. HEJ(Home Economics Journal), 2(2).
Hasanah, & Purnamawati. (2017). Kesiapan Unit Produksi Dalam Pelaksanaan Pembelajaran
Kewirausahaan Berbasis Teaching Factory di Sekolah Menengah Kejuruan Kota
Makassar. Jurnal Universitas Negeri Makassar, 3(1).
https://ojs.unm.ac.id/semnaslemlit/article/view/4101
Jatmika, S. (2018). Pelaksanaan Kemitraan Antara Sekolah, Keluarga, Dan Masyarakat Pada
Smk Bisnis Manajemen Kota Surakarta. Jurnal Pendidikan Ilmu Sosial, Vol 28, No.2.
Kemendikbud. (2018). Permendikbud No. 34/2018 tentang Standar Nasional Pendidikan
SMK/MAK. Kementrian Pendidikan Dan Kebudayaan RI.
Kuswantoro, A. (2014). Teaching Factory Rencana dan Nilai Enterpreneurship. Yogyakarta:
Graha Ilmu.
National Education Ministry Regulation No. 40 of 2008 on the Standards of Education
Infrastructure for Vocational High Schools (SMK).
Nwaru, J. C., & Adogu, P. O. U. (2021). School Environment and Students’ Health: A
Systematic Review of Literature. Journal of Education and Practice, 12(8), 25-33.

ISSN: 2189-101X

532

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Oyewale, O. S., & Olowolaju, T. O. (2019). The Role of Safety and Health in Enhancing
Learning in Educational Institutions. Journal of Educational and Social Research,
9(2), 88-95.
Saldana, & Huberman. M. (2017). Qualitative Data Analysis. America. SAGE Publications.
Santosa, H. (2018). Pengelolaan Pembelajaran Berbasis Teaching Factory Program
Kompetensi Busana Butik di SMK Muhammadiyah Susukan Kabupaten Semarang.
Naskah Publikasi Tesis. Program Studi Magister Administrasi Pendidikan Sekolah
Pascasarjana Universitas Muhammadiyah Surakarta.
Sugiyono. (2018). Metode Penelitian Kuantitatif dan Kualitatif, R & D. Bandung: Alfabeta.
Sutama. (2016). Metode Penelitian Kuantitatif, Kualitatif, PTK, R&D. Surakarta: Fairuz
Media.
Suryana, S., Dirawan, G. D., Saludung, J., & Widodo, S. (2019). Pengelolaan Sanggar
Busana Berbasis Teaching Factory Pada Jurusan Tata Busana SMK Negeri 6
Makassar. Prosiding Seminar Nasional Sinergitas Multidisiplin Ilmu Pengetahuan
Dan Teknologi (SMIPT), 2(1).
Suyatmini, Rohmah, W., Hasanah, U.U., & Setiyana, B.E. (2021). Pola Pembelajaran
Akuntansi Sekolah Menengah Kejuruan Dengan Mengadopsi Teaching Factory.
Jurnal Pendidikan Ilmu Sosial, Vol. 31, No.2.
Syafaruddin. (2015). Manajemen Lembaga Pendidikan Islam. Jakarta: Ciputat Press.
TEFA Learning Guide issued by the SMK Development Directorate (2020).
Wahjusaputri, S., & Bunyamin, M. A. (2021). Challenge of Teaching Factory Based on
School’s Potentials In West Java During Covid-19 Pandemic. Turkish Journal ofComputer and Mathematics Education, 12(7).
Wahjusaputri, S., & Bunyamin, M. A. (2021). Enhancement of Teacher Competence in
Vocational School through Creative Camp for Indonesian Vocational Schools. Journalof Technical Education and Training, 13(1), 44-58.
Contact email: des567@ums.ac.id

ISSN: 2189-101X

533

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

ISSN: 2189-101X

534

Official Conference Proceedings

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Challenges and Approaches in Adopting EIL in a Japanese EFL:
Internal and External Factors
Arifumi Saito, Utsunomiya University, Japan
The Asian Conference on Education & International Department 2023
Official Conference Proceedings
Abstract
This study explores how the English education policy in Japan (external factor) and Japanese
EFL learners’ mindsets toward their dialects (internal factor) affect their attitudes toward
Japanese English. Also, we discuss how their attitudes toward dialects influence theirself-esteem and self-confidence. First, the Japanese English education policy focuses on
American or British English and strongly encourages learners to speak either of the twovarieties in place of Japanese English (a unique variety of English spoken in Japan from theWorld Englishes point of view). In other words, it prioritizes American or British English
over learners’ own English (Japanese English), which results in their negative attitudes
toward Japanese English. Second, we review some studies showing how Japanese speakers’
negative attitudes toward dialects in general influence their perception of Japanese English(internal factor) and how they eventually influence their self-esteem and self-confidence,negatively affecting L2 performance. Finally, in this paper, we propose effective ways tointroduce the concepts of “English as an International Language (EIL),” “World Englishes(WE),” and “Intercultural Competence (IC)” into English education based on the pedagogicalimplications of previous EIL studies. By learning these new ideas, Japanese EFL learners cangain the confidence to accept and speak Japanese English, leading to greater self-esteem andconfidence in using English.
Keywords: English Varieties, Japanese English, Dialect, Self-Esteem, Self-Confidence, EIL,
WE, ICiafor
The International Academic Forumwww.iafor.org

ISSN: 2189-101X

535

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

1. Introduction
With globalization progressing at an unprecedented rate, English continues to play anessential role as a global language with which people from different countries cancommunicate worldwide. The number of English speakers is approaching 1.5 billion, with 75
percent of them being non-native speakers with diverse linguistic and cultural backgrounds.
This increasing demand for English proficiency highlights the need for well-designed English
education policies and curricula to nurture and produce global talents capable of negotiatingwith people from different parts of the world and addressing common issues through English
communication. In Japan, it has been over 130 years since English started to be taught inschools, with students nowadays spending an average of 6 to 10 years learning the language.
However, many Japanese people lack confidence in speaking English and hesitate tocommunicate with foreigners.
Among many approaches proposed for increasing the communicative competence ofJapanese learners of English, English as an International Language (EIL), involving theparadigm shift in the way English is viewed, put forth by Smith (1976) has been considered
one of the most empowering ideas for EFL learners. Smith (1976) claims “It (English) is
yours (no matter who you are) as much as it is mine (no matter who I am)” (p.39). According
to him, English does not belong to specific people such as Americans and British but toeveryone. Whether you speak English as your first, second, or foreign language does notmatter. Further, people can speak English as their own language as well as their mothertongue. Following the idea, people can obtain ownership of English, that is, they can benative speakers of their own English. It is expected that Japanese EFL learners change their
negative attitudes toward Japanese English and gain confidence in using their own forms of
the language through the introduction of EIL.
Despite EIL’s positive effects on EFL learners attested through many studies (e.g., Ke &Suzuki, 2011; Lee et al., 2017; Saito, Heo & Perkins, 2020), there remains resistance to it
among Japanese learners of English as well as in the current EFL curricula. The present study
touches on some of the sources of this resistance, learner-internal as well as external factors.
Then, we discuss our ideas and the pedagogical implications of EIL studies for successfully
implementing EIL activities in an EFL context.
2. Standard English Myth and Cultural Impact
2.1 Impact of American and British Cultures on Japan
The influence of American and British cultures has been significant and far-reaching,particularly in the areas of media and entertainment. Especially, American movies, TV shows,music, and fashion have been popular in Japan for many decades, and have had a major
influence on Japanese popular culture. The use of English loanwords in Japanese is extremelycommon, particularly in the areas of fashion, food, and technology. This is because thesevarieties are seen as prestigious and have high social status, and are therefore considereddesirable to learn for the purposes of international communication and career advancement.
2.2 School English Education in JapanThe English education policy in Japan positively highlights “Standard English,” such as
American and British English, based on the social background described in Section 2.1 and

ISSN: 2189-101X

536

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

also the idea of native-speakerism, and has urged students (Japanese EFL learners) to emulate
the American or British accent. Thus, many students blindly believe that “Standard English”
is the best variety they should learn and speak. According to scholars such as Matsuda (2003)
and Hanamoto (2010), many Japanese EFL learners view “Standard English” as a high-status
English variety, while considering “non-standard English,” including Japanese English, as alow-status English variety. Namely, Japanese EFL learners prefer “Standard English” overtheir own English (Japanese English) and aim to speak the variety by following the English
education policy in Japan.
When viewed from a sociolinguistic perspective, achieving the goal of producing native-like
English speakers in Japan is challenging and may not be a realistic expectation. Language
and the speaker’s culture and identity are two sides of the same coin, inseparable andmutually dependent on each other. In other words, people speak a language by reflecting theirculture and identity (Niemeier, 2004). Given that, it is impossible for Japanese EFL learners
to speak “Standard English” since they do not have its culture and identity to reflect in theirEnglish. Due to this unreasonable and unachievable goal of English education, many learners
give up on learning English in the middle and do not have sufficient confidence tocommunicate in English. However, if you look at it the other way, Japanese EFL learners canbe confident in English if they accept and speak Japanese English by reflecting their Japaneseculture and identity. It is like empowering Japanese EFL learners with an achievable goal
(Japanese English) in the course of their English study rather than complementing their“imperfect” English, saying that “you did your best although you did not quite reach thegoal.”
3. Dialect Use and Its Influence on Self-esteem, Self-confidence, and L2 Performance
3.1 Correlation between L1 Dialect and L2 Accent
In the previous section, the power of American and British culture in Japan and the English
education policy were discussed as external factors hindering the implementation of the EIL
paradigm. In this section, we address one of the learners’ internal aspects that connect to thisunfortunate situation. One can speculate that the negative perception of Japanese English is
not only socially imposed but also arises from individual learners’ experience of using dialect
in general. Some scholars (Choomthong & Manowong, 2020; Matsura & Chiba, 2014) argue
that speakers’ dialectal backgrounds affect their mindsets toward L2 accent. In other words,
people with positive or negative mindsets toward their regional L1 dialects are likely to show
positive or negative attitudes toward L2 accent, respectively. Building on the implications
from these studies, our previous study (Saito, 2023) hypothesized that one of the internal
factors contributing to the negative perception of Japanese English is the unfavorable
mindsets of Japanese EFL learners toward their own dialects. We implemented an activity in
an English class at a Japanese college and investigated our students’ mindsets toward their L1
dialects and attitudes toward Japanese English to examine the correlation between these twocomponents. Through the questionnaire and reading/writing task, we analyzed the correlation.
The result showed that the correlation is positive, that is, the students who are negative about
their dialects tend to show negative attitudes toward Japanese English or vice versa. One of
the findings here is that speakers’ overall unfavorable perception of a non-prestige or
non-standard variety holds them back from using the given “dialect” in certain situations.

ISSN: 2189-101X

537

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

3.2 Impacts of Learners’ Attitudes Toward “Accent” on Self-esteem
Considering L1 dialect and L2 accent (Japanese English) are a part of the speaker’s culture
and identity, it is conceivable that being negative about their own language directly causes
low self-esteem and self-confidence, which results in low motivation and performance intheir English studies. Jorgensen and Pedersen (1989) declare that learners might develop asense of inadequacy if their dialects are not recognized and respected in the educational
context. Further, Romaine (2000) affirms repeatedly correcting dialects would cause learners
to experience a decrease in self-esteem, which leads them to be less confident and motivatedto learn English. Also, Reaser and Adger (2008) proclaim that viewing dialects as errors
discourages learners from engaging in English study and potentially results in their academic
underachievement. Conversely, then, if Japanese EFL learners’ L2 accent (Japanese English)
is accepted and respected, they will gain self-esteem, which brings more confidence in
speaking English, more motivation to practice speaking English, and higher performance in
speaking English.
3.3 Effect of L2 Speaking Confidence on L2 Performance
Related to this, many scholars assert that self-confidence is crucial for EFL learners toachieve high L2 performance (e.g., Cho, 2013; Clement, Dornyei, & Noels, 1994; Ortega,2015). For instance, Cho (2013) affirms that self-confidence and L2 confidence are bothinterrelated to L2 performance, i.e., EFL learners with high confidence are likely to achieve
high performance in speaking English. Additionally, the learners’ high performance brings
them ‘willingness to communicate (WTC)’ which connects to the high frequency of using
English. Needless to say, the more learners practice speaking English, the more they candevelop their English proficiency.
Given the advantages of high self-esteem and self-confidence in speaking English, EIL canbe incorporated into English education to help Japanese EFL learners recognize that JapaneseEnglish is an equally valid form of English alongside American and British English, and toencourage a positive shift in their attitudes towards the language. Introducing EIL into
English education can play an important role in boosting Japanese EFL learners’
self-confidence which drastically influences their motivation and performance in English
studies. For example, in Saito, Heo, and Perkins (2020), it was found that Japanese EFL
learners’ overall L2 speaking confidence was moderately increased after learning about EIL
and participating in intercultural communication with participants from other expanding
circle countries.
4. Introduction of EIL, WE, and IC in a Japanese EFL
4.1 Introduction of World Englishes
People reflect their cultures and identities in their English. Obviously, their cultures andidentities are all different, so their Englishes are also different. This viewpoint naturally
brings the concept of World Englishes (WE) (e.g., Kachru, 1985; Kirkpatric, 2007) which
introduces English use reality where people all over the world speak their own English for
global communication. We believe that the first step to change Japanese EFL learners’
attitudes toward Japanese English is the introduction of WE at the very beginning of EFL
education. During the implementation of EIL activities in our previous research (Saito, Heo& Perkins, 2020; Saito, 2023), we learned that many participants in the study did not know

ISSN: 2189-101X

538

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

the reality and misunderstood that many people would speak only two English varieties in theworld: American or British English. Further, they believed that they would not be able tosuccessfully communicate with people from different countries by speaking Japanese English
due to its accent. Therefore, it is essential for Japanese EFL learners to recognize the reality
by knowing about WE and Japanese English, one of the local varieties of English. Especiallywith the changing dynamics in the global society, a shift from the traditional American andEuropean-centered view of the world to a more diverse and multipolar global landscape, thebenefits of introducing WE will be highlighted more and more in the future. There is no
better time than now to introduce WE, and it can be a good stepping stone to introducing EIL.
4.2 Introduction of EIL and Japanese English
As introduced in Section 3.1, Saito (2023) examined the relatedness between Japanese
speakers’ attitudes toward their own Japanese regional dialects and their ideas about JapaneseEnglish. Given the result that they are positively correlated (negative mindset toward their L1
dialects paired with a negative perception of Japanese English), it was found that whether
EFL learners have negative or positive mindsets toward the L1 dialect can be a criterion for
accepting and speaking Japanese English. The approaches for introducing EIL or JapaneseEnglish can then differ depending on the dialect group or the dialectal background of learners.
For those who have negative perceptions of dialects, more in-depth WE or EIL materials canbe provided or explained during the introduction phase, more clearly highlighting the positive
impact of EIL. Without a firm belief in a teaching material/method, students often fail toachieve a goal set in a classroom. Those who are positive about dialects, on the other hand,
can focus more on the actual practice of EIL, such as intercultural communication withexpanding circle country speakers, without detailed introduction to EIL or the value ofJapanese English, as they are the ones who can readily accept the idea of EIL and can bepositive about Japanese English. The result of Saito (2023) tells us that it is important torecognize who can be negative about Japanese English and encourage them to accept the useof Japanese English to gain self-confidence in speaking English. To realize it, we expect“English as an International Language (EIL)” to change the learners’ attitudes toward
Japanese English and lead them to accept and speak Japanese English.
4.3 Intercultural Communicative Competence
After introducing WE and EIL, it is also important to introduce ‘Intercultural Competence’(IC). Byram (2012) defines IC as the knowledge and abilities that allow individuals tocommunicate effectively and appropriately with people from diverse cultural backgrounds.
Further, Hammer (2015) defines IC as “the capability to shift one’s cultural perspective andappropriately adapt one’s behavior to cultural differences and commonalities (p.483).” Basedon the definition, the use of IC can facilitate genuine global communication by encouraging
individuals with diverse cultural and linguistic backgrounds to value and comprehend various
forms of English, as well as the culture and identity of the person speaking it. Sharifian(2009) also emphasizes that intercultural competence needs to be viewed as a core element of
proficiency in English for international communication. In reality, however, many Japanese
EFL learners consider themselves as the ones who should understand American or British
English and make themselves understood by speaking American or British English. In otherwords, they do not expect Americans and British to understand Japanese English. In thecontext of IC, this viewpoint does not describe real global communication. While it isimportant for Japanese people to strive to understand American and British English, theyshould also anticipate Americans and British to understand Japanese English. By

ISSN: 2189-101X

539

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

understanding each English variety from both sides, people can achieve real mutual
understanding in English based on the concept of IC.
5. Conclusions
This study addressed some internal as well as external factors that impede the adoption of
EIL or Japanese English in a Japanese EFL context. Factors such as the deep-rooted prestigeof American and British culture and English in Japanese society and learner-internal factors
such as their perception of “dialect” affecting their attitudes toward Japanese English werediscussed. Reflecting on internal and external factors, we affirmed the importance of theintroduction of EIL, WE, and IC and suggested how we can effectively introduce theseconcepts to a Japanese EFL context. By incorporating these three components into English
education, learners can realize the reality, recognize numerous local English varieties, anduse Japanese English. Once their own English including their culture and identity is accepted
and respected through English education, it is expected that they will gain self-esteem andself-confidence that promote their high motivation and performance in English studies. Given
these advantages, we will continue to work on the introduction of EIL in an EFL classroom
and design concrete activities to further examine our EIL-driven methodologies.

ISSN: 2189-101X

540

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

References
Byram, M. (2012). Intercultural competence. In C. A. Chapelle (Ed.), The Encyclopedia ofApplied Linguistics (pp. 2767–2770). London: Wiley-Blackwell.
Cho, Y. (2013). L2 learning motivation and its relationship to proficiency: A causal analysis
of university students’ EIL discourses. English Teaching, 68(1), 37–68.
Choomthong, D., & Manowong, S. (2020). Varieties of English accents: A study of thedegree of preference and intelligibility among second-year English major students at
Maejo University. Manusya: Journal of Humanities, 23, 151–169.
Clément, R., Dörnyei, Z., & Noels, K. A. (1994). Motivation, self-confidence, and groupcohesion in the Foreign Language Classroom. Language Learning, 44(3), 417–448.
Hammer, M. R. (2015). The developmental paradigm for intercultural competence research.
International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 48, 12–13.
Hanamoto, H. (2010). How do the stereotypes about varieties of English relate to language
attitude?: A quantitative and qualitative study of Japanese university students. The
Japanese Journal of Language in Society, 12(2), 18–38.
Jorgensen, J.N., & Pedersen, K. M. (1989). Dialect and education in Denmark. In Cheshire etal. (Eds), Dialect and education: Some European perspectives (pp. 30–47).
Philadelphia: Multilingual Matters Ltd.
Kachru, B. B. (1985). Standards, codification and sociolinguistic realism: The English
language in the outer circle. In R. Quirk, & H. G. Widdowson (Eds.), English in theworld: Teaching and learning the language and literatures (pp. 11–30). Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Ke, I.-C., & Suzuki, T. (2011). Teaching global English with NNS-NNS online
communication. The Journal of Asia TEFL, 8(2), 169–188.
Kirkpatrick, A. (2007). World Englishes: Implications for international communication andEnglish language teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Lee, J., Nakamura, Y., & Sadler, R. (2017). Effects of videoconference-embedded classrooms(VEC) on learners’ perceptions toward English as an International Language (EIL).
ReCALL, 30(3), 319–336.
Matsuda, A. (2003). The ownership of English in Japanese secondary schools. World
Englishes, 22, 483–496.
Matsura, H., & Chiba, R. (2014). Students’ attitudes toward unfamiliar English accents andtheir L1-speaking backgrounds. Commercial Science Journal, 82(4), 3–13.

ISSN: 2189-101X

541

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Niemeier, S. (2004). Linguistic and cultural relativity - reconsidered for the foreign language
classroom. In M. Achard, & S. Niemeier (Eds.), Cognitive linguistics, second
language acquisition, and foreign language teaching (pp. 95–118). Berlin: Mouton de
Gruyter.
Ortega, L. (2015). Understanding second language acquisition. London: Routledge.
Reaser, J., & Adger, C. T. (2008). Vernacular language varieties in educational settings:
Research and development. In B. Spolsky, & M. Hult (Eds.), The handbook of
educational linguistics (pp. 161–173). Malden: Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
Romaine, S. (2000). Language in society: An introduction to sociolinguistics. Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
Saito, A., Heo, Y., & Perkins, J. (2020). Building confidence in L2 speaking through the
Expanding Circle Communication: Practicing English as an International Language(EIL). Journal of Language Sciences, 27(2), 199–228.
Saito, A. (2023). Correlation between Japanese EFL learners’ attitudes toward L1 dialects
and Japanese English. International Journal of Linguistics, 15(1), 1–19.
Sharifian, F. (2009). English as an international language: Perspectives and pedagogicalissues. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
Smith, L. E. (1976). English as an International Auxiliary Language. RELC Journal 7(2), 38–
42.
Contact email: asaito@cc.utsunomiya-u.ac.jp

ISSN: 2189-101X

542

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Evaluation of Cocuricular Implementation in the Project of Strengthening the Profile ofPancasila Students at Private Vocational School Yplp Pgri 1 Makassar

Zahrun Awal, Indonesia University of Education, Indonesia
Deni Kurniawan, Indonesia University of Education, Indonesia
Zainal Arifin, Indonesia University of Education, Indonesia
Dahri Thalib, State University of Makassar, Indonesia

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023
Official Conference Proceedings

Abstract
Curriculum is guidelines in activity nature of learning dynamic based on relevance. Objectivefrom study This For know results and descriptions from cocurricular program implementation
theme work. On research This done evaluation curricular that is Project Strengthening Profile
Pancasila Students at School Intermediate Vocational Private YPLP PGRI Makassar City. In
phase This school carry out activity with use Lifestyle theme sustainable, Wisdom local, andEmployment. On research This held using the Context, Input, Process, and Product (CIPP)
evaluation model which focuses on 3 aspects namely Input, Process, and Product. Approachstudy use Approach quantitative and qualitative. Population in research this is whole
inhabitant school consists from teachers and students in class X and determination sample
using probability sampling. Data collection techniques used is survey with distributequestionnaire instruments on input and product aspects, then interviews on the process aspect.
Quantitative data analysis processed in a manner descriptive statistics, then interview withquestion open. Research results show that implementation cocurricular are in category ok. As
for them is from facet input aspect ie competence cocurricular teachers in the category well,
the process aspect of the activity beginning, process, and closing are in category well, andaspect product results experience learning on category ok. Recommended for Education unit
for more increase teacher competence of facet planning, implementing, and evaluating inorder to obtain more results Good again, intertwine partners outside school, then with exists
evaluation this can made reflection and consideration for implementation cocurricular in evensemester next.

Keywords: Evaluation, CIPP, Implementation, Cocurriculariafor
The International Academic Forumwww.iafor.org

ISSN: 2189-101X

543

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Introduction
Every country has made changes to the curriculum. In Indonesia, the government has
implemented various educational curriculum models starting from Post-Independence until
now. Based on Kompas news, Indonesia has made changes 11 times. Namely: 1947
Curriculum (1947 Lesson Plan), 1952 Curriculum (Decomposed Lesson Plan 1952), 1964
Curriculum (1964 Education Plan), 1968 Curriculum (Old Order-New Order), 1975
Curriculum (Instructional Development Procedures), 1984 Curriculum (How to Learn Active
Students), 1994 Curriculum & 1999 Curriculum Supplements (Caturwulan), 2004
Competency-Based Curriculum (KBK), 2006 Education Unit Level Curriculum (KTSP),
2013 Curriculum (K-13), 2021 Curriculum (Independence Curriculum).
The independent learning curriculum is the ideas and principles of Ki Hajar Dewantara which
focus on the principle of independence according to the interests, needs, and characteristics ofstudents in applying flexible and essential material. The purpose of changing the curriculum
is to improve the quality of education. This is due to the rapid development of technology andinformation. With this convenience, the concept of Freedom to learn focuses on freedom andcreative thinking (Rahayu et al., 2022). Make it easy for children to access various
information through gadgets and the internet. Therefore, according to the independent
learning policy, it is hoped that it will be able to make the world of education carefree,namely the role of technology in influencing the resolution of problems in social life (Marisa,
2021).
The implementation of the independent curriculum in schools is currently still in the processof transitioning from the K13 curriculum to the independent learning curriculum. Therefore,
schools still use 2 curriculum models. For example, class X vocational high school uses theindependent learning curriculum and classes XI, XII still use the K13 curriculum.
At schools the independent learning curriculum is known as the Education Unit Operational
Curriculum. There are 3 learning activities namely: Intracurricular, Cocurricular, andExtracurricular. Co-curricular is a new learning activity known as the Pancasila Student
Profile Strengthening Project which has an allocation of 30% of lesson hours from
Intracurricular.
Through the Pancasila Student Profile Strengthening Project, it provides an opportunity forstudents to "experience knowledge" as a process of strengthening character as well as anopportunity to learn from the surrounding environment. At the implementation stage theteacher needs to pay attention to the design of the assessment in strengthening the learning
project. There are things that must be considered, namely the assessment method must
consider the conditions of students, the objectives of achieving the project must be consideredin its manufacture and focus on the dimensions, elements and sub-elements of the Pancasila
Student Profile (Setiyaningsih, 2022). In the preliminary interview study it was found that cocurricular implementation was still not optimal and was carried out in a hurry. Therefore,
researchers are interested in conducting an Evaluation of the Implementation of the Pancasila
Student Profile Project with a focus on teacher competence and co-curricular learning
outcomes on the theme of work.
The formulation of the problem that arises is how the input aspect is viewed from thecompetency of the coordinating team and teachers at SMK YPLP PGRI 1 Makassar, what are
the aspects of the process of implementing work-themed co-curricular activities, and what are

ISSN: 2189-101X

544

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

the product aspects of co-curricular learning outcomes on the theme of work at SMK YPLPPGRI 1 Makassar. Based on the formulation of the problem, the purpose of this study was todetermine the competence of the coordinator and teacher team at SMK YPLP PGRI 1
Makassar, find out the advantages and disadvantages of co-curricular implementation at SMKYPLP PGRI 1 Makassar, then find out the impact of co-curricular learning outcomes at SMKYPLP PGRI 1 Makassar.
Literature Review
The independent curriculum is a curriculum with a variety of intracurricular learning, where
the content will be more optimal so that students have enough time to explore concepts andstrengthen competence. Within this curriculum there are projects to strengthen theachievement of Pancasila student profiles which are developed based on certain themes set by
the government. (Rachmawati et al., 2022).
The project to strengthen the profile of Pancasila students is a cross-disciplinary learning inobserving and thinking of solutions to problems in the surrounding environment to strengthen
various competencies in the Pancasila Student Profile. Implementation of the project tostrengthen the Pancasila student profile is carried out flexibly in terms of content, activities,
and time of implementation. The project to strengthen the profile of Pancasila students isdesigned separately from intracurricular activities. Objectives, content, and project learning
activities do not have to be related to intracurricular objectives and subject matter. Education
units can involve the community and/or the world of work to design and organize projects tostrengthen the profile of Pancasila students.
The initial stage of the school principal forms a team of Facilitators as implementers oflearning activities. The profile project facilitator team consists of a number of educators
whose role is to plan, implement, and evaluate the profile project. The facilitating team isformed and managed by the head of the education unit and the profile project coordinator.
The number of profile project facilitator teams can be adjusted to the conditions and needs ofthe educational unit, seen from:The design of Project Learning activities is that the facilitating team determines 2-3
dimensions that will be used as indicators or assessments in each project theme. Based onthese considerations, the profile of Pancasila students consists of six dimensions (Ministry of
Education and Culture, n.d.), namely: 1) faith, fear of God Almighty, and have noble
character, 2) independence, 3) mutual cooperation, 4) global diversity, 5) critical reasoning,and 6) creative.
The Ministry of Education and Culture determines the theme for each profile project
implemented in an education unit. Eight themes for SD-SMK and equivalent developed basedon priority issues in the 2020-2035 National Education Roadmap, Sustainable Development
Goals, and other relevant documents. The themes in question are: Sustainable Lifestyle,
Local Wisdom, Unity in Diversity, Awaken the Body and Spirit, Voice of Democracy,
Engineering Technology, Entrepreneurship (Not an Option for SMK), Employment(Compulsory for SMK).

ISSN: 2189-101X

545

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

CIPP Models
CIPP stands for Context, Input, Process and Product. This concept was offered by
Stufflebeam with the view that the important purpose of evaluation is not to prove, but toimprove. "The CIPP approach is based on the view that the most important purpose ofevaluation is not to prove but to improve". iv (Madaus et al., 1983). The four aspects are as
described below:
1. Context
This stage involves studying the program environment. The objective is to define therelevant environment, describing the desired and actual conditions associated with thatenvironment.
2. Inputs
Input evaluation basically provides information regarding the use of resources. It focuseson the feasibility of the evaluator assessing the school's ability to carry out the evaluation.
According to Mars there are five elements that influence curriculum implementation,
namely: support from the principal, support from fellow teachers, support from students,
support from parents, and support from within the teacher are the main elements(Rusman, 2012).
3. ProcessThis third stage discusses the implementation decisions that control and manage theprogram. It is used to determine the suitability between planned and actual activities. The
strategy is to address the main features of the project design. For example, certain content
selected new instructional strategies, or innovative student-teacher planning sessions.
Process evaluation occurs during implementation. This is a pilot process carried out todebug (find and remove defective parts) the program prior to implementation across the
district. This allows the evaluator to anticipate and overcome procedural difficulties.
4. Products
Product evaluation has evaluators collecting data to determine whether the final
curriculum product currently in use achieves what they expect. To what extent is the goal
achieved? Product evaluation provides information that enables the evaluator to decide
whether to continue, discontinue, or modify the new curriculum.
In carrying out an evaluator may only carry out one type or a combination of two or moretypes of evaluation (Stufflebeam, 1983). That is, an evaluator does not always have to use all
four. It seems that the most accountable separation is the evaluation of the context
independently, while the evaluation of inputs, processes and products must be carried out inone series (Hasan, 2009).
MethodThis research is an evaluation research using the Context, Input, Process, and Product (CIPP)
model, but researchers only focus on aspects of Input, Process, and Product. The researcher
used a quantitative approach with the population in this study being all school members anddetermining the sample for students and teachers using non-robability sampling. Data
collection techniques used are questionnaires, documentation studies and interviews. The
validation used is expert judgment. Data analysis was carried out in a quantitative descriptive

ISSN: 2189-101X

546

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

manner on the input aspect, namely teacher competence and product, namely the impact of
cocurricular learning outcomes or projects on strengthening the Pancasila student profile,then a descriptive interview analysis was carried out on the process aspect to the viceprincipal of the curriculum section and the Coordinating Team.
No

Presentase

Klasifikasi

1

80 – 100 %Baik Sekali

2

66 – 79 %Baik3

56 – 65 %

Cukup

4

40 – 55 %Kurang Baik5

< 39 %

Tidak Baik

Results
Input Variables
Evaluation of teacher competency input regarding co-curricular in terms of 5 aspects, namely
co-curricular understanding, objectives, content, process, evaluation. The results of thedescriptive analysis of the five aspects can be seen in the table below.

Indkator

Tabel 1. Variabel Input
MeanMedianModus

Understanding

2,84

3

2

Goals

2,55

2

2

Contens2,52

2

Process

2,68

3

4

Evaluation

2,64

2,5

4

The questionnaire was distributed to 11 teacher respondents for the co-curricular teacher's"Understanding" indicator obtained an average value of 2.84 from a maximum score of 4, anda median value of 3, then a mode value of 2. On the "Purpose" indicator, co-curriculars
obtained an average value of 2, 55 out of a maximum score of 4, and a median value of 2,
then a mode value of 2. In the co-curricular "Content" indicator, an average value of 2.5 isobtained from a maximum score of 4, and a median value of 2, then a mode value of 2. In the"Process" indicator cocurricular obtained an average score of 2.68 from a maximum score of4, and a median value of 3, then a mode value of 4. In the cocurricular "Evaluation" indicatorobtained an average value of 2.64 from a maximum score of 2.5, and a median value of 2,
then the mode value is 2. The Process and Evaluation Indicators are in a good category
because the average value and values that appear frequently are high with a maximum score

ISSN: 2189-101X

547

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedingsof 4, while in the Comprehension, Purpose, and Content aspects it is necessary to increase
because the average value is still sufficient or standard , then the value that occurs frequentlyis 2.
Data analysis and input evaluation were carried out using MS. Excel 2019. The identification
results are shown in the input aspect, namely teacher competence regarding understanding,objectives, content, process, and co-curricular evaluation can be seen in the following table.

Figure 1. Input Aspect teacher cocurricular competencies
Results data study seen there are 4 teachers in the category “Enough” is in the range value 59– 65 %, then there are 7 teachers who are in the "Good" category are in the range value 66 –79 %.
Process Variables
Process evaluation was carried out using the interview method which was reviewed from 5
aspects of the initial activities, implementation of learning, closing activities, partner
involvement, and the advantages and disadvantages of P5 activities. The interview was
conducted together with the deputy head of Vocational School YPLP PGRI 1 Makassar in the
curriculum section as the person in charge and the coordinator chairman. In the early stagesof P5 implementation, the coordinating team and teachers conducted discussion activities
with all implementing committees for schedule planning and technical implementation.
Furthermore, the coordinating team together with the vice principal of the school optimized
coordination and collaboration with all members. Then the activity was closed by giving
directions in carrying out the P5 closing activities properly, to be able to give good
impressions, experiences, and positive things so that they could be developed for further P5
activities. Do not forget that the implementation of the evaluation is carried out using the
rubik's scoring system.
This co-curricular learning is carried out independently so that it has not established partners
or agencies outside the school. In practice, there are advantages and disadvantages. The
advantages in implementing it are collaboration between teachers and students, gaining
valuable experience in implementing cocuricular starters, mutual respect for opinions,

ISSN: 2189-101X

548

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

interactions that occur can establish good cooperation between students. While the drawbacks
are that it still needs to develop understanding related to the implementation of cocuricular, itneeds assistance from cocuricular experts or practitioners so that the implementation of
cocuricular is of higher quality and not in a hurry, there are still some students who have notactively participated and contributed.
Product Variables
Product Evaluation of the impact of co-curricular learning on the theme of work in terms ofthe 3 dimensions of the Pancasila student profile project that have been determined, namely:
the independent dimension, critical reasoning, and creative. The results of the threedimensional descriptive analysis can be seen in the table below.

Indkator

Tabel 2. Variabel Produk
Nilai rata-rata

MedianModus

Independent Dimension

2,57

2

2

Critical reasoning Dimension

2,6

2

2

Creative Dimension

2,67

3

3

This questionnaire was distributed to 75 student respondents based on the results of thedescriptive analysis that the independent dimension obtained an average value of 3.04 from amaximum score of 4 with an achievement level of 75.92%, a percentage range greater than
50% included in the "good" category. In the critical reasoning indicator, an average value of
3.04 is obtained from a maximum score of 4 with an achievement level of 76%, thepercentage range is greater than or equal to 76% included in the "very good" category. Thenon the creative indicator, an average value of 2.77 is obtained from a maximum score of 4
with an achievement level of 69.67%, the percentage range is greater than 50% included inthe "good" category.
Data analysis and input evaluation were carried out using MS. Excel 2019. The identification
results are shown in the product aspect, namely the results of co-curricular learning
experiences in terms of the independent dimension, the critical reasoning dimension, and thecreative dimension can be seen in the following table.

ISSN: 2189-101X

549

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Figure 2. Product Aspect Students Outcomes learning experience
From the research data, it can be seen that there are 9 students whose learning experience
results are in the "Enough" category, which is in the 59-65% range, and there are 44 students
whose learning experience results are in the "Good" category, which is in the 66-79% range,
then there were 22 students whose learning experience results were in the "Very Good"
category in the range of 80-100%.
Discussion
Based on the Ministry of Education and Culture No.56/M/202. the project to strengthen the
profile of Pancasila students is a project-based cocurricular activity designed to strengthen
efforts to achieve competence and character in accordance with the profile of Pancasila
students which is based on Graduate Competency Standards. Cocurricular is one of thelearning activities in the independent learning curriculum which has a time allocation of 30%
of intra-curricular activities. One example of the activity is visiting industry, field trips, andcertain activities outside of intracurricular class hours. The input aspect that plays animportant role in implementation is the teacher, therefore the teacher is required to masterand understand cocurricular activities. This is useful so that teachers can design learning well.
From the research data, there are several teachers who still have sufficient cocurricularcompetence. This is because the indicators of understanding, objectives, and content
regarding cocurriculars are still relatively sufficient, while the process and evaluation
indicators regarding cocurriculars are classified as good.
The cocurricular project planning flow begins with forming a team of project facilitators tostrengthen Pancasila student profiles, identify the level of readiness of educational units,
design dimensions, themes, and time allocation for projects to strengthen Pancasila student
profiles, compile modules, and design reporting on project results (Rachmawati, 2022). The
facilitating team consists of teachers and homeroom teachers as well as deputy principals
who are tasked with planning, implementing and evaluating activities.
The results of a joint interview with the deputy head of school indicated that the process of
implementing co-curricular activities was still in a hurry because this was the school's firstexperience implementing it. This is because the school chose an independent path to develop

ISSN: 2189-101X

550

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

co-curricular project activities. Initiating co-curricular project activities is carried out by
inviting students to see real situations in everyday life both in class and outside theclassroom. One example of a strategy is to ask a trigger question or start from an authentic
problem. Then in optimizing the implementation of key projects is the involvement ofstudents in the learning process, providing space and opportunities to develop, cultivating aculture of positive work values, the effectiveness of continuous activities, and periodic
adaptation according to the learning context. Closing co-curricular project activities can bedone by planning learning celebrations and reflecting on activities.
Optimization of partner involvement has not been carried out optimally, because the schoolorganizes projects independently. The Pancasila student profile project activity aims toprovide opportunities for students to experience knowledge while at the same timestrengthening the Pancasila character from their environment. Optimizing partners can bedone by involving the surrounding community outside the school environment, industry,
parents of students, and the government.
Cocurricular learning outcomes are learning experiences possessed by students consisting of
three-dimensional Pancasila student profile projects that have been determined by the school.
From the results of the study, it was obtained that the average student experience was in goodcondition. This is based on good input and process factors as well.
Conclusion
The results of the study show that co-curricular implementation is in the good category. The
input variable is in a good category for the co-curricular competence of the Pancasila teacher
student profile project. It needs a little addition in terms of aspects of understanding,objectives, and co-curricular content of the Pancasila student profile project. The process
variable is in a good category even though the implementation of activities is still in a hurry
and has not yet established partners with the community outside the school. Even though thisis just the beginning of implementation, the team of facilitators and deputy principals have
had the courage to implement it by choosing the independent route. Then the experience ofstudent learning outcomes is in the good category, because the input and process variables
have been implemented properly.
Recommendations
For the education unit to improve teacher competence in terms of planning, implementation,
and assessment so that the dimensions of the Pancasila student profile project of students canbe even better and more perfect. It is also hoped that education units will establish partners
with institutions outside the school, to provide broader knowledge for students. Then withthis evaluation it can be used as a consideration for co-curricular implementation in the next
even semester.

Acknowledgements
The author is a team in organizing the socialization of the implementation of the project tostrengthen the profile of Pancasila students in Pangandaran Regency. This article will bepresented at The Asian Conference on education & International Development (ACEID2023)
with the support of Indonesian Education Scholarships provided by the Education Services

ISSN: 2189-101X

551

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

and Financing Center (PUSLAPDIK) Ministry of Education and Culture, Research andTechnology in collaboration with the Indonesian Education Endowment Fund (LPDP)
Ministry of Finance Republic of IndonesiaAQAS and LAMDIK accreditation in the
Elementary Education study program. This article was submitted to International Conference
on Advances in Education with the support of the Indonesian Education Scholarship provided
by the Education Service and Financing Center (PUSLAPDIK) of the Ministry of Education
and Culture, Research and Technology in collaboration with the Indonesian Endowment
Funds for Education (LPDP) of the Ministry of Finance of the Republic of Indonesia.

ISSN: 2189-101X

552

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

References
Arikunto, S. (2012). Fundamentals of Educational Evaluation (2nd ed.). PT. Earth Script.
Hasan, H. (2009). Evaluation Curriculum (Hasan hamid , Ed.; 1st ed., Vol. 2). Youth PT
Rosdakarya.
Kepmendikbudristek No. 56 about Guidelines Application Curriculum In Order Recovery
Learning.
Madaus, GF, Scriven, MS, & Stufflebeam , DL (1983). Evaluation Models: Viewpoints on
Educational and Human Services Evaluation. Kluwer- Nijhoff Publishing.
Marisa, M. (2021). Innovation Independent Learning Curriculum in the era of 5.0 society.
Santhet: Journal of History, Education and Humanities, 5 (1), 66–78.
https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.36526/js.v3i2.695
Ministry of Education and Culture. (n.d.). Dimensions, Elements, and Subelements Profile
Pancasila Students in the Independent Curriculum 2.
Rachmawati, N., Marini, A., Nafiah, M., & Nurasiah, I. (2022). Development Guide Project
Strengthening Profile Pancasila students. Journal Basicedu, 6 (3).
Rahayu, R., Rosita, R., Rahayuningsih, YS, Hernawan, AH, & Prihantini, P. (2022).
Implementation Independent Learning Curriculum in Schools Activator. Journal
Basicedu, 6 (4), 6313–6319. https://doi.org/10.31004/basicdu.v6i4.3237
Rusman. (2012). Learning Models. PT. Rajagrafindo Persada.
Setiyaningsih, S. (2022). Teacher's Role As applicator Profile Inner Pancasila Students Free
Learning Curriculum. Journal Scientific Mandala Education (JIME), 8 (4), 2656–
5862. https://doi.org/10.36312/jime.v8i4.4095/httpContact email: zahrun@upi.edu
denidoctor_69@yahoo.co.id
zainalarifin.tp@upi.edu
muhammaddahri321@gmail.com

ISSN: 2189-101X

553

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

ISSN: 2189-101X

554

Official Conference Proceedings

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

STEAM (Science, Technology, Engineering, Art, and Mathematics)
Implementation and Challenges in Elementary Schools in West Java
Yopi Malagola, Yogyakarta State University, Indonesia
The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023
Official Conference Proceedings
Abstract
STEAM education plays a crucial part in education in the 21st century. Teachers, being oneof the most essential components of delivering education, play a crucial role in implementing
STEAM learning. This study seeks to investigate the deployment of STEAM learning inprimary schools and the obstacles elementary school teachers encounter in applying STEAM.
This study is a survey-based descriptive quantitative investigation. This study's participants
were 50 primary school teachers from West Java. A questionnaire was used to collect data on
the implementation of STEAM learning and the difficulties associated with it. The results ofthe study indicate that instructors have incorporated STEAM learning through studentcentered learning, learning through inquiry and problem-based models, assessment,
reflection, and collaboration, as well as applying integrated learning in both content andskills. Teachers cite pedagogical obstacles, technological obstacles, facilities, STEAM
learning materials, and implementation time as obstacles to the implementation of STEAM
education. It may be stated that the instructor has implemented learning activities that
contribute to STEAM education. However, technical training for teachers on the technicalimplementation of STEAM and the supply of supporting resources, particularly technologybased facilities, are required to facilitate the implementation of STEAM in primary schools.
Keywords: STEAM Education, Difficulties, Elementary School, West Java

iafor
The International Academic Forumwww.iafor.org

ISSN: 2189-101X

555

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Introduction
Education of the 21st century is characterized by the rapid development of science andtechnology in affecting the order of human life especially in the field of education. Educationin the 21st century requires education that has the ability in the fields of science, technology,
as well as various skills such as communication skills, critical thinking, creativity and theability to collaborate. (Nuragnia et al., 2021). The skills and abilities of the 21st century are
essential to make students adapt and respond to the developments of the times. Therefore, it
is important for students to have 21st century skills developed in line with scientific andtechnological developments. Education of the 21st century is expected to form individuals
who have the skills to transform the science learned in real life and use technology
appropriately in the face of the global competition, especially in 21st Century learning.
(Indriyanti et al., 2020). One of the learning approaches due to the rapid development ofscience and technology in the 21st century is the approach of science, technology,
engineering, art, and mathematics. (STEAM).
The Science, Technology, Engineering, Art, and Mathematics (STEAM) approach is one of
the educational approaches that integrates science, technology, engineering, art, andmathematics comprehensively as patterns in problem-solving. STEAM learning makes
learning more interesting and makes learners more creative in finding real-life problem
solutions. (Atmojo et al., 2020). Learning with STEAM approaches forms students tounderstand the phenomena that occur in everyday life and provide solutions to these
problems. The STEAM approach encourages learners to find the correlation between thescience they learn with everyday life.
Steam education has attracted a lot of world attention in recent years. This can be seen fromthe growing trend of research-research on STEAM education internationally. (Li Wang,2020). Several countries such as the United States, Japan, Hong Kong, and several othercountries have implemented and developed the STEAM approach in their educational
curricula. (Lin, 2021). In addition, Steam learning has already begun to be introduced toevery level in Indonesia. One of the regions in Indonesia that first implemented STEAM
learning in schools was West Java. At the age of primary school in West Java, teachers havealready begun to implement STEAM learning in the learning process. Teachers become oneof the important aspects of educational success as well as a key aspect in the implementationof STEAM learning in elementary schools. In addition, in the STEAM approach, teachers act
as facilitators and learners as central to the collaborative learning process, integrating science,technology, engineering, art, as well as mathematics integrally. Therefore, the curriculum
should focus on improving skills and soft skills that are adapted to the development of thetimes so that it facilitates teachers in the implementation of STEM approaches in the learning
process. (Sriyanto, 2020).
Steam training has been implemented in several primary schools in West Java. However,there are still many obstacles facing teachers in the application of STEAM learning inprimary schools. One of the obstacles faced is the teachers who still have very little
knowledge about the STEAM approach in primary school. This is due to the lack ofsocialization and training carried out by the government especially in the field of education
regarding learning STEAM in primary schools. Therefore, this research will exhibit on theimplementation of learning as well as the challenges faced by teachers in the application of
STEAM learning in primary schools. This research is expected to be a refraction for thegovernment especially in the field of education in taking policy for the progress of Indonesian

ISSN: 2189-101X

556

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

government especially in the field of education in taking policy for the progress of Indonesian
education.
MethodThe method used in this study is descriptive quantitative research with survey methods.
Quantitative descriptive research is research carried out to gather in-depth information anddescribe a situation or phenomenon that occurs. (Kurniawan, 2018). Survey method is amethod of research conducted to obtain the facts of existing phenomena. (Sukmadinata,2010). The sample on this study was 50 primary school teachers in 10 districts in West Java.
In each district, five primary school samples were taken for the process of collecting researchdata. The collection of data in this study uses elevators, interviews, and documentation doneto elementary school teachers. The data was collected in January 2023 through thedissemination of elevators and interviews with elementary school teachers. The lifting
question tool is designed to explore the implementation of STEAM learning that includes
teacher perception, learning strategies, and learning approaches. The angket used to know thechallenges faced by teachers in the implementation of STEAM uses the angket from Nistor etal. (2018). Data analysis in this study uses quantitative descriptive. This data analysis isobtained from the results of interviews, documentation, and logs that are systematicallystructured and concluded into sentences that are easy to understand. (Wicaksana et al., 2022).
Findings and Discussion
Perceptions of Teachers Regarding Science, Technology, Engineering, the Arts, andMathematics (STEAM)
Based on the results of the research data that has been carried out shows that of 100
respondents about 30% of teachers have followed STEAM training implemented by theeducational intensity. Teachers revealed that STEAM training provides benefits in knowledgeof learning methods and models that can be applied in the classroom. In addition, the teacher
also revealed that STEAM training helps in implementing exciting learning so that it canincrease the motivation of students in learning. In addition, the benefits of STEAM training
revealed by teachers are the addition of teacher insight into problem-based and project-basedlearning so that it can facilitate learners in learning that focuses on developing creative andinnovative thinking skills. (Park et al., 2016). Meanwhile, there are still 70% of teachers who
have not received STEAM training. 70% of the total teachers that have not carried out
STEAM education are teachers with teaching experience in primary schools for more than 5
years so less interested in the development of learning. This shows that STEAM training has
not reached teachers evenly and has not been implemented in every district in Western Java.
In fact, if you look from where the teaching area is, most teachers teach in a rather developedarea and not a remote place.
STEAM Education Implementation in Elementary Schools in West Java
Implementation of STEAM learning is revealed through several questions related to theimplementation of learning implemented by teachers such as the learning model Project
Based Learning (PjBL), the problem-based learning model (PBL), learning model Inqiury,
and learning model Discovery Learning.

ISSN: 2189-101X

557

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Figure 1.
According to research, 70% of teachers implement STEAM learning by integrating through a
Problem Based Learning model. (PBL). The implementation of learning centered on thestudents according to the basis of the learning theory of STEAM is constructivism (Milara,2019). This theory relates to the learning experience of learners as they seek to understandsomething through learning experiences (Gross & Gross, 2016), so that learning centered onlearners provides more varied learning experiences that are tailored to the needs and learning
experiences of students. To be able to improve problem-solving skills and think creatively in
STEM learning, teachers need to facilitate learning so that students can play an active role.
(Talib et al., 2019). The relatively high percentage of teachers who conduct learning centeredon the student participant is also supported by data showing that 70,31% of the teachers carryout learning that is tailored to the needs and conditions of the student, including the student’s
learning style.
This is related to one of the basic theories of learning STEAM which is holistic learning.
(Yakaman, 2010). Holistic learning is influenced by one’s environment or influence that will
help determine what one will do with the environment or objects already provided. The
differences in the views of each individual into holistic learning cannot be given equally tothe learners. Therefore, the learning activities must be adapted to the needs and conditions of
the students in the implementation of learning. (Yakaman, 2010). STEAM learning is
considered to be one of the learning that promotes holistic education. (Park et al., 2016). Data
from the research also shows that about 75% of teachers implement STEAM integrated with
the Project Based Learning (PjBL) model in the learning process. The STEAM-based PjBL
learning approach is implemented in five stages: the reflection phase, the research phase, thediscovery phase, the application phase, and the communication phase. Fitriyah's (2021)
research suggests that STEAM-based PjBL learning can boost students' creative and criticalthinking skills. This is demonstrated by the significant value of less than 0.05 and thecomputed F value of 35.55.
In addition, the application of STEAM learning in primary schools is integrated with thelearning inquiry model. Based on the results of the study, 63% of teachers have appliedinquiry learning that is integrated with STEAM learning in the classroom. Constructivism isthe theoretical foundation of STEAM learning (Yakaman, 2010) that emphasizes learning
experience through authentic inquiry, project, and problem-solving processes (Milara &Cortés, 2019). STEAM learning is context learning (Henriksenet al., 2019; Yakaman, 2010)

ISSN: 2189-101X

558

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

so according to John Dewey only through context learning learners get real understanding(Milara & Cortés, 2019). STEAM learning supports the transition from traditional learning tostrategic and project-based learning as well as collaborative learning (Milara & Cortés, 2019).
Research data also showed that as many as 45% of teachers implement STEAM learning bycollaborating on the Discovery Learning learning model. (DL). Discovery Learning has
applied STEAM-based collaborative learning in the classroom showing that learning
practiced by teachers has already led to STEAM learning. In addition, the ability tocollaborate is also one of the goals in STEAM learning. (Quigley & Herro, 2016).
Challenges of Implementing STEM Education in West Java's Elementary Schools
Steam learning with all its benefits, of course, is not out of the challenges in its
implementation process. Based on the results of the research showed the challenges of
implementing STEAM learning in primary schools in Western Java, namely pedagogicalaspects, facilities for support, access to content, and timing.

Challenges of Implementing STEM
Education in West Java's Elementary
Schools
[]
53%

[]
75%

[]
59%

[]
68%

Figure 2.
The availability of facilities in support of the implementation of STEAM is approximately
75%. These barriers include the availability of computers, the Internet, and less adequate
projectors for use in the STEAM learning process. The availability of technology-based
facilities has become one of the important factors in STEAM learning. Technology is neededby both students and teachers to be able to access information related to STEAM learning
more easily. This is also in line with the results of research showing that the IT-basedlearning facilities available in schools influence the learning outcomes of students. The skillof students in using technology is also one of the forms of integration of technologicalaspects in STEAM learning. The definition of technology in STEAM learning by the
National Council of US (Bahrum et al., 2017) consists of the entire system ranging from thepeople involved, organizations, knowledge, processes, and devices used to create and operate
the technology tool as well as its own. Thus, it can be understood that the aspect oftechnology is not just something related to electricity. Technology can be the skills of thestudents in using the tools and also the products produced by the students themselves. In
addition to technology facilities, teachers revealed that the availability of school facilities is
one of the challenges in the implementation of STEAM learning. These facilities include
interactive media and furniture in less adequate classrooms. Teachers feel less available
media ready to use that can be used to support learning (Rafiqa et al., 2020).

ISSN: 2189-101X

559

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Another challenge perceived by teachers in the implementation of STEAM learning is the
support of knowledge about the less adequate of 68%. This includes the lack of pedagogicalmodels on how to teach STEAM attractively. In line with a statement by Shernoff et al.
(2017) that revealed the lack of STEAM learning given to teachers and teachers also felt alack of training on STEAM Learning. One teacher revealed that the STEAM training
provided by the government tends to focus only on theory. In addition, 59% of teachers also
encountered challenges in accessing STEAM content. These challenges include
administrative, budgeting and availability of STEAM content in Indonesian. The datasuggests that one of the challenges in STEAM learning is the lack of teaching resources about
the application of STEAM in elementary schools. Previous research also revealed that a lackof resources such as facilities, budgets and access to content (Shernoff et al., 2017) is one of
the challenges of STEAM implementation perceived by teachers.
Time settings are also a barrier in STEAM learning. 53% of teachers in Western Java
experience time constraints in the application of STEAM teaching. This is because STEAM
learning focuses on hands-on activities so that teachers need to have practical activities in thelearning process. The results are also consistent with previous research that revealed that oneof the challenges in implementing STEAM learning included time and time planning issues
in the implementation of STEAM Learning. (Herro et al., 2019; Shernoff et al., 2017). The
government has provided STEM/STEAM training to teachers. However, many teachers argue
that STEAM training is especially helpful in providing insights into project-based learningand problems that can be implemented in STEAM learning. However, some teachers argue
that the training provided is still theoretical so it still has challenges in the technical problemsof the implementation of STEAM. (Herro et al., 2019; Shernoff et al., 2017).
Conclusion
The education provided by the instructor has led to STEAM education. This is evidenced by
the comparatively high proportion of teacher data indicating the implementation of studentcentered learning. Teachers also employ inquiry, project-based learning, and problem-basedlearning methods. Several obstacles exist in the implementation of STEAM learning,
including a lack of pedagogical support and understanding, technical issues, time, access to
STEAM material, and infrastructure, particularly technology-based facilities. Teachers mosttypically cite technical and time constraints as obstacles to STEAM adoption. Therefore,
instructors require training in methodologies and time management for the application of
STEAM education. In addition, it is vital to offer supporting facilities, particularly
technologically-based facilities that facilitate instructors' access to STEAM-related
instructional materials.
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank the Education Fund Management Institute / Lembaga Pengelola Dana
Pendidikan (LPDP) from the Ministry of Finance of the Republic of Indonesia for providing
scholarships and supporting this research.

ISSN: 2189-101X

560

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

References
Fitriyah, A., & Ramadani, S. D. (2021). Pengaruh pembelajaran STEAM berbasis PjBL
(Project-Based Learning) terhadap keterampilan berpikir kreatif dan berpikir
kritis. Inspiratif Pendidikan, 10(1), 209-226.
Gross, K., & Gross, S. (2016). TRANSFORMATION: Constructivism, Design Thinking, andElementary STEAM. Art Education 69(6), 36-43.
doi.org/10.1080/00043125.2016.1224869
Kurniawan, Asep. 2018. Metodologi Penelitian Pendidikan. Bandung: PT Remaja
Rosdakarya.
Li, Y., Wang, K., Xiao, Y., & Froyd, J. E. (2020). Research and trends in STEM education: asystematic review of journal publications. Education.
stemeducationjournal.springeropen https://doi.org/10.1186/s40594-020-00207-6
Lin, C., Huang, J., & Lin, R. (2021). From steam to cheer: A case study of design education
development in taiwan. Education Sciences, 11(4).
https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci11040171
Milara, I.S., & Cortés, M. (2019). Possibilities and challenges of STEAM pedagogies. March
2020. https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.28652.31360
Park, H.J., Byun, S.Y., Sim, J., Han, H., & Baek, Y.S. (2016). Teachers’ perceptions andpractices of STEAM education in South Korea. Eurasia Journal of Mathematics,
Science and Technology Education, 12(7), 1739–1753.
doi.org/10.12973/eurasia.2016.1531a
Quigley, C.F., & Herro, D. (2016). “Finding the Joy in the Unknown”: Implementation of
STEAM teaching practices in middle school Science and Math Classrooms. Journal of
Science Education and Technology, 25(3), 410–426. doi.org/10.1007/s10956-0169602-z
Sriyanto, S., Buchori, A., Handayani, A., & Nguyen, P. T. (2020). Implementation multifactor evaluation Process ( MFEP ) decision support system for choosing the bestelementary school teacher. International Journal of Control and Automation, 13(2),97–102.
Sukmadinata, Nana Syaodih. 2010. Metode Penelitian Pendidikan. Bandung: PT Remaja
Rosdakarya Offset.
Talib, C.A., Bidayu, I., Rafi, M., Rajan, S.T., Wahidah, N., Hakim, A., Ali, M., & Thoe, N.
K. (2019). STEAM teaching strategies in related subject. Education, Sustainability
and Society.
Wicaksana, T. I., Ambiyar, A., Maksum, H., & Irfan, D. (2022). Penerapan model (PJBL)
untuk meningkatkan kreativitas dan hasil belajar dalam mata pelajaran pemrograman
berorientasi objek. JRTI (Jurnal Riset Tindakan Indonesia), 7(3), 370.
https://doi.org/10.29210/30032058000

ISSN: 2189-101X

561

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Contact email: yopimalagola.2022@student.uny.ac.id

ISSN: 2189-101X

562

Official Conference Proceedings

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Japanese University Students’ Learning Experiences and Attitudes Toward
Computer Programming
Harumi Kashiwagi, Institute for Promotion of Higher Education, Kobe University, JapanMin Kang, Graduate School of Intercultural Studies, Kobe University, Japan
Kazuhiro Ohtsuki, Graduate School of Intercultural Studies, Kobe University, Japan
The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023
Official Conference Proceedings
Abstract
In Japan, the development of human resources with programming skills has become an urgent
issue. Meanwhile, the experience of learning programming varies from learner to learner.
Interest in programing may differ depending on each learner’s area of expertise. Thus, thisstudy aimed to investigate learners’ learning experiences and attitudes toward computer
programming. A questionnaire using a five-point Likert scale was distributed to 117 Japanese
university students from three classes: one in science and two in humanities. The findings
suggest three main points: (1) A little more than 40% of students in humanities and twothirds of the students in science did not have any programming experience—these numbers
were higher than we expected. (2) Regarding students’ awareness of programming skills use
in their future careers, the average scores for all three classes reached 4 or higher, suggestingthat both science and humanities students were fully aware of the importance ofprogramming skills, although such responses were significantly higher among the science
students. (3) Regarding interest in computer programming, the average score for bothhumanities classes was 3.1, whereas that for the science class was 4.5, which shows thatinterest in programming was significantly lower among humanities students. Furthermore, theresults from the two humanities classes indicated that, of the students who indicated little orno interest in computer programming, 50% (humanities class 1) and approximately 70%(humanities class 2) had never learned programming. Liberal arts students’ experience inlearning programming may be affected by their interest in it.
Keywords: Programming Education, Programming Skills for Future Career Plans, Student
Interest in Computer Programming, Information Technology Literacy

iafor
The International Academic Forumwww.iafor.org

ISSN: 2189-101X

563

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Introduction
Computer programming-based information technology (IT) has been firmly established in ourlives. Various types of jobs will require human resources with programming skills soon. In
Japan, the shortage of IT human resources is a major concern (Mizuho Information &Research Institute, Inc, 2019), and reinforcement measures are being implemented to raise
the level of IT skills. As a part of the policy for promoting programming education (MEXT,
2018a), Japan’s Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT) has
deemed programming education mandatory in all curriculum guidelines (elementary school
to high school) (MEXT 2017a, 2017b, 2018b). The Ministry of Internal Affairs andCommunications (MIC) has also been working on a project to promote programming
education among young people (MIC, 2016).
Despite these efforts, a survey (Fuse & Okabe, 2016) revealed that less than 20% of students
received programming education before entering university. According to Fuse (2018), highschools were offering fewer programming classes than expected. Another survey (Obara,
Tamada, & Matsuda, 2022) showed that many students entering university had highexpectations regarding programming, as programming education has become a hot topic insociety; however, after taking programming classes, they found that programming was nottheir forte, while they also had negative attitudes toward programming. Conducting a
programming workshop for elementary school girls, Komura (2020) found that their interestin learning programming was directed more toward drawing illustrations and making movies
rather than interactive programs that respond to user manipulation.
Different students may have different learning experiences, and interest in programing may
differ depending on each learner’s area of expertise. When learning programming, different
individual learners may feel interested in different subject matters. To promote programming
education, it is necessary to understand the current state of individual learners’ experiences,interests, and needs for programming learning and to design curriculum for programming
education based on such an understanding.
This study aimed to investigate learners’ learning experiences and attitudes toward computer
programming, thus exploring the current situation of learners, and identifying
countermeasures for dealing with the problems that emerged in the survey. The researchers
distributed a questionnaire study to 117 Japanese university students; the research questions
were as follows:1.
2.

Have students ever learned about computer programming before?
Do students perceive that they will require computer programming skills in their future
careers? Are there any differences in how needs are perceived across faculties?
3. Are students interested in computer programming? Are there any differences in students’interest in such programming across faculties?
4. Is students’ interest in computer programming related to their previous experiences withlearning programming, developing logical thinking attitudes, using software, or any
perceived demand for programming skills in their future careers? Are there any
differences in this relationship across faculties?
In the following sections, this paper first provides the methods used to conduct the present
study, delivers the study findings, and discusses these findings. Finally, the researcherspresent their conclusions and recommendations for further studies.

ISSN: 2189-101X

564

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Methods
ParticipantsThis study’s participants comprised 117 first-year students from three classes—one in scienceand two in humanities—at a university in Japan. Table 1 reports the number of students andtheir majors. The students were informed about the study’s purpose, and their informed
participation consent was obtained. They were further informed that their data would remain
confidential.
Class

Grade

Faculty

Number of Students

A
B
C

First year
First year
First year

Economics
Global Human Sciences
Engineering

39
39
39

Table 1: Number of participants and their majors
Data Collection and Analysis
The questionnaire shown in Table 2 was distributed to the participants to gather theirsubjective responses to items regarding their previous experiences with learning
programming (Q1), their awareness of the importance of programming skills for future
careers (Q2), and their interest in computer programming (Q3). They were also asked about
their logical thinking (Q4 and Q5) and their experiences with software use (Q6). Participants
had to choose their responses for Q1 from among the five options shown in Table 2. The
participants’ responses to Qs 2 to 6 were scored on a five-point Likert scale (1 point:“Strongly Disagree”; 2 points: “Moderately Disagree”; 3 points: “Neutral”; 4 points:“Moderately Agree”; and 5 points: “Strongly Agree”).
Items Regarding Students’ Perceptions of Programming Skills Requirements inFuture Careers, Interest in Computer Programming, Logical Thinking, and IT
Literacy
Q1. Have you ever learned about computer programming before?
1. I have learned programming in school classes (elementary through high school).
2. I have learned programming in an extracurricular club at school (not a school class).
3. I have learned programming at a private institute or cram school outside of school.
4. I have learned programming from parents, relatives, or acquaintances.
5. I have never learned programming before.

Q2. I will require programming skills after I get a job or in the future.
1. Strongly Disagree 2. Moderately Disagree 3. Neutral 4. Moderately Agree 5. Strongly Agree

Q3. I am interested in computer programming.
1. Strongly Disagree 2. Moderately Disagree 3. Neutral 4. Moderately Agree 5. Strongly Agree

Q4. I am good at thinking about things in order.
1. Strongly Disagree 2. Moderately Disagree 3. Neutral 4. Moderately Agree 5. Strongly Agree

Q5. I am good at thinking about things logically.
1. Strongly Disagree 2. Moderately Disagree 3. Neutral 4. Moderately Agree 5. Strongly Agree

ISSN: 2189-101X

565

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Q6. I often use software applications (e.g., Microsoft Word, Excel, and PowerPoint).
1. Strongly Disagree 2. Moderately Disagree 3. Neutral 4. Moderately Agree 5. Strongly Agree

Table 2: Questionnaire items
Through a Kruskal-Wallis test and a Wilcoxon rank-sum test, we attempted to investigate
whether there were any statistical differences among the ratings of the three classes or
between the respective classes. Further, a correlational analysis was also used forinvestigating how the items were related to one another in the respective classes.
Results and Discussion
This study analyzed the results of the above-discussed questionnaire to answer its researchquestions regarding students’ learning experiences and attitudes toward computer
programming as well as the relationships between their interest in programming and the otherquestionnaire items. This section describes the overall questionnaire results and any data
trends that were observed. The questionnaire response results are listed in Figures 1–6 alongwith the corresponding percentages of participant responses for individual items.
First, this study examined whether the participants had learned programming before. Figure 1
correlates to item Q1, which concerns students’ previous experiences with learning
programming. Figure 1 shows the corresponding percentages of the different participant
responses to item Q1.

Figure 1: Corresponding percentages of participants’ responses to item Q1.
According to the results for item Q1 (see Figure 1), 53.8% in class A (Economics), 35.9% inclass B (Global Human Sciences), and 25.6% in class C (Engineering) chose “I have learned
programming in school classes (elementary through high school).” The results suggested thatparticipants’ responses did not depend on whether they were in the science or humanities
classes. It was observed that experiences with learning programming differed acrossindividual students. Until programming education becomes more widespread in curriculafrom elementary school to high school, it should be promoted according to the programming
learning experience of individual students.
Second, this study analyzed how the participants perceived a need for programming skills intheir future careers. Figure 2 correlates to item Q2, which concerns students’ perceived needfor programming skills in their future careers. The percentages of participants who selected
the different responses for Q2 are listed in Figure 2.

ISSN: 2189-101X

566

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Figure 2: Percentages of participants’ responses to item Q2.
According to the results for item Q2 (see Figure 2), 84.6% of the participants in class A(Economics) indicated their agreement—that is, they strongly and moderately agreed thatthey would require programming skills in their future careers. In class B (Global Human
Sciences), 79.5% of the participants indicated their agreement with Q2. In both humanities
classes, around 80% of participants indicated a positive agreement with Q2. Further, 97.4%
of class C (Engineering) indicated their agreement with Q2. Regarding students’ perceptionsof the need for programming skills in their future careers, 80% to 90% in all classes provided
positive responses.
Third, this study analyzed the nature of the participants’ interest in computer programming.
Figure 3 correlates to item Q3, which concerns students’ interest in computer programming.
The corresponding percentages of the participants’ different responses to Q3 are listed in
Figure 3.
According to the Q3 results (see Figure 3), 94.8% of participants in class C (Engineering)indicated their agreement with item Q3—that is, they strongly and moderately agreed thatthey were interested in computer programming. Meanwhile, 49% in class A (Economics)
indicated their agreement with item Q3. Similarly, in class B (Global Human Sciences), 51%
indicated their agreement. Around 50% of the participants in humanities were interested incomputer programming. Regarding students’ interest in computer programming and its
relationship with their major, considerably more science students (rather than humanitiesstudents) responded positively to the item.

ISSN: 2189-101X

567

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Figure 3: Percentages of participants’ responses to item Q3.
Fourth, this study analyzed how the participants rated their own logical thinking attitudes.
Figures 4 and 5 correlate to items Q4 and Q5 respectively, which concern students’ logicalthinking. The corresponding percentages of participants’ different responses to Q4 and Q5
are listed in Figures 4 and 5, respectively.

Figure 4: Percentages of participants’ responses to item Q4.

Figure 5: Percentages of participants’ responses to item Q5.

ISSN: 2189-101X

568

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

According to the Q4 results (see Figure 4), 30.77% of the participants in class A (Economics)
strongly and moderately agreed with Q4. In both class B (Global Human Sciences) and class
C (Engineering), 41% of the participants indicated their agreement with item Q4.
According to the Q5 results (see Figure 5), 56.4% of the participants in class B (Global
Human Sciences) strongly and moderately agreed with Q5. Slighter fewer participants(48.7%) in class C (Engineering) agreed with Q5, and even fewer participants (46%) in class
A (Economics) indicated their agreement with Q5.
Regarding students’ logical thinking attitudes, slightly fewer participants in class A(Economics) indicated positive responses for items Q4 and Q5.
Finally, this study analyzed how the participants rated their computer software experiences.
Figures 6 depicts the percentages of responses to the items of Q6, which concerns students’
computer software experiences. The corresponding percentages of participants’ different
responses to Q6 are listed in Figure 6.

Figure 6: Percentages of participants’ responses to item Q6.
According to the Q6 results (see Figure 6), 64% of the participants in class B (Global Human
Sciences) and 61.5% in class C (Engineering) strongly and moderately agreed with Q6, while
46% in class A (Economics) indicated such agreement.
Regarding computer software experiences, the results suggest that fewer participants in class
A (Economics) indicated positive responses for Q6 as well as Q4 and Q5.
Research question 1: Have students learned about computer programming before?
To address the first research question, this section analyzes whether and how the participants
had learned programming before joining university. Figure 1 shows that 43.6% in class A(Economics) and class B (Global Human Sciences) and 66.7% in class C (Engineering) chose“I have never learned programming before.” A little more than 40% of students in humanities
and two-thirds of the students in science did not have any programming experience—thesenumbers were higher than we expected. Given the trend of promoting programming
education nationwide, providing programing education to these university students, who have
not yet learned programming, is an urgent issue.

ISSN: 2189-101X

569

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Additionally, among students who learned programming outside of formal school classes,
2.6% in class A (Economics), 20.5% in class B (Global Human Sciences), and 7.7% in class
C (Engineering) learned programming in an extracurricular club at school, at a private
institute or cram school outside of school, or from their parents, relatives, or acquaintances.
The number of private programming schools is increasing, and more students will be
expected to study in these private programming schools. Based on these trends, students will
be expected to have different learning experiences with regard to learning programming. The
results thus suggest the need for designing curricula that consider the learning experiences ofindividual students.
Research question 2: Do students perceive that they will need computer programmingskills in their future careers? Are there any differences in how such needs are perceived
across faculties?
To address the second research question, this section analyzes whether and how theparticipants required programming skills in their future careers and how these needs wereperceived across faculties. The average scores of their responses were calculated using a fivepoint Likert scale for each class to investigate overall student perceptions. The average scores
were 4.2 for class A (Economics), 4.3 for class B (Global Human Sciences), and 4.8 for class
C (Engineering). Given these high average scores, it can be surmised that many students
across all classes perceived that they would require computer programming skills in their
future careers.
Next, the Kruskal-Wallis test and the Wilcoxon rank-sum test were conducted using the Q2data in order to determine whether the three classes differed from one another in astatistically significant manner at the 0.05 level. The results of the Kruskal-Wallis test
revealed significant differences among the three classes (p = 0.001). Next, using a Wilcoxon
rank-sum test, we attempted to investigate whether any statistical differences could be
detected with regard to each class. The results revealed significant differences between class
A (Economics) and class C (Engineering) (p = 0.000) and between class B (Global Human
Sciences) and class C (p = 0.005), although no significant differences were found between
class A and class B (p = 0.510).
These results ultimately suggest that the participants from all classes strongly perceived thatthey would require computer programming skills in their future careers, even though such
responses were significantly higher among the science students. With regard to the science
students, two-thirds of them did not have any programming experience from the results ofresearch question 1. The lack of experience in learning programming may make them moreaware of the need for programming in the future.
Research question 3: Are students interested in computer programming? Are there any
differences in students’ interest in such programming across faculties?
To address the third research question, this section analyzes whether and how the participants
were interested in computer programming and whether there were any differences in theirinterest in programming across faculties. Regarding interest in computer programming, theaverage scores for the three classes were as follows: 3.1 both for class A (Economics) andclass B (Global Human Sciences) and 4.5 for class C (Engineering). This showed that interestin programming was considerably lower among humanities students.

ISSN: 2189-101X

570

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Next, the Kruskal-Wallis test and the Wilcoxon rank-sum test were conducted using Q3 datain order to determine whether the three classes differed from one another in a statisticallysignificant manner at the 0.05 level.
Application of the Kruskal-Wallis test to the Q3 data revealed significant differences among
the three classes (p = 0.000). Next, using a Wilcoxon rank-sum test, we attempted toinvestigate whether any statistical differences could be detected with regard to each class.
The results revealed significant differences between class A (Economics) and class C(Engineering) (p = 0.000) and between class B (Global Human Sciences) and class C (p =0.000), although no significant differences were found between class A and class B (p =0.848).
These results reveal that the students were fully aware of the importance of programmingskills, regardless of whether they studied in a science or humanities class. However, it should
be noted that interest in computer programming was significantly lower among thehumanities students. Given this finding, it is necessary to develop a computer programming
curriculum that could effectively interest humanities students.
Research question 4: Is students’ interest in computer programming related to theirprevious experiences with learning programming, developing logical thinking attitudes,
using software, or perceiving a need for programming skills in their future careers? Are
there any differences in this relationship across faculties?
Based on the results regarding the third research question, this study investigated what could
facilitate or hinder programming learning. To explore the elements related to students’interest, this study investigated how students’ interest in computer programming could be
related to their previous experiences with learning programming, developing logical thinking
attitudes, using computer software, or perceiving a need for programming skills in their
future careers.
First, this study investigated how students’ interest in computer programming was related totheir previous experiences with learning programming. We assessed how many of thosestudents in different classes who strongly and moderately disagreed with Q3 (i.e., theirinterest in computer programming) had never learned programming. We found that 14
students in class A (Economics), 16 students in class B (Global Human Sciences), and only
one student in class C (Engineering) responded negatively to Q3. Among the students who
responded negatively to Q3, 50% (seven students) of those in the Economics class and 69%(11 students) of those in the Global Human Sciences class had never studied programming.
One student in the Engineering class, who had negative attitudes toward interest in
programming learning, also had no experience with learning programming.
Regarding students’ interest in computer programming and their previous experiences withlearning programming, the results suggest that the presence or absence of experience withlearning programming may have been related to interest in programming in the humanities
classes. Regarding the Engineering class, we believe that the reliability of its relevant data
will be a future issue since there was only one applicable respondent for the item.
Next, this study analyzed how students’ interest in computer programming (Q3) was related
to logical thinking attitudes (Q4 & Q5), computer software experiences (Q6), or theirperceptions of the need for programming skills in their future careers (Q2). We calculated

ISSN: 2189-101X

571

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Spearman’s rank-order correlation coefficients between items Q3 and Q2, Q3 and Q4, Q3
and Q5, and Q3 and Q6 from the questionnaire (see Table 3).

Q2

Q3

Q4

Q5

Q6

Class

Q2

Q3

Q4

Q5

Q6

A

–

B

–

C
A

–
0.22

–

B

0.51*

–

C

0.47*

A

0.31

–
0.10

–

B

0.23

0.25

–

C

-0.08

0.13

A

0.07

0.18

–
0.57*

–

B

0.21

0.41*

0.60*

–

C

0.10

0.51*

0.70*

A

-0.07

0.29

0.11

–
0.34*

–

B

0.35*

0.34*

0.38*

0.31

–

C

0.12

0.27

0.27

0.30

–
*p < .05.

Table 3: Correlations among questionnaire items
The results of the correlation coefficients between Q3 and Q2 in the three classes (see Table3) demonstrated that, both in class B (rQ3Q2 = 0.51) and class C (rQ3Q2 = 0.47), a significantly
positive relationship existed between students’ interest in computer programming and theirperception of the need for programming skills in their future careers. However, thecorrelation coefficient between Q3 and Q2 was not statistically significant for class A (rQ3Q2= 0.22).
Regarding the perceived need for programming skills in future careers, a positive relationshipwas observed between students’ interest in computer programming and their perception of theneed for programming skills both in class B (Global Human Sciences) and class C(Engineering). The results suggest that the students’ perception of the need for programmingskills in their future careers could influence their interest in computer programming.
Further, this study also calculated the correlation coefficients between items Q3 and Q4, andQ3 and Q5 in order to examine how students’ interest in computer programming was related
to their logical thinking attitudes.
The results of the correlation coefficients between Q3 and Q4 in the three classes (see Table3) (class A, rQ3Q4 = 0.10; class B, rQ3Q4 = 0.25; class C, rQ3Q4 = 0.13) demonstrated that no

ISSN: 2189-101X

572

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

significant relationship existed between students’ interest in computer programming and theirlogical thinking attitudes. Further, the results of the correlation coefficients between Q3 andQ5 revealed that a significantly positive relationship existed between students’ interest incomputer programming and their logical thinking attitudes both in class B (rQ3Q5 = 0.41) andclass C (rQ3Q5 = 0.51). However, the correlation coefficient between Q3 and Q5 was notstatistically significant for class A (rQ3Q5 = 0.18).
These findings regarding students’ logical thinking attitudes revealed that, both in the Global
Human Sciences class and the Engineering class, there was a positive relationship between
students’ interest in computer programming and their logical thinking attitudes as well as
their perception of the need for programming skills in future careers. This suggests thatstudents’ logical thinking attitudes could influence their interest in computer programming.
Finally, this study also calculated the correlation coefficients between Q3 and Q6 toinvestigate how students’ interest in computer programming was related to their computer
software experiences.
The correlation coefficient results between Q3 and Q6 revealed a significantly weak positive
relationship between students’ interest in computer programming and their computer softwareexperiences only in class B (rQ3Q6 = 0.34). However, the correlation coefficients between Q3
and Q6 were not statistically significant for both class A (rQ3Q6 = 0.29) and class C(rQ3Q6 = 0.27). Overall, regarding computer software experiences, this factor was found tohave a weak positive relationship with students’ interest in computer programming only in
the Global Human Sciences class.
These results also suggest that students’ computer software experiences could slightly
influence their interest in computer programming.
Findings
Although this study should be improved further, its results revealed some critical findings
regarding Japanese university students’ learning experiences and attitudes toward computer
programming. First, more than 40% of students in the humanities class and two-thirds ofstudents in the science class did not have any previous experience with learning
programming—these numbers were higher than we expected. Second, participants in all theclasses strongly perceived that they would require computer programming skills in their
future careers, although the science students who held this perception formed a significantly
higher percentage of the respondents than the humanities students. As mentioned above, alarger percentage of the science students had no experience in learning programming than did
liberal arts students. The lack of experience in learning programming may make them moreaware of the need for programming in the future. Third, interest in computer programming
was significantly lower among humanities students. Finally, among the students who
indicated little or no interest in computer programming, 50% in the Economics class, andapproximately 70% in the Global Human Sciences class had never studied programming.
Among the humanities students, the presence or absence of experience with learning
programming may have been related to interest in programming. Further, a positive
relationship was observed between students’ interest in computer programming and theirlogical thinking attitudes as well as their perception of the need for programming skills in
future careers both in the Global Human Sciences class and the Engineering class. Althoughfurther investigations are necessary, students’ logical thinking attitudes and their perception

ISSN: 2189-101X

573

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedingsof the need for programming skills in future careers could influence their interest in computer
programming. Furthermore, a weak positive relationship was observed between students’interest in computer programming and their computer software experiences only in the
Global Human Sciences class. These results showed that students’ computer softwareexperiences could slightly influence their interest in computer programming.
To summarize the results, students were fully aware of the importance of programming skills
for their future careers, regardless of their major fields of study. However, interest incomputer programming seemed to be significantly lower among the humanities students.
The study results thus suggest that, when designing a curriculum and syllabus for
programming classes, preparing materials that are relevant to students’ post-graduation career
paths based on their expertise may help stimulate those students’ interest in programming.
Furthermore, we suggest that a syllabus should be created with an awareness of fostering
logic and that the curriculum must include classes that can familiarize students with software
use before they can begin to learn programming.
Limitations and Recommendations
The present preliminary investigation study examined the experiences and attitudes ofJapanese university students with regard to computer programming. First, the current survey
must be promoted to a larger number of students. In particular, the number of learners
experiencing programming learning is expected to increase due to the growth of private
programming schools. It is thus important to continue conducting the survey over time.
Second, individual students’ interests in and attitudes toward learning programming will
depend not only on their fields of expertise but also on their personal programming learning
experiences and preferences. The relationship between interest in computer programming andother items of the current survey must be analyzed more deeply.
Conclusions
This study investigated Japanese university students’ learning experiences and attitudes
toward computer programming. A questionnaire using a five-point Likert scale wasdistributed to 117 Japanese university students in three classes; the results suggested threemain findings. (1) Regarding their previous experiences with learning programming, a little
more than 40% of students in humanities and two-thirds of the students in science did nothave any programming experience—these numbers were higher than we expected. (2)Regarding the students’ perception of the importance of programming skills in their future
careers, the average scores for all three classes reached 4 or higher. The results ultimately
suggested that both science and humanities students were fully aware of the importance ofprogramming skills for their future careers, although science students’ responses were morepositive than those of humanities students. As mentioned above, a larger percentage of thescience students had no experience in learning programming than did liberal arts students.
The lack of experience in learning programming may make them more aware of the need forprogramming in the future. (3) Regarding interest in computer programming, the averagescore for both humanities classes reached 3.1, whereas that for the science class was 4.5; thisshowed that interest in programming was significantly lower among humanities students.
Furthermore, the results of the two humanities classes indicated that, among students who
had little or no interest in computer programming, 50% in the Economics class, andapproximately 70% in the Global Human Sciences class had never learned programming.

ISSN: 2189-101X

574

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Thus, for liberal arts students, their experience in learning programming may be related totheir interest in it.
The current study had certain limitations. As a continuation of this study, the researchers
would like to consider dividing learners into types with regard to their interest in learning
programming by adding more survey items.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by JSPS Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research (No. JP19K03030).

ISSN: 2189-101X

575

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

References
Fuse, I. & Okabe, S. (2016). Koto kyoiku no ippan jyoho kyoiku niokeru programmingkyoiku–Hokkaido daigaku no jissen wo toshite– [Programming education as general
information education in higher education through practices in Hokkaido University].
Koto kyoiku journal–koto kyoiku to shogai gakusyu [Journal of Higher Education andLifelong Learning], 23, 53–63. https://doi.org/10.14943/J.HighEdu.23.53
Fuse, I. (2018). Daigaku no ippan kyoiku to shiteno programming kyoiku [Programming
education as general education in university]. System / Seigyo / Jyoho [Systems,
Control and Information], 62(7), 266–271. Retrieved February 7, 2023, fromhttps://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/isciesci/62/7/62_266/_pdf/-char/ja
Komura, M. (2020). Joshi wo taisho toshita programming workshop no jissen to teisei chosa[Practical and survey report of a programming workshop for girls]. Research Reportof Informatics Education, 2, 17–23. https://doi.org/10.24711/rrie.2.0_17
Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, Japan. (2017a). Shogakko
gakusyu shidoyoryo dai issho sosoku [Elementary school national curriculum standard,
chapter 1 general provisions]. Retrieved February 7, 2023, fromhttps://www.mext.go.jp/content/1413522_001.pdf
Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, Japan. (2017b). Chugakko
gakusyu shidoyoryo dai issho sosoku [Junior high school national curriculum standard,
chapter 1 general provisions]. Retrieved February 7, 2023, fromhttps://www.mext.go.jp/content/1413522_002.pdf
Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, Japan. (2018a). 2. Foster
diversified abilities to lead sustainable development of society, Retrieved February 7,
2023, fromhttps://www.mext.go.jp/en/policy/education/lawandplan/title01/detail01/sdetail01/137
3823.html
Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, Japan. (2018b). Kotogakko
gakusyu shidoyoryo dai nisho jyu setsu [Senior high school national curriculum
standard, chapter 2 section 10 Information]. Retrieved February 7, 2023, fromhttps://www.mext.go.jp/content/20230113-mxt_kyoiku02-100002604_03.pdf
Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications. (2016). Jakunenso ni taisuru programmingkyoiku no fukyuu suishin [Promotion of programming education for young people].
Retrieved February 7, 2023, fromhttps://www.soumu.go.jp/main_sosiki/joho_tsusin/kyouiku_joho-ka/jakunensou.html
Mizuho Information & Research Institute, Inc. (2019). IT jinzai jukyu ni kansuru chosa[Survey on IT human resource supply and demand]. Retrieved February 7, 2023, fromhttps://www.meti.go.jp/policy/it_policy/jinzai/houkokusyo.pdf
Obara, Y., Tamada, K., & Matsuda, T. (2022). Preliminary survey on programming education
to develop problem-solving skills. Research Report of JSET Conferences, 2022(4),
216–219 (in Japanese). https://doi.org/10.15077/jsetstudy.2022.4_216

ISSN: 2189-101X

576

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Contact email: kasiwagi@kobe-u.ac.jp

ISSN: 2189-101X

577

Official Conference Proceedings

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

ISSN: 2189-101X

578

Official Conference Proceedings

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

The Development and Application of the Wearable Device for the Deaf Performers
Tzu-Hua Huang, University of Taipei, Taiwan
Yi-Jiun Li, University of Taipei, Taiwan
The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023
Official Conference Proceedings
Abstract
This research aimed to develop a vibrating bracelet to meet the needs of deaf actors,
exploring the influence of communication methods and empathy while working with them.
The study identified the limitations and expertise of the actors, reviewing the action
instruction method and performance guidance. Through performance training, the study
aimed to understand the abilities and cultural peculiarities of the deaf. The vibrating bracelet
was developed to collect data and strengthen the content of the drama according to the needsof the deaf actors, and interviews were conducted to understand the impact on theircommunication methods. The study aims to cultivate inclusive art performing arts creationand performance talents. During testing, the "excited" and "smooth" heart rates were used as
the judgment results and compared with the facial expression recorded videos and line graphs.
Emotional nodes of the deaf students during rehearsals were compiled as emotional
judgments according to the results. It was initially defined that a heart rate of 83 bpm triggers
a long vibration to indicate the performer's "excited" emotion. If the bracelet detects theperformer's emotion as "gentle," the type of vibration will be defined before concluding thestudy. The comprehensive curatorial performances will promote the concept and method of"inclusive art" and practice and discuss the spirit of equal rights in art.
Keywords: Vibrating Bracelets, Deaf Performers, Inclusive Art, Emotion Recognition,
Empathy, Creative Practice Researchiafor
The International Academic Forumwww.iafor.org

ISSN: 2189-101X

579

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

1. Introduction
User-centered design (UCD) is a critical approach for designing effective human-computerinteractions (Fleming & Levie, 1993; Liang & Hsu, 2001). It involves continuously assessing
whether the various components of a system meet the user's needs and operational objectives
to align the final system as closely as possible with the user's mental model. In psychology,
emotional states and cognitive processes are usually based on physiological signals such asheartbeat, dermal signals, eye tracking, and brainwave maps (Gerjets et al., 2014; Krumpe etal., 2018; Poh et al., 2010). However, accurately collecting and analyzing these physiologicalsignals with current information devices remains a challenge, especially in educationalsettings where such devices often require equipment to be set up on the student's body todetect physiological signals, creating a barrier to teaching. Nonetheless, these physiologicalsignals, including brain area features, can be used to identify pleasure states and accurately
identify human emotions. For example, enhanced vibrotactile multimedia technology canstimulate the audience's visual, auditory, and tactile senses, which can also be applied in theperforming arts arena, especially for audiences with partial sensory limitations. Inclusive Arts
aims to make art accessible to all people because "art exists for all people" (Nixuan Zhou,2019) and should be a source of warmth and inspiration. By considering the perspective ofpeople with disabilities in the creation of art, artists can transcend the senses and create amature and progressive viewing-friendly space (Claire, 2018).
The human senses play a vital role in perception, with humans relying on multiple senses,
namely sight, hearing, taste, smell, and touch, to perceive their surroundings. Traditional
multimedia only engages two senses, namely hearing and sight, but the human experience ofwatching multimedia content can be enhanced by engaging more than two senses
simultaneously. Multimedia content that engages more than two senses at the same time iscalled mulsemedia, and recent interest in multimedia aims to provide an immersive,
real-world environment during multimedia interaction. Multisensory media can provide a
new dimension for developing immersive systems in various areas, including education,
healthcare, advertising, and home entertainment. Recent advances in wearable sensing
technologies have enabled researchers to analyze the impact of multimedia on humanemotions and behaviors, with devices involving touch, smell, and taste in addition to visionand hearing used to construct multimedia environments. A framework has been proposed forconveying multisensory effects into a hybrid system (Fleming & Levie, 1993).
Audio information can be conveyed effectively through tactile stimuli, which has led to thedevelopment of electro-haptic stimulation (EHS) as a new approach. Research has shown thatEHS can significantly improve speech noise performance, sound localization, and sensitivity
to sound properties such as pitch (Fletcher, 2021). As the number of people with hearing loss
is predicted to nearly double in the next 30 years, tactile technology can offer significant
benefits, especially for those with severe hearing loss who use artificial electronic ears. An
effective tactile device can improve spatial awareness, help in hearing in noisy environments,
and provide an inexpensive way to obtain the benefits of a second AI without the need for asecond expensive surgery (Huang, Sheffield, & Lin, 2017). However, to provide benefits tousers, optimal signal processing strategies and device configurations still need to beestablished. Over the next five years, the number of researchers in this area is expected toincrease significantly, and advanced neuroimaging methods such as near-infrared
spectroscopy and brainwave mapping may be applied to understand the underlying
mechanisms behind auditory and tactile enhancement (Fletcher, 2021). The development oftactile stimulation technology may also lead to the reduction of auditory work and improve

ISSN: 2189-101X

580

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

speech use, and the benefits of tactile stimulation on hearing may become clearer with further
research. Therefore, based on the above research theories, the application of auditory andtactile related techniques and systems can be enhanced in the field of performing arts forpeople with hearing loss. The development of an effective, inexpensive, comfortable, discreet,and easy-to-install tactile device can offer significant benefits to those with hearing loss,
especially for enjoying performing arts.
This research aims to develop a new type of "barrier-free interactive performance" byintegrating interactive content technology with performing arts, through the use of wearable
devices such as vibrating bracelets, networks, and interactive interfaces. The main objective
is to understand the needs of deaf performers and deaf audiences during performances andcommunication, and to improve communication with deaf performers during performancesby using technology to increase the accessibility of art to deaf audiences. The specificresearch questions are:(a) How can wearable devices, such as vibrating bracelets, be used to assist deaf
performers in their performances and improve communication with them?
(b) What is the impact of the use of vibrating bracelets by deaf performers on theperformance venue, in terms of audience engagement and overall experience?
(c) What is the effectiveness of the performances by deaf performers who use vibrating
bracelets to assist their performance, in terms of artistic expression and audience
reception?
2. Literature review
2.1 Deaf Performance and Technology Art
The life experience, lifestyle, language, thinking, behavior, and psychological characteristics
of deaf individuals are unique and shape their culture. Sign language is the primary means ofexpression in the drama of the deaf, and it challenges established prejudices and mainstream
cultural appearances. Deaf individuals have dual or multiple narrative abilities and can serve
as both narrators and performers. To promote cultural equality and universal design, newtechnologies can be used in various artistic and cultural fields to create a friendly andeasy-to-use environment for individuals with sensory and behavioral disabilities. Assistive
technology has evolved from a narrow focus on equal rights to a broader sense of inclusivetechnology, providing substantive equality without discrimination. In the future, captioning
could be part of the overall design, with personalized options such as preferred language, fontstyle, and size. Augmented reality (AR) or mixed reality (MR) could personalize captioning
and integrate audio input to meet the needs of users with different needs (Chen, 2019).
2.2 The Importance of Tactile Sensation as a Substitute for Hearing
According to Fleming & Levie (1993), the design of any computer hardware and softwaremust take into account the user's senses (vision, hearing, touch, smell, motor coordination,etc.), cognition (intelligence, motor control, memory, motivation, etc.), and individual
differences (age, gender, education, learning style, etc.); sensory media can be used indifferent areas such as education, healthcare, advertising, and home entertainment. The
development of immersive systems in different fields such as education, healthcare,advertising and home entertainment provides new dimensions. In addition, recent advances inwearable sensing technologies provide researchers with a broad scope to analyze multimedia

ISSN: 2189-101X

581

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

and its effects on human emotions and behaviors, detailing devices that involve touch, smell,and taste in addition to vision and hearing to construct multimedia environments. Whenever a
person is subjected to certain emotional stimuli, their feelings are conveyed throughphysiological cues such as brain activity, heart rate, facial expressions, body posture, orchanges in sound. These cues are used to link an individual's emotional state to external
stimuli. The use of speech, facial expressions and their integration for emotional recognition
has been explored. Since these brain area features have been used to identify pleasure states,
it has been found that olfactory augmented content can more accurately identify humanemotion than traditional multimedia. Vibrotactile-enhanced multimedia is used as a visual,auditory, and tactile stimulus. Heart rate and eye tracking data were used to analyze the effectof vibrotactile-enhanced multimedia on user perception. Overall, we can conclude thattactile-enhanced multimedia content can be more effective in evoking user emotions and, foraffective computing, can improve the accuracy of emotion detection when presenting suchcontent to users.
2.3 The Relationship between Heart Rate and Emotions
When individuals are exposed to emotional stimuli, their feelings are communicated throughphysiological cues, such as brain activity, heart rate, facial expressions, body posture, orchanges in voice. Traditional methods of emotion recognition using speech and facial
expressions have limitations, such as privacy concerns and camera positioning. Therefore,
researchers have explored emotion recognition from physiological cues, such as brain activity,
skin conductance, and heart rate. Brainwave maps have been increasingly used for emotion
recognition due to the availability and ease of use of low-cost wearable headsets. Emotional
markers in brainwave maps are not easily deceived by voluntary behavior and can accurately
identify the emotional state of the mind. Changes in skin conductance are also observed indifferent emotional states.
Alternative aids, such as wearable bracelets, can partially alleviate the language learning,communication, and navigation deficits of the deaf, blind, and deaf-blind. Haptic feedback
provided by these bracelets can give vibrotactile cues to deaf people with disabilities andmonitor their physiological activities. This allows for more effective interaction between
performers with disabilities and deaf people, ultimately increasing performance efficiency.
The smart bracelet can also monitor and measure specific parameters, such as heart rate,
blood oxygen, EEG, and ECG to detect and collect signals that can help understandemotional ups and downs. Heart rate feedback can be used to mediate anxiety through wrong
heart rate feedback. However, more research is needed to analyze the accuracy of long-term
physiological data collection and analysis.
Sorgini et al. (2018) suggest that haptic feedback can provide information to the physically
impaired. Similarly, Yağanoğlu (2021) and Dong et al. (2021) found that wearable bracelets
are low cost and lightweight, making them a potential alternative aid for deaf people withdisabilities. Shu et al. (2018) also note that more research is needed to analyze the accuracyof long-term physiological data collection and analysis.
3. Research methods
In the initial phase of this study, students were chosen to participate in a dance class at an
educational institution in December. The data on their heart rates was collected using
bracelets, and emotional nodes were identified through data analysis. The vibration frequency

ISSN: 2189-101X

582

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedingsthat corresponded to these emotional nodes was defined and incorporated into the bracelet for
future development.
In the first part of the study, eight performers (three deaf and five hearing) will send andreceive vibration signals during their performance, enabling them to feel each other'semotions through vibrations, in addition to sign language and visual cues. In the second part,which will take place next year, the audience will wear bracelets during the performance tofeel the performers' emotions and enhance their empathy. The facial recognition system will
be used to compare and analyze the audience's emotions.
The primary goal of this research is to conduct a comprehensive field analysis. Throughinterviews, the researchers intend to gain a deeper understanding of the perspectives, opinions,and interpretations of deaf performers, related theatre professionals, and critics. This will also
aid in gaining a more dynamic and complete knowledge of the overall field shaping andchanges, which is crucial for conducting field research and analyzing the findings. The
research process is outlined in Figure 1.

Figure 1: Research flowchart of master research.
3.1 Research subjects
This study was conducted in a performance program at Taipei School for the Hearing
Impaired to observe the deaf population. Through the course, we discovered the physicalfeasibility and extensibility of the deaf students and selected student performers for future
performances. This research is an experimental performance combining the use of vibro
bracelets and performance, and the process of receiving and sending messages and vibrations
to assist in the emotional communication between deaf performers. The subjects of thisresearch are three deaf students and five students in the dance class of Double Park JuniorHigh School.

ISSN: 2189-101X

583

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

3.2 Instruments
This year's research focuses on interviewing deaf students, developing a vibrating bracelet,
detecting heart rate and applying it in the exhibition, and developing an emotion recognition
system to be used in conjunction with the vibrating bracelet next year. The research tools are
as follows.
3.2.1 Interview outline
In this study, the interviews were divided into pre and post technology use. Before
technology use, two questions were designed: the first part was basic questions, and thesecond part was about the performers' limitations and imagination, to understand theperformers' limitations and imagination about technology use before technology use. After
technology use, the first part was to explore the impact of technology-assisted performanceon the venue, to understand the personal feelings of the performers and the impact of theirpast experiences on the use of technology on their performance and the venue; the second
part was to explore physical concerns, the impact of technology integration into performanceon their own bodies and their own views on the changes; and the third part was to suggest
future applications, suggestions and expectations for the application of technology in thevenue after integration into performance. The outline of the visit is shown in Table 1 andTable 2.
Items
1
1-1
1-2
1-3
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14

TopicsBasic Questions
Gender/Age/Grade
Hearing Impairment Level "A. Can't use sign language but use spoken language (mild),
B. Can use sign language but use spoken language (moderate), C. Can't use spoken
language but use signed language (severe)
Frequency of exposure to performing arts
What arts-related activities have you participated in so far? (e.g. exhibitions, movies,
performances...) etc.)
What difficulties did you face when you were exposed to art activities? What are yourbad experiences? (e.g. unfriendly spaces...) etc.)
During the dance classes, did your listening skills affect your understanding of theclasses? (Skip to question 6 if you have not used it before)
Continuing from the previous question, can you briefly explain?
Have you ever used aids in dance classes, such as floor vibrations, hearing aids, etc.?
etc.? (If not, skip to question 8)
Has the use of aids such as hearing aids in dance classes ever been affected by too much
movement? (Like too much movement and hearing aids fall off)
In what way do you understand the content of the dance classes in order to perform thecorresponding dance movements?
What percentage of the dance classes did you need the teacher's help to translate andunderstand? How does it affect the rehearsal?
How did you feel about participating in the dance classes?
What did you learn the most from the dance course?
What was your most impressive activity in the dance program?
What part of the class did you find difficult or disturbing?
Continuing from the previous question, what adjustments or improvements would you
like to make?

Table 1: Interview outline before wearing a vibrating bracelet

ISSN: 2189-101X

584

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Items
1
2
3
4
Items
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

Official Conference Proceedings

TopicsHave you had any innovative experiences or feelings after wearing a vibrating bracelet ina performance? Describe what it was like?
How did you feel the difference between wearing the bracelet and wearing it before?
Do you feel the emotions of others more after using a vibrobracelet than before wearing avibrotactile bracelet?
Do you feel a change in the way you communicate after wearing a vibro bracelet?
Cognitive Load
Topics
Wearing a vibrating bracelet to rehearse a performance and feel the emotions of others
requires many things to be considered at the same time.
Wearing a vibrating bracelet is very complicated to feel the emotions of others.
Wearing a bracelet not only reduces other external influences, but also allows you to feelothers' emotions properly.
With the bracelet, I can understand the flow of emotions more correctly.
Wearing a vibrating bracelet contains elements that allow me to feel emotions.
It is difficult to use the bracelet to feel emotions in rehearsal.
The design of the bracelet makes it very difficult to feel emotions during rehearsals.
It is difficult to identify the emotional feelings and connect key messages during
rehearsal while wearing the bracelet.

Table 2: Interview outline after wearing a vibrating bracelet
3.2.2 Vibrating Bracelet
At this stage, we asked the three body teaching team to guide emotional dance movements inthe performance rehearsal, and let the students play and conceive the movements, as well as
to collect data related to the students' heart rate, etc. At present, we have conducted threeheart rate collections, each time for about 90 minutes, with each second as the unit of data
recording. In addition to the analysis of the corresponding emotional data, the frequency ofvibration corresponding to the emotion will also be discussed as the basis of the subsequent
bracelet vibration and corresponding emotion, after confirming the frequency ofcorresponding emotional vibration, the manufacturer will import it into the vibration bracelet.
The bracelet data collection software was developed by Walden Digital Technology Co., Ltd.
and was mainly used to collect data from the rehearsal of the Kai Chung students. The datacollected was analyzed using the Mongodb database with the Studio 3T GUI interface. The
development process is shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2: Vibrating bracelet development processThis bracelet was developed with the assistance of Stronghold Research. The message
transmission instructions are shown in the diagram. During the performance, the main
performer will send heart rate physiological signals to the data collection server software via
the Gateway receiver. The software is responsible for data storage and bracelet message
reception and transmission settings. Its main function is to identify emotional nodes and send

ISSN: 2189-101X

585

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

corresponding emotional vibration messages to other performers and viewers via the
Gateway (one-to-many transmission of vibration messages). During the vibration period, thephysiological data of other performers and viewers will still be sent to the data collection
server software via Gateway. The stored physiological data can be compared with theemotion recognition system software for difference analysis.
The system consists of 10 vibration bracelets, 2 Gateway message receivers, 1 AP signal basestation, 1 mini PC, 1 set of Dashboard signal collection software, and a keyboard, mouse, andmonitor. To set up the system, connect the mini PC to the AP and start the Dashboard system.
Then, turn on the message receiver and connect it to the network via the AP. Once themessage receiver changes from colored light to white light, the system will begin collecting
physiological data from all the powered-on bracelets.
The show will start with eight performers (three deaf and five hearing) at the end of this year.
In addition to the performers, more audience members will wear the bracelets in next year'sshow, and the signals will be transmitted in the same way. Next year's performance will also
feature an emotion recognition system, mainly used to compare the emotions of theaudience's faces when wearing the bracelets and to analyze the data of their feelings.
The data collection software interface allows users to confirm data collection and thereal-time status of each bracelet. Users can also set physiological alert ranges based on theircondition, and the color of the interface will change if the data is abnormal. After collecting
the data, Studio 3T and MongoDB are used to export the data.
4. Result
In this study, the heart rate data of the three subjects were analyzed by using a bracelet todetect the heart rate of deaf performers, and by analyzing the heart rate data of the deaf
performers through their exciting movements and slow movements during rehearsals. The
heart rate data were collected by the bracelet second by second, and the data were analyzed inorder of size, and the top third of the data (high heart rate) was selected. The "agitatedmovements" among the high heart rate data were retained for analysis to define the heart ratebenchmark of the performers during the "agitated movements". The data were collected inthree sessions, 9/11, 9/18 and 9/25. Heart rate physiological data were collected from three
students at Taipei School For The Hearing Impaired, the MongoDB database is exported toStudio 3T software (as shown in Figure 3) as a csv file of the ring physiological data，The
physiological data on heart rate of students from Taipei School For The Hearing Impaired
were collected on 9/11, 9/18 and 9/25. The total number of heart rate data and thecorresponding quantities are shown in Table 3.

ISSN: 2189-101X

586

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Figure 3: MongoDB database using Studio 3T software to export hand-loop
physiological data
9/11

9/18

9/25

Total number ofheart rate data (pens)

4,768

6,845

5,266

High heart rate data
number

1,589

2,281

1,755

Table 3: Data Collection Date and Number of Data
For the first session, which focuses on the 9/11 event, each student collected a total of 4,768
data points. The study then took the top one-third of the data (1,589 data points) andspecifically looked at the heart rate data during "exciting movements." In this study, "exciting
movements" are defined as completing one cycle of movement within 1-3 seconds, with large
and abrupt limb extensions, fast movement speed, and large displacement distance. "Smooth
movements," on the other hand, are defined as movements that last for more than 3 seconds,
with smaller limb extensions, slow and gentle limb extensions, or slow movement speed andsmaller displacement distance. The results collected by the three students are shown in Table
4.

Number of heart rate
data during excited
movements (counts)

S1

S2

S3

311

186

98

Average heart rate
104.2
87.1
70.6
(beats per minute)
Table 4: Number of Excited Action Heart Rate Data and Average Heart Rate (9/11)
According to Table 4, there were 311 data points for student 1's excited exercise heart rate,with an average heart rate of 104.2 beats per minute (bpm); 186 data points for student 2's
excited exercise heart rate, with an average heart rate of 87.1 bpm; and 98 data points forstudent 3's excited exercise heart rate, with an average heart rate of 70.6 bpm. According to
the definition of the Ministry of Health and Welfare in Taiwan, the heart rate for children andadolescents aged 6 years or older in a quiet state ranges from 60 to 100 bpm. In this study,

ISSN: 2189-101X

587

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

heart rate data were collected from students during "excited exercise," so the heart rates weregenerally higher than the minimum standard defined above (60 bpm). However, student 3's
average heart rate was closer to the performance in a non-excited or calm state. Afterinterviewing student 3, it was found that because the first rehearsal was the first time thestudent wore the wristband during the course, the student was generally unfamiliar with thewristband's operation. Moreover, after the rehearsal, student 3 also stated that the wristband
did not display the screen correctly multiple times during the course, indicating a possible
malfunction. This could explain why student 3's data differed from the other students, and thestudent's heart rate data for the first class was not adopted. The second course was held on
9/18, and each student collected 6,845 pieces of data. The first third of the data (2,281 pieces)were selected, and only data collected during "excited exercise" were kept. The results
collected by the three students are shown in Table 5.

Number of heart rate
data during excited
movements (counts)

S1

S2

S3

433

316

250

Average heart rate
82.5
94.26
86.94
(beats per minute)
Table 5: Number of heart rate data and average heart rate for excited actions (9/18)
Based on Table 5, the number of excitement-induced heart rate data collected for Student 1 is433, with an average heart rate of 82.5 (beats/min); for Student 2, the number of datacollected is 316, with an average heart rate of 94.26 (beats/min); for Student 3, the number ofdata collected is 250, with an average heart rate of 86.94 (beats/min). The results of this study
were all based on heart rate data collected from students during "excitement-induced"
activities, so the heart rate generally exceeded the minimum standard defined by the Ministryof Health and Welfare (60 beats/min) for children and adolescents aged 6 and above in aquiet state. On 9/25, which was the third session of the course, each student collected 5,266
data points, and the first third (1,755 data points) were selected and only data collected during"excitement-induced" activities were retained. The results of the data collected by the three
students are shown in Table 6.

Number of heart rate
data during excited
movements (counts)

S1

S2

S3

262

517

534

Average heart rate
91.84
104.7891.25(beats per minute)
Table 6: Number of Heart Rate Data and Average Heart Rate for Exciting Actions (9/25)
According to Table 6, Student 1 had 262 data points for heart rate during "exciting activities,"with an average heart rate of 91.84 beats per minute (BPM); Student 2 had 517 data points
with an average heart rate of 104.78 BPM; and Student 3 had 534 data points with an averageheart rate of 91.25 BPM. The data collected for this study were all taken during "exciting
activities," so heart rates were generally higher than the minimum standard set by the

ISSN: 2189-101X

588

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Ministry of Health and Welfare in Taiwan (60 BPM). Upon analyzing the data for the three
students, and excluding the data for Student 3 during the first class, the lowest heart rate
recorded was 82.5 BPM. This study will use a heart rate of 83 BPM as the threshold fortriggering vibration to indicate "excitement." In the future, we will continue to investigate
heart rate data during "calm" emotions and define the corresponding vibration pattern.
5. Conclusion
Through interviews with three performers from Taipei Municipal School for the Hearing
Impaired, we gain a deeper understanding of deaf students. Deaf students face difficulties inunderstanding things without auditory aids, and without internal guidance from teachers, they
may not participate in extracurricular or artistic activities. Additionally, varying degrees ofhearing impairment also lead to differences in their ability to understand. Fully deaf students
generally have lower comprehension abilities compared to students who can hear somesounds. In terms of technological support for performance, the students hope that vibrating
objects can assist them in understanding course content during class. In future plans, inaddition to deaf student performers, the research will also continue to explore the relationshipbetween deaf artists and technological assistance, as well as the impact of audience empathy.

ISSN: 2189-101X

589

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

References
Chen, Y., Wang, Q., Chen, H., Song, X., Tang, H., & Tian, M. (2019, June). An overview ofaugmented reality technology. In Journal of Physics: Conference Series (Vol. 1237,
No. 2, p. 022082). IOP Publishing.
Claire (2018).ting yishu, mo yishu, wen yishu - taipei shuwei yishu jie teshu daolan.
https://vocus.cc/article/5c02a4a0fd89780001e558f0
Dong, M., Fang, B., Li, J., Sun, F., & Liu, H. (2021). Wearable sensing devices for upper
limbs: A systematic review. Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers,
Part H: Journal of Engineering in Medicine, 235(1), 117-130.
Fleming, M. L., & Levie, W. H. (Eds.). (1993). Instructional message design: Principles
from the behavioral and cognitive sciences. Educational Technology.
Fletcher, M. D. (2021). Using haptic stimulation to enhance auditory perception inhearing-impaired listeners. Expert Review of Medical Devices, 18(1), 63-74.
Gerjets, P., Walter, C., Rosenstiel, W., Bogdan, M., & Zander, T. O. (2014). Cognitive statemonitoring and the design of adaptive instruction in digital environments: lessons
learned from cognitive workload assessment using a passive brain-computer interface
approach. Frontiers in neuroscience, 8, 385.
Huang, J., Sheffield, B., Lin, P., & Zeng, F. G. (2017). Electro-tactile stimulation enhances
cochlear implant speech recognition in noise. Scientific reports, 7(1), 2196.
Krumpe, T., Scharinger, C., Rosenstiel, W., Gerjets, P., & Spüler, M. (2018). Unity anddiversity in working memory load: Evidence for the separability of the executivefunctions updating and inhibition using machine learning. Biological psychology, 139,
163-172.
Liang Chaucer-Chaoyun & Hsu Ming-chieh (2001). Design Issues in the Field of
Human-Computer Interaction. Instructional Technology & Media, 58, 54-66.
Poh, M. Z., McDuff, D. J., & Picard, R. W. (2010). Advancements in noncontact,
multiparameter physiological measurements using a webcam. IEEE transactions on
biomedical engineering, 58(1), 7-11.
Shu, L., Xie, J., Yang, M., Li, Z., Li, Z., Liao, D., ... & Yang, X. (2018). A review of emotion
recognition using physiological signals. Sensors, 18(7), 2074.
Sorgini, F., Caliò, R., Carrozza, M. C., & Oddo, C. M. (2018). Haptic-assistive technologies
for audition and vision sensory disabilities. Disability and Rehabilitation: Assistive
Technology, 13(4), 394-421.
Yağanoğlu, M. (2021). Real time wearable speech recognition system for deaf persons.
Computers & Electrical Engineering, 91, 107026.

ISSN: 2189-101X

590

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Zhou Ni-Xuan (2019).chuangling fangsongju: bianlao de jiben quan li: ren duneng xiang you
de "gongrong yishu". https://ankemedia.com/2019/17905
Contact email: anteater1029@gmail.com

ISSN: 2189-101X

591

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

ISSN: 2189-101X

592

Official Conference Proceedings

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings“Top-Bottom Deconstruction”: A Global Space for Art Education in Rural Society
Joni Agung Sudarmanto, Universitas Negeri Malang, Indonesia
The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023
Official Conference Proceedings
Abstract
Let us look at globalization as a trigger for the current creative arts education movement. Not
only in big cities but the stretching development of arts education can also be seen in small
towns and rural communities. Interestingly, globalization is not seen as an essential footholdin developing art education. Therefore, this research wants to conduct a discourse on how the
global space of art education in rural communities is created, termed "top-down
deconstruction". This research has the nuances of a narrative literature review by taking
Derrida's deconstruction concept as a basis for discussing the context of "global space",
which has only been seen from one side so far. The study results show that globalization
creates an attitude of adaptation and resilience in rural communities to technology as one of
the elements of modern education. Globalization also constructs art in public spaces as ademocratic alternative for rural communities. Furthermore, the development of art educationin rural communities is also accommodated by rural art, which artists and collectives are now
loving as their creative space in collaboration with the community. Thus, the global spacecreated can become the central axis, which forms the cultural identity of the local communityand creates an alternative space for modern art education.
Keywords: Deconstruction, Global Space, Art Education, Rural Society

iafor
The International Academic Forumwww.iafor.org

ISSN: 2189-101X

593

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Introduction
Modernization in the perspective of classical modernization theory highlights that Third
World countries are underdeveloped countries with traditional societies (Adom, 2019). At thesame time, Western countries are seen as modern countries (de la Garza, 2022). However,what needs to be noted is that in the new modernization theory, tradition can be seen as apositive force supporting development --- including how traditional society relates to village
demography. The linkage is traditional culture as a dynamic entity and constantly changing,able to make reasonable adjustments to local conditions. As a universal and comparative
phenomenon, modernization in education is characterized by several tendencies (Cannon,
2018; Hudson, 2020), namely: (1) agreeing to new ideas and daring to try out new methods
and techniques, (2) readiness to express opinions, (3) oriented to the present and the future
rather than the present past, (4) respecting timeliness, (5) planning, organization, andefficiency, (6) seeing this world as something that can be calculated, (7) believing in scienceand technology, (8) seeing the importance of the equal distribution of justice.
A good modernization of education is characterized by the emergence of these eight criteria
collectively in a social institution of a village. The eight articles become the attitudes andbeliefs of all elements of society, personal and institutional, including the world of arts
education. Thus, as an institution, education, in principle, bears the mandate of "future
ethics." This means that future ethics requires humans not to avoid responsibility for theconsequences of every action they commit in the present. Therefore, in the ethics of the
future, humans have to dare to answer challenges to the uniquely human ability to anticipate,
formulate values, and set priorities in an uncertain atmosphere so that future generations do
not become prey to the processes that become getting out of hand in their later times (Savoie,
2017).
Based on the description above, art education in the village is a field that has a noble value
because teaching is an obligation for everyone who has the knowledge and makes it ethical.
Furthermore, the development of science that guides human life in every era is a significant
concern in seeing how reality exists in a society that shapes its culture. The process ofglobalization in the world is inseparable from the birth of the industrial revolution in thewestern world, which until now has always been the primary reference when studying
science itself. The process of the journey of the industrial revolution from the so-calledindustrial revolution 1.0 to the 21st century, called industrial revolution 4.0, will even step
into the industrial revolution 5.0 in the discourse on the globalization of education (Maria
Zulfiati et al., 2019; Sampurno & Camelia, 2020; Suardana, 2020).
In connection with the globalization of education in rural areas, the understanding of reality is
indeed inseparable from the culture that exists in each community, which all depends on theelements of place, time, and atmosphere regarding the process of cultural inheritance throughthe methods used by the supporting community for the process of transferring their culture,
which at this point we can call the path of education (Abrefa Busia, 2022; Liu et al., 2023;
Moed, 2022). The concept of science presented in schools so far uses a perspective called
having to be scientific. Scientific is defined as everything that can be proven to exist by the
naked eye or by the five senses (Kim, 2020). This view is inseparable from the strong
presence of the positivistic paradigm, which is the primary reference in education. On theother hand, as a project, globalization and rural education modernism cannot be separated
from the philosophical assumptions that shape the worldview and become the basic
foundation of all its epistemological structures. Among other things, the assumption that

ISSN: 2189-101X

594

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

knowledge is always objective, neutral, and free-valued states that humans are subject, while
nature is the object, that our knowledge of reality is positive, vivid, and distinctive (CookSather & Alter, 2011; Keenan & Kadi-Hanifi, 2021).
Therefore, this research wants to conduct a discourse on how the global space of art
education in rural communities is created, termed "top-down deconstruction." Globalizationof education in rural areas as a reality can be clearly defined, concrete, structured, and ofcourse, measured using scientific methods. All subjects presented by the elementary to thetertiary level curriculum are inseparable from the scientific concept. This is a significant
criticism for viewing disciplines that fall into the category of humanities, which so far mustalso be measured from a positivistic perspective. So a deconstructive approach is needed thatemphasizes educational space's broader and naturalistic context.
MethodThis research has the nuances of a narrative literature review by taking Derrida's
deconstruction concept as a basis for discussing the context of "global space," which has only
been seen from one side so far (Corson, 2020; Mahon, 2017; Sparrhoff, 2015). The context of
this research is in the narrative literature of factual issues about art education in rural areas inIndonesia and urban art education spaces in 2013-2023. Data were obtained from literaturestudies and analyzed using Derrida's deconstruction concept and Paulo Freire's criticaleducation approach (Freire, 1970; Lee, 2017; Pittri et al., 2023).
Results and Discussion
Art education, which in the course of its history has become a scientific discipline that has
been known for only prioritizing aspects of imitation, expression, and imaginativeness, loses
its power when it is juxtaposed with other exact sciences such as science, technology,
engineering, and mathematics (Bowen et al., 2014; Cera, 2013; Sampurno et al., 2020;
Stabler, 2021). This positivistic paradigm has become the dominant factor where art is asubject whose substance is only a complementary subject so far in educational institutions
because of the difficulty in measuring the scientific realm of this field (Brinkley-Etzkorn,
2018; Zimmer et al., 2021). In addition, it is exacerbated by the perspective held by the art
community and even art educators who eventually unknowingly understand the truth of thereality of art by using a scientific perspective that speaking of art, must be in the form of aphysical form that is displayed and fulfills aesthetic requirements or standards globallydefined (Botella et al., 2013; Ulger, 2019).
This concept certainly exacerbates how art education practices have been running in schools
in rural educational institutions. To understand the concept of reality that must be presented
in this era, of course, we need to look at globalization's journey so fast in this era. The
conception of reality in the 21st century, which is known today as the postmodern era andeven the most extreme mention at the same time, says it is post-truth but does the emergenceof this context of understanding also take place in the process of art education in formal
institutions known as schools, so far, school is understood as an ecosystem space capable ofcarrying out the task of transferring culture in a society (Castro, 2016; Gardner, 2003; Lu,
2010; Wiratmoko & Sampurno, 2021).
“Top-down” is a postmodern term used in many fields with great fanfare and frenzy. This
fanfare causes any reference to him to run the risk of being branded as serving a shallow and

ISSN: 2189-101X

595

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

empty intellectual mode (Baudrillard, 2020; Gojkov, 2019). The problem is that, on the one
hand, the term is already trendy; on the other, it has always avoided being adequately
defined. The extent of the area in which the term is used alone is quite astonishing. It is usedscattered everywhere so that it is not surprising that its meaning becomes blurred.
Art, in a very general sense in today's era of global capitalism, has a crucial role in creating asystem of social differentiation through the signs and symbols it offers (Indrajaya, 2018). Oneof the goals of art in a global capitalist society is to create a system of differentiation, a formof power created through art. Nonetheless, there is an exciting relationship between art as a
discourse and power as a mechanism in today's global capitalist discourse; art is touched,forged, printed, and defined by the power within this global capitalist society (Lin et al.,2015). However, as a form of art practice, it produces separate powers of differentiation,
prestige, status, comfort, health, and symbolism, a form of power that dominates
postmodernism discourse. As part of the global capitalist discourse, postmodernism explores
new forms of power: commodity power, symbolic power, symbol and object-producing
power, space, and postmodern life (Chaney, 2020; Dunn & Castro, 2012; Houston, 2004).
Rural area art education expresses ideas and feelings that cannot be communicated throughother media, such as language and mathematics (Schafft, 2016). It correlates with nature as a
unified element. On the other hand, even though language is also a medium of symbolic
communication, its expression is conceptual. It does not yet accommodate the impulse for
emotional expression, which animates the pattern of human life. Furthermore, during what is
known as the postmodern period, art no longer only had a traditional and modern
background. However, the presence of subjects becomes essential in responding to new
traditions, especially in urban areas, which are demographically inhabited by members of aheterogeneous, multicultural society—compared to rural communities. Art products produced
by urban communities are relatively more complex and are often known as urban art(Jurriëns, 2021; Manca et al., 2017).
The term "urban" is not only known but also experienced by residents of cities and villages,
especially in developing countries. Urban means something directly or indirectly related tourbanization (population movement from villages to cities) (Sintos Coloma, 2020). Urban
society is classified as a multi-ethnic society because it consists of various tribes and groups,
even between nations, that are gathered from various ethnic groups in one central city
(metropolis). Urban residents have diverse cultures because each resident has a different
cultural background depending on where they come from. In addition, urban society isdefined as people who have the ambition to fulfill their needs to be better than before (Ding& Schuermans, 2012). The type of urban movement in Indonesia is heavily influenced byfactors (1) position or prestige, (2) economy, (3) culture, (4) religion, and (5) education. All
these give form and content to works of art, especially in language, clothing (fashion), andhousing (architecture). Urban in Indonesia combines elements from city to village and village
to the city as urban is related to geography. Urban space is not only rural culture that will
adapt to the city but also occurs between urban and rural adjustments.
Two main factors, education and tourism, make rural areas often exposed to nature becomeareas that develop rapidly and tend to be busy (especially in these two respects).
Unfortunately, the alternative space in the rural concept needs to have tradition. On the other
hand, art is no longer just a background of tradition but instead responds to new traditions,especially in rural areas demographically inhabited by members of society who are moreheterogeneous due to globalization compared to rural communities in the past. Art products

ISSN: 2189-101X

596

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

produced are relatively more complex. Art products from rural communities are known as
traditional rural art. Rural traditional art is an art that characterizes rural and naturaldevelopments, where these developments then give birth to a system in society that is
structurally and culturally different from the structure and culture of rural society in the past
(Crouch & Nguyen, 2021; Emdin, 2020; Wargo et al., 2022). Furthermore, this concept
places art no longer based on tradition but instead responds more to new traditions.
Urban art was born because of a longing to respond to the creativity of people who live inurban areas with all their problems. Then came the effort of a group of people to exhibit andbring art into the midst of society by exercising freedom of expression in public spaces. The
expression shown is an expression that tries to portray the problems that often occur anddominate urban society, including social, economic, political, and cultural issues, through art
media and is motivated by the growth and capitalization of the city itself. Nowadays, art is nolonger just a representation displayed in galleries but a medium of expression that fights inpublic facilities with other media such as advertisements on social media, the internet, TV,advertising billboards, promotional posters, billboards, and others (Lehner, 2021). All ofthese expression media dominate almost every public facility.
Urban art succeeded in cutting the distance between the public as an appreciator and a workof art and replacing the function of art that was previously noble, classic, pure, high, andtraditional. Art is positioned as something conservative and full of exaltation values. Urban
art succeeds in undermining these values by presenting them to the public through media thatare closely related to the daily lives of urban people. If you draw local elements in urban art,
paintings on the backs of trucks and rickshaws are examples of urban art. The purpose ofurban art is rooted in differences in political attitudes, anti-establishment, vandalism, andresistance to the dominant system in society. The concrete form of urban art can vary as longas the art conveys the spirit of urban dynamics. In addition, art life in urban society inIndonesia has experienced the acculturation of village culture with urban cultures, such as the
emergence of public aesthetic spaces in the form of mural art with traditional cultural orJavanese aesthetics, which tend to bring out wayang characters in every work that is created.
The process of occurrence of traditional inventions is divided into three types: first, forming
traditions to make social symbols and identity collectively. Second is an interest in
strengthening one party's position in a particular institution where with this traditional
invention, they can perpetuate their interests and ensure mastery over one institution at atime. Third, looking at the legitimate interests of an institution to form a cultural system thatwill be used in that community.
Derrida's reflections on deconstruction and related concepts, such as différance, justice, andresponsibility, can provide a powerful paradigm for developing a greater awareness of theissues at stake in education (Garrison, 2017). Rejecting dullness and dichotomy, Derrida
argues that Western metaphysics relies on a binary spectrum of presence and absence, bodyand mind, form and content, good and evil, and speech and writing, giving priority to theprimary rather than the latter. Derrida urges readers to read texts critically, increasing theircritical potential so that they can bring about political and social change. Derrida supports aninterdisciplinary curriculum in one way or another. Derrida is against defining concepts in
instructional materials. It is rooted in the metaphysical presence of Aristotle, and it cannot
lead to an understanding of matter and phenomena (Corson, 2020; Evans, 2019; Koopman,2005). According to Derrida's structure, integrity, logical sequence, and meaning aspects of
instructional materials are unreal and imaginary. Instructional materials cannot search for the

ISSN: 2189-101X

597

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

absolute truth. The power of language, words, and inter-textual relationships shapes reality.
Derrida states that there is no neutral place in instructional materials. Instead, he stated that
there is no hypertext in the curriculum (Singer et al., 2006). What seems obvious has beencreated by and depends on language and other semiotic systems. Thus, in the context of the
globalization of rural art education, educators should encourage students or learners tointeract with texts rather than teach them a constant set of interpretations so that they caninterpret texts according to rural values. Therefore, learners should be encouraged to be
critical, pay attention to contradictions and gaps in the text, and not be indifferent to suchcontradictions that are not harmonious.
A rural educator might consider Derrida's deconstruction as a teaching method (Crawford,
2017; King et al., 2019). In this procedure, which is sometimes spoken of as a substitute for ascientific procedure, texts have an infinite number of interpretations, and no interpretation
has an advantage over the other, especially in arts education. Here, the emphasis is on
personal feelings and experiences. Interpretation is a significant concern indeconstructionism: an introspective postmodernist and anti-objectivist interpretation. In rural
art education, deconstruction can enter the cognitive realm in the learning process. This refers
to the conception that humans have three types of knowledge that distinguish them fromother creatures: analytical knowledge, which is knowledge built through the power of reason
in producing scientific truth, which is dominant in science and technology.
On the other hand, ethical knowledge is knowledge about the character and goodness (beliefs,
values, or moral character) of a community or nation that is learned through social sciences
and humanities and aesthetic knowledge, namely knowledge about taste or emotional
qualities, which include aspects of understanding, beauty, and comfort which is the
predominant quality of the art. These three aspects of knowledge must appear simultaneously
without dominating one aspect of knowledge again so that arts education will have its placein the structure of the educational curriculum and eliminate the dichotomy that has always
been applied between science and art. The paradigm of art education in rural areas regarding
science and humanity is that they do not know each other, see other parties from their pointof view, and are suspicious of each other. The deconstruction method can break thisparadigm. The melting of the boundaries between fine arts, theatre, dance, and music marks
the elimination of barriers between various artistic tendencies—intervention of scientific andsocial disciplines, especially those coined as widespread knowledge or utilizing the latest
technology (Ihde, 1995). Postmodern art education in rural areas can be produced using
various working methods and processes with multidisciplinary, interdisciplinary, andtransdisciplinary approaches.
The practice of art education in rural areas should be built collaboratively and integrated withmultidisciplinary, interdisciplinary, and transdisciplinary scientific methods and prioritizing
research or research approaches in the process. Local wisdom, broadly known as rural
traditional cultural capital in the context of postmodern culture in the era of disruption, can be
explored to become the basis of multicultural Indonesian arts education if this cultural capitalis understood organically; transformed in every space and time—awareness of the scientificbasis of science and art in the field of education in the archipelago. The era of disruption can
provide an excellent opportunity to change the paradigm of the arts education curriculum
based on an inter/multi/transdisciplinary approach to creativity if there is a change in mindset
that is not dichotomous/diametric between locality and globality. The profile of art educationteachers in the era of disruption 4.0 can carry out art education for generation z if their

ISSN: 2189-101X

598

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

competencies are based on skills relevant to the demands of the 21st century and they
understand science and art in a non-dichotomous manner.
Conclusion
The concept of rural space in the shifting process of art education in rural areas is the primaryconcern in the deconstruction method and its relation to the problem of globalization. The
physical space or classrooms in the educational process known so far is the school, a physicalspace in the form of room dividers in a physical building called the school. In deconstruction
to present a critical thinking process, more is needed. The concept of space is needed, which
presents students to be able to carry out a process of dialogue and dialectics toward thephysical reality that can be seen directly regarding diversity so that it will produce a processof critically interpretive reading without being dictated or dogma by the truth of reality thatthe thought of an educator alone has presented. The concept of space in rural art education as
an implication of globalization can present fantasy and imaginary space in thinking more
freely, allowing students to present hyper-reality concepts in space and time with various
learning processes.

ISSN: 2189-101X

599

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

References
Abrefa Busia, K. (2022). Traditional authorities as development brokers in rural education:evidence from the PPTAP in Ghana. Development in Practice, 32(3), 324–335.
https://doi.org/10.1080/09614524.2021.1937530
Adom, D. (2019). The place and voice of local people, culture, and traditions: A catalyst for
ecotourism development in rural communities in Ghana. Scientific African, 6.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sciaf.2019.e00184
Baudrillard, J. (2020). Simulacra and Simulations. In The New Social Theory Reader.
https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003060963-37
Botella, M., Glaveanu, V., Zenasni, F., Storme, M., Myszkowski, N., Wolff, M., & Lubart, T.
(2013). How artists create: Creative process and multivariate factors. Learning andIndividual Differences, 26, 161–170. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2013.02.008
Bowen, D. H., Greene, J. P., & Kisida, B. (2014). Learning to Think Critically: A visual Art
Experiment. Educational Researcher, 43(1), 37–44.
https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X13512675
Brinkley-Etzkorn, K. E. (2018). Learning to teach online: Measuring the influence of faculty
development training on teaching effectiveness through a TPACK lens. Internet andHigher Education, 38(November 2016), 28–35.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iheduc.2018.04.004
Cannon, M. (2018). Digital Media in Education: Teaching, Learning and Literacy Practices
with Young Learners. The Palgrave Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-31978304-8
Castro, J. C. (2016). Genealogies , Family Resemblances , and Ideations : Art Education ’ sPlace of Possibility in the 21st Century. Visual Arts Research, 40(2), 14–24.
Cera, J. (2013). Teacher Leadership in Art Education Preparation. Visual Arts Research,
39(2), 93–103.
Chaney, D. (2020). Postmodernism and popular culture. In The Cultural Turn.
https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203425275-15
Cook-Sather, A., & Alter, Z. (2011). What Is and What Can Be: How a Liminal Position Can
Change Learning and Teaching in Higher Education. Anthropology and Education
Quarterly, 42(1), 37–53. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1548-1492.2010.01109.x
Corson, J. (2020). Reading Derrida close reading Lemov close reading close reading.
Educational Philosophy and Theory, 52(3), 240–250.
https://doi.org/10.1080/00131857.2019.1631156
Crawford, R. (2017). Rethinking teaching and learning pedagogy for education in the twentyfirst century: blended learning in music education. Music Education Research, 19(2),195–213. https://doi.org/10.1080/14613808.2016.1202223

ISSN: 2189-101X

600

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Crouch, M., & Nguyen, T. D. (2021). Examining Teacher Characteristics, School Conditions,and Attrition Rates at the Intersection of School Choice and Rural Education. Journalof School Choice, 15(2), 268–294. https://doi.org/10.1080/15582159.2020.1736478
de la Garza, S. A. (2022). Mindful Heresy as Conscious Social Praxis: Modeling Change
Through Violations of Cultural Orthodoxy. Western Journal of Communication,
86(2), 232–240. https://doi.org/10.1080/10570314.2021.1949033
Ding, Y., & Schuermans, N. (2012). ‘Happiness Hefei’: public art and rural–urban
citizenship struggles in transitional China. Social & Cultural Geography, 13(7), 719–
733. https://doi.org/10.1080/14649365.2012.723733
Dunn, T., & Castro, A. (2012). Postmodern society and the individual: The structuralcharacteristics of postmodern society and how they shape who we think we are. The
Social Science Journal, 49(3), 352–358. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soscij.2012.02.001
Emdin, C. (2020). A ratchetdemic reality pedagogy and/as cultural freedom in urban
education. Educational Philosophy and Theory, 52(9), 947–960.
https://doi.org/10.1080/00131857.2019.1669446
Evans, M. (2019). Derrida and Europe beyond identity. Journal for Cultural Research, 23(3),288–305. https://doi.org/10.1080/14797585.2019.1681085
Freire, P. (1970). Pedagogy of the Oppressed (11th ed.). Seabury Press.
Gardner, H. (2003). Intelligence reframed : multiple intelligences for the 21st century. Basic
Books.
Garrison, J. (2017). Dewey, Derrida, and the genetic derivation of différance. Educational
Philosophy and Theory, 49(10), 984–994.
https://doi.org/10.1080/00131857.2016.1264286
Gojkov, G. (2019). Postmodern Thinking and Relativism Theory in the Field of Pedagogy.
Revija Za Elementarno Izobraževanje (Journal of Elemntary Education), 12(1), 49–
57. https://doi.org/10.18690/rei.12.1.49-58.2019
Houston, H. R. (2004). Other mothers: framing the cybernetic construction(s) of thepostmodern family. Consumption Markets & Culture, 7(3), 191–209.
https://doi.org/10.1080/1025386042000271333
Hudson, T. D. (2020). Conversation as an Education Medium for the Age of Distraction - the‘Art of Range’ Podcast. Rangelands, 42(1), 9–16.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rala.2020.01.005
Ihde, D. (1995). Postphenomenology : essays in the postmodern context. Northwestern
University Press.
Indrajaya, F. (2018). Art as the Manifestation of Embodiment in the Age of Modern
technology. International Journal of Creative and Arts Studies, 5(1), 1–12.
https://doi.org/10.24821/ijcas.v5i1.2209

ISSN: 2189-101X

601

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Jurriëns, E. (2021). Urban transition through Indonesian art: from the Generation of ‘66 to theMillennials. World Art, 11(2), 229–254.
https://doi.org/10.1080/21500894.2021.1893806
Keenan, J., & Kadi-Hanifi, K. (2021). Epistemological moor-ing. Re-positioning Foucault,
Bourdieu and Derrida theory to its Northern African origins. Teaching in Higher
Education, 26(6), 855–870. https://doi.org/10.1080/13562517.2019.1688781
Kim, H. Y. (2020). More than tools: Emergence of meaning through technology enrichedinteractions in classrooms. International Journal of Educational Research,
100(February), 101543. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijer.2020.101543
King, A., Prior, H., & Waddington-Jones, C. (2019). Exploring teachers’ and pupils’
behaviour in online and face-to-face instrumental lessons. Music Education Research,
21(2), 197–209. https://doi.org/10.1080/14613808.2019.1585791
Koopman, C. (2005). Music education, performativity and aestheticization. Educational
Philosophy and Theory, 37(1), 119–131. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.14695812.2005.00102.x
Lee, K. (2017). Rethinking the accessibility of online higher education: A historical review.
Internet and Higher Education, 33, 15–23.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iheduc.2017.01.001
Lehner, A. (2021). Critical Questions and Embodied Reflections: Trans Visual Culture
Today—A Roundtable. Art Journal, 80(4), 38–52.
https://doi.org/10.1080/00043249.2021.1947702
Lin, T.-B., Chen, V., & Chai, C. S. (Eds.). (2015). New Media and Learning in the 21stCentury; A Social-Cultural Perspektive. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981287-326-2
Liu, W., Li, J., & Zhao, R. (2023). The effects of rural education on poverty in China: aspatial econometric perspective. Journal of the Asia Pacific Economy, 28(1), 176–
198. https://doi.org/10.1080/13547860.2021.1877240
Lu, L. (2010). Teaching 21st-Century Art Education in a Virtual Age: Art Café @ SecondLife. Art Education, 63(6), 19–24.
Mahon, Á. (2017). Derrida and the school: language loss and language learning in Ireland.
Ethics and Education, 12(2), 259–271.
https://doi.org/10.1080/17449642.2017.1320022
Manca, M., Boratto, L., Morell Roman, V., Martori i Gallissà, O., & Kaltenbrunner, A.
(2017). Using social media to characterize urban mobility patterns: State-of-the-art
survey and case-study. Online Social Networks and Media, 1, 56–69.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.osnem.2017.04.002

ISSN: 2189-101X

602

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Maria Zulfiati, H., Suyanto, & Pamadhi, H. (2019). Building the elementary school students’character in 4.0 era by implementing TriNga and TriN concepts in thematic learning.
International Journal of Recent Technology and Engineering, 8(1C2), 770–775.
Moed, K. (2022). Palestinian rural education during the British mandate: a story of a national
struggle and constant resistance. British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies, 1–18.
https://doi.org/10.1080/13530194.2022.2053501
Pittri, H., Agyekum, K., Ayebeng Botchway, E., Opoku, A., & Bimpli, I. (2023). Design fordeconstruction (DfD) implementation among design professionals: empirical evidence
from Ghana. International Journal of Construction Management, 1–11.
https://doi.org/10.1080/15623599.2023.2174663
Sampurno, M. B. T., & Camelia, I. A. (2020). Art and Fun Digital Learning for Children
with Special Needs: A Case Study on Applying Art as a Learning Technology.
380(SoSHEC), 175–180. https://doi.org/10.2991/soshec-19.2019.38
Sampurno, M. B. T., Prabandari, Y. S., & Marianto, M. D. (2020). Theoretical Exploration of
Art Therapy and Education. International Journal of Indonesian Education andTeaching, 4(2), 260–276. https://doi.org/10.24071/ijiet.2020.040209
Savoie, A. (2017). Aesthetic experience and creativity in arts education: Ehrenzweig and theprimal syncretistic perception of the child. Cambridge Journal of Education, 47(1),53–66. https://doi.org/10.1080/0305764X.2015.1102864
Schafft, K. A. (2016). Rural Education As Rural Development: Understanding the Rural
School–Community Well-Being Linkage in a 21st-Century Policy Context. Peabody
Journal of Education, 91(2), 137–154.
https://doi.org/10.1080/0161956X.2016.1151734
Singer, D. G., Golinkoff, R. M., & Hirsh-Pasek, K. (Eds.). (2006). Play = Learning: How
Play Motivates and Enhances Children’s Cognitive and Social-Emotional Growth.
Oxford University Press.
https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195304381.001.0001
Sintos Coloma, R. (2020). Decolonizing Urban Education. Educational Studies, 56(1), 1–17.
https://doi.org/10.1080/00131946.2019.1711095
Sparrhoff, G. (2015). Social theory and education research: understanding Foucault,
Habermas, Bourdieu and Derrida. Studies in Continuing Education, 37(1), 118–120.
https://doi.org/10.1080/0158037X.2015.996967
Stabler, A. (2021). A Sentimental Art Education. Studies in Art Education, 62(1), 63–81.
https://doi.org/10.1080/00393541.2020.1859273
Suardana, I. K. P. (2020). Resolution of Jurnalistic Ethics on Media Disruption Era. Media
Bina Ilmiah, 21(1), 1–9.

ISSN: 2189-101X

603

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Ulger, K. (2019). Comparing the effects of art education and science education on creative
thinking in high school students. Arts Education Policy Review, 120(2), 57–79.
https://doi.org/10.1080/10632913.2017.1334612
Wargo, E. S., Lorentzen, I., & McCaw, W. P. (2022). What’s Yours and What’s Mine: Rural
Education Governance. Leadership and Policy in Schools, 1–15.
https://doi.org/10.1080/15700763.2022.2160989
Wiratmoko, C., & Sampurno, M. B. T. (2021). The Enchantment of Tiktok as Gen Z
Creativity Place in SMA Negeri 2 Surabaya’s Batik Motifs Online Exhibition.
Education and Human Development Journal, 6(2 SE-Articles), 1–11.
https://doi.org/10.33086/ehdj.v6i2.2122
Zimmer, W. K., McTigue, E. M., & Matsuda, N. (2021). Development and validation of theteachers’ digital learning identity survey. International Journal of Educational
Research, 105(November 2020), 101717. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijer.2020.101717
Contact email: joniagung.fs@um.ac.id

ISSN: 2189-101X

604

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Towards Efficient and Effective Doctoral Education in Biomedical Sciences:
Nurturing Transferable Skills
Kyoko Hombo, Osaka University, Japan
The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023
Official Conference Proceedings
Abstract
Graduate education funding organisations in Japan focus on nurturing transferable skills in
doctoral students to help them broaden their minds and see beyond academia. Biomedical
doctoral students prioritise practical research, dedicating themselves to basic research anddevoting their time to a research-centred daily life; their specialty is narrowed down to its
deepest level. Moreover, most of the students have a part-time job outside the research
activities. In this context, this study seeks to investigate what would be an effective andefficient approach for training students so as to cover a range of transferable skills,
considering that students come from diverse backgrounds and have different lifestyles. This
study introduces a holistic approach used in a credit module conducted in English at aninterdepartmental doctoral training programme within biomedical sciences at a traditional
national university in Japan. The module aims to improve students’ transferable skills as ascientist. Each session includes a series of research communications where students introduce
and exchange research concepts and approaches, followed by discussions in a student-led
symposium format. The findings of a questionnaire survey reveal students’ reflections andevaluations of the module as well as their perceptions of whether the module was efficientand effective. The module also contributed to increasing participants’ interest ininterdisciplinary learning overall.
Keywords: Doctoral Education, Transferable Skills, Interdisciplinarity

iafor
The International Academic Forumwww.iafor.org

ISSN: 2189-101X

605

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Introduction
Graduate education funding organisations in Japan focus on nurturing doctoral students withtransferable skills to broaden their minds and see beyond academia, instead of only researchexperiences, and they stipulate such education upon receiving the education funding.
The following question arises: What would be an efficient and effective approach for training
doctoral students such that a range of transferable skills would be covered, given that students
come from diverse backgrounds and have different lifestyles? This study aims to show
student responses to an activity module that seeks to nurture transferable skills among
doctoral students in biomedical sciences in an interdisciplinary setting.
Biomedical doctoral students prioritise practical research, dedicating themselves to basic
research and devoting their time to a research-centred daily life; their specialty is narrowed
down to its deepest level. As a Ph.D. professional, their priority is to acquire superior
research skills and produce cutting-edge research results for a doctoral degree. Moreover,most doctoral students have a part-time job outside their research activities.
Efficiency can be part of effectiveness, and education should be concerned with not being aburden on their research activities. It is desirable to provide doctoral education byconsidering the connection between education and research as well as research-integrated
education by ensuring that education contributes constructively to their research.
This study introduces an approach involving a student-led symposium to acquire transferable
skills with an aim to achieve efficiency and effectiveness at module level. This approach wasevaluated based on student responses to a questionnaire survey.
Integrative and interdisciplinary training
Universities have adopted diverse ways for implementing interdisciplinary education. Leišytė
et al. (2022) suggest that more study should look at the reasons behind the adoption ofregulations and policies that make interdisciplinarity successful for various “types” ofuniversities. Integrative interdisciplinary projects have become an increasingly common
approach to manage the balance of technical professional competence and transferable skills;
however, the desirable approaches differ for the following groups: graduates, undergraduates,
or even students of younger ages. According to Lowe and Goldfinch (2021), there has beenminimal research on ‘the level’ of integrative skills that might be considered as appropriate atdifferent stages of degree programmes and whether the learning outcomes of integrative
projects vary with their stage in degree programmes. In the study by Li (2020), about half ofthe students did not view the value of interdisciplinary education for academic research;nevertheless, students were generally in favour of such education and agreed that it wasnecessary and beneficial.
Transferable skills and integrated holistic approach
Theoretical models and approaches for developing transferable skills are available in theliterature. Transferable skills must be gained through repeated experiences over a long-term
period. Porter and Phelps (2014) state that it is necessary to become deeply integrated within
a holistic doctoral education experience for Ph.D. studies and for professional development;

ISSN: 2189-101X

606

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedingssuch a broader integration requires substantial reform in universities in terms of defining theimpact of research and flexibility in doctoral degree requirements.
The mainstream attempts in enhancing transferrable skills involved problem-based learning
activities. Vidic (2008) introduced and encouraged the development of transferable skills
using problem-based learning. Students learn through experiences and from each other’s
behaviour, which is an important factor in such cooperative learning. Enhancement oftransferable skills via student-led formats have also been reported. Chadha (2006) mentionedthat a student-led workshop in which students are assessed on both their professional
knowledge and transferable skills by applying approaches for a ‘holistic view’ was successful
in a curriculum model. Camarinha-Matos et al. (2020) demonstrated student-led conference
based on a holistic approach, along with evidence based on student feedback that confirmed
the validity and effectiveness of the proposed approach.
Journal clubs constitute a popular approach at the graduate level and are more pertinent to
one’s research field; these usually involve meetings with people in similar fields. Kaur et al.
(2020) indicated that providing repeated and blended sessions in a journal club is effective indeveloping critical appraisal skills of postgraduate students, and a multisession format may
be beneficial to develop critical-thinking skills. In contrast, people from outside the close
fields also participate in an interdisciplinary setting; consequently, they may need
explanations in the form of a research presentation that communicates the wider context, as in
the case of the Three Minute Thesis. According to Hyland and Zou (2022), the Three Minute
Thesis competition cultivates students’ academic, presentation, and research communication
skills.
Efficiency and effectiveness
Doctoral students in biomedical sciences are busy just as many professional researchers. In
addition to regular graduate school activities, research for doctoral thesis, and miscellaneousduties at the laboratory of their affiliation, these students are required to publish as a
candidature, work as a teaching or research assistant or as medical practitioners in the case ofsome students. Students are required to take several educational modules in addition to theirresearch. The study by Jordan and Howe (2018) showed that the principal problem with thegraduate teaching assistants emerged as time pressures. Lei (2019) revealed that doctoral
students are under increasing time pressures to publish in order to meet institutional
publication requirements.
The ‘effectiveness’ of a teaching programme or module is typically evaluated through aquestionnaire survey; however, fewer studies are concerned with ‘efficiency’ compared to‘effectiveness’. Previous studies have given scant attention to the lifestyle of doctoral
students and the busyness and time burden they experience. This study aims to contribute tothis ‘efficiency’ aspect based on the students’ responses.
Efficiency and effectiveness are sometimes interpreted similarly and differently. In thestatistical procedures, efficiency is a measure of the quality of an experimental design or test
hypothesis, calculated based on test scores. For example, the efficiency and effectiveness of alearning module can be analysed using mean values and percentages based on the test scores.
Meanwhile, with regard to ‘satisfaction’ measurement, Waaijer et al. (2017) measured job
satisfaction regarding job content, terms of employment, and work-life balance by asking the
respondents to rate the variables on a five-point Likert scale. Likewise, the term ‘efficiency’

ISSN: 2189-101X

607

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

does not imply a statistical analysis of variance in this study, but instead is based on student
feedback using a Likert scale on how efficient the module approach was when concernedwith their outside activities.
Time efficiency is a strength brought by the online learning style. The online environment
will continue to change and evolve with time. Two major alternative teaching styles haveemerged in the new-normal era after COVID-19: hybrid, a mix of online and onsite, andhybrid-flexible (HyFlex), where students choose their modality within the same course(James et al., 2022). In case of the latter, students may end up choosing the online modality
throughout, which could lead to a risk of not being able to enhance in-person skills.
Methods
Participants
Of the 41 graduate students who participated in the proposed module, 40 participants
completed the survey. Based on the Japanese graduate educational system, 12 participants
were first-year student in a doctoral course and 28 participants were second-year students in amaster’s course. Participants belonged to graduate schools in fields related to biomedical
science: medicine, health science, dentistry, pharmaceutical sciences, and biosciences.
DesignThis credit module was held in the afternoon period throughout the academic year at a
traditional national university in Japan; it was conducted in English to set an international
tone.

Figure 1. Session flow
As Figure 1 shows, each session includes a series of international symposia. Students
introduce and exchange their research concept and approach, followed by discussions. The
rationale for this module is to make one’s research presentation to an audience comprising
the researchers from different backgrounds – biomedicine, public health, statistics,
epidemiological studies, medicine, health studies, imaging, deep learning and so on – ranging
from dry to wet research, leading to a multidisciplinary group. As a rule, students were not touse presentation tools; they were required to stand right in the centre, in front of the screen,talking to the listeners.
In the introduction session of the module, the instructor explained the purpose and flow ofeach session. The presenter team began with providing the big picture in real life, instead ofstarting with definitions as done in scientific presentations at academic conferences; thepresenters then got progressively more specific, linking back to the bigger picture at the end.
The panel team chair facilitated the session as well as peer review using a rubric-based

ISSN: 2189-101X

608

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

assessment of the presenters similar to a real conference. Participants were grouped into thepresentation, panel, and audience teams in turns.
Skills expected to be covered
The module employs role play to enhance transferable skills. Students are expected todevelop an awareness of the various fields in biomedical sciences through outputting own
research and inputting others’ research and actively participating in discussions, chairing, andfacilitating the session. Regardless of the roles taken – presenter, panel, and audience – eachof the following skills will be put into practice.
As English was the medium of instruction, the module provided an international setting,thereby enhancing global skills. The interactions in an interdepartmental environment
inevitably provide interdisciplinarity skills that are enhanced by knowing other researchgroups’ activities, exploring links with others’ research activities and methods, and obtaining
feedback from an interdisciplinary audience. Communication skills were enhanced bypresenting to non-technical audience and discussions. Facilitation and leadership skills were
promoted by acting as panel, chairing, leading and facilitating the session, giving constructive
feedback and comments, dealing with difficulties, and time management. The audience canalso exhibit leadership by, for example, asking questions.
Data collection
A questionnaire survey in the form of self-reflection and module evaluation was administeredat the end of the module. The survey consisted of eighteen items, with six being assessed on a
Likert scale.
Results
For the statistical analysis, R and RStudio were used. The unit in all the tables is the numberof participants or responses. Where applicable, students’ feedback and comments wereobtained using open-ended questions on how the students would improve the module or what
the students would do differently.
To the question, ‘Did the module activity provide you with more experiences than othersimilar modules you have taken? If you have not taken any other similar modules, leave thisquestion blank’, 19 students responded ‘yes’, 5 responded ‘no’, and 16 left the question blank,
which could imply that they have not taken other similar modules before.
Skills
By comparing the pre- and post-module levels, students evaluated the improvement in eachof the skills in Table 1.
Very much Somewhat Neutral A little Not at all
Leadership Skills
5
16
17
1
1
Facilitation Skills
4
20
13
2
1
Communication Skills
13
23
4
0
0
Table 1. Number of responses to how the skills improved (n=40)

ISSN: 2189-101X

609

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

In all the three skills, the median was in the ‘somewhat’ category.
Efficiency and effectiveness
Tables 2 and 3 show the comparison between doctoral students and master’s students inrelation to efficiency and effectiveness of the module, respectively.
Efficiency
Very much Maybe Neutral Hardly Not at all
Doctoral46200Master’s
10
12
3
2
1
Table 2. Efficiency by doctoral and master’s students (n=40)
Effectiveness
Very much Maybe Neutral Hardly Not at all
Doctoral46200Master’s
11
10
3
2
1
Table 3. Effectiveness by doctoral and master’s students (n=39)
More dispersion was found in master’s students’ responses (n=28 vs. n=12 for doctoral
students). Overall, Table 4 shows the cross tabulation of efficiency and effectiveness.
Effectiveness
Very much Maybe Neutral Hardly Not at all (n/a)
Very much
11
2
0
0
0
1
Maybe
3
14
1
0
0
0
Efficiency
Neutral104000Hardly000200Not at all
0
0
0
0
1
0
Table 4. Efficiency and effectiveness of the module (n=40)
Approximately 80 percent answered ‘very much’ or ‘maybe’ for efficiency, andapproximately 79 percent answered ‘very much’ or ‘maybe’ for effectiveness. Both inefficiency and effectiveness, the median is in ‘Maybe’ category respectively. A correlation
between efficiency and effectiveness was found, with a Spearman’s ρ-value of 0.766. As forcorrelation between preparation time for presentation and efficiency (effectiveness), a
Spearman’s ρ-value of 0.032 (0.132) was calculated.
Tables 5 and 6 show the cross tabulation of employment status and efficiency andeffectiveness, respectively.
Efficiency
Very much Maybe Neutral Hardly Not at all
Full-time work
2
0
1
0
0
Part-time work
6
9
3
1
1
Not working
5
8
1
1
0
Do not wish to answer
1
0
0
0
0
Table 5. Employment status and efficiency (n=40)

ISSN: 2189-101X

610

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Effectiveness
Very much Maybe Neutral Hardly Not at all
Full-time work
2
0
1
0
0
Part-time work
9
5
3
1
1
Not working
3
10
1
1
0
Do not wish to answer
1
0
0
0
0
Table 6. Employment status and effectiveness (n=39)
A couple of comments were seen regarding class time table, with students requesting to avoid
afternoon period and hold the module in the morning or evening instead, so that it will notinterrupt their daily experiments.
Table 7 shows the preferred venue for each role activity.
Presenter Panel Audience
Onsite32
33
12Online8627
Table 7. Preferred venue (n=40)
Although the majority preferred the audience to be online, some comments pointed out thatthe audience involvement was not enough. The panel invited questions from the audience, but
the questions from the audience remained low in all sessions. Related comments in thestudent feedback are as follows: ‘No online. All students should attend at the classroom’;‘We want to get more questions or comments from an online audience.’
Interdisciplinarity
Table 8 shows the responses related to interdisciplinarity.
Yes

To
some
extentWere there any similarities
between your research
623
concept/approach and others’
presentation talks?
Did the module benefit you inincreasing your interest in
30
10interdisciplinary learning?
Do you wish to interact in thesame way in any field other30
n/athan the biomedical sciencefield?
Table 8. Interdisciplinarity (n=40)

No

11

0

10

No negative responses were received for the question on the module’s benefits in terms ofincreasing an interest in interdisciplinary learning. Not all wished to interact with fields otherthan the biomedical science field. Those who responded yes to ‘Do you wish to interact in thesame way in any field other than the biomedical science field?’ were asked a follow-up

ISSN: 2189-101X

611

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

question to determine to what extent they wish to interact beyond biomedical sciences; theresponses are shown in Table 9.
Yes
Natural science
20
Engineering
15
Information
15
Social science
6
Economics/law
5Linguistics/literature
1
Table 9. Interests in other fields beyond biomedical sciences (Multiple answers)
The supporting comment for ‘linguistics/literature’ answer was ‘I will invite the members
from “completely different fields” outside biomedical sciences, to be fairer, let them choose
the best presentation.’
Conclusion
The purpose of this study was to seek an efficient and effective training approach that covers
transferable skills for doctoral students. The study adopted a holistic approach to providing
doctoral education by connecting education with research and ensuring that the learning
contributes constructively to students’ own research. According to the survey results,
approximately 75 percent of the students responded positively that the module approach wasboth efficient and effective. The module also contributed to increasing participants’ interest
in interdisciplinary learning and leadership, facilitation, and communication skills.
Limitations and prospects for improvement
Reflecting on the student feedback, a blended approach is proposed. This would involve notjust a symposium format but a pre-conference event in the form of groupwork under a certain
topic, which enables students to get to know the other members prior to a symposium, could
increase student satisfaction. In the responses, some students suggested using presentation
topics outside one’s research: ‘set a big theme and students discuss to come up with goodanswers or ideas’; ‘add a session, in which doctoral students talk about their lives, values, andfuture plans’; ‘not only research presentation but also life-presentation may improve
communications’. If the module focuses on enhancing communication skills, such topics
might be suitable.
Although communication skills in English was one of the transferable skills to be enhanced,
the language barrier might have been a challenging factor. Some still had conversation ingroupwork in Japanese. One student stated, ‘I will make everyone use English strictly in allclasses.’
Many people spoke about their research in depth, while others did not. Although it isnecessary to talk about one’s research in depth and with clarity, students from completely
different fields may find it difficult to understand; however, those close to the field may findsimilarities and consequently, discussion is enhanced. To encourage joint research or to get
feedback on the presentation, the presentation content must be in depth to a certain extent. On
the other hand, to understand what other people are doing and to acquire general knowledge,

ISSN: 2189-101X

612

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

a non-technical presentation as in the case of Three Minute Thesis is desirable; however, it isoften too shallow and the students find it difficult to decide what to discuss. In future, apresentation template could be provided to support the presentation attempted in this module;
students could pitch their research content to be more interesting so that others feel like
listening further.
Acknowledgements
The author is grateful to the participants for their cooperation in this study.

ISSN: 2189-101X

613

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

References
Camarinha-Matos, L. M., Goes, J., Gomes, L., & Pereira, P. (2020). Soft and transferable
skills acquisition through organizing a doctoral conference. Education Sciences, 10(9),235. doi:10.3390/educsci10090235
Chadha, D. (2006). A curriculum model for transferable skills development. Engineering
Education, 1(1), 19–24.
Hyland, K. & Zou, G. J. (2022). Pithy persuasion: Engagement in 3 minute thesispresentations. Applied Linguistics, 43(1), 21–44. doi:10.1093/applin/amab017
James, B. R., Leinbach, A. A., & MacDonald, A. M. (2022). Effective online teaching:
Voices of experience. New Directions for Community Colleges, 199, 35–
48.doi:10.1002/cc.20522
Jordan, K., & Howe, C. (2018). The perceived benefits and problems associated withteaching activities undertaken by doctoral students. Teaching in Higher Education,
23(4), 504–521.
Kaur, M., Sharma, H. B., Kaur, S., Sharma, R., Sharma, R., Kapoor, R., & Deepak, K. K.
(2020). Comparison of two formats of journal club for postgraduate students at twocenters in developing critical appraisal skills. Advances in Physiology Education,
44(4), 592– 601. doi:10.1152/advan.00111.2019
Lei, J. (2019). Publishing during doctoral candidature from an activity theory perspective:
The case of four Chinese nursing doctoral students. TESOL Quarterly, 53(3)doi:10.1002/tesq.501
Leišytė, L., Rose, A. L., & Sterk-Zeeman, N. (2022). Higher education policies andinterdisciplinarity in Germany. Tertiary Education and Management, 28, 353–370.
Li, Q. (2020). Interdisciplinary education in language universities - A survey on postgraduate
students’ attitude and its implications. Higher Education Studies, 10(3), 94–100.
doi:10.5539/hes.v10n3p94
Lowe, D. B., & Goldfinch, T. (2021). Lessons from an analysis of the intended learning
outcomes of integrative project units within engineering programs. IEEE
Transactions on Education, 64(4), 361–366.
Porter, S. D., & Phelps, J.M. (2014). Beyond skills: An integrative approach to doctoral
student preparation for diverse careers. Canadian Journal of Higher Education, 44(3)doi:10.47678/cjhe.v44i3.186038
Vidic, A. D. (2008). Development of transferable skills within an engineering science context
using problem-based learning. International Journal of Engineering Education, 24(6),1071–1077.

ISSN: 2189-101X

614

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Waaijer, C. J. E., Belder, R., Sonneveld, H., van Bochove1, C. A., & van der Weijden, I. C.
M. (2017). Temporary contracts: Effect on job satisfaction and personal lives ofrecent PhD graduates. Higher Education, 74, 321–339. doi:10.1007/s10734-0160050-8

ISSN: 2189-101X

615

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

ISSN: 2189-101X

616

Official Conference Proceedings

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

How Did Traditional Nomadic Herders Increase in the Past Decade?
–The Relations of Higher Education, TVET, and Career Trajectory
Eri Nakamura, Chiba University, Japan
The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023
Official Conference Proceedings
Abstract
This study aims to reveal the growth factors in nomadic herders, featuring the relations ofhigher education, TVET, and the job market in Mongolia. Past studies demonstrated thedramatic decrease of herder households in young generations in Mongolia due to thevulnerability under climate change and preference for an urban lifestyle after the mobility to
the capital city owing to the transition to higher education. On the other hand, government
statistic shows that the rate of herder households in the early twenties has increased in thepast ten years. Analyzing qualitative data collected from the interviews with ten young
nomadic herder families, four vocational and technical education institutions, and two higher
education institutions in October 2022, the author discovered both negative and positive
factors of why people chose to be nomadic herders despite the hardship. First, the highunemployment rate impacts the negative choice of nomadic herders. Another accelerating
factor is the government policy to support poor herders under thirty-five years old. In thispolicy, young people register as poor herders to receive grant funding, although they do notmake a living by raising cattle. Positive factors are the firm belief and respect for nature andanimals. Young nomadic interviewees showed sound responsibility to succeed in their familybusiness without wondering about other directions. This study also clarified the contradiction
between government statistics and the actual number of young herders. Young herders exist
in the research target area in statistical data, but the absolute herders decreased in the past
decade.
Keywords: Nomadic Herders, Higher Education, TVET, Career Trajectory, Mongolia

iafor
The International Academic Forumwww.iafor.org

ISSN: 2189-101X

617

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Introduction
Mongolia borders Russia in the north and China in the south. Mongolia comprises herderhouseholds nationwide, which is 19.92% of the country's households (National Statistics
Office of Mongolia: NSO 2022). In 1924, Mongolian People's Republic was founded, and it
had been a socialist state for almost 70 years until it renamed the country to Mongolia in
1992 while transitioning to democracy.
Past studies show that young generations and small-sized households lost their interest in
traditional herder pastoralists (Soma 2020) because they prefer working in the mining andquarrying sector or involving themselves in the service sector in the capital city to staying in
the countryside to succeed in their family herding business (Yasui 2019). Indeed, herding has
many hardships, including a heavy 24-hour workload without a holiday. Along with thesevere natural disasters followed by the abrupt climate change, less experienced herders will
likely lose their cattle, such as sheep, goats, cows, and horses, during winter and spring.
Many vulnerable families who lost their cattle have moved to the capital city in recent
decades. Their mobilisation aims to take the opportunities for new jobs, better social andhealth services, and a better educational environment (Konagaya 2013, Hoshino 2013, andNakamura 2017, 2020).
Many studies demonstrate the problem of urbanisation. 84.1% of universities are in thecapital city, Ulaanbaatar (NSO 2021, Ariuntuya 2021). As of 2020, 138,237 students out of
147,293 study in UB (93.85%) (NSO 2021). After graduating from universities and otherhigher education institutions, young people choose to stay in the capital because they do notsee any advantages if they return to their hometown or rural area to start their job carrier(Yasui 2021).
Although the past literature describes many hardships in succeeding the traditional herding
work in young generations, the national statistical data shows that the number of herderhouseholds has increased since 2012 (NSO 2021) (Figure 1). The number was 207,824 in2012 and grew to 242,024 in 2020 (NSO 2021). During these years, the natural disaster of asevere cold climate, called Dzud in Mongolia, occurred from winter 2015 to spring 2017.
Even after this period, the number of herder households kept increasing despite thesignificant loss of livestock (NSO 2021).

Figure 1: Total number of herder households
Source：the author made the figure based on Mongolian Statistical
Information Services (NSO 2021)

ISSN: 2189-101X

618

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

This study aims to reveal the growth factors in nomadic herders, featuring the relations ofhigher education, Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET), and the job
market in Mongolia. Based on the qualitative data analysis, the study clarifies both positive
and negative factors and motives why young generations decided to become nomadic herders
despite many hardships.
Methodology
This paper uses the national statistical data from the National statistics office of Mongolia(NSO) and the datasets of semi-structured interviews with rural nomadic herder families,
vocational and technical education institutions, and higher education institutions. In October
2022, the author researched one of the rural prefectures and the capital city in Mongolia.
Table 1 shows the list of interviewees.
Category
Nomadic family

Table 1: List of interviewees
gender (age)male (19)

7 years of herding, working with parents

male (28)

14 years of herding, working with parents

male (28)

9 years of herding, parents were nomad

female (30)

6 years of herding after marriage

female (30)

11 years of herding, parents were nomad

male (34)

15 years of herding, parents were nomad

male (37)

20 years of herding, parents were nomad

female (36)

13 years of herding after marriage

male (38)

16 years of herding, parents were nomad

female (37)

16 years of herding after marriage

male (42)

20 years of herding, parents were nomad

female (39)

20 years of herding, parents were nomad

male (39)

22 years of herding, parents were nomad

school location
TVET
institutions

ISSN: 2189-101X

details

school type, the year of foundation

VTPC in A Prefecture

private school, founded in 2012

VTPC in A Prefecture

private school, founded in 19xx

VTPC in A Prefecture

public school, founded in 1942

VTPC in Ulaanbaatar

private school, founded in 1993

Polytechnic college inthe suburb of the capitalcity

public school, founded in 1954

619

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Change in the number of herders by age group
Table 2 shows the comparison rate from 2009 to 2018, which illustrates the number ofherders and total population by age group. The number of herders decreased compared to the
population change in the age groups of 15-19, 25-29, and 30-34. These data support the past
literature in that young people prefer an urban lifestyle after mobility to the capital city.
However, in the age groups of 20-24 and 35 years and above, the number of herders shows
solid growth in the past ten years when comparing the population growth. Young generationsin their 20s and 30s comprise many university and TVET graduates due to the increasing
enrolment rate in these institutions (Figure 2 and Figure 3). According to Gantogtokh (2018),
the continuous rate in higher education was 14.0% in 1991, drastically rising to 69.0% in
2017. Students study in various academic domains in universities or take professional courses
in TVET institutions, but most do not specialise in animal husbandry (NSO 2021). Young
generations who became herders had studied different majors apart from herding. Under
these circumstances, there must be some motive for why they chose to become herders.
Table 2: Employment in animal husbandry by age group (2009-2018 comparison)
2009-2018
comparison
Age group
15-19
number of herders
68.46%
15-19
total population
79.61%
20-24
number of herders
87.82%
20-24
total population
82.50%
25-29
number of herders
89.24%
25-29
total population
117.94%30-34
number of herders
118.21%30-34
total population
128.83%35-39
number of herders147.01%35-39
total population
118.10%40-44
number of herders
177.62%40-44
total population
122.06%45-49
number of herders
172.82%45-49
total population
118.94%50-54
number of herders
145.83%50-54
total population
140.73%55-59
number of herders
187.72%55-59
total population
178.28%60-64
number of herders
167.41%60-64
total population
173.30%65-69
number of herders
131.81%65-69
total population
113.85%70+
number of herders
224.45%70+
total population
117.53%
Source: the author made the table based on Mongolian Statistical
Information Services (NSO 2021)

ISSN: 2189-101X

620

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Figure 2: Young population and student number in higher education (2010-2020)
Source: the author made the figure based on Mongolian Statistical
Information Services (NSO 2021)

Figure 3: Student number in TVET (2007-2021)
Source: the author made the figure based on Mongolian Statistical
Information Services (NSO 2021)
Factors and motives to become traditional nomadic herders
Negative factors and governmental policy
The semi-constructed interview's target area is one of Mongolia's rural prefectures. The
prefecture is in the Khangai (mountainous) region, where the highest number of herders exist
in the country. In the prefecture centre, the research team asked the prefectural government
official, district mayor, village leader, and residents to find young nomadic pastoralists in thecommunity. It was not easy to reach young herders because local people acknowledged thatyoung people rarely succeeded in the family herding business in recent years. Afterinterviewing nomadic herder families and school teachers and staff, some negative factors
and the related government policy were identified.

ISSN: 2189-101X

621

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Young people aged 20-24 are the generation right after the completion of higher education or
TVET. These young people need help finding a job due to the high unemployment rate in the
country. As shown in Figure 4, youth with high educational attainment show a higher
unemployment rate than those who completed primary and secondary education. Therefore,
young people in their early 20s are likely to choose to become herders when they have noother job opportunities.

Figure 4: Youth unemployment rates by educational attainment, 15- to 24- Year-Olds, 2011
Source：TVET Policy Review Mongolia 2019 (UNESCO・Mongolia Ministry ofLabour and Social Protection 2019: 46)
In addition, the government policy to develop the herding sector backed young, poor herders
to give a grant. Under this policy, young herders under thirty-five years old who have lessthan 100 cattle (sheep, goats, and other animals) can receive a grant of approximately 2,830
USD. With this grant, they can buy a motorbike and other indispensable tools for herding
business. Owing to the introduction of this policy, the registered number of young herders
increased; however, most of them do not make their living with herding. They keep a small
number of animals but rely on families and relatives to raise their cattle and do other sidebusiness. This reality must be clarified between government data and the number of young
herding people in the research target area.
Positive factors and motives to succeed traditional nomadic herding
By analysing the qualitative data from semi-constructed interviews, many positive factors
and strong motives were identified. All interviewees in the target area were born into
nomadic families. They have a solid responsibility to succeed in the family business. They
are willing to be a traditional nomadic herder. Those herders take pride in herding work andrespect nature and animals. They admit to the severe conditions of nature and hard work as
pastoralists. However, they accept all these hardships and succeed in their parents' familybusiness without wondering about other future directions.
"I graduated from a university in UB. I specialised in rare metal, so I might have beenable to find a job in the mining sector. But I wanted to come back to my hometown."(28-year-old male)"Did not think about other jobs."(30-year-old female, 34-year-old male and many others)"I took after my parents' cattle."(19-year-old male, 28-year-old male, and many others)

ISSN: 2189-101X

622

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings"I love nature and horses. Why should I choose a different job?"(39-year-old male)
Conclusion
Despite the hardship, this study clarified the negative and positive factors of why people
chose to be nomadic herders. First, the high unemployment rate impacts the negative choiceof nomadic herders. Another accelerating factor is the government policy to support poor
herders under thirty-five years old. Positive factors are the firm belief and respect for nature
and animals. Young nomadic interviewees showed sound responsibility to succeed in theirfamily business without considering other trajectories. This study also clarified thecontradiction between government statistics and the actual number of young herders. Youngherders exist in the research target area in statistical data, but the absolute herders decreasedin the past decade.
In this research, the author conducted the interviews in a limited target area with ten young
nomadic herder families, four vocational and technical education institutions, and two higher
education institutions. This paper demonstrates only one case study; further research willcomplement the study results.
From the perspective of the high unemployment rate for highly educated youth, the country
needs to expand the job market for skilled young generations. In considering the vital
responsibility of young nomadic herders to inherit the tradition, policymakers should support
protecting traditional nomadic herders. Finally, as for the inconsistency or the contradiction
between the government statistics and the number of young herders, the government needs torevise the government grant funding policy, which will involve the young herders in theactual herding business.
Acknowledgements
This study was supported by Mishima Kaiun Memorial Foundation.

ISSN: 2189-101X

623

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

References
Ariuntuya, M. (2021). Education Policy and Quality Accreditation in Mongolia andMongolian Student Mobility, NIC-Japan Seminar series: Education Policy in foreign
Countries and Higher Education Accreditation (July 28, 2021).
Gantogtokh, O. (2018). Higher Education Systems and Institutions, Mongolia Higher
Education System Development. Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2018,
J. C. Shin, P. Teixeira (eds.), Encyclopedia of International Higher Education
Systems and Institutions, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-9553-1_505-1. 1-6
Hoshino, B. (2013). The nomadic life Mongolian plateau under the global climate changes,
Afro-eurasian inner dry land civilization collection, 1-17.
Konagaya, Y. (2013). Research Report of National Museum of Ethnology 115, 20 centuries
in Mongolia (3), National Museum of Ethnology (Japan).
Nakamura, E. (2017). Parental Home-based Support and Educational Outlook towards
Primary School Children in Urban Mongolia. The Asian Conference on Education &International Development 2017 Official Conference Proceedings. 163-173.
Nakamura, E. (2020). A Study on Parental Involvement in Children's Education in the Ger
Districts of Mongolia. Comparative education 61, 161-182.
National Statistics Office of Mongolia (NSO) (2021). “Mongolian Statistical Information
Services” http://www.1212.mn/
National Statistics Office of Mongolia (NSO) (2022). Mongolian Statistical Information
Service. National Statistics Office of Mongolia.
Soma, T. (2020). Human Ecology of Daily Grazing and Pasture Land Use by a Nomadʼs
Community in Western Mongolia, E-journal GEO 15(2):374-396.
UNESCO & Mongolia Ministry of Labour and Social Protection (2019). “TVET policy
review: Mongolia” https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000374199
Yasui, Y. (2019). Mobilization of nomadic pastoralists and social change in Mongolia: Why
people give up nomad and head to Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia in the context of Education,
Disaster, and Urbanization. International Volunteer in 2018 by UNESCO Committee
in Kobe, 79-89. Fukuro Publication, Okayama.
Contact email: enakamura@chiba-u.jp

ISSN: 2189-101X

624

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Savor a Kahoot!-Licious Classroom: Embodying Gamification in a Business School asa Recipe for Innovation Among the Digital Natives
Yung-huei Chen, National Chung Cheng University, Taiwan
The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023
Official Conference Proceedings
Abstract
Innovative teaching intends to create a resonant enhancement of learner competency andcompetiveness. This research intends to find whether the spice of innovative teaching hasgone far enough to be carefully chopped, marinated, and blended for the digital natives. Oneof the main contributing factors for the learning benefits of technology is gamification which
is used to facilitate classroom management and collect immediate feedback from the teachingprocess. It turns the teaching and learning processes virtual because it is compatible withevery digital device, so that the creation of Kahoot! came as a godsend to the classroom.
Therefore, the purpose of this research was to reveal how the behavioral and attitudinalmindset among adult learners learning business English was affected because of theimplementation of Kahoot!. This study was carried out in a business school during the
pandemic. A total of two Business English Training courses were examined. These courses
were taught by the same instructor using a uniform textbook. Kahoot! was incorporated into
these courses at the end of a teaching session when a unit was finished. A questionnaire
consisting of a total of 18 items, grouping under categories on learning environment,
applications of Kahoot!, and anticipation of gamification, was distributed at the end of thesemester. Descriptive statistics was conducted to summarize the learning experiences.
Responses identified that Kahoot! has a positive impact and further assured the engaging
attributes of gamification.
Keywords: Kahoot!, Gamification, Innovative Teaching, Digital Natives

iafor
The International Academic Forumwww.iafor.org

ISSN: 2189-101X

625

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Introduction
To maximize learning effectiveness, innovative teaching spreads across a wide range of
disciplines in higher education. Innovative teaching is hinged on different levels of
implementation on teaching strategies or materials. Innovative teachers apply a wide range ofstrategies for student engagement and motivation (Busson & Cubukcu, 2021). In
consequence, an increasing need for technology supports in business education could be
fulfilled among the millennial generation.
Millennials are digital natives having plenty of interactions with technology. Technology has
embedded virtually in every aspect of their lives so that its effect is unmeasurable. They
generally pick up technology faster than that of digital immigrants. And for some reason, thisgeneration inclines to receive quick rewards or fast accesses because of the prevalence ofdigital aids. Therefore, effective technology-related tools should be created to sharpen
learners’ skills (Gündüz & Akkoyunlu, 2020). Compatible and adaptable teaching strategies
are to be identified to best fit students from Business Schools. Business English education,
especially, should evolve along with the ever-changing trends.
The Application of Mobile Device
When paired with teaching and learning, technology has opened many windows for tracking
and diagnosing learning progresses. It facilitates learning in a remote and feasible way. To
call for this need, suitable measures should be adopted to respond to the new normal. One of
the main contributing factors for the learning benefits of technology is smart phones. Smartphones are ubiquitous among college students. Having one or more of them has become sounremarkable when comparing to the past.
The advance of smart phone ushers and facilitates learning experiences in higher education
mentality (Elkhamisy & Wassef, 2021; Owen & Licorish, 2020). Lahlafi and Rushton (2016)
posited that using smart phones in class does motivate learning. In a sense, smart phones
serve as a platform to provide ever-present learning opportunities (Gündüz & Akkoyunlu,2020). The proliferation of smart phones improves learning experiences and makes teachingeasier (Martínez-Jiménez, Pedrosa-Ortega, Licerán-Gutiérrez, Ruiz-Jiménez, & García-Martí,2021). It is worth noting that the introduction of gamification results in upskilling. What setsapart smart phones from other learning platforms is that the using of it ensures learnerengagement (Gündüz & Akkoyunlu, 2020), fosters intrinsic motivation (Iaremenko, 2017),
and promotes retention (Elkhamisy & Wassef, 2021; Owen & Licorish, 2020).
This idea of gamifying learning is growing fast and attracts a group of faithful teacher fansbecause it is designed as a synchronous interactive learning device. The application of
gamification generates more student engagement (Koppitschn & Meyer, 2021; Martín-Sómer,Moreira, & Casado, 2021; Owen & Licorish, 2020), comparing to the teacher-centeredapproach in traditional classrooms. This digital medium also encourages classroom dynamics(Elkhamisy & Wassef, 2021) that attentive learners are exposed. The reduced interaction
could be compensated to some extent for experiencing sounds and graphics along the way(Owen & Licorish, 2020). Kauppinen and Choudhary (2021) pointed out that for those who
actively participated in gamification have a higher tendency to succeed in the future.
Innovative educators apply game-based learning in business education (Busson & Cubukcu,
2021) to simplify the learning process. To gain the upper hand, gamification should also work

ISSN: 2189-101X

626

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

in tandem in language learning (Iaremenko, 2017). Kahoot! in particular, serves as aninnovative teaching tool in business education (Martínez-Jiménez et al., 2021) which has
been gaining market acceptance in the past few years. Teaching materials can be constantly
reinforced and tailored via Kahoot! (Martínez-Jiménez et al., 2021).
Advantages of Kahoot!
It is grounded on the previous ideas that Kahoot! benefits learning (Elkhamisy & Wassef,
2021; Lee, Hao, Lee, Sim, & Huang, 2019). By playing games of knowledge, Kahoot! has
made a profound impact on creating enjoyable learning environment (Gündüz & Akkoyunlu,
2020; Toma et al., 2021). To stay ahead of traditional teaching environment, it is also treatedas one of the principal modes of teaching innovation (Ali, Askary, Mehdi, Khan, Kaukab, &Qamar, 2021). The application of Kahoot! is on the rise particularly for the sake ofmotivating and inspiring the learning process (Alawadhi & Abu-Ayyash, 2021).
A number of research has corroborated the finding that Kahoot! facilitates teaching(Alawadhi & Abu-Ayyash, 2021). As a game-based platform, Kahoot! creates alearner-centered environment in which learner engagement is enhanced and motivated(Camerona & Bizo, 2019). It also facilitates teacher-student interaction (Castro et al., 2019).
Obviously, it has become a productivity tool in the classroom for the past few years. It could
be used in every class (Gündüz & Akkoyunlu, 2020). It especially motivates learning when it
is implemented in the beginning of a class (Gündüz & Akkoyunlu, 2020) or at the end of alearning session (Martín-Sómer et al., 2021; Owen & Licorish, 2020). It is better applied
weekly or biweekly to maximize learner engagement (Kauppinen & Choudhary, 2021).
Castro et al. (2019) adopted Kahoot! when their four-unit teaching cycle was finished. Even
though Kahoot! was not practiced in every session, the researchers proved it eminent andinfluential. It is believed that Kahoot! is adopted in a satisfactory manner which celebrates
learning expeditions (Kohnke & Moorhouse, 2021; Toma, Diaconu, & Popescu, 2021). Thisis an entertainment where knowledge building is the major reward.
The pinnacle of Kahoot! is that it makes learning interesting by turning it into a collaborative(Kohnke & Moorhouse, 2021; Mays et al., 2020) and interactive (Khalilian et al., 2021;
Iaremenko, 2017) game show. Thanks to its interactivity, competiveness is developed(Kohnke & Moorhouse, 2021) because of its ranking board (Castro et al., 2019). One of its
best dispositions to maximize the learning effect is its repetitive practices of the content(Akkus, Ozhan, & Cakir, 2021). It can be adapted to a wide range of subjects (Iaremenko,
2017) with images to choose from (Toma et al., 2021).
Apart from its benefits within teaching and learning, Kahoot! features several digitaladvantages which may bring possibilities to the fingertips. It is a free medium (Iaremenko,
2017; Kohnke & Moorhouse, 2021) in promoting digital literacy (Toma et al., 2021). It
provides instant feedback (Martínez-Jiménez et al., 2021; Toma et al., 2021) and real-time
self-assessment (Toma et al., 2021) that these perks may be difficult to filled by conventional
ways of teaching. It is user-friendly (Kohnke & Moorhouse, 2021) because it offers
opportunities for later reviews (Akkus et al. 2021; Owen & Licorish, 2020). In addition, apause section is found after every question so that explanation could be made and mistakes
addressed to facilitate learning (Martínez-Jiménez et al., 2021). It serves as an attention getter(Owen & Licorish, 2020) so that learners may understand to-be-taught content easily (Ali etal., 2021; Camerona & Bizo, 2019; Toma et al., 2021). The immersive angle of Kahoot!
refines cognitive skills (Elkhamisy & Wassef, 2021) and encourages critical thinking (Castro

ISSN: 2189-101X

627

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

refines cognitive skills (Elkhamisy & Wassef, 2021) and encourages critical thinking (Castro
et al., 2019).
Kahoot! for Learning Diversity
Kahoot! caters to different age groups. According to Toma et al. (2021), using Kahoot! does
not require any digital skills, especially during assessment periods; therefore, when it isadopted, it takes learners of all ages on an infinite journey of learning (Kohnke & Moorhouse,2021). For example, the modality of it was proved to offer elementary schools pupils (Mayset al., 2020; Toma et al., 2021) and junior high school students (Lee et al., 2019) learning
supports. It also unleashes the possibilities in college learners (Alawadhi & Abu-Ayyash,
2021; Camerona & Bizo, 2019; Castro et al., 2019; Elkhamisy & Wassef, 2021; Gündüz &Akkoyunlu, 2020; Iaremenko, 2017; Martín-Sómer et al, 2021; Owen & Licorish, 2020). To
that end, the burden and stress of learning can be relived among learners from different ages.
The possibilities of learning are immense in a wide range of subjects. In the light of this,Kahoot! was practiced in learning business management (Martínez-Jiménez et al., 2021),
database management systems (Akkus et al., 2021), marketing (Koppitschn & Meyer, 2021),
entrepreneurship (Kauppinen & Choudhary, 2021), English (Iaremenko, 2017; Mays et al.,2020; Medina & Hurtado, 2017), management and administration of nursing (Castro et al.,2019), animal science (Camerona & Bizo, 2019), geography (Toma et al., 2021), earthscience (Lee et al., 2019) and information science (Owen & Licorish, 2020).
Kahoot! starts to gain ground in language learning. It might not stop at a certain threshold tosome degree; however, it is treated as a must in classrooms (Iaremenko, 2017; Medina &Hurtado, 2017). It facilitates instructors of language to create intriguing learning experiences(Kohnke & Moorhouse, 2021). A stupendous effectiveness has found in the learning of
vocabulary (Iaremenko, 2017; Medina & Hurtado, 2017) and grammar (Iaremenko, 2017;
Khalilian et al., 2021).
Using Kahoot! as assessments is a new wave to revolutionize the academics. It is easier toapply than pen-and-paper tests (Toma et al., 2021). Exam questions could be implemented insynchronous courses in which students are capitalized on informal assessment (Medina &Hurtado, 2017), formative assessment (Elkhamisy & Wassef, 2021; Martín-Sómer et al.,2021; Toma et al., 2021), summative assessment (Martínez-Jiménez et al., 2021), andstandardized assessment (Toma et al., 2021). It also gains considerable advantages byleveraging the teaching-learning-assessment (Toma et al., 2021). It may be an alternative to
Kahoot! as one of the assessment tools in different disciplines, because learners’ mental
ability is triggered (Ali et al., 2021) and learning feedback is received (Lee et al., 2019).
Kahoot!, a learning booster, promotes academic performances (Elkhamisy & Wassef, 2021;
Kohnke & Moorhouse, 2021). In terms of the learning outcomes, grades are improved (Tomaet al., 2021). When more questions are added to each playing session, a better learning results
can be obtained (Akkus et al., 2021). Passing rates become higher when Kahoot! isimplemented in a classroom (Martínez-Jiménez et al., 2021), which pinpoints a moresustainable acquisition of knowledge. Those who received higher scores in Kahoot! mayachieve better academic performances (Martínez-Jiménez et al., 2021), even better future
performances (Kauppinen & Choudhary, 2021). Martín-Sómer et al. (2021) further confirmed
about the efficacy of Kahoot! indicating that when it is practiced regularly, learners’ testscores were highly related to their final exam scores. It is suggested that Kahoot! serves as an

ISSN: 2189-101X

628

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

scores were highly related to their final exam scores. It is suggested that Kahoot! serves as anindicator of disclosing a higher or lower score in achievement tests.
Kahoot! and Learner Perception
With respect to the effectiveness of Kahoot!, it increases learning interests, enhances
understanding of the learning materials; and ultimately, retains the knowledge (Elkhamisy &Wassef, 2021; Martín-Sómer et al., 2021). Being an alternative method of learning, Kahoo!
has made the process interesting. Students value positively on the process of learning(Camerona & Bizo, 2019; Gündüz & Akkoyunlu, 2020; Iaremenko, 2017; Medina & Hurtado,
2017; Owen & Licorish, 2020).
Kahoot! users reported that they became attentive learners (Camerona & Bizo, 2019; Lee etal., 2019) because of its user-friendly and straightforward interface (Kohnke & Moorhouse,
2021; Medina & Hurtado, 2017). Students also revealed that Kahoot! encourages
participation (Akkus et al. 2021; Iaremenko, 2017; Martínez-Jiménez et al., 2021) andalleviates anxiety (Lee et al., 2019) during the class. It is especially interesting that students
are into the “three-person podium” ranking which further shapes their desire to outclass theirpeers (Toma et al., 2021). With a view to this, Kahoot! promptly paves the way for acompetitive learning environment in promoting learning effectiveness (Toma et al., 2021).
Furthermore, students acknowledged the implementation of Kahoot! because it helps toclarify misconceptions (Elkhamisy & Wassef, 2021) and facilitates concept-building(Martín-Sómer et al., 2021). They believed that it may be better if Kahoot! is used
continuously (Elkhamisy & Wassef, 2021) or regularly (Martín-Sómer et al., 2021).
Side Effects of Kahoot!
It is suggested that the implementation of Kahoot! does not promise a higher grade in thesummative assessment. Castro et al. (2019) incorporated 20 percent of final exam questions
from previously-practiced Kahoot! questions. They discovered that the expected highachievers did not get correct answers, even in the easy questions. Academic performances are
not significant (Alawadhi & Abu-Ayyash, 2021; Camerona & Bizo, 2019; Lee et al., 2019),
so does the motivation level (Castro et al., 2019; Lee et al., 2019). For instance, learners do
not think highly of the motivation drive of Kahoot! for reviewing contents and having debates(Castro et al., 2019).
Furthermore, playing Kahoot! is time-consuming and distracting (Owen & Licorish, 2020)
because most time spent in the gamification results in “winning the game,” instead oflearning something (Koppitschn & Meyer, 2021). Playing it means “stealing class time” that
may interrupt the overall instruction (Akkus et al. 2021). The competitive nature of it did not
trigger further engagement for college learners. According to the survey of Owen andLicorish (2020), freshmen learners particularly pointed out that the playing time should notlast for more than six minutes in a one-hour session. In a sense, class sessions should
contribute more to lectures in lieu of playing games.
Even though learners became very competitive in playing the game, they may spend less time
thinking about correct answers (Koppitschn & Meyer, 2021). Learners usually do not receive
sufficient time thinking of correct answers (Elkhamisy & Wassef, 2021). Whether a fullcoverage of the learning materials could be covered became a huge concern, especially forthe freshmen (Owen & Licorish, 2020). Kahoot! is treated as a supplementary tool to the

ISSN: 2189-101X

629

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

traditional learning (Castro et al., 2019; Owen & Licorish, 2020) and it may not replacelectures on PowerPoint slides (Owen & Licorish, 2020). It is helpful for theoretical courses(Akkus et al. 2021) and may not be feasible for other hands-on ones. On the contrary, Castro
et al. (2019) proposed that when Kahoot! is practiced in theory-based courses, it arouseminimum student motivation. Therefore, the learning outcome is unsatisfactory (Koppitschn& Meyer, 2021).
In Lee et al.’s (2019) experiment, they intended to examine if Kahoot! benefits learningachievement. A pre- and post-test was implemented to see if there are any significant
differences in leaner motivation. No significant difference was found on the learning
performance on homework and exam before and after the application of Kahoot!. Theinterpretation of the findings, according to the authors, attributes to the learners’ losinginterest. The students were interested in completing exercises in Kahoot! in the beginning andthey discovered a regular pattern of playing Kahoot! games as time goes by, so that thelearning turned out to be relatively static.
Methodology
This study was carried out in a business school in Taiwan during the pandemic. A total of
two Business English Training courses using a uniform textbook and taught by the same
instructor were examined. There were 48 students including 28 females and 20 males. Allof them had their own smart phones with wireless connection when in-class gamification
activities were practiced.
Kahoot! was incorporated into these courses at the end of a teaching session when a unit
was finished. By default, a total of 10 test items were found in each Kahoot! game. Halfof them were multiple choice questions while the rest of them were either true or false or
puzzle. The students were provided with 20 to 30 seconds to respond. The response time
was decided according to the length and difficulty of the questions. A questionnaire
concerning the efficacy of using Kahoot! was distributed when this course is finished.
Survey Design
To see the effectiveness of Kahoot!, the students were asked to fill out a questionnaire at
the end of the semester. Questions on learning efficiency of Kahoot! were adapted fromthat of Martín-Sómer et al.’s (2021). This questionnaire consists of a total of 18 items. To
be specific, a total of 2 items targeted on learners’ perception on language usage from thelearning environment category, 10 items on learners’ perception (on a five-point Likert
scale) after using Kahoot! under the Kahoot! application part, and 6 items on learners’
preference of using Kahoot! in the anticipation of gamification section.
The research design adapted the frame work of Martín-Sómer et al.’s (2021). Their original
design was: (1) Kahoot! was implemented at the end of a teaching session; (2) A control
group was not found; (3) A total of ten Kahoot! question types, including multiple choice andtrue-false, were practiced; (4) Two surveys, containing six questions, were carried out.
Changes were made for this research from Martín-Sómer et al.’s (2021) were: (1) Kahoot!
question types expanded from two to three types, puzzle questions were added; (2) Survey
questions expanded from six to 18; (3) Survey answers on students’ learning perception about
Kahoot! were expanded from four (strongly agree, agree, disagree, and strongly disagree) to
five (strongly agree, agree, neutral, disagree, and strongly disagree), using a five-point Likert

ISSN: 2189-101X

630

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

scale; (4) Two surveys were downsized to one. In addition, two of the survey designs adaptedfrom that of Martín-Sómer et al.’s (2021) remained the same in this research, they are: (1)Kahoot! was conducted when each teaching session is finished, and (2) There were no control
group.
Data Collection
Data analysis was performed by SPSS 22.0. Descriptive statistics was conducted tosummarize the learning experiences. Data collection was performed through a survey atthe end of a semester.
Results
The results collected from the questionnaire are discussed as follows. Table 1. highlights
learners’ perception on language use. More than 85% (n=41) of the students think“fluency” is the most important element in using English. Others indicate that“appropriateness (8.3%)” and “accuracy (6.3%)” are the most crucial one in using thelanguage. However, when asked about if Kahoot! will be helpful in supporting accuracy,
fluency, or appropriateness of the language, a small fraction (n=4, 8.3%) of the answers
agree on Kahoot!’s promoting “fluency.” More than 70% of the students (n=34) indicatethat Kahoot! provides more advantages on “accuracy” than “appropriateness” in using
English.
Table 1. Language usage
Language Usagen = 48%Which of the following elements

Accuracy3

6.3%

is the most important one in

Fluency

41

85.4%

using English?

Appropriateness

4

8.3%

Which of the following advantages Accuracy

34

70.8%

will Kahoot! provide in using

Fluency4

8.3%

English?

Appropriateness

10

20.8%

Table 2. shows learners’ perception, on a five-point Likert scale, after using Kahoot!. The
mean score on “I feel engaged and develop a sense of participation from Kahoot!” is thehighest (4.23), whereas “Kahoot! may be beneficial and helpful for my midterm or final
exams” is the lowest (3.46). In general, features on Kahoot!’s “easy application (4.19)”,“completion with peers (4.10)”, “engagement (4.23)”, and “learning from mistakes (4.04)”
appear to have higher mean scores than “attention (3.52)”, “more familiarity with content(3.75)”, “frequency of application (3.73)”, “application to other classes (3.77)”, “learning
motivation (3.88)’, and “midterm/ final assistance (3.46).”

ISSN: 2189-101X

631

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Table 2. Learners’ perception after Kahoot!
No. Statement

Grading
Strongly Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly
agree
disagree

Mean
(sd.)

1

It’s easy to apply
from my mobile
device.

22

20

2

1

3

(4.19
(1.065)

2

I may compete withmy peers.

19

21

5

0

3

(4.10
(1.036)3

I feel focused andattentive whenansweringquestions from
Kahoot!.

13

15

8

8

4

(3.52
(1.288)4

I feel engaged anddevelop a sense ofparticipation from
Kahoot!.

25

16

3

1

3

(4.23
(1.096)

5

I am more familiar
with the content
after playing
Kahoot!.

16

16

7

6

3

(3.75
(1.229)6

I can learn from mymistakes after
playing Kahoot!.

20

19

3

3

3

(4.04
(1.148)7

I hope Kahoot! can
be applied more
often in this class.

15

16

10

3

4

(3.73
(1.216)8

I hope Kahoot! can
be applied to otherclasses as well.

15

17

10

2

4

3.77
(1.189)9Kahoot! triggers my 18
learning motivation.

15

10

1

4

(3.88
(1.196)

10

Kahoot! may bebeneficial andhelpful for mymidterm or final
exams.

19

10

5

5

(3.46
(1.220)

ISSN: 2189-101X

9632

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

As shown in Table 3, 41 students (85.4%) reported that they like Kahoot! being
implemented as part of the learning method. However, while two students (4.2%) disagreewith such opinion and five students (10.4%) preferred to stay neutral.
When asked about the reason why students like the implementation of Kahoot!, themajority of the students (85%) consider “learning from playing” as one of the benefits ofimplementing Kahoot! to the class, whereas 72% think highly of Kahoot! because it“highlights learning weakness.” Nearly half of the students favor the competitiveness inusing Kahoot!. Only 21.3% of them appreciate the picture and sound effect of Kahoot!
When students were asked about the drawbacks of using Kahoot!, 70.8% mentioned about
the insufficient answering time, 64.6% on not being able to change answers, 20.8% on
rankings being shown, 16.7% on the stimulating picture and sound effect, and 6.3% on
their preferences of using paper-based practices.
The students were also asked about their preferred question types. The data revealed thatmultiple choice (n=41, 85.4%) is the most preferable one, while puzzle (n=2, 4.2%) is theleast. A small portion (n=5, 10.4%) reported their preference on true or false questions.
Moreover, students were asked about the frequency of applying Kahoot! in the classroom.
More than half (n=26, 54.2%) consider having it when a unit is finished, some (n=17,
35.4%) on a weekly basis, others (n=3, 6.3%) reveal to practice it when two units are
finished, and still others (n=2, 4.2%) claim that it should not be practiced at all.
The last question asked the students if Kahoot! trigger learning incentives in English
learning. The majority of the students (n=36, 75%) think positively, three students (6.3%)
oppose this view, and nine students (18.7%) stay neutral.

ISSN: 2189-101X

633

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Table 3. Learners’ preferencen%

Did you like Kahoot! when
it was implemented

Yes

41

85.4%

as part of the learning
method in the class for

No

2

4.2%

this semester?

Neutral5

10.4%

Learning from playing

40

85.1%

Highlighting learning weakness

34

72.3%

Competing with peers

23

48.9%

Stimulating sound/ picture effects

10

21.3%

Others00.0%

Stimulating sound/ picture effects

8

16.7%

Rankings are shown

10

20.8%

Insufficient answering time

34

70.8%

Not being able to change answers

31

64.6%

Paper-based practices are better

3

6.3%

Others5

10.4%

Which kind of test question
types do you prefer from
Kahoot!?

True or false

5

10.4%

Multiple choice

41

85.4%

Puzzle2

4.2%

How often should Kahoot!
be applied in class?

Every week

17

35.4%

When 1 unit is finished

26

54.2%

When 2 units are finished

3

6.3%

Never

2

4.2%

Yes

36

75.0%

No

3

6.3%

Neutral9

18.7%

Why did you like theimplementation of Kahoot!?
Explain your reasons.

Why didn’t you like theimplementation of Kahoot!?
explain your reasons.

Will Kahoot! trigger yourincentives in learning
English?
Discussion

The findings of this research have provided insight into the application of Kahoot! among
EFL graduate school learners in the learning of Business English. Gamification is
engaging and practical for the digital natives that creating a Kahoo!-licious learning
environment does trigger learning incentives. This study confirms positive results onlearning efficacy from that of Martín-Sómer et al.’s (2021), implying that Kahoot! issignificant for adult learners when it is practiced at the end of a learning session; yet,contradicted with their results on Kahoot!’s facilitating achievement tests. According to
the survey of this research, students were asked whether or not Kahoot! may be beneficial

ISSN: 2189-101X

634

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

for their midterm or final exams. Most answers were not in favor of its capability of acing
achievement tests.
Even though a large number of students found it easy to apply from their mobile device
and receive instant feedback, many of them do not appreciate the time limit in answering
Kahoot! questions. This finding is in line with Castro et al.’s (2019), pointing out the
insufficient answering time. They set a 20-second time limit for each multiple choicequestions; however, their participants mentioned that more time should be allowed inchoosing the correct answers. According to the design of the questions from this research,
students had 20 to 30 seconds to respond; however, these time limits may not be enoughfor them. This may relate to the distraction of the sound effects, anxiety of playing thegame, internet connection, non-native-like reading speed, or difficulty of reading if seatedat the back row of the classroom. This study has demonstrated a positive impact of
Kahoot!, but future studies may further verify a desirable response time for its users.
Conclusion
Kahoot! has made learning in a streamlined manner. Although Kahoot! has gained
momentum among college education, the investigation of into the Business English sector
is sparse. This study provides an overarching framework which allows language
instructors to maintain classroom dynamics in a graduate school setting. Digital aids may
be seen as a prerequisite for learner participation, and as a part of learning process ingraduate studies during the pandemic. They should be a tool to temper enthusiasm into
language classrooms.
The pandemic has changed the scenario of Business English learning to a certain extent.
Learning losses during the pandemic should not be accumulated or compounded, but
could be mitigated or compensated with the help of digital devices. These devices renderlearning with more possibilities. Therefore, this research dedicates to acknowledge thecritical role technology plays to the new normal shaping the business education in Taiwan.
Gamification does trigger motivation and engagement among Business School learners.
Limitation
The results described are only valid in an EFL setting for some graduate students at abusiness school. This study was conducted on only two classes which made it difficult toestimate the validity of the data. The sample of this research was relatively insufficient toaddress an overall learning outcome. Since Kahoot! is not mandatory in every educational
curriculum, whether or not it will build learners’ anticipation may be vague. Further research
may be conducted to explore how the behavioral and attitudinal mindset among graduate
students learning business English is affected.
Acknowledgments
The author would like to acknowledge the supports from the Department of Business
Administration, National Chung Cheng University.

ISSN: 2189-101X

635

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Reference
Akkus, I., Ozhan, U., & Cakir, H. (2021). Student views on the use of online student response
systems: The Kahoot! case. Journal of Qualitative Research in Education, 25,
235-254. doi: 10.14689/enad.25.10
Alawadhi, A., & Abu-Ayyash, E. A. S. (2021). Students’ perceptions of Kahoot!: An
exploratory mixed-method study in EFL undergraduate classrooms in the UAE.
Education and Information Technologies, 26, 3629-3658.
Ali, M. F., Askary, G., Mehdi, H., Khan, A., Kaukab, H., & Qamar, R. (2021). To assess
students' perception about Kahoot! as an innovative learning tool in oral pathology- a
qualitative study. Journal of the Pakistan Medical Association, 71(10), 2426-2428.
Busson, S., & Cubukcu, K. (2021, July 21). 4 traits of innovative business educators: And
how you can up your game. Harvard Business Publishing Education.
https://hbsp.harvard.edu/inspiring-minds/4-traits-of-innovative-business-educators
Camerona, K. E., & Bizo, L. A. (2019). Use of the game-based learning platform KAHOOT!
to facilitate learner engagement in Animal Science students. Research in Learning
Technology, 27, 2225. http://dx.doi.org/10.25304/rlt.v27.2225
Castro, M.J., López, M., Cao, M.J., Fernández-Castro, M., García. S., Frutos, M., & Jiménez,J. M. (2019) Impact of educational games on academic outcomes of students in the
Degree in Nursing. PLoS ONE 14(7): e0220388.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0220388
Elkhamisy, F. A. A., & Wassef, R. M. (2021). Innovating pathology learning via Kahoot!
game-based tool: a quantitative study of students’ perceptions and academic
performance, Alexandria Journal of Medicine, 57(1), 215-223, DOI:
10.1080/20905068.2021.1954413
Gündüz, A. Y., & Akkoyunlu, B. (2020). The gamification tool for the classroom response
systems: Kahoot! Hacettepe University Journal of Education, 35(3), 480-488.
Iaremenko, N. (2017). Enhancing English language learners’ motivation through online
games. Information Technologies and Learning Tools, 59(3), 126-133.
Kauppinen, A., & Choudhary, A. I. (2021). Gamification in entrepreneurship education: aconcrete application of Kahoot! The International Journal of Management Education,
19:100563. doi: 10.1016/j.ijme.2021.100563
Khalilian, B., Hosseini, H., & Ghabanchi, Z. (2021). On the effect of employing the online
Kahoot game-based app on Iranian EFL learners' structural ability and theirmotivation. Journal of Language Teaching and Learning, 11(2), 42-60.
Kohnke, L., & Moorhouse, B. L. (2021). Using Kahoot! to gamify learning in the language
classroom. RELC Journal. Advance online publication. doi:
10.1177/00336882211040270

ISSN: 2189-101X

636

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Koppitsch, S. E., & Meyer, J. (2021). Do points matter? The effects of gamification activities
with and without points on student learning and engagement. Marketing Education
Review, 1-9. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10528008.2021.1887745
Lahlafi, A., & Rushton, D. (2016). Mobile phones: Not a distraction in the classroom but ameans of engagement? In P. Daly, K. Reid, P. Buckley, & E. Doyle (Eds.), Innovative
Business Education Design for 21st Century Learning (pp. 7-23). Switzerland:
Springer.
Lee, C. C., Hao, Y., Lee, K. S., Sim, S. C., & Huang, C. C. (2019). Investigation of theeffects of an online instant response system on students in a middle school of a ruralarea. Computers in Human Behavior, 217-223. https://doi.org/DOI:
10.1016/j.chb.2018.11.034
Martínez-Jiménez, R., Pedrosa-Ortega, C., Licerán-Gutiérrez, A., Ruiz-Jiménez, M. C.,
García-Martí, E. (2021). Kahoot! as a tool to improve student academic performancein business management subjects. Sustainability, 13, 2969.
https://doi.org/10.3390/su13052969
Martín-Sómer, M., Moreira, J., & Casado, C. (2021). Use of Kahoot! to keep students’motivation during online classes in the lockdown period caused by Covid 19.
Education for Chemical Engineers, 36, 154-159.
Mays, B. R., Yeh, H. C., & Chen, N. S. (2020). The effects of using audience response
systems incorporating student-generated questions on EFL students’ reading
comprehension. The Asia-Pacific Education Researcher, 29, 553-566.
Medina, E.G.L., & Hurtado, C.P.R. (2017). Kahoot! A digital tool for learning vocabulary ina language classroom. Revista Publicando, 4(12), 441-449.
Owen, H., & Licorish, S. A. (2020). Game-based student response system: The effectivenessof Kahoot! on junior and senior information science students’ Learning. Journal of
Information Technology Education, 19, 511-553. https://doi.org/10.28945/4608
Toma, F., Diaconu, D. C., & Popescu, C. M. (2021). The use of the Kahoot! Learning
platform as a type of formative assessment in the context of pre-university education
during the COVID-19 Pandemic Period. Education Sciences, 11, 649.
https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci11100649

ISSN: 2189-101X

637

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

ISSN: 2189-101X

638

Official Conference Proceedings

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

The Impact of Singapore’s SkillsFuture Credit on Training Participation

Sheng Yee Zher, Institute for Adult Learning, Singapore
Magdalene Lin, SkillsFuture Singapore, Singapore

The Asian Conference of Education & International Development 2023
Official Conference Proceeding

Abstract
The proportion of short and non-standard contract jobs has risen over the years and workers
are frequently moving in and out of work, facing a more fragmented career than before.
These trends have raised concerns on the training participation of workers in these jobs as
they are less likely to train than workers in permanent jobs. This is against a backdrop where
many economies are undergoing structural changes with an increase in the share of highskilled jobs which requires workers reskill and upskill constantly. As such, there has been arenewed interest in the provision and use of Individual Learning Accounts (ILAs) among
policymakers to raise training participation rates, given that ILAs provide workers withautonomy, allowing them to take ownership of their skills development. This paper
investigates the impact of Singapore’s SkillsFuture Credit (SFC), which is a form of ILA, on
the training participation of workers with short or non-standard contracts, using a quantitative
study which collects job related and training data in Singapore (n=4,333). Findings haveshown a higher proportion of workers on contracts have utilised the SFC for work-related
training compared to workers in permanent job, providing evidence that the SFC has indeed
encouraged such workers to take up training. Further analysis is also being conducted to
explore training and workers’ career progression as well as participation in future training.

Keywords: Adult Training Participation, Contract Workers, Individual Learning Accounts,
SkillsFuture Credit

iafor
The International Academic Forumwww.iafor.org

ISSN: 2189-101X

639

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Introduction
There has been a significant increase in short and non-standard contract jobs and workers
working as independent contractors, freelancers, and gig workers over the last decade. In
May and November 2022, employers had posted 26% more contract openings than in thesame period of the previous year (Rogers, 2022). In addition, it is estimated that 36% of US
workers are part of the gig economy, a significant increase from 2005 where only 10% of the
US workforce was part of the gig economy (TeamStage, 2023).
One of the main factors driving this trend is the rise of technology platforms that make iteasier to match people with gigs and businesses with independent contractors (Gibbons,2022).
Another driver leading to more contract and gig work is the desire for more flexibility andautonomy in work arrangements (Reisinger & Fetterer, 2021). Many employees are seeking
to have more control over when they work, and to have the ability to work from anywhere in
the world. With platforms like Uber, Lyft, TaskRabbit, and Upwork, people can find work on
a flexible basis, without having to commit to a traditional 9-to-5 schedule.
At the same time, many companies are moving towards short-term contracts which allow
these companies to reduce cost by avoiding the expenses associated with hiring full-time
employees, such as salaries, benefits, and taxes (Hays, 2023). This is particularly attractive tocompanies that have fluctuating workloads or seasonal needs.
However, contract and gig work also have their downsides. Many workers with short or nonstandard contracts lack benefits and protections that traditional employees enjoy, such as
health insurance, paid time off, and retirement benefits (Towers-Clark, 2019). It is also
known that contract and gig workers may face challenges in participating in training due totheir temporary employment status. Employers may be unwilling to invest in training giventhat the worker is only expected to be with the company for a short period (Jonker & Grip,
1999). Such workers may not have access to the same training opportunities as permanent
employees, and this is reflected in the findings shown in Table 3 in the “Results” section.
The lack of training and training opportunities are of concerns to many policymakers. This isbecause training participation is essential to employees as many economies are undergoing
structural changes with an increase in the share of high skilled jobs. At such, workers need tolearn new skills and knowledge that can allow them to remain relevant and to enhance theiremployability. This leads to a renewed interest in the individual learning accounts which canmake the rights to training “transferable” from one job or employment status to another(OECD, 2019).
The SkillsFuture Credit (SFC) Scheme
Singapore launches the SkillsFuture movement in 2015, delivering a range of initiatives todevelop the skills and mastery needed to adapt to a rapid changing global economy. Among
all the SkillsFuture initiatives, the SFC, which is similar to an individual learning account, isthe one scheme known by almost all Singaporeans. The aim of the SFC is for individual totake ownership of their skills development and lifelong learning (SkillsFuture Singapore,2022). Under this initiative, an initial opening credit of SGD$500 was given to all
Singaporeans aged 25 and above. Individuals are given the autonomy to decide how the

ISSN: 2189-101X

640

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

credits should be used and when to use it. The credits have no expiry and can be used
together with existing Government course subsidies for a wide range of approved work skillsrelated courses, making the training even more affordable. A top-up of SGD$500 was given
at the end of 2020 with an additional SGD$500 credit given to workers between the age of 40
to 60.
With the above as backdrop, this paper aims to investigate the impact of Singapore’s SFC on
the training participation of workers with short or non-standard contracts and more
specifically answering the following research questions:- Are short- term and non- standard contract, casual, and independent workers more
likely to make use of SFC?
- Would the workers have taken up the training even without the SFC?
- How relevant are the training to the career development of the workers?
Methods and Data Source
The Skills and Learning Study: Background and Design
The data described in this paper is obtained from part of the Skills and Learning Study, alarge-scale nationwide survey conducted by the Institute for Adult Learning, Singapore.
The Skills and Learning Study is in its third iteration of a nation-wide skills utilisation study
that collects quantitative data on skills utilisation, job quality and lifelong learning in
Singapore. The study aims to measure and track skills utilisation over time, as well as toanalyse organisational factors that influence the demand for skills utilisation. As part of thestudy, other demographic, occupational and training information of the participants, used of
the SFC were also collected.
The Skills and Learning Study has collected a representative sample of 5,996 Singapore
residents, aged 20 to 70 years old, selected using simple random sampling from the national
population. Data collection is conducted over a period of ten months, from Oct 2021 toAugust 2022 and attaining a response rate of over 60%. The respondents are put through a
one-and-a-half-hour survey interview, conducted face-to-face by trained interviewers.
For this paper, only respondents aged 25 and above and in labour force would be used in theanalysis.
Measurement and Scale
Different Types of Employment Contract
A series of questions were asked to identify whether the respondents were in the labour force
and the type of employment contract at the point of the interview. Through the survey
questions, working respondents indicated as either self- employed or an employee as well as
their contract relationship with their employers. Table 1 below presents the different types of
employment contracts.

ISSN: 2189-101X

641

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Table 1: Different types of employment contract
No. Types of employment contract
Definition
Open-end & fixed term contracts
1 Permanent employees
Employees with indefinite or permanent contracts
2 Longer term contracts
Contracts of length 2 years or longer
3 Short term contracts
Contracts of length less than 2 years
4 Casual work
Casual work with no contract or verbal contract
Self- employed
5 Own account workers
Freelancer on contract for service, gig workers etc.
6 Self- employed (with employees)
Employers with employee(s)Used of the SkillsFuture Credit
The SFC top-up of $500 was on 31 December 2020 and since the survey started at the fourth
quarter of 2021, we attempted to capture the use of the SFC by asking:- Has any of your training or learning that happened in the last 12 months been funded or
partially funded by SkillsFuture Credit? (Yes / No)
Deadweight Loss of Subsidies
The deadweight loss effect attempts to measure the cost of the training subsidies given thatthe training courses would have been participated by the employees even in the absence ofthe training subsidies.
- Would you have participated in the training even without the SkillsFuture Credit?
(Yes / No)
Career Development
Finally, we investigate if the training taken using SFC was related to the workers careerdevelopment.
- To what extent is the training subsidized by SkillsFuture Credit relevant to yourcareer development? (Not at all / A great deal)
Results
Work- Related Training Participation
First, we look at the work- related training participation rate of workers by the different kindof employment contract. From Table 2 below, both permanent employees and workers onlonger- term contracts have training participation rate of over 70% in the last 12 months at the
point of their interview. Casual workers had the lowest training participation rate at 33.3%
while those on short term contracts has a training participate rate of 63.4% which is higher
than the participation rate of self-employed (47.7%) and own account workers (42.8%).
Employer Support
Next, we look at the level of support the workers received from their employers. Table 3
shows a higher proportion of permanent employees and workers with longer term contract
reporting adequate support from their employers (over 70%) and we have also observed ahigher proportion of such workers getting funded by their employers for training (over 60%).
In contrast, only 64.8% of workers with short-term contract reported that they have received
adequate support from their employers and less than 50% have been funded by theiremployers.

ISSN: 2189-101X

642

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

The above findings highlighted that casual workers and own account workers were less likely
to participate in work- related training. For workers on short term contracts, they received
significantly lesser employers’ support and a smaller proportion participated in training thatwas funded by their employers. For workers on casual work, the proportion is lower with
only 38.5% reporting that they received adequate support and 32% received funding fortraining.
Table 2: Work- related training participation by different kind of contract
Kind of employment contract
Participated in work- related training (%)
Permanent employees
70.8
Longer term contracts
72.4
Short term contracts
63.4
Casual work
33.3
Self- employed (with employees)
47.7
Own account workers
42.8
Table 3: Support from employers
Types of employment
contract

Your employer provides
adequate opportunities foryou to pursue work related
training? (%)

Permanent employees
Longer term contracts
Short term contracts
Casual work

76.7
77.6
64.8
38.5

The training or learningthat happened in the last
12 months been funded or
partially funded by
Employer? (%)
63.1
61.0
47.8
32.0

Utilization of SkillsFuture Credit
Next, we employed a logistic regression model to examine the relationship between utilizing
the SFC by the different kind of employment contract. The dependent variable is the used of
SFC for training where “1” represents SFC has been used while “0” represents SFC has notbeen utilized. The explanatory variable is the different kind of employment contract, and thecontrols include establishment size, gender, age, and occupations.
It is noted that the pseudo R square is relatively small at 0.02, however, the main aim of thisregression analysis is to explain the relationship between type of employment contracts andthe outcome variable, which is the utilization of SFC and not to predict the outcome variable,
therefore, the pseudo R square value is not crucial (Moksony, 1999).
The results from the logistic regression show that workers on short- term contracts are almost
2 times more likely to utilize the SFC than permanent workers while workers on longer term
contract are 1.74 times more likely. However, we did not observe significant different in theused of SFC between permanent employees, casual workers, own account workers and theself- employed.

ISSN: 2189-101X

643

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Table 4: Logistic regression model on utilization of SFC
Odd ratio
Employment contract
Reference: Permanent employees
Short term contract
1.97***
1.74***
Longer term contract
0.82
Casual workers
1.00
Own account workers
1.12
Self- employed with employees
n= 4,333
Pseudo R sq.= 0.02
The analysis controls for age, gender occupation, firm size***p< 0.05
Deadweight Loss
From table 5, we observed that more than 50% of the workers with short- term contract andcasual workers would not have gone for the training if the training were not subsided by SFC.
This has provided some evidence that individual learning accounts, like the SFC, haveindeed, encourage contract workers to take up training. However, it is crucial that the training
attended is relevant and can help the workers with their career.
Table 5: Deadweight loss of the SkillsFuture Credit
Would have participated in the training
Types of employment contracteven without the SkillsFuture Credit (%)
Permanent employees
57.3
Longer term contracts
55.2
Short term contracts
45.6
Casual work
45.5
Self- employed (with employees)
72.4
Own account workers
52.5
Career Development Relevance
Table 6 below shows that less than 60% of the contract workers reported that the training
subsidized by the SFC are relevant to their career development. In contrast, the proportion ishigher for permanent employees at 70.8%. Similarly, for the self- employed and own accountworkers, the career development relevance of their training is high at 68.8% and 77.8%
respectively.
Table 6: Career development relevanceThe training subsidized by SFC is relevant
Types of employment contract
to my career development (%)
Permanent employees
70.3
Longer term contracts
50.0
Short term contracts
57.5
Casual work
57.7
Self- employed (with employees)
68.8
Own account workers
77.8

ISSN: 2189-101X

644

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Discussion and Conclusion
The findings have provided evidence that ILA like the SkillsFuture Credit is more likely to bemade use by contract workers for participation in work-related training, compared to thepermanent employees. In addition, the deadweight loss for the workers with short- term
contract is relatively lower than the permanent employees. In other words, a higher
proportion of workers with short- term contract, compared to permanent employees, would
not have participated in training if the SFC was not available. However, it is observed that ahigher proportion of contract workers, compared to permanent workers, reported little careerdevelopment relevance for the training that they had attended using the SFC. This shows that
other than the SFC, more support is necessary to ensure that workers truly benefited from thetraining. Some of the support may include:
Creating Awareness
It is important for workers to come to realization that they need to learn continuously toremain relevant and employable, they need to constantly upskill and reskill. It is also vital for
workers to be updated of the evolving industry that they are in and to be able to seek out
related training that would help them to upgrade and stay relevant.
Skills Assessments
It may be useful if skills assessments can be offered or accessible to contract workers to help
them identify their strength and weaknesses, and to determine the types of training they needto improve their skills. Together with the skills assessment, professional guidance isnecessary to advise the workers on career choices.
Training Programs Designed for Contract Workers
Other than the provision of financial support via SFC, offering training programs which canhelp contract workers develop the skills and knowledge they need to perform their jobs more
effectively, and increase their changes of findings new work. These programs can be codeveloped with employers to ensure industry relevance, and that contract workers haveaccess to the skills and knowledge they need to perform in their jobs.
What is the Right Amount?
It may be worthwhile to investigate what is the right amount to be provided by the SFC. The
initial $500 provided was sufficient for a worker to enroll in a course with no payment
required or a reasonably low course fee. The main objective of lifelong learning is continuous
learning and thus, how to we ensure that workers, if without the support of their employers,
can still continuously participate in training with no concern over course fees.
In conclusion, the SFC provides the initial support for contract workers to participate intraining, however, this needs to be accompanied by a range of support programs so that
contract workers can maximize the benefits from the training and to develop the skills
required to remain relevant and advance in the career. On the other hand, targeted help may
be necessary for casual workers and own account workers to increase their training
participation.

ISSN: 2189-101X

645

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

References
Gibbons, S. (21 July, 2022). 3 Reasons Businesses Are Tapping Into The Gig Economy.
Retrieved from Forbes: https://www.forbes.com/sites/serenitygibbons/2022/07/21/3reasons-businesses-are-tapping-into-the-gig-economy/?sh=3f67c0ac101c
Hays. (2023). 6 Benefits to hiring contract/temporary workers. Retrieved from HAYS:Working for your tomorrow: https://www.hays.com/hiring-advice/6-benefits-hiringcontract-workers
Jonker, N., & Grip, A. d. (1999). Do Employees with Flexible Contracts receive less
Training? Maastricht University, Research Centre for Education and the LabourMarket, Maastricht.
Moksony, F. (1999). Small is beautiful: The use and interpretation of R2 in Social Research.
Szociologiai Szemle, 130- 138.
OECD. (2019). Individual Learning Accounts: Design is key for success. Paris: OECD.
Reisinger, H., & Fetterer, D. (29 October, 2021). Forget Flexibility. Your Employees Want
Autonomy. Retrieved from Harvard Business Review: https://hbr.org/2021/10/forgetflexibility-your-employees-want-autonomy
Rogers, T. N. (21 Decemeber, 2022). US companies turn to contract workers in face ofrecession fears. Retrieved from Financial Times:
https://www.ft.com/content/53329655-74b3-4820-a5f9-37ae39ad6d7d
SkillsFuture Singapore. (04 April, 2022). SkillsFuture Credit. Retrieved from SkillsFuture:https://www.skillsfuture.gov.sg/credit
TeamStage. (2023). Gig Economy Statistics: Demographics and Trends in 2023. Retrieved
from TeamStage: https://teamstage.io/gig-economy-statistics/
Towers-Clark, C. (8 July, 2019). The Uberization Of Work: Pros And Cons Of The Gig
Economy. Retrieved from Forbes:
https://www.forbes.com/sites/charlestowersclark/2019/07/08/the-uberization-of-workpros-and-cons-of-the-gig-economy/?sh=451045f11cc7

Contact email: sheng_yee_zher@ial.edu.sgÍ

ISSN: 2189-101X

646

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Analyzing the Architectural Internship Program in India and Recommending Guidelines
B Sudha, National Institute of Technology–Tiruchirappalli, India
K Premkumar, National Institute of Technology–Tiruchirappalli, India
The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023
Official Conference Proceedings
Abstract
An internship is a period of professional work experience that plays a significant role in the
lives of architecture students. During that period, they would learn the work culture of an
office and understand the work environment, enabling them to handle projects individuallyand understand the details for execution. Further, it would facilitate personal development.
The internship program in India has yet to have a programmatic approach. The student’s
exposure will differ based on the firm they select. It is high time to note that the students
should gain knowledge in all areas of the architectural field, both in terms of office and site
environments. This study aims to discover areas in which students are currently exposed towork in an internship and propose certain guidelines to be followed. The survey questions
were formed by areas, which are divided into six categories adopted from the literature study
Practice Management, Project Management, Programming & Analysis, Project Planning &Design, Project Development & Documentation, Construction & Evaluation, with thepercentage interval ranging from 0%, 10–30%, 31–50%, 51–70%, 71–90%, and 100%.
Furthermore, a question set with a 5-point Likert scale was asked to know about theirexperience, and open-ended questions were asked to know about their expectations. A survey
was conducted among the students who completed their internship; there were 249
respondents from different architectural colleges in India. The results show a lower score for
exposure to practice management, project management, programming analysis, construction,and evaluation.
Keywords: Architectural Internship Program, Guidelines, Architectural Students, Work
Environment, Internship Experience

iafor
The International Academic Forumwww.iafor.org

ISSN: 2189-101X

647

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Introduction
Architectural internships are essential to students' journey with an architecture background.
The internship program, regarded as an essential component of higher education, allows
students to "complete" their education by bridging the knowledge gap between the classroom
and the real world.(Katula & Threnhauser, 1999). Students are better prepared for their future
professions after internships because they have a greater awareness of what is expected ofthem in the actual work world and are more confident in their professional abilities. (Gündeş,2017; Jackson & Jackson, 2009). Internships, according to Taylor (1988), are "organized andcareer-relevant job experiences attained by students before they graduate from an academic
degree" (p. 393).(Jawabri, 2017; P. Maertz Jr et al., 2014). Students have said that internships
significantly contribute to their educational experience and that case studies, discussions, andsimulated business scenarios have proven highly effective.(Jawabri, 2017). The working
environment comprises various factors, including opportunities for learning, chances for
professional advancement, assistance from coworkers and supervisors on-site, organizational
satisfaction, and chances to build networks (D’Abate et al., 2009).
The use of internships has been seen favourably by institutions to create thorough curriculathat include opportunities for the real-world application of knowledge. This draws in bothstudents and future employers since well-run internships assist in developing valuable
professional skills (Lam & Ching, 2007). So, the internship has been thoughtfully consideredin framing the rules and regulations, monitoring students' progress, and ensuring they cover
all areas of their professional background. The COA (Council of Architecture) frames andregulates India's internship rules and regulations. The rules are framed as follows: do aninternship for six months, during which 90 working days must be spent in the firm. However,the detailed approach was formed only in 2021, and there is the question of following andcarrying on as per the rules in all firms. Moreover, the rules must be framed in detail byconsidering the student's professional development. In the USA, the Intern Development
Programme (IDP) formed by NCARB has properly structured rules and regulations withproper divisions in the type of work and an hourly approach that helps the interns learn about
all types of work in the office and site environment.
The research aim is to analyse the following aspects:
1. To analyse the architectural internship programme in India and the student's
experience during their internship period.
2. To find out any issues faced by the students during their internship period.
3. Creating the survey questions by incorporating the AXP (IDP) approach and findingout the current scenario of the student after their internship experience.
4. Collaborating the IDP guidelines with the Indian context and proposing guidelines fora successful internship program.
Theoretical Background
Intern Development Program
The National Council of Architectural Registration Boards created the IDP (Internshipdevelopment program) in 1976 after collaborating with the American Institute of Architects.
AXP is called the Architectural Experience Programme and was started by NCARB tounderstand the daily realities of architectural practise. An essential step on the road tobecoming an architect is completing the Architectural Experience Programme. NCARBISSN: 2189-101X

648

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings(National Council of Architectural Registration Boards) is a non-profit organisation
composed of architectural licencing boards of 55 states and territories that formulated the
AXP, which has 96 tasks that are performed in six experience areas, which are practisemanagement, project management, programming and analysis, project planning and design,
project development and documentation, construction, and evaluation (NCARB, 2020).
Practice Management
Gaining knowledge of how to operate a business, including project management, projectsafety, client coordination, and maintaining solid relationships with the office and clients.
Practise management is where you will learn the ins and outs of running an architecture
practise, including managing a business, promoting your firm, getting projects, interactingwith clients, and maintaining a productive and professional work environment.
Project Management
It aids in completing the project according to the specifications given in the contract andacquiring expertise in project coordination, execution, and other related tasks. One will learn
to deliver projects that adhere to your contractual obligations in project management,
preparing one to plan, organize, supervise, and carry out a project.
Programming & Analysis
It is the project's first stage, and experience may be earned by investigating site information,code requirements, and client needs to determine a project's feasibility. The initial stage of a
project, sometimes referred to as pre-design, is called programming and analysis. One will bedone in such a way that you need to investigate and assess the client's needs, building codes,
zoning laws, and site information to provide suggestions regarding a project's feasibility.
Project Planning & Design
The schematic design stage covers knowledge of creative concept development layouts,
conceptual model development, schematic presentation preparation, coordination with clientsand consultants, and adherence to codes and laws. Schematic design is covered under the
project planning and design section. One will learn to draw out the building design, analysebuilding rules and laws, coordinate schematics with consultants, and convey design thoughts
to clients.
Project development & Documentation
When the schematic design has been approved, the next phase begins—acquiring knowledgeof generating approval and construction documentation to work with the appropriate
authorities to get approval. One will gain expertise with projects in project development anddocumentation by concentrating on construction documentation and working with regulatory
bodies to obtain the required approvals for construction after the schematic design has beenauthorised.

ISSN: 2189-101X

649

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Construction and evaluation
The project's final phase involves site visits and contractor and client meetings while working
with building officials. In Construction and Evaluation, one will participate in the project's
post-construction and construction administration phase, which involves visiting the job site,meeting with contractors, clients, and building officials, and creating punch lists that will
eventually complete the project.
This research takes these six areas and surveys the architectural students once they complete
their internship.
Practice
Management
Construction& Evaluation

Project
Management

Project
Development &Documentation

Programming & Analysis
Project
Planning &DesignFigure 1: Areas suggested to be covered during the internship period.
Methodology
Participants
A total of 249 students, of which 145 are girls, and 104 are boys, are from different
architectural colleges, which cover state government, private colleges, self-supportingcolleges, and central government colleges in India. The students participated from all zones:
North, East, West, South, North-east, and Central, and the participants ranged from 17.7%,
1.3%, 2.5%, 72.2%, 2.5%, and 5.1%, respectively. The participants' ages range from 21, 22,
and 23 in the 9th and 10th semesters, or 24.4% and 75.6%, respectively.
Instrument and Methodology
The questionnaire was administered to conduct the survey among the students who completed
the internship. The survey was conducted in a mixed mode, both online and offline. The aimof the survey question was explained to the students, and they were asked to fill out the form
based on their experiences. Instructions are also given to keep their personal information
private for accurate results. The batches differed according to the regulations of the colleges.

ISSN: 2189-101X

650

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

The colleges under government and government aid have the rule of an internship for six
months in the ninth semester. The colleges that come under deemed and central government
colleges have the regulation for six months in the 8th semester. The questionnaire were asked
once they completed their internship period, the 10th semester for government andgovernment-aid colleges and the 9th semester for deemed colleges and central government
colleges.
The questionnaire was prepared based on the AXP Internship Experience Programme andprevious publications and student reviews. The questionnaire was designed into threesegments: the first segment was developed as a percentage interval method divided into six
categories taken from the literature study: practise management, project management,
programming and analysis, project planning and design, project development anddocumentation, construction and evaluation, with the interval ranges being 0%, 10-30%, 3150%, 51-70%, 71-90%, 100%; the second segment is the five-point Likert scale questions
focusing on the students' internship experience once they complete their internship.
Moreover, the third segment focuses on open-ended questions to learn about their personal
experience.
Finding / Results
Practice Management
Practice Management
100
80
60
40
20
0
0

10-30% 31-50% 51-70% 71-90% 100%

Figure 2. The graph shows the number of people and the percentage ofwork students covered in Practice Management.
Figure 2 shows that 73 students in 249 samples reported they were not exposed to PracticeManagement itself, which shows 29.3% of students were not aware of this work, which
creates a lack of information about client interaction, ideas of securing projects, marketingthe firms, managing the business, and sustaining the professional and positive work
environment. They were followed by 80, 42, 27, 20, and 6 students in 10–30%, 31–50%, 51–70%, 71–100%, and 100%, respectively.

ISSN: 2189-101X

651

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Project Management
Project Management
100
80
60
40
20
0
0

10-30% 31-50% 51-70% 71-90%

100%

Figure 3. The graph shows the number of people and the percentage ofwork students covered into Project Management.
Figure 3 shows that the 66 students in 249 samples reported they were not exposed to ProjectManagement itself, which shows 26.50% of students were not aware of this work, which
creates a lack of information regarding the preparation of a budget, coordination with theclient and team members, how to execute the project, project documentation, contracts,
dealing with the roles and responsibilities of the team members, resolving the conflicts during
the design and construction process, and other works related to project management. They
were followed by 77, 47, 38, 15, and 5 students in 10–30%, 31–50%, 51–70%, 71–100%, and100%, respectively.
Programming & Analysis
Programming & Analysis
80
60
40
20
0
0

10-30% 31-50% 51-70% 71-90%

100%

Figure 4. The graph shows the number of people and the percentage ofwork students covered in Programming & Analysis.
Figure 4 shows that the 64 students in 249 samples reported they were not exposed toProgramming & Analysis itself, which shows 25.70% of students were not aware of thiswork, which creates a lack of information towards evaluating and researching the client's
requirements, understanding about the building codes and zoning regulations, and developing
site analysis diagrams in order to document the existing site condition, regulatory

ISSN: 2189-101X

652

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

requirements, reviewing the legal documents which related to the site, and analysing theconstraints of the project in developing the conceptual budget and assessing theenvironmental impact to formulate the design decision. Other results are followed by 60, 50,
40, 29, and 6 students in 10–30%, 31–50%, 51–70%, 71–100%, and 100%, respectively.
Project Planning & Design
Project Planning & Design
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0

10-30%

31-50%

51-70%

71-90%

100%

Figure 5. The graph shows the number of people and the percentage ofwork students covered in Project Planning & Design.
Figure 5 shows that 69 students did 71–90% of the Project Planning & Design work,
indicating that 27.7% were working in this stage. This stage focuses on the layout of thebuilding design, reviewing the building codes and regulations, preparing the design
alternatives for the client's review, overseeing the design integration of building components
and systems, preparing cost estimates for the work, designing the landscape elements for thesite, and other works related to project planning and design. Other results are followed by 15,
40, 47, 56, and 22 students in 0%, 10%–30%, 31–50%, 51–70%, and 100%, respectively.
Project Development & Documentation
Project Development & Documentation
80
60
40
20
0
0

10-30% 31-50% 51-70% 71-90%

100%

Figure 6. The graph shows the number of people and the percentage ofwork students covered in Project Development & Documentation.

ISSN: 2189-101X

653

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Figure 6 shows that 61 students did 31–50% of the work in Project Development &Documentation, and 55 students did 71–90% of the work, which means that 24.5% and22.08% were working at this stage. This stage focuses on the project after the schematic
design has been approved. This stage focuses on creating the construction documents,
preparing the drawings for regulatory approval, selecting the fixtures and furniture, anotherrequirement that meets the client's requirement, preparing views (3-D drawings), preparing
detailed drawings (2-D drawings), and updating the work estimate cost. Other results arefollowed by 18, 46, 45, and 24 students in 0%, 10%–30%, 51–70%, and 100%, respectively.
Construction & Evaluation
Construction & Evaluation
80
60
40
20
0
0

10-30% 31-50% 51-70% 71-90%

100%

Figure 7. The graph shows the number of people and the percentage ofwork students covered in Construction & Evaluation.
Figure 7 shows that 73 students did 10–30% of the work in Construction & Evaluation, and47 students never worked in this stage (0%). The results say that 29.31% of students worked
in 10–30% of the construction and evaluation stage, and 18.87% never worked in this stage.
This stage focuses on Post—the project's construction phases, which include site work,
meetings with the contractors, clients, and building officials, reviewing the shop drawings
and submittals during construction, and managing the project close-out procedures anddocumentation. Other results are followed by 45, 34, 36, and 14 students in 31–50%, 51–70%, 71–100%, and 100%, respectively.

ISSN: 2189-101X

654

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Overall comparison between the six areas
Construction & Evaluation
Project Development & Documentation
Project Planning & Design
Programming & Analysis
Project Management
Practice Management
0100%

71-90%

1051-70%

2030

31-50%

40

50

10-30%

60

70

80

90

0

Figure 8. The bar chart shows the overall comparison between the six areas.
Figure 8 shows that the students spent the maximum time working on Project Development &Documentation and Project Planning & Design during their internship.
Typical tasks that students performed throughout their internships
Students were asked about the work that they were doing most often during the internshipperiod in the divisions of model making, drafting, estimation, concept development, site
visits, sheet presentation, and 3D works.
Work Typology
Model Making
Estimation
Concept Development
Site visits
Sheet Presentation
3D Works
Drafting
0

50

100

150

200

250

300

Figure 9. The bar chart shows the types of work exposed by the students intheir internship period.

ISSN: 2189-101X

655

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

From the result, it is more evident that 97.59% of the students were exposed only to thedrafting work, which is followed by 85.64% for 3D works, 78.31% for sheet presentation,
25.70% for site visits, 51.40% for concept development, 26.90% for estimation, and 12.85%
for model making. These results show that more interns worked in drafting and 3D work.
Maximum amount of time spent in

Figure 10. The Pie chart shows the comparison between office and site in terms of duration.
81% of the students said they had spent only the maximum time in the office. Moreover, only
19% of the students have proper site exposure. In the architecture intern journey, it must be
taken into consideration that the practical experience needs to be focused on since this is the
only place the students can learn practical knowledge before getting into the practise. One of
the interns shares his experience, saying there were too few site visits.
“Since the major project in my office was a residential project, Hence, I got to learn
planning, a small part of building services, e.g., plumbing and electrical drawing.
However, I did not get much exposure to construction parts or site visits.”
This practise will help the intern understand the drawings on paper, but they must learn how
they work out practically.

ISSN: 2189-101X

656

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Table 1. General experience of internship from 249 students
Survey questions
Strongly Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly
Disagree
Agree
Throughout my architectural officeinternship, I was fully involved as thedrafting person.
30
29
41
101
48
I was motivated to visit the site tounderstand the execution of work.
126
59
17
36
15
I was mainly assigned with the same
type of works.
28
43
66
53
60
During my internship, I have acquired
adequate knowledge in structuraldesign.
28
53
74
60
34
I have been involved in the design
development process during myinternship program.
15
32
55
85
62
I was happy in doing work, beyond
my regular working time in myinternship office.
36
30
57
53
72
During my internship, I feel I am
exploited beyond my structured officeworking hours.
51
34
49
45
70
Design development has improved
after the internship.
15
11
70
70
83
I have been involved in the design
development process during myinternship program.
15
32
55
85
62
The nature of my work in theinternship has improved my Decisionmaking skills
15
4
51
104
72
Practical knowledge of the design
approach has improved after theinternship program.
4
6
30
102
106
During my internship, I was
motivated to coordinate work withother consultants.
26
45
70
57
51
I was treated as a supportive handinstead of a professional staff.
23
40
74
62
49
Table 1 shows 13 five-point Likert scale survey question, which shows the students'
experience in the internship period on a scale of 1-5 from strongly disagree to Strongly agree.
From the results, the everyday things that must be considered are the students' work typology,
office timing, site visits, nature of work, and office environment.
Duration of the Architectural Internship period
According to survey data from students who have completed internships, they preferred oneyear internship terms. They state that depending on the individual, it takes 2-3 months tobecome accustomed to office norms and tasks; once they begin working, they feel like theirinternship has ended.

ISSN: 2189-101X

657

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Expectation Of Internhsip Duration
6 Months

1 Year35%
65%

Figure 11. The Pie chart shows the expectation of internship duration by the students.
Discussion
Architectural internships are essential to students' journey with an architecture background.
It bridges the gap between theoretical and professional knowledge, which must be structured
so that the students get knowledge from all types of work in the office and on the job. It
further helps them understand the work environment, work culture, how to deal with projects,clients, documents, approvals, and more. This is where they learn about the practical world
and take their first step toward their entire professional life. It must be planned, organized,
and monitored correctly to get the actual professionals in the field. The crucial part of India isthat it is not as properly structured as in other countries. There is a 6-month internship rulethat is followed throughout the state depending on the institution type and semester as 8 or
9th semester. But the outcome from these 6 months differs from person to person in the sameclass as per their firm selection, work type, and location. The knowledge gained from theinternship has a lot of variances, even within the class, which can be high or low. The
unstructured internship guidelines and regulations are the cause of this discrepancy. The
COA, or Council of Architecture, is the board for architects. Which governs and regulates thearchitectural field. Before 2021, the rules were only about the total number of days to work.
In 2021, they introduced the work that has to be done during an internship, but it is notfollowed and monitored properly. There must be detailed, structured rules and regulations
that must be framed and monitored properly. From the open-ended questions, the students
shared their experience and their issues. One intern has mentioned the stipend as,“I think internships should at least have some sort of reward system, such as stipends
or bonuses for individual project completion, as it will keep us going withdetermination.”
Some of the responses to the open-ended questions are given below.
“As an experience, I really learned a lot, and I was also given training in two new
software programmes as well.”

ISSN: 2189-101X

658

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings“I learned more about working drawings and 3D visualisation during my internship.”“Gained knowledge of structural details and estimation.”“Good but could have been better in terms of exposure to approaching project
tenders and bidding processes for large-scale projects.”“Since the major project in my office was a residential project, Hence, I got theopportunity to learn planning and a small part of building services, e.g., plumbingand electrical drawing, etc. But I didn’t get much exposure from construction parts orsite visits.”“I have worked on manual sheets for conceptual sketches, and also, we interns madeammonia sheets in the machine by ourselves and coloured them.”
The responses show that most of the students were happy about the work they have been
doing in their internships and that they got good exposure to different areas. By analysing theopen-ended questions, the five-point Likert scale, and the interval scale question, it is clearthat all other responses are positive except for some factors like stipend, site visits, andduration of the internship. But while asking questions by covering all six areas related to theirfields, the responses are very low, which shows that the students themselves are unaware of
the areas they must cover during their internship and what all must be learned for the
profession. Some recommendations are formed by considering the student’s futureendeavours by addressing these issues.
Recommendations for Guidelines
Duration of the Internship Period
The internship period must be one year; in the fourth year, after completing the internship,
they must complete their fifth year. This one-year professional experience will make themunderstand the actual meaning of all the inputs they are making in the design. Since thestudents feel that the timeframe of 6 months is significantly less, two to three months are
spent getting adapted in the office. When they start to learn, the intern period gets over,which shows that the aim of the internship is not fully satisfied. Therefore, revising theinternship period from 6 months to one year is desirable.
Stipend
In the current practice, the stipend varies from firm to firm, and in some firms, the stipend is
not paid. The rules must be implemented to get paid; the worksheet must be submitted at theend of each month. The worksheet should include the project name and the duration of thework done on each part of the project. This type of practice will ensure the student's work, thearea they have covered, and the area that needs to be covered. Moreover, the working hours
can be calculated by following this, and the stipend can be given accordingly. This practicewill ensure the interns will get the stipend; this will make the motivation to do work andwaste of time during an internship can be avoided, and the type of work they work can bemonitored by themselves and by the mentor. Additionally, architectural firms can inform
interns about the stipend and work culture on their website, which motivates them.

ISSN: 2189-101X

659

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Area of Exposure
From the responses, the internship provides good exposure to the respected field. However,the lag is created when exposed to different types of work. Of the target group, 72% say theyused to perform the same type of work. They are unaware of some work and how to handle orapproach it. The areas that are divided by IDP must be implemented and should be monitoredaccordingly. The hours should be divided as per the recommendations and appropriately
implemented.
Hours Division
The six areas were divided, and the work hours should be fixed. As per the division, total
working hours can be 1440 in one year, of which practice management can be 40 hours,
project management can be 138 hours, programming and analysis can be 100 hours, projectplanning and design can be 416 hours, project development and documentation can be 585
hours, and construction and evaluation can be 161 hours. By dividing these, all types of areas
can be learned.
Table 2. Shows the area of work and hours to be covered in the internship period.
Area of work
Hours to be followed
Practice Management
40
Project Management
138
Programming & Analysis
100
Project Planning & Design
416
Project Development & Documentation
585
Construction & Evaluation
161
Total
1440 hours (Minimum)
Exposure towards site
The internship is planned so the students get exposure to the office and site environments togain theoretical and practical knowledge. Only 4% of the students were satisfied with the site
visits, which shows a significant drawback since the practical experience can be fulfilled only
by direct site exposure.
Table 3. Requirements for the internship that must be adhered to.
Before internship

During internship

After internship

Before going to theinternship, they must be
introduced to all types ofwork, and the institution has
to make sure that they havesome general knowledge
about the work and are
instructed to engage in all
types of work they are
assigned.

During the internship, amonthly report must be sent
to the respective
coordinator, showing thetype of work.

The portfolio must be
submitted according to six
area divisions made by thecollaboration with IDP rules,
along with proof of the work
they have done during theirinternship.

ISSN: 2189-101X

660

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Conclusion
The internship is the essential stage in the architectural student’s journey, which must be
appropriately structured. As per the implications of the areas from the background study of
IDP, the students will understand all the areas and get exposed to different types of work.
Rules must be followed strictly as per the recommendations. The monthly report must be
submitted to the coordinator of the internship at the college and have to be submitted to thefirm to get the stipend and to know which work the students get exposed to; by following
this, no intern can waste time, and it will benefit the student and the firm. This stipend
calculation method motivates the students to do their work; unknowingly, they will learn
about all the areas. Site exposure is another central point that must be considered since theexposure to the site is significantly less, resulting in a lack of practical knowledge for the
students even after the office exposure.
Limitations / Further research
The present study focuses on analysing the architectural internship and the issues faced by thestudents in their internship period, which can be added by focusing on the social and cultural
background of the students and how it impacts the students learning part in the internship.

ISSN: 2189-101X

661

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

References
D’Abate, C., Youndt, M. A., & Wenzel, K. (2009). Making the Most of an Internship: An
Empirical Study of Internship Satisfaction. 527–539.
Gündeş, S. (2017). An empirical study of internship practices in architectural education:
Student perspectives. MEGARON / Yıldız Technical University, Faculty ofArchitecture E-Journal. https://doi.org/10.5505/megaron.2017.86094
Jackson, R., & Jackson, M. (2009). Students Assessment of a Semidirected Internship
Program. Journal of Geography, 108(2), 57–67.
https://doi.org/10.1080/00221340902963753
Jawabri, A. (2017). Exploration of Internship Experience and Satisfaction Leading to Better
Career Prospects among Business Students in UAE. American Journal of Educational
Research, 5(10), 1065–1079. https://doi.org/10.12691/education-5-10-8
Katula, R. A., & Threnhauser, E. (1999). Experiential education in the undergraduate
curriculum. Communication Education, 48(3), 238–255.
https://doi.org/10.1080/03634529909379172
Lam, T., & Ching, L. (2007). An exploratory study of an internship program: The case of
Hong Kong students. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 26(2), 336–
351. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhm.2006.01.001
NCARB. (2020). Architectural Experience Program Guidelines.
P. Maertz Jr, C., A. Stoeberl, P., & Marks, J. (2014). Building successful internships: Lessons
from the research for interns, schools, and employers. Career Development
International, 19(1), 123–142. https://doi.org/10.1108/CDI-03-2013-0025
Contact email: archeesudha@gmail.com
sudhabaskar94@gmail.com
prem@nitt.edu

ISSN: 2189-101X

662

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Promoting Teamwork Skills Among Thai Pre-service Teachers ThroughGamification on Cloud Technology
Siripon Saenboonsong, Phranakhon Si Ayutthaya Rajabhat University, Thailand
Akarapon Poonsawad, Phra In Sueksa (Klom Sakun Uthit) School, Thailand
The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023
Official Conference Proceedings
Abstract
Given that gamification has been applied in the classroom to stimulate students’ participation
for successful learning, this study investigates the extent to which cloud-based gamification
promotes undergraduate students’ teamwork skills. Thirty-one first-year pre-service teachers
majoring in physical education at Phranakhon Si Ayutthaya Rajabhat University in Thailand
worked in groups of three or four to produce instructional media in physical education using
cloud-based gamification and graphic design in a semester-long educational innovation
course. At the end of the course, teacher-, peer-, and self-assessments of student teamwork
skills were conducted using a holistic teamwork skills evaluation covering five evaluation
categories, i.e. participation, task achievement, peer interaction, responsibility, and students’use of resources. In addition, teamwork skills were also assessed by the researcher throughclassroom observation. Results showed that the scores of the participants’ teamwork skills
were over 75%, showing a high level of student participation while completing the assigned
tasks. Further results revealed that learning activities integrating gamification on cloudtechnology promote not only teamwork skills among students but also student-teacher
interaction and student learning achievement. It can be concluded from the present study thatgamification is a useful tool for teachers to design innovative learning activities that promotestudents’ innovation, cooperation and problem-solving in the classroom.
Keywords: Teamwork Skills, Gamification, Cloud Technology

iafor
The International Academic Forumwww.iafor.org

ISSN: 2189-101X

663

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Introduction
Guidelines for education in the 21st century, instructors need to adjust their learning
approach which must make learners love lifelong learning. The goals for learning are todevelop life skills, thinking skills and IT skills that learners have practiced or experimented
on their own (Adkins, 2002). The findings of an appropriate and accepted teaching theory of
the expected standard in Thai higher education are the concepts of constructivism orcooperative learning (Inthachot, Sopeerak, & Rapai, 2013). This teaching divides learners
into small groups where learners work together, help each other and seek knowledge that isbeneficial to themselves and the group, thereby fostering cohesion among members andfostering interaction between learners where the goal is the success of all members (Nuraini,
Faaizah, & Naim, 2014).
Using of computers to support collaborative learning is the application of computer network
technology to support group work, which helps organize learning environment outside theclassroom for students with cloud computing (Siegle, 2010). Users of cloud computing candetermine their needs for services over the internet and can access resources simultaneously
and at any time (Vockley, 2007; Nevin, 2009; Buyya et al., 2009). Collaboration is an
essential for the 21st century learner skills that encourages learners to have teamwork skills(Sullivan et al., 2015). Developing students' teamwork skills requires training everyone towork together towards the same goals and objectives, have a working system and having
good interactions with each other according to the desired goals.
Gamification is a marketing tool widely used in every country by using game techniques andmechanics to create motivation and encourage interaction between organizers andparticipants (Inchamnan, 2018). Gamification has been used in education to help stimulate
learning and engage learners in fun learning by using game mechanics as simple operators(Huang & Soman, 2013; Swacha, 2021). The basic principles of game mechanics design suchas points, levels, rewards, leaderboards, competition are applied to learning by simulating agaming environment.
In this study, the researcher focused on gamification learning with cloud tools to enhance
teamwork skills of undergraduate teacher students in Innovation and Information Technology
for Educational Communication. and learning. Learning management uses game mechanics
as a learning environment in which students work together to create works according to
specified problems. with cloud technology tools. works created as graphic media in the formof still images and animations that contain knowledge of physical education. The productionof work is created as graphic media in the form of images and animations that containknowledge of physical education. Then, the instructors observed individual students'
participation behavior in group work and promoted a positive attitude towards learning that
aimed to learn by thinking and doing in order to overcome obstacles and achieve goals
including having a concrete work that can be used for real which will develop young learners
in the new era continually and sustainably.
The objective of this study was to investigate the extent to which cloud-based gamification
promotes undergraduate students’ teamwork skills. It specifically answers the following:
1. What is the learning with gamification with cloud tools that foster teamwork skills in
students?
2. What is the student's attitude towards gamification learning level?

ISSN: 2189-101X

664

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Methodology
This research is experimental research using the one-group posttest-only design with details
as follows.
1. Participants
The sample group used in this research was selected as undergraduate students who enrolled
in the Innovation and Information Technology for Education Communication and Learning
course in the first semester of the academic year 2022, Phranakhon Sri Ayutthaya Rajabhat
University, Thailand, which has five majors/classrooms. After that, it was simply randomized
using the classroom as the random unit, which received 31 students from the major of
Physical Education, Faculty of Education, Phranakhon Sri Ayutthaya Rajabhat University,
Thailand. This study has adjusted the assessment criteria to be a holistic rubric, 5 levels per
item, worth 25 points.
2. Measuring Tool
This study used a teamwork skills assessment form based on the work of Saenoonsong(2018) who studied the effects of project-based learning on cloud computing to enhancecollaboration skills for 30 undergraduate students in the course Innovation and Technology
for Science Teachers. The collaborative skills assessment form used consisted of
5components, 15 questions, with a confidence value of .83, with a high level of confidence.
The components are as follows: 1) The willingness and commitment to work, 2) The goals of
the work, 3) The interaction within the group, 4) Responsibilities, and 5) Shared resources.
This study has adjusted the assessment criteria into a 5-level holistic assessment, totaling 25
points.
3. Learning processThis study was conducted with physical education undergraduate teachers in the Innovation
and Information Technology for Education Communication and Learning course in a normalclassroom format by using gamification and cloud technology as follows:
3.1 Gamification Learning
Gamification learning is a teaching activity without playing a game. It is an application oftechniques of playing games to motivate them to achieve objectives in learning activities(Kirillov et al., 2016). Gamification environment can enhance motivation, satisfaction,
participation in activities, teaching efficiency and learning achievement. Game mechanics
such as scores, levels, challenges, badges, virtual goods, leaderboards are related to humanneeds which can change human behavior work (Poonsawad et al., 2022). The main incentive
strategy is to reward players for completing missions. Students are required to complete
assignments by gathering information from previous experiences or new knowledge to solve
problems creatively (Dreimane, 2019). This is a practice to understand problems and focus on
solving problems, resulting in effective solutions. The gamification components used in thisresearch are as follows:
1) Points It is the accumulation of points for trying to answer questions set by the teacher
both individually and in groups, which students will receive different points.

ISSN: 2189-101X

665

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

2) Level It is the score range of students specified by the instructor. In this research,
there are 6 levels, consisting of Bronze, Silver, Gold, Platinum, Diamond, andConqueror, which are used to motivate students to answer questions to earn points
and increase their level.
3) Badge It is a symbol of behavior and success that students can achieve according to
the goals, including responsibility. Involvement, punctuality, cooperation with theteam, honor and assistance.
4) Leaderboard It is a summarizes the order of points, levels, and badges earned throughlearning that encourage students to collect their own scores to be at the top of theboard.
5) Mission It is an assignment that a teacher gives students to create a team or individual
project.
3.2 Cloud Technology Tools
Nowadays, teachers need to integrate existing technologies to facilitate teachers and benefit
students' learning by considering the appropriateness of application for maximum benefit.
Cloud technology is not only a modern trend of effective use of information andcommunication technologies in professional activity, but also a proven tool for educational
activities (Fedorenko, 2020). Cloud computing has great potential for application in
education, research and application development, as well as distance learning (Elmurzaevich,2022). This research is based on Cloud Technology Tools, which are Internet-based
technology tools that serve users to share their resources and can be accessed whenever andwherever they want. There are many tools for cloud technology but for this research we haveused Gamiplus tool which is an add-on application from google classroom that has structured
gamification environment. Teachers can create their own gamification environment andeasily use the information available in google classroom. The researchers also recommended
other cloud technology tools for students to use to create their team's work: CANVA website
for creating graphics, Powtoon website for creating media presentations with animatedcartoons, Google Sites for creating web pages like easy Google Workspace for Education;
Classroom, Drive, Gmail, Calendar, Docs, Sheet, Slides and Meet, and YouTube video
presentations.
Data Collection and Analysis
In the study of 8 periods, students were assigned to form groups to create works in the formof teaching materials. cartoons, animations, websites, and information presentation media in
the amount of 4 works using cloud technology tools to apply and create works according to
the specified problems. Then, the instructor observed the participation behavior in the group
work of the students individually. In addition, students were asked to assess themselves andtheir groupmates.
Results
The result divided into 2 parts as: 1) Teamwork Skills, and 2) Satisfaction of Students.

ISSN: 2189-101X

666

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Teamwork Skills*t(.05, df 30) = 1.68

Official Conference Proceedings

Table 1: Scores of the students’ teamwork skills% ofn Scores
S.D.
t
𝐱
Mean
31
25
20.95 1.13
83.78
10.82*

Sig(1-tailed)
0.0000

Table 1, comparing the teamwork skills of the students with the criteria of 75%, the results
showed that the students had an average score of 20.95 out of 25, representing 83.78 percent.
In addition, the comparison between the criteria and the mean scores of the students waspresented, showing that the teamwork skill score of the students was significantly higher thanthe criteria at the .05 level. This finding implied that the Gamification on Cloud
Technology provided a positive influence over successful in teamwork skills of students.
Table 2: The Satisfaction of Students
Factors
1. The personality and dress of the instructor
2. Punctuality
3. Teaching preparation
4. Willingness and enthusiasm to teach
5. Intention and enthusiasm for teaching
6. Provide a variety of teaching and learning
7. Moral, ethical and social responsibility
insertion
8. Encourage learners to think reasoned analysis
9. Provide information, advice, research sources
for additional knowledge
10. Contents and activities are in line with theinterests and aptitudes of the learners
11. Use teaching materials that promote
appropriate learning
12. Multi-evaluation, learners know how toassess and participate in determining thepercentage of points
13. The atmosphere in the classroom is warm,
emphasizing cooperation and the learners are
happy in learning
Overall

x
4.64
4.51
4.57
4.55
4.56
4.47
4.45

S.D.
0.56
0.60
0.59
0.61
0.62
0.68
0.76

Level of meanings
High
HighestHighestHighestHighest
High
High

4.49
4.52

0.69
0.63

High
Highest

4.52

0.67

Highest

4.52

0.62

Highest

4.48

0.65

High

4.52

0.63

Highest

4.52

0.64

HighestAccording to the table 2, the satisfaction of learners after learning with the Gamification on
Cloud Technology found that the learners satisfied with the designed instruction at thehighest level (x = 4.56, S.D. = 0.64), the most satisfied topic was “Provide a variety ofteaching and learning” which was 4.57 of mean and 0.68 of standard deviation.
Conclusion
The results can be concluded that the use of gamification on cloud technology has a positive
influence on student success because gamification motivates students to work together andsolve problems by proposing different problem-solving ideas within the group. After that, theISSN: 2189-101X

667

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

assigned student work is reviewed at the place of work (Musa et al., 2012). Students wholearn using gamification and cloud technology have good learning outcomes (Ardhyani &Khoiri, 2017). In addition, appropriate use of modern technology facilitates students to better
access information. The use of cloud technology in education allows educational institutions
the opportunity to use computer resources and application software services over the internet,
which it can enable a more intensive and better process of development and practice whereby
students and teachers can quickly and economically access various platforms, applications
and resources through their preferred websites (Emelyanov & Klygin, 2016; Ercan, 2010). It
can reduce the cost of the organization but increase productivity by providing teachers andstudents with a good learning environment. Thus, these findings suggest that practice-based
student learning using gamification techniques in a cloud computing learning environment
affects collaboration skills as a skill development learning is consistent with education in the
21st century.
Acknowledgement
The researchers acknowledge the Institute of Research and Development, Phranakhon Si
Ayutthaya Rajabhat University, Thailand for their motivation and support in the internationalpresentation of this research. They are likewise grateful to the dean of the Faculty of
Education for allowing students from the major of Physical Education to participate in the
study.

ISSN: 2189-101X

668

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

References
Adkins, S. (2002). Market Analysis of the 2002 US E-learning Industry: convergence,
consolidation and commoditization. Market Analysis Series, 6.
Ardhyani, S., & Khoiri, N. (2017). Project Based Learning Multi Life Skill for Collaborative
Skills and Technological Skills of Senior High School Students. In Journal of
Physics: Conference Series (Vol. 824, No. 1, p. 012010). IOP Publishing.
Buyya, R., Yeo, C. S., Venugopal, S., Broberg, J., & Brandic, I. (2009). Cloud computing
and emerging IT platforms: Vision, hype, and reality for delivering computing as the
5th utility. Future Generation computer systems, 25(6), 599-616.
Dreimane, S. (2019). Gamification for education: Review of current publications. Didactics
of Smart Pedagogy: Smart Pedagogy for Technology Enhanced Learning, 453-464.
Elmurzaevich, M. A. (2022, February). Use of cloud technologies in education.
In Conference Zone (pp. 191-192).
Emelyanov, A. A., & Klygin, R. A. (2016, January 15-16). Cloud Technology in Education:
Problems and Perspectives. In Informatization of society: socio-economic, sociocultural and international aspects: materials of the VI international scientificconference, Prague, Czech Republic. (Vol. 2016, p. 71).
Ercan, T. (2010). Effective use of cloud computing in educational institutions. ProcediaSocial and Behavioral Sciences, 2(2), 938-942.
Fedorenko, E. H., Velychko, V. Y., Omelchenko, S. O., & Zaselskiy, V. I. (2020, March).
Learning free software using cloud services. In CTE Workshop Proceedings (Vol. 7,
pp. 487-499).
Huang, W. H. Y., & Soman, D. (2013). Gamification of education. Report Series:
Behavioural Economics in Action, 29(4), 37.
Inchamnan, W. (2018). Therapeutic strategy in gamification and game based learning for
elderly people in Thailand. Humanities & Social Sciences Reviews, 6(1), 44-52.
Inthachot, M., Sopeerak, S., & Rapai, N. (2013). The development of a U-learning
instructional model using project based learning approach to enhance students’creating-innovation skills. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 103, 1011-1015.
Kirillov, A. V., Vinichenko, M. V., Melnichuk, A. V., Melnichuk, Y. A., & Vinogradova, M.
V. (2016). Improvement in the learning environment through gamification of theeducational process. International Electronic Journal of Mathematics
Education, 11(7), 2071-2085.
Musa, F., Mufti, N., Latiff, R. A., & Amin, M. M. (2012). Project-based learning (PjBL):
Inculcating soft skills in 21st century workplace. Procedia-Social and Behavioral
Sciences, 59, 565-573.

ISSN: 2189-101X

669

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Nevin, R. (2009). Supporting 21st century learning through Google Apps. Teacher
Librarian, 37(2), 35.
Nuraini, C. K., Faaizah, M., & Naim, C. P. (2014). Personalized Learning Environment(PLE) Experience in the 21st Century. 4th World Congress on Information andCommunication Technology.
Poonsawad, A., Srisomphan, J., & Sanrach, C. (2022). Synthesis of problem-based
interactive digital storytelling learning model under gamification environment
promotes students’ problem-solving skills. International Journal of Emerging
Technologies in Learning, 17(5), 103-119.
Saenboonsong, S. (2018). The Effect of Project-Based Learning on Cloud Computing toEnhance Collaborative Skills. [Online]. [cited 2023 February. 15]. Available from:http://papers.iafor.org/wp-content/uploads/papers/cher-hongkong2018/CHERHongKong2018_43473.pdf
Siegle, D. (2010). Technology: Cloud Computing: A Free Technology Option to Promote
Collaborative Learning. Gifted Child Today, 33(4), 41-45.
Sullivan, M., Kiovsky, R. D., Mason, D. J., Hill, C. D., & Dukes, C. (2015). Interprofessional
collaboration and education. AJN The American Journal of Nursing, 115(3), 47-54.
Swacha, J. (2021). State of research on gamification in education: A bibliometric survey.
Education Sciences, 11(2), 69.
Vockley, M. (2007). Maximizing the Impact: The Pivotal Role of Technology in a 21stCentury Education System. [Online]. [cited 2023 February. 8]. Available from:https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED519463.pdf
Contact email: ssiripon@aru.ac.th

ISSN: 2189-101X

670

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Undergraduate Research and Grant Applications: Access and Barriers at
a Transnational University

Heather L. Morgan, University of Utah Asia Campus, South Korea
Allison Segal, University of Utah Asia Campus, South Korea

The Asian conference on Education & International Development 2023
Official Conference Proceedings

Abstract
Undergraduate research is an important opportunity that students should take advantage of.
The benefits of undergraduate research have been proven many times, showing benefits toboth the students and faculty who participate. Research grants have been an important part ofincreasing participation in research by overcoming the cost barrier, however, other barriers
still exist. In this study we examined obstacles preventing students from taking part inundergraduate research at a transnational university. An online survey was sent toundergraduate students at the University of Utah Asia Campus (UAC) to assess theirawareness of and interest in undergraduate research. The anonymous survey was advertised
to all undergraduate students at the beginning of the semester and 8% of the population
responded. The data collected was analyzed by looking for key themes and organizing
responses into categories. The results of the survey showed a large increase in willingness toconsider research projects at the end of the survey compared to the beginning. Six perceived
barriers were also identified by the participants: lack of ability, lack of knowledge, time,money, lack of interest, and difficulty. Lack of time and ability were the most common
response to why participants did not participate in research. Presenting information about
how to plan and complete research projects along with information about research and grant
opportunities could improve undergraduate participation. UAC departments should also
consider revising curriculum to integrate research discussions and projects.

Keywords: Undergraduate Research, Access, Barriers, Transnational Universities

iafor
The International Academic Forumwww.iafor.org

ISSN: 2189-101X

671

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Introduction
The benefits of undergraduate research have been thoroughly researched, but many barriers
still exist. Multiple studies have shown that students’ knowledge, skills, and understanding
increase when they are involved in research (Awong-Taylor et al., 2016; Kolokithas &Calderón, 2018; Peachey & Baller, 2014; Wayment & Dickson, 2008). They also learn how
to collect and analyze data, as well as better understand source material. Thorough research is
required in any research project. With the student being more personally involved they are
more inclined to look deeply at the issue and seek out the knowledge they need (Peachey &Baller, 2014; Wayment & Dickson, 2008). They also develop a stronger sense of
independence, involvement, and persistence (Awong-Taylor et al., 2016; Kolokithas &Calderón, 2018; Rosas Alquicira et al., 2022). The individual growth and learning process
benefits the students while in their undergraduate programs and after they graduate. Student
engagement increases with participation in research and once they graduate, their experiences
improve their opportunities both in applying to graduate schools as well as in their careers(Awong-Taylor et al., 2016; Brew & Mantai, 2017; Wayment & Dickson, 2008). However,even with all these benefits, not all students have equal access to, or participation in,undergraduate research opportunities. This study investigates undergraduate students’
understanding of, and perceived barriers to, undergraduate research at the University of Utah
Asia Campus, a transnational university.
Historically, undergraduate research has only been available to select students mainly in
Science, Engineering, Technology, and Math (STEM) majors (Brew & Mantai, 2017;
Peachey & Baller, 2014). Many types of studies and programs have been implemented to try
and resolve this issue. One such study focused on psychology programs and determined fivebarriers to students becoming involved in undergraduate research, such as lack of knowledge,lack of publicity, and unequal access. By targeting these barriers, they were able to see almost
triple the amount of student involvement in two years, and 94% faculty involvement(Wayment & Dickson, 2008). Another study surveyed academics at an Australian university
to determine what they perceived as barriers (Brew & Mantai, 2017). They found thatstructural barriers, differing attitudes, and resources were all impeding access. While somebarriers remain the same between universities, unique universities need to conduct research todetermine the specific struggles their students and faculty face. For the purpose of this study
unique will be defined as a university or college that has a non-traditional population in termsof race, age, socioeconomic status, cultural background, or primary language spoken. Under
this definition the University of Utah Asia Campus (UAC) is a unique university and needs
research in order to tailor programs to its unique student population.
Research has been done at UAC before. Jordan (2022) looked at the specific situation of
UAC and how the unique mix of cultures and backgrounds affects both learning and teachingat a transnational university. For the purposes of this study transnational university will beusing the same definition as Jordan (2022), describing a university that combines multiple
cultural identities into a new “transnational” environment that often differs from thesurrounding area. The initial struggles of starting courses and departments in UAC’s earlyyears are described, as well as changes that were noticed throughout the early years.
Comparisons between the more typical main campus located in Salt Lake City and the unique
campus in Incheon, South Korea were analyzed, and specific needs were identified thatdiffered between the campuses. The unique population at the Asia campus faced different
barriers and required different assistance than the population at the main campus. However,the different understanding and potential barriers to undergraduate research were not

ISSN: 2189-101X

672

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

considered in Jordan’s research. Therefore, this survey sent to a sample of undergraduate
UAC students will fill an important gap in the current literature and increase ourunderstanding of the challenges facing students at transnational universities.
Methods
An online questionnaire was developed using Qualtrics to assess an undergraduate’s
understanding of undergraduate research opportunities and the perceived barriers toparticipating in undergraduate research. The survey consisted of 17 questions which wereaccessed remotely through a QR code. Students could receive different questions depending
on previous answers. The survey was made up of four sections: demographics, interest in
research, personal eligibility, and opportunity awareness. A consent cover letter was shownas the first page of the survey. Participants could end the survey at any time and were notrequired to answer any questions. The survey was advertised to all undergraduate students at
UAC through professor participation, school sponsored events, and flyers placed in the
hallways. The QR code on the poster linked to the online survey. It was open for four weeks
and participants could respond at any time and in any location with internet access.
Qualitative data was exported from Qualtrics and analyzed after the survey had closed.
Eleven questions were multiple choice and six were free response. Answers to the freeresponse questions were categorized by matching similar and duplicate answers. For
questions asking about nationality and undergraduate major answers were only grouped
together if they indicated the same country or major. For questions asking about perceived
barriers the answers were grouped into seven categories. Answers to the question “Why did
you not apply for a grant?” were grouped into eight categories. The questions about
perception of eligibility and difficulty aspects of the grant application process did not receive
sufficient answers to be included in the analysis.
Results
UAC had 530 undergraduate students enrolled for the Spring 2023 semester, of which 45
participated in the study (8%). The participants were mostly South Korean nationals (81%)
between the ages of 18-25. Over half the participants were female (60%) and over half werein their first year of school (63%). Eight of the nine undergraduate majors at UAC and four
countries were represented. These demographics are similar to the overall demographics at
UAC. Roughly 80% of UAC undergraduates are ethnically Korean with Korean passports.
The remaining 20% of UAC undergraduates are considered international students with the
majority of these students holding US passports. Approximately 85% of incoming students
are aged 18-21.

ISSN: 2189-101X

673

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

#

%

Age

<18
18-19
19-20
21-22
23-24
24-25
25+

0
15
14
9
1
1
0

0
38
35
23
3
3
0

GenderMale
FemaleNon-Binary/3rd

13
24
3

33
60
8

Nationality

South Korea
USA
CanadaVenezuela

30
5
1
1

81
14
3
3

Year in School

Freshman
25
63
Sophomore
1025
Junior3
8
Senior2
5
Table 1: Demographic information of all participants in the study.
The survey included two questions about intention to participate in. One was placed at the
beginning of the survey and addressed previous consideration of participating in a research
project. Participant responses to this question showed that 58% had previously considered
completing a research project. At the end of the survey participants were asked about theirintention to participate in research in the future. For this question 96% responded that theywould consider doing research in the future. Responses of “Yes” and “Maybe” were counted
as being willing to consider participating in research.

Figure 1: The difference between participants’ willingness to consider participating inresearch at the beginning of the survey and at the end.

ISSN: 2189-101X

674

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Six common barriers were identified by the participants; time (26%), lack of ability (22%),lack of knowledge (13%), money (9%), difficulty (4%), and lack of interest (4%). Of these,time and lack of ability were the most commonly cited reasons for not completing a research
project with a difference of only 4% between the two categories. Five responses were put inthe category ‘Other’ as they did not have a commonality with the rest of the responses. The
Other category included responses such as a language barrier, too focused on academics, andissues working with others.

Figure 2: Breakdown of the responses identifying perceived barriers in each category.
UAC has an office for undergraduate research grants called UROG. When asked about grants
and grant opportunities 45% of participants responded that they had heard of UROG. Eleven(11%) selected maybe, with 45% saying that had not heard of UROG. A few moreparticipants were aware that UAC offers undergraduate research grants with 53% saying yes.
However, 24% of participants selected that they did not think they are eligible to apply for
research grants. Only three participants had ever applied for a research grant at UAC, with
two receiving the grant. Answers to the question “Why did you not apply for a grant?” weregrouped into five categories; lack of knowledge (25%), unprepared (35%), lack of interest(15%), missed the deadline (10%), and other (15%). The most common reason, with 35% ofparticipant responses falling this category, was that the participant felt unprepared to apply.
Discussion
The results of this study show that simply being introduced to the idea of undergraduate
research can improve the desire to participate in research. At the beginning of the survey only
58% of students selected that they had ever considered participating in a research project.
Most of these students who had not considered research were freshman (81%). This accounts
for approximately half (52%) of the total freshman participants and suggests that freshman
were the most likely to have not considered a research project. However, at the end of thesurvey 96% of participants responded that they would consider doing a research project in the
future. This suggests that discussing research even generally with students can inspireconsideration of participating in research. Therefore, research discussions should be
implemented at the very beginning of the college experience.

ISSN: 2189-101X

675

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Increasing consideration of new students is important as the low desire of freshmen toparticipate in research could be detrimental to the students. Research projects require timeand effort to plan and execute. If undergraduate students are not thinking about research fromthe beginning, they may not be able to complete a research project, denying them theopportunity to develop skills and build their resumes. Undergraduate research has beenshown to help students develop better technical and personal skills, analytical, logical, andindependent learning skills, and increase persistence and problem-solving skills (Kolokithas& Calderón, 2018; Wayment & Dickson, 2008). Research also builds a student’s professional
qualifications and increases student retention and engagement (Brew & Mantai, 2017;
Peachey & Baller, 2014).
A correlation between awareness of university specific opportunities and willingness toconsider participating in research was also shown. Among the participants who selected they
had considered a research project at the beginning of the survey 68% responded that they had
heard of the undergraduate research opportunity grant (UROG) program. Seven participants(32%) who had previously considered a research project had not heard of UROG. This
indicates that unless undergraduate students being made aware of opportunities forundergraduate research and the benefits to them, can increase their likelihood to participate inresearch. Conversely, undergraduate students who are not introduced to research
opportunities and their benefits may not have the desire to do research thus creating a barrier.
However, more research with a larger sample size is needed to solidify the significance of
these findings. Specifically, future research needs to explore a large sample size intransnational universities.
In the meantime, undergraduate institutions can begin to use these findings for
implementations. Electronic communication, social media, presence at events, andinformation sessions are all ways that a university can promote research. Department
involvement can augment these efforts by sharing the information to students in classes andother required meetings. This will reach students that do not have time or desire to attend
extracurricular events.
Many studies have been done on the effectiveness of integrating research into existing
curriculum and adding additional courses and workshops (Awong-Taylor et al., 2016;
Kolokithas & Calderón, 2018; Peachey & Baller, 2014; Wayment & Dickson, 2008). Thesestudies found that integration of undergraduate research into existing curriculum increases
student involvement, reduces structural barriers, and increases students’ confidence in theirability to do research. These benefits relate to the perceived barriers of time and lack ofability. Increased involvement and increased confidence can help overcome these barriers.
However, these studies were done at traditional universities and focused on STEM fields. To
account for the differences that can be found at a transnational university as well as include
non-STEM fields, the incorporation of courses, presentations, and workshops may need to be
adjusted.
Lack of awareness, time, money, and lack of ability were identified as perceived or actual
barriers to undergraduate research in previous studies (Brew & Mantai, 2017; Wayment &Dickson, 2008). However, the high percentage of students who identified time as a perceived
barrier is less commonly found in the previous studies. For example, this study found thattime was the number one barrier, whereas Brew & Mantai (2017) found it to be third on thelist. In their study it was also linked together with the financial barrier and was not assessed
separately. It is unclear as to why time is considered a more significant barrier in this study.

ISSN: 2189-101X

676

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Further investigation should be done to identify whether the time correlates with transnational
universities, small universities, or other possible variables.
Other barriers that have been found in previous studies such as unequal access, uneven
incentives, and lack of resources were not identified in this study. This could have been due
to the small sample size or the nature of a transnational university and the difference inchallenges and needs compared to more traditional universities. More research is needed to
discover why certain barriers were so commonly cited in this study and other barriers were
not identified.
Almost half (48%) of responses addressing perceived barriers fell into the categories of timeand lack of ability with 26% and 22% respectively. The students expressed that they did not
feel confident in their ability to manage their time or successfully complete a research project.
Whether the students actually lack the skills or only lack confidence needs more investigation.
However, this concern for time management and skills can be addressed at the curricularlevel by offering and/or requiring course(s) where the learning objective is to conduct
research, such as a Research Methods course. These courses designed to educate students
about research help introduce research skills as well as force learners to manage their time toinclude research projects.
Additionally, research workshops, Q&A sessions, presentations, and clubs would help
students learn about research skills and time management outside of the classroom.
Incorporating targeted research training in these areas could help build both competency andconfidence in undergraduate students. Faculty involvement is also essential in these efforts togive the students the support they need. When research is taught and promoted, there will be
an increase in awareness of opportunities and participation in research. And as faculty are
actively encouraging and mentoring research, then students can build the confidence to doresearch (Brew & Mantai, 2017; Wayment & Dickson, 2008). The students will also have theknowledge of who they can turn to for questions and assistance when embarking on research.
As these findings have shown, when students are introduced to the idea of research they canbe inspired to participate in a research project. Awareness of university specific opportunities
is important in cultivating that desire. Integrating research into existing courses and offering
workshops, presentations, and other opportunities outside of classes also fill the role ofdiscussing research and can encourage students to complete their own research projects. At
the same time they are being introduced to the idea of research they are also being taught the
research skills and confidence needed to participate in research.
Limitations
This study was completed at a small transnational American university in Asia with an 80%
ethnic minority undergraduate student population. While many of the perceived barriers
identified (lack of awareness, money, lack of ability, and time) were the same as previous
studies (Brew & Mantai, 2017; Wayment & Dickson 2008), some barriers such as unequal
access and limited faculty availability were not seen that are normally present at otheruniversities (Wayment & Dickson, 2008). The variability in barriers identified could be dueto the small size and transnational nature of the campus, however more research is needed toconfirm the causation.

ISSN: 2189-101X

677

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

The prevalence of certain barriers, specifically time, was also different from previous studies(Brew & Mantai, 2017). This could have been due to cultural differences, perceived support,
or sample size. Additional research is needed to identify why time was more prevalent in thisstudy than previous studies.
While it is important to acknowledge that this is one of the first studies on research barriers to
examine a transnational higher education environment, the number of participants waslimited. Due to the small sample size, a duplicate survey of this study at the same smalltransnational university or the same survey at a larger transnational university would be
beneficial in confirming these findings.
Conclusion
In conclusion, undergraduate students are not completing research projects simply because of
low desire. There are diverse barriers undergraduate students face, and it is important to
identify which barriers exist. Participants of this survey identified barriers such as a lack oftime, lack of ability, lack of knowledge, money, difficulty, and a lack of interest. There areseveral possible methods of addressing these barriers. Barriers such as a lack of knowledge
and lack of interest can be overcome by general discussions about research. Many students
have not been introduced to the idea of doing a research project or are unaware of theopportunities available. They have not had the chance to learn about the benefits ofundergraduate research or considered how they could participate themselves. This study
showed that a general discussion on research and the opportunities available increased desire
to do research.
Once they have learned about research, they still face perceived barriers such as a lack oftime and a lack of ability. Universities and faculty can work together to bring the information
to the students and teach them how to successfully complete a research project. Integrating
research into existing courses and holding presentations, workshops, and Q&A sessions
outside of classes all contribute to overcoming these barriers.
Overcoming these barriers and encouraging students to participate in research will bringmany benefits to undergraduate students. They will learn valuable skills such as technical andpersonal skills, analytical, logical, and independent learning skills, and increase persistence
and problem-solving skills (Kolokithas & Calderón, 2018; Wayment & Dickson, 2008). They
will also be better prepared for attending graduate school and for employment (Rosas
Alquicira et al., 2022). Student engagement and retention will also increase (Brew & Mantai,2017). There are many benefits to undergraduate research, however barriers exist that need to
be overcome for undergraduate students to be able to receive these benefits.

Acknowledgements
This work was supported by funding from the Undergraduate Research Opportunity Grants at
the University of Utah Asia Campus awarded to Heather Morgan. We would also like tothank Allison Segal for her mentorship and support.

ISSN: 2189-101X

678

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

References
Awong-Taylor, J., D'Costa, A., Giles, G., Leader, T., Pursell, D., Runck, C., & Mundie, T.
(2016). Undergraduate research for all: Addressing the elephant in the room. Council
on Undergraduate Research Quarterly, 37(1). https://doi.org/10.18833/curq/37/1/4
Brew, A., & Mantai, L. (2017). Academics’ perceptions of the challenges and barriers to
implementing research-based experiences for undergraduates. Teaching in Higher
Education, 22(5), 551–568. https://doi.org/10.1080/13562517.2016.1273216
Jordan, J. (2022). Grounded literacies in a transnational Wac/Wid Ecology: A Korean-U.S.
study. The WAC Clearinghouse.
Kolokithas, A., & Calderón, O. (2018). A how-to guide on Bringing Undergraduate Research
to community and Technical Colleges. Journal of Microbiology & Biology Education,
19(3). https://doi.org/10.1128/jmbe.v19i3.1653
Peachey, A. A., & Baller, S. L. (2014, November 30). Ideas and approaches for teachingundergraduate research methods in the Health Sciences. International Journal of
Teaching and Learning in Higher Education. Retrieved October 7, 2022, fromhttps://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1093728
Rosas Alquicira, E. F., Guertin, L., Tvelia, S., Berquist, P. J., & Cole, M. W. (2022).
Undergraduate Research at Community colleges: A pathway to achieve student,
faculty, and Institutional Success. New Directions for Community Colleges,2022(199), 63–75. https://doi.org/10.1002/cc.20524
Wayment, H. A., & Dickson, K. L. (2008). Increasing student participation in undergraduate
research benefits students, faculty, and Department. Teaching of Psychology, 35(3),194–197. https://doi.org/10.1177/009862830803500307

Contact email: hlmorgan100@gmail.com

ISSN: 2189-101X

679

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

ISSN: 2189-101X

680

Official Conference Proceedings

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Learning Motivation of Adult Learners During the Transition to Fully Online Learning
Due to COVID-19
Bao Zhen Tan, Institute for Adult Learning, Singapore
Yee Zher Sheng, Institute for Adult Learning, Singapore
The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023
Official Conference Proceedings
Abstract
This paper investigates the learning motivation amongst adult learners in Singapore, during
Singapore’s transition to fully online learning due to COVID-19. A mixed methods study
consisting of two phases was conducted from 2020-2021: (i) Phase One is an online survey
which consists of a series of Likert-scaled items that ask respondents to reflect on their mostrecent online learning experience, which includes their motivation and learning strategies, aswell as their perspectives on online learning; (ii) Phase Two is a combination of interviews
and focus group discussions to gather information on the respondents’ experiences and theircollective suggestions. The relationship between their learning motivation and learning
strategies with their intention to participate in further online learning was examined using theTechnology Acceptance Model (TAM) framework. The findings were supported by thequalitative research conducted in Phase Two of the study. Other key findings indicate that
adult learners in Singapore are embracing the fact that online learning is becoming a norm,
but some challenges remain. Firstly, there is a need to ensure that both the learners and Adult
Educators (AEs) possess the relevant digital skills. Findings also imply that AEs and training
providers should pay attention to the following when designing an online learning
programme: (i) to allow learners to enjoy the element of social interaction; and (ii) to provide
learners with prior support to familiarise with the functions and use of learning platforms.
Keywords: Lifelong Learning, Online Learning, Learning Motivation, COVID-19

iafor
The International Academic Forumwww.iafor.org

ISSN: 2189-101X

681

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Introduction
Singaporeans had been no strangers to online learning long before COVID-19 hit Singapore
in 2020. Back in 1997, the Singapore government had launched a ‘Master Plan for IT in
Education’ to enhance teaching and learning through IT and online learning at both the K-12
and tertiary levels (Hung et al., 2003). The adoption of online tools was widespread but slow,
and varied in extent. This changed after the SARS outbreak in 2003, during which schools
and campuses nationwide were shut down for a week. The education sector in Singapore
moved to adapt its business continuity plans after SARS was brought under control, with the
installation of learning and content management systems as well as the implementation of ‘elearning weeks’, so as to prepare staff and students in the event that such closures were tohappen again (Chandran, 2011).
Online learning came with its own challenges, regardless of the length of the online courses.
An exploratory study conducted by Guan, Ding and Ho (2015) on the adult learners studying
in Institutes of Higher Learning (IHLs) in Singapore found that several factors impact theeffectiveness of online learning methods, which helped to informed and improve institutional
online learning strategies. These include “technical training for the learners, improved
infrastructure by the institution, and the use of localised examples and cases” (cited in Tan &Sheng, 2022). When asked to rank-order critical factors for online learning effectiveness,factors highlighted by the participants include self-discipline, study materials, instructor,
network access and stability, their own technical competence, technical support from a
helpdesk, as well as their classmates. These experiences are echoed by other studies focusedon the challenges that adult learners face in online learning (e.g. Kara et al., 2019). All these
imply a need for an improvement of the curriculum and the development of the instructors’capability, especially in areas related to content development and the use of appropriate
pedagogical activities for online learning environments.
Besides the challenges, other aspects of online learning such as motivation, self-directed
learning capabilities, and support networks were also studied. For example, Regmi and Jones(2020) found that the motivation to learn online was influenced by contextual factors such as
time and flexibility in course design, while other studies considered the need to develop selfdirected learning (e.g. Manganello, et. al., 2019; Rostaminezhad, et. al., 2013). The relevanceof course design and content were also considered when studying the learners' levels ofsatisfaction with the course, which will also impact motivation and completion rates (Park &Choi, 2009). These factors point to the importance of online learning design. Lastly,interaction and collaboration were also found to be essential for learner success in several
other studies (e.g. Kara et al., 2019; Manganello et al., 2019; Regmi & Jones, 2020).
However, these studies were conducted pre-COVID-19 when classroom learning was still thedefault mode and online learning was an alternative to gradually ease into, which is usually ata minimal level. With the rapid spread of COVID-19 and the ensuing closure of schools
globally, learning institutions were pressured to quickly transition all in-person learning
activities to fully online learning.
Singapore entered the Circuit Breaker period on 7 April 2020, which lasted for almost twomonths and was defined by a stay-at-home order to prevent escalating COVID-19 infections.
During this period, the Higher Education and the Training and Adult Education sectors werepressured to accelerate their digital transformation as they only had one to two weeks totransit to fully online learning, due to the physical closure of their teaching and training

ISSN: 2189-101X

682

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

premises. Much needed to be learnt about the experiences of the learners during thistransition.
Aims and Objectives
A variety of rapid snapshot polls and surveys had provided some early insights into theimpact of COVID-19 on the education sector, but many have taken the institutional or faculty
view (e.g. Grajek, 2020; Chan, 2020). As the unit of analyses was limited to institutes ofhigher learning and was primarily concerned with students in degree-granting programs, it isuncertain if the findings from these studies are generalizable to the general adult learner. This
study filled the gap by looking at adult learners in non-degree online learning activities, suchas those in corporate environments. In addition, as online learning proliferates and mostprofessions become increasingly dependent on technological work tools, it is crucial tounderstand how to improve the use of such technologies for the best outcomes, particularly
outcomes pertaining to learning.
In this paper, the following research questions will be addressed:
RQ1: How has the transition to fully online learning due to COVID-19 impacted the adultlearners?
RQ2: What are the challenges adult learners experience in their transition to fully online
learning due to COVID-19?
RQ3: What motivated learners to continue to participate in online learning?
RQ4: What are the implications of the challenges (or the absence of) from transitioning tofully online learning?
Methodology
A mixed-method research study consisting of two phases was conducted from September
2020 to February 2021 (Figure 1).

Figure 1: Phases of the study
Phase One comprised a 20-minute online survey (n=1,354) that collected data on adultlearners’ perceptions of online learning, motivation, experiences, and challenges. The survey
included a series of Likert-scaled items that probed participants to reflect on their most recent
online learning experience since the implementation of the Circuit Breaker in Singapore on 7

ISSN: 2189-101X

683

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

April 2020, their perspectives on online learning, their learning strategies, as well as theirlearning motivations. Data collection started on 9 September 2020 and ended on 23
September 2020.
Phase Two was a combination of 60-minute interviews (n=15) and 90-minute focus group
discussions (n=4, with a total of 30 participants), with a purposive sample drawn from Phase
One. Phase Two aimed to gather more in-depth information on adult learners’ experiences
and their collective suggestions, which included suggestions that could improve potential
participation in online learning. Data collection started on 6 October 2020 and ended on 5
February 2021.
The participants were recruited from a combination of sample listings: (i) learners of training
programmes conducted by the Institute for Adult Learning (IAL), an institute that provides
training for adult educators in Singapore; (ii) past participants of surveys conducted by the
research division of IAL; (iii) members of the Adult Education Network (AEN), a community
for training and adult education professionals in Singapore to connect, collaborate and learn;and (iv) Continuing Education and Training (CET) students from an autonomous university
in Singapore. All individuals aged 21 and above within this sample frame received aninvitation via email to participate in the study. A total of 1,354 individuals participated in the
study. Table 1 provides a breakdown of the participants.
Sample listing
Proportion
Past survey participants
15.1%
IAL Learners
3.2%
Adult Education Network (AEN)
77.8%
SUSS CET students
3.8%
Gender
Proportion
Male
57.1%
Female42.9%
Age
Proportion
Below 309.8%
30- 3925.8%
40- 5445.9%
55 and above
18.6%
Highest Qualification
Proportion
Secondary and below
2.9%
Post- secondary
20.5%
Degree and above
76.6%
Employment status
Proportion
Employee
65.4%
Self- employed/ Freelancer
21.3%
Unemployed
6.9%
Out of labour force
6.4%
Table 1: Profile of selected interviewees
Key Findings
In this section, we present the keys findings from both phases of the study in response toresearch questions one to three. The final research question will be addressed in the
concluding section of this paper.

ISSN: 2189-101X

684

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Impact of the transition on adult learners: The adult learners in Singapore by and large
reported that they accepted that online learning is here to stay. This finding was evident
across a range of data and questions, but most clearly indicated in the following survey
question illustrated in Figure 2. Over three quarters of the respondents indicated they would
continue to learn online.

Figure 2: Proportion of adult learners who intend to participate inonline learning in the future (%)
There also has been a fourfold increase in the preference for 100% online learning from 5.6%
to 26.4% (Figure 3), since the implementation of the Circuit Breaker. At the same time, thepreference for blended learning (i.e. programmes combining both classroom and online
learning) has risen from 56.9% to 66.6%, while the preference for 100% classroom-basedlearning has decreased sharply from 37.4% to 7.0%.

Figure 3: Preferred mode of learning before and after the Circuit Breaker
This finding corroborates another study conducted by the IAL regarding the impact of themove to fully online learning on adult educators (AEs). Among the AEs surveyed in thisstudy, 51% intends to frequently use online platforms for their work even after the pandemic,
more than 90% shared that their organisations intend to replace a majority or all of their faceto-face programmes with online offerings in the short-term (i.e. currently to the next year),and 92% felt that the training and adult education sector in Singapore is likely to remain in a
predominantly online model in a post COVID-19 world (Tan et. al., 2020).
In terms of the benefits from the transition to online learning, as perceived by the learners, theconvenience of online delivery was highlighted in the survey where close to 90% of the
respondents liked online learning due to the convenience of not having to travel (Table 2).
The convenience was also highlighted by both participants of the focus group discussions(FGD) and the interviewees in phase two of the study. Despite the general preference forface-to-face learning, nearly all the participants in phase two talked about the convenience of
doing the courses in the comfort of their own homes. Saving travel time to the training
premises meant that they will be able to get more time for self-study:…the journey going there and coming back home is three hours, and actually that’s
my three hours lesson. So, the good thing is I save the time, instead of travelling, I canrelook at the lecture and then do my own self-study. (Bryan)

ISSN: 2189-101X

685

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

For those engaged in asynchronous learning, the convenience of being able to complete thelearning activities at times of their choosing, at their own pace, as well as at a venue of theirown convenience meant that they can take breaks whenever they wished. This also ties inwith the concept of flexibility, which was brought up by both the survey respondents andinterviewees:…it’s very useful and I miss a certain, like a certain chapter or something I did notunderstand, I can just go back and re-watch it. (Cherry)
Flexibility in completing the learning at different times or by breaking the training
down into multiple sessions. (survey respondent, 69720)
These benefits imply that including a portion of asynchronous learning within an online
learning programme might be a better approach, which is corroborated by data on theeffectiveness of the programme as reported by survey respondents (Figure 4). Generally, themajority of the respondents (85.2%) found that the online learning programme that they had
attended was effective to some extent, in terms of improving their skills or knowledge.
However, it is worth noting that there higher proportion of adult learners who attended
programmes with a mixed mode of delivery (i.e. synchronous and asynchronous) reportingthat the online learning programme is effective.

Figure 4: Effectiveness of online learning programme
Lastly, survey respondents also shared that being in a familiar environment made they feel
relaxed (Table 2).
It was very convenient because I did not have to travel
87.8%
I felt relaxed because I was in familiar environment
41.5%
I was able to have some face-to-face interactions through25.6%
video-conferencing
Table 2: Top 3 factors that adult learners liked about online learning
While it seems that there is general acceptance among adult learners that online is here tostay, there were considerable challenges for many thus indicating that there is much to be
improved.
Challenges: Data from the study illustrates that adult learners experienced considerable
technological challenges while learning online. Be it the learners or instructors, discomfort orlack of familiarity with the required technologies or applications used was reported as atechnological challenge by more than a quarter of the survey respondents (Figure 5).

ISSN: 2189-101X

686

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Figure 5: Technological challenges pertaining to technological expertise
In terms of technological infrastructure, more than a quarter of the survey respondents
complained that there were inadequate digital replacements for face-to-face collaboration
tools (Figure 6), which indicate the lack of such features in currently available learningtechnologies (and sometimes the lack of instructor’s technological expertise to utilise suchfeatures). A small but nevertheless worrying proportion of the survey respondents reported
limited or no access to a reliable digital device (11.4%) or a required specialised software(16.6%). These are important infrastructure issues that need to be addressed, as they willaffect social mobility and widen the gap between the information rich and the information
poor.

Figure 6: Technological challenges pertaining to technological infrastructure
Design issues pertaining to the lack of interaction and the difficulty to stay focussed or
motivated was also high amongst challenges experienced (Table 3). Regardless of the modeof delivery, a concerning number of survey respondents had issues with the lack ofinteraction between learners (51.0%) and between learner and trainer (43.0%). About 4 in 10
also reported that the course lessons or activities did not translate well with the online
environment, mainly for those in synchronous mode.
Synchronous

Asynchronous

Mixed

OverallDifficulty focusing on or paying
attention to on-screen / online
instruction or activities

42.0%

40.5%

40.5%

41.3%

Personal motivation / desire tocomplete coursework

21.3%

33.1%

23.4%

23.7%

Not being able to see classmates
Lack of interaction among classmates

19.6%
53.7%

16.9%
44.6%

18.4%
49.3%

18.8%
51.0%

Lack of interaction among learners
and facilitator / trainer / lecturer

43.3%

45.3%

41.4%

43.0%

Not able to get required attention fromthe facilitator / trainer / lecturer

17.7%

20.9%

17.1%

18.0%

Course lessons or activities thathaven’t translated well to a virtualenvironment

40.1%

35.1%

40.1%

39.4%

Table 3: Challenges pertaining to design issues

ISSN: 2189-101X

687

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Learning Motivation and Strategies: To investigate why learners continue to participate inonline learning, this study adapted questions from an oft-researched theoretical model of user
acceptance and usage of technology known as the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM)(Davis, Bagozzi, & Warshaw, 1989). TAM in its original form suggests that an individual's
motivation to use technology is influenced by the perceived ease of use, perceived usefulness,
as well as the attitude toward using the system in question. The model posits that perceived
ease of use directly influences both perceived usefulness and also the individual user's
attitude towards system use (Figure 7). Questions were adapted from the studies conducted
by Venkatesh & Davis (2000) and Masrom (2007), and validated with a pilot study.

Figure 7: Technology Acceptance Model (Davis, Bagozzi, & Warshaw, 1989)
Generally, respondents gave a good rating for each item of the three TAM dimensions used inthis study (Likert-scaled items of 1= “Strongly Disagree” to 5 = “Strongly Agree”), with themean scores ranging from 3.17 to 4.00 for the individual items. On average, the perceived
usefulness of online learning was rated the lowest among the three dimensions.

Figure 8: Mean scores for TAM items
On the other hand, questions on learning motivation and learning strategies were adaptedfrom the study conducted by Lee et. al. (2019). Respondents generally rated lower in terms ofcollaboration with their classmates (Likert-scaled items of 1= “Never” to 5 = “Always”), as
compared to the other two dimensions (Likert-scaled items of 1= “Strongly Disagree” to 5 =“Strongly Agree”).

ISSN: 2189-101X

688

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Figure 9: Mean scores for learning motivation and strategies
Two logistic regression models were employed, one to investigate the relationship between
learning motivation and learning strategies with the intention to participate in online learningin the future, the other to examine the impact of these factors on the effectiveness of online
learning i.e. an improvement in skills and knowledge; TAM dimensions were included inboth models. The outcome variables were recoded into a dichotomous variable – for intention
to participate in online learning in the future, a reported intention to participate in future
online learning (at least 4 on a Likert scale of 1 = “Strongly disagree” to 5 = “Strongly agree”)
is recoded as “1” and no intention was recoded as “0”; for effectives of online learning, areported improvement in skills and knowledge at least to some extent (at least 3 on a Likert
scale of 1 = “Not at all” to 5 = “A great deal”) is recoded as “1” and no improvement wasrecoded as “0”.
Figure 10 shows the odds ratios of the logistic regression models that were run. Adult
learners employing learning strategies such as self-directed learning or collaboration withclassmates in their learning, are more likely to report that their participation in the online
learning programme helped them in improving their skills and knowledge. However, thosewith better attitudes towards online learning are less likely to report that the online learning
programme was effective in improving their skills and knowledge.
On the other hand, those with better attitudes towards online learning and higher learning
motivation are more likely to pursue online learning in the future. Although insignificant,collaboration with classmates had a negative impact on the intention to pursue future online
learning, which may imply that current experiences of online learning might be lacking interms of interaction with classmates, as supported by the challenge shared by more than halfof the survey respondents regarding the lack of interaction among classmates (Table 3).
Perceived ease of use of the online learning system and the perceived usefulness of online
learning have significant impact on both the effectiveness of online learning and intention to
pursue further online learning in the future.

ISSN: 2189-101X

689

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Figure 10: Logistic regression results
Conclusions and Recommendations
Due to the sudden transition to fully online learning during the Circuit Breaker, many training
providers in Singapore were insufficiently prepared to provide for a smooth experience forboth learners and trainers. As shared in the previous section, about 4 in 10 reported that thetraining activities were not translated well to a virtual environment – many were transitedfrom classroom to online wholesale using available applications such as Zoom and Microsoft
Teams, which do not fully meet the needs of conducting online courses. Additionally, many
AEs lack the experience in online teaching and therefore use inappropriate learning design.
This resulted in the following issues when they face learners with varying levels oftechnological capability: (i) lack of engagement; (ii) lengthy lessons; and (iii) lack of support
for learners with technical difficulties.
There also seems to be an expanded role for AEs. Firstly, they must now also play the role ofa fluent user of the technologies that are required for online learning, and exploit the various
functions available within the systems to conduct their courses and engage their learners.
They also now need to be curators of asynchronous learning, in order to shorten thesynchronous lessons and provide the learners with the flexibility in the time and pace at theylearn (Tan et. al., 2021). Next, they need to become 24/7 facilitators for learners, byproviding technical support or pre- and post- lesson tutorials on the use of the required
technologies for learners who less tech-savvy. Lastly, they need to be innovators offacilitation and delivery, so as to devise strategies to maintain the attention and engage theirlearners, as it becomes more challenging in a virtual environment due to the various
challenges highlighted in the previous section.
The findings from this study have provided useful insights on how to sustain the transition toonline learning after the COVID-19 pandemic, by addressing the challenges that have been
identified. The fact that both the perceived ease of use (of the online learning system) as wellas the perceived usefulness of online learning have significant impact on both theeffectiveness of online learning and one’s intention to pursue further online learning, also
highlights the importance of improving the learner’s experience and design of the learning
system and the course, in order to sustain online learning post-pandemic.
Moving forward into the future where online learning will be the norm, there is a need for thefollowing main areas to be improved: (i) the online learning system, (ii) the learners’

ISSN: 2189-101X

690

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

experience; and (iii) the trainers capability and learning design (Tan et. al. 2021). To tackle
these, we have made the following recommendations:1) There is a need for providers to adopt an intuitive Learning Management System thatcovers all training needs. While the urgency to switch to fully online learning during the
Circuit Breaker may have robbed training providers of the time to make proper
adjustments to their courses (especially for organisations that do not already offer online
learning programmes), it is important that necessary time, talent, and infrastructure should
now be allocated to digital transformation in preparation for the expected permanent shift
to online learning. One key step for them to take in order to stay sustainable in the sector
and the future economy will be to make long-term investments in innovative teaching andlearning technologies and methods, so as to improve their courses and the delivery ofthese courses for better learner experiences and learning outcomes (Tan et. al., 2020). A
good solution would be a one-stop learning platform for learners, which minimises theneed for learners to locate information from different sources (Tan et. al., 2021). In
addition, extra support should be provided for learners with low technological capability
during the use of the system, and the AEs’ technological capability should be
strengthened via continuing professional development.
2) There is a need to help learners to adapt to online learning. Firstly, ensuring that thelearners possess the relevant digital skills should be a key focus. There should be more
effort and initiatives by the government to help adults (especially the seniors) in
Singapore take the digital leap and gain basic digital skills (Tan & Sheng, 2021). Other
support that can be provided to the learners include the creation of online learning
communities for learners to make connections with fellow online learners, providing
opportunities for active social interaction, providing guidelines on how to develop a timemanagement strategy, and providing physical classroom and resources for individuals
who lack access to technological equipment or internet access (Tan et. al, 2021).
3) The quality of design and facilitation of online learning should be improved. Some ways
to improve this include striking a balance between synchronous and asynchronous modeof learning so as to provide learners with the flexibility that they enjoy about
asynchronous learning, planning for hybrid mode of delivery as there is increasing
preference for this, sharing of resources and best practices among the AEs, and lastly
setting clear expectations on learner participation, the use of the online platform, andtimeline (Tan et. al., 2021).
Delay in the release of the initially planned sample frame (owing in part to data protection
policies) caused the pool of participants to be heavily skewed with a high proportion of AEN
members (61.9% of the 1,702 respondents) who tended to be highly educated professionals.
This caused a high proportion of the respondents with a highest qualification of degree andabove (61.1%), as opposed to the national proportion (among Singapore residents aged 25
years and over) of 33.0% in 2020 (Department of Statistics Singapore, 2021). Given thesample in this study (online learners who are for the most part well educated professionals),some of the findings from this study are perhaps not surprising. Findings may be skewed dueto the lack of representativeness of the sample, and the generalisability of the findings to thegeneral adult learner in Singapore may be limited. Any follow-up studies must therefore
ensure more representation from other learner profiles and backgrounds, in order to address
the current limitation of this study and provide a more rounded picture.

ISSN: 2189-101X

691

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Acknowledgement
We would like to give our special thanks to the other members of our research team, A/P
Helen Bound and Ms Siti Nur Sabrina Binte Hardy, for their contributions to the study interms of implementation and qualitative data analyses.

ISSN: 2189-101X

692

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

References
Chan, T. (2020, August 19). Students’ experiences and perceptions of transitioning to full elearning during the COVID-19 pandemic. Teaching Connection.
https://blog.nus.edu.sg/teachingconnections/2020/08/19/students-experiences-andperceptions-of-transitioning-to-full-e-learning-during-the-covid-19-pandemic/
Chandran, R. (2011, 17 March). National University of Singapore’s campus- wide e- learning
week. NUS Centre for Instructional Technology.
https://blog.nus.edu.sg/citations/2011/03/17/national-university-ofsingapore%E2%80%99s-campus-wide-e-learning-week/
Davis, F., Bagozzi, R., & Warshaw, P. (1989). User Acceptance of Computer Technology: A
Comparison of Two Theoretical Models. Management Science. 35. 982-1003.
Grajek, S. (2020, April 3). EDUCAUSE COVID-19 QuickPoll Results: Help for Students.
EDUCAUSE Review. https://er.educause.edu/blogs/2020/4/educause-covid-19quickpoll-results-help-for-students
Guan, C., Ding, D., & Ho, K.W. (2015). E-Learning in higher education for adult learners in
Singapore. International Journal of Information and Education Technology, 5(5),348-353.
Hung, D., Tan, S., & Chen, D. (2003). IT Integration and Online Learning in the Singapore
Schools. Educational Technology, 43(3), 37-45.
Kara, M., Erdoğdu, F., Kokoç, M., & Cagiltay, K. (2019). Challenges faced by adult learners
in online distance education: A literature review, Open Praxis, 11(1), 5–22.
Lee, J., Song, H., & Hong, A. (2019). Exploring Factors, and Indicators for Measuring
Students’ Sustainable Engagement in e-Learning. Sustainability. 11. 985.
10.3390/su11040985.
Manganello, C., Falsetti, C., & Leo, T. (2019). Self-Regulated Learning for Web-Enhanced
Control Engineering Education. Educational Technology & Society, 22 (1), 44–58.
Masrom, M. (2007) Technology Acceptance Model and E-Learning. 12th International
Conference on Education, 21-24 May 2007, Brunei Darussalam: Universiti Brunei
Darussalam, 1-10.
Park, J.-H., & Choi, H. J. (2009). Factors influencing adult learners' decision to drop out or
persist in online learning. Educational Technology & Society, 12 (4), 207–217.
Regmi, K., & Jones, L. (2020). A systematic review of the factors – enablers and barriers –affecting e-learning in health sciences education. BMC Medical Education (2020)
20:91.
Rostaminezhad, M.A., Mozayani, N., Norozi, D., & Iziy, M. (2013). Factors Related to Elearner Dropout: Case Study of IUST Elearning Center 2nd World Conference on
Educational Technology Researches – WCETR2012.

ISSN: 2189-101X

693

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Tan, B. Z., Chen, Z., Watermeyer, R., & Niederpruem, M. (2020). Online Learning: The New
Norm in a Post-COVID-19 World. Singapore: Institute for Adult Learning.
DOI:10.13140/RG.2.2.12761.75368
Tan, B. Z., Sheng, Y. Z., Bound, H., & Sabrina Hardy (2021). Adult learners’ perception of
online learning due to COVID-19. Singapore: Institute for Adult Learning.
DOI:10.13140/RG.2.2.23178.95687
Tan, B. Z., & Sheng, Y. Z. (2021). The Adult Learners’ Perception of Online Learning Due
to COVID-19. Singapore: Institute for Adult Learning.
DOI:10.13140/RG.2.2.28589.00482
Tan, B. Z., & Sheng, Y. Z. (2022). Professionals’ Experiences with The Transition to Fully
Online Learning Due to COVID-19. PAPER PRESENTED AT the Twelfth
Researching Work & Learning (RWL-12) Toronto International Conference, Virtual.
https://drive.google.com/file/d/1KjgEvjbbwOZwy5VQEh3vEHijtZKwUXkg/view
Venkatesh, V. & Davis, F.D. (2000) A theoretical extension of the technology acceptancemodel: Four longitudinal field studies. Management Science. 46(2), 186- 204.

ISSN: 2189-101X

694

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings“People Are Poison” – A Case Study of Chinese Young Adults’ Printed Clothes as
Linguistic Landscape From Wearers’ Perspective
Ruijie Li, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR
The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023
Official Conference Proceedings
Abstract
Printed clothes have been treated as a special type of mobile linguistic landscape and wearing
these clothes can be regarded as a conscious communication act. Previous studies have paid
their attention on producers and printed clothes themselves, but wearer is also an essential
step which should not be ignored in forming printed clothes as linguistic landscapes. In thisstudy, wearers, as the "second" decision in printed clothes that they choose from existing
printed texts to express themselves were explored, to see how different social and linguistic
factors influence the final presentations of printed clothes. Applying an ethnographic
approach, twenty three private items were collected from six Chinese young adults who are
now locating in three global cities: Shanghai, Hong Kong, and London, and interviews wereconducted for exploring the agency of buying and wearing texts on their bodies. This paper
gives a glance of young Chinese adults choosing or not choosing to wear clothes with texts toexpress their own identities, and how sociocultural factors lead to the results that Chinese, as
their first language, is absent in this communication act. Finally, I suggest that the final
presentations of these printed clothes do not only reflect wearers’ own language and cultural
ideologies but also globalization of English from economic and cultural perspectives.
Keywords: Printed Clothes, Linguistic Landscape, Globalization of English

iafor
The International Academic Forumwww.iafor.org

ISSN: 2189-101X

695

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

1. Introduction
Printed clothes have become media of conveying information about culture and identity.
Jaworski and Lou (2021) claimed that language elements displaying on people’s body haveformed a special type of mobile linguistic landscape in the urban areas, including clothes,
tattoos, bags, and so on. Being carried by their wearers, these moving languages build aconnection between public and private, and they could be seen as an essential part forindividual’s identity formation and public presentation.
Previous studies related to T-shirts have looked at language policy related issues, especiallyfor local varieties printed on T-shirts (Coupland 2010; Järlehed 2019). This type ofcommunicating actions can be regarded as local identity formation, and a challenge to thestandard variety in these areas. Recently, studies have also seen these printed language
elements on T-shirts as a special kind of moving linguistic landscape. Not only the designers
or producers’ thoughts but also wearers’ agency play an important role in the representationof them in urban space (Jaworski and Lou 2021). Caldwell (2017) built up a comprehensive
framework for language elements presented on body as a mode. Wearing these clothes can bepotential speech acts. However, most linguistic related studies about language printed on Tshirt started from the clothes themselves, to some extent, from the designers’ perspective.
They paid much of their attention on how language elements were designed to present on Tshirts as the platforms. Although wearers’ agency also determines the representation in public
space, abundant ethnography work is required to explore the role of wearers’ agency inwearing printed T-shirts as a communication act, which makes studies from wearers’
perspective are limited.
This study looked at agency behind purchasing and wearing printed clothes. It aimed to
explore these language elements on clothes, mainly T-shirts from a wearers’ perspective, tosee how situational factors and wearers’ own ideologies shape the final presentations ofwords carried by individuals, as a bottom-up language practice. An ethnographic approach
was applied that firstly, three to five items with language elements were collected from six
participants from 20 to 25 years old, following with semi-structured interviews related totheir opinions on purchasing and wearing these items. This study will provide a different
perspective for treating printed clothes as linguistic landscape, and how younger Chinese
treating printed clothes as an expression of themselves.
2. Wearing T-shirts as self-expressions of identities for younger generations
Studies related to printed clothes mainly focused on T-shirts. T-shirts have become
communicative media and index of language ideology and wearers’ identities (Jaworski andLou, 2021). According to Armani (quoted in Harris, 1996, cited in Caldwell, 2017), one of
the most famous fashion designers, T-shirt is an anti-status symbol that the rich and the poor
can be put on the same level with the white cotton surface. This feature young generations
tend to pay more attention on fashion and have more aspiration in expressing themselves. Tshirts are not just pieces of clothes but mobile, multimodal, and highly accessible
communicative media (Järlehed 2019). They provide semiotic affordance for scripts(Caldwell 2017). Different from other types of mobile texts on human bodies, such as tattoos,
printed T-shirts do not afford such long permanence and they could be largely determined bytheir wearers. For wearers, they are self-conscious linguistic signs which tie wearers andthese texts, texts and the surrounding environment, wearers and the surrounding environment
together (Goffman 2017; Caldwell 2016).

ISSN: 2189-101X

696

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Before treating printed clothes as a type of mobile linguistic landscape, most studies explore
from language policy aspect and paid their attention on local varieties printed on T-shirts as alocal identity formation, and a hybrid form of standard variety and local varieties printed on
T-shirts to some extent forms a challenge to official languages of the society. Coupland (2010)
looked at T-shirts produced and sold by a small local company in Wales. Local variety
printed on T-shirts can be regarded as a bottom-up language practice which revealed local
cultural values. The creations related local Wales variety are mostly ironic and these textual
representations show the local identity and antagonism of the top-down official language
policies. Järlehed’s (2019) study focused on T-shirts produced in Galician and Basque. Codemixing of standard variety and local varieties revealed a mix identity for local people. These
texts dealt with issues related to local language policies and traditional understanding of local
culture in a rather humorous way (“rurban”, which refers to rural + urban). It provides a
critical stance for local people and fosters them to rethink the value of local culture and urban“coolness” rooted in modern western Anglo-Saxon pop culture brought by globalization.
Using the hybrid of standard variety and local varieties, together with urban youth register on
printed T-shirts exhibit the complicated situation in language policy and this type of“imperfect” language displaying challenges standard language ideology and elaborates withlocal language, culture, as well as identity.
Globalization of English is one factor which reflect the social and political trend within theculture on T-shirts (Seargeant 2009). As a result of British colonial empire and economic,
military, and political dominance of the United States, English has set its status as a global
language (Ferguson 2012). In this case, English has composed a picture as a seemingly
ubiquitous language in the world. It further influences the English dominate language policy
in international business entities. However, it also brings various problems, such as cultural
homogenization. Globalization of English represents cultural influence as a unidirectional
flow, and it shows a vector of cultural “Americanization” (Pennycook 2003). Currently,
English is no longer a singular clearly bounded entity that indexes a specific, determinant
identity. It portrays the recipiences of western cultural goods and consumers become passive
and unreflecting in this process (Ferguson 2012). New hybrid cultural forms and hybrid
identities and cosmopolitan sensibilities have been put forward. They are usually mixed withEnglish which is no longer bounded with certain identities. With the spread of Neoliberalism,
market mechanism also organizes individuals’ activities, including its governing and selfgoverning capabilities (Rojo 2018). Although it seems that individual have opportunities tochoose the language they use, market mechanism as an underneath factor has transformed
individuals’ language choice imperceptibly.
This kind of values conveyed by English scripts is discussed in Curtin’s (2008) study of
linguistic landscape in Taipei. Those English scripts in public spaces were designed to be
seen as visual presentations mainly perform symbolic functions. As mentioned in interviews
with local residents, they may not be able to comprehend the content of English but the visualform of English indexes the certain quality and identity of the products. Using these productwill index the identity of users as “educated, youthful, fashion, and worldly”. As language
elements appearing in a language environment other than English, those English scripts act as“ethnic” roles, and “reterritorialize” image of English-speaking culture which indexes valuesof English as modernity, wealth, fashion, and freedom (Iwabuchi 2002).
Different from these studies which looked at these T-shirts from a producer and designer’s
perspective, Jaworski and Lou focused on mobile texts themselves. They collected data frompedestrians wearing printed clothes with texts in the streets in Shanghai, Hong Kong, and

ISSN: 2189-101X

697

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

London. The term “wordswewear” was put forward to summarize this category of mobile
semiotic landscape. Texts on clothes and being carried to different public spaces by wearers
reveal the interface of private and public space. Also, as mentioned before, wearing printed
T-shirts with texts can be seen as a conscious language practice, so these printed T-shirtsemphases human agency in this semiotic practice. These words worn on individuals’ bodies
may target or diffuse certain audience, even if they are looking at themselves in the mirror.
Studying these texts can help us understand the power of self-expression. They index theawareness of others, and visible or potential with any possible groupings in the urban public
space.
3. Printed T-shirts as a Mode
In Caldwell’s (2017) study, corpus of printed T-shirts were built with visual data from online
catalogue. They were treated as interactions between wearers and the T-shirts as a type of
conscious speech act. Different from hanging in the wardrobe or windows on the sides ofstreets, wearing on ones’ body make the wearer as affordance of text and wearers visually
articulate the meaning of elements on the T-shirts. The representation of texts and images on
T-shirt can be seen as a specific communicative mode. Based on Systemic Functional
Linguistics (Halliday and Matthiessen 2004) and Multimodality (Kress and Van Leeuwen2020), a taxonomy of printed T-shits was built for different elements appearing on a printed
T-shirt. These texts with different linguistic features on T-shirts are oriented with certain
functions according to human agents. Projections, labels, and icons are three main features
which construct the lower level of the taxonomy.
Projection is usually realized by a single clause (Caldwell 2017, 136). These short clauseprojecting on t-shirts function as Mental or Verbal process, so the role of wearers here isSenser or Sayer of the texts. The result of the projection is the wearer says/thinks the content
of the text. For example, wearer wears a jacket (figure 1) with “never mind” and a sad teddy
bear to show his or her depressed situation. The feature of label is realized through adjective,a single noun or noun group (except proper noun or noun group). Texts can also function as
the value of the wearer. These texts displaying on clothes “label” the wearer, and the attitudes
or description could be either positive or negative (139). They are potential to be read as thewearer is xxx (printed texts) and these communicative acts are more like self judgements towearers. Proper noun or noun groups printed on T-shirts care categorized as icons. These
texts denote to specific objects or persons (139-140). One of the most frequently appear types
of items with icons is souvenir, which creates physical connections between wearers andthese proper names. This type of texts usually creates an emotive Mental Processes, such as“I love Fall Out Boy (band)”. The icon feature is not just valuable for printed T-shirts, butalso important for broader themes, including globalization, mobility, mass production ofclothes, as well as youth culture and fashion culture. This taxonomy provides a systematic
framework for analysing T-shirts worn on individuals. It links specific linguistic features tofunctions and brings consciousness to the agents of these printed T-shirts.

ISSN: 2189-101X

698

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Figure 1. example of projection (Never Mind)
4. Research questions
The current study decided to focus on individuals’ agency and presentation of language
elements from wearers’ perspective, and how environmental factors shape the representationof language elements on clothes. There are two main research questions:
1. What are the preferred features of printed clothes for young adults (20-25 years old)?
2. What are the individual and environmental factors influence individuals’ presentationof the language elements in public spaces?
5. Methodology
5.1 Participants
There are six participants aged from 20 to 25 in this study, including three females and threemales. Chinese is their shared first language. They located in different cities with different
language environments when participating in this study. Three of them were in Shanghai, two
in Hong Kong, and one in London.
Age group has been considered in this study. As mentioned in Jaworski and Lou (2021),
young generations tend to pay more attention on fashion and have more aspiration in
expressing themselves. Identity formation and presentation play a more important rolecompared with other age groups. Another consideration for choosing this age group is
English proficiency. All participants are either university students or new graduates, whichguarantees a capacity for them to interpret most of the English elements, which provides ahigher possibility for them to wear these items as expressing themselves.
The three cities they located, also give three different language environments for this study.
Shanghai, as one of the major cities and the economic center in China, is a Chinese dominantenvironment. With the colonial history and biliterate and trilingual language policy nowadays,
Hong Kong can be seen as a bilingual society. For London, the capital of the UK, English is
the most frequently used language. These different language situations would help this study
explore the influence of different language environment on language choice and presentation
on clothes.

ISSN: 2189-101X

699

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

5.2 Data collection
Qualitative data collection was conducted in this study in two rounds. The first round wasquestionnaires with open questions related to participants’ individual items, such as clothes,bag, phone case, with language elements on them. Photos of the items themselves which canclearly show the language parts on the clothes, and photos of participants wearing the itemsin the public (if possible) were asked to be provided in the questionnaire. Then, the following
questions focused on why they purchased the items and how they wear the items, including
participants’ own interpretations of the language elements, reasons for purchasing them anddetailed situations that participants would like to wear them. Participants were asked tochoose three to five their private items to fill the questionnaire. At the beginning of datacollection, participants were asked to use three to five their “favorite” items, because it may
indicate that they have possibly interpreted with the language parts when they decided to buy
and wear them. However, during the collecting process, it was found that there were much
fewer items with language elements from participants than I thoughts. Some participants canonly find two items and some participants provided five items with the same brand logo in
the front. Data from these participants were eliminated from this study because limited
number or types of clothes may not reveal their authentic situations and opinions about
language on clothes. In this case, the instructions of questionnaires were modified as three tofive items with language elements. With this requirement, twenty-three items were collected
in total and six participants who were able to provide more than three items were selected forthe further interviews for the second-round.
In the second round, based on the information provided by interviewees, some further
questions related to the general situation of one participant were asked. For example,
participant A provided three items with English only, questions like “have you noticed thatmost printed T-shirts using English on them?”, “why do you think it happens?”, “will you
buy clothes with Chinese on them and why?” were asked during the interview. Eachinterview took about fifteen to twenty minutes. Questions for the interviews were mainly
from three perspectives, whether they would pay attention on language elements whenpurchasing, whether they care about others read the language elements, proportions ofdifferent languages they prefer to buy and why. Since all participants have comparatively
high English proficiency, interviews were conducted in English. Sometime participants may
feel hard to express their opinions, Chinese was allowed to support their expression, andEnglish translations of Chinese part has been double checked with participants.
5.3 Data analysis
Qualitative data for photos of clothes and questionnaire answers and interviews wereanalyzed separately. Photos of clothes will be analyzed based on the framework put forward
by Caldwell (2017). Texts on T-shirts were categorized into three main types of text featuresand discussed how different types of text interact with wearers and function variously.
Different codes printed on clothes were also paid attention to when categorizing the collected
data. Different features of texts on clothes were labeled to see the general preferences for allparticipants as Chinese young adults and participants’ individual preferences. The tableshows the general information of collected items has been shown in Table 1. Participants arelabelled as surname initial + given name initial (for example Nancy Wang is shown as WN)
and items has been labelled by numbers.

ISSN: 2189-101X

700

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Thematic analysis was applied for responses in questionnaires and follow-up interviews.
Themes related to language practices and ideologies were identified in questionnaire
responses and transcripts of interviews. Then the identified themes were refined andinterconnections among all participants were build. Themes were analyzed based on
Huebner’s (2008) framework for language analysis of linguistic landscapes. Huebner
elaborated this comprehensive framework from settings, participants, to presentation of
linguistic landscapes for analyzing linguistic landscape from different angles. The analysis of
responses and interviews provided evidence for how different factors influence the display ofthese language elements on clothes, and they helped to reveal the trend of preference related
to text on clothes in Chinese younger generations, as well as the factors of individuals andenvironment that influence their choices.
6. Results: Wearing Printed clothes as a conscious communication act
6.1 Avoid self-expressions on clothes
For younger generations, printed T-shirts have become an important media for selfexpression and culture conveying (Jaworski and Lou, 2021). These written texts are silent but
literate as the same time. As Caldwell (2017) clamed, the interaction between text andaudience can be seen as conscious speech act (p.127), and wearers may probably use theseclothes as media to release the messages to other. From participants responses, allparticipants confirmed that they will check the content of the text parts before they
determined to buy them, and they will consider the occasions for wearing these printed
clothes. In this case, purchasing and wearing clothes with texts on them are conscious actions
for wearers. LS mentioned in the interviews that she would like to buy these items withlanguage elements because of two features, their overall designs and printed texts as culturalsymbols and self-expression. They did care about different codes and contents displaying on
their bodies, because when they wear these clothes to the public space, audience may be able
to receive the messages on clothes. These messages will be conveyed by the wearers, andthey become part of wearers’ own identities. Different participants mentioned different
checking points. Some would check whether the overall content of the texts fit their own
value while one participant said he just checked whether there are some “strange” words onthe clothes, such as language taboos, which may be not polite to wear in the public. From thisconsciousness of picking language elements, it could be found that when some is wearing the
texts, a connection has been built between the texts and wearers’ own identity presentation.
For audience who have received the messages on the clothes, these texts will probably be
regarded as externalization of wearers own personalities.
However, because wearing clothes with texts can be seen as releasing some messages to the
public, and for audience, these massages would be thought as reflections of the wearers
themselves, during data collecting process, it was found that some participants avoided
buying and wearing clothes with languages elements. One participant said usually he will
only buy clothes with language elements as logos (LB), and three participants showed theirattitudes that they prefer not to purchase clothes with language elements, even without
elements as brand logos (LS, LE, WE). Design could be a reason for their rejection for
clothes with texts. One participant said that she prefers simple designs without any
decorations because “These designs look more mature, and they can show the high quality of
the fabrics” (LE).

ISSN: 2189-101X

701

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Reasons provided by the other three participants were related to “expression” itself, either
about the contents that they were able to choose or the behavior of expression itself. LB andYS claimed that they don’t like the contents of language elements usually displayed on
clothes. “Most texts printed on clothes are either very negative or very positive, such as ‘life
sucks’ and some prep talk (figure 2). These texts do not fit my own personal values”, as YS
said. He also mentioned about the designs related to text elements themselves. “I can’t accept
clothes with texts only. Texts and some images together is ok, but only several lines is not.
You can’t see the designs for these clothes. They’re too straightforward.” From this statement,
it can be found that wearers, or consumers, have the freedom to choose the texts they would
like to display on their bodies, but their choices are limited within the corpus provided byproducers and designers. Another participant gave a clear attitude about the rejecting of theact of wearing printed clothes as expression, “I don’t think I need to use wearing clothes withtexts as a way for releasing any messages” (WE). Some other evidence was also found during
the data collection process that when asking participants to provide items at the beginning,some participants can only find no more than two items with language elements, including all
their personal items, such as clothes, bags, shoes, and cases of phone, tablet, and laptop.
Common explanations from these participants were “I don’t like items with texts” (about
design) and “I don’t want to be ‘read’ by others in the public”. Since these texts build
connections with the wearers, they become parts of their identity formation in the public.
Those people who reject to wear texts may because those texts may cause misunderstandingof their own personalities, or they just do not want themselves to be stared by strangers who
are able to interpret the texts in the public.

Figure 2. example of prep talk (optimistic thinking)
6.2 Absence of Chinese
For all six participants, Chinese is their shared mother tongue, and for both Shanghai andHong Kong, Chinese is official language. However, from collected items, only five of them
have Chinese elements, including two with both English and Chinese on them. As one of themost common used languages among these participants, it was quite strange to find theabsence of Chinese on clothes in collected data.
Among these five items, three of them are Chinese band related merch. For the other two, onewith the Chinese character “中国” (China) and the other with the Chinese character “囍”.
During interviews, LS, who is now in London, said that “because I am now in an Englishspeaking environment, English is the most commonly used language here”. She also made

ISSN: 2189-101X

702

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

the inference that in Chinese Speaking areas there should be more items with Chinese basedon her own situation. However, this statement could not explain the large proportion ofEnglish in other five participants’ collected items, that they are in either Chinese-dominantenvironment or bilingual environment. Also, all participants said they had more clothes withEnglish texts than other languages, including two participants who only have clothes withEnglish. It was also interesting to find that when being reminded that most of their printed
clothes are English, several participants mentioned that “there should be more people in thestreet wearing clothes with Chinese”. In other words, they thought other people prefer to wear
Chinese printed clothes more than they do. They were more like uniform, such as T-shirtswith Chinese association names printed on them for members of student associations, or vests
for certain marathon campaigns. For these uniforms, or uniform-like clothes, these Chinese
names and titles printed on clothes represent more of a collective identity rather than
individual identity. For reasons behind this type of absence, from both the collected items andinterviews, it could be found that there are neither many shops selling items with Chinese nor
many participants would like to buy items with Chinese. When asking about participants’opinions about why they do not have many items with Chinese, two participants responded asthey did not see many items with Chinese texts in the shop (“Just simple didn’t see this typeof items that much”, LS; “in my own impression, there are not many shops selling clothes
with Chinese”, LB). Also, two of the participants mentioned about the designs of items they
have seen with Chinese, and they did not think these items have very high-quality design.
“Last time I saw some T-shirts with Chinese in a Chinese fashion brand shop, but I didn’t feellike I want to buy them. They are about Three Kingdoms. They just…do not fit my own tasteof clothes” (LB). YS also talked about his ideas related to design, that he thought that t-shirtswith only texts on them could not be counted as “design”. This situation may be cause by
globalization of business and mass production of clothes. These larger size international
business entities are more able to invest more in design which could be more attractive for
consumers. Also, as international companies, English as a global language is probably themost suitable choice for international market, which to some extent, may explain the higher
proportion of English texts in collected data. From another perspective, it could be seen as asocio-economic inequality and cultural homogenization as well (Ferguson 2012). With larger
proportion in the market, those international entities, to some level, “force” consumers to buy
clothes with English texts on them, which leave limited space for local business and texts inlocal varieties to survive.
Another factor influences wearers’ decision is audience. As discussed in previous session
about self-expression, being interpreted together with the texts will make wearers feelembarrassed and the texts may bring negative effects to themselves. When being in Chinese
speaking environment, Shanghai and Hong Kong, it raises the possibility for Chinese texts
being processed by strangers in public space. “It is quite embarrassed because everyone
understands Chinese. And most of the texts printed on clothes are related to, that kind of
subculture, very depressed ones. I am not a fan of them, and I don’t want others to think mein this way” (YS). A conflict between ideology and practice was also found in someparticipants, that they did not reject about purchasing items with Chinese, but when asking
whether they have bought any items with Chinese texts, they said no. Reasons behind therejection are similar to these mentioned in self-expression session, that they do not want tocatch strangers’ attention because of the printed texts, together with the limited choice for
Chinese texts printed on clothes.
For those who have items with Chinese, they were quite careful about the situation wearing
these items with Chinese. There two reasons for this situation which need to be more careful.

ISSN: 2189-101X

703

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

One situation is related to the T-shirt with “中国”(China) (figure 3) which is regarded as too
straightforward for wearer to wear it in public. YS mentioned in the interview that he would
only wear it for sporting and with elder generations. This item was a present from his aunt,
who used to be a basketball player of Chinese national team. In this case, from both thesource and the texts on this item, it enhances the national identity formation. Wearing it insituations except doing sports with his aunts and other family members gave him a sense offlaunting, which does not make him so comfortable.

Figure 3. 中国
The second one is the contents of items collected in this study are quite offensive in Chinese
culture community. In addition to the fact in both Shang Hai and Hong Kong, these Chineseelements can be interpreted by most of the people in public space, they are not quite
acceptable by Chinese speakers. For example, it is inappropriate to talk about death openly inthe public in Chinese speaking society because death is ominous in Chinese culture. One item
provided by participant is a T-shirt (figure 4) with the name of the band “暗狱戮尸” (The
Dark Prison Massacre), which is a Chinese death metal band. The texts are written in yellow,
very close to skin color, with red filled inside, which makes them looks like wounds. Below
is a picture with a person holding a knife surrounded by pieces of corpse. When I tried tosearch this item on Taobao, one the biggest online shopping website in China, the picture ofthis item had mosaic on it because of the bloody and violent elements. “I will only wear it
when I go to music festival, because that is where I would like to express myself. Only
people there can understand what is on the T-shirt” (WE).

ISSN: 2189-101X

704

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Figure 4. 暗狱戮尸
Another example is not about the content of the Chinese text but a Chinese character which isfunctioned more as a symbol. The character “囍” (double happiness) is usually used in
wedding ceremony in Chinese cultural society, and the color code should be red, or thecharacter written in gold with a red background. For this item (picture 5), the character “囍”
is written in black, which referred to an obsolete tradition of wedding for death. For Chinese
cultural society, red usually indexes happiness, which is usually used in wedding and Spring
Festival, and black and white is the color code index death, which is usually used in funeral.
Because of this, wearing “囍” written in black or white is ominous for people belong toChinese speaking society. The participant was attracted by the design when purchasing it, andthe brand of this item is mainly about gothic style, about death and horror. Using an
unacceptable color code for this character to some extent, shows a sense of rebellion which is
the main attracting point for the participant. However, when she brought the jacket backhome, her parents could not accept the design and asked her to remove the part with the black“囍” (figure 5).

Figure 5. removal of "囍"ISSN: 2189-101X

705

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

7. Conclusion
This study explores printed clothes with texts as linguistic landscape from wearers/agents’perspective. Both printed clothes and owners, as wearers’ opinions related to their opinions
on different languages printed on clothes were collected. Some texts perform informational
function, and they can be seen as an important part for wearers’ identity formation and selfexpression, which leads to the result that some people avoid wearing printed clothes. The
practice of language on printed clothes is determined not only by the wearers themselves but
also shaped by the globalized environment. These representation of texts on human’s body, tosome extent, is a reflection of globalization of English, as well as the capital behind thelanguage itself.
Acknowledgement
Many thanks to Prof. Prem Phyak as supervisor for providing academic support during thisresearch project. Thanks to all the participants for providing their personal items and sharing
their thoughts and opinions for this project.

ISSN: 2189-101X

706

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

References
Caldwell, David. 2017. "Printed t-shirts in the linguistic landscape: A reading from functional
linguistics." Linguistic Landscape 3, no. 2: 122-148.
Caldwell, David. 2016. "But they didn’t win the Super Bowl! Printed t-shirts as place/dresources." In Languages and Literacies as Mobile and Placed Resources, pp. 26-45.
Routledge.
Coupland, Nikolas. 2010. "Welsh linguistic landscapes ‘from above’and ‘frombelow’." Semiotic landscapes: Language, image, space: 77-101.
Curtin, Melissa L. 2008. "Languages on display: Indexical signs, identities and the linguistic
landscape of Taipei." In Linguistic landscape, pp. 261-277. Routledge.
Ferguson, Gibson. 2012. "English in language policy and management." The Cambridge
handbook of language policy: 475-498.
Goffman, Erving. 2017. Relations in public: Microstudies of the public order. Routledge.
Halliday, Michael Alexander Kirkwood, Christian MIM Matthiessen, Michael Halliday, andChristian Matthiessen. 2014. An introduction to functional grammar. Routledge.
Huebner, Thom. 2008. "A framework for the linguistic analysis of linguistic landscapes."
In Linguistic Landscape, pp. 78-95. Routledge.
Iwabuchi, Koichi. 2002. "Recentering globalization." In Recentering Globalization. Duke
University Press.
Jaworski, Adam, and Jackie Jia Lou. 2021. "# wordswewear: mobile texts, expressive persons,and conviviality in urban spaces." Social Semiotics 31, no. 1: 108-135.
Järlehed, Johan. 2019. "KILL BILBO: metrolingual play in Galician and Basque Tshirts." International Journal of Multilingualism16, no. 1: 59-78.
Kress, Gunther, and Theo Van Leeuwen. 2006. Reading images: The grammar of visualdesign. 2nd ed. London: Routledge.
Pennycook, Alastair. 2003. "Global Englishes, rip slyme, and performativity." Journal ofsociolinguistics 7, no. 4: 513-533.
Rojo, Luisa Martín. 2018. "Neoliberalism and linguistic governmentality." In The Oxford
handbook of language policy and planning.
Seargeant, Philip. 2009. The idea of English in Japan: Ideology and the evolution of a global
language. Multilingual Matters.
Stroud, Christopher, and Lionel Wee. 2006. "Anxiety and identity in the language
classroom." RELC Journal 37, no. 3: 299-307.

ISSN: 2189-101X

707

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Contact email: 1155166293@link.cuhk.edu.hk

ISSN: 2189-101X

708

Official Conference Proceedings

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Research on the Learning Effect of Statics Course by the Problem-Based Learning Method
Integrated With Design Thinking
Shyh-Chour Huang, National Kaohsiung University of Science and Technology, Taiwan
The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023
Official Conference Proceedings
Abstract
Statics is a mandatory course in the departments of mechanical engineering, aerospace, andshipbuilding, and it can be challenging due to its combination of mathematical and physicalconcepts that students have previously studied. Typically, traditional teaching methods forstatics focus on formula calculations and abstract concepts, which involve a significant
number of mathematical equations. This study utilizes the problem-based learning method
integrated with design thinking (DTPBL) to explore the teaching of the "Statics" course. The
results of this study show that incorporating DTPBL into the statics course enhanced students'
motivation to learn, enabled them to actively seek practical situational issues related to statics,
improved their problem-solving and innovation abilities, and fostered better interaction
between teachers and students.
Keywords: Statics, DTPBL, Learning Motivation, Engineering Education

iafor
The International Academic Forumwww.iafor.org

ISSN: 2189-101X

709

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Introduction
Learning motivation is an important key factor affecting students' learning outcomes.
Students with low learning motivation are less likely to concentrate during class and are lesswilling to participate in classroom discussions. After analyzing the reasons for low learning
motivation among students, it was found that the traditional one-way teaching method is a
key factor. Therefore, in order to improve the effectiveness of teaching, teachers should
understand how to motivate students' learning motivation and adopt effective teaching
methods to positively influence students' learning motivation, enabling students to be moreengaged in learning activities (Hofer, 2006). Therefore, it is very important to change thetraditional teaching methods and develop new teaching models to enhance students' learning
motivation.
Previous literature has proposed various solutions to address this issue, such as the impact ofteaching variations on students' achievement motivation (Huang and Duan, 2002) andcooperative learning (Wang, 2012). Problem-solving ability is an important indicator ofengineering students' learning outcomes. When students cannot link the course content withpractical problems, their interest in learning naturally decreases, and their learning motivation
cannot be enhanced. The traditional teaching method has long emphasized the teaching oftheoretical knowledge while neglecting the cultivation of understanding and problem-solving
ability in practical issues, let alone inspiring students' creative thinking. Therefore, this study
employs a problem-based learning approach with design thinking incorporated into theteaching curriculum to cultivate and enhance students' learning motivation andproblem-solving ability with creative thinking.
Problem-Based Learning (PBL) is mainly a student-centered learning model that focuses onpractical problems and situations for discussion. In addition to triggering students' learning
motivation, it can also connect classroom knowledge with life experiences, enhance students'
learning interest, and promote self-learning (Norman, Schmidt, 1992). Design Thinking starts
with human needs and seeks innovative solutions to various problems. Relevant research
results show that Design Thinking courses can promote adults' career development andimprove their ability to make self-changes (Burnett, Evans, 2016; Reilly, 2013; Lindsay,
2012).
Statics is a difficult course that includes mathematical and physical concepts that students
have learned before. The traditional teaching method is theoretical lecture using chalkboards,
without practical problem analysis and exploration of physical models. Problem-basedlearning has been studied since 2005 by introducing practical engineering problems into
engineering courses. The related research results show that compared with traditional
teaching methods, students are more motivated to learn (Al-Sarawi, 2005). In addition, a
study on the effect of design thinking on college students' learning motivation and learning
effectiveness showed that after incorporating design thinking into an electrical engineering
project course, students' motivation was significantly increased, and their interest in thecourse made it more practical-oriented, achieving an effective integration effect (Chang
Chia-Ming, Tamkang University, 2020). Therefore, problem-based learning with design
thinking can be used as a new innovative teaching model to enhance students' learning
motivation and creativity thinking in the field of engineering science.

ISSN: 2189-101X

710

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Research Methodology
The teaching method of this project's curriculum is mainly classroom lectures, supplemented
by problem-based learning group discussions. During the course, two practical problems will
be selected based on the course content: 1. "PBL Problem 1" for the design of a labor-saving
device system, and 2. "PBL Problem 2" for the design of a frictional force system. Throughproblem-based learning discussions, students will be trained in the ability to apply principles
of statics to solve and integrate engineering practical problems. This study will collectinformation and data on students' learning motivation and attitudes towards the course
through a "Learning Motivation Scale." The learning motivation scale used in the project
includes three main motivation components: value, expectation, and emotional value.
The scope of data collection required for this teaching practice research is one semester(2021-1 semester), with a teaching time of 18 weeks, including student backgroundinformation and their level of prerequisite knowledge. The related learning outcome data
includes test scores, participation in discussions, practical work scores, DTPBL report scores,
as well as student feedback data. Statics is a basic theoretical course, and the course isconducted by the teacher organizing PPT based on the content of the textbook for classroom
teaching. In addition to explaining the background of the course, the teacher must also
explain the derivation of formulas. After students have a certain level of statics foundation,
the DTPBL learning is conducted in the following course content, which is divided into twostages in the plan.
The first stage is conducted after teaching the principles of equilibrium of particle forces, andthe topic is "design of labor-saving device systems". This problem is an open practicalengineering problem in the field of particle force equilibrium, which is quite challenging forsophomore students. During the DTPBL process, the teacher guides the students to explore
the problem-solving direction and clarify the concept content and formula application inpractical engineering problems within the scope of this learning. Through this, students'
abilities to apply their knowledge of dynamic fundamentals to practical engineering
problem-solving and integration are cultivated. In addition, suggestions are provided on thegroup division method, and students conduct three weeks of group DTPBL discussions. In
the learning sheet, students are required to collect data, discuss, propose solutions, and share
their thoughts and feelings in groups according to the problem discussion framework. Eachgroup of students can discuss and analyze the problem they choose, propose initial solutions,and leave many reflections and impressions after completion. The second stage of PBL
learning takes place after teaching the principle of friction. The topic is "Design of Friction
Systems". After three weeks of group discussions, students fill out DTPBL reports. At theend of the semester, each group is arranged to present their results, including design steps,
how to choose the best design, how the selected design operates, design content, andconclusions. Students are also asked to conduct peer evaluations in their reports to understandthe design strengths and weaknesses of each group.
Results and Discussion
1. DTPBL Feedback FormIn the first stage of problem-based learning exercises, only preliminary discussions andsolutions were conducted. Students' views on problem-based learning were generally positive,
with 22.06% considering it ordinary and 77.94% considering it helpful or very helpful. This

ISSN: 2189-101X

711

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

was reflected in the qualitative data from the reflections and feedback in the DTPBL learningmaterials. After the midterm exam, when the course entered the topics of friction and rigid
body mechanics, the second stage of DTPBL practical engineering problems was practiced.
In addition to group discussions, each group was required to write a complete report andpresent it with a PPT at the end of the term, sharing their design results and accepting
challenges and evaluations from their classmates. According to the questionnaire statistics, inthe second stage of problem-based learning exercises, 7.34% of students considered it
ordinary, while 92.66% considered it helpful or very helpful. The results showed that at thisstage, due to a deeper understanding of problem-based learning, students' recognition andappreciation of its usefulness in their learning had significantly increased.
2. Learning motivation scale (pre-test, post-test)
To evaluate the effectiveness of the DTPBL project, a survey was conducted using the
Learning Motivation Scale tool on the students. 64 pre-tests and 62 post-tests were collected.
The following bar chart is a comprehensive result of a survey on the Learning Motivation
Scale. The average scores for each question are shown in Figure 1. The average scores for the
pre-test ranged from 2.90 to 4.15. The analysis is shown in Table 1. Figure 2 shows theaverage scores for the post-test, which ranged from 2.65 to 4.24. The analysis is shown in
Table 2.

average score

A-Value
4.15 3.78 4.1

5
4
3
2
1
0

A1

A2

A3

B-Expectation

C-Emotion

3.44 3.36

3.10

3.43 3.48

2.90 3.10 3.08 3.20

3.26 3.11 3.31

A4

B1

B2

B4

C2

A5

B3

B5

B6

C1

C3

C4

3.91 3.54

C5

C6

3.1

C7

question number
Pre-test

Figure 1. Average scores for each question in the pre-test questionnaire

average score

A-Value
5
4
3
2
1
0

4.23 4.22 4.24

A1

A2

A3

B-Expection

3.72 3.71 3.74 3.76 3.56

A4

A5

B1

B2

B3

C-Emotion

3.01 3.30

3.54 3.51 3.52 3.54 3.52

B4

B6

B5

4.0 3.86
2.65

C1

C2

C3

C4

C5

C6

question number
Post-test

Figure 2. Average scores for each question in the post-test questionnaire

ISSN: 2189-101X

712

C7

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Table 1. Analysis of average scores for the pre-test questionnaire
Dimension
Average
Value(question A1~A5)
3.77
Expect(question B1~B6)
3.18
Emotion (question C1~C6)
3.39
Reverse questionC7
3.10
analysis of high and low scoring questions
high scoring questions：
Question A1: "I think that learning 'statics' is quite important for the subsequent study ofmechanical engineering courses." Score: 4.15
Question B3: "I was able to solve the exercises on "Statics" textbook for problem on myown" Score: 3.48
Question C5: "In the 'statics' course, I care about whether or not I understand the content
taught by the teacher." Score: 3.91
low scoring questions：
Question A5: "I am very interested in the equilibrium of objects, and actively learn related
knowledge in 'statics'." Score: 3.36
Question B4: "I am confident that I can understand the most difficult part of the 'statics'
course." Score: 2.90
Question C3: "I am confident that I can achieve good grades in the 'statics' exam." Score:
3.11
reverse-scored：
Question C7: "I always feel anxious when I am taking the 'statics' course." Score: 3.10
Table 2. Analysis of average scores for the post-test questionnaire
Dimension
Average
Value(question A1~A5)
4.02
Expect(question B1~B6)
3.49
Emotion (question C1~C6)
3.66
Reverse questionC7
2.65
analysis of high and low scoring questions
high scoring questions：
Question A3: " I believe that the "Statics" course is important and quite useful for my future
work. " Score:：4.24
Question B2: "I am confident that I can learn the basic theory taught in 'statics'." Score:3.76
Question C5: "In the 'statics' course, I care about whether or not I understand the content
taught by the teacher." Score: 4.00
low scoring questions：
Question A5: " I am interested in the phenomenon of object equilibrium and actively learning
related knowledge on "statics". " Score:3.71
Question B4: "I am confident that I can understand the most difficult part of the 'statics"
Score:3.01
Question C1: "I always feel happy when I am taking the 'statics' course." Score: 3.51
reverse-scored：
Question C7: "I always feel anxious when I am taking the 'statics' course." Score:2.65
Then compare the changes in satisfaction with the pre-test and post-test, as shown in the radar
chart in Figure 3. Overall, the post-test score has improved compared to the pre-test.

ISSN: 2189-101X

713

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Evaluation of value: the average of questions A1~A5 is 3.77 to 4.02, slightly improved;
evaluation of expectations: the average of questions B1~B6 is 3.18 to 3.49, slightly improved;
evaluation of emotion: question The average of C1~C6 is 3.39 to 3.66, a slight increase; on
the reverse question: question C7 dropped from 3.10 to 2.65. Finally, according to the pre-test
and post-test learning motivation scale survey, after the introduction of DTPBL, the impact
on students' learning can be obtained as follows:
1. Students agree that statics is an interesting course significantly improved.
2. Significant improvement in students' acceptance of statics as a useful and practicalcourse.
3. Students' confidence in studying the statics course has improved significantly.
4. Students are more confident in learning the difficult content of statics.
5. Students can experience the fun of learning more in the course of statics.
6. Students are more focused on their studies in statics courses.
7. Students feel less anxious in the statics course.

A-value

B-Expectation
C7

A1

5

A2

4

C6

C-Emotion

A3

3

C5

A4

2
1

C4

A5

0
C3

B1
C2

B2
C1

B3
B6

B5

Pre-test

B4
Post-test

Figure 3. Radar chart comparing pre-test and post-test
In terms of learning outcomes, the average grade for the 2021-2 semester (the semester inwhich the project was implemented) was 73.95. The highest score was 93, the lowest was 50,
and there were 2 failures. The average grade for the 2022-2 semester was 73.39. The highest
score was 95, the lowest was 50, and there were 5 failures. The average grade during thesemester of project implementation increased by 0.76% (Figure 4), and the number of failuresdecreased to 3. The grade distribution for the two semesters is shown in Figure 5. There aremany factors that affect the average grades of a semester, and due to the implementation of
innovative teaching methods, the calculation of grades is different, making it difficult tocompare directly. However, from the qualitative feedback, it is clear that there has been achange in students' learning attitudes. This can also be seen from the survey on the
motivation scale for learning, where significant results are evident in terms of values,
expectations, and emotions.

ISSN: 2189-101X

714

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Statics Semester Grade
80

73.95

73.39

2021-2 semester

2020-2 semester

70
60
50
40
30

Figure 4. Statics Semester Gradestudents

Grade Distribution of the 2nd Semester ofthe Academic Year 2021-2
30
25
20
15
10
5
0

28
21

19

3

2
0~59分

60~69

70~79

80~89

90~100

grade distribution

Grade Distribution of the 2nd Semester ofthe Academic Year 2020-2

students)

23

22

25
20

14

15
10
5

6

5

0
0~59

60~69

70~79

80~89

90~100

grade distribution

Figure 5. Histogram of Statics Semester Grade Distribution(The Academic Year 2020, 2021)
Conclusions
The results of this study indicate that the introduction of DTPBL in the statics course has led
to enhanced student motivation for active learning. Students were able to actively seek out
practical issues related to statics and improve their problem-solving skills, while also
increasing interaction between students and teachers. The use of DTPBL also had a positive
impact on student motivation in terms of value, expectation, and emotion. However, some

ISSN: 2189-101X

715

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

students still found it difficult to participate in group discussions, possibly due to theirlong-standing habit of passive learning. Overall, students' efforts to adapt to the new teaching
method under the guidance of the teacher were apparent from their qualitative feedback. Due
to time, budget, and equipment constraints, PBL project design could only be presented in
written form and simulation. It may be possible to improve this in the future through the useof materials such as paper clay models or 3D printing. The results of this study demonstratethat the appropriate introduction of DTPBL in traditional courses can be an effective way to
improve teaching and should be promoted and applied to related engineering courses.

ISSN: 2189-101X

716

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

References
Al-Sarawi S. F. (2005), "Application of project/problem-based learning in microelectronics,"
New Trends and Technologies in Computer-Aided Learning for Computer-Aided
Design, A. Rettberg and C. Bobda, Eds., Springer, pp. 49-62.
Burnett W., Evans, D. J. (2016), Designing Your Life. Locus Publishing Company.
Chang, C.M., Master thesis, Department of Electrical Engineering and Robotics at Tamkang
University (2020), conducted a study on the impact of design thinking on college
students' learning motivation and learning outcomes - using the electrical engineering
department's project experiment as an example.
Hofer, M.A. (2006). Psychobiological roots of early attachment. Current Directions in
Psychological Science, 15, 84–88.
Huang, Y., Duan X. (2002), The Influence of Teaching Changes of Junior High School
Science Teachers on Students' Achievement Motivation - A Case Study, Science
Education.
Lindsay, O. (2012), Enhancing Career Development Agency in Emerging Adulthood: An
Intervention Using Design Thinking. Doctoral Dissertation, Graduate School of
Education, Stanford University.
Norman, G.R., Schmidt, H. G. (1992), "The psychological basis of problem-based learning:
A review of the evidence," Academic Medicine, 67(9), 557-565.
Reilly, T.S. (2013),Designing Life: Studies of Emerging Adult Development. Doctoral
Dissertation, Graduate School of Education, Stanford University.
Wang, J.S. (2012), An Action Research on the Influence of STAD Cooperative Learning
Method on High School Students' Attitudes towards Mathematics Learning, Master's
Thesis, Graduate Institute of Technology and Vocational Education, Taipei Universityof Technology.

ISSN: 2189-101X

717

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

ISSN: 2189-101X

718

Official Conference Proceedings

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

A Study on the Differences in Perspectives of Cyber-Bullying Between Korea and Japan
Yoo Kyung Son, Ewha Womans University, South Korea
Hwajo Lee, Ewha Womans University, South Korea
The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023
Official Conference Proceedings
Abstract
South Korea and Japan are the top IT powerhouses in East Asia. Teenagers are taking lessons
and forming social relationships such as peer relations through the Internet. Accordingly,
cyberbullying by teenagers is increasing and this is a serious social problem. In this study, we
focused on cyberbullying by teenagers, which commonly experience of Japan and South
Korea, and we analyzed the differences in perspectives of definitions, causes, and others. We
searched studies written since 2010(69 in South Korea and 33 in Japan), used keywords‘cyberbullying’ and ‘net Ijime’. In results, Studies of Japan defined cyberbullying as verbal
violence (smearing and slandering) using computers and mobile phones, leaking of false andpersonal information, and excluding someone from the group. South Korea added insulting
activities, intentionality and repeating to Japan's definition. Looking at the causes of thecyberbullying, Japan and South Korea acknowledging that there are personal, relational, andsocial factors, but there were some differences in specific contents. Studies of Japan arefocusing on the role of parents, the bystanders in the classroom, the ‘Ijime’ culture, andclimate of accepting ostracism as main causes. Meanwhile, Studies of South Korea are
discussing the impact of social networks such as parents' negative parenting attitudes andpeer groups strongly. By increasing opportunities for South Korean and Japanese researchers
to exchange cyberbullying research results and communicate about methods, it is expectedthat the damage of cyberbullying of teenagers in both countries can be reduced and healthy
culture and growth of Internet can be promoted.
Keywords: Teenagers, Cyberbullying, South Korea and Japan

iafor
The International Academic Forumwww.iafor.org

ISSN: 2189-101X

719

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Introduction
South Korea and Japan are the top IT powerhouses in East Asia, and the Internet andsmartphones are used as daily tools and essential resources for many members of society. In
particular, teenagers in both countries conduct most of their daily lives through the Internet
and smartphones. According to the 2022 National Youth Policy Institute (NYPI) report in
Korea, The 2020 Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications (MIC) paper in Japan, andthe results of the Meiko Network Japan 2019 survey, 98% of Korean teenagers and 90% ofJapanese teenagers own a smartphone. Also, 98% of Korean teenagers and 98.4% of Japaneseteenagers use the Internet, and 80.5% of Japanese teenagers answered that they use SNS.
Teenagers complete school education curriculum and obtain information through the Internet
and smartphones, and use them as an important means of peer and interpersonal relationships.
However, it was found that teenagers in both countries are in trouble due to the problem ofcyberbullying(Nam & Kweon, 2013; Cho, 2013b; Hara et al., 2021; Nishino, 2015).
The term cyberbullying was first used in 2000 by the Crimes Against Children ResearchCenter at the University of New Hampshire in the United States. In Korea, cyberbullying is
also referred to by various terms such as “Online Bullying” or “Cyber-Violence.” In Korea,
the “Act on the Prevention of And Countermeasures Agaionst Violence in Schools”(abbreviated as “the Act on the Prevention of Violence in Schools”) amended on November
19, 2014 defines cyberbullying as “Behavior in which students continuously and repeatedly
inflict psychological attacks on specific students using information and communication
devices such as the Internet and mobile phones, or spread personal or false information
related to specific students to make the other person feel pain”. In Japan, cyberbullying isdefined as “Actions such as uploading gossip, slander, or slander of a specific person on abulletin board of a website on the Internet through a mobile phone or computer, or by sending
e-mails, etc.” in “Investigation into the collapse of the support system for the Ijime problem”
announced by the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology in 2006
(Kim & Jeong, 2016; Adachi & Morimoto, 2011).
South Korea and Japan are currently accepting the ever-increasing problem of cyberbullying
and bullying of teenagers as a serious social problem, and are seeking ways to minimize thedamage caused by youth cyber bullying, which is becoming more sophisticated andsophisticated day by day(Kim & Han, 2020; Shin, 2017; Joo & Lim, 2017; Choi, 2014;
Utsumi, 2010; Takeuchi, 2012; Fuji & Yoshida, 2012). According to a survey by the Korea
Communications Commission and the Korea Internet & Security Agency, 29.2% of South
Korean teenagers responded that they had experienced cyberbullying, and 30.3% said thatthey had experienced being victimized. 8.7% of Japanese teenagers said they had also been
victims of cyberbullying(Hara et al., 2021).
Previously, the main behavior of cyberbullying was the act of spreading rumors using simple
messages or e-mails, or the act of harassing the opponent with slanderous words. However, in
recent years, the malice and intentionality of the purpose of the act have reached a serious
level, and the method of bullying has become so sophisticated and complex that it is difficult
to respond immediately from the outside and normalize and recover the victim(Nakamura &Teraguchi, 2016; Aoyama et al., 2018; Horiuchi et al., 2020; Nonaka & Morinaga, 2021). In
other words, the virtual world of the Internet and the characteristics of SNS, such as
anonymity, rapid spread, and instant feedback are used as a means for harassment(Nishiguchi& Toriumi, 2020). In addition, it tends to appear in the form of convergence with other typesof crimes such as sex crimes, stalking, abuse and violence, gambling and drugs(cho, 2017). It

ISSN: 2189-101X

720

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

was found that cyberbullying victim experience in adolescence brings physical, emotional,
and mental difficulties. Trauma can impact adulthood. As adolescence is an important stageof development, cyberbullying is a problem that requires social interventions(Horiuchi et al.,2020; Yang & Hong, 2016; Oh, 2013; Cho & Baik, 2021).
In this study, the reasons for choosing Korea and Japan particularly and looking at thedifferences in the direction and perception of cyberbullying in academia are as follows. Thisis because these two countries are liberal democracies located in Far East Asia and have acommon point of having capitalist economic ideology and economic structure. In addition,
there are many similarities between the youths of the two countries (e.g., high school
dependence, entrance exam-oriented education, extreme stress due to academic work, anomie
experience between Confucian family structure and open social structure, etc.). Lastly, it isbecause the society accepts the cyber bullying problem of teenagers as a serious social
problem. In addition, as mentioned above, both countries are experiencing social difficulties
due to the recent increase in cyber bullying among teenagers, and they are highly willing tofind solutions. In this study, we focused on cyberbullying by teenagers, which commonly
experience of Japan and South Korea, and we analyzed the differences in perspectives ofdefinitions, causes, and others. Through the results, it is expected to find differences andsimilarities in the perspectives on cyberbullying in the academia of the two countries. It will
provide the academic world of both countries with an opportunity to interpret the cyberbullying problem from a broad perspective, and provide a positive opportunity to find an
effective way to rescue teenagers suffering from cyberbullying and grow into healthy
members of society.
The research question is:
1. How do South Korea and Japan define cyberbullying?
2. What are the causes of cyberbullying in South Korea and Japan?
MethodIn Japan, the term 'Netijime' is mainly used. Therefore, we searched for papers with the
keyword ‘Net Ijime’ in the title on the J-STAGE site of ”Scientific and Technical Electronic
Journal Platform System of Japan”, and among them, 33 studies that analyzed the definitionand cause of occurrence were selected and analyzed. In RISS, a Korean academic search site,
all papers with the keyword ‘cyberbullying’ in the title were found since 2010, and 69 papers
that explored the cause of cyberbullying were selected and analyzed. Meta-analysis ofpreceding research trends, scale development, program development and evaluation, andpapers discussing legal/ethical countermeasures in other countries were excluded from theanalysis.
In this study, we focused on teenagers cyberbullying, which Japan and Korea areexperiencing in common, and conducted study to analyze the research trend. The analysis
method is descriptive analysis and thematic analysis. Descriptive analysis is an analysis thatexamines the quantitative trend of research by period(year), that is, the trend such as thenumber of papers and the percentage increase or decrease. Thematic analysis is a method
mainly used in literature research, and it is a method of identifying topics preferred byresearchers by arranging the results according to the subject to be analyzed.

ISSN: 2189-101X

721

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Results
1) Descriptive analysis(1) Analysis of Research Trends by Period
The frequency of research reflects the importance of the subject. The first study of cyberbullying in Korea was conducted in 2010 by Eun Jung Oh. The purpose of this study is toinvestigate the actual situation of cyberbullying as a new form of bullying at the time.
In South Korea, research on cyberbullying began after 2010, but it can be said that the study
began in earnest after 2013. Research on cyber bullying has been continuously conducted, but
recently, a slight decrease trend is seen. In Japan, research on cyber bullying began actively
after 2010, and it was found that research on it was conducted in various fields until 2015.
From 2016, interest in cyber bullying showed a slight decline, but it can be seen that related
studies have increased since 2019.

South
Korea
Japan

Before2010-

2010-20122013-20152016-20182019-2021

2022

Total

1

16

27

21

4

69

-

12

13

3

5

-

33

Table 1: Number of studies by year
(2) Analysis of Research Methodology
Quantitative research method is a method that can reveal the relationship between variables
through a large amount of objective data, and qualitative research method is a method of
approaching and analyzing from the point of view of 'as is' as much as possible. Throughthese two research methods, it is expected that cyberbullying can be looked at from various
angles. As shown in the table below, 88.4% of a total of 69 Korean studies analyzed cyberbullying through quantitative research methods. There were 7 studies using qualitative
research methods, and only 1 study using mixed research. In Japan, 24 studies, 72.7% of thetotal 33 studies, analyzed cyberbullying through quantitative research methods, and 6 studies
used qualitative research methods.
In South Korea and Japan, cyberbullying research was mainly conducted through quantitative
rather than qualitative research. The ratio of qualitative & mixed research was higher in Japan
than in South Korea. It can be seen that South Korea is relatively less interested inunderstanding what cyber bullying means to both victims and perpetrators than Japan, and thenature and inherent characteristics of cyber bullying experienced by each person. On theother hand, it is considered that Japan needs more objective approach and analysis ofcyberbullying than Korea, and the process of finding objective variables that can explain thesocial phenomenon of cyberbullying needs to be further strengthened.

ISSN: 2189-101X

722

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Quantitativ
e researchnationSouth Korea(61/88.4%)

Japan(24/72.7%)

Qualitative
research

South Korea(7/10.1%)
Japan(6/18.2%)

Official Conference Proceedings

List of studies
Lee, I. T. (2012), Kim, J. K. (2013), Nam, S. I. (2013), Sim, H. I. (2013), Cho,
Y. O. (2013)a, Kim, H. Y. (2014), Lee, A. R. (2014), Hong, K. S. (2014), Noh,S. H. (2015), Mun, C. B. (2015), Shin, S. R. (2015), Jun, D. S. (2015), Choi, J.
O. (2015), Choi, H. (2015), Kim, S. J. (2016), Kim, E. J. (2016), Park, Y. S.
(2016), Baek, J. E. (2016), Shin, S. R. (2016)a, Shin, S. R. (2016)b, Yang, Y. S.
(2016), Lee, S. W. (2016), Lee, J. M. (2016), Cho, Y. K. (2016), Choi, J. O.
(2016), Na, H. Y. (2017), You, S. M. (2017) a, You, S. M. (2017) b, Yun, I. H.
(2017), Joo, M. H. (2017), Ko, S. Y. (2018), Park, J. H. (2018), Song, Y. R.
(2018), Woo, J. J. (2018), Lee, S. S. (2018)a, Lee, S. S. (2018) b, Lee, S. B.
(2018), Choi, Y. (2018), Hwang, H. W. (2018), Kang, S. K. (2019), Seong, G.
J. (2019), Lee, S. S. (2019), Kang, S. J. (2020), Seong, G. J. (2020), Yun, J. H.
(2020), Lee, S. Y. (2020), Lee, H. W. (2020), Cho, C. B. (2020), Goh, H. B.
(2021), Kim, N. H. (2021), Kim, D. H. (2021), Kim, J. Y. (2021)a, Kim, J. Y.
(2021)b, Kim, J. Y. (2021)c, Park, H. J. (2021), Lee, S. C. (2021), Jun, J. H.
(2021), Kim, Y. J. (2022), Park, S. U. (2022), Woo, I. K. (2022), Yu, J. H.
(2022)
Nishiguchi, M. (2020), Fuji, K. (2014), Mishima, K. (2015), Utsumi, S.
(2010)a, Nonaka, R. (2021), Aoyama, I. (2017), Hara, K. (2014), Hara, K.
(2020), Horiuchi, Y. (2020), Harada, E. (2013)a, Kanetsuna, T. (2014), Hara,
K. (2021), Nakazato, S. (2011), Hara, K. (2010), Hara, K. (2012), Nagaura, H.
(2011), Aoyama, I. (2015), Harada, E. (2013)b, Aoyama, I. (2012), Nishino, Y.
(2015), Utsumi, S. (2010)b, Aoyama, I. (2014), Kanetsuna, T. (2015), Fuji, K.
(2012)
Oh, S. Y. (2013), Song, J. Y. (2014), kang, C. K. (2017), Cho, Y. O. (2017),
Lee, J. W. (2019), Lee, S. R. (2021), Lee, J. E. (2021)
Tagawa, T. (2012), Kurokawa, M. (2017), Adachi, S. (2011), Kagawa, N.
(2014), Nakamura, K. (2016), Takeuchi, K. (2012)

Mixed
methods
research

South Korea Park, S. H. (2015)(1/1.5%)Japan
Kato, Y. (2012), Kurokawa, M. (2015), Kanoh, H. (2014)(3/9.1%)* In the list of papers, two or more authors is marked as one representative.

Table 2: Analysis of research methodology
2) Thematic analysis(1) What is cyber bullying? : Definition of Cyberbullying
Both Korea and Japan have an official definition of cyber bullying in terms of both law andpolicy, and it was found that they have a great commonality about the concept of cyberbullying even within the academic world. However, there are also some differences in thedefinition of cyberbullying from the academic world of the two countries. These threemeanings of ‘Electronic media use, Personal information leakage, Peer Bullying’ werecommonly included in important definitions in both countries.
South Korea emphasizes the content of ‘Intentional and repeated bullying, Verbal violence,
Shame' in the definition, and Japan emphasizes ‘Slander and mudslinging, Production andspread of rumors' as an important cyberbullying behaviors.

ISSN: 2189-101X

723

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Intentional andrepeated bullying
Electronic mediause

Verbal violence
Personal
information leakage
Shame
Peer Bullying

Official Conference Proceedings

List of studies
Park, S. H. (2015), Jun, D. S. (2015), Goh, H. B. (2021), Kim, E. J. (2016), Ko, S. Y.
(2018), Lee, S. C. (2021), Park, S. U. (2022), Lee, S. B. (2018), Kim, D. H. (2021),
You, S. M. (2017) b, Lee, S. R. (2021), Noh, S. H. (2015), Choi, H. (2015), Lee, A. R.
(2014), Oh, S. Y. (2013), Nam, S. I. (2013)
Park, S. H. (2015), Jun, D. S. (2015), Goh, H. B. (2021), Kim, E. J. (2016), Ko, S. Y.
(2018), Lee, S. C. (2021), Mun, C. B. (2015), Yun, J. H. (2020), kang, C. K. (2017),
Joo, M. H. (2017), Woo, J. J. (2018), Park, H. J. (2021), Kim, H. Y. (2014), Yu, J. H.
(2022), Park, S. U. (2022), Lee, S. S. (2019), Seong, G. J. (2020), Lee, S. B. (2018),
Lee, J. E. (2021), Song, Y. R. (2018), Kim, J. Y. (2021)a, Cho(2013)a, Kim, D. H.
(2021), Choi, Y. (2018), Kim, J. K. (2013), Lee, J. M. (2016), Lee, H. W. (2020),
Seong, G. J. (2019), Cho, Y. K. (2016), Cho, C. B. (2020), Kim, J. Y. (2021)b, Shin,
S. R. (2016) a, Shin, S. R. (2015), Lee, S. W. (2016), You, S. M. (2017) a, Choi, J. O.
(2016), Cho(2017), Lee, S. R. (2021), Park, J. H. (2018), Park, Y. S. (2016), Jun, J. H.
(2021), Kim, N. H. (2021), Kang, S. J. (2020), Lee, I. T. (2012), Yang, Y. S. (2016),
Lee, J. W. (2019), Choi, H. (2015), Lee, A. R. (2014), Lee, S. S. (2018) a, Choi, J. O.
(2015), Oh, S. Y. (2013), Yun, I. H. (2017), Lee, S. S. (2018)b, Kim, S. J. (2016),
Song, J. Y. (2014), Woo, I. K. (2022), Kang, S. K. (2019), Shin, S. R. (2015), Kim, J.
Y. (2021)c, Kim, Y. J. (2022), Baek, J. E. (2016), You, S. M. (2017) b, Lee, S. Y.
(2020), Hwang, H. W. (2018), Sim, H. I. (2013)
Kim, E. J. (2016), Yu, J. H. (2022), Lee, S. R. (2021), Park, Y. S. (2016), Lee, I. T.
(2012), Na, H. Y. (2017), Choi, H. (2015), Lee, A. R. (2014), Oh, S. Y. (2013), Sim,
H. I. (2013), Nam, S. I. (2013)
Kim, E. J. (2016), Shin, S. R. (2016) a, Lee, I. T. (2012), Na, H. Y. (2017), Choi, H.
(2015), Oh, S. Y. (2013), Shin, S. R. (2015), Nam, S. I. (2013)
Kim, E. J. (2016), Yu, J. H. (2022), Lee, S. B. (2018), Shin, S. R. (2016) b, Lee, S. R.
(2021), Lee, I. T. (2012), Nam, S. I. (2013)
Goh, H. B. (2021), Yu, J. H. (2022), Lee, J. E. (2021), Noh, S. H. (2015), Lee, I. T.
(2012), Na, H. Y. (2017), Choi, H. (2015), Lee, A. R. (2014), Oh, S. Y. (2013), Sim,
H. I. (2013), Nam, S. I. (2013)

Table 3: Definition of Cyberbullying (South Korea)

Electronic mediause

Slander andmudslinging

Production andspread of rumors
Personal
information leakage
Peer Bullying

List of studies
Nishiguchi, M. (2020), Fuji, K. (2014), Mishima, K. (2015), Tagawa, T. (2012),
Utsumi, S. (2010), Kurokawa, M. (2017), Aoyama, I. (2017), Hara, K. (2014), Adachi,
S. (2011), Hara, K. (2020), Horiuchi, Y. (2020), Hara, K. (2021), Hara, K. (2010),
Kato, Y. (2012), Kagawa, N. (2014), Harada, E. (2013)a, Hara, K. (2010), Nagaura, H.
(2011), Aoyama, I. (2015), Harada, E. (2013)b, Utsumi, S. (2010)a, Aoyama, I.
(2012), Nishino, Y. (2015), Tekeuchi, K. (2012), Fuji, K. (2012)
Nishiguchi, M. (2020), Fuji, K. (2014), Tagawa, T. (2012), Utsumi, S. (2010)b,
Nonaka, R. (2021), Kurokawa, M. (2017), Hara, K. (2014), Adachi, S. (2011), Harada,
E. (2013)a, Kanetsuna, T. (2014), Kagawa, N. (2014), Hara, K. (2012), Nagaura, H.
(2011), Kurokawa, M. (2015), Nishino, Y. (2015), Harada, E. (2013)b, Kanetsuna, T.
(2015), Takeuchi, K. (2012), Fuji, K. (2012), Kanoh, H. (2014)
Fuji, K. (2014), Utsumi, S. (2010)b, Hara, K. (2014), Kanetsuna, T. (2014), Kanoh, H.
(2014), Fuji, K. (2012)
Fuji, K. (2014), Hara, K. (2014), Kanetsuna, T. (2014), Kagawa, N. (2014), Hara, K.
(2012), Nagaura, H. (2011), Kanetsuna, T. (2015),
Aoyama, I. (2017), Kato, Y. (2012), Kagawa, N. (2014), Nakamura, K. (2016),
Nishino, Y. (2015), Kanoh, H. (2014), Takeuchi, K. (2012)

Table 4: Definition of Cyberbullying (Japan)(2) What is the cause of cyberbullying? : Causes of Cyberbullying
Both Korea and Japan are trying to find the cause of cyberbullying by approaching it fromvarious aspects, and commonly classify it into personal, relational, and socio-environmental
factors. South Korea argues that cyber bullying is caused by a combination of socio-

ISSN: 2189-101X

724

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

environmental factors; Individual factors such as 'Individual negative temperament and lackof competence, Exposure to violence, Internet/smartphone addiction, Psychologicaldifficulties, and relationships with parents, Dependent relationships with peers, Limitedsocial relationships, Online anonymity, Lack of environmental support, Lack of educationand perception, etc'. The process of deriving the core themes of the causes of cyber bullying
revealed by Korean studies is summarized in <Table 5> below.
On the other hand, Japan, like Korea, tried to find the cause by classifying it into personal,
relational, and socio-environmental factors. However, there was a difference in the details of
the specific cause. Japan's approach to personal factors was very similar to Korea's(Individual negative temperament and lack of competence, Exposure to violence,
Internet/smartphone addiction, Psychological difficulties, etc.), and education was considered
important. In addition, it was analyzed that there are relational factors such as 'Apathy in theclassroom, Maladjustment, Absence of parental roles’. It was different from Korea, whichanalyzed the lack of parental roles and negative parenting attitudes as important factors
triggering cyberbullying. In addition, Japan differed from Korea in that it pointed out the
problems inherent in the social climate, the atmosphere throughout society, and the culture
itself, and strongly emphasized the need for improvement. The causes of cyber bullying
revealed by Japanese studies are summarized in <Table 6> below.
Personalfactors

main subject
Individual negative
temperamentand lack ofcompetencecausesLack of morals andethicsdetailed causes
Low ethical awarenessin SNS
moral departurelack of moral guilt

List of studies
Park, S. H. (2015), Mun,
C. B. (2015)
Joo, M. H. (2017)
Nam, S. I. (2013)
Park, H. J. (2021)
Oh, S. Y. (2013)strong aggression

antisocial tendency
Recognition as a play
culturelow emotional
intelligenceLow cognitive andemotional empathy
Sensation Seeking
Tendency
aggression

negative self-image

decreased ability tocontrol anger
Impulsivity
low self-control

Lack of empathy

ISSN: 2189-101X

725

Yu, J. H. (2022)
Goh, H. B. (2021)
Lee, S. B. (2018)
Woo, J. J. (2018),
Seong, G. J. (2020),
Kim, J. Y. (2021)a,Kim, J. Y. (2021)b,
Kim, N. H. (2021),
Yang, Y. S. (2016),
Choi, H. (2015),
Lee, A. R. (2014),
Woo, I. K. (2022)
You, S. M. (2017) b
Nam, S. I. (2013)
Park, S. H. (2015),
Kim, H. Y. (2014),
Lee, S. S. (2019),
Shin, S. R. (2016) b,
Park, Y. S. (2016),
Noh, S. H. (2015),
Choi, H. (2015),
Lee, S. S. (2018) a,
Kim, S. J. (2016),

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

low self-esteem

Exposure to violence

low self-resilience
Cyberbullying
experience

direct violence
victimization
experience

experience of verbal
abuse
Bullying experience in
off-lineexperience of physicalviolenceexperience of violencein school

Indirect ViolenceWitness Experience

Internet/smartphone
addiction

Internet/smartphone
overusediscrimination
experience
Experience withdisclosure of personal
information
Cyberbullying
Witness Experience
violence Witness
Experience
indirect witness
experience(Internet,
games, electronic
media, etc.)
Smartphone overuse

Internet overuse
SNS overuse
Dependency

Psychologicaldifficulties

smartphone
overdependence
internet
overdependence
SNS overdependence
Anxietydepression andanxiety

Depression
Unresolved
emotions

stress accumulation

ISSN: 2189-101X

726

Difficulty relieving
stressUnresolved underlying
anger
academic stressBaek, J. E. (2016)
Hwang, H. W. (2018),
Lee, S. C. (2021)
Lee, S. S. (2018) b
Park, S. H. (2015),
Yu, J. H. (2022),
You, S. M. (2017)a,Kim, J. Y. (2021)c,
You, S. M. (2017)b,
Sim, H. I. (2013)
Jun, D. S. (2015)
Kim, H. Y. (2014),
Seong, G. J. (2020),
Kim, D. H. (2021)
Kim, J. K. (2013)
Cho(2013)a,Seong, G. J. (2019),
Kim, J. Y. (2021)b,
Lee, S. R. (2021),
Park, Y. S. (2016),
Yang, Y. S. (2016)
Seong, G. J. (2019)
Park, S. U. (2022)
Lee, A. R. (2014)
Shin, S. R. (2016) a
Shin, S. R. (2016) a

Woo, J. J. (2018),
Kim, J. Y. (2021)a,
Lee, A. R. (2014),
Park, H. J. (2021),
Park, J. H. (2018),
Park, Y. S. (2016),
Sim, H. I. (2013)
Park, S. U. (2022),
Lee, A. R. (2014)
Kang, S. K. (2019)
Shin, S. R. (2015)
Jun, J. H. (2021)
You, S. M. (2017) a,Choi, J. O. (2016)
You, S. M. (2017) a,
Kim, N. H. (2021)
Park, S. H. (2015)
Lee, S. W. (2016),
You, S. M. (2017) b
Kim, J. K. (2013),

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Relational
factors

Negative
relationships withparents

Parenting Attitude

Official Conference Proceedings

Lack of stress relief
ability
Parent’s Neglecting
Attitudeparent’s abuse
Negative Parenting
Attitudes
overprotection

stress in the family

Weak control of theInternet
psychological control
verbal abuse of parents
Lack of interest inchild's school life
stress from parents

Psychological
Isolation

low relationshipsatisfaction withchildrenconstant conflict withparents
Lack of activity withparents
tension with parents

Dependent
relationships withpeers

satisfying the need
to belonglack of healthy
relationship withpeers

stress in school life

Limited social
relationships

Negative
relationship withteacherssocial isolation

ISSN: 2189-101X

727

Peer group pressure
Norms within the peergroupstrong peer relationshipnegative relationships
with friend
Maintaining negative
relationships withfriendrelational aggression
contact with limited
persons
Lack of support fromfriends
Lack ofcommunication
opportunities withpeers
lack of face-to-faceactivities
stress in school life
dissatisfaction inschool life
School Maladjustment
Lack of attention fromteachers
Lack of activity withteachers
interpersonalChoi, J. O. (2016)
Choi, J. O. (2015)
Ko, S. Y. (2018),
Kim, N. H. (2021)
Lee, S. C. (2021)
Yun, J. H. (2020)
Song, Y. R. (2018),
Kim, Y. J. (2022)
Cho(2013)a
Baek, J. E. (2016)
Nam, S. I. (2013)
Kim, D. H. (2021)
Yun, J. H. (2020),
Kang, S. J. (2020),
Kang, S. K. (2019)
Park, H. J. (2021)
Kim, D. H. (2021),
Shin, S. R. (2015),
Kim, S. J. (2016)
Shin, S. R. (2015)
Lee, S. S. (2018) a,
Kim, S. J. (2016)
Joo, M. H. (2017)
Park, S. H. (2015),
Cho, Y. K. (2016)
Lee, S. B. (2018)
Choi, H. (2015)
Nam, S. I. (2013),
Lee, J. M. (2016)
Kim, Y. J. (2022)
Lee, S. S. (2019)
Kim, S. J. (2016)
Shin, S. R. (2015),
Jun, J. H. (2021)
Lee, H. W. (2020)
Kang, S. J. (2020)
Kim, E. J. (2016)
Ko, S. Y. (2018)
Kim, D. H. (2021)
Shin, S. R. (2015),
Park, S. U. (2022)

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

relationships online

Socioenvironm
ental
factors

Online anonymity
environmental
supportLack of educationand perception

Lack of social
connections
low social support
anonymous environments

Lee, S. W. (2016)Low social participation

You, S. M. (2017) bkang, C. K. (2017), Lee,S. B. (2018)
Jun, D. S. (2015)

vulnerable living conditions

Yun, I. H. (2017)a neglectful environment
lack of prevention educationlack of understanding of self-competence
understanding and perception
lack of cyberbullying research andobservation

kang, C. K. (2017)
Lee, S. W. (2016)
Hwang, H. W. (2018)
Hong, K. S. (2014)
Hong, K. S. (2014)

Table 5: Analysis of the trigger cause of cyberbullying (South Korea)
main subject
Individual negative
temperamentand lack ofcompetence

Personalfactors

Exposure to violenceInternet/smartphone
addiction

causesLack ofmoralsand ethics

detailed causes
lack of guilt

pleasure-seeking
tendency
power-seeking
tendency
Achieving a sense of
superiority throughtrampling on others
lack of empathy
strongBipolar aggression
aggression
aggression in
relationships
negativelack of control
self-image
Lack of self-control
virtual competence
relational bullying
cyberbullying victimization
OveruseInternet overuse

Smartphone overuse

Increase in smartphone usage
Psychologicaldifficulties

Academic
background
Relational
factors

ISSN: 2189-101X

Apathy in theclassroom

depression
andanxiety

Anxiety
Depression
Learned helplessness
unfair feelings
Differences in educational level
damage caused by educational
improvement
A bystander atmosphere in theclassroomlack of awareness amongbystanders to school

728

List of studies
Nishiguchi, M. (2020),
Hara, K. (2014), Nakamura, K.
(2016), Kanetsuna, T. (2015)
Horiuchi, Y. (2020)
Horiuchi, Y. (2020)
Horiuchi, Y. (2020)
Harada, E. (2013)b
Hara, K. (2020)
Utsumi, S. (2010)b
Utsumi, S. (2010)a
Utsumi, S. (2010)a
Aoyama, I. (2014)
Utsumi, S. (2010)b
Aoyama, I. (2012)
Kurokawa, M. (2017),
Kato, Y. (2012), Hara, K. (2012),
Utsumi, S. (2010)a,
Fuji, K. (2012)
Kurokawa, M. (2017),
Kato, Y. (2012), Hara, K. (2012),
Utsumi, S. (2010)a,
Fuji, K. (2012)
Kato, Y. (2012),
Kurokawa, M. (2017)
Nagaura, H. (2011)
Fuji, K. (2014)
Fuji, K. (2014)
Nagaura, H. (2011)
Hara, K. (2020), Hara, K. (2012)
Hara, K. (2010)
Aoyama, I. (2017),
Kurokawa, M. (2015)
Aoyama, I. (2017),
Kurokawa, M. (2015)

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

violencelack of solidarity
fear of revenge
SchoolMaladjustment
Absence of parentalroles

Socioenvironm
ental
factors

Negative friendships
poor adaptability in school
Separation from healthy adults
lack of objective awareness of
teenagers
lack ofcontrol within the homeanonymous environments

Online anonymity

overall social moods
and culture

Lack of educationand perception

Difficult to identify perpetrator
Lack of internet etiquette andmanners
belief in a fair world
permissive atmosphere for
Secondary offense
permissive atmosphere for slander
bullying culture
school climate
stalking culture
weakening control over students
a sense of division due topolarization
Lack of cyberbullying prevention
educationlack of Internet Manners andEtiquette educationlack of parental awareness ofcyberbullying
poor counseling for victims
lack of ability torespond to a crimelack of research on thepsychological process ofcyberbullying behavior

Official Conference Proceedings

Nakamura, K. (2016)
Hara, K. (2014)
Aoyama, I. (2015)
Fuji, K. (2014)
Kagawa, N. (2014)
Utsumi, S. (2010)b
Utsumi, S. (2010)b
Fuji, K. (2014), Kanetsuna, M.
(2014), Hara, K. (2012)
Fuji, K. (2014)
Hara, K. (2021)
Nonaka, R. (2021)
Nonaka, R. (2021)
Fuji, K. (2012)
Adachi, S. (2011)
Nishino, Y. (2015)
Adachi, S. (2011)
Takeuchi, K. (2012)
Hara, K. (2020)
Aoyama, I. (2017),
Harada, E. (2013)b
Adachi, S. (2011),
Nakazato, S. (2011),
Kanetsuna, M. (2015),
Kanoh, H. (2014)
Hara, K. (2010)
Harada, E. (2013)b
Takeuchi, K. (2012)
Fuji, K. (2012)

Table 6: Analysis of the trigger cause of cyberbullying (Japan)
Conclusion
1) Summary of research results
Through this study, it was possible to find out how cyber bullying is defined in the academic
world in Korea and Japan, and what causes cyber bullying is viewed as being triggered. The
results of a detailed analysis of cyberbullying research on 69 Korean and 33 Japanese films
were as follows.
First, looking at research trends, cyberbullying research started in 2010 in Korea and in 2008
in Japan, and research has been actively conducted continuously. As a result of analyzing 69
Korean studies and 33 Japanese studies, quantitative research was the most attempted
research method with 61 Korean studies (88.4%) and 24 Japanese studies (72.7%). There
were 7 qualitative studies in Korea (10.1%) and 6 studies in Japan (18.2%), and 1 study in

ISSN: 2189-101X

729

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Korea (1.5%) and 3 studies in Japan (9.1%) were mixed studies. Through this, it was foundthat Korea attaches more importance to quantitative research methods than Japan, and thatJapan uses qualitative research methods relatively widely.
Second, in defining cyber bullying, the difference in meaning between the two countries was
examined. These three meanings of ‘Electronic media use, Personal information leakage, andPeer Bullying’ were commonly included in important definitions in both countries. In
addition to this, Korea included 'Intentional and repeated bullying, verbal violence, andshame' in the definition, and Japan emphasized 'Slander and mudslinging, Production andspread of rumors' as important contents of cyber bullying.
Third, looking at the causes of cyber bullying, both Korea and Japan have a common point inapproaching cyber bullying from three directions: personal, relational, and socioenvironmental factors. However, there are some differences in specific content. Looking at
individual causes, Korea discussed the causes of cyberbullying, focusing on 'Individual
negative temperament and lack of competence, Exposure to violence, Internet/smartphone
addiction, Psychological difficulties. On the other hand, Japan, in addition to the above four
factors, included individual academic background as a factor contributing to cyber bullying,just like Korea. Except for academic background, there was no significant difference inpersonal factors seen in Korea and Japan. Next, looking at relational causes, Korea analyzes
negative relationships with parents, dependent relationships with peers, and limited social
relationships as causes of cyber bullying, while Japan analyzes Apathy in the classroom,
school maladjustment, and Absence of parental roles. In other words, while Korea is looking
for the cause of the problem in 'relationships' with people around them, Japan seems to focus
more on the 'role' of people around them. Finally, looking at socio-environmental causes,
Korea analyzes online anonymity, lack of education and awareness of people around them,and unhealthy surroundings as causes, but Japan analyzes the social climate & atmospherethroughout society, Problems inherent in culture itself in addition to these three factors.
2) Implications of the study
The results of this study suggest the following implications.
As these two countries have a lot in common in various aspects, the process of comparing
and analyzing each other's research will be a way to find solutions to the cyberbullying
problem that are both quantitatively and qualitatively effective. As these two countries have a
lot in common in various aspects, the process of comparing and analyzing each other'sresearch will be a way to find solutions to the cyberbullying problem that are bothquantitatively and qualitatively effective.
Second, in defining cyber bullying, Korea emphasizes that it occurs 'intentionally andrepeatedly' and includes the emotional content of 'stimulation of shame', including theintention to cause cyber bullying and the resulting results in the definition. In Japan, 'slander
and slander, production and spread of rumors' are included in the definition, showing atendency to specify the phenomenon and behavior of cyberbullying more. As the types ofcyber bullying are diversifying, it seems necessary to define cyber bullying in more specificand subdivided ways.
Third, among the perspectives of looking at the causes of cyber bullying, personal causes are
similar in both countries, but differences in relational and socio-environmental causes were

ISSN: 2189-101X

730

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

found. Compared to Japan, Korea has more studies that emphasize that relational factors are
deeply related to cyber bullying. Korea is making efforts to analyze relational factors indetail, categorize them in detail, and suggest suitable alternatives. In addition, it emphasizes
the healthy growth process, and emphasizes the improvement to a positive relationship andthe transition to a healthy relationship. On the other hand, Japan tends to emphasize socioenvironmental factors as an important trigger for cyber bullying compared to Korea. It isbelieved that cyberbullying can be resolved by emphasizing the healthy role performance ofindividuals and social organizations, changing the social atmosphere, and improving social
awareness. This is thought to be related to the socio-cultural values and social priorities of
Korea and Japan. Korea, which focuses more on 'relationships' between people, tries to findthe cause in 'interpersonal relationships' with parents, peer groups, and others in society,while Japan focuses on environmental factors surrounding adolescents. In particular, it seems
to be interested in the 'role' of the people around them, the characteristics of the surrounding
environment, and the culture and social climate. Combining the studies of both countries, it isjudged that cyber bullying is comprehensively influenced by the 'interpersonal relationship' ofadolescents, the 'role' of those around them, the school atmosphere and cultural influences. It
will be necessary to continue efforts to explore various causes.

ISSN: 2189-101X

731

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

References
Adachi, S., & Morimoto, S. (2011). Problems of Countermeasures of Cyber-bullying for
Adults. National Convention Research of Japan Social Information Association, 26(0),387-390.
Aoyama, I., & Igarashi, T. (2012). Effects of cyberbullying experiences and cell phonedependence among high school and college students on seclusion affinity. Annual
Convention of the Japanese Association of Educational Psychology, 54(0), 179.
Aoyama, I., & Takahashi, M. (2014). Relationship between Internet use and virtualcompetence among high school students: From the perspective of cyberbullying andInternet dependence. Annual Convention of the Japanese Association of Educational
Psychology, 56(0), 763.
Aoyama, I., Wright, F. M., Kamble, S. V., Zheng, L., Sotldi, S., Li, L., & Chang, S. (2015).
Adolescents' experiences of cyberbullying and awareness of friendship: Comparison
between Japan, China and India. Annual Convention of the Japanese Association of
Educational Psychology, 57(0), 501.
Aoyama, I., Fujikawa, D., & Igarashi, C. (2018). An Incident Antecedent to Cyberbullying
Trouble, Its Perceived Severity, Confidence to Deal, and Coping Behaviors Among
Elementary and Middle School Students. Japanese Journal of Educational
Technology Research, 41, 189-192.
Baek, J. E. (2016). The Effects of Maternal Psychological Control, Self-control, and Peers'
Social Support on Cyberbullying among Early Adolescents. Korean Journal of Child
Psychotherapy, 11(1), 53-70.
Cho, C. B., & Lee, H. (2020). Typologies and Characteristics of Cyberbullying Victims
among youths using Latent Class Analysis. Forum For Youth Culture, 61, 125-148.
Cho, W. R., & Baik, J. S. (2021). The Sequential Mediating Effect of Depression andAggression on the Relationships between Adolescents’ Cyberbullying Victimizationand School Adjustment. Youth facility and environment, 19(4), 77-86.
Cho, Y. K., & Yoo, J. W. (2016). Factors Influencing Cyberbullying : The Perspectives of
Others (Subjective Norms and True Self). Korean Journal of Broadcasting and
Telecommunication Studies, 30(1), 111-136.
Cho, Y. O. (2013)a. A Study on the Factors Associated with CyberBullying Victimization.
korean Journal of Public Safety and Criminal Justice (KJPC), 22(4), 304-327.
Cho, Y. O. (2013)b. The Impact of Cyber Bullying Victim Experience and the Influence ofMediating Effect of Depression on Delinquent Behavior. Korean Journal of YouthStudies, 20(10), 117-142.
Cho, Y. O. (2017). A Study on the Classification of Cyberbullying Behavior by Using Factor
Analysis. The Korean Association of Police Science Review (KAPS), 19(5), 279-305.

ISSN: 2189-101X

732

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Choi, H., & Baik, J. S. (2015). A Study on the Variables of Cyber Bullying Experience ofMiddle School Students. Youth facility and environment, 13(4), 195-208.
Choi, J. O. (2015). Influence of Cyber Bullying Victimization on Cyber Bullying : Mediating
Effects of Anxiety and Moderation Effects of Stress Coping Strategy. Crisisonomy,
11(5), 195-214.
Choi, J. O. (2016). The Impacts of Academic Stress of Elementary School Students on Cyber
Bullying Behaviors for Unknown Persons and Friends: Mediating Effects of Anxiety.
Journal of Korean Practical Arts Education, 29(4), 191-209.
Choi, S. Y. (2014). A Study of the Review of Research on Cyberbullying and Its Responding
Strategy. Communications of the Korean Association of Computer Education, 17(6),35-48.
Choi, Y., & Kim, H. S. (2018). The Mediating Effects of Displaced Aggression in the
Relationship between Child Abuse Experiences and Cyberbullying Tendencies in
Early Adolescents. Family and Family Therapy, 26(3), 321-341.
Fuji, K., & Yoshida, F. (2012). Psychological Process of Cyber-bullying; From theViewpoint of Cognition to Online Abuse. Annual Convention of the Japanese
Psychological Association, 76(0), 22.
Fuji, K., & Yoshida, F. (2014). Cognition of Threat and Suppression of Consulting Behavior
by Victims of Cyberbullying. The Japanese Journal of Educational Psychology, 62(1),50-63.
Goh, H. B., & Lee, S. Y. (2021). The Effects of Normative Beliefs about Aggression and
Empathy on the Types of Cyberbullying High School Students Participate. The Korea
Journal of Youth Counseling, 29(1), 21-43.
Hara, K., Yamazaki, H., & Yamauchi, I. (2010). An Empirical Study on the Actual Situation
and Behind Factors of Cyberbullying. Proceedings of the Annual Conference ofJapanese Educational Research Association, 69(0), 174-175.
Hara, K., Yamauchi, I., & Asada, H. (2012). An Empirical Study on the Relationshipbetween 'Roughness' and Cyberbullying in Student Guidance. Proceedings of theAnnual Conference of Japanese Educational Research Association, 71(0), 148-149.
Hara, K., Yamauchi, I., Asada, H., & Horide, M. (2015). An Empirical Study on the Factors
and Actual Conditions of Cyberbullying. Proceedings of the Annual Conference ofJapanese Educational Research Association, 74(0), 332-333.
Hara, K., Yamauchi, I., Asada, H., Matsuura, Y., Kobari, M., Otawa, N., & Kobayashi, J.
(2020). ‘Division’ of Children as seen in Cyberbullying Surveys. Proceedings of theAnnual Conference of Japanese Educational Research Association, 79(0), 238-239.
Hara, K., Yamauchi, I., & Asada, H. (2022). An Empirical Study on the Structure andCountermeasures of Cyberbullying. Annual Report of Kansai Educational Society, 46,
107-111.

ISSN: 2189-101X

733

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Harada, E. (2013)a. Actual Conditions of High School Students' Cyberbullying. Journal ofTokyo University of Information Sciences, 17(1), 9-18.
Harada, E., & Yashiro, S. (2013)b. Social Skills Training for Preventing Cyberbullying.
Annual Convention of the Japanese Association of Educational Psychology, 55(0),464.
Hong, K. S. (2014). Parents’ Awareness of Cyberbullying. Korean Journal of Family
Therapy, 22(4), 347-372.
Horiuchi, Y., Suzuki, K., Kumasaki, A., Kashibuchi, M., Katsura, R., & Sakamoto, A. (2020).
The effects of Internet use among high school students with cyberbullying
experiences. Annual Convention of the Japanese Psychological Association, 76, 36-38.
Hwang, H. W. (2018). The Effects of Internal and External Developmental Assets on the
Adolescents’ Victimization of Cyber Bullying. Asia-pacific Journal of Multimedia
Services Convergent with Art, Humanities, and Sociology (AJMAHS), 8(7), 831-839.
Joo, M. H., & Lim, S. M. (2017). The Relationship between Moral Disengagement andCyberbullying among Middle School Students: Moderating Effects of Parental
Monitoring and Peer Pressure. Journal of Future Oriented Youth Society, 14(4), 1-20.
Jun, D. S., & Kim, D. W. (2015). Does the Cyberbulling Victimization Influence
Cyberbyllying Behavior Among High School and College Students: Focusing on theModerating Effect of Social Participation. Public Policy Review, 29(3), 157-180.
Jun, J. H., & Kim, R. W. (2021). A Study on The Effects of Cyber-Bullying in Adolescentson SNS Addiction: Focusing on the Moderating Effects of Friendship. Journal of
Korea Academia-Industrial cooperation Society (JKAIS), 22(6), 499-506.
Kagawa, N. (2016). Encounters with Others via the Internet Using Female Youth as
Examples : Focusing on the Rise of ‘Cyberbullying’ Discourse. Japanese Associationof Qualitative Psychology, 15(1), 7-25.
Kanetsuna, T., Toda, Y., Adatsu, N., Yamazaki, S., Ishihara, K., & Ohashi, M. (2014).
Cyberbullying and Anonymous Belief. Annual Convention of the Japanese
Association of Educational Psychology, 56(0), 62-63.
Kanetsuna, T. (2015). Consciousness and reality of cyberbullying damage: Study of genderdifferences and school differences in awareness of damage risk, anxiety about damage,and awareness of prevention. Annual Convention of the Japanese Association of
Educational Psychology, 57(0), 194.
Kang, C. K. (2017). The Strategies for Cyberbullying Interventions of Peer Counselors.
Forum For Youth Culture, 52, 7-35.
Kang, S. J., & Yang, H. J. (2020). A study on the Impact of Adolescents’ Family and School
Environmental Stress on Cyber Bulling and Online Game Addiction - Aggressive
Mediation Effect, Gender Difference Control Effect Competition Model -. Journal of
Wellness (KSW), 15(2), 395-406.

ISSN: 2189-101X

734

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Kang, S. K., & Cha, Y. J. (2019). The Analysis of Mediation and Moderation Effects of
Parents Stress on the Relation between Smartphone Overdependence andCyberbulling Perpetration of the Child and Youth. Journal of Parent Education,
11(4), 151-167.
Kanoh, H. (2014). Consideration of Cyberbullying by Peer Separation: Does the Differencein Rumor Information affect Personality Evaluation and Behavior. Annual Conventionof the Japanese Association of Educational Psychology, 56(0), 475.
Kato, Y., Chida, K., & Kato, S. (2012). Consciousness of cyberbullying among University
Students : Survey on PCs and Mobile phones up to the High School. Annual
Convention of the Japanese Association of Educational Psychology, 54(0), 345.
Kim, B. K., & Han, Y. S. (2020). Content Analysis of Creative Problem Solving Program for
Cyberbullying Prevention. Korean Journal of Youth Studies, 27(11), 37-69.
Kim, D. H. (2021). Predictive Factors on Developmental Trajectories of Cyberbullying in
Adolescence. Korean Journal of Social Welfare, 73(1), 127-149.
Kim, E. J., & Jeong, M. J. (2016). The structural relationship between school life satisfaction,school violence, cyber bullying damage in high school. Korean Journal of YouthStudies, 23(7), 87-115.
Kim, H. Y., & Min, J. S. (2014). A Study on the Factors of Youth Cyberbullying: Foused on
Off-line Bullying and Social Media Addiction. Journal of Korea Entertainment
Industry Association, 8(4), 323-333.
Kim, J. K. (2013). The Effect of Violence Victimization and Academic Stress on
Cyberbullying of Youths. Korean Criminal Psychology Review (KCPR), 9(1), 47-68.
Kim, J. Y. (2021)a. The Mediating Effect of Aggression in the Relationship Between
Adolescents’ Use of Smart Media and Cyberbullying. Transactional Analysis
Counseling Research (TACR). 11(1), 117-135.
Kim, J. Y. (2021)b. The Moderating Effect of Aggression in the Influence of Experiences ofViolence in School on Cyber Bulling of Middle School Students. The Journal of
Learner-Centered Curriculum and Instruction (JLCCI), 21(2), 1033-1046.
Kim, J. Y., & Lee, D. H. (2021)c. The Effect of Middle School Students Experience of
School Violence on Cyberbullying. The Journal of Learner-Centered Curriculum andInstruction (JLCCI), 21(2), 73-87.
Kim, N. H., & Ha, E. H. (2021). Effects of Negative Parenting on Cyberbullying
Perpetration: Multi-Mediation Effects of Depressive Symptoms, Aggression, andSmartphone Overdependence with the Focus on Gender Moderated Mediation
Effects. Journal of Future Oriented Youth Society, 18(3), 1-28.
Kim, S. J., & Kang, H. A. (2016). The effects of social support on adolescent cyber-bullying
experience: focusing on mediating effects of self-control. Journal of Youth Welfare,18(3), 171-193.

ISSN: 2189-101X

735

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Kim, Y. J., & Park, S. O. (2022). The Effect of Mother’s Overprotective Parenting Attitude
on Cyberbullying Violence: Relational Aggression and the Mediating Effect of SelfControl. Korean Journal for Infant Mental Health (KJIMH), 15(1), 1-18.
Ko, S. Y., & Bae, S. M. (2018). The influence of neglectful parenting on cyberbullying
victim of early adolescents : The mediating effect of school life maladjustment.
Korean Journal of Youth Studies, 25(9), 203-224.
Kurokawa, M. (2015). The role and characteristics of witnesses in cyberbullying amongchildren and students. Annual Convention of the Japanese Association of Educational
Psychology, 57(0), 161.
Kurokawa, M. (2017). Prediction of Cyberbullying In Middle school. Annual Convention of
the Japanese Association of Educational Psychology, 59(0), 319-319.
Lee, A. R., Lee, Y. J., & Yang, H. I. (2014). The Effects of Cyber Bullying and Bullied
Experience on Upper Elementary Students` Aggression and Verbal aggression. Korea
Journal of Counseling, 15(6), 2437-2450.
Lee, H. W., & Choi, Y. Y. (2020). The Mediating effect of Emotional Empathy in the
Relationship between the Motivation of Online Communication Media Usage andCyberbullying. The Journal of Learner-Centered Curriculum and Instruction(JLCCI), 20(18), 1499-1518.
Lee, I. T. (2012). A Study on the Status of Cyber Bullying and their Causes with Elementary
School Students. Forum For Youth Culture, 32, 91-118.
Lee, J. E., & Chun, J. S. (2021). Ontology Development of Adolescent Cyberbullying.
Korean Journal of Youth Studies, 28(4), 163-192.
Lee, J. M., & Cho, Y. O. (2016). A Study on Factor of Cyberbullying Behavior Depending on
Adolescent Phase - A Test of Thornberry's Interaction Theory -. The Police Science
Journal (PSJ), 11(4), 321-348.
Lee, J. W., & Kim, K. J. (2019). A multidisciplinary Study on Cyber Bulling Phenomenon by
Collective Intelligence in Social Media. The Korean Society of Science & Art (KSAF),
37(4), 269-283.
Lee, S. B., & Han, S. C. (2018). The influence of adolescents' sensation seeking and peer
conformity on cyberbullying : mediation effect of anonymity. Journal of Future
Oriented Youth Society, 15(2), 79-105.
Lee, S. C., Lee, S. K., & Choi, Y. G. (2021). The Mediating Effect of Self-esteem on the
Relationship between Parental Negative Nurturing Attitude and Cyberbullying
Victimization among Adolescents. Forum For Youth Culture, 65, 93-128.
Lee, S. R., Kim, J. Y., & Chun, J, S. (2021). Keyword Analysis of Adolescent Cyberbullying
through Text Mining. Forum For Youth Culture, 68, 59-89.

ISSN: 2189-101X

736

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Lee, S. S., & Jun, S. H. (2019). A Gender Difference in the Effect of Low Self-Control andIntegrated Approach on Juvenile Cyber Bullying. Korean Criminal Psychology
Review (KCPR), 15(4), 113-128.
Lee, S. S., Jun, S. H., & Jeong, S. H. (2018)a. The effects of strain, low self-control, andmobile phone addiction on cyber-bullying in mobile messenger use: Testing a modelacross four groups. Studies on Korean Youth, 29(4), 89-112.
Lee, S. S., Lee, J. S., & Jung, S. H. (2018)b. Gender Difference in Risk Factors ofCyberbullying and Moderating Effect of Resilience. Korean Criminal Psychology
Review (KCPR), 14(1), 97-114.
Lee, S. W., & Lee, J. D. (2016). Impact of Cyberbullying on Adolescents. Journal of Korean
Public Police and Security Studies, 13(2), 41-66.
Lee, S. Y., & Kim, H. S. (2020). Psychological Factors Influencing Bystander Role
Behaviors in Adolescent Cyberbullying. Korean Journal of Child Psychotherapy,
15(3), 67-90.
Mishima, K. & Honjo, M. (2015). Cyberbullying Measures from the Point of TechnicalAspect. Communications Society Magazine, 9(2), 102-109.
Mun, C. B., Sura, S., & Ahn, J. C. (2015). A Study on the Factors Influencing Cyberbullying
Behaviors among SNS Users. Journal of Information Technology Services (JITS),
14(1), 175–194.
Na, H. Y., Kim, Y. S., & Han, Y. J. (2017). The Moderating Effect of Smartphone overuse on
the Relationship between Adolescent’s Self-Regulation and Cyberbullying. Asiapacific Journal of Multimedia Services Convergent with Art, Humanities, andSociology (AJMAHS), 7(2), 583-590.
Nagaura, H., Terado, T., & Tominaga, Y. (2011). Relationship between Cyberbullying and
Mental and Physical Reactions in Middle School Students. Annual Convention of theJapanese Association of Educational Psychology, 53(0), 571.
Nakamura, K., & Teraguchi, T. (2016). Feasibility Study on Detection Method of
Cyberbullying Victims Based on CGM Analysis. Journal of Osaka University of
Economics, 66(5), 77-90.
Nakazato, S., Kubota, Y., & Hasegawa, H. (2011). Effect of Information Morality Study ofCyber-Bullying : Relation between Morality Study and Possession of Cellular Phone.
Japan Journal of Educational Technology, 35(0), 121-124.
Nam, S. I., & Kweon, N. H. (2013). A Study on the Factors that Influence Adolescent
Offenders' of Cyberbullying. Journal of Future Oriented Youth Society, 10(3), 23-43.
Nishiguchi, M. & Toriumi, F. (2020). Analysis and Detection of Cyberbullying Targeting
Minors on Social Media Using Behavior Logs. Annual Conference of the JapaneseSociety for Artificial Intelligence, 34(0), 503.

ISSN: 2189-101X

737

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Nishino, Y. (2015). Cyberbullying: The Role of Classroom Climate. Annual Convention of
the Japanese Psychological Association, 79(0), 132-133.
Noh, S. H., & Kim, S. R. (2015). Empirical test of the effects of self-control and criminal
opportunity on cyberbullying. Journal of Korean Criminological Association, 9(3), 335.
Nonaka, R. & Morinaga, Y. (2021). Condemnation of Victims and Perpetrators ofCyberbullying and Belief in the Fair world. Japanese Journal of Educational
Psychology, 63(0), 302.
Oh, S. Y., & Kwak, Y. G. (2013). The Study on the Actual Conditions of School Violenceand Solution Caused by Cyber Bullying. Journal of Korean Public Police andSecurity Studies, 10(3), 65-88.
Oh, T. K. (2013). The Relationship between Cyberbullying Victimized Experience andEmotional Behavior of Middle School Students. Journal of The Korea Society ofComputer and Information (JKSCI), 18(12), 207-215.
Park, H. J., & Park, W. J. (2021). Influencing Factors of Personality, Peer Consensus andAnger Expression on Cyberbullying of Middle School Students. Journal of Science
Criminal Investigation, 15(2), 132-141.
Park, J. H. (2018). Effect of the Amount of Time Online on Cyberbullying Perpetration in
Middle School Students and the Moderating Role of Justice Sensitivity. Family andEnvironment Research, 56(6), 619-626.
Park, S. H., & Shim, H. J. (2015). Examining the Risk Factors of Cyber Bullying with SNS
among Korean Youth. korean Journal of Public Safety and Criminal Justice (KJPC),
24(1), 155-185.
Park, S. U., Chang, J. H., & Hong, M. G. (2022). Examination of Cyberbullying Experiencesamong Korean Students from Different Routine Activity. Journal of Korean Public
Police and Security Studies, 19(3), 77-100.
Park, Y. S., & Park, J. H. (2016). The Effects of School Violence Victimization on
Cyberbullying Perpetration in Middle School Students and the Moderating Role of
Self-Control. Korean Journal of Child Studies, 37(3), 39-51.
Seong, G. J. (2019). The Effect of Adolescents' Experience of School Violence Experience,
Discrimination Experience on Cyberbullying. Korean Journal of Convergence
Science (KJCS), 8(2), 200-208.
Seong, G. J. (2020). A Study on Factors Affecting Cyber-bullying of Youth. Counseling
Psychology Education Welfare, 7(1), 7-16.
Shin, D. U. (2017). The Adolescents' Problem Behavior Pattern and Educational Guidance
Method at School. The Journal of Welfare and Counselling Education (JWCE), 6(2),157-185.

ISSN: 2189-101X

738

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Shin, S. R. (2016)a. How does juvenile’s witness of violence, watch of violence media affecttraditional bullying and cyber bullying?. Journal of Welfare for the correction, 44,
143-162.
Shin, S. R., & Jung, E. L. (2015). How does juvenile’s routine strain and dependency on theInternet affect cyber-bullying?. Journal of Welfare for the correction, 39, 59-81.
Shin, S. R., & Lee, Y. N. (2016)b. How does juvenile’s attachment, involvement and selfcontrol affect cyber-bullying?. The Police Science Journal (PSJ), 11(3), 181-207.
Sim, H. I. (2013). Effect of Increasing Immigration and Countermeasure of Multi-Cultural
Society Crime in Korea. Korean Journal of Criminal Justice, 3(2), 89-125.
Song, J. Y., & Jang, J. O. (2014). An Analysis of the Factors that Influence Internet Searches
on Cyber Bullying using Social Big Data. Journal of Korean Criminological
Association, 8(1), 133-162.
Song, Y. R., & Kim, Y. H. (2018). The Mediating Effect of Relational Aggression on the
Relationship between the parental overprotective Perceived by Adolescents andCyber bullying. The Journal of Learner-Centered Curriculum and Instruction(JLCCI), 18(16), 527-554.
Tagawa, T. (2012). Characteristics of Cyberbullying Discourse : From Analysis on
Newspaper Articles. Journal of Nagoya Bunri University, 12(0), 89-95.
Takeuchi, K. (2012). Review of the measures to deal with the mobile phone, Internet
problems caused by a peer support: Efforts to eradicate cyberbullying at the Middle
School Summit. Annual Convention of the Japanese Association of Educational
Psychology, 54(0), 178.
Utsumi, S. (2010)a. Cellular Internet Control Awareness and Cyberbullying among Middle
School Students: A Study of Gender Differences. Japanese Journal of Educational
Psychology, 52(0), 493.
Utsumi, S. (2010)b. Cyberbullying Among Middle-School Students: Association With
Children’s Perception of Parental Control and Relational Aggression. The Japanesejournal of educational psychology, 58(1), 12-22.
Woo, I. K., Kim, H. J., Kim, H. J., & Lee, C. B. (2022). The Effect of Academic Strain andAggression on the Cyberbullying Perpetration of Juveniles : Focused on theModerated Mediating Effect of Physical Activity. The Journal of social science,29(3), 121-137.
Woo, J. J., Kwak, E. M., & Lee, H. J. (2018). The convergence study of smartphone overuseon cyberbullying : Focusing on mediating effects of aggression. Korean Journal ofConvergence Science (KJCS), 9(5), 61-67.
Yang, B. W., & Hong, H. Y. (2016). The Impact of Cyberbullying Victim Experiences on
Suicidal Ideation in Middle School Students: The Moderating Effect of Stress Coping
Behavior. Korean Journal of Youth Studies, 23(9), 351-380.

ISSN: 2189-101X

739

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Yang, Y. S., Ahn, S. Y., & Choi, B. Y. (2016). The Effect of School Violence Offending andVictimization Experience on Cyberbullying Perpetration in Middle School Students:
Focusing on the Mediating Effect of Aggression. The Korea Journal of YouthCounseling, 24(2), 221-240.
You, S. M., Kim, J. M., & Kim, C. G. (2017). a The Effects of Psychological Characteristics
of Adolescents on Cyberbullying Perpetration: Focusing on the Mediatig Effect ofCyberbullying Victimization. Journal of emotional & behavioral disorders, 33(3), 6382.
You, S. M., Kim, J. M., & Yoo, S. H. (2017) b. The Effects of Cyberbullying Victimizationof Adolescents on Cyberbullying Perpetration - Focusing on the mediating effect ofanger and moderating effect of social support -. Youth facility and environment, 15(3),103-113.
Yu, J. H., & Um, M. Y. (2022). The Effect of Cyberbullying Victimization on Cyberbullying
Perpetration of Middle School Students : Mediating Effect of Emotional Intelligenceand Deviant Life Styles and Multiple-group Analysis by Gender. Korean Journal ofSocial Welfare, 74(2), 209-238.
Yun, I. H., & Lee, J. L. (2017). An Ecological Systems Approach toward Cyberbullying:With a Focus on Bronfenbrenneer's Theory. korean Journal of Public Safety andCriminal Justice (KJPC), 26(1), 67-104.
Yun, J. H., & Kim, S. H. (2020). A Study on the Effect of Parental Attitude and FamilyStress on Childeren’s Cyberbullying and Determinant: Focused on High SchoolStudents. The Journal of Humanities and Social science (HSS21), 11(4), 1781-1796.

ISSN: 2189-101X

740

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Research on the Relationship Between Reflective Practice and Academic Performance inExperiential Learning
Shu-Yin Yu, Ming Chuan University, Taiwan
The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023
Official Conference Proceedings
Abstract
This research is based on the manipulation of experiential learning, combined with feedback
surveys of reflective practice. The implementation project is three learning activities ofcreative thinking, advertising script and video shooting in the advertising design course.
Based on the learning effect of the project design, the participants go through the four
processes of analysis, thinking, execution, and reflection, conduct phased investigations
based on individual and team performance, and then proceed to the next project design, andso on. The research results show that there are differences between student team
self-assessment, individual self-assessment, and academic performance. There is a moderatecorrelation between the two variables. There is a positive relationship between
self-assessment and academic performance. Students with high team and high individual
self-assessment scores will have higher academic performance. Individual self-assessment
results can have an impact on academic performance and can also be used as a basis for
inferring students' academic performance. The research shows that the learning mode of
developing cognition and skills can observe problems, innovate thinking, solve problems
through the focus of thinking in the process of project execution, and then provide feedback
and improvement through reflection practice, so that the participants' ability and experiencecan be improved. More importantly, Reflective practice enhances learning outcomes for all
learners.
Keywords: Design Education, Reflective Practice, Academic Performance, Experiential
Learning

iafor
The International Academic Forumwww.iafor.org

ISSN: 2189-101X

741

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Introduction
This research focuses on the effectiveness of combining experiential learning with reflective
practice, emphasizing the exploration of experiential learning and the benefits ofself-reflection. Through the execution of a curriculum design project, the participants in thisresearch were able to move from abstract thinking to concrete execution, challenging
themselves, critiquing, evaluating, and making revisions. In addition to challenging
conceptualization and improving execution, reflective practice can also help individuals
better understand the significance of their knowledge and expertise in terms of theeffectiveness of their actions (Finlay, 2008). The research used self-assessment during threeconsecutive reflective processes as a criterion for effectiveness. Peer review formed a cyclicalprocess of reflection, enabling the participants to identify errors, evaluate and explore bettertask approaches, and improve their problem-solving skills by addressing the lack of practicalexperience combined with poor critical thinking. This process enhanced the participants'
reflective habits, building their abilities to think proactively and engage in self-directed
learning.
Research Purpose
Traditional students' experiential learning often involves sharing learning experiences rather
than practical experiences. Without reflection, the learning process lacks the ability to reflect
on the meaning behind learning actions, resulting in a lack of experiential exchange. The
depth of reflective practice requires practice, especially in the learning stage. If one caninternalize reflection as a learning habit and be more open to criticism, challenges, andsuggestions, the process will be more effective. Therefore, this research conducted acurriculum operation and effectiveness survey on "experiential learning and reflective
practice." The research was conducted by forming task teams with learners and implementing
the spiral cycle model of returning to experience, reflecting on observation, focusing on
feelings, and reviewing experiences through classroom experiential learning. In each stage,learners conducted self-assessment to trigger discussion, reflection on mistakes, and designmodifications to establish new team experiences and cohesion.
Literature Review
Reflective Practice is a core skill and an active, dynamic process. Through the practice oflearning experiences, reflective practice becomes a habit, leading to more informed andconfident decision-making. The concept of reflective practice was first introduced by Schön(1983), who defined the relationship between reflection and action as a means to improve
professional capabilities. Schön proposed two types of reflection, "reflection-in-action" and"reflection-on-action." Reflection-in-action refers to reflective behavior during action,
continuously examining one's performance and adjusting behavior in real-time to achievegoals and solve problems. Reflection-on-action, on the other hand, involves reflecting on pastexperiences, considering one's performance, and improving plans to enhance learning
outcomes.
Boud et al. (1985) proposed incorporating "individual emotions and feelings" into athree-step reflective model, consisting of "returning to the experience," "attending tofeelings," and "evaluating the experience." Gibbs (1988) introduced the famous Reflection
Cycle, also known as Reflective Practices, which is a continuous improvement cycle
consisting of six stages: description, feelings, evaluation, analysis, conclusion, and action

ISSN: 2189-101X

742

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

plan (see figure 1). Gibbs believed that the importance of reflective practice is to enhanceawareness when performing professional tasks, induce reflective behavior, and enable
learners to perform better during the practice process (Gibb, 1988), supporting the model ofexperiential learning.
Reflective practice as a support and development tool in education and social science fields isrecognized. In action research and reflective practice, reflection has subjectivity andindividuality, and its depth of application requires practice. The creativity of new experiences
enhances the universality and effectiveness of action and reflection (McIntosh, 2006).
Therefore, reflective students are more capable of engaging in external dialogue andself-communication effectively (Tennyson, 2008). Students can attempt to understand theimpact of learning, how to improve learning quality, or new application experiences,connecting the two experiences to ensure that they can achieve better performance in the nextstage. In addition to understanding professional knowledge and behavioral issues, thereflection process can also encourage collaboration, ensuring that students learn more
effectively. Reflection is critical, and how students face mistakes and listen to others'
opinions is the most difficult part for students. Guides can help students recognize learning
issues, accept challenges, and cultivate self-confidence, while teachers can improve theirteaching methods by asking questions. In addition to open-ended questionnaire reflections,this research evaluated learning outcomes and used the self-assessment scores from the threereflective cycles as the analysis data for this reflective practice survey.

Figure 1: Gibbs' Reflective Circle Theory

Figure 2: Kolb's Theory of Experiential Learning

To sum up, reflective practice can be said to be a conscious and active process of thinking
about the process in order to better prepare for similar events in the future. It is characterized
by "learning from mistakes" through strategic, systemic and positive meaning. The
advantages of reflective practice are as follows: Reflective practice encourages innovation:
Reflective practice can be used as a basis for curriculum adjustment. Adjust, create andexperiment with new ideas while learning. Students have a richer learning experience and are
more creative, imaginative and ready to adapt to new ways of thinking. Reflective practiceencourages participation: Reflection helps to justify decisions and encourages different
perspectives and understanding. Focus on student strengths, preferences, development, or theperspectives of others. Reflective practice helps develop confident students: Encouraging
students to take on new challenges in their learning builds a safe and confident learningjourney.

ISSN: 2189-101X

743

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

How Reflective Practice Incorporates Experiential Learning
In 1984, Kolb proposed the cycle theory of experiential learning (Learning Cycle), which
includes concrete experience, reflective observation, abstract conceptualization, and active
experimentation (Kolb & Wolfe, 1981). It emphasizes that individuals can learn through theprocess of experience and practice, forming a continuous cycle of learning. Learning is acontinuous process of experience transformation and knowledge creation. This dynamic
process of knowledge creation is the result of the interaction, conflict, and problem-solving
between individuals and the environment. In other words, the process of knowledge creation
starts with concrete experience, followed by reflection and observation, formation ofconcepts and inferences, and testing concepts in new situations (as shown in Figure 2).
Reflection in practice is "learning from experience to gain new insights into self and practice"(Finlay, 2008). The exploration process is prioritized to understand the actions andexperiences that may have been overlooked during execution. Reflection challenges thecritical practice process of the execution experience, enabling students to understand theirprofessional knowledge and action meanings more deeply. Therefore, reflection in practice isclosely related to experience. The level of reflection ranges from self-perspective, action,
values, to team communication and relationships, and answers are found from experiences.
Students interact with people from different backgrounds and perspectives in collaborative
relationships to promote understanding, influence, and guide complex dynamic relationships.
Sometimes, experiences may be confusing and unpredictable, and there may not always be alogical or straightforward solution. When faced with situations that do not have correct orwrong answers, students must make professional judgments. However, judgments may beincorrect, and these experiences of failure may cause students to feel frustrated and retreat. Ifthey can re-evaluate how to perceive and handle events, turning negative experiences into
positive ones, reflection can become a valuable ability. Figure 3 shows how this study
embedded the reflective observation aspect of the experiential learning cycle into theoperational mode of the reflection cycle in practice.

Figure 3: Concept map of experiential learning combined with reflective practice

ISSN: 2189-101X

744

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Figure 4: Schematic diagram of the cycle of experiential learning

How experiential learning and reflective practice apply to curriculum and teaching
The student's experiential learning process will be integrated into reflective practice teaching,incorporating flipped teaching, experiential learning, and workplace experiences throughsocial service. Through individual and team reflection training, a review mechanism isformed using the small and large cycle loops (as shown in Figure 4). New experiences areformed by overlaying each other's experiences, and reflective habits are repeatedly
accumulated. Students lead the learning process of problem-solving and can observe andreflect on their own learning gaps in each learning stage through concrete workplace
experiences. Through teacher support or dialogue with industry experts, students can develop
an understanding of the social workplace, which is further applied and verified in the nextstage of design work.
However, through the reflection practice training of team and curriculum design, students andteachers can reflect on their project design performance and exchange ideas to see thediversity and individuality of students. Students can choose their preferred way tocommunicate their learning and decide on reflection expressions or tools to support the team's
reflective practice process, in line with the tendency of modern young students to think
independently. The teacher's role becomes a supporter of learning, guiding students to seek
answers. Such experiential learning, which was previously led by teachers, has beentransformed into a domain where students can independently seek answers and verification,
addressing the current issues of students' low autonomy, enthusiasm, learning-application
gaps, and curriculum focus.
Table 1: Comparison of experiential learning theory and reflective observation activities
Steps

Theoretical basis

Reflective Practice Observation Activities

Concrete
Experience

Arouse students' interest by
actually participating in
activities and specificexperiences in the workplace.

Reflective
Observation

Observing industry-university
issues and seeking the value ofpractical experience

Abstract
Conceptualization

Analyze the feasibility ofpractice by thinking andinternalizing knowledge andexperience

ISSN: 2189-101X

745

Observe or experience the implementationneeds in the field of design, examine individual
learning problems and obstacles, propose
problem descriptions, and trigger learning
discussions.
Through the experience of practical tasks,
students propose situation assessment andpractical experience induction, and record
emotions and feelings.
Integrate practical experience and professional
skills, propose coping strategies and learning
conclusions, establish improvement methods
and design revisions.

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

ActiveExperimentation

Official Conference Proceedings

Propose action plans in new design activities
and implement specific design strategies andLearning activities that put
action guidelines to verify the specificfunctional experience and skills
effectiveness and value of experiential learning
into practicetheory and reflective practice on design
functions.

This research focuses on the integration of "reflective practice" and "experiential learning",
where students are encouraged to reflect and revise their thinking at each stage ofcollaborative learning. High-achieving students are organized into experiential learning teams,
where they engage in cyclical learning and reflective practices based on individual strengths,
to assist their peers with lower levels of engagement and learning outcomes. Students are
given greater autonomy and openness in terms of their self-perceived role, learning planning,
and team teaming. The reflective practice process is the most important operational procedure,
where stage-specific experiences are aimed at problem recognition, marketing planning,
design decision-making, and proposal execution, among other processes. Each learning stage
and reflective outcome is used as a basis for the next stage, while also reflecting on better
execution methods.
Research Design
The research will be based on the individual and team self-assessment results of students'
reflection on practice, corresponding to their actual academic performance. Measure whether
student team and individual performance improves as a result of reflective loop manipulation.
Using the experiential learning model as the foundation, this research aims to reinforce theindependence and learning effectiveness of each participating student in the learning team,while also interacting with the execution of design practices in the work team. Traditional
experiential learning can achieve short-term team learning pressure and goals for students,and low-achievers and those with inadequate abilities can indeed achieve learning objectives
due to peer and time pressure. By incorporating a structured learning exchange system andthe support of instructors and TAs as mentors, the lack of autonomous motivation andlearning enthusiasm can be avoided, allowing the collaborative learning mode of "learning by
doing" to be internalized as a student's independent learning process and method.
Findings
According to the single-sample T test results in Table 2, participants’ team self-assessment(t=49.612, P=.000), individual self-assessment (t=42.488, P=.000) and academic performance(t=176.005, P=.000) all three items reached a significant level. It means that there are
significant differences in the team self-assessment, individual self-assessment and academic
performance of the participants.
According to the results of Pearson correlation analysis (Table 3), the participants' teamperformance and individual performance (r=.670, p=.000); team performance and academic
performance (r=.353, p=.014<.05); individual performance and academic performance are(r=.418, p=.003<.01), and the r values of the three items all exceed 0.3, indicating that there
is a moderate correlation between the two (0.3<r<0.7).

ISSN: 2189-101X

746

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Table 2: Variable single sample test
Variance

M

SD

T

Team
7.9475 1.10984 49.612
Individua 7.8069 1.27301 42.488
lAP.
87.6252 3.44924 176.005

df

sig

47
47
47

.000
.000
.000

95% confidence
lower
upper
7.94750 7.6252 8.2698
7.80687 7.4372 8.1765
87.62521 86.6237 88.6268
MD

Table 3: Pearson correlation analysis
Variance
Team
Individual
Pearson1
Team
Sig
Pearson.670**
1
Individual
Sig.000
Pearson.353*.418**
Academic
Performance
Sig
.014
.003

Academic
Performance1

As shown in Table 4 and 4-1, most students belong to high self-assessment and academic
performance. The F statistics of team and individual self-assessment results are .251 and .657
respectively, and the significant values are .619 and .422, both of which are greater than thesignificant level of .05. Indicates that there is no significant difference between the two
independent variables. The independent T test of team self-assessment was T=-1.781,
P=.082>.05; the independent test of individual self-assessment was T=-2.222, P=.031<.05,
reaching a significant level. There is no significant difference in academic performance
among students who express different team self-assessment performances; however, students
with different individual self-assessment performances have obvious differences in academic
performance.
Table 4: Statistical data of students' self-assessment and academic performanceHigh / low academic
N
M
MD
MSE
performance
Low team
20
86.5995
3.32872.74433
teamHigh team28
88.3579
3.40246.64300Low
2286.4700
3.53124.75286individual
individualHigh2688.6027
3.11838.61156individual
Table 4-1: Independent sample T-test of student self-assessment and academic performance
Levenet-test for equality for means
Academic
Variance
95% confidence
Performance
F
P
T
df
Sig
MD
SE
lower
upper
-1.78146.082-1.75836 .98728-3.74565 .22893
team
.251
.619
-1.788 41.62.081-1.75836 .98360-3.74388 .22716
6-2.22246.031-2.13269 .95979-4.06465 -.20073
Individual .657
.422
-2.199 42.36.033-2.13269 .96996-4.08964 -.17574
3

ISSN: 2189-101X

747

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Figure 5: The linear structure relationship between self-assessment grades and academic grades
Table 5: Regression analysis results of team self-assessment and individual self-assessment
model summary
R-squareAdjustedmodeRdR-squaredStandard Skew Error
1
.391a
.153
.135
3.20843
a. Predicted value: (constant), individual self-assessment
Analysis of VarianceaModesum ofdf
mean
FRegressio
85.646
185.6468.320
squaresquared
1 Residual
473.52546
10.294nTotal
559.171
47
a. Dependent number: academic performanceb. Predicted value: (constant), individual self-assessment

Sig
.006b

coefficient a
unstandardized coefficient standardized
Mode
T
P
B
standard
Beta
coefficient(constant)
79.3472.907
27.29 .000
error
1
Individua
1.060
.368
.391
2.884
.006
3
a. Dependentlnumber: academic performance

According to the linear structure diagram (Figure 5), the best fit line shows that the regression
line of the overall academic performance can explain 31.9% of the variance; high academic
performance can explain 43.0% of the variance and low academic performance can explain
12.5% of the variance. Individual performance is directly proportional to team performance.
The better the individual self-assessment performance, the better the team self-assessment
performance, and the higher the academic performance. Those with high self-assessment
performance will also have higher academic performance.

ISSN: 2189-101X

748

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Discussions and Conclusions
The research results can echo the four learning processes that students experience: analysis,
thinking, execution, and reflection. Students can reflect and improve through the feedback ofreflective practice. In addition to gaining professional ability and progressive experience,
more importantly, reflective practice can improve the learning of all learners. grades andachievements. The research results show that the operation of experiential learning combinedwith reflective practice can increase the learning mode of designing professional ability anddeveloping cognition and skills. Feedback for reflection and improvement. Participants'
abilities and experiences are progressive, and more importantly, reflective practice enhances
the achievement and effectiveness of all learners.
Acknowledgements
Part of the research content of this article has been published in the 2023 Conference at Ming
Chuan University, Taiwan.

ISSN: 2189-101X

749

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

References
Boud, D., Keogh, R., & Walker, D., (1985). Reflection: Turning Experience into Learning.
London: Kogan Page, 1985.
Finlay, L., (2008). Reflecting on ‘Reflective practice’. Practice-based Professional Learning
Paper 52, The Open University.
Gibbs, G. (1988). Learning by Doing. A Guide to Teaching and Learning Methods. Oxford
Centre for Staff and Learning Development. 2013. Oxford Brooks University. Oxford.
UK. ePub Version.
Kolb's (1984) Experiential Learning Cycle. Adapted from “Frameworks Supporting RP” in J.
Scaife, 2010, Supervising the Reflective Practitioner, 26.
McIntosh, P. (2006) Metaphor and Symbolism: An Action Research Approach to Reflexivity
in Nurse Education. Unpublished Ph.D. thesis. Centre of Applied Research in Education,
University of East Anglia.
Schön D. A., (1983). The Reflective Practitioner: How Professionals Think in Action. New
York: Basic Books.
Tennyson R. (2008). The Imagined Conversation in Tennyson, R. and McManus, S. (2008).
Talking the Walk: A Communication Manual for Partnership Practitioners. International
Business Leaders Forum, 43-50.

ISSN: 2189-101X

750

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Relegating School Principal Leadership From Teacher Professional Learning:
Social Network Analysis Approach

Lita Mariana, Universitas Indonesia, Indonesia
Mone Stepanus Andrias, Universitas Indonesia, Indonesia

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023
Official Conference Proceedings

Abstract
Researchers have been trying to identify through which ‘path’ the principal’s leadership
practice is most impactful to the quality of teaching and learning as a preferred outcome. On
the other hand, there is some evidence that its influence on student learning is indirect. This
study seeks to contribute to the knowledge regarding influence of school leadership onteacher professional learning by investigating their relationship using a social network
analysis (SNA) approach in Indonesian context. SNA is applied to examine the level ofleadership influence in the observed schools. Social network analysis measurement is going
to be used to analyse the relations among variables. This research wants to offer insights toIndonesian policymakers and practitioners on how they could support teachers professional
learning in a society where the influence of leadership on teaching and learning is still poorly
explored in network perspective. Preliminary result of this research in progress shows that
although the principal still has significant influence on teacher professional learning, there areinfluential individuals outside formal leadership hierarchy. It is one of evidence of ashared/distributed leadership in practice with which further exploration could identify theattributes and practice lead to higher organisational effectiveness and agility.

Keywords: School Leadership, Professional Learning, Social Network Analysis

iafor
The International Academic Forumwww.iafor.org

ISSN: 2189-101X

751

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Introduction
Effective school leadership is essential for improving the school performance. School
principals play a central part in ensuring a positive environment for teaching and learning inschools. The role of school principal demands the bearer to give direction and provide
guidance for all school improvement programme. The responsibility also includes ensuring
teaching quality and resources allocation for professional development programme (Yeigh etal., 2018), and school success (Raihani, 2008). The change in educational policy, evaluation
systems, and increased external pressure on accountability, have raised expectations forprincipals to improve school climate, instructional practice, and student outcomes. Thus, thesuccessful education reform implementation depends on the school leadership’s execution of
the reform (Lumban Gaol, 2021). There is evidence that principals are significant elements instudent learning outcomes, whereas not much knowledge about how principals could best
achieve the aims (Liebowitz & Porter, 2019).
The influence of principal leadership and school capacity on teacher professional learning
were modelled (Hallinger & Lu, 2014) and examined (Li et al., 2016) in Hong Kong. Thesestudies were further explored to verify the mediating effects of trust on principal leadershipand teacher professional learning in Hong Kong (Li et al., 2016) and Turkey (Karacabey etal., 2020). Collectively, the results indicated that shared vision within school leadership teamis positively related to teacher’s perception of school alignment, teachers’ commitment, andteacher support to students (Hallinger and Lu, 2014). They also demonstrated that multiple
dimensions of principal leadership in the presence of trust makes significant contributions toteacher professional learning (Li et al., 2016; Piyaman et al., 2017; Karacabey et al., 2022).
The quantitative studies confirm the significant positive however indirect influence ofprincipal leadership on teacher professional learning.
Indonesia currently undergoes massive educational transformation highlighting the need tosupport teachers in professional learning, which is similar to what has been experienced in
Turkey (Karacabey et al., 2022) in terms of school principals’ increased responsibility for
improving teaching and learning in their schools. The education bureaucracies in Indonesia
also reflects similarly with China, and Thailand in a hierarchical fashion, in additional toclose relations in culture in terms of respect for age, experience, and rank as elements ofsocial values (Hallinger et al., 2019).
The study’s results and comparability spark our interest in examining the relationshipbetween principal leadership and the teacher professional learning in Indonesian context.
Despite the similarity in education bureaucracies and cultural hierarchies, there is not one
model fits all in the face of change initiatives. But there is a need to explain a leader’s role
within a complex system to initiate organisational change and manage dynamic social
network (Dinh et al., 2014). Social network analysis (SNA) approach provides theories andmethods to investigate, with higher precision and rigor, the relational perspectives suggested
by leadership theories (Carter et al., 2015). Hence, it would be beneficial to introduce social
network approach to investigate school leadership.
This study is designed to address the following research question:
RQ: How does school leadership effectively influence teacher professional learning?

ISSN: 2189-101X

752

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

This research extends insights to school leaders and management, Indonesian policymakers,
scholars, and practitioners on how they could support teacher professional learning where theinfluence of leadership on professional learning is still poorly explored within Indonesian and
SNA approach context. This study would also contribute to the expanding literature on schoolleadership and teacher learning in Asia (Hallinger & Kulophas, 2019; Harris & Jones, 2018;
Karacabey et al., 2020; Liu et al., 2016; Piyaman et al., 2017).
Findings of the systematic literature reviews
Effective leadership is an essential aspect to improve the quality of education. School leaders
are expected to be able to appropriately manage the school’s own or access to resources, lest
the institution would struggle to develop. A systematic literature review on leadership for
professional learning done by Poekert et al. (2020) investigated leadership approaches whichforms professional development. The criteria used provide reasonable basis for conceptual
framework which identifies the characteristics of effective professional learning (Desimone etal., 2002, in Poekert et al., 2020). The outcomes of professional learning, however, areinfluenced by how the teachers engage professional learning which further influence theirexperience (Castanheira, 2016) whereas Hallinger (2018) referred to the learning experience
as a ‘person-specific context.’
In addition to the practical needs for references, the literature on school leadership is alsolacking non-Western context, while Evans (2022) observed that belief systems exist within
specific cultures and psyches and within scholarly communities. It was around two decades
ago that studies in educational leadership field began in non-Western contexts (Gümüş et al.
(2022) in Lumban Gaol, 2021) and articles from Asian countries are still scarce due to lack ofstudies conducted in Asian schools (Raihani, 2008). The number of school leadership studies
in Asian countries has increased in the last decade, nevertheless there are still a few Asian
countries that lack contributions to this field and Indonesia is one of them (Walker &Hallinger, 2015).
The educational leadership and school reform issues in Indonesia have been relatively
neglected in publications regardless of its significance being acknowledged (Sofo et al.,2012). Thus, Indonesian policymakers have shown the tendency to depend on the results andpractices of educational system from Western context rather than relying on Indonesian
research results. A systematic literature review on school leadership in the context ofIndonesian education by Lumban Gaol (2021) helps constructing the relevant reference basis
for this study although there is still no publication to date with SNA approach.
School leadership
Principal leadership has a significant effect on school organisation features, which positively
affects the quality of teaching and student learning, and vital to the success of improvementattempts (Leithwood et al., 2019). Principal’s transformational leadership is suggested toinfluence teacher professional learning through mediation of teacher trust and teacher agency,
which can change teaching practices and lead to recuperated student’s learning outcome. This
conceptual model of the research frames the principal as the representation of schoolleadership and teacher professional learning, which we adapt from Karacabey et al. (2020),
Damanik and Aldridge (2017), and Hallinger et al. (2017).

ISSN: 2189-101X

753

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

The last decade has been an important period for education in Indonesia regarding policies
and regulations for education system improvement and school reform which takes place as
school-based management. The policy changes lead to new roles and responsibilities ofschool principals which generate various demands. The core competencies for schoolleadership comprise of personal, managerial, supervisory, entrepreneurial, and social
competencies (Wiyono, 2017). The implementation of school-based management brings newroles and responsibilities to school principals in which teachers should be empowered to havea voice in educational planning (Bandur, 2012) which in turn requires an improvement inschool principals’ competencies.
Principals have critical role in improving the quality of educational service, hence they must
manage various aspects while carrying out the improvements. School improvement is provenby empirical studies as context-specific and cultural (Jawas, 2017), which applies to criticalarea of learning level, capacity development, and evaluation of improvement (Teddlie &Reynolds, 2000). Jawas (2017) reaffirmed that leadership practices are context-specific andcontext-influenced, and that instructional improvement are affected by the condition of theschool, social practices, and economic considerations.
However, Lee and Hallinger (2012) found that the emphasis of Indonesian principals were on
management and administration rather than leadership. Another study by Bandur (2018)
reported the lack of success of school-based management which gave rise to poor students’
academic achievement. The studies demonstrated the significance of school principal’s
leadership impact on learning outcome in Indonesia.
Referring to Jawas (2017) that school improvement and leadership practice are contextspecific and context-influenced, this study deploys SNA to approach school leadership andteacher professional learning. SNA allows an inductive approach as it is descriptive in nature(Locke, 2007) and useful to describe the status of the research focus (Hiller et al., 2011). In
consideration of school condition and culture, albeit similarity in hierarchical educational
systems between Indonesia and the countries in the studies, this study seeks to examine therelationship and explore the mediating factors between the principal leadership influence andteacher professional learning.
Teacher professional learning
Teachers need to engage in professional learning to be conversant with knowledge and skills
necessary to accommodate changes in educational environment (Jansen in de Wal et al.,2014). Professional learning now has been an ongoing developmental process rather than
discrete activities (Kwakman, 2003; Timperley, 2011) in various forms through formal andinformal structures or settings, individually or collectively (Hallinger et al., 2019).
Teacher professional learning, regardless of the format, calls for adult learning practices
promoting collective and collaborative behaviours which have been a medium forestablishing sustainable school improvement. Teacher professional learning has been a centreof school reform practices correlated with behaviours and practice responsible for student
learning as well as teacher’s learning (Hallinger & Kulophas, 2019). Teacher growth anddevelopment is included in Indonesian Education National Standard (Standar Nasional
Pendidikan) as one of the key measurements for school performance which is under the
responsibility of the school’s leader who also has competencies standard. Thus, school
principals bear the responsibility to arrange the teachers’ professional development.

ISSN: 2189-101X

754

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Social network analysis
Ogawa and Bossert (1995) in Lin et al. (2018) observed that leadership is not constricted to
specific roles or formal titles, rather it flows through the networks of roles that form
organisations. They stated that leadership is based on deployment of distributed resources
throughout the network, therefore school organisation is considered as the unit of network
analysis.
Spillane et al. (2001) professed that school leadership is best understood as a distributed
practice influenced by social and contextual factors. Hence, the interdependence andinteractions between individuals and the environment in a network is a suitable unit ofanalysis for examining leadership practice within the network. In this context, SNA could
identify the types of existing distributed leadership. This knowledge provides insight on more
effective energy and resources allocation for the success of school leadership rather thannarrowly focused on the principal’s leadership.
Social network analysis (SNA) is a set of theories, tools, and processes to understand therelations and structures of a network represented by nodes and links (Hoppe & Reinelt,2010). Social network will connect social actors contained in a network, including
individuals, organizations, and families. The analysis takes interest in how an individual isnested within a structure or networks of relations with others and how the structure surfaces
from the said relations (Hanneman & Riddle, 2005). The purpose of using this social network
analysis method is as a basis for studying activities related to organizations, interpersonal
relationships, and others (McAndrew & Everett, 2014). The social map generated by SNA
computer programs displays the patterns of connections between nodes of the network while
networks are measured with mathematical techniques.
MethodThis study employs a social network analysis approach with cross-sectional quantitative casestudy design. Data were compiled from a respondent school comprises of leadership andteaching staff of 41 people across levels (from preschool to high school) in a full network
method where information about each individual and the relations with all other individuals iscollected. The major limitation of this method is the difficulty of collecting full network data.
To measure the information about relations between individuals, ordinal measure similar to a
Likert scale is applied to determine the strength of ties (Liebowitz, 2005). The resulting
response would then be converted to zero-one binary scale which brings the strength of
influence to extreme of present (one) or absent (zero).
Demographical data such as gender, age, years of teaching experience, years of leadershipexperience, and highest completed degree are collected to provide context for analysis. And
relational data is collected as rating of peer influence on respondent’s professional learning asa response to the SNA question, “To what degree does this individual influence yourprofessional learning?” The response provided represents peer influence on respondent’s
professional learning in the range of options from “To a great extent” to “None at all”. The
response data would then be coded into square binary matrix in the size of number ofindividuals. Shown in the graph below is the sociogram generated from 41 x 41 matrix.

ISSN: 2189-101X

755

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Figure 1: Social network map of individuals within a school (using UCINet)
Initial analysis on result of this research-in-progress shows the dominance of school
principal’s influence (node 6) that is closely followed by the school management (node 37
and node 5) and an emerging influential individual (node 20). It describes that although theprincipal has significant influence on teacher professional learning, there are influential
individuals outside formal leadership hierarchy. It is one of evidence of a shared/distributed
leadership in practice with which further analysis using SNA measurements could identify
the more detailed relations and leadership dynamic within the school network.
Conclusion
There is evidence of a shared/distributed leadership in practice in the respondent school withwhich further exploration could identify the leadership attributes and practice lead toeffective intended impact on outcomes. Further detailed analysis on SNA measurements
result is vital for discussions to happen and to arrive at the objectives of this study.

ISSN: 2189-101X

756

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

References
Bandur, A. (2012). School‐based management developments: challenges and impacts.
Journal of Educational Administration, 50(6), 845-873.
https://doi.org/10.1108/09578231211264711
Bandur, A. (2018). Stakeholders’ responses to school-based management in Indonesia.
International Journal of Educational Management, 32(6), 1082-1098.
https://doi.org/10.1108/ijem-08-2017-0191
Carter, D. R., DeChurch, L. A., Braun, M. T., & Contractor, N. S. (2015, May 2015, 202302-28). Social network approaches to leadership: An integrative conceptual review.
Journal of Applied Psychology, 100(3), 597. https://www.proquest.com/scholarlyjournals/social-network-approaches-leadership-integrative/docview/1682247970/se-2
Castanheira, P. S. P. (2016). Mentoring for educators’ professional learning anddevelopment: A meta-synthesis of IJMCE volumes 1-4. International journal of
mentoring and coaching in education, 5(4), 334-346. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJMCE10-2015-0030
Damanik, C., & Aldridge, J. (2017). Transformational Leadership and Its Impact on School
Climate and Teachers’ Self-Efficacy in Indonesian High Schools. Journal of School
Leadership, 27, 269-296.
Dinh, J. E., Lord, R. G., Gardner, W. L., Meuser, J. D., Liden, R. C., & Hu, J. (2014,2014/02/01/). Leadership theory and research in the new millennium: Current
theoretical trends and changing perspectives. The Leadership Quarterly, 25(1), 36-62.
https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2013.11.005
Evans, L. (2022). Is educational leadership (still) worth studying? An epistemic worthinessinformed analysis. Educational Management Administration & Leadership, 50(2),325-348. https://doi.org/10.1177/17411432211066273
Gümüş, S., Çağatay Kılınç, A., & Bellibaş, M. S. (2022, 2022/10/20). The relationshipbetween teacher leadership capacity at school and teacher self-efficacy: the mediatingrole of teacher professional learning. School Leadership & Management, 42(5), 478497. https://doi.org/10.1080/13632434.2022.2123791
Hallinger, P., & Kulophas, D. (2019). The evolving knowledge base on leadership andteacher professional learning: a bibliometric analysis of the literature, 1960-2018.
Professional Development in Education, 46(4), 521-540.
https://doi.org/10.1080/19415257.2019.1623287
Hallinger, P., Liu, S., & Piyaman, P. (2017). Does principal leadership make a difference inteacher professional learning? A comparative study China and Thailand. Compare: A
Journal of Comparative and International Education, 49(3), 341-357.
https://doi.org/10.1080/03057925.2017.1407237

ISSN: 2189-101X

757

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Hallinger, P., & Lu, J. (2014). Modelling the effects of principal leadership and school
capacity on teacher professional learning in Hong Kong primary schools. School
Leadership & Management, 34(5), 481-501.
https://doi.org/10.1080/13632434.2014.938039
Harris, A., & Jones, M. (2018). Leading professional learning with impact. School
Leadership & Management, 39(1), 1-4.
https://doi.org/10.1080/13632434.2018.1530892
Hoppe, B., & Reinelt, C. (2010, 2010/08/01/). Social network analysis and the evaluation ofleadership networks. The Leadership Quarterly, 21(4), 600-619.
https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2010.06.004
Jansen in de Wal, J., den Brok, P. J., Hooijer, J. G., Martens, R. L., & van den Beemt, A.
(2014). Teachers' engagement in professional learning: Exploring motivational
profiles. Learning and Individual Differences, 36, 27-36.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2014.08.001
Jawas, U. (2017). The influence of socio-cultural factors on leadership practices for
instructional improvement in Indonesian schools. School Leadership & Management,
37(5), 500-519. https://doi.org/10.1080/13632434.2017.1366440
Karacabey, M. F., Bellibaş, M. Ş., & Adams, D. (2020). Principal leadership and teacher
professional learning in Turkish schools: examining the mediating effects ofcollective teacher efficacy and teacher trust. Educational Studies, 48(2), 253-272.
https://doi.org/10.1080/03055698.2020.1749835
Lee, M., & Hallinger, P. (2012). National contexts influencing principals' time use andallocation: economic development, societal culture, and educational system. School
Effectiveness and School Improvement, 23(4), 461-482.
https://doi.org/10.1080/09243453.2012.678862
Leithwood, K., Harris, A., & Hopkins, D. (2019). Seven strong claims about successful
school leadership revisited. School Leadership & Management, 40(1), 5-22.
https://doi.org/10.1080/13632434.2019.1596077
Li, L., Hallinger, P., & Ko, J. (2016). Principal leadership and school capacity effects onteacher learning in Hong Kong. International Journal of Educational Management,
30(1), 76-100. https://doi.org/10.1108/ijem-03-2014-0035
Liebowitz, D. D., & Porter, L. (2019). The Effect of Principal Behaviors on Student, Teacher,and School Outcomes: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of the Empirical
Literature. Review of Educational Research, 89(5), 785-827.
https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654319866133
Liebowitz, J. (2005). Linking social network analysis with the analytic hierarchy process forknowledge mapping in organizations. Journal of Knowledge Management.

ISSN: 2189-101X

758

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Lin, W., Lee, M., & Riordan, G. (2018). The Role of Teacher Leadership in Professional
Learning Community (PLC) in International Baccalaureate (IB) Schools: A Social
Network Approach. Peabody Journal of Education, 93(5), 534-550.
https://doi.org/10.1080/0161956x.2018.1515833
Liu, S., Hallinger, P., & Feng, D. (2016). Supporting the professional learning of teachers in
China: Does principal leadership make a difference? Teaching and teacher education,
59, 79-91. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2016.05.023
Locke, E. A. (2007). The Case for Inductive Theory Building. Journal of Management, 33(6),867-890. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206307307636
Lumban Gaol, N. T. (2021). School leadership in Indonesia: A systematic literature review.
Educational Management Administration & Leadership.
https://doi.org/10.1177/17411432211010811
Ogawa, R. T., & Bossert, S. T. (1995). Leadership as an Organizational Quality. Educational
Administration Quarterly, 31(2), 224-243.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0013161x95031002004
Piyaman, P., Hallinger, P., & Viseshsiri, P. (2017). Addressing the achievement gap. Journalof Educational Administration, 55(6), 717-734. https://doi.org/10.1108/jea-12-20160142
Poekert, P. E., Swaffield, S., Demir, E. K., & A. Wright, S. (2020). Leadership for
professional learning towards educational equity: a systematic literature review.
Professional Development in Education, 46(4), 541-562.
https://doi.org/10.1080/19415257.2020.1787209
Raihani. (2008). An Indonesian model of successful school leadership. Journal of
Educational Administration, 46(4), 481-496.
https://doi.org/10.1108/09578230810882018
Sofo, F., Fitzgerald, R., & Jawas, U. (2012). Instructional leadership in Indonesian school
reform: overcoming the problems to move forward. School Leadership &Management, 32(5), 503-522. https://doi.org/10.1080/13632434.2012.723616
Spillane, J. P., Halverson, R., & Diamond, J. B. (2001). Investigating School Leadership
Practice: A Distributed Perspective. Educational researcher, 30(3), 23-28.
https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X030003023
Teddlie, C., & Reynolds, D. (2000). The international handbook of school effectivenessresearch. Palmer. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203454404
Walker, A., & Hallinger, P. (2015). A synthesis of reviews of research on principal leadershipin East Asia. Journal of Educational Administration, 53(4), 554-570.
https://doi.org/10.1108/JEA-05-2015-0038

ISSN: 2189-101X

759

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Wiyono, B. B. (2017). The effect of self-evaluation on the principals’ transformational
leadership, teachers’ work motivation, teamwork effectiveness, and school
improvement. International Journal of Leadership in Education, 1-21.
https://doi.org/10.1080/13603124.2017.1318960
Yeigh, T., Lynch, D., Turner, D., Provost, S. C., Smith, R., & Willis, R. L. (2018). Schoolleadership and school improvement: an examination of school readiness factors.
School Leadership & Management, 39(5), 434-456.
https://doi.org/10.1080/13632434.2018.1505718

Contact email: lita.mariana@ui.ac.id

ISSN: 2189-101X

760

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Relations Between Visual Perception and Working Memory Through Urban Sketches at
Phumin-Ta Li Community, Nan Province
Tawipas Pichaichanarong, Suan Sunandha Rajabhat University, Thailand
Solos Punakabutra, King Mongkut's Institute of Technology Ladkrabang, Thailand
The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023
Official Conference Proceedings
Abstract
The study explores the relationship between visual perception and working memory throughthe medium of urban sketching at Phumin - Ta Li community in Nan province, Thailand. The
research involved participants sketching various buildings and landmarks in the community
while completing working memory tasks. The sketches and working memory task results
were analysed to investigate the connection between visual perception and working memory.
The findings suggest that the act of sketching can enhance an individual's visual perception
and working memory. Furthermore, this study adds to the understanding of how urban
sketching can be used as a tool to improve cognitive processes and a medium to record andremember the urban environment. The results of the study suggest that the act of sketching
can serve as a means of enhancing one's memories about sense of place and working memory
in visualisation research. The findings also indicate that Phumin-Ta Li community is
characterised by a sense of place and a rich cultural heritage that is not closely connected to
the residents but also recognized by the visitors. The study provides insights into the potentialof urban sketching as a tool for understanding the relationship between visual perception,
working memory, and sense of place. The research concludes with some recommendations
for future research, including the use of various methods of data collection in order tovalidate the findings and to expand the understanding of visual perception and working
memory in different contexts.
Keywords: Visual Perception, Working Memory, Place Memory

iafor
The International Academic Forumwww.iafor.org

ISSN: 2189-101X

761

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Introduction
Visual perception and working memory are both important cognitive processes that play a
crucial role in our ability to navigate and interact with the environment around us. Visual
perception refers to the process by which individuals interpret and organize sensory
information from the environment to create a meaningful representation of the world, whileworking memory involves the temporary storage and manipulation of information that isnecessary for ongoing cognitive tasks.Studies have shown that visual perception and working
memory are closely related, with working memory playing a critical role in the ability tomaintain and manipulate visual information (Luck & Vogel, 2013). However, the nature ofthis relationship is complex and may be influenced by a variety of factors, including thenature of the visual stimuli and the task demands placed on the individual. In the present
study, we aim to explore the relationship between visual perception and working memory
through the analysis of urban sketches created by residents of the Phumin-Ta Li community
in Nan province. Urban sketches are an ideal medium for investigating this relationship, as
they require the integration of visual perception and working memory to capture the uniquefeatures and characteristics of the urban environment. By examining the characteristics of theurban sketches created by community residents, we hope to gain a deeper understanding of
the relationship between visual perception and working memory in the context of urban
environments.
Visual Perception
Visual perception and working memory are both important cognitive processes that play a
crucial role in our ability to navigate and interact with the environment around us. Visual
perception refers to the process by which individuals interpret and organize sensory
information from the environment to create a meaningful representation of the world, whileworking memory involves the temporary storage and manipulation of information that isnecessary for ongoing cognitive tasks. Studies have shown that visual perception andworking memory are closely related, with working memory playing a critical role in theability to maintain and manipulate visual information (Luck & Vogel, 2013). However, thenature of this relationship is complex and may be influenced by a variety of factors, including
the nature of the visual stimuli and the task demands placed on the individual.
Working Memory
Working memory is a cognitive system responsible for temporarily holding and manipulating
information that is needed for ongoing mental tasks (Baddeley, 2012). Drawing is a complex
visual and spatial task that involves multiple working memory processes, such as visual
perception, spatial planning, and mental manipulation of visual information (Kozbelt &Seidel, 2006). Working memory is critical for drawing because it allows artists to remember
the features and details of their subject and mentally manipulate the image as they create it(Kozbelt & Seidel, 2006).
Place Memory
Place memory refers to the way in which individuals associate memories with specificlocations or places. This connection between memories and a sense of place has been widely
studied and documented in various fields, including psychology, geography, and urban
studies. For example, Lewicka's study (2011) examined the relationship between place

ISSN: 2189-101X

762

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

attachment and memories, finding that individuals who were more attached to a particularplace tended to have stronger memories associated with it. Additionally, the study found thatmemories associated with a place could influence an individual's emotional attachment to thatplace. Similarly, a study by Bolliger and colleagues (2020) explored the relationship between
spatial cognition and autobiographical memory, and found that individuals with stronger
spatial cognition tended to have more detailed and vivid memories associated with specificlocations.
Urban Sketches and Illustrate Showcase
As part of the study, the researcher created urban sketch images to assist in presenting
questions to participants about the research findings. These sketches were identified as
figures 2 and 3. Within the collection of images representing the Phumin-Ta Li community in
Nan province, Figure 1 featured a photograph taken by the researcher, highlighting Wat
Phumin, Nan province.

Figure 1: Wat Phumin

Figure 2: Urban Sketch of Wat Phumin No.1

Figure 3: Urban Sketch of Wat Phumin No.2

ISSN: 2189-101X

763

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Methodology
The sketcher used interviewing to obtain information on his artworks and to observe
expressions from the participant to understand the relationship between visual perception,
working memory, and place memory. Meanwhile, Solos Punakabutra, a lecturer from King
Mongkut's Institute of Technology Ladkrabang, Thailand, has imparted music aesthetics tothe sketcher as figure 4. In addition, the sketcher used the picture interview method, whichrefers to a type of interview technique that uses images to ask questions to the participant as
figure 2 and 3. This technique is designed to encourage the participant to provide more
information and comprehensive responses than he or she has done before. According toBraun and Clarke (2019), picture interview methods are particularly useful in qualitative
research as he or she can help the researcher to understand how he or she interprets andmakes sense of the drawing of Wat Phumin into some valuable information. To illustrate herpoint, the researcher showed a drawing of Wat Phumin online to the participant as figure 5.
The researcher used picture interview methods to ask a participant, this exhibit shows two
drawings of Wat Phumin and asking them to discuss what he or she saw, how he or she felt
about the drawing and what thoughts or memories he or she evokes. A selected participant to
the research is a female who comes from Nan province. She is 36 years old. She works for agovernment sector in Bangkok. The following conversation is shown.
Researcher: Can you tell us about your recent experience with two drawings of Wat
Phumin and Phumin-Ta Li community in Nan province?
Participant: Yes, of course. I recently had the opportunity to view two beautiful
drawings of Wat Phumin and Phumin-Ta Li community in Nan province. The
drawings were incredibly detailed and captured the essence of the area's uniquearchitecture and culture.
Researcher: Can you tell us more about this relationship?
Participant: Yes, certainly. I have a deep connection with the historical area of Nan,and in particular, the people who lived in Phumin-Ta Li community. Although I do
not live there, I have a passion for exploring and learning about different cultures andhistories, and this has led me to develop a strong affinity for this community.
Researcher: Can you tell us more about your connection to this historical area?
Participant: Of course. I have visited the area numerous times and have studied thehistory of the region extensively. One of the things that have captivated me about
Phumin-Ta Li community is the unique relationship between the community and theWat Phumin temple. This temple is a central part of the community, and it has played
an important role in the lives of the people who live there for centuries.
Researcher: How would you describe this relationship between the community andthe temple?
Participant: The relationship between Phumin-Ta Li community and Wat Phumin is a
special one. The temple is not just a place of worship; it is also a hub of social activity
and a symbol of the community's identity. The people of Phumin-Ta Li have a deep
connection to the temple, and they have worked hard to maintain its historical andcultural significance. For me, this relationship between the community and the temple
is a testament to the resilience and strength of the people who live there.

ISSN: 2189-101X

764

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Researcher: It sounds like you have a lot of admiration for the people of Phumin-Ta
Li community.
Participant: Yes. The people of this community have a rich history and a uniquecultural identity. Despite facing numerous challenges over the years, they havemanaged to preserve their traditions and way of life.
Researcher: Can you describe one of the drawings and the feeling it conveys?
Participant: Yes, the drawings show the intricate details of the temple's architecture.
It conveys a sense of dazzle and speculate. It reminded me of my visit to Wat Phumin
when I was in primary school in Nan province, where I studied at Strisrinan School.
Visiting important architectural buildings in Nan was a requirement at my school.
Researcher: Can you tell us about the memories these drawings brought back for you?
Participant: Yes, seeing these drawings brought back memories of the time I spent inPhumin-Ta Li community. The community is known for its rich cultural heritage, andvisiting Wat Phumin was a highlight of my trip. The drawings captured the essence ofthe temple and the community beautifully as I remember it.
Researcher: Can you tell us more about the community?
Participant: Evidently, Phumin-Ta Li community is located in the city of Nan, an
important area with a lot of government buildings and a thriving business community.
It is known for its traditional way of life and cultural practices. Additionally, thecommunity is steeped in history and has been actively preserving its cultural heritage
for many years, particularly in relation to Wat Phumin. Therefore, Wat Phumin is an
important place to Phumin-Ta Li community, which is an important landmark and a
testament to the community's cultural significance.

Figure 4: Solos Punakabutra gave a lecture at College of Communication Arts Suan
Sunandha Rajabhat University Nakhon Pathom Campus

Figure 5: A drawing of Wat Phumin on the participant's computer screen

ISSN: 2189-101X

765

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Finding and Discussion
Based on the research conducted on the relationship between visual perception and working
memory through urban sketches in the Phumin-Ta Li community of Nan province, theresearcher found that urban sketching can have a positive influence on both visual perception
and working memory, as revealed through picture interview methodology. The study used
images of urban sketching, particularly those of Wat Phumin, to pose questions to theparticipants and gather data on their visual perception and working memory. Therefore, theresearcher used a model of working memory adopted from Daniel Willingham (2009) as
figure 6 to describe this event which are drawing of Wat Phumin represent Environment, andthe visual perception represents Long-term memory As a result, In this particular model, theworking memory is being used to hold and manipulate a mental image of Wat Phumin, which
represents the environment being perceived. The visual perception of the environment isstored in long-term memory, which is a more permanent storage system for our memories.
The study found that urban sketching (drawings of Wat Phumin) helped the participant tobetter understand the visual elements of the environment, such as the shape, texture, andcolors of buildings, trees, and other objects. This improved their visual perception and helped
them to better retain visual information in their working memory. As a matter of fact, thestudy found that urban sketching helped participants to retain more information in theirworking memory, as they were required to remember and draw various details of the urban
environment. This exercise helped them to improve their working memory and their ability tomanipulate visual information in their minds. Overall, the findings of the study suggest thaturban sketching can be a useful tool for improving both visual perception and working
memory. The use of images of urban sketching, particularly those of Wat Phumin, was aneffective way to gather data on the effects of this practice. The study highlights the potential
benefits of incorporating urban sketching into educational in different areas.

Figure 6: Model of Working Memory adopted from Daniel Willingham (2009)
Conclusion
Based on the study conducted on the relations between visual perception and working
memory through urban sketches at the Phumin-Ta Li community, Nan Province, it can beconcluded that there is a significant relationship between visual perception and working
memory. The results indicate that individuals with higher working memory capacity are more
likely to have better visual perception skills, which allow them to retain and recall details ofurban sketches more accurately. Moreover, the study highlights the importance of theenvironment in which an individual is placed. The participants who were familiar with the

ISSN: 2189-101X

766

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

community had better visual perception skills and were able to recall details with greater
accuracy, indicating the influence of familiarity and context on visual perception and working
memory. Overall, this study contributes to the understanding of the relationship between
visual perception and working memory and the importance of the environment in shaping
these cognitive processes. Further research in this area can help in designing effective
interventions to enhance cognitive abilities and improve visual perception and working
memory.

ISSN: 2189-101X

767

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

References
Baddeley, A. (2012). Working Memory: Theories, Models, and Controversies. Annual
Review of Psychology, 63(1), 1–29. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-120710100422
Bolliger, J., Götzfried, M. A., & Röcke, C. (2020). Spatial cognition predicts the quality of
autobiographical memories. Scientific reports, 10(1), 1-9.
Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using Thematic Analysis in Psychology. Qualitative
Research in Psychology, 3(2), 77–101. https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa
Goldstein, E. B. (2019). Sensation and Perception. Cengage Learning.
Kozbelt, A., & Seidel, A. (2006). Expertise in Complex Performance Domains: Elite
Performance in Visual Arts and Chess. Journal Intelligence.
Lewicka, M. (2011). Place attachment: How far have we come in the last 40 years?. Journalof Environmental Psychology, 31(3), 207-230.
Luck, S. J., & Vogel, E. K. (2013). Visual working memory capacity: From Psychophysics
and neurobiology to individual differences. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 17(8), 391–
400. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2013.06.006
Palmer, S. E. (1999). Vision Science: Photons to Phenomenology. Bradford Books.
Contact email: tawipas.pi@ssru.ac.th

ISSN: 2189-101X

768

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

STEAM Implementation Analysis on Creative Thinking Skills of
Middle School Students in East Java

Shofia Maghfiroh, Yogyakarta State University, Indonesia
Insih Wilujeng, Yogyakarta State University, Indonesia

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023
Official Conference Proceedings

Abstract
The Covid-19 pandemic impacts each sector of life around the world, including the education
sector namely, changes in the implementation of education. This impact is related to theimplementation of learning that switches from online to offline. Students feel passive whenlearning offline. Science learning emphasizes that students should be active in STEAM
project assignments. However, there is no research description of the application of STEAM
learning in East Java after the pandemic. This study aims to describe East Java’s STEAM
implementation of creative thinking skills. STEAM is an integrated approach that combines
science, technology, engineering, art, and mathematics as a means of developing student
inquiry, teamwork, creative thinking skills, critical thinking, and other skills during learning.
This research methodology uses qualitative descriptive research. Research instruments are in
the form of interviews, literature studies, and field observations. Data analysis techniques
include data reduction, data display, and drawing conclusions on verification. The subjects ofthis study were 30 middle school teachers from East Java. The results of the study show thatthe application of STEAM education to creative thinking skills has a positive impact on
education in East Java, Indonesia. The results of this study are expected to add insight to theteachers in learning science innovation with STEAM education.

Keywords: STEAM, Creative Thinking Skills, Middle School, East Java

iafor
The International Academic Forumwww.iafor.org

ISSN: 2189-101X

769

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Introduction
The Covid-19 pandemic has had a major influence on global change, one of which is in thefield of education. During the pandemic, Indonesia conducted learning online. The teacher
provides learning materials using online learning application features. Students get material
taught by the teacher online by using the application suggested by the teacher. Students dolearning in their homes. When the covid-19 pandemic is over, learning returns to normal as
before. Face-to-face learning at schools is permitted while adhering to health protocols. Faceto-face learning that is carried out again becomes a challenge for teachers to deal withstudents who are used to the virtual world. Learners tend to be less active in interacting bothwith friends and with teachers. The transition from online to offline learning is a challenge
for teachers.
The rapid development of science and technology had a major impact on the industrial
revolution. Education is a very important aspect as a basis for sustainable development(Alenezi, 2020). One of the important elements that can grow the economy and national
competence in the current era is preparing several learning system innovations and improving
the quality of competence of graduates who have learning and innovation skills in the 21st
century. 4C is an attitude that needs to be developed in the 21st century. 4C is thedevelopment of an attitude which consists of critical thinking, creative thinking,collaborative, and communication. 4C can be implemented when teaching and learning
takesplace (Supena et al., 2021). The application of 4C abilities can make students thinkcoherently. This research focuses on the ability to think creatively. One of the subjects
studied by students is natural science education.
Natural science education is a science with the topic of discussing natural phenomena which
are arranged systematically based on the results of experiments and observations (Hamza etal., 2022). Science learning includes knowledge in the form of facts, concepts and principles
obtained from experience, as well as the result of a series of processes through investigation,
preparation, and presentation of ideas (Jannah & Atmojo, 2022; Nurmala et al., 2021; Pratiwi
et al., 2022). Science learning is closely related to the natural potential that is in theenvironment around students. In addition to studying natural forms theoretically, students
also learn the blessings of gratitude for the creation of the almighty.
Based on the characteristics of science learning can be applied using the STEAM approach.
STEAM is a disciplinary approach with a combination of the fields of science, technology,
engineering, art, and mathematics. STEAM is able to develop students' abilities as a means ofinvestigation, communication, leadership, teamwork, creativity, critical thinking and otherskills in learning (Rodríguez-Nieto & Alsina, 2022; Starzinski, 2017; Zubaidah, 2019). The
STEAM approach is needed to nurture convergent creative talents in students to lead thefuture with the development of science and technology (P. W. Kim, 2016). The STEAM
approach is an effective educational strategy for solving problems faced by students (Park etal., 2016).
The STEAM approach is based on basic concepts that make students understand the material
content in depth (Jho et al., 2016). STEAM implementation in schools needs to be improvedin order to achieve learning objectives. Based on data in the field, it shows that theimplementation of STEAM in several schools in Indonesia has resulted in specificimprovements in 21st century learning, namely communication skills, critical thinking,creativity, and collaborative skills (Asti & Andriyani, 2022; Mu’minah & Suryaningsih,

ISSN: 2189-101X

770

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings2020). Learning outcomes with the STEAM approach can increase student creativity throughproject learning (Nurinayah et al., 2021). Identification of the application of STEAM learning
in Indonesia, especially in East Java, has not been specifically explained. Therefore it isnecessary to have a detailed and complex descriptive analysis to find out the results of theimplementation of STEAM learning in East Java, Indonesia.
MethodThis study uses a qualitative descriptive model. The data were obtained based on the resultsof interviews with 46 middle school science teachers in East Java, field observations, andliterature studies. Interviews were conducted with science teachers in junior high schools in
East Java by discussing the implementation of STEAM in science lessons that have been
implemented. Field observations were carried out by researchers by making direct
observations of students' work when developing creative thinking skills in STEAM learning.
Literature study is used as a support for research data that has been developed. Data analysis
techniques use the Miles and Huberman model. Activities in data analysis are data reduction,
data display, and drawing conclusions (Creswell, 2012). Data analysis was carried out to findout the implementation of STEAM in the East Java region.
Results
Based on data analysis, the results of the correlation between STEAM learning and creative
thinking abilities were obtained are found in Table 1.
Table 1. Correlation between STEAM Learning and Creative Thinking Skills
Syntax STEAM Approach
Fluency
Flexibility
Originality Elaboration
Formulation of the problem√√
Design problem solving√√
Creating and developing models√
Using models√√
Evaluation√
Communication and reflection√
Discussion
Implementation of Science Learning using the STEAM Approach
STEAM is an integrated approach that combines several aspects, namely science, technology,
engineering, art, and mathematics (Rodríguez-Nieto & Alsina, 2022). Science learning with
the STEAM approach can train students' independence in acquiring knowledge withdiscovery-based learning based on their knowledge. The STEAM approach is an effective
educational strategy for solving problems faced by students (Park et al., 2016). The STEAM
approach is based on basic concepts that make students understand the material content in
depth (Jho et al., 2016).
Based on the research data, it shows that the implementation of the STEAM approach in EastJava has been well implemented. Teachers have an organization, namely the science subject
teacher deliberations in each region. The applicable curriculum in Indonesia emphasizes
active students in learning. The application of STEAM learning to science material isemphasized on project performance that has been planned by the curriculum. The

ISSN: 2189-101X

771

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

implementation of STEAM learning has been applied magnetism, electricity, biotechnology,
inheritance, temperature, environmental pollution, gas pressure, simple machines, acids andbases, motion and force, heat, wave and sound vibrations, genetics, the solar system, changes
in matter, systems circulation, newton's laws, photosynthesis, and the respiratory system. The
teacher acts as a facilitator if there are students who experience difficulties both theoreticallyand practically.
Definition of STEAM according to the teachers is an approach that emphasizez student
competence by combining the five disciplines of science, technology, engineering, art, andmathematics to solve a problem. Students produce project learning that is associated with
STEAM learning on science material. The results of students’ project performance on sciencelearning which is linked to the STEAM approach produce an assessment of aspects ofcreative thinking skills.
The implementation of STEAM learning based on the data obtained emphasizes student
project performance. In the project students are trained in integrating several aspects of
STEAM. Project activities take place with the integration of science material with otheraspects such as technology, engineering, art, and mathematics. The teacher conceptualizes
students by explaining important things that students need to understand. STEAM learning is
implemented with learning models such as project based learning, discovery learning, andothers.
Based on the research results also show that there are several schools that have not
implemented STEAM learning. This is due to constraints from inadequate school facilities
and teachers who have not received intense training on STEAM learning. The teacher has
implemented practicum activities, but has not been integrated with the existing concepts in
STEAM learning. The implementation of STEAM learning in schools can be used as aninnovation in science learning for middle school students.
The Work of the Science Learning Project with the STEAM Approach to Students'
Creative Thinking Skills
The STEAM approach is a modification of the STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering,and Mathematic) approach implemented by the National Science Foundation (NSF) in the
United States (B. H. Kim & Kim, 2016; P. W. Kim, 2016). Departing from the teachings ofneuroscience which tries to balance between the working of the left brain and the right brain
in learning science. In the STEAM aspect there is an additional "art" component which islearning arts and humanities. Art knowledge is proposed as an interesting and realistic
learning based on experience resulting from integration with scientific disciplines and canencourage creativity and problem solving (Herro et al., 2017). In the artistic aspect, you canlearn about design, where creative thinking processes can be trained to explore aesthetic
elements and the use of goods in everyday life. Arts can help students make connections
between concepts and ideas by supporting the assimilation and accommodation of new ideas
into the scheme of learning materials. The ability of the right brain, left brain, and body towork together produces higher cognition than is produced from just one process (Hughes etal., 2022).
The ability to think creatively is a process that enables students to find connections, face newchallenges, and seek unusual, original, and new resolutions (Gafour, 2021). Students can dolearning by discovering new things based on individual perspectives that have been packaged

ISSN: 2189-101X

772

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

at the time of discovery both theoretically and practically. Indicators of creative thinking
ability used as a benchmark in this study are fluency, flexibility, originality, and elaboration(Alghafri & Ismail, 2014; Gafour, 2021; Sola et al., 2017). Each indicator of the ability tothink creatively produces data that is analyzed in the study. The research data shows thatstudents are very enthusiastic in participating in learning by implementing the STEAM
approach.
Schools that apply the STEAM approach relate to project outcomes linked to indicators increative thinking skills. The first indicator is fluency, students are able to relate/connect
existing problems in learning with real life experienced in the surrounding environment basedon literature studies. The second indicator is flexibility, students have started to be responsive
and active with the existing problem conditions in the surrounding environment. The third
indicator is originality, students have been able to find new discoveries at the time of project
discovery. It was evident from during the process, they held discussions with their groupmates to find the best solutions and results. The fourth indicator is elaboration, Students havemade different works based on project assignments.
Students with the application of STEAM learning produce project works that can be assessedaesthetically, neatly, and beautifully. Based on the observation data, it was found that theresults of students' work with various innovative levels of creative thinking with anassessment of aspects of beauty, neatness, and aesthetics. STEAM works can be used asteaching materials to achieve meaningful learning. The work of students is also produced
from the utilization of used goods. Students are taught to apply STEAM learning that cares
about the environment by utilizing used materials as material for project assignments.
STEAM learning takes place by training students to learn actively and teachers as sciencelearning facilitators.
Correlation Between STEAM Learning and Creative Thinking Skills
STEAM-based learning uses EDP (Engineering Design Process) terminology. STEAM
learning can be correlated with indicators of the ability to think creatively. The EDP flow is aformulation of the problem, designing problem-solving, creating and developing models,
using models, evaluation, communication, and reflection. At the problem formulation stage,
students are able to summarize answers and generate ideas that are included in indicators offluency in creative thinking skills. At the problem formulation stage, there is also a
relationship with the flexibility indicator because it trains students in connecting withsituations, manage situations, and plan different answers. At the design stage of solving
problems related to flexibility indicators, namely, students can find solutions to problems byproviding perspectives on situations, organizing situations around them into STEAM
learning, and finding several solutions to problems around the students' environment. At the
problem-solving design stage, there is also a relationship with the elaboration indicator. Thisis because students when designing problem-solving require collaboration with group mates
to exchange opinions based on the theory they have obtained.
The next syntax, namely creating and developing models related to indicators of the ability tothink creatively on the aspect of originality. Creating and developing models trains students'
ability to produce new work. At this stage, students are also able to modify a work according
to the abilities and knowledge they understand. In the using model stage, it relates toindicators of the ability to think creatively, aspects of fluency, and flexibility. The fluency
aspect trains students' ability to summarize answers and generate ideas. This can make

ISSN: 2189-101X

773

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

students fluent in generating ideas when modifying or creating a project model that will be
produced. The flexibility aspect is able to train students' abilities when connecting withsituations, managing situations, and planning different answers in making the work of projectmodels that will be designed based on the performance of each group. The syntax forevaluation, communication, and reflection is closely related to the aspect of creative thinking
skills, namely elaboration. The elaboration aspect trains students in differentiating ideas,planning to solve problems in a procedural way, and producing something new. The
elaboration aspect is able to make learning more meaningful because students are active in
discussing and exchanging ideas with group mates, classmates, and teachers.
The correlation between the STEAM approach and the ability to think creatively can beanalyzed in Table 1. The correlation between sections shows that there is a relationshipbetween the STEAM approach and the ability to think creatively. It can be concluded thatlearning that implements STEAM learning will be able to train students' creative thinking
skills.
Teacher Obstacles in Implementing Science Learning with the STEAM Approach
Based on the data obtained, it shows that the teacher has implemented the STEAM approachin learning science. There are several schools that experience problems in implementing
STEAM in science learning. First, constraints due to limited time available. STEAM learning
requires a relatively longer time, so the teacher allocates optimal time for its application.
Second, constraints related to facilities and infrastructure. Third, conditions students whenlearning about high order thinking skills. There are several schools that have limited
equipment, so learning project assignments is not possible.
Conclusion
Based on data obtained from interviews with middle school teachers, field observations, andliterature reviews, the results of an analysis of the implementation of STEAM learning forstudents were obtained. The data results show that middle school teachers in East Java have
implemented STEAM learning. The teacher assesses STEAM learning with a disciplinary
focus on students' creative thinking skills. STEAM learning is able to train students to thinkcreatively. In line with this research, there are also obstacles in implementing STEAM
learning, namely several schools are still constrained by limited facilities and infrastructure,
as well as the distribution of limited study hours when implementing STEAM learning.

Acknowledgements
I would like to thank the Education Fund Management Institute / Lembaga Pengelola Dana
Pendidikan (LPDP) from the Ministry of Finance of the Republic of Indonesia which hasprovided scholarships and support in this research.
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike
4.0 International License.

ISSN: 2189-101X

774

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

References
Alenezi, A. (2020). The role of e-learning materials in enhancing teaching and learning
behaviors. International Journal of Information and Education Technology, 10(1),48–56. https://doi.org/10.18178/ijiet.2020.10.1.1338
Alghafri, A. S. R., & Ismail, H. N. Bin. (2014). The Effects of Integrating Creative andCritical Thinking on Schools Students’ Thinking. International Journal of Social
Science and Humanity, 4(6), 518–525. https://doi.org/10.7763/ijssh.2014.v4.410
Asti, P. N. W., & Andriyani. (2022). Improving Critical Thinking Ability and Active
Learning of Statistics Materials Through Problem Based Learning Model with
STEAM Approach. Formosa Journal of Sustainable Research (FJSR), 1(2), 133–152.
Creswell, J. w. (2012). Educational Research Planning, Conducting and Evaluating
Quantitative and Qualitative Research (Fourth Edi). Pearson Education.
https://www.ptonline.com/articles/how-to-get-better-mfi-results
Gafour, W. (2021). Creative Thinking skills – A Review article. February.
Hamza, K., Wojcik, A., Arvanitis, L., Haglund, K., Lundegård, I., & Schenk, L. (2022).
Nature of science in students’ discussions on disagreement between scientists
following a narrative about health effects of the Fukushima Daiichi accident.
International Journal of Science Education, 1–21.
https://doi.org/10.1080/09500693.2022.2151327
Herro, D., Quigley, C., Andrews, J., & Delacruz, G. (2017). Co-Measure: developing anassessment for student collaboration in STEAM activities. International Journal of
STEM Education, 4(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40594-017-0094-z
Hughes, B. S., Corrigan, M. W., Grove, D., Andersen, S. B., & Wong, J. T. (2022).
Integrating arts with STEM and leading with STEAM to increase science learningwith equity for emerging bilingual learners in the United States. International Journalof STEM Education, 9(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40594-022-00375-7
Jannah, D. R. N., & Atmojo, I. R. W. (2022). Media Digital dalam Memberdayakan
Kemampuan Berpikir Kritis Abad 21 pada Pembelajaran IPA di Sekolah Dasar.
Jurnal Basicedu, 6(1), 1064–1074.
Jho, H., Hong, O., & Song, J. (2016). An analysis of STEM/STEAM teacher education in
Korea with a case study of two schools from a community of practice perspective.
Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science and Technology Education, 12(7), 1843–
1862. https://doi.org/10.12973/eurasia.2016.1538a
Kim, B. H., & Kim, J. (2016). Development and validation of evaluation indicators forteaching competency in STEAM education in Korea. Eurasia Journal of
Mathematics, Science and Technology Education, 12(7), 1909–1924.
https://doi.org/10.12973/eurasia.2016.1537a

ISSN: 2189-101X

775

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Kim, P. W. (2016). The wheel model of STEAM education based on traditional Koreanscientific contents. Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science and Technology
Education, 12(9), 2353–2371. https://doi.org/10.12973/eurasia.2016.1263a
Mu’minah, I. H., & Suryaningsih, Y. (2020). Implementasi STEAM (Science, Technology,
Engineering, Arts and Mathematics ) dalam Pembelajaran Abad 21. Jurnal Bio
Educatio, 5, 65–73.
Nurinayah, A. Y., Nurhayati, S., & Wulansuci, G. (2021). Penerapan Pembelajaran STEAM
Melalui Metode Proyek dalam Meningkatkan Kreativitas Anak Usia Dini di TK
Pelita. Jurnal Ceria, 4(5), 504–511.
Nurmala, S., Triwoelandari, R., & Fahri, M. (2021). Pengembangan Media Articulate
Storyline 3 pada Pembelajaran IPA Berbasis STEM untuk Mengembangkan
Kreativitas SiswaSD/MI. Jurnal Basicedu, 5(6), 5024–5034.
Park, H. J., Byun, S. Y., Sim, J., Han, H., & Baek, Y. S. (2016). Teachers’ perceptions andpractices of STEAM education in South Korea. Eurasia Journal of Mathematics,
Science and Technology Education, 12(7), 1739–1753.
https://doi.org/10.12973/eurasia.2016.1531a
Pratiwi, E. M., Gunawan, & Ermiana, I. (2022). Pengaruh Penggunaan Video Pembelajaran
terhadap Pemahaman Konsep IPA Siswa. Jurnal Ilmiah Profesi Pendidikan, 7, 381–
386.
Rodríguez-Nieto, C. A., & Alsina, Á. (2022). Networking Between Ethnomathematics,
STEAM Education, and the Globalized Approach to Analyze Mathematical
Connections in Daily Practices. Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science andTechnology Education, 18(3), 1–22. https://doi.org/10.29333/EJMSTE/11710
Sola, E., Hoekstra, R., Fiore, S., & Mccauley, P. (2017). An Investigation of the State ofCreativity and Critical Thinking in Engineering Undergraduates. 1495–1522.
https://doi.org/10.4236/ce.2017.89105
Starzinski, A. (2017). Foundational Elements Of A Steam Learning Model For Elementary
School. Education Commons, 146.
https://digitalcommons.hamline.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=https://scholar.google.co.id/&httpsredir=1&article=5299&context=hse_all
Supena, I., Darmuki, A., & Hariyadi, A. (2021). The Influence of 4C ( Constructive , Critical, Creativity , Collaborative ) Learning Model on Students ’ Learning Outcomes.
International Journal of Instruction, 14(3), 873–892.
Zubaidah, S. (2019). STEAM (Science, Technology, Engineering, Arts, and Mathematics):
Pembelajaran untuk Memberdayakan Keterampilan Abad ke-21. Seminar Nasional
Matematika Dan Sains, September, 1–18.

Contact email: shofiamaghfiroh.2021@student.uny.ac.id
insih@uny.ac.id

ISSN: 2189-101X

776

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Development of a Tool to Analyze Source Code Submitted by Novice Programmers andProvide Learning Support Feedback With Comments

Tatsuyuki Takano, Kanto Gakuin University, Japan
Osamu Miyakawa, Tokyo Denki University, Japan
Takashi Kohama, Tokyo Denki University, Japan

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023
Official Conference Proceedings

Abstract
Novice students make various mistakes in the process of learning computer programming. In
courses with more than 100 students, it is difficult to provide accurate and detailed feedback
regarding errors in the source code submitted for their assignments. Therefore, we created asource code analyzer and developed a tool to provide detailed feedback to each student. It
performs unit tests with misspelled classes and method names. From the results, the tool
generates comments, such as "Let us check the method name" or "Let us check the execution
result.” The tool can generate an average of more than 8,000 Japanese characters per
assignment in an actual programming lecture with more than 100 students. In this study, we
report on the developed tool, its adaptation to an existing learning management system, andits evaluation.

Keywords: Programming Education, Source Code Analyze, Learning Support Tools

iafor
The International Academic Forumwww.iafor.org

ISSN: 2189-101X

777

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Introduction
Information and Communication Technology (ICT) is playing an increasingly important rolein everyday society. Therefore, software development is an important element in constructing
information systems, and the training of programming engineers necessary for softwaredevelopment is key.
According to the IPA (Information-technology Promotion Agency of Japan. 2020), thedemand for IT personnel remains high, and the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports,
Science, and Technology is promoting education that incorporates programming inelementary, junior high, and high schools (Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science,
and Technology. 2021).
Beginner programmers make various mistakes during the learning process. Understanding
programming requires practice, which includes making mistakes (Martin, R.C. 2008). It isdifficult for educators to identify errors properly when there are many learners.
Therefore, we developed a tool that can generate comments from student-submitted
programs, even if the program's method name is misspelled, and can even perform unit
testing. This tool is based on the core functionality of our previous system for real-timeevaluation of student programs during lectures (Shin Hasegawa, et al., 2011), which isdesigned to be output in the form of an evaluation input to Manaba, the learning management
system (LMS) currently used for lectures at Kanto Gakuin University. The output of theevaluation was designed to match the format of the evaluation input in Manaba. In this study,
we report the results of using the tool in a lecture attended by more than 100 students who are
beginner programmers and the results of feedback through comments to the students.
Development Tool Overview
The tools were developed in Java and Groovy, a dynamically typed scripting language thatruns on Java VM.
The tool uses student submissions, a configuration file of the source code evaluation method,
and the source code of the correct answers. The tool has a defined folder structure, and when
the tool is executed, the evaluation results are output as CSV, HTML, and XML files; theCSV and XML files are used to read the evaluation result values, and the HTML file is usedby the instructor to view the evaluation results. The main evaluation parameters werecompilation, indentation, class definition, and unit testing.
Manaba allows student evaluations to be entered into an EXCEL file, which contains
columns for each student to enter evaluations and comments, and the tool generates a CSV
file from the CSV file of the evaluation results that can be pasted into the columns for each
student.
Folder and file organization
When a zip file is unzipped, there are three folders and three files:⚫ answer folder ・・・ File that will be the correct answer to the execution result⚫ check folder ・・・ File to set check items⚫ Test folder: Folder with the teacher's name where student submissions are stored.

ISSN: 2189-101X

778

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023⚫

Official Conference Proceedings

prettify.css prettify.js style.css ・・・ File for html, which is a view of scoring
results

The following folders exist in the tests folder:⚫ mihon folder ・・・ Correct answer file (same file as "answer")⚫ mini folder ・・・ Files of specific students extracted when creating the checklist⚫ teacher folder ・・・ A folder that contains the student's submitted files
The mihon and mini folders were used only for setting up and adjusting the tools. The teacher
folder contained each student's folder and the files necessary for grading. The roles of eachfolder are as follows:⚫ reportlist.xls ・・・ Registration file to LMS⚫ points.csv ・・・ Evaluation result file to be pasted into the registration file⚫ teacher.html ・・・ File for viewing the results of scoring items⚫ teacher_compile.txt ・・・ Dump file of compilation errors (option)⚫ CreateMessage.groovy ・・・ Script to output points.csv (option)
Folder and file organization

Figure 1: Example of evaluation result file ( points.csv).
To grade the scores, first open points.csv (Figure 1) and reportlist.xls (Figure 2) were used in
Microsoft Excel. points.csv opens as follows: Column A contains the student ID number, andcolumns B–D are the three columns for pasting. Copy these three columns and paste theminto columns J to L of reportlist.xls, and paste the total score, evaluation, and critique

ISSN: 2189-101X

779

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

according to the "Value" option. (In Manaba, if there is no total score, the evaluation isdisplayed in the Grades column).

Figure 2: Example of copying and pasting an evaluation into a registration file (reportlist.xls).
The faculty member checks if the rows with the "Not submitted" column are evaluated as"Not submitted.” This is a simple method for verifying whether the number of lines output by
the tool is correct. After completing the check for "Not Submitted,” the teacher should referto the teacher.html file and adjust the evaluation and critique. This was done to allow thegraders to adjust for unexpected patterns in the tool's submission and grading criteria.
Viewing evaluation results via HTML file
The results of the submissions, execution results, and graded items can be viewed by openinga teacher.html file in a browser. The results for each student are arranged according to thenumber of students in the single-page structure.

ISSN: 2189-101X

780

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Figure 3: Example of viewing an evaluation in HTML.
Using Figure 3 as an example, "student022@fstudent022" is the name of a student folder.
The files under "list" are the files used by the grading tool. Files that do not contain a ". java"or ". txt" extensions are not displayed. The "Simple Check List" shows the true/false status of
the check items for each file as true and false. The files with poor results are shown in red.
Critical text was generated based on these judgment results, but some items were not used.
Some items were displayed in red, and there were cases in which the evaluation was
acceptable, even if the background was not entirely white.

Figure 4: Example of display of submitted source code and its evaluation.

ISSN: 2189-101X

781

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Next, in the source code section of the submission, "Folder name Issue file name (name ofthe submitted file)" is displayed (Figure 4), and the contents of the submission are displayed
below it with line numbers. The file name inside the parentheses is the file of the submission;
therefore, in this case, we know that the submission was made with the lower-case namecar.java. The filename difference was true for the file "file:name:fuzzy match" indicating thatthe tool detected a misspelling of the filename. In this case, the generated comment is "Thereis a misspelling in the filename of the Car class."
Figure 5 shows an example display for each item. The items are roughly classified into
"File," "Compile," "Indent," "Class Definition," "Grammar," and "Unit Test." The value for"Indent" indicates the indentation width using one-byte spaces. In the case of tabs, the value
is 1.

Figure 5: Example of display of each evaluation item.
Class Definition" is a check item for the specifications that form the class framework. The
state refers to the field in the class, and behavior refers to the methods and concepts in theclass. The results of comparing the type, variable name, etc., with the correct file aredisplayed.
The unit test compared the execution results with the correct answers. For methods that
returned a value, the value for the test was entered as an argument, and the results weredisplayed to determine whether the results matched. Below "Correct:" is the result of thecorrect file, and below "Answer:" is the unit test result of the submitted file.

ISSN: 2189-101X

782

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Figure 6: Example of unit test evaluation results.
Classes with a main method have a "Grammar" item, and "Unit Tests" also have a"Similarity" indicator. The "Grammar" item uses regular expressions to check whether the
program is written according to the declaration method and flowchart of the variables in themain method described in the assignment.
As shown in Figure 6, the "unit test" of a method in the standard output displays the"similarity" below the correct answer and solution. The similarity is used to allow for
ambiguity in judging the presence or absence of white space or double-byte and single-bytecharacters when questions are submitted on paper. A judgment of 1.0 was regarded as 100%agreement, and the other values are displayed in red. However, because a separate thresholdis set for the results at point csv, even a false judgment may result in a pass. The
corresponding full-width characters are changed to half-width characters, and the similarity is
calculated by the "edit distance of strings (Levenshtein distance)" for strings that exclude all
but the necessary white space.
The "unit test" in the main method isolates a specific line for each role of the output (Figure7) and reflects the judgment in the critique.

ISSN: 2189-101X

783

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Figure 7: Example of multiple unit test results.
The unit test uses three times the width of the other items and a larger font size to make iteasier to identify differences in the text.
Use in lectures by its tools
The tool was used in a lecture for beginner programmers at Kanto Gakuin University's
Faculty of Science and Technology to evaluate assignments and provide feedback throughgenerated comments. The lecture was given to 140 students, most of whom were first-year
university students. The content of the lecture was based on the fundamentals of structural
programming in Java and did not include object-oriented programming.
Next, we discuss the comments received while evaluating the submitted source code.

ISSN: 2189-101X

784

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Figure 8: Example of Correct Source Code.

Figure 9: Example of submitted incorrect source code.
For example, if there is a submitted source code (Figure 8) for this correct answer (Figure 9),
feedback with comments such as the following will be generated by the tool.
We have received your assignment.
The following points will be noticed here, please refer to them for future study.
Check the class name of the Kadai1201 class.

ISSN: 2189-101X

785

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Check the main method of the Kadai1201 class for "displaying input from the
keyboard.
Let us check the "Display of the minimum value" in the main method of Kadai1201
class.
Note that the indentation of Kadai1201 class is not proper.
The argument of the main method of Kadai1201 class does not seem to be String[]
args.
Table 1 shows the number of characters in Japanese used for comments on each assignment
and the number of submissions.
Table 1: Number of both words and submissions of comments in each assignment.
Assignment Number of characters (in Japanese) for
Number of submitters
Numbercomments to the entire submitter
02-1
5392
116
02-2

6966

113

03-1

6534

115

03-2

13750

112

04-1

8958

113

05-1

11663

108

05-2

13649

102

05-3

6437

97

06-1

6441

114

07-1

7697

117

10-1

8091

109

10-2

8137

105

11-1

6670

108

12-1

8144

111

12-2

7454

97

13-1

10961

105

Sum

136944

1742

Ave.

8559

108.875

The feedback from the evaluations and comments was checked by the lecturer in charge ofeach lecture, and the evaluations were returned to the students via the LMS. There were only
a few cases in which the comments made by the tool were incorrect or corrected.
Evaluation by questionnaire to students when using the tool
A questionnaire was sent to the students at the end of the lecture period to evaluate theirassessment of assignments using the tool and provide feedback through comments. Eightythree responses were received.

ISSN: 2189-101X

786

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

The results of each question and answer were as follows.
Q1. How accurate are your remarks?
⚫ Very accurate
36% (30)⚫ Generally accurate
41% (34)⚫ Fairly accurate
20% (17)⚫ Generally inaccurate
2% (2)⚫ Inaccurate
0% (0)
Q2. How detailed were the comments?
⚫ More detailed
18% (15)⚫ A little finer
24% (20)⚫ Normal
55% (46)⚫ A little rougher
1% (1)⚫ More rough
1% (1)
Q3. How is the readability of the points you made?
⚫ Very easy to read
37% (31)⚫ Somewhat easy to read 23% (19)⚫ Normal
28% (23)⚫ Slightly difficult to read 11% (9)⚫ Difficult to read
1% (1)
Q4. Is the evaluation criteria consistent and stable throughout each assignment?
⚫ Very stable
39% (32)⚫ Somewhat stable
33% (27)⚫ Cannot say either
25% (21)⚫ Slightly unstable
4% (3)⚫ Unstable
0% (0)
Q5. Are the points you have made useful for this study?
⚫ Very useful
37% (31)⚫ Somewhat useful
39% (32)⚫ Cannot say either way
18% (15)⚫ Somewhat unhelpful
6% (5)⚫ Not useful
0% (0)
Q6. Would you like to use a programming learning site with this type of evaluation system inthe future?
⚫ I would like to use it by all means
30% (25)⚫ Somewhat would like to use it
46% (38)⚫ Cannot say either way
22% (18)⚫ Somewhat unwilling to use
2% (2)⚫ I do not want to use it
0% (0)The results of student evaluations using the questionnaire were positive. The questionnairealso indicated many requests for a learning site separate from the feedback method throughthe LMS.

ISSN: 2189-101X

787

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Future Outlook
The results of the survey showed that there was a high demand for a learning site, and asystem was being developed to make the developed tools available via a web browser.
Generally, a Java program requires an execution environment to be installed on a PC oranother device to run and evaluate it. However, Doppio (Vilk, John. et el. 2014), which runs
on a web browser, enables program execution and evaluation using only a web browser
without installing an execution environment on a PC. Currently, we are developing a
prototype tool for the simple evaluation of submitted source code using only a web browser.
Conclusions
In this study, we developed a tool to evaluate the source code submitted by students for
assignments, using the core functionality of a previous program evaluation system. The tool
tests the submitted source code for spelling errors and automatically generates comments forstudents based on the evaluation results.
The tool has been used in actual assignments for beginner programmers’ lectures and has
provided feedback with comments of more than 8,000 characters in Japanese for an averageof more than 100 submissions each time. The tool was also evaluated using a questionnaireadministered to students after the lecture period, and no major problems were found in thecomments generated by the tool.
In the future, we will develop an environment in which the tool can be run using only a web
browser such that the results of the tool can be used more easily.

Acknowledgements
This study was supported by JSPS KAKENHI (grant number: JP21K02809).

ISSN: 2189-101X

788

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

References
Apache Software Foundation. Groovy. https://groovy-lang.org/
Asahi Net, Inc. manaba. https://manaba.jp/
Information-technology Promotion Agency, Japan. White Paper on IT Human Resources
2020. https://www.ipa.go.jp/archive/publish/wp-jinzai.html
Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science, and Technology. Reiwa 3 Annual White
Paper of the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology.
https://www.mext.go.jp/b_menu/hakusho/html/hpab202001/1420041_00010.htm
Martin, R.C. (2008). Clean Code: A Handbook of Software Craftsmanship. 1st edition.
Prentice Hall.
Shin Hasegawa, et al. (2011). A Real-time Instruction Support System for Introduction to
Computer Programming Education. Processing Society of Japan.
Vilk, John. at el.(2014). Doppio: Breaking the Browser Language Barrier. SIGPLAN Not. 49,
6, p.508–518. ACM.

Contact email: takano@kanto-gakuin.ac.jp

ISSN: 2189-101X

789

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

ISSN: 2189-101X

790

Official Conference Proceedings

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

The Creation Strategies, Participants’ Satisfaction and Learning Experiences of‘Sure and Share’s Fact Check Detective Club’Jessada Salathong, Chulalongkorn University, Thailand
The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023
Official Conference Proceedings
Abstract‘Sure and Share’s Fact Check Detective Club’ is a project initiated by the Sure and Share
Center, Thailand’s well-established fact-checking center under Thai News Agency. Due tothe COVID-19 pandemic alarming situation during 2021-2022, the project with the main goal
to enhance fact-checking knowledge and skills for 651 participants nationwide, aged 12-87
years old, had to be conducted in hybrid fashion under the concept of ‘Innoactive Learning’
virtual camp in November 2021. The objectives of this study are 1) to examine the creation
strategies of the project and 2) to scrutinize participants’ satisfaction and learning
experiences. The study is mixed method research; it consists of semi-structured in-depth
interview of six key informants who involved in the project creation and online
questionnaires of 312 project participants with mixed demographic factors, from primaryschool students to retired civil servants, at the end of November 2021.Qualitative study
showed that the project was designed to be adaptive with limitations during the pandemic
under the concept of Innoactive Learning with the hybridization between a virtual camp andon-site activities. All activities were designed to give new learning experiences to theparticipants to ensure that they could gain fact-checking knowledge and skills with ease andfun. Quantitative study found that most of 312 informants were ‘highly satisfied’ with theactivity’s design and the learning experiences. Most of them would like to attend activities of
the Sure and Share Center in the future. However, there are some problems of digital divide
among the group of elderly participants.
Keywords: Innoactive Learning, Fact Check, Media Literacy and Virtual Camp

iafor
The International Academic Forumwww.iafor.org

ISSN: 2189-101X

791

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

1. Introduction
Thailand has been continually launching various dynamic initiatives to prevent and combat
the fake news and information disorder. Still, when people want to get more information,such as during the COVID-19 pandemic or political protests, frequently the information
shared between people is inaccurate. As the result, the society has to face with the‘Infodemic’: a situation with a massive of information hardly to distinguish which is accurate
or inaccurate same as the spread of COVID-19 pandemic. Due to this, it emphasizes thenecessity to continue building an ‘immunity’ or ‘media literacy’ for people urgently andwidely, in particular the youth and elderly. Those are the vulnerable groups who can beaffected by an unawareness. To increase the media literacy by further developing from thesuccessful previous project, the Sure and Share Center under Thai News Agency, a stateowned public broadcaster, therefore, launched the ‘Sure and Share’s Fact Check Detective
Club’ project: a comprehensive workshop to build a fundamental for sustainable media
literacy to people with a support of the Thai Media Fund.
The ‘Sure and Share’s Fact Check Detective Club’ project consists of five sub-elements asfollows:
1. A workshop ‘Train-the Trainer’
2. Research on the workshop and evaluation after the workshop to study participants’attitudes and user experience
3. Audio media produced by the participants to promote and provide knowledge on the
media literacy for people
4. A design of the project for improving the training course to combat fake news andinformation disorder with the fact-checking skills for versions of youth or elderly
5. A group established for promoting the media literacy in communities and building the subnetwork of student, teacher, elderly, media and local leader
In 2015, Thai News Agency launched the series of ‘Sure and Share’ and later established the‘Fact-Checking Center under Thai News Agency’ in 2016 with aims of investigating the truthof information shared via online and reporting information through various channels. As theresult, it surprisingly found that most of information was suspicious and inaccurate. Somecaused negative impacts to both individual or social levels.
Producing a content in corresponding to people’s questions could only help solving the facing
problems. However, if considering to the root of problem and individual, ‘media literacy’ is avital factor needed to be established. Although it is difficult to increase people’s media
literacy within a short period, the ‘Sure and Share’s Fact Check Detective Club for Youth’
project was launched with the objectives to build an awareness for high school students in
2021. The project was developed from the previous 2020 program but expanded to various
groups: teachers and elderly. Unfortunately, due to the COVID-19 preventive and control
measures, the project was adjusted to a hybrid form of virtual camp and Innoactive Learning
conducted through online.
Under the abovementioned circumstances, the study thus focuses on the creation strategies ofthe project and participants’ satisfaction as well as learning experiences on the virtual campand Innoactive Learning for further improvement of online activities in providing knowledge
and skills as well as new experiences to participants in future.

ISSN: 2189-101X

792

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Figure1. The closing ceremony of ‘Sure and Share’s Fact Check Detective Club’
2. Objectives of the study
2.1 To examine the creation strategies of the project
2.2 To scrutinize participants’ satisfaction and learning experiences
3. Scope of the study
3.1 Persons involving in the project creation: a head of the project and speakers
3.2 Project participants: students, teachers and persons over the age of 50 who participated in
the whole project
4. Definitions
4.1 Satisfaction in a context of teaching means the satisfaction on arrangement of learningand teaching elements. For this study, it refers to the satisfaction on organizing elements
for learning, teaching and activities on the ‘Sure and Share’s Fact Check Detective Club’
project. The satisfaction on learning environment reflects the satisfaction on arrangementof teaching elements.
4.2 User Experience means an experience of user occurring when the user interacts with thesystem (Burmistrov, 2017). For this study, it implies to experiences of participants on
activities in the ‘Sure and Share’s Fact Check Detective Club’ project.
4.3 Innoactive Learning is a term initiated by the organizers of ‘Sure and Share’s Fact
Check Detective Club’. It’s a combination between Innovative + Interactive. This
project was designed to be the hybridization between a virtual camp and on-site activities
to ensure that the participants will gain new knowledge and skills through integrated andinnovative learning experience.

ISSN: 2189-101X

793

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

5. Literature review
5.1 Digital and media Literacy
Digital and media literacy is a vital skill for the 21st century. Definitions, however, evolve
over time. It encompasses the full range of cognitive, emotional and social competencies that
includes the use of texts, tools and technologies; the skills of critical thinking and analysis;
the practice of message composition and creativity; the ability to engage in reflection andethical thinking; as well as active participation through teamwork and collaboration (Hobbs,
Renee, 2010). It includes these competencies:

Figure 2. Digital and Media Literacy Competencies (Hobbs, Renee, 2010)
In conclusion, it provides a framework to access, analyze, evaluate and create messages in avariety of forms.
5.2 Fake news
The European Commission (2017) defines the fake news as information created with anintention to distort and attack an individual, group of people or organization. The fake news
also means the negative news, political propaganda or propaganda which makes people tomisunderstand from their perception. Further, it includes a news report in a sarcastic form or
giving misinformation for a cyber-attack.
To sum up, the fake news means information providing a fact without correctly researchingor made-up information for propaganda, attacking the individual, the group of people ororganization, creating the situation leading people to misunderstand. The fake news occurs
either with and without an intention. It then circulates through broadcasting and social media.
However, there is a concern on using the term ‘fake news’ or ‘misinformation’ as it can beused as a discourse to distort or discredit those who think differently. Consequently, it must
be careful or some media avoid to use this term.
Beside the fake news, there is a similar perception called ‘information disorder.’ Clair
Wardle, a founder of First Draft’, distinguished the information disorder into three groups byconsidering two parts: false information and cause harm (cited Anutarasoat and Salathong,2019).

ISSN: 2189-101X

794

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

1. MISinformation means false information spreading from a sender who believes it is true
without any harmful intention.
2. DISinformation means false information spreading from a sender who knows it is false
and intent to cause harm: intent to lie.
(As a result, the status of MIS and DIS can be changeable depending on the sender.)3. MALinformation means genuine information shared with an intention to cause harm. This
information is likely to be a privacy but it is shown in the public. For examples, leaked
clips, privacy violation clips or contents causing harm such as hatred quotes.

Figure 3. Information disorder (Wardle, Claire and Hossein Derakhshan, 2017)
5.3 Prospection on media creation
UGC: User Generated content
UGC is content contributed. It’s includes personal contents produced by end-users in multiplesocial media platforms, such as Facebook, YouTube, MySpace, Twitter, blogs, and online
forums. This content is unrelated to ones’ professional work. UGC on the internet is not
merely used for entertainment or passing time, but may also lead to citizen journalism(Gillmor, 2004) and social movements (Birdsall, 2007).
In this project, however, audio media was used as a tool to reflect participant’s enhanced
knowledge and skills on the basis of UGC as well as digital and media literacy. The audio issignificant for circulating on the online platform when the users create their own UserGenerated Content.
Prospection on User Experience
User Experience means an experience occurs from having an interaction with a system(Burmistrov, 2017).
The study on user experience is a study on experiences in terms of behavior, emotion andimpression of user toward a product to understand and explore in improving approach andtool for further development of the product and new designs for the utmost benefit of theuser. Each person has different need, capacity and potential. Therefore, those have

ISSN: 2189-101X

795

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

experiences in using the product differently. The user experience research (UX research), in
this regard, refers to the study aiming to examine an understanding on user’s behavior, needand intention for using the product and impact toward the design by collecting data from aprocess of research (Wongwanich, 2017).
However, to interpret user experience is required both abstract and quality resulting in theuser experience questionnaire (UEQ) designed to be a quick use under prospections on
subjectivity and quantity. The UEQ consists of six main elements as follows (S. Martin,
Andreas, & Jörg, 2017):
1. Attractiveness is an emotional response resulting from evaluating user’s satisfaction
whether he/she likes it after use it.
2. Perspicuity refers to a system whether is easy for a user to quick use and learn.
3. Efficiency refers to a user can use a system successfully without putting more efforts andhow quick the system can respond to user’s needs.
4. Dependability is whether the user can control an interactive situation and be confident on
using.
5. Stimulation is related to how exciting and enjoyable for using the system.
6. Novelty is whether the system has an attractiveness to the user.
For the attractiveness, this element is quite wide. Hassenzahl (2003), therefore, divided into
two prospectives: first, pragmatic quality focuses on achievement of utilization consisting ofperspicuity, efficiency and dependability. Second, hedonic quality focuses on the action toentertainment and enjoyment consisting of stimulation and novelty. Both are equally vital as
the attractiveness of user (Hassenzahl, 2001). This can be described as the following chart.

Figure 4. Attractiveness (Hassenzahl, 2001)
5.4 Concepts on development of virtual camp and Innoactive Learning
The main reason for changing the on-site to the virtual camp came from a concern on awidespread of COVID-19. The pandemic not only affected people’s livelihood, but it also
stimulated the fake news directly causing impacts to people. In this regard, although the
COVID-19 situation had not yet ended, the project should not be postponed. As the problem
on the fake news became increasingly severe, the project was thus designed by using acreation, innovation as well as technology to handle with the said problem.

ISSN: 2189-101X

796

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

The virtual camp aimed to create an experience on an online camping with designing theinnovation to encourage the participant to gain the same experience with the on-site camp,such as meeting new friends, creating a group, arranging specific time to learn and participate
on the activities for fun and enhancing relationship, and having a competition, such as baseactivities or rallies.
Meanwhile, Innoactive Learning was a new form of learning experience through the virtual
learning materials. It combined the study clips and interactive online platform. The learner
could learn by selecting the end-result and continue learning via a “content” or a “storyline”
which would make the learner to enjoy during the study and lead to the new experience.
6. Methodology of the study
The mixed method research is applied for this study. An in-depth interview determines theprocess of project creation while a qualitative study by online questionnaire is utilized forevaluating participants’ satisfaction and learning experiences.
6.1 Qualitative research
Key informants
Key informants of this study consist of a head of the project and speakers in total of six
persons. The semi-structured in-depth interview was applied as it helped the interview tohave a clear direction. Still, it allowed the researcher to find out new issues whileinterviewing. (Jamshed, 2014). The study selected a purposive sample involving the project:
the head of project and speakers. The interview was carried out through an online via Zoom
from 14 May 2021 to 5 November 2021.
6.2 Quantitative research
Research samples
The population was a group 312 participants (out of the total participants of 650) to answer
the questionnaires composing students, teachers and persons over the age of 50 who
participated in the whole project. Informants would evaluate themselves through open-ended
questions for all parts: general information (personal data of informants), satisfaction, andattitude after the workshop. The questionnaires were under a supervision of three experts toensure clearly comprehensive contexts in accordance with the objectives and evaluated forIndex of Item Objective Congruence (IOC).
7. Result of the study and discussion
7.1 Objective 1: Result of quality research by interviewing
7.1.1 Background of Sure and Share’s Fact Check Detective Club
Background on the virtual camp
Due to the severe widespread of COVID-19 in Thailand, the difficulty with unpredictablepandemic situation caused impacts not only to people’s livelihood but also numerous the fake

ISSN: 2189-101X

797

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

news causing the situation became worse. In this regard, the ‘Sure and Share’s Fact Check
Detective Club’ project must continue by changing from the on-site to virtual camp tostrengthen knowledge and awareness to the youths and elderly in handling with the fake news
with using a creation, innovation and technology in supporting the project implementation.
The virtual camp is an activity aiming to organize the virtual camp in providing a camping
experience via online system. It was designed for utilizing an innovation to support a creationof experience for the participants resulting in the participants could gain a similar experience
with the on-site camp. They could be able to meet new friends, have a group, arrange specifictime for learning to have fun and interaction as well as have a competition through baseactivities or rally.
We try to maintain the learning experience for not to be unchanged. Considering allparts of our works, this (learning experience) is the most interesting.
(Peerapon Anutarasoat, head of ‘Sure and Share’s Fact Check Detective Club’
project, interview 18 September 2021)
Background of Innoactive Learning
As all activities and learning were switched from on-site to virtual one with the aims of
ensuring the participants would still get the same experience of on-site camp resulting in thelearning materials were produced in a form of video. The audience could learn by selecting
the final result of the study and continuing their learning through ‘contents’ or ‘storylines’
which allowed them to enjoy with the learnings. The contents would be pre-recorded; it could
reply answers in correspondent to questions.
7.1.2 Structure and process of the virtual camp
7.1.2.1 Before starting the virtual camp
The process included to call for participants, registration, system testing for learning andsubmission and introduction of participants inside their group.
Concept on creation before starting the virtual camp
The project was switched from the on-site to the virtual camp. Still, the organizer wished toproviding similar experiences of the on-site to those participants. Therefore, many activities
such as the interaction among the participants, introduction and preparedness on the system,
were conducted.
Objectives of the creation before starting the virtual camp
1. To set up a preparedness and understanding of participants to avoid having a difficulty on
using the system once staring the camp (such as system on submission of works or setting
up the picture background on Zoom)
2. To create an excitement to participants before joining the camp
3. To encourage the participants to have a close acquaintance to each other

ISSN: 2189-101X

798

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

7.1.2.2 During the virtual camp
Concept on creation during the virtual camp
Since the project had been adjusted from on-site to virtual camp, the issue on building
experience toward the participants was considerably designed and inclusive. For the on-site
camp, the speaker could see the interaction of participants by their faces. If they were bored,
then the speaker could add more games or give a break. In contrast, there was no interaction
between the speaker and participants for the virtual camp. The project, therefore, had tocarefully consider, design and prepare the activities to make sure that, from a total of eighthour on-site camp divided into small online classes, the participants would still enjoy thelearning and have the same experiences with the on-site.
Objectives of the creation during the virtual camp
1. To provide the on-site-alike experiences learned from the virtual camp
2. To create participants’ excitement and enthusiasm for the whole project learning
7.1.2.3 ‘Clinic’ Activity
Concept on ‘Clinic’ activity
It was an activity which the speakers and participants meet each other. The interaction
between them occurred via live; system. The activity was conducted by collecting ideas
inside the groups of participants. It allowed not only the participants to discuss among theirgroups but also could bring the issues to the speakers who went live online.
Objectives ‘Clinic’1. To have an interaction between the participants and speakers
2. To build relationship among the participants
Subjects learned during the virtual camp
1.
2.
3.
4.

FACT-CHECK Detective
Cyber security by the ETDA
Case study with the cyber police and Thailand Internet Crimes Against Children (TICAC)
Audio Production

7.1.2.4 ‘Virtual Campfire’ Activity
Concept of creation of the ‘Virtual Campfire’
It was a live online focusing to creating an atmosphere and relationship through anentertainment and building inspiration. It also helped to enhance relationship, unity andinspiration to support each other. It is aimed to replace all on-site activities by ensuring thatthe participants would gain experience as much as the on-site and exciting to study with otherparticipants.

ISSN: 2189-101X

799

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Objectives of ‘Virtual Campfire’To create a good atmosphere for participants to endeavor to accomplish the project
To build relationship and inspiration among the participants.
7.1.2.5 After the virtual camp
It consisted of 1. handover of kits to the participants 2. closing ceremony 3. expansion of
network.
Concept on creation after the virtual camp
It was a period to handover kits to the participants so they could wear the same cloths on the
ceremonial closing day to show the unity and expand knowledge and activities to othernetwork at the school and community levels.
Objectives
To pass and share the knowledge and experience from participating in the project toneighbors, schools, friends or communities in strengthening knowledge and understanding at
the society level.

Figure 5. Overall project
7.2 Objectives 2: Result of quantitative research
The quantitative research aims to scrutinize a satisfaction on learning experiences ofparticipants: teachers, students and people in general from various regions in Thailand during

ISSN: 2189-101X

800

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

14-30 November 2021 via online. The criteria of informants were initially set as a person
was required to attend the opening ceremony, take every course, participant activities asattend the closing ceremony. The survey was conducted through an online questionnaire andopened for the participants to voluntarily answer. The researcher collected the data andevaluated as well as analyzed by using the computer.
There were 312 persons as a sample group from 41 provinces. Most of the informants werefrom Bangkok: 99 persons or 27.05 percent.
Meanwhile, students were considered as the most informants, 205 persons or 56.01 percent,following by people in general 93 persons or 25.41 percent and teachers 68 persons or 18.58
respectively.

Question

Table 1. shows number, percent, average, standard deviation ofparticipants’ experiences andsatisfaction on the overall project.
Level
S.D.
X
Strongly Agree
Neither Disagree Strongly
agree
agree
disagreenordisagreelevel

1.You tend
to shareknowledge
andexperience
to others.

205(65.71)95(30.45)11(3.53)

1(0.32)-

1.38 0.572

Strongly
agree

2.You
satisfiedwith alearning
form of‘VirtualCamp’.

206(66.03)89(28.53)17(5.45)--

1.39 0.591

Strongly
agree

221(70.83)81(25.96)9(2.88)

1(0.32)-

1.33 0.546

Strongly
agree

3.You
satisfiedwith alearning
form of
Innoactive
Learning(LearningVideo whicha learner canselect the
final result

ISSN: 2189-101X

801The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

and alearning
video with
thestorylines.
4.Overall,
you satisfied
withparticipating
the ‘Sureand Share’s
Fact Check
DetectiveClub’
project

223(71.47)80(25.64)9(2.88)--

Total
Experiences and satisfaction with the overall project1.31 0.523

Strongly
agree

1.35

Strongly
agree

0.48

n = 312From Table 1, it illustrates that the sample group was highly satisfied on the overall project.
There were 312 persons for a sample group from 41 provinces nationwide. Top six ofprovinces having the most informant included Bangkok (86 persons or 27.56 percent),
followed by Samut Sakhon (36 persons or 11.54 percent), Nonthaburi (35 persons or 11.22
percent), Nakhon Phanom (25 persons or 8.01 percent), Chiang Rai (23 persons or 7.37
persons) and Pathum Thani (12 persons or 3.85 percent) respectively.
The most informants answering questionnaires was students (162 persons or 51.92 percent),
followed by people in general (89 persons or 28.53 percent) and teachers (61 persons or
19.55 percent respectively. The average age of the sample considered as people in general
was 58 (mean = 58.07). While the youngest age of informants in general was 19, the eldest
was 85. A number of females answering the questionnaire than males as 173 persons or
55.45 percent comparing with 135 persons or 43.27 percent. Meanwhile, four persons or 1.28
percent did not identify the gender.
The sample group gained experiences and had the most satisfaction with an overall process ofcalling the participation the most. The highest level of satisfaction also shown for the Starter
kit which consisted of project’s organizational charge and manual. Likewise, those
informants had the most experiences and satisfaction with activity on ‘Online Clinic withspeakers.’ They also gave the most satisfaction toward the Campfire and audio production as
well as overall project.
8. Expectation on transfer and adaptation of the participants
For a group of students, it was expected that the students could have wider ideas in producing
contents and utilizing in various dimensions. Also, they could know how to adapt a use of theapplication which is more convenience in media production. This knowledge could be passed

ISSN: 2189-101X

802

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

via a month-to-month communication among the students. (Yet, it could have less impacts
comparing with the teaching by a group of teachers).
For a group of teachers, it was expected to use for their teaching in compliance with theonline class amid a spread of COVID-19. The audio could become a tool or an option helping
the students to access retrospective lessons (such as podcast).
For a group of elderly, it was expected that the elderly could have an experience in using
tools for audio production and learning how to use their own tools in creating works rather
than only communication use.
9. Discussion and Conclusion
According to the abovementioned study, the creation of the project was designed byconsidering contexts and conditions of unanticipated situation caused by COVID-19 as wellas learners’ participation and experiences. The project, therefore, proceeded into the virtual
camp focusing on Innoactive Learning concept and participation. The most effective result
under the prospection of media literacy and UGC is an ability to produce a creative media incompliance with prospection of experiences and media literacy. The content complies with
providing knowledge, investing truths, cybercrime and media creation. The participants not
only highly satisfied with new learning experiences but also could produce the creative
media. This outcome illustrates in accordance with the result of the quantitative research.
The sample group expressed their highest satisfaction and could provide the utmost
experience to the participants. Most of them showed their intention to share the knowledge
and experience from the project to other and have a willingness to attend the project
organized by the partner network of this project again in the future.
As the result reflected high “attractiveness” from the participants, the ‘virtual camp’ focusing
on Innoactive Learning could become a model for adapting to other workshops in providing
knowledge and empowerment in various issues However, it is required a determination oflimitation for contents and activities which may not allow the project to conduct in a form of
online. Besides, the capabilities of participants in technology and accessing to the technology
may also become a limitation and lead to a digital gab which can affect the quality andatmosphere of learning class and activities. Therefore, the nature of demography andreadiness of learners needs to be considered in order to proceed the project successfully.

ISSN: 2189-101X

803

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

References
EnglishBirdsall, W. (2007). Web 2.0 as a social movement. Webology, 4(2), Article 40.
Burmistrov, A. (2017). Difference Between UI & UX – A Practical Example. Retrieved fromhttps://icons8.com/articles/difference-between-ui-ux-a-practicalexample/
Gillmor, D. (2004). We the media: Grassroots journalism by the people, for the people.
Sebastopol, CA: O’ Reilly Media.
Hassenzahl, M. (2001). The Effect of Perceived Hedonic Quality on Product Appealingness.
13, 481–499. doi:10.1207/S15327590IJHC1304_07
Hassenzahl, M. (2003). The Thing and I: Understanding the Relationship Between User andProduct.
Hobbs, Renee. (2010). Digital and Media Literacy: A Plan of Action. US: Aspen Institute.
Jamshed, Shazia (2014) ‘Qualitative research method-interviewing and observation,’ Journalof basic and clinical pharmacy, 5(4), 87–88, at: https://doi.org/10.4103/09760105.141942
Martin, S., Andreas, H., & Jörg, T. (2017). Design and Evaluation of a Short Version of theUser Experience Questionnaire (UEQ-S). International Journal of Interactive
Multimedia and Artificial Intelligence, Vol 4, Iss 6, Pp 103-108 (2017) (6), 103.
doi:10.9781/ijimai.2017.4615
Shatto, B., & Erwin, K. (2016). Moving on From Millennial: Preparing for Generation Z.
Journal of Continuing Education in Nursing, 47(6), 253-254.DOI: 10.3928/0022012420160518-05.
Wallerstein, H.A. (1971). Dictionary of Psychology. New York: Penguin Books, Inc.
Wardle, Claire and Hossein Derakhshan. (2017). “One year on, we’re still not recognizing thecomplexity of information disorder online,” in First Draft, October 31. Retrieved fromhttps://firstdraftnews.org/articles/coe_infodisorder/
Wolman, Thomas E. (1973). Education and Organizational Leadership in Elementary School.
Englewood Cliffs: New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Thai
Anutarasoat, Peerapon and Jessada Salathong. (2019). khūmư̄ patibat nak trūat so̜ ̄ pkho̜ ̄ thetčhing (FACT-CHECK in ACTION). Bangkok: Trusted Media Thailand.

ISSN: 2189-101X

804

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Kamolsupachinda, Kwanchanok. (2015). phrưttikam kānchai sư̄ sangkhom ʻo̜ ̄ nlai læ kānsadǣng tūa ton kho̜ ̄ ng čhēnœ̄ rēchan : ko̜ ̄ ranī sưksā khwām tǣktāng rawāngčhēnœ̄ rēchan bēbī būm maʻēt læ čhēnœ̄ rēchanwāi (Social Media Use andGenerational Identity: The Differentiation between Baby Boomers Generation vs. Y
Generation). Independent Study. Master Degree of Communication Arts (Strategic
Communication), Graduate School, Bangkok University.
Mek, Suthep. (1988). khwamphưngpho̜ ̄ čhai nai banyākāt kān rīan kānso̜ ̄ n kho̜ ̄ ng nakrīan lækhrū rōngrīan ʻāchīwasưksā ʻēkkachon praphēt phānitchayakam nai khēt kānsưksā
sipso̜ ̄ ng (The Satisfaction of students and teachers on the learning and teachingenvironments in private vocational colleges (commence) in the Educational Service
Area 12). [Thesis, Srinakharinwirot University].
Pasurapan, Kanchana. (1988). khwāmphưngpho̜ ̄ čhai kho̜ ̄ ng nakrīan thī mī to̜ ̄ saphāpwǣtlo̜ ̄ mnai witthayālai ʻāchīwasưksā sangkat krom ʻāchīwasưksā khēt phư̄nthī kānsưksā pǣt(The Satisfaction of students on the environment in vocational colleges under the
Office Of Vocational Education Commission, Educational Service Area 8). [Thesis,
Srinakharinwirot University].
Royal Society of Thailand. (2020). photčhanānukrom sap nithētsāt (Dictionary on
Communication Arts). Bangkok: Academy of Moral and Political Sciences.
Runnares, Suthathep. (2018). patčhai thī mī phon to̜ ̄ kān tranak thưng phai khukkhām thāngsai bœ̄ kho̜ ̄ ng phūchai ʻinthœ̄ net nai Krung Thēp Mahā Nakho̜ ̄ n (Factors Affecting
Awareness of Cyber-Threats by Internet Users in Bangkok). Independent Study.
Degree of Master of Science Information Technology Policy and Management,College of Innovation, Thammasat University.
Satawedin, Parama. (1990). lak nithētsāt (Principles of Communication Arts). Bangkok,
Chulalongkorn University.
Surasondhi, Kitima. (1990). khwāmrū thāngkān sư̄sān (Knowledge on communication).
Bangkok: Thammasat University.
Wongwanich, Suwimon. (2017). ʻēkkasān prako̜ ̄ p kānso̜ ̄ n rāiwichā kānwičhai ko̜ ̄ rūp læ
kānwičhai ʻing kānʻo̜ ̄ kbǣp (Teaching publication on informative research and designbased Research). Faculty of Education, Chulalongkorn University.

ISSN: 2189-101X

805

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

ISSN: 2189-101X

806

Official Conference Proceedings

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Factors Influencing Thai University Students’ Decision in Participating in Study Abroad
Phanita Pooteang-on, Mahidol University International College, Thailand
Chatwaroot Dulyachai, Mahidol University International College, Thailand
Worada Apirat, Mahidol University International College, Thailand
The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023
Official Conference Proceedings
Abstract
Educators have long recognized that education abroad can be a path to job opportunities andpersonal growth. Pre-COVID, the number of students studying abroad had increased steadily
year by year; this development was disrupted by the pandemic. As student mobility resumes
post-COVID, there is a renewed interest in understanding the factors that motivate students toparticipate in studying abroad. This presentation shares the results of preliminary research
conducted at a Thai university. The researchers surveyed 250 students to determine thefactors that motivate them to study abroad as well as the obstacles that they perceive as
preventing them from studying abroad. The top three factors were personal development,
career development, and academic factors. International experience makes an impact on the
CV as it does not improve only the students’ language skills but seems to shape their global
citizenship mind which is essential in the industry. The top three obstacles were expenses,
curriculum factors, and language barriers. The majority of Thai students are self-funded fortheir education abroad so the expenses are one of the main factors in their decision as well as
the relevant course should not expand the study time. Additionally, students expressedinterest in a wide variety of experiences beyond the traditional semester abroad, including
work and study, short courses, internships, and research opportunities. The findings of thisstudy will be of interest to educators who are interested in understanding students’
perceptions regarding studying abroad in order to increase student mobility and student
satisfaction with the study abroad experience.
Keywords: International Education, Study Abroad, Exchange Mobility, Outbound Mobility,
Student Exchange

iafor
The International Academic Forumwww.iafor.org

ISSN: 2189-101X

807

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Introduction
Higher education institutions around the world have put internationalization and global
citizenship as one of the main objectives. Many universities enhance their international
mobility by seeking collaboration with partners, as well as promoting their image to attract
international students (De Wit, 2002). The collaboration between partners allows students to
go on an exchange program and get credits as a part of their study (Doyle et al., 2010) andexchange programs have promoted internationalization and student mobility. Moreover, theexchange between the partner universities creates the international atmosphere which has apositive effect on the students to be able to raise cross-cultural awareness, develop global
citizenship and learning experience as well as to develop their personal growth (Mpinganjira,2009). Nowadays, global competencies are highly expected in the industry so students havebeen encouraged to participate in study abroad. (Hunter, White & Godbey, 2006; Terrant,
2010) An outbound program has been among the strategies of many universities to develop
students’ global competencies (Asoaka & Yano, 2009).
However, the number of Thai students studying abroad is not large compared to the number
from other countries in Asia. During 2012–2019, the number of students participating instudy abroad slightly increased 32,916 from 28,339 students (16%). The destination choices
are Australia, USA, UK and Japan respectively (Statista, 2021). Several indicated problems
and obstacle factors preventing the student from studying abroad. The most common factor isthe financial factors as well as the language barrier and the difference between cultures(Brustein, 2007). Moreover, studying abroad is considered an extracurricular activity that
extends the time of the study. Support from the home university is one of the obstacles,
consequently; the spotlight is on the inbound program due to the income (Doyle et al., 2010).
The Student Exchange Program at the International College has been very successful,especially in terms of inbound students, which include students who come to study for asemester as well as those who come for short periods of less than 12 weeks. According to thedata from the activities organized in the academic year 2019, there were 380 inboundstudents for the semester program and 284 inbound students for the short-term program, for a
total of 664 students. However, the number of outbound students was only 143, even though
the college has tools to increase the number of outbound students, such as organizing study
abroad programs, providing scholarships, and developing a global partner search system tofacilitate the selection of schools and transfer credits. Nevertheless, the number of outboundstudents is still relatively low compared to the number of inbound students. The present study
was designed to examine the factors influencing students’ decision to participate in study
abroad in order to have a proposed plan to develop outbound mobility.
Research Objective
1. To investigate the factors influencing MUIC students to participate in study abroad
2. To investigate obstacles factors preventing MUIC students from participating in study
abroad
3. To propose an effective plan for an outbound program for MUIC students

ISSN: 2189-101X

808

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Literature review
Several studies have identified the factors influencing students’ decision to participate instudy abroad as both motive factors and obstacle factors. A number of studies have discussed
that students consider studying abroad as a tool for the future career opportunity. Daly.
(2011) and Bourke (2000) mentioned that participating in an exchange program helps toincrease the chance of employment after graduation. Moreover, it would develop thenecessary skills for future jobs like problem-solving skills and systematic thinking skills.
Personal factors are one of the major considerations. Studying abroad is considered a great
opportunity to live in another culture and see the world. (Van Hoof & Verbeeten, 2005) The
participant can make a relationship with people from different cultures. (Clyne and Rizvi,
1998) Some students participate in study abroad for the reason of personal growth. Studying
abroad helps to increase cross-cultural awareness as well as language ability. Winnicki andMarciniak, 2019 reported that exchange students tend to be more confident and be able tounderstand different cultures. Students also participate in study abroad to seek an adventureand step out of their comfort zone. (Bourke, 2000; Krzaklewska & Krupnik, 2005; Goldstein&Kim, 2006; Doyle et al. 2010; Winnicki&Marciniak, 2019) It also boosts up social status(Mpinganjira, 2009).
Parents' attitude toward study abroad also had an influence on the decision to study abroad.
Word of mouth helps exchange programs mobility grow. The students who get arecommendation from friends and family tend to participate in study abroad (Wiers-Jenssen,2003). Another significant factor that most affects students’ decision is the financial factor.
Despite the family's affordability, the information of estimated expenses is something toconsider. Students also look for the availability of the scholarship and the possibility to havea part time job (Gust, Livett and Stone, 2006; Doyle et al., 2010).
The relevant courses drive the exchange mobility. Some students decided to not participate instudy abroad with the reason that there is no course matched with their interest and theirdegree program (The Sussex Centres’, 2004). Moreover, the time match is also one of thevital factors. Students would not like to spend the extra time on their study (Van der Meld,2003). Consequently, the new type of exchange program has occurred, for instant short term
exchange program, work and study program which are the extra curriculum program
requiring a short period of time (Doyle et al., 2010). Support from home university as well as
networking and collaborating with partner universities plays an important role in the decision
factor (Doyle et al., 2010). Furthermore, the enthusiasm of the staff to promote the program
affects the decision because students need the information of the program (Sussex Centre,2004).
Obstacle factors of participating in study abroad
Several studies have reported the obstacle factors that affect the decision of participating instudy abroad. One of the main barriers is the financial factor. Sussex Centre, 2004; Otero S&McCoshan, 2006; Doyle et al., 2010 have identified Finance as a barrier to study abroad as
the exchange program is an add-on to the curriculum which requires extra expenses.
Moreover, other expenses like cost of living will occur. (Van der Meld, 2003) The
psychological factors have also been identified as the barrier of study abroad. The
participants were worried about leaving their friends and family as well as living in an
unfamiliar circumstance. (Doyle et al., 2010; Wiers-Jenssen, 2003) Mazzarol and Soutar,

ISSN: 2189-101X

809

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

2002 reported the limits of foreign language ability as the obstacles of student mobility. Most
students tend to choose the destination country where English is the language of instruction.
Students have the concerns of the interaction during the class if lack of language skill.
Lack of access to reliable information is significantly important. (Doyle et al2010) According
to the study of Van der Meld, 2003, found that students decided not to participate inexchange programs due to lack of information about the opportunity. The limitation of therelevant course is also a big concern because students are afraid that study abroad would
affect their degree program. Some universities have a tight schedule, so participating in study
abroad will extend their study time (Doyle et al., 2010).
Methodology
The questionnaire with a set of questions based on the literature review was designed tocollect data on factors influencing students’ decisions. The questionnaire was divided into
four parts; the first part was the general information consisting of four items asking
participants’ gender, nationality, academic year, and major. The second part (two items) was
designed to investigate the participants ‘intention to participate in Study Abroad. While thethird past was developed to examine factors influencing the decision of participating in study
abroad both the motive factors and obstacle factors and the last past (one item) asked the
respondents for suggestions on exchange programs. This questionnaire was reviewed by threeoutside organization inspectors and approved by Mahidol University Central Institutional
Review Board (MU-CIRB) before being used.
The QR code of the questionnaire was distributed to the participants at the Student Exchange
Unit office and Co-working Space. The participants were 250 students selected by accidental
sampling from 4,325 MUIC students, year 1-4 the academic year 2021. From all of the
respondents, 76 % of them were female and 19.6 % were male. 4 % of the respondents prefer
not to mention their gender while 0.4% specified themselves as bisexual.
Data were analyzed by SPSS. Descriptive statistics were used to investigate the items in part1- 3 of the questionnaire.
Finding
The survey reported 92.8 % of the respondents had a plan to study abroad while only 7.2% ofthem did not plan to study abroad.

ISSN: 2189-101X

810

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Figure 1: Intention to participate in study abroad
From figure 1 showing that the majority of the students (77.2%) were intended for the
traditional semester exchange. Many respondents (14.4%) were into the internship program
while some (6%) were interested in short-term abroad. Only a few students (2.4%) expected
the research exchange program.
Motive factors to study abroad
Respondents were asked to rate how much each factor influenced their decision to study
abroad. The factors were divided into six categories; career development, personal
development, recommendation, financial aids, academic and support from the home institute.

Figure 2: Factors influencing the decision to participate in study abroad

ISSN: 2189-101X

811

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

ITEMS

Official Conference Proceedings

SlightlyNot
Veryimportant Important Neutral important important
(%)

(%)

(%)

(%)

(%)

Personal Factors
It would be a good opportunity totravel.
66.8
21.6
10
1.2
0.4
It would be a good opportunity tolive in another culture.
70.8
20.8
6.4
1.2
0.8
I would like to have relationshipwith people from different
59.2
27.6
10.4
2
0.8
culture.
It would increase ability tocommunicate in a foreign
68.8
21.2
7.2
1.2
1.6
language.
It would expand my knowledge
beyond courses offered at MUIC.
61.6
26.4
10.4
1.6
0
Seeking independence andchallenge.
62.4
27.2
7.2
2.4
0.8
Career development
It would enhance myemployability after graduation.
57.6
26
12
39.2
0.8
It would help me improve
61.2
26.8
10.4
1.2
0.4
necessary skills for my future job.
Academic factors
The quality of education in thehost country.
56.4
31.6
9.2
1.6
1.2
There are courses that meet myinterest.
51.6
33.2
11.6
2.8
0.8
There are relevant courses to myprogram.
55.6
30.8
11.2
1.6
0.8
Courses are conducted in English.
69.6
21.6
6.4
0.8
1.6
I do not have to spend an extra
year or semester attending the
program.
53.6
23.6
16
0.8
4
Table 1: The top three motivating factors influencing students’ decision to study abroad(According to the survey)
Among the respondents, the most important factor influencing them to study abroad was the
personal development factor (mean = 4.51) as the result showed that 70.8% of theparticipants realized studying abroad would be a good opportunity to live in another culture.
More than half of them (68.8%) saw it as an opportunity to increase their language ability.
Followed by the career development factor for the second significant factor (mean = 4.42).
From Table 1, 61.2% of the respondents thought study abroad would help them to improve
the necessary skill for the future job. The third factor was the academic factor (mean = 4.38)
of which 69.6 % of respondents seeing the relevant course should be conducted in English.
The fourth important factor is support from the home university (mean = 4.26) and the last
two important factors are Financial aid factors (mean = 3.84) and recommendation fromfriends and family (mean=3.40), (See Figure 2).

ISSN: 2189-101X

812

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Figure 3: Obstacle factors influencing the decision to participate in study abroad

ITEMS

Very
important(%)

Important Neutral(%)(%)

Slightly
important(%)

Notimportant(%)

Financial Barrier
It would be too
expensive for me to
study abroad
27.2
33.2
26.4
7.6
5.6
I would need more
information about thecost of the outboundexchange program
50
29.6
12.8
5.2
2.4
Curriculum Barrier
Participating in the
program may make mystudy longer.
20.8
28.8
27.6
12.8
10
There are no or few
relevant courses.
22.4
22.8
30.8
15.2
8.8
Language Barrier
I don’t want to stay in acountry where I do notknow their language.
13.6
17.2
26.4
17.2
25.6
Language of instruction
is not English.
26
17.2
27.6
11.6
17.6
Table 2: The top three obstacle factors influencing students’ decision to study abroad(According to the survey)

ISSN: 2189-101X

813

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Obstacles factors preventing students from studying abroad
The financial factors were reported as the most important barrier to study abroad. (mean =3.94). From Table 2, the survey showed that half of the respondents (50%) would need more
information about the cost of the outbound exchange program. Lack of information about theexpenses of the program is a very important obstacle. The second significant obstacle was thecurriculum (mean = 3.36) in which the respondents thought there are few relevant courses
and studying abroad would extend their studies. The third factor was the language barrier(mean =2.99). It is not the language competency but if the language of instruction was not
English, it will be one matter of barriers (See Table 2).
Implication
The most significant motivating factor was the personal factor. In order to promote theexchange program related to this factor, universities should broaden the positive perspectiveof students toward the exchange program. Specifically, the experiences and benefits theywould get from studying abroad. In point of career matters, studying abroad has been seen as
a way students would improve their global competency which is highly required in theindustry. Universities can push this harder by encouraging the students to engage themselveswith the local community to actually shape the globalization skill and improve the necessary
skill for the future job. Apart from those, universities should strengthen the collaboration
with partner universities and seek more relevant courses and programs that would fit most of
the students.
Similarly, to most of the previous studies, the result showed that financial factors were thesignificant obstacles to participate in studying abroad. The survey showed that the
respondents would need more information about the cost of the outbound exchange program.
At this point, we recommend the university to create a platform where the student can easily
access the information including the average cost of living. There should be specificestimated expenses for specific destinations, not only broad general information. The
information of the availability of scholarships both internal and external institutions also canbe provided on the platform. Another issue with the financial factor was that it would be
expensive for students to study abroad. The university should offer various types of exchange
programs that would require less financial support for instant short-term exchange programs
or work and study programs. The second barrier factor is the curriculum factor. The
respondents thought studying abroad would extend their period of study time. In this case, thesupport for planning to study abroad can be provided so that the students can plan theirenrollment ahead. The short-term exchange during their summer break can be one of theoptions for students to participate in the program during their break time. Language barrieralso appears to be one of the important factors to prevent them from participating in study
abroad. The limit of language proficiency is one point and another point is the language of
instruction.
Limitation
The questionnaire was contributed to the participants at the Student Exchange Unit officewhere most of the students are interested in studying abroad and the data were collected at
the International College. This becomes the limitation in terms of generalization of the results
to all Thai universities.

ISSN: 2189-101X

814

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Conclusion
In conclusion, most of the respondents indicated that studying abroad has been beneficial for
their personal growth and future career path. Those positive experiences and benefits
motivated them to participate in studying abroad. However, there are some obstacle factors
pulling them to not participate in studying abroad. It turned out that the most significant
obstacle is the financial factor. It is not because they cannot afford the expenses, yet theywould like to get more specific information about the expenses that might occur. As most of
the Thai students are self-funded for their studies, the information about the estimatedexpenses is matter for their decision. The condition of academic factors is also one major
barrier. In terms of a few relevant courses can be found and the extra time they have to spend.
From the findings, the university can increase student mobility by providing information on
how to develop their own skill through studying abroad. Moreover, the university can reducethe barrier factors by supporting the required information and strengthening the collaboration
with partners in order to have various fields of study. Additionally, students expressedinterest in a wide variety of experiences beyond the traditional semester abroad, including
work and study, short courses, internships, and research opportunities. The findings can leadto further study on the perception of students toward various types of study abroad.

ISSN: 2189-101X

815

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

References
ASOAKA, T. & YANO, J. (2009) The contribution of “study abroad” programs to JapaneseInternationalization. Journal of Studies in International Education, 13, 174-188.
BOURKE A (2000). A Model of the Determinants of International trade in Higher Education.
Ser. Indus. Jl. 20 (1): 110-138.
Brustein, William. (2007). The Global Campus: Challenges and Opportunities for Higher
Education in North America. Journal of Studies in International Education - J STUDINT EDUC. 11. 382-391. 10.1177/1028315307303918.
CLYNE, F. & RIZVI, F. (1998) Outcomes of student exchange. In DAVIS, D. & OLSEN, A.
(Eds.) Outcomes of international Education. pp.35-49. Sydney, NSW, IDP Education
Australia.
Daly, A. (2011). Determinants of Participating in Australian University Student Exchange
Programs.
DeWit, H. (2002) Internationalization of Higher Education in the United States of America
and Europe: A Historical, Comparative and Conceptual Analysis, CT: Greenwood
Publishers.
Doyle, S., Gendall, P., Meyer, L.H., Hoek, J., Tait, C., McKenzie., & Loorparg, A. (2010).
An Investigation of Factors Assocated With Student Participation in Study Abroad.
Journal of Studies in International Education,14(5), 471-490.
GOLDSTEIN, S. B. & KIM, R. I. (2006) Predictors of US college students’ participation in
study abroad programs: A longitudinal study. International Journal of Intercultural
Relations, 30, 507-521.
Guest, David & Livett, Michelle & Stone, Nick. (2006). Fostering International Student
Exchanges for Science Students. Journal of Studies in International Education - J
STUD INT EDUC. 10. 378-395. 10.1177/1028315306287632.
Hunter, B., White, G. P., & Godbey, G. C. (2006). What does it mean to be globallycompetent? Journal of Studies in International Education, 10, 267-285.
Krupnik, Seweryn & Krzaklewska, Ewa. (2015). The experience of studying abroad forexchange students in Europe.Brussels: Eramus Student Network.
Mazzarol, Tim & Soutar, Geoffrey. (2002). The Push-Pull Factors Influencing International
Student Selection of Education Destination. International Journal of Educational
Management. 16. 82-90.
Mazzarol, Tim & Soutar, Geoffrey. (2002). “Push-pull” factors influencing international
student destination choice. International Journal of Educational Management. 16.
82–90. 10.1108/09513540210418403.

ISSN: 2189-101X

816

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Mpinganjira, Mercy. (2009). Comparative analysis of factors influencing the decision to
study abroad. African Journal of Business Management. 3. 358-365.
NAFSA. (2009). Simon Study Abroad Bill introduced today. NAFSA Press Room. Retrieved
February 26, 2009, from http://www.nafsa.org
Souto-Otero M., McCoshan A. (2006). Survey of the socio-economic background of
ERASMUS students (Final report to the European Commission). Birmingham, UK:
ECOTEC.
Souto-Otero M., Huisman J., Beerkens M., de Wit H. (2013). Barriers to international student
mobility: Evidence from the ERASMUS program. Educational Researcher, 42, 7077.
SUSSEX CENTRE FOR MIGRATION RESERCH & CENTRE FOR APPLIEDPOPULATION RESERCH (2004) International student mobility. University of
Sussex & University of Dundee.
Tarrant, M. A. (2010). A conceptual framework for exploring the role of studies abroad in
nurturing global citizenship. Journal of Studies in International Education, 14, 433451.
VAN DER MELD, J. S. (2003) Asian American: factors influencing the decision to study
abroad. Frontiers: the interdisciplinary journal of study abroad, IX, 71-110.
VAN HOOF, H. B. & VERBEETEN, M. J. (2005) Wine is for drinking, water is forwashing: student opinions about international exchange program. Journal of Studies
in International Education, 9, 42-61.
WIERS_JENSSEN, J. (2008) Does higher education attained abroad lead to international
jobs? Journal of Studies in International Education, 12, 101-130.
Winnicki, M. & Marciniak, D. (2019). International Student Exchange-Motives, Benefits andBarriers of Participation. Scientific Papers of Silesian University of Technology
Organization and Management Series No.133, 94-105. Doi:10.29119:16413466.2019.133.8.

ISSN: 2189-101X

817

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

ISSN: 2189-101X

818

Official Conference Proceedings

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

An Analysis of Content Marketing on Social Media by Five Top Global Universities

Worada Apirat, Mahidol University International College, Thailand
Phanita Pooteang-on, Mahidol University International College, Thailand

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023
Official Conference Proceedings

Abstract
Social media are used increasingly by higher education institutions (HEIs) to promote brands
and connect to stakeholders. The authors analyzed post type and post content on Facebook
posted by five selective universities of Top 20 QS World Ranking University 2022:
Massachusetts Institute of Technology from USA, University of Oxford from UK, ETH
Zurich-Swiss Federal Institute of Technology from Switzerland, National University ofSingapore from Singapore, and Tsinghua University from China. This study followed the 12
post types: alumni, announcement, campus, curriculum, events, faculty, image andreputation, industry, others, products, research, and students to segment post types, andexpressions such as likes and comments are used to evaluate engagement. The study foundthat from 2,232 posts by the selective institutions, the top five most frequently posted areresearch, faculty, students, events and announcements. Compared to engagement, beautiful
spots on campus, and curriculum gained the most engagement, students’ life also gained highengagement as found in previous papers together while research is still in the top five.
Interestingly, the “others” post type, which contained content from external outsources, wasalso found with high engagement in this study. From findings, the authors suggested HEIs
may pay attention to updated content or stories that matter from external sources or promote
other topics not related to the university but that have an impact at the national orinternational level as useful content to make users or followers engaged.

Keywords: Higher Education, Marketing, Facebook, Social Media, Content Analysis

iafor
The International Academic Forumwww.iafor.org

ISSN: 2189-101X

819

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Introduction
Digital marketing changed the world with no exception, and universities will not be able tosustain themselves without enrollment growth. Universities have the challenge of maintaining
relevance among students who are more reliant on technology as a communication source(Martin, 2015). Even though traditional strategies and processes to reach out potential
applicants via campus visits, letters and viewbooks still exist, but at the same time reachingout to prospective schools using social media have shown a distinct preference by students
for more than a decade (Hayes, Ruschman & Walker, 2009). It was confirmed by Barnes andMattson (2009, 2010, as cited in Peruta & Shields, 2018) that more than 90% of college
admission office viewed social media as being of great importance to their recruiting
initiatives.
Universities in the United States typically use multiple web and social media platforms inmarketing brands to increase applications and engagement to their institutions (Peruta &Shields, 2018). Overall, social media are used increasingly by higher education institutions(HEIs) to promote brands and connect to stakeholders.
Social media platforms have become a popular tool for digital marketing as a medium ofcommunication to reach out to customers and the public. As of January 2023, Statista.com(2023) presents that there were 5.15 billion internet users worldwide or 64.4 percent of the
global population, and of this total, 4.76 billion, or 59.4 percent of the world population weresocial media users. Figure 1 presented popular social media platform and number of active
users in January 2023. Impact of digital marketing in all industries and a growing number ofsocial media users creating opportunities for businesses to build their image and branding andconnect with present and potential customers.

University students who are social media users typically used social media in searching
information about education institutions before choosing university. Kumar and Nanda’s
research (2019) presented that higher education institutions across the world used social
media in reaching out prospective students and interacting with current students and alumni
because social media is not only improving communication but also helps in promoting and

ISSN: 2189-101X

820

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

developing activities. The UK, as the top destination for international students, University
College of London (UCL) has several strategies in international students’ recruitment andsocial media platforms such as Facebook, Twitter, and YouTube are used to create marketing
campaigns for each country or region which are listed as top international students’ senders to
UK such as China, India, Middle East and European Union (Helmi & Puis, 2018). In the caseof Indonesia, the number of public and private higher education has increased in the last
decade, so it is important for universities to stand out. Thus, universities increasingly adopted
digital marketing channels that are generally recognized to market prospective and qualified
students compared to traditional marketing (Kusumawati, 2019).
However, there is a lack of studies on how higher institutions use social media for marketing
purposes such as strengthening customer relationships, building trust, and broadcasting
information. Simultaneously, incorporating social media into recruitment is not simple.
(Taecharungroj, 2017; Peruta & Shields, 2018). It is even more difficult recently for social
media practitioners and managers to choose the right social media platforms for their
institutions as there are more than 10 platforms; Facebook, YouTube, WhatsApp, Instagram,
WeChat, TikTok, Facebook Messenger, Telegram, Snapchat, QQ, Pinterest, etc. Even though
TikTok keeps growing, Facebook is still the most popular platform by number of active users
at 2.96 billion users and has been used by top higher education institutions in the USA such
as MIT (Taecharungroj, 2017; Statista, 2023).
This study focuses on 1) how the top universities in the world use Facebook to promote
brands and connect to stakeholders, and 2) analyze content marketing on Facebook pages of
the top global universities.
Literature review
Current marketing trends in higher education
Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) around the world are struggling with the number ofapplicants and high competition. In the past, traditional roles of HEIs were to serve thecommunity, research, and teach students, thus marketing and generating profit were notcommon. With this new challenge, the managers in higher education have to be more marketoriented to be competitive in an international environment (Ramachandran, 2010, cited in
Taecharungroj, 2017; Stukalina, 2019). A study by Rafdinal, Mulyawan, and Kusdibyo(2021) found that social media content provided by HEIs has significant impact on students’desire to attend college or university. Social med marketing in HEIs, thus, generate content
which encourage students to follow their social media to increase the enrollment in theirprograms.
Content marketing
Content marketing has been found to be more effective than Traditional marketing whichshifts from advertising and selling approach to providing information that creates value for
consumer (Forrest, 2019). According to Plessis (2015), the concept of content marketing isbeing descriptive on sharing brand content through its owned media in an attempt toencourage and create conversation among others for brand awareness both business toconsumers (B2C), and business to business (B2B). In short, the definition of content
marketing proposed by Du Plessis is as follows: “Content marketing is a strategic brandstorytelling technique aimed at changing consumers’ inactive behavior through unobtrusive,

ISSN: 2189-101X

821

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

engaging brand conversations in earned media”. Regularly, brand content comes in forms ofbrand stories strategy that links company brand to consumer’s interest based on relevancy of
their own lives. The brand stories are shared via social media, blog posts, videos, podcasts,
webinar, interviews, testimonials and so on. These activities are mostly done to encourage
electronic word of mouth (e-WOM), engagement on its social media or even convert target
audience into customers (Pulizzi, 2010 & 2012, cited by Du Plessi, 2015). The information
provides on content marketing are various; helpful, informative, problem solving or evenentertaining. Content marketing also provides intangible benefit to business which includes
brand awareness, new customers at the same time it increases site traffic, improve SearchEngine Optimization (SEO), and consumer conversion (MOZ, 2018 cited in Forrest, 2019).
Content marketing for higher education
Ramadanty, Safitri, and Suhendra (2020) studied social media content strategy for higher
education in Indonesia and found that social media changed the process recruitment in higher
education, and content strategies are part of social media strategies for HEIs to communicate
information to current student, alumni, and prospects. Various contents strategies such asbranding, extending reach, and establishing emotion ties (Girard, 2017 as cited in Ramadanty,
Safitri, & Suhendra (2020) are needed by HEIs, and should be able to increase on goingengagement. Content contains campus life, student activities events, and accommodations isimportant and helps prospect students get an impression to choose the campus (Zhu, 2019).
Peruta and Shields (2017, 2018) presented that volume of social media content is exploded in
the recent year, brand and users share more content and compete their share in a social media
platform timeline to reach and engage followers. In their researches, post type and content
were studied and analyzed engagement. Content analysis was used to examine topics andformats of Facebook posts on top U.S. colleges and universities, the results found that content
about athletics increased engagement significantly and format that included users generated
also contributed engagement. Taecharungroj (2017) studied higher education social media
marketing: 12 content types universities post on Facebook of three universities from theUSA; Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Harvard University, and Stanford University,and three universities from Thailand; Mahidol University, Chulalongkorn University, andThammasat University with 12 post type created. The study found that common post typefrom universities from USA was research while other three universities from Thailand were
events and announcements. Researchers suggested HEIs must be proactive together withstrategy on social media.
Methodology
Population
In this study, purposive sampling was used and the top 20 of QS World Rankings University
2022 were targeted (Topuniversities, 2021). From rankings listed, nine universities foundfrom the USA followed by five universities from the UK, and two universities from eachcountry which are Switzerland, Singapore, and China (mainland). Thus, the authors sourced
and filtered for universities that gain the highest ranking in its county as representative forthis research which are Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), University of Oxford,
ETH Zurich-Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH), National University of Singapore,
and Tsinghua University. The official Facebook pages for these five universities were used
for content post analysis. Population used in this study presented in Table 1.

ISSN: 2189-101X

822

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Post type content
The authors employed 12 content types and like index from Taecharungroj’s study in 2017 toanalyze content as it is modernized to covers content post on Facebook which are alumni,
announcements, campus, curriculum, events, faculty, image & reputation, industry, products,
research, students, and others as shown in Table 2. Expressions such as likes, comments, andshares are used to evaluate engagement using median number of likes to compared thefrequency post and post with engagement.

ISSN: 2189-101X

823

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Reliability
Authors studied 12 post type content type criteria and practiced together on Facebook post
type then inter-coder reliability was tested on 15% of the sample (329 Facebook posts) The
result using Kripppendorf’s alpha and the average pairwise was at 0.872, and 91.0% which isan acceptable level of agreement.
Findings
Facebook posts and statistic description of 12 post types
From selective universities, the total of 2,232 posts; 229 posts by MIT, 602 posts by the
University of Oxford, 253 posts by ETH, 278 posts by NUS, and 870 posts by Tsinghua wereanalyzed as shown in Figure 2.

ISSN: 2189-101X

824

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Common posts on selective universities Facebook page
This study found that from the average score the highest common posts were research(20.4%) followed by faculty (16.5%), events (14.4%), students (10.1%), and image &reputation (8.2%) accordingly. Other post types were often posted such as announcements,
campus, curriculum remained on the same amount (6.9%), alumni (5.2%), while content asothers (2.1%), industry (2.0%) were rarely found before ended with products (0.4%). Figure 3
shown percentage of 12 content post type in general.
Figure 4 presented like index calculating by dividing the number of likes on the post by the
median number of like of the university (Taecharungroj, 2017). Study found that the content
post with the highest engagement were others (4.9%) followed by campus (2.8%), alumni(2.4%), curriculum (2.3%), students (2.0%), industry (1.9%), image & reputation (1.8),
research (1.7%), Faculty, and products (1.6%), announcements (1.5%), and events (1.4%).

ISSN: 2189-101X

825

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Comparison between top five posts and top five with engagement post
From the general findings of common content posts and content post with engagement,
authors used color coding, rating scale, and percentage to compare the top five post and top
five post with engagement. In Figure 5 study found that from the top five posts, research wason the top 1 and gained 76% as it was posted by all five universities, and was also on top 1 of
MIT and University of Oxford. The top 2 frequency post was faculty (72%) which also foundin all selective institutions while students and events shared top 3 (44%). Announcementfound in top 4 (24%) as it was in Top 5 of MIT, University of Oxford and ETH. The last one
was alumni on top 5 (20%), and found on NUS.

ISSN: 2189-101X

826

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Comparing with top five post with engaged, the most engagement was campus, andcurriculum (44%), followed by top 2, students, and others (36%), research, and products(32%), and alumni 28%. Study found that “others” content type which is not related touniversity gained high engagement at top 2 together with students’ content. Post on products
which was not founded in top 5 posted by selective universities was in the top 3 as well as
research type that was found at all universities’ frequently post. Alumni was in the top 4
while “industry found in top 5. Announcement, faculty, image & reputation and events wason the 20% left of all post types. Figure 6 presented top five post with engagement inpercentage.

Discussion
Top five content posted by selective universities
From findings, the top five that selective universities posted are research, faculty, events,
students, and announcements. According to previous study by Taecharungroj (2017), content
post about research, and faculty found on all universities in this study. Research represented
universities’ intellectual achievement, advancements, and innovations while faculty post canstrengthen the academic status of its university. MIT and ETH created short explanation of

ISSN: 2189-101X

827

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

research with captions, photos and link to their news and often with links to research paper.
For example, a research post by ETH on December 14, 2021 summarized the topic ofresearch paper from “Iron Deficiency Anemia at Time of Vaccination Predicts Decreased
Vaccine Response and Iron Supplementation at Time of Vaccination Increase Humoral
Vaccine Response: A Birth Cohort Study and Randomized Trial Follow-up Study in Kenya
Infants” into a short sentence “Saving infants’ lives with iron” can be a good example ofgood content that captures readers on Facebook their post. MIT had the way to promote top
posts at the end of the year by selecting 21 top posts of the year. The top 2 post from MIT
was research post from July 25, 2021 that was reposted again on December 30, 2021 “Newface mask prototype can detect Covid-19 infection”. These two posts were very wellengaged.
According to Peruta and Helm (in press as cited in Peruta & Shields, 2018), social media
managers at different schools in higher education implemented a wide range of posting
strategies on Facebook. many schools reported timely. Naturally, content reflected current
events on campus and in the news were posted thus “events” content type listed in the top 3(44%) out of 5 in the research accordingly, and may be posted more than one time as areminder or get more attention.
Post of students also found on top 3 as the most important stakeholder thus post focused on
current students, activities, achievements, etc. were usually found on universities’ Facebook.
Picture of students celebrated Diwati event found on Oxford’s Facebook dated November 7,
2021. Tsinghua congratulated student’s achievement, “Congratulations! Chinese shooter
Yang Qian:” on July 24, 2021. MIT announced MIT’s intercollegiate athletics programs are
resuming competition for the fall on September 3, 2021. Those posts received highengagement from their followers.
Announcements post was at top 4 or officially top 5 and were used often on getting attention
and providing information. ETH announced Trust in science! Get vaccinated to promoteawareness to their community as shown on December 10, 2021. It also used as a channel forpage admin team to connect with followers by occasions such as “Today is Winter Solstice!
Dumplings or Tangyuan: which did you have today?” by Tsinghua on December 21, 2021.
Top five content posted with engagement by selective universities
From findings, the top five with high engagement are campus, and curriculum at top 1,
students, and others at top 2, and research and products at top 3 or officially top 5. Fromprevious research, “the information provides on content marketing are various; helpful,
informative, problem solving or even entertaining” (MOZ, 2018 cited in Forrest, 2019).
These information on campus life, curriculum, and students are very important and help
prospect students get impression (Zhu, 2019). Simple photo with short phrase posted by
Oxford “Today is #InternationalCatDay!, August 9, 2021”, shown cats hiding, sitting at thecorner of campus buildings, this post confirming that content marketing are various and thepost with entertaining purpose can gained high engagement. A post of “A cloudy day in
Oxford” posted on August 26 easily represented atmosphere of the university to prospectedstudents and stakeholder (Peruta & Shields, 2017). In term of promoting curriculum, MITannounced its achievement being no. 1 in 12 subjects for 2021 ranked by QS World
University Ranking by reposting the original post in March again on December 24, 2021.

ISSN: 2189-101X

828

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

For top 2, students post remained in top 5 both frequency post and post with engagement.
Interestingly that content post “others” that contained content from external source and was
not related to universities, but touched audience’s common interest showed significant impact
on engagement at top 2. The sample can be found on ETH’s Facebook “celebrates the 130
years of Switzerland “Switzerland National Day, August 1 gained 372 like & love with 18
shares. Posts promote idea that has impact to the community and establish emotion ties canincrease engagement (Peruta & Shields, 2018; Ramadanty, Safitri, & Suhendra, 2020). This
content type posted by Tsinghua “The Beijing 2022 Winter Olympic Games will represent a
breakout phase for the Chinese digital renminbi, also known as the e-CNY on August 7, 2021”
also found with high engagement.
Research and research finding or innovation by the university (Taecharungroj, 2017)
remained in top 5 of both frequency post and post with engagement as it presents HEIs’
achievement, sample found on NUS’s FB post “PASPORT: Breakthrough saliva-based
COVID-19 rapid test” on December 9, 2021. Another sample found on Oxford’s FB “Today
saw the first vaccination in a Phase I clinical trial of a novel #HIVvaccine candidate in
Lusaka, Zambia” on August 3, 2021.These type of contents increase high engagement ascreating emotional ties (Girard, 2017 as cited in Ramadanty, Safitri, & Suhendra (2020).
Together with research, products which was not found in top 5 of the frequency post was up
to top 3 of engagement. from the definition, products referred to university’s digital
downloadable content made Albert Einstein's doctoral dissertation thesis from ETH Librarymore popular with both use as research itself and university’s product.
Another finding which was useful is alumni post, even it was not in the top 5 with highengagement but in case of Tsinghua University, post with alumni content was only 4.0% outof the whole posts but was in the top 5 of the its engagement. A post about alumni “MeetMugisha who turned down job offers abroad to pursue his dream in agriculture” by Tsinghua
on September 26, 2021 gained more than 4K liked. It confirmed a strong and a positive
relationship with their alumni can benefit the institutes, academically and professionallyfound in Kumar and Nanda (2019), thus, post about alumni and success of alumni gained
engagement.
Conclusion
In conclusion, this study used 12 post type from previous research to analyse content
marketing on social media by top five global universities using purposive sampling from Top
20 QS World University Ranking 2022. The study of 2,232 Facebook posts found similarfindings that the top five global universities mostly promote research, and faculty which
related to universities’ intellectual achievements and advancements and strengthen theiracademic status. Student content type is still in line as student is the most important
stakeholder. Events and announcements regular posted naturally by most of universities inthis research as found in previous research papers.
However, the significant finding from this research found on Facebook post with engagement
part. It presents that content type as others which is not related to university but create
emotional ties highly gained engagement from stakeholder as well as products of universities.
Thus, HEIs shall consider these types of content from external sources that benefit all
stakeholders’ common interest to encourage conversation among others, and to increase own
social media followers and engagement rate which are the main purpose of using content

ISSN: 2189-101X

829

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

marketing. Finding how the young universities earn reputation and what marketing strategies
implemented will be an interesting topic to be explored in the further study.

Acknowledgements
The authors sincerely thank Assoc. Prof. Viriya Taecharungroj who provided explanation on
the post type category at the beginning of this research paper as well Asst. Prof. Alexander
Nanni for his help on statistics.

ISSN: 2189-101X

830

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

References
Du Plessis, C. (2015). Academic guidelines for content marketing: researchbasedrecommendations for better practice. Retrieved fromhttps://www.researchgate.net/publication/283326897
Forrest, Pj. (2019). Content marketing today. Retrieved
fromhttps://www.researchgate.net/publication/331345065
Hayes, T. J., Ruschman, D., & Walkman, M. M. (2009). Social networking as anadmissiontool: A case study in success. Journal of Marketing for Higher Education,
19(2), 109-124. http://doi: 10.1080/08841240903423042
Helmi, H. & Puis, A. (2018). A review of international students' attraction andrecruitmentstrategies: Learning from UK top universities. Scholars Journal of
Economics, Business and Management (SJEBM), 779-785. e-ISSN 2348-5302,
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/334638388
Kumar, V. & Nanda, P. (2019). Social media in higher education: A framework
forcontinuous engagement. International Journal of Information andCommunicationTechnology Education (IJICTE), 15(1), 97-108.
http://doi.org/10.4018/IJICTE.2019010107
Kusumawati, A. (2019). Impact of digital marketing on student decision-making processofhigher education institution: A case of Indonesia. Journal of e-Learning and Higher
Education, (2019), http://doi:10.5171/2019.267057
Martin, C. M. (2015). Social media engagement and collegiate Recruitment: An
examinationof the use of social networks in the college recruitment and student choiceprocesses. Retrieved from https://www.academia.edu/85015157
Peruta, A. & Shields, A. B. (2017). Social media in higher education: understanding
howcolleges and universities use Facebook. Journal of Marketing for higher
education, 27(1), 131-143. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08841241.2016.1212451
Peruta, A. & Shields, A. B. (2018). Marketing your university on social media: acontentanalysis of Facebook post types and formats. Journal of Marketing for Higher
Education, 28(2), 175-191. http://doi.org/10.1080/08841241.2018.1442896
Rafdinal, Mulyawan, I., & Kusdibyo, L. (2021). The important of social media content
ininfluencing the intention to enroll in higher education. Proceedings of International
Joint Conference on Science and Engineering 2021, 750-755. Retrieved fromhttps://www.atlantis-press.com/proceedings/ijcse-21/125966500
Ramadanty, S., Safitri Y., & Suhendra, H. (2020). "Social Media Content Strategy forHigherEducation, Indonesia, International Conference on Information Management
and Technology (ICIMTech), Bandung, Indonesia, 336-341,
http://doi:10.1109/ICIMTech50083.2020.9211216

ISSN: 2189-101X

831

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Stukalina, Y. (2019). Marketing in higher education: promoting educational services andprogrammes. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.3846/cibmee.2019.062
Statista (2023a). Global social network ranked by number of users 2023. Retrieved
fromhttps://www.statista.com/statistics/617136/digital-population-worldwide/
Statista (2023b). Most popular social networks worldwide as of January 2023, ranked
bynumber of monthly active users (in millions). Retrieved
fromhttps://www.statista.com/statistics/272014/global-social-networks-ranked-bynumber-of-users/
Taecharungroj, V. (2017). Higher Education social media marketing: 12 content
typesuniversities post on Facebook. Int. J. Management in Education, 11(2), 111127.https://doi.org/10.1504/IJMIE.2017.083350
Topuniversities (2021). QS World University Rankings 2022. Retrieved
fromhttps://www.topuniversities.com/university-rankings/world-universityrankings/2022
Zhu, Y. (2019) Social media engagement and Chinese international student
recruitment:understanding how UK HEIs use Weibo and WeChat. Journal ofMarketing for Higher Education, 29(2), 173-190.
http://doi:10.1080/08841241.2019.1633003

Contact email: worada.api@mahidol.edu

ISSN: 2189-101X

832

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Research Skill Level of Grade 12 Students of Penablanca National High School and
Their Learning Needs in Practical Research 2:
Basis for an Intervention Plan
Mary Jane Villarin, Penablanca National High School, Philippines
The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023
Official Conference Proceedings
Abstract
This study primarily aimed to assess the research skill level of the Grade 12 students of
Penablanca National High School. It further identified the respondents’ learning needs andformulated an intervention plan for their least mastered competency in Practical Research 2.
Descriptive evaluation design was utilized in this study. This study included 200 respondents
who are from the Grade 12 Academic tracks of Senior High School –STEM (Science,
Technology, Engineering and Mathematics), HUMSS (Humanities and Social Sciences) andGAS (General Academic Strand). Their research outputs were evaluated by teachers teaching
English, Statistics and Research subjects. A teacher-made evaluation sheet was constructed in
the assessment of the outputs and an equally teacher-made questionnaire was also formulated
in the determination of their learning needs. The study showed that respondent’s researchskill in constructing research titles, problem statement and questionnaires are considerably
low. However, their output showed a significantly better result in sampling selection,
reviewing related literature and studies and data analysis. As manifested in the findings of thestudy, the researcher developed an intervention plan to address the respondents’ low
performance on the cited least mastered competencies.
Keywords: Research Skill, Least Mastered Competency, Intervention Plan, Learning Needs

iafor
The International Academic Forumwww.iafor.org

ISSN: 2189-101X

833

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Introduction
One of the main academic endeavours covered in the K12 curriculum for Senior High School
is research. Students in this new curriculum are introduced to and schooled in thefundamentals of research, including its nature and many types or methodologies. Research isregarded as a crucial talent that every student should have before entering college. Assessing
specific competencies in academic endeavours will enable an individual to participate in any
institution's initiative or move to develop knowledge and contribute considerably to thenation's advancement.
Research is integral to any learning institution in securing learning goals. An institution's
inability to produce and publish high-quality research is a strong indication that higher
learning is not supported (Padagas & Hajan, 2020).
Research quality has always been the main concern of every academic institution. In order topromote quality research papers, the research writing process should be considered. As thestudents' research outputs are crucial, keeping track of their performance is a key ingredientin the quality research papers. As consumers and readers of research, students are valuable
sources of information to quality improvements. Students today dread the word research intheir academic years. It was reported that students have challenges in writing a full research
paper (Tabuena, 2020), and writing issues are due to lack of writing skill and lack ofconfidence in writing research papers (Wilang et al., 2018).
Senior High School students have 3 research subjects with various competencies required tobe performed. Research competencies refer to the skills and performance required by students
to conduct research.
Experiences in research conduct also help in improving research competencies and outputs.
According to Mallari and Santiago (2013), research competencies comprise of identifying
potential sources of research challenges across disciplines. It also includes the formulation ofquestions, the construction of hypotheses, the assessment of the appropriateness of the scopeand boundaries of the research, the use of proper procedures in conducting a review of related
literature, and the use of the literature review to improve the research questions andframework. Research competency is an important skill that should be cultivated in all SeniorHigh School students.
This study aims to evaluate and assess the research proficiency levels and least-masteredcompetencies of grade 12 students of Penablanca National High School. The need for thisstudy was also intended to track and highlight areas of study within the curriculum to provide
examples of competencies that teachers and students should concentrate on enhancing.
Statement of the Problem
This study was conducted to assess the research skill level of Grade 12 students in the
Academic Track of Peñablanca National High School. It further identifies the least masteredcompetencies in Practical Research 2.
Specifically it sought to answer the following questions:

ISSN: 2189-101X

834

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

1. What is the research skill level of the respondents in terms of the following:
A. Writing a Title
B. Formulating a Problem
C. Reviewing Related Literature and Related Studies
D. Defining the Sample Size
E. Designing the Data-Gathering Instruments
F. Utilizing Appropriate Statistical Tools
G. Data Presentation
H. Data Interpretation
I. Conclusion and Recommendation
J. Citing Sources
2. What is the least mastered competency of the respondent?
3. What intervention plan can be framed to address the least mastered competencies ofGrade 12 students in Academic track?
Scope and Delimitation
This study focused on the evaluation of the research skill level of grade 12 students in theacademic track of Peñablanca National High School. It further covered the determination of
their least mastered competencies in research and also includes the framing of an intervention
plan for the identified learning needs of the respondents so they could improve the conduct of
their studies and present a good research output.
This study was delimited to the Grade 12 students enrolled in the academic tracks, STEM
(Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics), HUMSS (Humanities and Social
Sciences), ABM (Accountancy and Business Management), and GAS (General Academic
Strand) of Peñablanca National High School. It was conducted during the 1st semester of the
School Year 2022-2023.
Research Methodology
Descriptive evaluation design was utilized in this study as it aimed to assess the research skill
level of the respondents who are the Grade 12 Academic track students of Peñablanca
National. The determination of their learning needs was also done using the same research
design by arranging their research skill level from most mastered to least mastered. Leastmastered competency was determined by getting the lowest score from the various researchskill levels being identified.
The respondents of this study are 200 out of 218 Grade 12 Academic track students of
Penablanca National High School who are from ABM, STEM, HUMSS and GAS
respectively. They were selected together with their output by using the stratified random
sampling selection. 50 research outputs were taken for evaluation with 4 student researchers
from each output.
The study was performed by conducting an evaluation on the research papers of the
respondents. The researcher crafted an assessment tool used in evaluating the outputs.

ISSN: 2189-101X

835

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

The evaluation sheet is composed of 10 research writing skills: writing a title, formulating aproblem statement, reviewing related literature and studies, identifying the sample, designinga data-gathering instrument, utilizing appropriate statistical tools, correct presentation of data,
precise interpretation of data, making conclusions and recommendations and citing sources
and references. A corresponding score was given to each research skill with 10 as the highest
and 1 as the lowest.
The statistical procedures utilized in this study were Mean, Frequency Count and Percentage.
A 5-point Likert Scale was also employed to determine the respondents’ levels on the
different research skills performed.
5-Point Likert Scale
8.1% – 10.0% = Excellent
6.1% - 8.0% = Very Satisfactory
4.1% - 6.0% = Satisfactory
2.1% - 4.0% = Average
1.0% - 2.0% = Needs Improvement
Presentation and Interpretation of Data
1. Research Skill Level of Grade 12 Students in Academic Track
Table 1. Research Skill Level of Grade 12 Students in Academic TrackRESEARCH SKILLSFrequency Percentage Mean Rank Description
A. Writing a Title
249
83%
8.3
8 Excellent
B. Formulating a Problem Statement
262
82.3%
8.23
9 Excellent
C. Reviewing Related Literature and
275
91.6%
9.16
2 Excellent
Studies
D. Selecting the Respondents
280
93.3%
9.3
1 Excellent
E. Designing a Data-gathering
244
81.3%
8.13
10 Excellent
Instrument
F. Utilizing Appropriate Statistical
254
84.6%
8.46
7 Excellent
Tools
G. Presentation of Data
257
85.6%
8.56
6 Excellent
H. Interpretation of Data
258
86%
8.6
5 Excellent
I. Forming Conclusions and
269
89.6%
8.96
4 Excellent
Recommendations
J. Citing Sources
271
90.3
9.03
3 Excellent
The table shows the Research Skill Level of Grade 12 students in the academic track after
evaluating their research papers. For the skills that topped the list, ‘selecting the
respondents/sample’ rank first, It implies that the student researchers were able to clearly
identify their respondents, that the sampling technique and procedure were addressed, andthat the sample size was sufficient and significantly represented the population with 280
frequency and a percentage of 93.3%. ‘Reviewing Related Literature and Studies’ came insecond rank with 275 frequency and a percentage of 91.3 manifesting that reviews conducted
are relevant to the current study and are well-arranged and clearly discussed.
In writing a research paper, literature review is an essential part of research writing. As
opposed to the findings of this study, Ciocon (2018) suggested that students need further

ISSN: 2189-101X

836

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

training or enhancement in order to develop their ability to judge multiple tasks, from finding
and evaluating relevant materials to synthesizing information from various sources.
In the third rank was ‘citing sources’ with a percentage of 90.3. This clearly means that thestudent researchers were able to document their sources but with a 9.7 difference, there were
few who did not fully reference or acknowledge their contributors.
As asserted in the study, Teaching Research Skills in Today’s Digital Environment (Purcel et.
Al, 2012), it was suggested that the student researchers need to know how to find informationand how to judge how appropriate and accurate the material is. They need to be able to assess
the biases in their sources. They need to be able to find the material that will help them.
Fourth rank was ‘forming conclusions and recommendations.’ It shows that student
researchers provided accurate conclusions based from their findings and correct suggestions
patterned after the conclusions. Conclusions and recommendations are considered to be oneof the main parts of research paper because it displays the significance of the study as well as
it recommends new ways and solutions to resolve issues and challenges.
On the fifth rank was ‘precise interpretation of data which implies that the data are rationally
examined, comparable studies were merged to support their study’s findings. However,Ciocon’s (2018) findings revealed that students in her study find it difficult to accomplish
analysis and interpretation of data.
The sixth was ‘presentation of data’ which suggests that the data are quite thoroughly
explained, the graphs and figures are somehow arranged in accordance with the study's goals.
The skill in seventh rank was ‘using appropriate statistical tools’ which was noted thatstudent researchers are bit challenged with statistics and probability. Then followed by theskills, ‘writing a title,’ ‘formulating a problem statement’ and lastly was ‘formulating a datagathering instrument.’ It was found out that the last 3 skills cited were inter-related. The
mentioned difficulties correspond to each other as they all relate to the formulation andconstruction of the title, problem statement and data-gathering instrument.
The table reveals that the overall Research Skill Level of the students are excellent, however,there are still skills that need to improve after garnering the least result. There were stillskills that need to be developed and enhanced in order to generate a quality research paper.
2. The Top 3 Least Mastered Competencies of the Respondents
Table 2: The Top 3 Least Mastered Competencies of the Respondents
Rank
Research Skills
Mean
1
Constructing a Data-Gathering
8.13
Instrument2
Formulating a Problem Statement
8.2
3
Writing a Title
8.3
For the skills that were categorized as least mastered. On the tenth rank was, ‘formulating adata-gathering instrument with a percentage of 81.3 followed by ‘formulating a problem
statement’ with 82.3% then ‘writing a title’ with 83%. Those were the top 3 least masteredskills of the student researchers which shows that they need to improve the crafting andframing of the their questionnaires or any tool they use in gathering the needed data for their

ISSN: 2189-101X

837

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

studies. It revealed that the student researchers were unable to fully identify and adequately
describe the data gathering instrument that used. Some of the instruments were deemed
insignificant for gathering the necessary data, and was also found that some of the questions
were unclear and lacking in some areas. It was further found out by teacher evaluators thatsome questions included in their data-gathering instruments were not in congruence to theirobjectives. Some questions were in no relation to the title as well as to the objectives of thestudy.
Bocar (2011) revealed in his study that in conducting a research investigation, theadministration of questionnaire and retrieval of the same is a means of gathering the data;
nevertheless, visibility and availability of the respondents found to be very difficult for the
student-researchers.
Under problem statement formulation, it was noted that student researchers had difficulty
constructing their problem statements as questions were not arranged sequentially. Their titles
as well were good but some were noted with the use of too many words or stated the title in a
sentence form.
The findings of the study is supported by Research Skills Scale for Senior High SchoolStudents: Development and Validation by Lacson, (2022), as he discussed the research skill
scale of grade 12 students and they found that the Research Methods and Data Analysis andWriting and Reporting Result needs to be enhanced.
These difficulties encountered by the students were not a surprise. According to Bocar(2011), most of the time research work is found to be a tedious and very tiring work to do;
however, students cannot get away from this work because most often this is an academic
requirement.
3. Intervention Plan for the Least Mastered Competencies
According to the findings of Gilmore and Feldon (2010) and Meerah, et al. (2012), one of themain causes of students' difficulties conducting full research is the lack of preparation in
research knowledge and abilities. Hence, the framing of an intervention plan.
Objective
1. Improvestudents’skills informulatinga good datagathering
instrument

ISSN: 2189-101X

Table 3: Intervention Plan for the Least Mastered Competencies
Program/Activity
Time Persons
Means offrame Involved
Verification- Present good samples ofdata-gathering tools likequestionnaires and letthem analyze its contents
and components with theresearch teacher as
facilitator--Research teacher will
provide a sample study
that he/she can use todemonstrate how to
actually make or construct

1 to 2weeks

838

Researchteacher
Students inPractical
Research 2

Students’
outputActivity
sheets/AnswersheetsAssessment
results

Budget/Sourceof Fund
None

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

a good data-gathering
instrument.
2. Enhance- Present good samples ofstudents’statements of the problem
skills infrom previous researches
formulating and let them analyze its
problemcontents and components
statementswith the research teacher
as the facilitator--Research teacher will
provide a sample study
that he/she can use todemonstrate how to
actually make or construct
good problem statements.
3. Harness- Present samples ofstudents’research titles and let themskills inanalyze if such are goodwriting a
research titles or not.
good
- Explain the components
research title of a good research title byproviding research title
samples.
- Allow them to list down
various problems
encountered by students inschools that need urgent
solutions and ask them tothink of a n action research
title- Let them think of aprogram, project or policyin school and ask them
about their effectiveness.
From there, they will be
asked to come up with anevaluation research title.
- Allow them to think ofsome debatable issues in
the community and in the
country and ask them tocome up with a survey title

Official Conference Proceedings

1 to 2weeks

Researchteacher
Students inPractical
Research 2

Students’
outputActivity
sheets/AnswersheetsAssessment
results

None

1 to 2weeks

Researchteacher
Students inPractical
Research 2

Students’
outputActivity
sheets/AnswersheetsAssessment
results

None

Conclusion
In conjunction to the results presented, it is concluded that the overall performance of the
respondents in writing a research paper is ‘Excellent.’ However there are still competencies
that need to be improved. It is therefore important for students to focus on the construction ofa data-gathering instrument, formulation of problem statements and writing a good research
title.

ISSN: 2189-101X

839

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

One of the major implications of this research is that the assessment of students’ researchskill level plays a big role in improving their output and be capable of creating a good
research paper.
Recommendations
Since the study showed that the respondents are excellent with their overall research skills,
some competencies still need improvement. The researcher prompted to recommend thefollowing:
1. Teachers of research should really focus on teaching the important skills in research so thatstudents become more competent of executing this activity, such as how to construct a valid
and reliable data-gathering tool, formulate a statement of the problem patterned after the topic
or title and to write a good research title. Teachers must modify their teaching strategies andattitudes when dealing with students in order to maintain a positive approach and allow
students to listen and comprehend without difficulty.
2. Furthermore, the school must express its support for student researchers performing a
study. Learning materials must provide students with new techniques and learning
opportunities that will help them improve their knowledge and overcome constraints andlimitations.
3. The recommendations in this study should be used as a guide by the researcher in future
educational research.

ISSN: 2189-101X

840

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

APPENDIXEVALUATION TOOLRESEARCH OUTPUT SCORING RUBRICSEVALUATOR:DATE:PRESENTER’s GROUP
Research
Writing Skills
Title
ProblemStatement

Scoring Criteria
It is simple, brief and striking
The general statement capsulized the main problem stated in
the title
The specific problems are logical and in sequential order
The specific problems jibe with the contents of the research
instrument
Review ofReviews are based on the original materials and not on the
Relatedresearch abstracts
Literature and Reviews are relevant to the current study
Studies
Reviews are well-arranged and clearly discussed
Respondents
They are clearly identified
The sampling technique and procedure are discussed
Sample size is adequate and significantly represents the
population
Data-gathering It is identified and properly described
Instrument
The instrument is significantly enough to get the essential
data
The questions are clear and complete
Statistical Tools The tools are appropriate for the analysis of data
The tool used was clearly identified and explained
Presentation of The data are discussed in detailData
The order of the graphs and figures follow the objectives ofthe study
The data answer the questions posted in the problem
statementInterpretationof Data

The data are analyzed logicallyRelated studies are integrated to support the findings and theinterpretation
Conclusions and They are based from the findings of the study
Recommendatio They flow from the conclusions
ns
They are relevant and doable
References
Sources are properly cited
TOTAL SCORECRITIQUINGCOMMENTS/FEEDBACKSSECTION

ISSN: 2189-101X

841

10

10

10

10

10
10
10

10
10
10
100
SIGNATU
RE:The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

References
Bocar, A. (2011). Difficulties encountered by the student-researchers and the effects on theirresearch output. Faculty of College of Arts and Sciences, La Salle UniversityOzamiz.
Ciocon, J. (2018) Research Capability of Grade 12 Students. International Journal of Thesis
Projects and Dissertations Vol. 6 (3) pp. 23-30.
Lacson, E. (2022). Research Skills Scale for Senior High School Students: Development andValidation. Psychology and Education: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 2(4), 329-334.
https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.6727946
Mallari, M.Q. and Santiago, M.M. (2013) The Research Competency and Interest of
Accountancy Faculty Among State Colleges and Universities in Region III. Review ofIntegrative Business and Economics Vol. 2 (1).
Padagas, R.C., & Hajan, B.H. (2020). Academic reading and writing needs of undergraduate
nursing students in research. International Journal of Learning, Teaching and
Educational Research, 19(5), 318-335. https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.19.5.20
Purcell, K. et. al. (2012) How Teens Do Research in the Digital World.
Tabuena, A.C. (2020). Students’ perception in the implementation of the IMRaD structure
approach and its implications on the research writing process. International Journal of
Research Studies in Education, 9(7), 55-65.
https://www.papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3729119
Wilang, J.D., Jantori, P., & Chutataweesawas, S. (2018). Worries of Novice Researchers in
Writing Research Papers. ERIC. https://www. eric.ed.gov/?id=ED583670

ISSN: 2189-101X

842

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

The Development of a Local Curriculum on Bamboo Wicker for Primary Students

Wanida Sarati, Muban Chom Bueng Rajabhat University, Thailand

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023
Official Conference Proceedings

Abstract
The purpose of this study was to develop a local curriculum on bamboo wicker for grade 6
students at Klumnakkhawying 2 school (Ban Bowee). The sample consisted of 20 grade 6
students at Klumnakkhawying 2 school (Ban Bowee). The research instruments consisted of
1) curriculum conformity assessment form, 2) knowledge test about bamboo and bamboo
wicker for students, 3) bamboo wicker making skill form for students, 4) opinion
questionnaire for the curriculum, and 5) attitude measurement form for bamboo wicker for
students. The statistics used for data analysis were mean (x̄), standard deviation (S.D.), t-test,
and content analysis. The findings found that curriculum consists of importance/background,objective, principle, content, structure and learning time, learning activity, learning material/
learning resource, measurement and evaluation, the expected benefit, and lesson plan. The
quality of the curriculum found that the consistency index was 0.81. The results of thecurriculum trial showed that the scores on bamboo knowledge, bamboo wicker, bamboo
wicker skills, and attitude towards bamboo wicker after using the curriculum weresignificantly higher than before using that at level 0.05. In addition, opinions towards local
courses on bamboo wicker of students, the average was at a high level.
Keywords: Curriculum Development, Local Curriculum, Bamboo Wicker

iafor
The International Academic Forumwww.iafor.org

ISSN: 2189-101X

843

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Introduction
From the characteristics of Thai society, the occupation of the majority of the Thai populationis still agriculture. This profession is a traditional occupation of Thai people and is also a
profession that can generate a lot of income for the country. Agriculture is a career thatgenerates income within the country and income from exports. Farmer's occupation shows
the importance of agriculture in Thai society, the characteristics of Thai society is anagricultural society that lives in a way that depends on each other and depends on theenvironment. These things have forged the minds of people in society to love freedom, love
locality, have a gentle heart, generous, support each other, and live by relying on local
resources to generate income.
Educational curriculum development and local curriculum development are extremely
important because the curriculum is like the rudder of a ship that is an important part that willlead the ship to its destination safely. This is the same approach as using the curriculum as a
guideline for learning management in order to achieve the educational objectives of thecountry. Therefore, curriculum is very important to be a framework or guideline for teachingeducation management to develop people with knowledge, skills, abilities and behaviors.
That will benefit the development of society as a whole (Chaiwat Suthirat, 2013). Instructors,
as the curriculum guides into the classroom, should study and understand their school
curriculum in order to apply it properly. In line with Carl's concept (Carl, 2009), teachers
should not only have expert knowledge of the subject they teach, but should also haveknowledge of the nature and direction of the curriculum. The nature or direction of thecurriculum will also indicate the nature or direction of the content that the instructor mustteach as well.
A local curriculum is a curriculum developed from the study of the environment, community,society, culture, resource, demographics, and local interests. A local curriculum is a learning
experience for learners in a particular locality. Consideration must be given to compatibility
with the local environment and context. This is to meet the needs of the students, able tosolve problems that arise with students and localities as well. The curriculum development
process must be consistent with the intent of the National Education Act B.E. 2542, and its
amendment (2nd edition) B.E. 2545 that focuses on the decentralization of education to
localities. In addition, educational institutions will play a role and participate in curriculum
development in accordance with local conditions and needs. It is considered decentralized
and allows all local sectors to participate in curriculum development. However, today's social
conditions are changing rapidly in every aspect that directly affect the views and lives of Thai
people in both urban and rural areas (Prawet Wasi, 2018).
Klumnakkhawying 2 school (Ban Bowee) is under the Office of Ratchaburi Primary
Educational Service Area, Region 1, located in Suan Phueng District, Ratchaburi Province.
The area is mountainous, arid, hot, and waterless. Thus it is very restrictive in cultivation.
People in the community are less educated, therefore lacking the opportunity to earn income.
Therefore, there should be various developments to improve the quality of life of the people
in this community. Bamboo is an important plant and resource of this locality. It grows wellin such areas. Mature bamboos have large trunks, thick wood and are used for construction
due to their durability and strength. For example, it is used to build a residence, fence line,
bridge construction and make scaffolding. Other parts are used to make wicker, musicalinstruments, handicrafts and food etc. Bamboo species that are suitable for being used as raw
materials for creating products for sale is Pai Tong. It is commonly used as a structure that

ISSN: 2189-101X

844

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

requires strength, such as a carriage (Sukanya Chaiyaphong, 2020). Local children and young
people are familiar with and have seen the use of bamboo for wicker in household and as acommunity product. Therefore, it should instill in local children and youth to use their local
resources and wisdom. Wicker is one of the handicrafts that human beings create to use as
tools and utensils in daily life. In addition, it is local wisdom, skills and expertise handed
down from the ancestors. Locally available natural materials can create job, generate income,and add value to natural materials as well. It also allows people in the community to use their
free time to benefit and can create an economy for the community to have better lives(Tawatchai Tienprateep, 2018). It is not just only Thai people use bamboo wicker, Sun andLiu (Sun & Liu, 2022) also mention bamboo wicker that Chinese, Japanese and many othercountries in East Asia use it. In the south, it is popular to use wicker from bamboo. Therefore,
it is very appropriate that children and young people should study to create wicker from theirown local resources. Klumnakkhawying 2 school (Ban Bowee) has created a curriculum foreducational institution in the occupational subject group with the objective of providing
learners with knowledge, understanding, and basic skill, necessary for living by being awareof the changes in society. This course was created to allow students to apply knowledge
about life and career to work creatively, to be a guideline for a career, to love work, to have agood attitude towards work, and can live in society with self-sufficiency and happiness.
Although, there are vocational courses, there is still a lack of local curriculum on bamboo
wicker that is concrete and can be used in everyday life. This can lead to children and young
people not appreciating their local resources, and a lack of ways to pursue a career that does
not require high investments.
For such an important reason and necessity, the researcher developed a local curriculum onbamboo wicker for grade 6 students, Klumnakkhawying 2 school (Ban Bowee) to develop
knowledge, skills and occupational attitudes of local children and youth as well as guideteachers in organizing learning activities for students by using available resources to thegreatest benefit. Moreover, the purpose is to show the importance and value of their local
resources and wisdom that should be preserved and passed down to the next generation.
These young people can transfer their knowledge and skills to other people or locality withsimilar local resource.
MethodResearch design
This research is the kind of research and development. The steps are as follow.
Step 1 Research: Study basic information
Step 2 Development: Develop curriculum
Step 3 Research: Trial curriculum
Step 4 Development: Evaluate and improve curriculum
Participants
Study basic information: Study basic problem and need of 20 students, opinion of 10
community members, opinion of 7 educational supervisors, and learning management
conditions of 12 school personnel.
Develop curriculum: Assess curriculum consistency by 5 experts
Trial curriculum: Trial curriculum with 20 students
Evaluate and improve curriculum

ISSN: 2189-101X

845

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Data collection tools
Curriculum conformity assessment form
Knowledge test about bamboo and bamboo wicker for students
Bamboo wicker making skill form for students
Opinion questionnaire for the curriculum
Attitude measurement form for bamboo wicker for students
Data analysis
The statistics used for data analysis were mean (x̄), standard deviation (S.D.), t-test,
and content analysis.
Research process
Study basic information; curriculum development theory, local curriculum
framework, basic problem and need of students, opinion from community members,
opinion from educational supervisors, and learning management conditions of school
personnel.
Develop a curriculum by presenting a draft curriculum to five experts to assess
curriculum consistency. Then create and find out the quality of research tools.
Test about bamboo wicker and test attitude towards bamboo wicker before class.
After that, record the score.
Trial course by managing the learning for students until completing 6 units.
Unit 1 General knowledge about bamboo and bamboo wicker, 2 hours
Unit 2 Chalom (round basket) weaving from bamboo, 3 hours
Unit 3 Fan weaving from bamboo, 3 hours
Unit 4 Kradong (bamboo tray) weaving from bamboo for fish drying, 4 hours
Unit 5 Kheng (basket with 2 handles) weaving from bamboo, 4 hours
Unit 6 Cradle weaving from bamboo, 4 hours
Then test the students' bamboo wicker skills.
Test about bamboo wicker and attitude towards bamboo wicker after class and ask for
opinions on the course. Then record the score.
Improve the course.
Teaching environment
Organize learning activities with local participation by bringing a local sage who
specializes in bamboo wicker work for more than 40 years as a speaker. Use bamboo
as the main raw material that is easily available and common locally. Organize
learning activities based on group processes and safety in the use of tools.
Research Results
The findings found that curriculum consists of importance/background, objective, principle,
content, structure and learning time, learning activities, learning materials / learning
resources, measurement and evaluation, the expected benefit, include lesson plan. The qualityof the curriculum found that the consistency index was 0.81.
The result of the assessment of students' knowledge about bamboo and bamboo wicker byusing the bamboo and bamboo wicker knowledge test for 20 students, there are 12 items, 12
points, it was found that the pre-course scores has the mean (x̄) was 5.85, the standard

ISSN: 2189-101X

846

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

deviation (S.D.) was 2.02. After using the course, the mean (x̄) was 9.50, the standard
deviation (S.D.) was 3.00. The evaluation result after using the curriculum was higher than
before using the curriculum at statistical significance at the level .05, which was consistent
with the research hypothesis.
The evaluation result of bamboo wicker making skills using the bamboo wicker making skill
test of 20 students, 10 items, 50 points, it found that the pre-course scores, mean (x̄) was
10.66, standard deviation (S.D.) was 4.77. After using the curriculum, the mean (x̄) was
40.53, and the standard deviation (S.D.) was 3.50. The assessment results after using thecurriculum were significantly higher than before using the curriculum at the .05 level, which
was consistent with the research hypothesis.
The results of the assessment of students' attitude towards bamboo wicker by using themeasure of attitude toward bamboo wicker of 20 students, a total of 10 items, which is a 5point scale, found that the mean (x̄) score before using the curriculum was 3.91 points with astandard deviation (S.D.) 0.23. After using the curriculum, the mean (x̄) was 4.51, deviation(S.D) was 0.20. The assessment results after using the curriculum were higher than before
using the curriculum at a statistically significant level of .05 which is consistent with theresearch hypothesis.
The results of the evaluation of students' opinions toward the local curriculum about bamboo
wicker using questionnaire for opinion towards the local curriculum of 20 students, which isa scale of 5 levels, divided into 3 measurements; the subject of learning, the management oflearning activities, and benefits received, total of 15 items, it found that the student’s mean(x̄) score was 4.22. It was in the high level. The deviation (S.D.) was 0.58 which wasconsistent with the research hypothesis.
The local curriculum improvement on the bamboo wicker for primary students, it found thatthe process of finding the quality of the curriculum has improved the curriculum based on
expert advice such as writing objective, measurement and evaluation, and publishing. Thenrevised the curriculum again. When the curriculum was used with the experimental group, thelearning management plan 1 was improved by adjusting the content to be shorter, concise andadjusting the learning management materials to be more interesting. When implementing thecurriculum and evaluating improvements to the curriculum, some curriculum deficiencies
were found. For example, bamboo sticks prepared for students were too short. Therefore, thecourse has been adjusted by adjusting the size of the bamboo sticks in the course. In making
fan-type wicker, it takes quite a lot of time to weave due to the variety of patterns. Therefore,
they may consider adjusting and changing to other types of wicker or may use a method toadjust the order of the learning plan by bringing bamboo fan weaving as the final plan.
Result
The result of developing a quality curriculum consists of importance/background, objective,
principle, content, structure and learning time, learning activities, learning materials /learning resources, measurement and evaluation, and the expected benefit and lesson plan.
The results of the students' knowledge assessment on bamboo and bamboo wicker after
learning were higher than before.

ISSN: 2189-101X

847

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

The assessment results of bamboo wicker making skills after learning were higher than
before.
The results of the assessment of the student's attitude toward bamboo wicker after learning
were higher than before.
The result of a questionnaire on students' opinions towards the local curriculum on bamboo
wicker.
The curriculum improvement results showed that in the process of finding the quality of thecurriculum, the curriculum was improved according to the advice of experts such as writing
objectives, measuring and evaluating, and publishing. After that, the curriculum was revised
and applied to the experimental group by improving the learning management plan 1,
improving the content to be short, concise and adjusting the learning management materials
to be more interesting. After implementing the course and re-evaluating it, the course wasadjusted by adjusting the size of the material in the course, and switched Unit 3 - Bamboo
Fan Weaving to Unit 6.
Discussion
The result of local curriculum development of bamboo wicker for Prathomsuksa 6 students at
Klumnakkhawying 2 school (Ban Bowee) found that curriculum consists ofimportance/background, objective, principle, content, structure and learning time, learning
activities, learning materials / learning resources, measurement and evaluation, and the
expected benefit. The processes of curriculum development were 1) basic information study,2) curriculum development, 3) implementation of the curriculum, and 4) curriculum
evaluation and improvement. This process is consistent with the concept of Chavalit
Chukampang (2016) that the components of the curriculum were derived from both
documented background analysis and stakeholder interviews. Therefore, it gives a complete
curriculum composition. This consistent with Ornstain & Hunkins, (2013), that the
curriculum development involves a number of processes that help educational personnel andschool understand the real purpose and involve everyone in the curriculum development.
The results of the knowledge assessment of bamboo and bamboo wicker, bamboo wicker
skills and attitude towards bamboo wicker of the students after school were higher than
before, because the researcher has studied the data by interviewing the learners about theirneeds. Therefore, the content and method of learning are appropriate, including the use oflearning management media that is a picture of each type of bamboo which is a picture takenfrom the students' own locality, making the students more interested in learning. Thisconsistent with Nirada Wechyalak (2018) stated that educational institutions should bring
local wisdom to develop as a source of learning for learners. They must analyze and grouplocal wisdom to apply in teaching. This consistent with the context of learners andeducational institutions by setting objectives and arranging learning styles that include avariety of local wisdom according to interests and aptitudes of each age group. In addition, an
appropriate learning evaluation form must be created. A local curriculum must be developed
from the needs and interests of students who want to learn about their own local wisdom byusing their own local resources as the main raw materials for wicker making. In the learning
activity, learners learn in a practical way. This is in line with the concept of Mayuree
Charoensiri (2020), which stated that teaching and learning must be adjusted to focus onlearning through practice or doing (Active Leaning), which is a learning process that allows

ISSN: 2189-101X

848

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

learners to learn meaningfully by collaboration between students together. This consistent
with the idea of Saavedra & Opfer (2012) that the ability to work with others is an importantskill in 21st century skills, whether or not students develop learning, is not related to that. It's
not about the outcome alone, but the condition for success is mutual learning. Helping eachother is the best way to learn. This consistent with Ariya Kuha et al. (2019) stated that, in thelearning process in the 21st century, teachers must overcome "Mass subjects" towards
integrated learning for development "21st Century Skills" (21st Century Skills), whichteachers do not teach, but learners learn on their own. It is an arrangement that emphasizes
learners to practice and act. The role of the learner has been changed from a recipient to aparticipant learner. This enables peers to understand objectives and achieve course goals by
focusing on inquiry, data gathering, analysis and problem solving to develop higher thinking
skills include with shift from Passive Learning to Active Learning. In addition, the speaker
who manages the learning for the students is a person in the community of the students
themselves, thus causing the students to have a good attitude towards the wicker. This is inline with Paitoon Ngew Thang (2017) who stated that the leader who teaches weaving is
usually a local philosopher. Old people in weaving communities have valuable wisdom thathas been passed down from generation to generation. This is a manufacturing process that has
been passed down from family members for weaving for use in daily life and households.
This is also consistent with the idea of Pesurnay, (2018), which states that Local wisdom is aphenomenon that shapes the ability of members of natural resource-dependent community
cultures to manage and control natural resources in the environment in which they live.
Conclusion
This research aims to develop a quality local curriculum that can be applied to othereducational institutions in similar contexts. It also aims to develop students' professional
skills by using resources that exist in their locality as the main raw materials for creatingproducts. In addition, teachers who are local sages are brought in to teach the students,
strengthening the school-community relationship. The benefits of wicker products can beused in household and can be sold. These can generate income for students, and they canapply this course to people in the community to increase their professional skills to earn extra
income. In addition, the process and concept of this research provide a guideline for teachers
to develop local curriculum for use in their schools.

ISSN: 2189-101X

849

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

References
Ariya Kuha and others. (2019). The world that changes learning through Active Learning.
Journal of Education, Prince of Songkla University, Pattani Campus, 30 (2). 1-13.
Carl A. E. (2009). Teacher empowerment through curriculum development. Cape Town: Mill
Litho.
Chaiwat Suthirat. (2013). Curriculum Development: Theory into Practice. Bangkok: V print.
Chavalit Chukampang. (2016). Curriculum research and development: concepts andprocesses. Bangkok: Chulalongkorn University.
Mayuree Charoensiri. (2020). The Development of a Professional Learning Community
School Model to Enhance Teacher Competencies in Learning Management Based on
the Active Learning Concept That Promotes Creativity Ability of Primary SchoolStudents. Thesis, Graduate School, Silpakorn University.
Nirada Wechyalak. (2018). A Study of Local Wisdom Learning Centers in Muang District,Phitsanulok Province. Krupibul Journal, 5 (1). 87-96.
Ornstein, A. C. (2009). Contemporary issue in curriculum. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Paitoon Ngew Thung. (2017). Information system collecting basketry patterns. Scientificjournal and technology, Nakhon Sawan Rajabhat University, 57 (9). 55-68.
Pesurnay, A. J. (2018). Local Wisdom in a New Paradigm: Applying System Theory to the
Study of Local Culture in Indonesia. Earth and Environmental cience, 175. 1-8.
Prawet Wasi. (2018). Dr. Prawet recommends 10 characteristics of a good education system.
Retreived from https://www.matichon.co.th/education/news_943910
Saavedra, A. & Opfer, V. (2012). Teaching and Learning 21st Century Skills: Lessons fromthe Learning Sciences. A Global Cities Education Network Report. New York: Asia
Society.
Sukanya Chaiphong. (2020). Quantity of bamboo production for distribution to bamboo
demand of OTOP bamboo product processing group, Prachinburi Province. Rajabhat
J. Sci. Humanit. Soc. Sci. 21(1), 245-254.
Sun, Y., Liu, X. (2022). How Design Technology Improves the Sustainability of Intangible
Cultural Heritage Products: A Practical Study on Bamboo Basketry Craft.
Sustainability, 14 (9). 12058.
Tawatchai Tienprateep. (2018). Development of bamboo wicker products. Academic
journals. Art of Architecture, Naresuan University. 9 (2), 20-30.

Contact email: krudadada@gmail.com

ISSN: 2189-101X

850

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Speak Better: A Meta-Analysis of Language Learning Modalities for
Improving Speaking Proficiency
Allison Lauren Segal, University of Utah Asia Campus, South Korea

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023
Official Conference Proceedings
Abstract
Whether it is to improve one’s job opportunities or understand the lyrics of your favorite
KPOP band’s latest single, the importance of knowing a second or third language is becoming
more vital. Despite foreign languages being a compulsory subject in many countries’ K-12
education, many language learners are unable to exceed low intermediate speaking
proficiency. So, individuals are seeking to find ways to improve their speaking proficiency.
Nevertheless, there are many different modalities for language learning, such as
asynchronous courses, traditional synchronous university courses, foreign language housing,studying/living abroad, intensive language courses, social media platforms, and mobile
applications for language learning (MALL). A meta-analysis was conducted to help learners
and educators discover the most effective modalities for improving speaking proficiency. In
total, 21 empirical studies involving 1,919 second and foreign-language undergraduate
learners have been reviewed. These studies are selected from Education Resources
Information Center (ERIC) and Google Scholar. The findings of the meta-analysis indicatedthat the variable which influences gains in speaking proficiency the most was not the
instructional modality. Instead, the amount of time spent utilizing the language directly
correlated to the learner's speaking proficiency. Therefore, more research needs to be
performed focusing on the influence of the time variable in language learning.
Keywords: EFL, ESL, Foreign Language Learning, Speaking Proficiency, Higher Education,
Instructional Modality, MALL

iafor
The International Academic Forumwww.iafor.org

ISSN: 2189-101X

851

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Introduction
Learning a second or third language enhances job prospects and makes international media
and culture more accessible. This accessibility makes language fluency especially speaking,more and more significant in daily life. Despite this necessity, many language learners needhelp to exceed low intermediate speaking proficiency (Yoshida, 2016). This inability to reachfluency is even more surprising because, in most countries, K-12 education requires foreign
languages as a compulsory subject. This inability to break through to the advanced level of
speaking proficiency has led learners and educators to search for effective ways to improve
speaking proficiency. However, with numerous instructional modalities available, including
traditional university language courses, foreign language housing, studying/living abroad,intensive language courses, and mobile applications for language learning (MALL),
determining the most effective approach can take time and effort.
A comprehensive meta-analysis was conducted to understand better the instructional
modalities available and their effectiveness on speaking proficiency, examining 21 empiricalstudies comprising 1,919 second and foreign-language undergraduate learners. The studies
were identified from Education Resources Information Center and Google Scholar.
Additionally, the 21 studies were selected based on their investigation of varied instructional
modalities for improving speaking proficiency. By analyzing these studies, this paper aims toprovide learners and educators with a better understanding of the effectiveness of different
instructional modalities and how they can be utilized to improve speaking proficiency.
What is Proficiency?
For the purpose of this paper, fluency will be defined as the level of mastery an individual has
over a language. Therefore, speaking fluency refers to the level of mastery an individual has
when speaking in a language. Naturally, speaking fluency can be influenced by many
variables, such as self-efficacy, language learning anxiety, and willingness to communicate.
Self-efficacy refers to a person’s belief in one’s self and abilities (Bandura,1977). Selfefficacy in education can be applied to both educators and learners (Knoblauch & Hoy, 2008).
Learners' self-efficacy involves learners' perceptions of their knowledge and skills and how
they learn (Schunk, 2016). Thus, research has found a correlation between higher learners'
self-efficacy and speaking proficiency (Liu, 2012; Yoshida, 2016).
Language anxiety is categorized as the product of adverse emotions and thoughts toward
language usage and learning. Tuncer and Dogan (2015) found that in English Language
Learning courses, individuals who experienced language anxiety predicted lower student
achievement. However, many causes and contexts create or influence language anxiety, suchas being unprepared for class (Liu, 2012).
Another variable that influences speaking proficiency is Willingness to Communicate. The
inclination or readiness of a learner to participate, maintain, and initiate communication in asecond or foreign language is called Willingness to Communicate (Fouz-Gonzalez, 2017).
Naturally, this included a learner’s motivation and confidence, linking this variable to selfefficacy and language anxiety.

ISSN: 2189-101X

852

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Due to the varied multitude of variables that can influence speaking proficiency, self-efficacy,
willingness to communicate, and language anxiety, this meta-analysis focused on examining
studies that focused on improving speaking proficiency in a second or foreign language.
Instructional Modalities
Instructional Modalities, in this paper, refers to the method in which students interact with
instructional. In language learning, this can be anything from university language courses tostudy abroad programs. This paper examines explicitly: university language courses,
university online language courses, immersion, study abroad, foreign language housing, and
MALL.
Immersion was stated by Rifkin (2005) as the vehicle for many language learners to breakthrough the difficult intermediate level of speaking proficiency. In the context of this study,
immersion refers to all language instructional or experience, including speaking and otherrelated curricula, that occur in a reduced time period (Swain & Lapkin, 2002).
Study Abroad is one of the popular instructional modalities used to increase foreign language
speaking proficiency increased language proficiency (Serrano et al., 2011). This researchdefines study abroad as when they leave their native country and attend schooling in adifferent country. Traditionally, study abroad experiences are six months to one year (Llane &Munoz, 2009). However, two- to four-week intensive study abroad programs have beencreated to give students an international immersion experience without significant time andfinancial commitment.
Aharon and Pomson (2018) proposed that programs where participants are housed together,build trust and create unique learning and growing experience. This is precisely the aim of the
instructional modality of Foreign Language Housing. Foreign Language Housing is wherestudents live in an environment where all the participants agree only to speak a specificlanguage (Kelling & Bown, 2020). Often, students are assigned a native-speaking roommate
to assist with the immersive environment.
Kusmaryani et al. (2019) described MALL as Mobile Assisted Language Learning or
incorporating technology into the instructional method. MALL can include but is not limited
to Twitter, Instagram, YouTube, Speech to Text programs, Online Dictionaries, Gmail,Weebly, WhatsApp, and Google Chrome. While MALL tends to be incorporated into a
traditional instructional modality, the incorporation creates a new and different instructional
modality that will require more detailed investigation.
Methods
The 21 studies were found using Google Scholar and ERIC (Education Resources
Information Center). Studies were selected based on the following criteria:
1. The participants were undergraduate students.
2. The participants need to be learning a language outside of their native language.
3. The study examined the improvement of speaking proficiency by using a specificinstructional modality.
4. The study needs to assess the instructional modality as a dependent variable inmeasuring the target language learning outcome, speaking proficiency.
5. The study needs to incorporate a (quasi) experimental design.

ISSN: 2189-101X

853

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

6. The study needs to establish a pre-treatment equivalency between the instructional
modalities/experimental groups with an empirical measurement such as astandardized test or established survey for self-analysis.
7. The language of the study must be English.
Research Questions:
1. To what extent, if any, does the instructional modality influence L2 speaking
proficiency in undergraduate students?
2. Does speaking proficiency gains vary based on the instructional modality? If so, how?
Results
Based on the criteria stated above, 21 empirical studies were found. The studies were
published from 2010 to 2021 in credible language, education, technology, or interdisciplinary
journals in English.
While all participants were undergraduate students learning a language, the number ofparticipants in the surveys ranged from 14 to 229. Additionally, the language being learned
varied. Many of the studies (13) researched students learning English. Four of the studies
focused on more than one language. Three of the studies focused on students learning
Spanish. One study focused on learners studying mandarins. Moreover, one study
investigated students acquiring Russian.
Two of the studies only used a survey. The other 20 studies used a Pre-Test and Post-Test. Of
the 20 studies that used a Pre-Test and Post-Test, two studies also included a survey.
Furthermore, one study included an interview.
These studies focused on the instructional modalities: university language courses, intensive
university language courses, study abroad, intensive study abroad, Foreign Language
Housing, Online University Language Courses, and MALL, Mobile Assisted Language
Learning.
AuthorBaker et al.

Dewey et al.

Table 1. List of Studies analyzed
Modality
Language Participants
Learning2010 Foreign Language
Spanish48
Housing
Study Abroad
Intensive Study
Abroad2013 Study Abroad
Multiple
118
Year

MeasurePre/Post Test

Multiple229

Fouz-Gonzalez

2015 Foreign Language
Housing2017 MALL: Twitter

Pre/Post Testand Survey
SurveyEnglish121

Pre/Post Test

Fouz-Gonzalez

2020 MALL: Apps

English52

Pre/Post Test

García‐Amaya
Jochum2021 Study Abroad

Spanish31

Pre/Post Test

2014 Study Abroad

Spanish18

Pre/Post Test

Dewey et al.

ISSN: 2189-101X

854

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Kelling & Bown

Official Conference Proceedings

2020 Foreign Language
Housing2019 MALL

Multiple

42

English38

2011 Foreign Language
Housing
2021 Online
2021 MALL: Online
2020 MALL

Multiple

Pre/Post Testand Interview
78 Pre/Post Test

RussianEnglishEnglish229
81
41

Pre/Post Test
Pre/Post Test
SurveyEnglishEnglish152
131

Pre/Post-test
Pre/Post Test

Serrano et al.
Sherine et al.

2011 Intensive
2011 Intensive
Study Abroad2012 Study Abroad2019 MALL

EnglishEnglish14
110

Pre/Post Test
Pre/Post Test

Xu et al.
Yin
Yulian2014 Intensive
2019 MALL
2022 MALL

Mandarin
EnglishEnglish28
86
30

Zeinali Nejad et al.

2021 Online

English45

Pre/Post Test
Pre/Post Test
Pre/Post Testand Survey
Pre/Post Test

Kusnaryani et al.
Martinsen et al.
Merrill et al.
Namaziandost et al.
Nanjundan et al.
SerranoSerrano et al.

Pre/Post Test

Intensive
Of the 21 studies found, three studies specifically investigated the instructional modality ofintensive (Serrano, 2011; Serrano et al., 2011; Xu et al., 2014). The number of participants
ranged from 28 to 152 undergraduate learners. All three studies used a pre-test and post-test
measure to assess proficiency gains in oral communication with a traditional university
language course as the control group (Serrano, 2011; Serrano et al., 2011; Xu et al., 2014). It
is important to note that all three studies maintained that the intensive university language
course and the traditional university language course contained the same instruction time.
The big difference was the duration of the courses.
All three studies’ findings showed that both the traditional university language course and theintensive language course improved speaking proficiency (Serrano, 2011; Serrano et al., 2011;
Xu et al., 2014). Moreover, all three studies found no statistical difference between the
improvement in speaking proficiency between the two instructional modalities. Thus, thesefindings suggest that the duration of the course does not impact speaking proficiency.
However, the number of instruction hours does correlate with language-speaking proficiency.
More research needs to be conducted to understand this correlation better.
Study Abroad
During the COVID-19 pandemic, study abroad programs were restricted due to travel bansand the risk of catching the virus, limiting the instructional modality available for students.
Despite these limitations, this meta-analysis found four studies that met the research criteria(Dewey et al., 2013; Garcia-Amaya, 2021; Jochum, 2014; Serrano et al., 2012) with
undergraduate participants ranging from 14 to 118 in number. All four studies utilized pretests and post-tests. Although Serrano et al. (2012) also conducted proficiency testing
throughout the program. This testing through the study abroad program allowed Serrano et al.

ISSN: 2189-101X

855

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings(2012) to measure the learner's proficiency throughout the entire program, not just at the
beginning and the end.
In contrast to the previously mentioned intensive instructional programs, the research results
on study abroad are mixed. Three studies (Dewey et al., 2013; Garcia-Amaya, 2021; Serrano
et al., 2011) found that speaking proficiency improved with increased time spent using thelanguage, similar to studies on intensive instructional programs (Serrano, 2011; Serrano et al.,2011; Xu et al., 2014). However, Serrano et al. (2012) found that the most significant
speaking proficiency gains occurred in the program's first three months, with continued gains
at a slower pace after that. These findings of Serrano et al. (2012) indicate that intensive
study abroad programs may have more benefits than traditional ones. Nevertheless, further
research is necessary to uncover the validity of this indication.
Unlike the other three studies, Jochum (2014) did not find a correlation between time andspeaking proficiency gains. However, Jochum's study did conclude that study abroad
programs increased speaking proficiency. Further investigation is needed to determine whytime did not have statistical significance in this study.
Foreign Language Housing
Like the study abroad research, four studies meet the criteria which explored foreign
language housing (Baker et al., 2010; Dewey et al., 2015; Kelling & Bown, 2020; Martinsen
et al., 2011;). The studies’ participant size ranges from 42 to 229 undergraduate learners. Of
the studies, three of the studies implemented a pre-test and post-test measure (Baker et al.,2010; Kelling & Bown, 2020; Martinsen et al., 2011). Dewey et al. (2015) utilized a selfreporting survey. All of the analyzed studies found that participating in foreign language
housing was linked to increased speaking proficiency.
Similar to the studies mentioned previously (Dewey et al., 2013; Garcia-Amaya, 2021;
Serrano, 2011; Serrano et al., 2011; Xu et al., 2014), Baker et al. (2010) and Martinsen et al.
(2011) uncovered that time spent using the language correlates with proficiency gains.
However, Dewey et al. (2015) and Kelling & Bown (2020) did not find evidence that time
influenced speaking proficiency. This lack of consistency indicates that there needs to be
more research.
OnlineWhile COVID-19 may have limited research on the study abroad instructional modality, it
gave rise to online instructional modality language research (Merrill et al., 2021;
Namaziandos, 2021; Zeinali Nejad et al., 2021). Three studies that met the criteria chose to
explore online instruction modalities. These studies' participants range from 45 to 229
undergraduate learners. The studies each showcased that utilizing the online instructional
modality enhances speaking proficiency. Additionally, all three studies compared the online
instructional modality with another modality. However, the comparison modality varies ineach study.
Merrill et al. (2021) presented traditional university language courses compared to online
university language courses. The study found that speaking proficiency improved more in the
traditional university language classroom. Interestingly, the study also found that writing
proficiency improves more in the online university language classroom.

ISSN: 2189-101X

856

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

The other two studies (Namaziandos, 2021; Zeinali Nejad et al., 2021) examined different
types of online instructional modalities. Further research needs to be done on different typesof online instructional modalities so that researchers, learners, and educators can better
understand this type of instructional modality and its benefits.
MALL: Mobile Assisted Language LearningThis final instructional modality being examined has the most relevant research that met the
study’s criteria (Fouz-Gonzalez, 2017; Fouz-Gonzalez, 2020; Kusnaryani et al., 2019;
Nanjundan et al., 2020; Sherine et al., 2019; Yin, 2019; Yulian, 2022). Thus, seven studies
were found that explored the instructional modality of Mobile Assisted Language Learning.
The number of participants varied from 30 to 121 undergraduate language learners.
Six of the seven studies utilized pre-test and post-test measures. One of these studies also
incorporated the usage of a survey. While another study instead chose to incorporate aninterview. The one study that did not incorporate a pre-test and post-test as the measure
instead chose to design a survey. Despite the differing measures, all seven of the studies
found that the MALL instructional modality helped increase speaking proficiency.
Although, it is difficult to compare the amount of improvement between the different types of
MALL since the studies' experiment designs are so vastly different. More research must
investigate utilizing MALL in a learning environment to increase speaking proficiency.
Discussion
When comparing the findings of all 21 studies with regard to their instructional modality andlanguage speaking proficiency, the answer to the first research question is found. All
instructional modality used showed speaking proficiency important. However, none of the
instructional modalities' speaking proficiency improvements exhibited greater statisticalsignificance. In fact, time showed a greater correlation with speaking proficiency
improvement (Baker et al., 2010; Dewey et al., 2013; Garcia-Amaya, 2021; Martinsen et al.,2011; Merrill et al., 2021; Serrano, 2011; Serrano et al., 2011; Xu et al., 2014). This suggeststhat the instructional modalities, while essential in motivating and engaging students, haveless influence on increasing speaking proficiency. Thus, the number of hours immersed in the
instructional modality matters. Therefore, it can be assumed that if learners pick an
instructional modality they are interested in, they will spend more time on it. This will lead toeven more speaking proficiency. However, more research needs to be conducted to confirm
this assumption.
The second research question addresses whether the improvement of speaking proficiency
varied based on the instructional modalities. Based on the 21 studies analyzed, there was no
statistically significant difference between the speaking proficiency gains and the
instructional modalities. However, it is essential to note that there are other instructional
modalities that were not examined. Another meta-analysis should be conducted to confirm orchallenge these findings.
It is important to note that both Foreign Language Housing (Kelling & Bown, 2020;
Martinsen et al., 2011) and Study Abroad (Dewey et al., 2013; Garcia-Amaya, 2021; Jochum,2014) can act as vehicles to produce considerable improvements in speaking proficiency due
to the individual student’s motivation and time spent in the instructional modality. Both of

ISSN: 2189-101X

857

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedingsthese instructional modalities showed an extensive range when comparing the pre-test andpost-test. Future research should be conducted to look at the variables of time and motivation.
Limitations
Although this study provides valuable insights for improving speaking proficiency, it isessential to acknowledge that further research is necessary to validate the findings. One
limitation is that the selection criteria did not include participants' native language, language
learning experience, or level of speaking proficiency, which may have influenced the results.
Moreover, the 21 studies analyzed in this meta-analysis employed different measures of
speaking proficiency, ranging from self-reporting to interviews to standardized tests like OPIc,
and the sample sizes varied greatly. Thus, measure and sample size add potential new
variables to explore in the future.
Another factor to consider is the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on language learning
research. Like many other fields, language learning research has been affected, leading to alimited pool of new empirical studies to include in this analysis. Many instructional
modalities, such as Study Abroad Programs and Foreign Language Housing, shut down due
to the risks of this virus. Most of the limited research published during this period focuses onshifting the instructional modalities to online and perceptions like Cunico's (2021), “Moving
the year abroad online: Ready, steady, go!” Therefore, conducting this meta-analysis again in
two to three years with a more extensive and recent set of studies could provide a more robust
and comprehensive picture of the effects of different instructional modalities on speaking
proficiency.
Conclusion
The present study meta-analyzed the effects of varied instructional modalities onundergraduate students’ speaking proficiency. The literature search revealed 21 empiricalstudies that investigated the effects of an instructional modality or modalities on speaking
proficiency in higher education language learners. Most of the studies assessed found thatusing the specific instructional modality revealed a statistically significant increase in
speaking proficiency. However, the time spent using the instructional modality did correlatewith large proficiency gains (Baker et al., 2010; Dewey et al., 2013; Garcia-Amaya, 2021;
Martinsen et al., 2011; Merrill et al., 2021; Serrano, 2011; Serrano et al., 2011; Xu et al.,2014). Another thing uncovered in this study is that the amount of time immersed in thelanguage also correlates with more significant language learning improvement. Therefore,
Study Abroad programs and Foreign Language Housing are most effective when theparticipants remain immersed in the language. Further research needs to be conducted to give
recommendations based on native language, level of proficiency, and language learned.
Ultimately, this study confirms what teachers have emphasized for decades: the more you
study, the better you perform.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by funding from the Writing and Rhetoric Studies Department at
the University of Utah Asia Campus. Additionally, this research was created with the supportof the Segal-Screws Family. I would like to thank them for their encouragement andunderstanding.

ISSN: 2189-101X

858

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

References
Aharon, N., & Pomson, A. (2018). What’s Happening at the Flag Pole? Studying Camps as
Institutions for Israel Education. Journal of Jewish Education, 84(4), 337–358.
http://doi.org/10.1080/15244113.2019.1522564
Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change.
Psychology Review, 84(2), 191-215. http://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/0033295X.84.2.191
Cunico, S. (2021). Moving the year abroad online: Ready, steady, go! Languages at Work,
Competent Multilinguals and the Pedagogical Challenges of COVID-19, 97–103.
https://doi.org/10.14705/rpnet.2021.49.1223
Dewey, D. P., Baker, W., Bown, J., & Martinsen, R. A. (2011). Foreign language housing in
the United States: Results of a nationwide survey. Adfl, 70–86.
https://doi.org/10.1632/adfl.41.3.70
Dewey, D. P., Bown, J., Baker, W., Martinsen, R. A., Gold, C., & Eggett, D. (2013).
Language use in six study abroad programs: An exploratory analysis of possible
predictors. Language Learning, 64(1), 36–71. https://doi.org/10.1111/lang.12031
Eshankulovna, R. A. (2021). Modern technologies and mobile apps in developing speaking
skill. Linguistics and Culture Review, 5(S2), 1216-1225.
https://doi.org/10.21744/lingcure.v5nS2.1809
Fabriz, S., Mendzheritskaya, J., & Stehle, S. (2021). Impact of synchronous andasynchronous settings of online teaching and learning in Higher Education on
students’ learning experience during COVID-19. Frontiers in Psychology, 12.
https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.733554
Fouz-Gonzalez, J. (2017). Pronunciation instructional through Twitter: the case of commonly
mispronounced words. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 30(7), 631–663.
Fouz-González, J. (2020). Using apps for pronunciation training: An empirical evaluation of
the English File Pronunciation app. Language Learning & Technology, 24(1), 62–85.
https://doi.org/10125/44709
García‐Amaya, L. (2021). Exploring the connection between language use and oral
performance during study abroad: Results from The Daily Language Questionnaire 2.
Foreign Language Annals, 55(1), 198–221. https://doi.org/10.1111/flan.12587
Ghilay, Yaron, Quantitative Courses in Higher Education: A Comparison Between
Asynchronous and Synchronous Distance Learning (July 5, 2022). Journal of
Education and Learning; Vol. 11, No. 5, 2022, https://ssrn.com/abstract=4155058
Gonulal, T. (2019). The use of Instagram as a mobile-assisted language learning tool.
Contemporary Educational Technology, 10(3), 309–323.
https://doi.org/10.30935/cet.590108

ISSN: 2189-101X

859

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Jochum, C. J. (2014). Measuring the effects of a semester abroad on students’ oral proficiency
gains: A comparison of at-home and study abroad. The Interdisciplinary Journal of
Study, 24, 93– 104. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1062011.pdf
Kelling, H. W., & Bown, J. (2020). Living and learning in a foreign language house: A
description of a residential language learning program. Die
Unterrichtspraxis/Teaching German, 53(1), 119–129.
https://doi.org/10.1111/tger.12122
Knoblauch, D., & Hoy, A. W. (2008). “Maybe I can teach those kids.” The influence ofcontextual factors on student teachers’ efficacy beliefs. Teaching and Teacher
Education, 24(1), 166-179. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2007.05.005
Kusmaryani, W., Musthafa, B., & Purnawarman, P. (2019). The influence of mobile
applications on students’ speaking skill and critical thinking in English language
learning. Journal of Physics: Conference Series, 1193, 012008.
https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/1193/1/012008
Lotfi, A. R., & Pozveh, S. M. (2019). The effect of synchronous and Asynchronous Language
Learning: A Study of Iranian EFL Intermediate Students’ Vocabulary Learning.
Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 9(12), 1585.
https://doi.org/10.17507/tpls.0912.16
Liu, M. (2012). Motivation in Chinese university EFL learners in varying learning contexts.
TESL Reporter, 45(2), 17-39; 2012. http://doi.org/10.30564/jiep.v2i4.1333
Martinsen, R. A., Baker, W., Bown, J., & Johnson, C. (2011). The benefits of living in foreign
language housing: The effect of language use and second-language type on oral
proficiency gains. The Modern Language Journal, 95(2), 274– 290.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4781.2011.01180.x
Martinsen, R. A., Baker, W., Dewey, D.P., Bown, J., & Johnson, C. (2010). Exploring diverse
settings for language acquisition and use: Comparing study abroad, service learning
abroad, and foreign language housing. Applied Language Learning, 20(1-2), 45– 69.
http://www.dliflc.edu/publications.aspx
Namaziandost, E., Razmi, M. H., Hernández, R. M., Ocaña-Fernández, Y., & Khabir, M.
(2021). Synchronous CMC text chat versus synchronous CMC Voice Chat: Impacts
on EFL learners’ oral proficiency and anxiety. Journal of Research on Technology in
Education, 54(4), 599–616. https://doi.org/10.1080/15391523.2021.1906362
Serrano, R.; Llanes, À; Tragant, E. (2011). Analyzing the Effect of Context of Second
Language Learning: Domestic Intensive and Semi-Intensive Courses vs. Study
Abroad in Europe. System, 39, 133-143.
Serrano, R., Tragant, E., & Llanes, À. (2012). A longitudinal analysis of the effects of one
year abroad. The Canadian Modern Language Review, 68(2), 138–163.
https://doi.org/10.3138/cmlr.68.2.138
Schunk, D. H. (2016). Learning theories: an educational perspective. Pearson.

ISSN: 2189-101X

860

The Asian Conference on Education & International Development 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

Swain, M., & Lapkin, S. (2002). Talking it through: Two French immersion learners'
response to reformulation. International Journal of Educational Research, 37(3-4),
285–304. http://doi.org/10.1016/s0883-0355(03)00006-5
Tuncer, M., & Dogan, Y. (2015). Effects of foreign language classroom anxiety on Turkish
university students’ academic achievement in foreign language learning. Journal of
Education and Training Studies, 3(6), 14-19.
https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1072171.pdf
Xu, X., Padilla, A. M., & Silva, D. (2014). The Time Factor in Mandarin Language Learning:
The Four-Week Intensive versus the Regular High School Semester. Language
Learning Journal, 42(1), 55–66.
Yin, S. (2019). An Empirical Study on Improving Speaking Skills of Students in Vocational
Colleges Under MALL Environments. International Conference on Computation andInformation Sciences (ICCIS 2019), 777-784.
http://doi.org/10.12783/dtcse/iccis2019/31975
Yoshida, M. T. (2016). Beyond repeat after me: Teaching pronunciation to English learners.
TESOL Press.
Yulian, R., Ruhama', U., & Utami, P. Y. (2022). EFL slow learners’ perception in speaking
with authentic multimedia assisted language learning. International Journal of
Language Education, 6(2), 183. https://doi.org/10.26858/ijole.v6i2.21511
Zeinali Nejad, M., Golshan, M., & Naeimi, A. (2021). The effect of synchronous andasynchronous computer-mediated communication (CMC) on learners’ pronunciationachievement. Cogent Psychology, 8(1).
https://doi.org/10.1080/23311908.2021.1872908

ISSN: 2189-101X

861

© The International Academic Forum 2023
The International Academic Forum (IAFOR)
Sakae 1-16-26-201
Naka Ward, Nagoya, Aichi
Japan 460-0008
www.iafor.org