Training Course on Preservation and Restoration ofCultural Heritage in the Asia - Pacific Region 2005

Preservation and Restoration of
Wooden Structures
27 September – 28 October, 2005, Nara, Japan

Cultural Heritage Protection Cooperation Office,Asia/Pacific Cultural Centre for UNESCO (ACCU)
Agency for Cultural Affairs, Japan
National Research Institute for Cultural Properties
International Centre for the Study of the Preservation
and Restoration of Cultural Property (ICCROM)

Edited and Published by
Cultural Heritage Protection Cooperation Office,Asia / Pacific Cultural Centre for UNESCO (ACCU)
Nara Prefectural Government “Horen” Office Ground Floor
757 Horen-cho, Nara 630-8113 Japan
Phone: +81 (0)742-20-5001
F A X: +81 (0)742-20-5701
E-mail: nara@accu.or.jp
U R L: http://www.nara.accu.or.jp
Cover design by NAKAMURA Yuri
Printed by MeishinshaⒸ Cultural Heritage Protection Cooperation Office,Asia / Pacific Cultural Centre for UNESCO (ACCU) 2006

Preface
The Cultural Heritage Protection Cooperation Office, Asia/Pacific Cultural Centre for UNESCO(ACCU) was established in Nara in 1999 with cooperation of the Agency for Cultural Affairs,
Japan (Bunkacho) Nara Prefectural Government, and the Municipal Government of Nara, with the
purpose being to serve as a domestic centre for promoting cooperation in cultural heritage
protection throughout the Asia-Pacific region.
Since then, our office has been engaged in the protection and study of cultural resources throughtraining courses, international conferences, the training of young leaders in cultural heritage
protection, the production of databases, our website and newsletters, and public relations.
The ACCU Nara training courses have comprised a significant part of the work of heritage
protection and research, and this was the sixth such course we have held. The theme of this year's
course was “Conservation and Restoration of Wooden Structures,” and was held in cooperation
with the National Research Institute for Cultural Properties and the International Centre for the
Study of the Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Property (ICCROM), from September 27 to
October 28, 2005. Fifteen participants from across the vast Asia-Pacific region gathered in Nara to
conduct their training.
The objective of this training course was to provide specialists in charge of the conservation andrestoration of wooden structures in Asia and the Pacific with a series of lectures and practicalsessions on concrete information and know-how regarding the conservation, restoration,
management and utilization of wooden structures.
Many historic wooden structures remain in the Asia-Pacific region, reflecting the long traditions
and cultures of individual countries. To maintain these structures, respective cultures in this region
have developed unique preservation/restoration techniques. Today, however, adequate preservationof historic structures has become a pressing issue, calling for the increasing application for thesepreservation/restoration techniques. Since the 8th century A.D., when many wooden structures
were built in Japan, many of these structures have been preserved and repaired time and time again.
The wealth of knowledge and techniques thus accumulated in Japan should be shared with otherparts of the Asia-Pacific region.
In Japan, 10 sites have been inscribed on the UNESCO World Cultural Heritage List, among which
the Historic Monuments of Ancient Nara were added in 1998. It is widely recognized that thetechniques used for the restoration and preservation of wooden structures in Nara have attained
among the highest standards in the world.
I believe that the discussions and lectures in this course were also a good opportunity for theexchange of ideas and knowledge between the participants, all of whom come from differenticultural backgrounds. I hope that in the future every participant will be able to utilize the results ofthe course and the networks that were built at that time, in their own countries.
We would like to express our deep gratitude to the prominent international experts who kindly
delivered lectures, and to the organizations that provided generous support in organizing the course.
We would also like to express our appreciation to the participants, who actively took part in thediscussions and whose eager efforts made the course more efficient and successful.
We hope that this report will benefit those who are making strenuous efforts in this field
throughout Asia and the Pacific.

YAMAMOYO Tadanao
Director
Cultural Heritage Protection Cooperation Office,Asia/Pacific Cultural Centre for UNESCO (ACCU), Naraii

Contents

Prefacei

Introduction
1. General Information
2. Programme Schedule3
7

Proceedings
1. Opening Ceremony
2. Summary of Lectures
3. Workshops
4. On-site Lectures

11
13
20
24

Country Reports by Participants29

Lecturers’ Papers
1. Restoration of Painting of Architectural Monuments

193

KUBODERA Shigeru

2. Structure Reconstruction in Historical Site Development- An Example from the Ichijodani Asakura Family SiteYOSHIOKA Yasuhide
3. Future Tasks in the Preservation of Cultural Heritage

203

213

+ International actors/guidelines
NISHI Kazuhiko
4. A View for the Comparative Study on the Theory ofArchitectural Preservation in East Asia
SHIMIZU Shigeatsu

223

Final Reports by Participants

239

Appendixes
Appendix A. List of Participants
Appendix B. List of Lecturers
Appendix C. List of Tutors and Interpreter
Appendix D. List of Staff Members, ACCU Nara

309
312
316
316

1. General Information
Training Course on the Preservation and Restoration ofCultural Heritage in the Asia - Pacific Region 2005
-Preservation and Restoration of Wooden Structures(27 September – 28 October, 2005, Nara)

1. Organizers
Jointly organized by: Bunkacho (Agency for Cultural Affairs, Japan); The Asia/Pacific Cultural Centre
for UNESCO (ACCU); the International Centre for the Study of the Preservation and Restoration ofCultural Property (ICCROM); and the National Research Institute for Cultural Properties
In cooperation with Japan’s Ministry of Foreign Affairs; the Japanese Commission for UNESCO;
Nara Prefectural Government; Nara Municipal Government and the Japanese Association forConservation of Architectural Monuments (JACAM)
2. Background
Japan possesses many surviving wooden structures built as early as the 8th century and later. As
these structures have continuously been restored throughout the centuries, the accumulation of various
philosophies and techniques for preservation and restoration have refined the conservation system to ahigh degree. Based on this accumulated system of practical preservation and restoration, Japan has
been expected to contribute to the development of human resources that are necessary for preserving
similar kinds of cultural properties in various Asia-Pacific countries. One important way toaccomplish this task is by providing training in the methods used to investigate wooden structures.
This training also includes the conservation and restoration philosophy and technology for personnel
responsible for restoration in each Asia-Pacific country.
The idea of holding training courses in Nara, Japan’s ancient capital was proposed in a meeting ofexperts, held in March 2000, to discuss cultural heritage preservation in the Asia-Pacific region under
the joint auspices of ACCU’s Cultural Heritage Protection Cooperation Office of the Asia/Pacific
Cultural Centre for UNESCO (ACCU) and the Agency for Cultural Affairs, Japan. In response to thisidea, the ACCU, the Agency for Cultural Affairs, and the International Centre for the Study of the
Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Property (ICCROM), officially decided to conduct thetraining courses with the theme of the preservation and restoration of cultural heritage in the
Asia/Pacific region. It was also decided to that the courses should fit within the broad framework of
UNESCO’s activities.
Similar training programmes implemented in 2003 included 14 participants from 14 countries. As
many Asia-Pacific countries urgently need to preserve and restore wooden structures, the same kindsof training will be continuously carried out for the current year (2005). This programme aims to
expand and diffuse a variety of conservation and restoration technologies across the Asia-Pacificregion for long-term benefits.

33. Dates and Venues
Course dates and duration: September 27 (Tuesday) to October 28 (Friday), 2005
Venues: ACCU--Cultural Heritage Protection Cooperation Office,(Nara Prefectural Government “Horen” Office, 757 Horen-cho, Nara City);
Additional venues: Facilities of cooperating organizations; sites undergoing preservation andrestoration, etc.
4. Objectives of the Training Course
Nara Prefecture is a unique region possessing many of the oldest wooden structures in the world witha deep history of accumulated techniques and technology for their preservation and restoration. The
result of this history is that heritage restoration has reached an advanced technical level. Moreover,the philosophy of preservation was established based on the specific requirements of these historic
structures. Due to Nara’s historic preservation history and environment many institutions andspecialists are based in the area. The course will take advantage of this by utilizing specialists’expertise to help participants master the following areas: methods of investigating wooden structures,
seminal ideas and concepts regarding preservation and restoration, the technology/techniques ofrestoration, and other topics to be conducted by personnel in charge of preservation and restoration ofvarious wooden structures on-site. In other words, the purpose of this program is to foster a highlevel of training of personnel enabling them to learn how to utilize the methods and concepts learned
and apply them similar cultural properties in their own country.
An additional, and essential, advantage of the training course is that participants in charge of similarroles in different regions and disciplinary specialties have the opportunity to assemble, learn, anddiscuss similar themes, as well as to exchange information in order to establish future heritage
preservation and conservation networks.
5. Training Curriculum
Lectures- Introduction to Architecture- Introduction to Asian Architecture- Treaties and Charters relating to Cultural Heritage- Survey Methods on Conservation of Vernacular Houses and Historic Towns- Theories of Preservation and Maintenance- Design and Supervision, Construction- Management and Utilization of Structures- Risk Preparation – Management for Cultural Heritage- Others
Practical Training and On-site Lectures- Practical Training on Old (historic) Wooden Structure Conservation Project Sites- On-site Lectures at the Facility for Wood Conservation- Case Study on Conservation, Restoration and Utilization (4-day study tour)- Other works relating to the preservation and restoration of architectural structures

4

Presentations and Discussion- Presentations on the present status of preservation in each countries world and cultural heritage
resources, and exchange of views- Recapitulation of the Training Session- Additional presentation and discussions will also be included in the agenda
6. Participants in the Training Course(1) The training course is offered to the following 37 signatory countries listed in the UNESCOWorld Heritage Convention (see below). For application, UNESCO National Commissions or
UNESCO liaison offices need to submit the following documents required for thoseindividuals nominated no later than 24 June, 2005: letters of recommendation written by thehead of the organization to which a nominee belongs; a profile of the nominee; a report on
his/her major achievements.
*A total of 15 people will be selected from the nominees as participants in the training course.
Afghanistan, Australia, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Cambodia, China, Fiji, India, Indonesia, Iran,Kazakhstan, Kiribati, Kyrgyz, Lao P.D.R., Malaysia, Maldives, Marshall Islands, Micronesia,
Mongolia, Myanmar, Nepal, New Zealand, Pakistan, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Philippines,
Rep. of Korea, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Sri Lanka, Tajikistan, Thailand, Tonga ,Turkmenistan,
Uzbekistan, Vanuatu, and Vietnam(2) Qualification Requirements
Applicants should be:1) experts or equivalent, aged 45 years or younger, who are engaged in the preservation,
restoration or management of wooden buildings, and the preservation, restoration, and/or
development of architectural remains, and who can make effective use of the results of theTraining Session upon returning to his or her home country.
2) those who have a good command of English, the working language for all lectures, so thatthey can deliver presentations and write reports from the Training Session;3) those who can attend the entire training programme;
4) those who can submit all of the required documents (i.e. a recommendation by NATCOM,
and reports) within the deadlines outlined;5) those who can continue exchanging information and interacting with ACCU after returning
to their home countries;6) those who were not previous participants in training courses organized by ACCU;

7. Notification of Screening Results
After consideration with the other organizers, ACCU will select 15 people (one person per nationonly) around mid-August from among all applicants. After selection, the UNESCO National
Commissions from each country and successful applicants will be informed of the screening results.
58. Certificate of Completion
Each trainee will be awarded a certificate upon completion of the course.
9. Language of the Training Session
English will be the working language throughout the course.
10. Documents for Application(1) Application Form (Form 1)(2) Report Relating to Cultural Heritage Preservation.
The report should be written by the applicant and should be mention present and previous
work engaged in by the applicant. This report will be weighted during selection of theparticipants.
(3) Letter of Recommendation by NATCOM(4) Letter of Recommendation by the Attending Chief Official (Annex 1)(5) Documentation Indicating English Proficiency (if obtained)
11. Expenses
Expenses during the Training Course shall be borne by the ACCU, as follows:(1) Travelling expenses:
Each of the participants (except those from Australia, Republic of Korea and New Zealand)
shall be provided with an economy-class return air ticket from the nearest international
airport from their residence to Kansai International Airport, and transportation fees between
Kansai International Airport and Nara.
(2) Living expenses:
Participants shall be provided the basic living expenses incurred during the training course
from September 27 (Tuesday) to October 28 (Friday), 2005.
Arrangements foraccommodations will be made by the Cultural Heritage Protection Cooperation Office,Asia/Pacific Cultural Centre for UNESCO (ACCU Nara).
12. Secretariat
Cultural Heritage Protection Cooperation Office,Asia/Pacific Cultural Centre for UNESCO (ACCU Nara Office)Nara Prefectural Government “Horen” Office,757 Horen-cho, Nara City, Nara Prefecture 630-8113
Tel: +81-(0)742-20-5001
Fax: +81-(0)742-20-5701
E-mail: nara@accu.or.jp

6

2. Programme Schedule
Date

Morning (0930-1230)

Afternoon (1340-1640)(Lecturer / Venue)(Lecturer / Venue)

26 (Mon)27 (Tue)

ArrivalOpening Ceremony
Introduction to World Heritage in the Nara City Area, Orientation Session

September(ACCU)
28 (Wed)29 (Thu)

30 (Fri)

Introduction to the Cultural Heritage Protection System in Japan(Yamato /ACCU)
Introduction to Architecture
Conservation of Wooden Architectural(Yamato /ACCU) Heritage(Yamato /ACCU)
On-site Lecture: Restoration of Building of Recent Period, Restoration of Wall Paintings(Staff / Doshisha Univ., Nijo-jo Castle, Kyoto)

1 (Sat)2 (Sun)October3 (Mon)Wooden Architectural Heritage in the Design for the Reconstruction of Ancient
Asia-Pacific region
Buildings in Nara Palace Site
(Myklebust /NRICPN)(Shimada/NRICPN)

4 (Tue)Participants' Presentations and Discussions I : Case Studies on Practical Wooden
Architectural Heritage Conservation in Asia and the Pacific(Inaba & Myklebust / ACCU)

5 (Wed)Participants' Presentations and Discussions II : Case Studies on Practical Wooden
Architectural Heritage Conservation in Asia and the Pacific(Inaba & Myklebust / ACCU)

6 (Thu)Comparative Study on Theory ofConservation and Restoration in East AsianCountries(Shimizu /ACCU)

7 (Fri)
8 (Sat)9 (Sun)10 (Mon)
11 (Tue)

12 (Wed)13 (Thu)
14 (Fri)

Preparation for the Practical Training(Kubodera /ACCU)

Practical Training: Jibutsu-do, Todai-ji Temple(Kubodera /Todai-ji Temple)

National Holiday
System and Project Planning for Overall Process of Conservation in Japan
Restoration of Important Cultural Properties(Nishioka / ACCU)(Murakami / ACCU)
Practical Trainning: Toshodai-ji Temple(Staff / Toshodai-ji Temple)
Practical Trainning: Toshodai-ji Temple(Staff / Toshodai-ji Temple)
Practical Trainning: Toshodai-ji Temple(Staff / Toshodai-ji Temple)7

15 (Sat)
16 (Sun)
17 (Mon)18 (Tue)
19 (Wed)20 (Thu)
21 (Fri)

Policy and Problems regarding the Landscaping and Management of the Sites
Conservation of Historic Districts in Japan(Yoshioka / NRICPN)(Nakajima /NRICPN)
On-site Lecture: Hida-Takayama, Gifu Pref.
（Shimada & Staff / Takayama City）
On-site Lecture: Shirakawa-go, Gifu Pref.
（Shimada & Staff / Sirakawa Village）
On-site Lecture: Kanazawa, Ishikawa Pref.
(Shimada & Staff / Kanazawa City)
On-site Lecture: Ichijo-dani Site, Fukui Pref.
(Yoshioka, Mizuno & Staff / Fukui City)

22 (Sat)23 (Sun)
24 (Mon)25 (Tue)

26 (Wed)27 (Thu)
28 (Fri)

Cultural Heritage
Restoration

Preservation

and Protection of Traditional Techniques andMaterials for Sustainable Conservation(Nagao / ACCU)(Takeuchi / ACCU)An Introduction to the Conservation Dendrochronology in Japan and its
Science for Wooden Architecture
Application(Kawanobe / NRICPN)(Mitsutani / NRICPN)
Future Tasks in the Preservation of Cultural Heritage I(Nishi / ACCU)
Future Tasks in the Preservation of Cultural Heritage II(Nishi / ACCU)
Evaluation

Closing Ceremony(ACCU)

29 (Sat)

Departure

8(ACCU)

1.

Opening Ceremony

The opening ceremony of the 2005 training course washeld on September 27th 2005 at the Kasugano-so reception
hall in Nara City, with fifteen course participants andhonorable guests from the Agency for Cultural Affairs,
Japan (Bunkacho), the National Research Institute forCultural Properties, Nara Prefectural Government, Nara
Municipal Government, and the Japanese Association forConservation of Architectural Monuments (JACAM).

Mr. Nakanishi, Director-General of
ACCU, giving the opening address

The opening addresses were given by Mr. NAKANISHI
Koji,

Director-General,

ACCU;

Mr.

YAMAMOTO

Tadanao, Director, ACCU Nara Office; Mr. MORIMITSU
Toshihiko, Head, Centre for Archaeological Operations,
National Research Institute for Cultural Properties; Mr.
ASANO

Atsuyuki,

Head,

OfficeforInternational

Cooperation on Cultural Properties, Cultural Properties
Department, Bunkacho; Mr. KIMURA Koji, Deputy
Director, Kansai Science City Cooperation Division, Nara

Mr. Yamamoto, Director of ACCU Nara
Office giving opening address in his
traditional attire

Prefectural Government; and Mr. TANIMURA Masaru,
Chief, Cultural Assets Division, Board of Education, Nara
City. In the above mentioned speeches, organizers andguests extended warm greetings to the participants andstressed the success of the training course. Following the
speeches, another honorable guest, Mr. NOZUMI Tetsuo
from JACAM was introduced to the participants. At theend of the ceremony, the participants and an observer
introduced themselves and a group photo was taken withstaff and guests.

Mr. Asano, from the Bunkacho, (Agency
for Cultural Affairs, Japan)

Finally, the participants proceeded to the Nara Prefectural
Office. They were ushered to the roof floor of the building,where many historical monuments designated World
Heritage can be observed. Unfortunately, the sight was notclear, but participants were given the explanation of thosemonuments seen from there. After this stop, theparticipants met the Deputy Governor of Nara Prefecture,
11

Dr. Morimitsu, from the National
Research Institute for Cultural PropertiesMr.

NISHIO

Tetsuo.

Hegreetedparticipants

andintroduced Nara Prefecture. The participants also asked the
Deputy Governor about the prefecture.
Following this schedule, the participants visited Kofuku-ji
Temple, a World Heritage site located next to thePrefectural Government Office.
Mr. Kimura from the Nara Prefectural
Government

In the afternoon, the participants and ACCU staff met
in the ACCU meeting room whereupon each member
introduced themselves. After that, an introduction to
the training course was given regarding the course
theme,

objectives,

logistics,

andrequirements.

Following this, presentation about daily life in Japanfor visitors was made, followed by an open question
period.

Mr. Tanimura from the Nara Municipal
Government

Meeting with the Deputy Governor of Nara Prefecture, Mr. NISHIO

12

2. Summary of Lectures
Various experts delivered a series of lectures during this Training Course. The following is a complete
list of the lectures with a brief description of their contents.


Introduction to the Cultural Heritage Protection System in Japan (28 Sept.)
YAMATO Satoshi (Agency for Cultural Affairs)“History of Protection and the Concept of Cultural Properties in Japan”- Historic overview of the development of conservation systems and laws in Japan as an example ofthe conservation system for historical monuments.
- An introduction to aspects of the law and various classifications of cultural properties anddesignation system of cultural properties including its criteria, subsidies and tax exemption
systems.
- Description of the structural system of Japanese wooden architecture and traditional carpentry
techniques including sophisticated joint system, design technique such as Kiku and Kiwari, as
indispensable traditional skill for a kinds of intangible heritage as well as conservation techniquefor Cultural Properties.


Introduction to Architecture (28 Sept.)
YAMATO Satoshi“The Tradition of Wooden Architecture in Japan and its
problems”- Brief history of Japanese architecture and its characteristics,
typology of Japanese wooden architecture, including
roofing system.
- Description of some characteristic problems of woodenarchitecture, especially Bio-deterioration such as fungus
and lichens.

Mr. Yamato introducing the Japaneseof protecting architectural
cultural properties“Process of Repair and Restoration of wooden architecture in system
Japan”- A theoretical outline of common restoration procedures.

- An overview of the regulatory bodies and experts involved in the conservation of architecturalmonuments, including the specialized role of conservation architects in Japan.
Conservation Wooden Architectural Heritage (28 Sept.)
YAMATO Satoshi“Conservation and restoration, preservation works of wooden Architecture in Japan ”- An introduction to some examples of restoration, repair and rehabilitation works of wooden

13architecture.
- Description of some examples of disaster prevention system for wooden architecture including fire
prevention system, earthquake registered engineering, environment control, daily precautions andEmergency drills.
- Approaches for conservation of wooden architecture using traditional techniques and newly
developed scientific approaches such as dendrochronology, structural mechanics analysis using
computers.


Wooden Architectural Heritage in the Asia-Pacific region (3 Oct.)
Dag MYKLEBUST (Directorate for Cultural Heritage, Norway)“Concept and Philosophy of the Conservation of Cultural
Heritage”- Introductive discussion of the concept of ‘history’ and‘monument’.
- Pragmatic and ethical issues related to conservation,
illustrated in European examples and the restoration works
in Norway.

Mr. Myklebust- The concept of ‘sustainable development’.
- The ‘Value Analysis Chart’ – elucidating the purposes andmethods of conservation.
- The concept of the conservation activities as ‘story -telling’,
which sometimes conflicts with the value of ‘authenticity’.
Design for the Reconstruction of Ancient
Buildings in Nara Palace Site (3 Oct.)SHIMADA Toshio (National Research Institute forCultural Properties (NRICP), Nara)
IMANISHI Yasuyoshi (National Research Institute forCultural Properties (NRICP), Nara)“Concept and process of the Conservation works in Japan”- Method and concept of conservation and restoration works
in Japan, including the issue of the ‘reconstruction’ as aneffective measure of the conservation.
- The process of the conservation work involved in a
After Mr. Shimada’s lecture (above),participants toured the reconstruction
site of the Daigokuden, Heijo Palace
Site (World Heritage), and observed the
new technologies applied on thereconstruction.

reconstruction project: investigation, research, design, andconstruction.
- Difficulties in extrapolating missing information fromexisting physical remains on sites.

14

- Various types of resources used in researching forreconstruction designs and their limitations.
After the lecture of Mr. Simada, participants visited thereconstruction site of the Daigokuden (main hall) of the Heijo
Palace Site, and observed the anti-seismic techniques and current
reconstruction works with the guidance of Mr Imanishi.
Discussion after the presentation■ Participants’ Presentations and Discussions I, II:
Case Studies on Practical Wooden Architectural
Heritage Conservation in Asia and the Pacific (4-5 Oct. )Facilitator: INABA Nobuko (NRICP, Tokyo)
Guest: Dag MYKLEBUST- Each participant delivered a 30 minutes presentation about
the cultural heritage in their country, and aspects ofconservation work in their country. The presentations
generated discussions on the merits of conservation activities

Presentation by Ms. Beisembayeva

in different countries, as well as comparisons of the different
approaches.
Comparative Study on Theory of Conservation in
East Asian Countries (6 Oct.)SHIMIZU Shigeatsu (NRICP, Nara)■“A view of the Comparative Study on the Theory ofArchitectural Preservation in East Asia”- Introduction to the comparative studies on the architectural

Presentation by Mr. Flavell

preservation: Subjects of comparison on preservation system
and ways of analysis.
- Comparative studies between South Korea and Japan on therestoration works, causes of difference in the way of
restoration works.
- The history and forming process of the restoration theory inModern Japan, including controversy on restoration policy Presentation by Mr. Tuitupou
and characteristic problems on the restoration in Japan.
- Some issues toward re-theorization on preservation andrestoration in East Asia.

Lecture by Mr. Shimizu

15

Preparation for the Practical Training (6 Oct.)
Kubodera Shigeru (NRICP, Nara)“Study for the Establishment of Restoration Principle of
Painting of Architectural Monuments”- Introduction to the paintings for architecture and thenecessity to establish the principles for restoration ofpaintings.
- Role of paintings for religious architecture as a way ofvisualization of the religious characteristics as well asprotection for the surface of architectural members against

Lecture by Mr. Kubodera

weathering.
- Method and various types of restoration works for paintings such as repair to maintain the present
state, partial repainting and complete repainting.
- Description on the cultural value of painting from the aspect of style and techniques.
- Some important principles for restoration of paintings.


Systems and Project Planning for Restoration of Important Cultural Properties (11 Oct.)MURAKAMI Jin’ichi (Executive Director of the Japanese Association for Conservation ofArchitectural Monuments (JACAM))“Framework and Work Plan for a Restoration and Conservation
Project of Buildings designated as a Cultural Property in Japan”- Introduction to the principal works of JACAM (TheJapanese Association for Conservation of Architectural
Monuments) on restoration works, project management andtraining for preservation of historic sites and buildings.

Lecture by Mr. Murakami- Framework and contents of restoration and conservation

project for the protection of important cultural properties.
- Roles of conservation architects and organization for the repair of important cultural properties.
- Brief explanation on the process of planning and operations for the conservation project.
Overall Process of Conservation in Japan (11 Oct.)NISHIOKA Satoshi (Architect of JACAM)“Main House, Reception Building (Shoin) and Main Gate
(Omotemon) of the Seki Family Residence, an Important
Cultural Property Designated by the Japansese Government”- Summary of the Building and description on designation.
- Outline of the restoration policy. Major works involving
Lecture by Mr. Nishioka

repairs for alteration of present features and complete
dismantlement for main house, and partial dismantlement
16

for reception building.
- The process of work of the contractor and conservation architect: preparation, dismantlement andsurvey, decision-making, assembling work and completion.


History and Present State of Maintenance of the “Heijo Palace Site” (17.Oct.)
NAKAJIMA Yoshiharu (NRICP, Nara)- Overview of Heijo Palace Site, from its historical backgroundto contents.
- History of the maintenance activities at Heijo Palace Site
- Conservation and maintenance for the remains in Heijo
Palace Site
- Concept of museum for ruins, and problems of application
After the lecture, Mr. Nakajima took the participants to the Lecture at the Heijo Palace Museum, by
Mr. Nakajima
museum, and then to the palace site to have an actual look at thevarious presentation methods shown there.
Structure
Reconstruction
inHistoric
Site
Development (17.Oct.)YOSHIOKA Yasuhide (Educational Board, Fukui
Prefecture)- Structurereconstruction

based

on

materials

fromarchaeological excavations; an effective methodologicalapproach to historical site development, showing specificimages of sites

Lecture by Mr. Yoshioka- Detailed research and examination necessary; investigating
primary (structural elements) and secondary materials (unearthed artefacts, social backgrounds,
reference materials etc.) integrally- Overview of the reconstruction development project of Ichijo-dani Asakura Family Site.
- Historical Background of the site: Asakura Family and its castle town
- Investigations for reconstruction, landscaping and management; examining the house types anddesign- Importance of a joint work between architectural historians and archaeologists- Reconstruction as a record of investigations and its preservation and presentation maintained by the
public understanding and support
Guideline for Drawing a Conservation Master Plan for Important Cultural Property
Buildings (24.Oct.)NAGAO Mitsuru (Agency for Cultural Affairs)- Purpose of drawing a “conservation master plan” and its importance17

- Outline of preparing plans concerning the conservation ofimportant cultural property buildings•

Conservation management plan•

Environmental preservation plan: classification of zones
for conservation•

Risk preparedness management plan: protection fromfire, earthquakes, human crimes etc.

Lecture by Mr. Nagao on “Conservation
Master Plan”•

Utilisation plan: presentation of property values
corresponding to social needs, facilities with universal

design•Legal procedures: notification and permission required by applicable laws and regulations-Financial supports for fire protection and environmental preservationProtection of Traditional Techniques and Materials for Sustainable Conservation (24.Oct.)TAKEUCHI Masakazu (Agency for Cultural Affairs)-

Conservation techniques for cultural properties in Japan-

Backgroundandpurposeof

theprotectionofconservation techniques for buildings-

Standards

forselectingandrecognising

selectedconservation techniques-

Training of craftsmen for architectural monuments;
carpenters, painters, plasterers, smiths etc.

Mr. Takeuchi showing the smaller-scale
wooden models to introduce thetraditional techniques-

Activities concerning the conservation of traditional
techniques, from public education projects to the
proposal of “Forest for Heritage”

Mr. Takeuchi introduced the traditional joint techniques in Japan, using smaller-scale wooden models
produced by skillful craftsmen.


An Introduction to the Conservation Science for Wooden Architecture (25.Oct.)
KAWANOBE Wataru (NRICP, Tokyo)-

Modern conservation techniques using modern materials,
such as synthetic resins-

Changes of modern techniques and materials used inconservation repair

Lecture by Dr. Kawanobe-

Removal of surface protection and peeling of painting-

Introduction of remarkable examples, where modernmaterials are used in repair practice to reinforce the18structures; carbon fibre etc.
-

Importance of recording modern techniques used for
future interventions



Dendrochronology in Japan and its Application(25.Oct.)
MITSUTANI Takumi (NRICP, Nara) and OKO’OCHI
Takayuki (NRICP, Nara)-

Identification of wood species used for ancient buildings,

Dr.
Mitsutanichronology”

showing“master

and their ages-

History of the study on dendrochronology-

Accomplishment of investigating wooden members inhistoric architectural monuments-

Procedures for dendrochronology; how to make a “masterchronology”; in Japan, 12 softwood and 2 hardwood
species already drawn a chart.

-

Presentation of the year charts for ‘Cypress’ and ‘Cedar’ inLaboratory of dendrochronology study

Japan,-

Introduction of several methods of measuring year-rings,
actually used in the practices by Mr. Oko’ochi at thelaboratories in the research institute.

Future Tasks in the Preservation of Cultural
Heritage (26-27 Oct.)NISHI Kazuhiko (ICCROM)-

Major international / regional guidelines concerning theconservation of architectural monuments; from Athens
Charter to Nara Document on Authenticity.

-

International organisations for the conservation of cultural
heritage,

such

as

internationalNGOs,

privateorganizations, universities and national institutions-

Works and activities carried out by ICCROM-

Future Tasks: current changes and various challenges for Classifying the words with discussing
the future generation.

-

Every participant wrote few words what they consider important on preservation of cultural
heritage and then classified them with similarity. Through this work, participants discussed andshared what is important for preservation and conservation of cultural heritage monuments.

Mr. Nishi emphasised that we need international guidelines interpreted by each region with its own
cultural context.
19

2. Workshops
7 Oct.



Practical Training: Jibutsu-do, Todai-ji Temple
KUBODERA Shigeru (NRICP, Nara)“Practical Training for Survey on Painting and draw up Plan for Painting Restoration”
A practical training was held at the Jibutu-do, Todai-ji Temple. Under the instruction of by Mr.
Kubodera, participants worked for some tasks about the on-site research for the restoration planning asfollows;
1. Investigate the present state of the façade painting where was assigned. Then record all theinformation which could be received from the investigation and reconstruct it.
2. Recite the detail of researches that required for the restoration of painting, and describe thenecessity of each research.

Whole view of the Jibutsu-do

Investigating the present
state

Giving the instruction
practical training

Recording the information after theinvestigation

Presentation of restoration plan

Presentation of restoration plan20

beforetheInvestigating thepresent state

Making a plan for the restoration

Overall comment by Mr. Kubodera

3. Make a plan for the restoration of the paintings and show the necessity of the restoration work.
4. Observe the reason and intention of each restoration plan.
After the individual works, participants discussed actively on the restoration policy and method basedon the various experiences in each countries.
12 –14 Oct.

Workshops at Toshodai-ji Temple

HATANO Tsuneo (JACAM), UEDA Tetsuji, HOTTA Yujiro and TOUNOUCHI Yasushi(Toshodai-ji Office of Cultural Properties Preservation, Nara Pref.), HAYASHI Yoshihiko(Nara Prefectural Board of Education)
A series of practical workshops were held at the Toshodai-ji Temple restoration site. Chiefconservation architect Mr UEDA delivered an on-site lecture outlining the history and progress of therestoration project. This project exemplifies the unique Japanese method of ‘kaitai shuri’ –restoration
with complete dismantlement, which is generally carried out every 300 to 400 years in the repair oftraditional wooden structures.
Due to the presence of significant structural deformation at the Toshodai-ji Temple, major restoration
work was initiated in 1998. The completion of this project is scheduled in 2010. After the descriptionof the process of each stages of the restoration project by Mr. UEDA, the purpose and the details of theeach activity of the workshop has given.
Workshop 1- Restoration Plan Proposal
Purpose:To critically examine the present conditions of a dilapidated historic structure, andto determine an appropriate restoration plan.

Activity:

Participants visually examines and recorded the conditions of a small shrinebuilding (the Benten-sha), which is located on the temple grounds. In particular,
they were asked to observe evidence of previous restoration work, the age of thedifferent parts of the structure, as well as the location, causes and extent of damages
in the present structure. After a consideration of these data, each participant
proposed an outline restoration plan.

Each participant made their own restoration plan and discussed over on them and examined the building again tocheck the condition. Workshop 1 was conducted by Mr. Hatano21

It was interesting for the participants to compare their restoration plans and note the differences inopinion and approach. Many participants thought that this was a valuable exercise for them toexperience the process and apply the principles of conservation, which they have learnt during thelectures in this training course.
Workshop 2 – Drawings and Measuring of Structure
Purpose:To gain an understanding of the structural principles of traditional Japanese woodenbuildings, and to produce various types of drawing as records.

Activities:

Part1 – Since the Toshodai-ji main hall has now been reconstructing, theparticipants studied at the restoration site of the temple in order to figure out how tobuild up the structure. Participants prepared a sectional sketch of the structure, inorder to understand the logic of the structural assembly.
Part2 – Participants prepared a drawing of some bracket sets based on
measurements and sketches of the restoration site.

Most participants have found that through careful observation and sketching they were able to derive aclearer understanding of the structure of traditional wooden buildings, as well as the original design
intentions.

Drawings and Measuring of Structure: after drawing structures, add the size of each members based on themeasurements

Drawing and small-scale model of structure, Toshodai-ji Temple by Dean Flavell, NZ

22

Workshop 3 – Techniques of Recordings Data (The takuhon method)
Purpose:To practice the techniques of dry rubbing and wet rubbing, which are applied in
making records of building components.

Activity:

Part 1, Dry-rubbing – Participants covered the surface of a timber structuralmember with a sheet of special tracing paper. Rubbing it with carbon paper thenmade an imprint of the timber grains on the face of the member. This enables
surface defects to be clearly identified. The participants learned how to prepare an
accurate, scaled drawing of the irregular-shaped member from the outline of the
trace.
Part 2, Wet rubbing – An imprint of the patterns on the face of terracotta roof tiles
were made by overlaying the tile with a piece of wet tracing paper. The paper was
gently pressed and moulded into the contours of the tile. It was then stamped withan ink-soaked pad in order to obtain an imprint of the patterns on the tile.

These techniques were new to most participants, who had found them economical and useful ways ofrecording information about historic building components. Many participants commented that they
intend to introduce these methods in their work back in their own countries.

Dry-rubbing: rubbing structural member with carbon paper, drawing the scaled drawing of irregular-shaped
memberkaerumata, one of the structural member, drawn with the above
method by Mr. Chamorn Porapakpralai, Thailand

23

Wet-rubbing: recording method of theinformation of roof tiles

3. On-site Lectures


Restoration of Building Recent Period, Restoration of Wall Paintings(29 Sept,)
Restoration site of Clark Memorial Hall at Doshisha
University, Kyoto City
TSURUOKA Noriyoshi,( Cultural Properties Preservation
Division, Kyoto Prefectural Board of Education)
Mr. Tsuruoka gave an overview of the restoration concept andmethod of their restoration work for the Clark Memorial Hall
built in the 19th century. After his lecture about the works up to

On-site lecture at the Clark MemorialHall

now, the participants toured the working areas on thescaffolding, and observed their current restoration works forwooden truss structure and brick wall.
The Nijo-jo Castle and restoration works of wall Paintings
SAKAI

Kiyoshi(Nijo-joCastle),NUMATA

Osamu(Conservation laboratory for paintings at Nijo-jo Castle)
and KUBODERA (NRICP Nara)
Tour of the Nijo-jo Castle

Mr. Sakai gave a brief history and back ground of the Nijo-joCastle, and Mr. Kubodera gave interpretations of somecharacteristic decorations of the castle. After the tour of theinside of the castle, the participants visited the conservationlaboratory for the wall paintings of the Castle. Mr. Numata
explained an overview of the concept of their reproductive
work of the wall paintings, and traditional methods, techniquesand materials of the wall paintings in Japan.

Conservation laboratory for the wall
paintings of the Nijo-jo Castle



Preservation, Restoration and Utilization ofHistoric Area (18 – 21 Oct.)SHIMADA Toshio
18 Oct. – Takayama City, Gifu Pref.
Takayama Museum of Local History
Takayama Preservation District for Historic Building Group
Yoshijima Heritage HouseTANAKA Akira (Takayama Museum of Local History) and
OZAKI Keisuke (Educational Board of Takayama)
Takayama Museum of Local History24

At the Museum, the special exhibition on the craftsmen of Hida
District was under the preparation. Mr. Tanaka gave lecture on
the exhibited items and the museum itself. After, visiting themuseum, Mr. Ozaki guided a lecture tour around the historic
districts of Takayama, designated as an Important Preservation
District for Groups of Historic Buildings.
There is a solid collection of fire prevention, such as storehouses,

Mr. Ozaki showing the fire prevention

water-tank facilities and fire-detection systems. The participants system in the preservation district
must have learnt that a historic town and its tradition can beconserved with the active efforts of the local people.
19 Oct. - Shirakawa-go, Gifu Pref.
KONDOH Hisayoshi (Educational Board of Shirakawa) and
MATSUMOTO

Keita(Shirakawa-go

Gassho-style

Conservation Foundation)
Gassho-zukuri Folklore Park
Wada Family Residence (Important Cultural Property)

Mr. Matsumoto explaining the structureof the Gassho Style

Hachiman-jinja shrine
Mr Kondoh gave an overview of the history and present situationof the World Heritage site, and Mr Matsumoto an overview of
the Gassho Style houses at the town office.
In Ogi-machi, the participants visited the open air museum tolearn the structure of Gassho-style from inside the house, andthen walked around the village. Detailed explanations were
given for a reconstruction work at Wada-family house, the Fire prevention system of Shirakawa-go:water-gunwater-gun system etc.
20 Oct. - Kanazawa, Ishikawa Pref.
Kanazawa Institute of Traditional Crafts
SENBO Tetsuo (Lecturer of Kanazawa Institute of
Traditional Crafts) and TOISHI Hisanori (General Manager
of Kanazawa Institute of Traditional Crafts)
Kanazawa City is carrying out a remarkable project concerning“training of craftsmen for historic wooden houses in Kanazawa”. In front of the practical training room of

the tatami mat, Mr. Senbo showing theHaving learnt the background of establishing such a college, the differences of tatami mat
participants looked around the practice rooms.

25

Higashiyama-higashi Historic District
ISHIURA Yuji (Educational Board of Kanazawa City) andOOKURA Yasuo (Educational Board of Kanazawa City)
The historic district keeps a number of important historicelements in a calm atmosphere.

At
Higashiyama
Higashi,brief
explanation on the district was given by
Mr. Ookura.

Edo Mura
ISHIURA Yuji and OOKURA Yasuo
A new Edo Mura is now under construction, because the formersite has an unfavourable condition of land. The buildings are to
be dismantled and transferred. Visited the old land of Edo Muraand observe the dismantlement work of former Ishikura family
residence. Participants visited the transferred residences in new
Edo Mura land, next (former Matsusita residence and thatchedroof houses).
21 Oct. - Fukui, Ichijo-dani Site, Fukui Pref.
Yokokan Garden, Fukui
YOSHIOKA

Yasuhide(Educational

Board,Fukui

Prefecture)
Yokokan was a villa with a garden originally built by the feudal
Edo Mura: residence under dismantled
work (upper) and another residence
after the transfer (below)

lord and rebuilt in 1980’s. Mr. Yoshioka, who took part of
Yokokan reconstruction, gave lecture on Yokokan and its
unique characteristics.
Ichijodani Asakura Family Historical Meseum
Ichijo-dani, the Asakura Clan Historical Site
MIZUNO Kazuo (Deputy Director, Ichijodani Asakura Family
Historical Meseum)

Each room of Yokokan has its uniquecharacteristics. Mr. Yoshioka explained
the suki style seen in the Yokokan.

Ichijo-dani is an important example of a castle town of theWarring State Period. Given a lecture on the history of the siteat the museum, the participants visited the Ichijo-dani site. Mr
Mizuno gave a detailed explanation about the reconstruction
project (how to reconstruct buildings from the archaeologicalfeatures), looking at the reconstructed houses and gardens.

Mr. Mizuno giving lecture as the
Excavated site of Asakura residence

26

Bangladesh
Firoz AHMED
Estimator (Conservator),
Department of Archaeology
Ministry of Cultural Affairs

I. Country Overview:
Bangladesh is an independent and sovereign country known as “The People’s Republic of Bangladesh”.
It has a parliamentary form of Government.
Once upon a time, the Indian subcontinent was under Muslim rule along with present day India
and Pakistan for about five and a half centuries, and thereafter under British rule from AD 1757. In
August 1947, the Indian subcontinent gained independence from British rule along with the rest of India,
and formed two individual countries- India & Pakistan. At that time Pakistan had two parts- East
Pakistan and West Pakistan. The erstwhile East Pakistan emerged as an independent country on March
26, 1971, and was renamed Bangladesh, through a liberation war. The war of liberation ended on
December 16, 1971 with the victorious Bangladesh forces accepting the surrender of the occupying
Army.
Bangladesh at a glance:
1. Location:yNorth: India (W. Bengal and Meghalaya)yWest: India (W. Bengal)yEast: India (Tripura and Assam) and MyanmarySouth: Bay of Bengal

2. Area: 143,998 square km. (Territorial waters: 12 nautical miles.)
3. Capital: Dhaka
4. Population: 140 million
5. Religious groups:yMuslim (88.3 %)yHindus (10.5 %)yBuddhists (0.6%)yChristians (0.3%)yTribals (0.1%)

29

6. Administrative units:
Division:06

Upazilla:

492

District:64

Union Parishad:

4472

City Corporation:

06

Village:

68000

Municipality:

166

7. Language:
95% speak Bangladeshi and 5% other languages. English is widely spoken as second language.
Administrative Set-up of the Bangladesh Government:
There are 38 ministries and 56 self-contained divisions. Each ministry/division has its own separate
charter of duties. The Cabinet division headed by the Prime Minister performs the coordinating role
among the ministries. Almost every ministry has computers and Internet access and some of theministries have website facilities. The address of the website of the Bangladesh Government is:www.bangladesh.gov.bd

II. Cultural Heritage and the Present Situation:
Bangladesh is heir to a rich cultural legacy. Over two thousands or more years of prolific history, many
famous dynasties of kings and sultans have ruled and disappeared, and have left their mark of intellect inthe shape of splendid cities and monuments, the barren ruins of which are still evident in many places
throughout the country.
Landmarks of antiquity in Bangladesh range from the 3rd century B.C to the 19th AD, before
our independence. In East Pakistan, the total inventory of our protected monuments amounted to 152,
now it has increased to 330, including two UNESCO World Heritage sites.

These sites include

Paharpur (an 8th century A.D Buddhist monument) and a group of monuments at Bagerhat (a 15th
century A.D mosque). We also have innumerable movable antiquities, that are increasing gradually as aresult of an increasing number of archaeological excavations every year.
Several dynasties ruled over this land and left their diversified cultural marks. These include:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Mouryas (3rd century B.C.)
Guptas (4th – 6th century A.D.)
Palas (8th – 12th century A.D.)
Sens (11th -12th century A.D.)
Muslim (12th -18th century A.D.)
British (18th- 19th century A.D.)

30

The progress of Bengal was observed in every dynasty. Bengal was primarily a rich province ofthe Mughal Empire, but in 1757 it was occupied by the British Empire who ruled them until 1947.
From 1947 to 1971 the area was it was referred to as East Pakistan, where the eastern part of the countryof Pakistan was separated from India in 1947.
There are many ancient monuments like victory towers, mosque, mausoleums, prosperous cities,
fortified palaces, Buddhist monasteries and temples in our country.

III. My Organization:
The Department of Archaeology is my organization. It is a sister organization of Ministry of Cultural
Affairs of the Govt. of Bangladesh. The Department of Archaeology is the only government agency ofBangladesh that bears the main responsibilities for preservation, restoration and excavation of cultural
heritage in the country. Taking care of those cultural sites is the prime function of the organization.
There are four sections in the Department of Archaeology. These are:1.

Conservation section

2.

Excavation and exploration section

3.

Chemical section and4.

Publication section

Conservation Section: This section controls the conservation, restoration and preservation of all
protected monuments under the Department. They also estimate the cost of conservation anddocumentation of monuments that are recorded through detailed drawing and design.
Excavation and exploration section: The responsibilities of this branch are to explore and excavate
undiscovered monuments.
Chemical section: This section does the chemical treatment of plant and fungus growth on the wall
surfaces and salinity of standing monuments found in excavations.
Publication section: This section publishes books and journals on the basis of information found fromsurvey and excavation. It also operates a library to aid research in the relevant fields.

IV. My Part in the Conservation of Our Monuments:
I have been working as conservator in the Department of Archaeology for long time. During this lengthy
period, I have worked on the conservation of monuments from almost every period of Bangladeshi
history. The core characteristic of our monuments is that the monuments of Mauryas, Gupta and Sultani(and earlier) have no plaster, but rather are made with lime surki, lime sand, or cement sand plaster.
These materials are also observed in Muslim monuments and later periods.

31

Paharpur:
Paharpur is a Buddhist monastery in the Noegaon district in the Rajshahi Division. This site occupies
roughly 7.87 hectares of land. It was built by Dharmapala of Pala dynasty between 770 - 810 A.D. It is asymmetrically planned and massively built single unit Buddhist monastery that is considered to be thesecond biggest among its kind ever built in the southern region of the Himalayas.
The rectangular plan is roughly 281X280 m. Each of its four wings has walls 4.8m thick.
Throughout the whole length there are a series of monastic cells numbering 177 excluding those in thecentral part of each wing.
More than 2000 terracotta plaques decorate the faces of the central temple of the monastery. No
regular sequential arrangement has been followed in fixing those plaques in the wall. The size of theseplaques varies in different sections of the walls. Some are unusually big measuring 40cm x 30cm x 6cm
and some are manufactured to a specially designed size about 18cm square.
Since 1973, the Bangladesh government has been making an appeal to UNESCO for assistancein safeguarding the ruins of Paharpur Vihara. Consequently a master plan was prepared by national andinternational experts in 1983 and the site was inscribed on the World Heritage list in 1985.
I have conserved its decaying cells and it’s bulged out wall with traditional methods using
dressed brick, surki and lime mortar. Water logging causes salinity and vegetal (i.e. fungal) growth since
the land on the site is lower than the surrounding lands.
Mohastan Garh:
These monuments are situated on the bank of “Korotoa” river about 12 kilometers north of Bogra town,
and represent the earliest city site in Bengal. The name Mohastan means a “Great Place”. Thesemonuments are within a landmark of 1524.39 m long and 1371m broad with an average height of 4.5 m
from the surrounding paddy fields.
A plain masonry grave, occupying the south eastern high mound within the citadel is found.
During excavations in 1928-34 and 1960-66 the earliest tapering mud rampart of the citadel was found tobe superimposed by the Pala defense wall. It was strengthened with a brick-wall core with watch towers
and bastions at certain intervals.
The relics of Mahastan have been identified with the ancient city of ‘ Pundra Nagar’ familiar
with Maurya, Gupta, Pala and Sena dynasties.
I have done the conservation work with the brick and lime-surki mortar during 1990-91.
The monument is being damaged by trespassers such as humans and birds because there are noboundary walls to protect.

32

Vasu Bihara:
Sir Alexander Cunninghum identified the ruined sites of Vasu Bihara which lie 10km west of Mahastan
Garh situated on the western bank of the ‘Nagar ‘river.
This site is a Buddhist monastery. The ancient ruins of Vasu-Bihara measure 243.90m x 228.65
m. and rise about 9.14 m. above ground level. It consists of five mounds, three large and two small.
Excavation at the three large mounds on the North West part of Vasu Bihara began in 1970. A large
number of excellently sculptured terracotta plaques were recovered from the excavation.
I have conserved its architectural and ornamental
aspects through traditional methods with dressed brick andlime surki mortar. Due to the lack of a boundary wall and adearth of manpower, it has become difficult to protect themonument.
Imamabad:This site is situated in Mirjapur Thana in the Panchagar

Fig.1 Imamabad, Before excavation

district. It is a single domed monument shaped like a heap.
The monument was made totally visible as the heap wascompletely excavated. The monument was totally restored
through drawing its design. In the middle of the monument
there is a room measuring 9.10m x 9.10 m that is surrounded
by a 1.00m wide veranda with an arch-opening. (Fig.1-4)
Fig.2 After excavation

Kaniadighi Mosque:This mosque is a rather small. It is situated between two largetanks one of which is called Baliadighi and other Kaniadighi.
The people of Gour called it Roybibi mosque. The size of its
inside room is 10m x 9.10 m and the veranda is 9.10m x 3 m.
There is no inscription to determine its construction time but it
is assumed that it might be made in around 1480 AD from its

Fig.3 Middle of conservation

stylist ground. The entire structure is highly decorated withterracotta ornamentation.
During my conservation period I removed lime
concrete and damaged terracotta from the wall surface of thesaline affected dome. After manufacturing the terracotta, I
replaced it properly.

Fig.4 After conservation

33

Sheliedaha Kuthibadi of Rabindranath Tagore:
Sheliedaha kutibari is just 10 km off from Kustia town, situated on the bank of the river Padma. It is
associated with the celebrated poet Rabindranath Tagore who is the only one noble winning Bengali poet.
It is a two storied building called “Kutibari” where the poet composed many of his famous poetic works.
It was built in the first part of 19th century. The wall plaster and wooden beams/ rafters doors andwindows are dilapidated. I replaced them with new structures. Almost all the roof asbestos sheets warebroken. They were replaced properly by me.

V. Present Activities
Although the department has some problems and drawbacks, it has undergone some commendableconservation and restoration work. Some of which are as follows:
Dhaniachak Mosque: This mosque is the part of the Gour group of monuments situated at Shibganj in
Chapai Nowabganj. It is a notable monument of the sultani era. The time period of this monument could
not be determined by any stone inscription or hearsay but it can be inferred from its construction styleand decorated terracotta that can be dated to the 15th century AD. (Fig.5-6)
Structural condition: The mosque was on the verge of demolition. The outer measurement of themosque is 10.6m x 8.6m and the measurement of the dome height straight to the springing line is 6.40m
from the floor. The inner height of the dome from the springing line is 2.15m. The mosque has twostanding stone pillars at the mid point. It is assumed that it existed with six domes of two lines tonorth-south and three from east-west. The mosque has seven arch opening measurements which are on
average 1.67 and 3.75m. The breadth of the wall is 1.82m.
Documentation: The north south wall of the mosque wasdamaged but the south and east wall are straight at the groundlevel. By following the cornice, panel, and the arch door openingof north wall, the architectural design was revealed. Thenthrough photography and detailed drawing, documentationcommenced. The mosque has four octagonal corner turrets in its
Fig.5 Dhaniachak Mosque: Before
conservation work

four corners. The sides of which, are decorated with floral
terracotta and ornamented dressed brick.
Restoration method: As the mosque had two load bearing walls
straight to ground level, the structural design of the foundation
was made before restoring these two walls. Additionally, after
testing the load bearing capacity of the middle pillar the
restoration work commenced. Terracotta design and springing

Fig.6 Dhaniachak Mosque: Middle ofconservation work

line remains were in the relic of the dome in the southwest

34

corner. The height and design were easily revealed from these remains.
Materials: Almost all of the monuments in our country were built with brick structures, thus, wetraditionally used lime surki and bricks in construction.
• Brick: We generally use brick that are available on the market. We dress these normal bricks into thesizes that suit each monument structure and then we use them. In Bangladesh we use hand tools to dress
the bricks.
• Lime: Stone lime is usually used as binding material in restoration work. Lime and surki should bemixed proportionately, kept drenched for 6 to 7 days, and then it is used.
• Surki (Brick dust): This is used as fine material in the restoration of the Dhaniachak mosque. Surki is
divided into two parts by filtering it through a net; one is fine and another is thick. Fine surki is used
proportionately while face brick and thick surki are used in the core wall.
Arch restoration: Five arch openings have been built on the shape of the north arch of the mosque. The
measurement of such is 3.35m height and 1.7m wide. The texture of the arch is done by cantering andshattering before construction.
Dome: This is found by studying the structural design of the mosque that has six domes. The height ofeach of was 8.53m from the floor level, and the diameter was 3.04m. The shape of the dome is restoredby cantering and shattering in the traditional method and the dome is constructed with a dressed bricktexture.
Corner turret: The mosque has four octagonal corner turrets of which there are four ornamental bands inlower portion, two in the middle and three in the upper portion.
Terracotta: The inner and outer screen walls were decorated with floral terracotta of different sizes.
Some remains of which were present on the northern wall. Terracotta is made with sticky soil withoutchemical elements and salt through a traditional process. Terracotta is dried in sunlight and burned in
Kent after properly smoothening by hand and then replaced with mortar of lime and surki.
Ornamental brick: Ornamental brick is used in the different parts of the mosque such as cornice band
etc. General bricks are brought into required size and shape by dressing and then placed into position.
Problems of restoration: The mosque is in a remote location outside the boundaries of any electricity
supply areas. Unfortunately, transportation problems and electrical equipment (that would have helped
smooth restoration work) hampered the restoration activities. A dearth of manpower is acute. Salinity is athreat to terracotta and design work. The monument can be damaged due to a lack of regular care.
Additionally, it can be fall prey to vandalism.
Dhaniachak is a notable monument of the ancient capital of Bengal “Gour”. After the six
domes of the mosque and the south east wall were restored, it has become a scenic beauty for viewers.

35

This mosque represents an example of the restoration of a sultani monument due to the maintenance of
its original quirk.

VI. Problems
As an incumbent of the restoration and conservation of the cultural heritage of Bangladesh, I feel that theArchaeological Department faces a diverse range of problems in its field. I would classify them into fourtypes:
1.

Organizational

2.

Environmental

3.

Technical

4.

Financial and Manpower

Organizational problems:
Bangladesh bears a prolific cultural heritage. We have still yet to discover them all. We are unaware
about the exact number of relics or sites as archaeological site surveys have not yet been completed, andonly two administrative divisions have been surveyed. The present organizational strength is inadequate
to efficiently conduct thorough surveys. Thus, the organization has to be reengineered to enhance andelaborate its surveys in order to identify sites. Due a lack of attention regarding the planning andcarrying out of survey projects, many sites may be altered or lost due preservation problems (i.e. erosion,
natural degradation).
Environmental problems:
By enforcing the Antiquity Act in Bangladesh some sites are declared as protected. Preservation work
has yet to be started there. In order to ensure proper preservation, the necessary lands around the sites
have not yet been sold to private developers. Interest groups in these areas are unaware of the nationaltreasures in their own country, but rather seek to enhance their own interests. They often destroy buried
relics by removing bricks and selling them for their personal benefit. Though it is forbidden under the
Antiquity Act, it becomes difficult to apply because of some practical reasons. These are the worst casesof unprotected mounds. Without protecting the mounds that still survive, and acquiring the land aroundthose it is impossible to protect sites against vandalism. Unauthorized occupation in urban area is also atypical problem because of the very high acquisition value. The occupants do not intend to vacate thosemounds. Bara Katra and Choto Katra are examples that are still suffering from such problems. For thisreason the department is still fumbling to protect the precinct of the monuments.
Illicit trafficking is a major problem in this country as well. Valuable movable objects are being
trafficked. A significant number of small antiquities were reported to have been sold in some places by
the dwellers of local areas of different monuments. Ancient sites are facing the problem of urbanization36

and industrialization in each nearby area. These large constructions seriously destroy the site
environment. Smoke emitting from industries blacken the walls and roofs of monuments. Lalbag of
Dhaka is a typical example of this problem. So pollution especially in urban areas damages themonuments. Vibration for the plying of heavy vehicles near the monuments is also damaging. Chotosona
mosque is an example of this problem. Apart from the environmental problems, there others those also
create technical problems. I will now discuss these technical problems below.
Technical Problem:
Seasonal aggressive monsoons lead to rapid forest growth in this region. The vegetation galvanizes
surprising vitality, and once an ancient monument falls into neglect and needs repair, it becomes mantled
by vegetation. Other scrub buries the monument quickly under its foliage. Large numbers of unprotectedmonuments have unfortunately disappeared. The pre-Muslim monuments are vulnerable against
vegetation. These buildings were constructed with brick laid in mud mortars that are less resistant toheavy rain. Rain washes away its mud padded outer plaster coating with a proportion of cow dung andhush. The edifice crumbles quickly into pieces and eventually vegetation takes charge. It is indeed agreat problem to preserve these pre-Muslim monuments in their original shapes and quirks. Experiments
like ‘Paharpur’ which is included on the UNESCO World Heritage list, appear not satisfactory. Problems
regarding chemical preservation vary in materials and kinds of objects. Some important images cannot
be treated properly. Sandstone and black basalt used in “Vajrasatva” are steadily decaying and needurgent attention, however, very little has been done so far. Condensation in the monuments of thesouthern region damages the upper level of the internal walls. The Ranvijoypur mosque is an example ofthis problem. Salinity is a severe problem in the preservation of monuments including “Paharpur”.
Monuments in southern regions nearer to the sea coast are under the threat of salinity. The germination ofmoss, lichen, and other plant material, coupled with the slow process caused by the effects of salinity,
gradually creates changes in the original colours as well as causing the materials to crumble into dust.
Financial and Manpower problems:Financial constraints are an acute problem for the department. There is no significant allotment of funds
in annual budgets for this purpose. The available budget allocation is not enough for smooth
maintenance of the work.
A dearth of skilled people is also a problem. For not having competent manpower, many
unprotected sites are being neglected. If they are not being taken proper care of they will be demolishedand lost forever.

VII. Suggestions
In the above discussion I have suggested some ways for immediate progress of the conservation and37

restoration situation in Bangladesh. These can be summarized in the following list:yAdequate budget allocation is to be provided in the annual budget.

y

As our economy is not that much capable of providing adequate funding for conservation, thegovernment may use foreign assistance.

yAdequate funding should be placed for research in order to improve conservation and restoration
techniques.

yRequired manpower with relevant skills should be gradually recruited.

y

To improve the quality of the present workforce,, top level training in Bangladesh and abroad
should be provided. Assistance from expert organizations like ICCROM and ACCU can besought at the national level.

yPresent organizations have to be reengineered in order to make them capable of doing the job as
expected.

VIII. Conclusion
Since becoming a sovereign state in 1971 after its War of Independence, the art and architecture of
Bangladesh has re-emerged as a result of an attentive effort by both scholars and administrators to createa solid cultural identity for its people. As part of this process I personally feel a constant desire todeveloping my skills and knowledge in order to contribute to this field. Affluent organizations like
ACCU play a pivotal role in this field. It is a great opportunity for me to have been involved with thisorganization for some time. ACCU has a proven record of imparting appropriate training to concerned
specialists who play a vital role in improving the process of conservation and restoration of historicmonuments in Bangladesh and other countries. It is my firm conviction that ACCU will provide me withsome golden keys for which I will be able to unlock some doors to enter into the world of various typesof expertise. And as such, I will also be able to contribute to discover and conserve the nationaltreasure of monuments of Bangladesh.

38

The Kingdom of Bhutan
Dorji YANGKI
Architect
Division for Conservation of Architectural Heritage,
Department of Culture, Ministry of Home and Cultural Affairs,

PROBLEMS AND NEEDS IN ARCHITECTURAL HERITAGECONSERVATION AND PROTECTION

Introduction
Bhutan, a tiny Buddhist Kingdom, lies in the folds of the great
Eastern Himalayan ranges sandwiched between the giant nationsof India to the South and China to the North. Bhutan consists of anarea of 38,394 square km and a population estimated at 734,340.
Even though in terms of population and land area Bhutan is small,it has been recognised as one of the ten hot biodiversity spots onearth and the Kingdom is home to one of the world's richest
natural environments and a virtually untouched vibrant Buddhist
culture that has thrived for many centuries.
Bhutan remains mainly a rural country with the majority of the people involved in rural
farming. Never having been colonised, Bhutanese people are fiercely independent and proud of
their history, culture, and traditions. Unlike many other countries, the arts, traditions, ceremonies
and festivals in the Kingdom are not remnants of a bygone age, and are still celebrated as they havebeen done for centuries because they still continue to have cultural and spiritual significance in theeveryday lives of the Bhutanese people. For Bhutan, the aspiration has always been to bridge thegap between modern development with the treasures of its cultural heritage traditions and values.
In spite of a small population, the culture of Bhutan is a rich mosaic of different
sub-cultures, traditions, life styles, ethnic groups, languages and belief systems. However, theBhutanese socio-cultural fabric is well interlaced and harmonious due mainly to the common
threads of simple but strong social, communal and spiritual values that the people share.

Bhutanis the last surviving independent country in the world that practises the Mahayana form of
Buddhist culture. Buddhism, with its simple values of peace, compassion and harmony among all
sentient beings, has such a vast and strong influence in Bhutan that it has virtually shaped all
institutions including arts, drama, music, literature, architecture, social principles and traditions
and the relationships between people and the natural environment they live in.
39

The Significance of Cultural Heritage in Bhutan:
For a small nation like Bhutan, located between two large neighbours, China and India, the cultural
heritage of the country is considered the foundation upon which the identity of the Bhutanesepeople and the Kingdom of Bhutan as a sovereign, independent nation is built. The cultural
heritage of Bhutan is so intricately woven into practically all aspects of the lives of the Bhutanese,that the overall sustainable development of the country would be virtually impossible without thepromotion, preservation and development of its cultural heritage side by side with development inother sectors.
The country's modern economic, social and technological development has been planned
so that it does not impair its traditional and cultural values. No other endorsement is moresignificant or embraces the development of the spiritual and cultural wealth of the country, than the
support of His Majesty, the King. In the words of His Majesty, the King: “Gross National
Happiness is more important than Gross National Product”. Under this guiding principle, cultural
heritage is considered one of the four pillars of development.
To meet the challenges of incorporating traditional Bhutanese cultural values andpractices in the holistic development of the country, His Majesty, the King, through a royal decree,in 1985, established the Special Commission for Cultural Affairs (now the Department of Culture
under the Ministry of Home and Cultural Affairs) to manage the conservation and development of
Bhutan's rich cultural and historical heritage. Although the Department of Culture is the central
Government organisation, the conservation and protection of the heritage of the country is
considered to be a shared responsibility between all bodies, institutions, districts, local
communities and the individual citizens of the country.

With the initiation of the decentralisation

policies of the Royal Government, the Bhutanese people are the key players in the conservation,
development and promotion of our country’s rich architectural heritage.
Even though Bhutan gives great significance to the preservation and promotion of its
cultural heritage, this does not imply that Bhutan intends to remain stagnant. The wish for thedevelopment of the country has always been to connect the gap between modern development withthe treasures of the country's cultural traditions and values.
''If culture is to survive and flourish, to continue to serve as a source of inspiration, andto give spiritual, moral and psychological content and guidance to the Kingdom's future
process of development, it must be understood in dynamic terms, and we must seek toensure that it retains its value and relevance to a society in transformation. Without such
efforts, our rich legacy could lose part of its value and ultimately become an unintended
hindrance to change rather than a positive force and a source of inspiration, especiallyfor our young people. This requires us to look forward as well as backward informulating future strategies.''40

Architectural Heritage of Bhutan
Architectural heritage in Bhutan includes not just the tangible qualities found in its beautiful
structures but also the intangible qualities found in its architectural systems and traditions that havebeen handed down through many generations.
Intangible Architectural Heritage of Bhutan:
Intangible heritage in Bhutan
is

found

in

the

ancient

traditional knowledge, skills
andpractices

of

zows

(carpenters), dozops (stone
masons),parps(carvers),

lhadrips (painters) and in the
traditional systems of mastercraftsmen
that

and

were

centuries

apprentices

followed

intheIntangible

Traditional rituals and communal ceremonies associated with architecturein Bhutan

forcountry.

architectural

heritage in Bhutan is also
found in the ancient rituals,
traditions

andcommunal

gatherings followed during
construction
Intangible

projects.
architectural

heritage in Bhutan is stilllargely intact and very widelypractised.

Intangible Heritage –Traditional Techniques41

Tangible Architectural Heritage in Bhutan:
The majority of the heritage buildings in Bhutan date back to the 17th and 18th centuries, but many
have their roots as far back as the 7th century. Bhutan’s architectural heritage are not only
structural achievements but are also considered treasure houses possessing beautiful murals,
sculptures, carvings, wood and metal works, textiles and manuscripts.
With very little recorded history before the 17th Century, architectural heritage in Bhutan
may hold a wealth of important information of great historical, cultural, religious and architectural
significance.

Architectural heritage sites are also focal areas for communal festivals, rituals andtraditions, thus fostering the conservation and promotion of other aspects of culture like dance andmusic. However, for a tiny country like Bhutan, above all, architectural heritage is more than just a
matter of material remains from the past but is considered to be central to its identity, unity andcontinuity.
Bhutan has over two thousand ancient Buddhist temples, and monasteries, over twentynine very large fortresses, and over ten thousand Buddhist Stupas scattered in every corner of theKingdom. There is not a single village without an ancient temple or monastery and on average eachDistrict has approximately one hundred ancient temples within its locality. Besides the main
monuments, traditional timber bridges, many beautiful traditional farmhouses, vernacular
structures, and entire ancient villages, some dating back to many hundreds of years, are also stillintact and still in use in Bhutan. Thus every Bhutanese live their daily lives among thisarchitectural heritage backdrop providing them with constant links to their heritage.
Traditional architecture in Bhutan has developed over many centuries with adaptations tosuit the local environment, climatic conditions, availability of local materials, local construction
technology, and most importantly, cultural traditions, religious beliefs and inherent domestic
situations. Traditional architecture in Bhutan is characterised by the use of natural and local
materials such as earth, bamboo, local timbers, and stones. Walls were mainly constructed oframmed earth or stone masonry.
Timber, which is found abundantly in Bhutan, is used for almost all other structuralelements. Timber is used lavishly in windows, doors, stairs, balconies, columns, beams, floors,ceilings, roofs and for elaborate decorative elements. Wooden shingles held down with the help ofsmall boulders form the main roofing material. It is this elegant use of timber in indigenous
Bhutanese architecture that is mainly responsible for its very elegant and unique appearance andcharacter.
Examples of architectural heritage structures in Bhutan:
Large fortresses (called Dzongs), temples (Lhakhangs), monasteries (Goenpas), stupas (Chortens),

42

palaces (Phodrangs) , bridges (zams) and vernacularhousing (Yue Chim) that dot the countryside, form
diverse but harmonious architectural expressions of
the cultural heritage and living traditions of thepeople of Bhutan.
Dzongs (fortresses):
Among the architectural masterpieces in Bhutan,
the large fortresses known as Dzongs are by far themost impressive. Dzongs dominate almost every
region with their massive towering stone walls,
wide open courtyards and intricate decorated timberelements.

With its primary objective of defence,the site selected for a Dzong was usually acommanding one, generally on a strategic mountainoverlooking the entrance to a valley.
In terms of historical importance, Dzongs
are the most significant symbols of the history andculture of Bhutan. Dzongs were the seats of

The Punakha Dzong

powerful leaders and often great historical battles
and events took place in or around a Dzong. They
thus played vital roles in establishing the identity
and independence of the Bhutanese. A particularly
important association that Dzongs epitomise is thehistoric dual system of governance and powershared harmoniously between a secular leader and areligious leader that still exists today.

Paro Dzong

Unlike many heritage fortresses aroundthe world that stand today as museums for tourists,
Dzongs in Bhutan are still used as they were formany centuries. Each main Dzong in a District
houses the offices of the local Government andresidences of the local monastic body. Some of thebest examples of Bhutanese artistic achievements
and craftsmanship are found in the Dzongs. Dzongs
are treasure houses of magnificent murals, carvings,
Trongsa Dzong

43sculptures, ancient hand printed manuscripts, rare artefacts,
and textiles. As the most prominent building in a region,
Dzongs were, and continue to be architectural trendsettersfor other buildings in Bhutan.
Lhakhangs and Goenpas (Temples and Monasteries):
Gantey Buddhist Templeth(16 Century A.D.)

With over two thousand Lhakhangs and Goenpas in Bhutan,
they can be found in almost every village and on almost
every mountaintop in the country. Although they do notmatch the soaring proportions of the Dzongs, many
Buddhist Lhakhangs (temples) and Goenpas (monasteries)
are older than the Dzongs, with some dating as far back as
the 7th century. The Lhakhangs are the most prominentbuilding in a village due to their rich architectural details.
Besides being religious centres, they also have importantParo Taktshang Monastery(origins in 7th Century)social and cultural functions as almost all village cultural
events are held there.

Chortens (Buddhist Stupas):
With

over

Chortensten

thousand(stupas)locatedmainly on high mountain passes,
on roads, on approaches toimportant locations, and on
bridges, they are the mostcommonheritagestructures

found

Bhutan.

Chortensinrange from as small as 2 metreshigh to heights of over 10
metres. Chortens are sometimes
linked by long thick walls
calledmani(prayer)walls,

whichareinscribed

withreligious paintings and prayers.
Chortens are built mainly ofstone and mud mortar.
Examples of Buddhist Stupas in Bhutan

44

Traditional Houses:
Secular architecture finds its main
form in traditional farmhouses thatform small clusters in tiny villages.
A Bhutanese home is not only aresidential unit but also a social,economic and religious unit.

Apartfrom providing a home for thefamily and shelter for domestic
livestock it is also an extension of

Examples of traditional villages in Bhutan

the religious space of a temple.
Although normal indigenous housesof farmers were two stories high, anideal house was one that had threemain floors and an attic, with eachlevel having distinctive functions.
Unlikethefarmhouses

main
have

monuments,
yet

to

be

designated as heritage properties.
However,thesignificanceExamples of traditional BhutaneseHousesTraditional Farm Houseofvernacular architecture is slowly being recognised and steps are being taken to protect it.
Palaces:
Very few palaces exist in Bhutan. The main ones that exist today were built by the presentmonarchy in the 19th century. These palaces were often built like Dzongs with stone masonrywalls and richly decorated timber elements.

Wangdue Choling Palace (Built by the 1st King of present Monarchy – 100 years)

45

Wangdue Choling Palace (Built by the 1st King of present Monarchy – 100 years)

Traditional Timber Bridges:
Traditional bridges built over gushing mountain rivers and streams are one of the most elegant
examples of traditional architectural heritage. Bridges range from simple logs, long spanning iron
chain suspension bridges, to beautiful timber covered bridges. Almost all the major bridges in
Bhutan were built by great religious or historical figures and are of particular religious and cultural
significance to the Bhutanese. Often many colourful legends are associated with these bridges
while the stone towers built to support the span of the bridges are usually consecrated as a sacredstructure. Traditional bridges are still in use today.

Examples of Traditional Bridges in Bhutan

46

Main Problems in the Conservation of Architectural Heritage in Bhutan:
Although there are many diverse problems related to the conservation of heritage in Bhutan, themain ones are the following:i. Lack of awareness of the appropriate concepts and values of conservation of architectural
heritage.
Conservation understood in the international sense is a fairly new concept in Bhutan. In the pastbuildings were often renewed and replaced according to changing needs.

Today, although theefforts are sincere, many ancient and valuable structures are often being dismantled and replaced
without any efforts to conserve the valuable heritage fabric, thus causing whole treasure houses of
irreplaceable heritage to be lost forever. Often changes are made simply because the structure is
old without realising the various values of the fabric itself. Further, replacements are often madeusing entirely new designs and built with new modern materials and techniques.
ii. Shortage of skilled trained manpower in the field of Conservation:
Shortage of skilled manpower trained in the field of conservation is a major obstacle in Bhutan,
and is resulting in the loss of irreplaceable heritage. Often, significant architectural elements thatcan be saved are simply replaced or destroyed due to the fact that people who work on them haveno training in conservation techniques that can be used to save these heritage elements. Presently
there are no architects or any other professionally trained people in the field of conservation in anyof the District offices. The Central office (Department of Culture) also has less than ten
professionals trained in the field of conservation of architectural heritage. Many of these people
have only received very short term training. The formulation and implementation of a long-term
human resource development plan for the cultural sector is thus an urgent requirement.
With regard to traditional skills, the majority of the experts belong mainly to an older
generation and therefore if these skills are not passed on to the younger generation, it could resultin the gradual loss of traditional architectural knowledge and traditions. Thus it is very importantthat such traditional skills and knowledge are passed on to the younger generation. It is also
necessary to ensure that such skills are promoted in the mainstream so that these skills are
sustained.
iii. Lack of appropriate legislation and guidelines:
Although there are plans and policies currently in place, proper legislation with regard to
the protection of architectural heritage does not exist. This has been a major stumbling block
during actual implementation of conservation projects because without relevant legal support andguidance, many efforts become ineffective.
47

iv. Slow eradication of communal sentiments and responsibility:
Traditional sentiments of responsibility by local communities that has existed for many centuries
towards heritage has recently started to eradicate and is slowly resulting in constraints in the
management and maintenance of heritage. In earlier times, the local village community contributed
towards maintaining their communal village properties and activities. Today, due to issues likecommercialism and urban migration, some village communities have started handing over such
responsibilities to the central government, resulting in the gradual loss of ownership, responsibility
and pride for communal properties and activities by communities.
v. Collisions of heritage with external influences and modern development:
For many centuries largely due to very little external influence, architectural heritage was always
automatically protected and conserved in the local traditions and with local materials andtechniques. Today, external influences and modern development aspirations are slowly but surely
leading to the replacement of traditional architectural designs and techniques. Architecture that is
unique, environmentally friendly, and built from local materials is being replaced by concrete
structures that are out of context in the regions of Bhutan and often are constructed clumsily due toinexperience and lack of skills. Traditional houses are starting to be looked on as being
representative of ‘peasantry’, and are under threat of slowly being replaced with modern buildings.
vi. Insufficient funds:
Bhutan is one of the least economically developed countries in the world. To ensure the sustainable
pace of development, Bhutan is determined not to compromise its rich natural resources formaking immediate economic gains that may lead to disastrous consequences in the future. The
current level of monetization of the Bhutanese economy is thus very low, and therefore the limited
and scarce resources of the Government have to meet many other pressing demands. With many
historical monuments in Bhutan showing signs of accelerated deterioration and in need of urgent
conservation (often many of the sites are very large and thus require huge sums of funds forconservation), the Government is often unable to immediately allocate sufficient funds to cover theimmense number of requirements under the cultural sector.
vii. Remote location of heritage structures:
Many heritage sites in Bhutan are located in very remote and isolated areas in the Himalayan
Mountains. Therefore, it is difficult to provide appropriate provisions for their maintenance andprotection.

Effort and assistance often do not reach in time to be effective in these remote areas.

Additionally, the remote and isolated locations have resulted in the desecration of many isolated
Stupas and temples by robbers in search of heritage artefacts.

48

Present Bodies for the Conservation of Architectural Heritage in Bhutan
The need for policies and bodies to manage and protect heritage was previously never viewed as anecessity. The recent need and development of specific policies and bodies for the conservation ofarchitectural heritage is thus, also an element of recent development aspirations and challenges.
The Department of Culture, under the Ministry of Home and Cultural Affairs remains the central
agency in the country responsible for the conservation and development of Bhutan’s ancient
heritage. Under the Department of Culture, the Division for Conservation of Architectural Heritage(DCAH) is the key office that is responsible for the conservation, promotion and development of
the architectural heritage of Bhutan.
Functions of the Division for Conservation of Architectural Heritage:-

Formulation of policies, and regulations for the protection of architectural heritage in the
country.

-

The National Inventory of all the historical and cultural monuments and sites in the country.

-

Appraisal, approval and monitoring of projects concerning cultural and historicalmonuments and sites that are implemented in the country.

-

Provision of technical and administrative assistance to the Districts with regard to historicaland cultural monuments and sites in the country.

-

Management and implementation of projects concerning National Monuments.

-

Co-ordination with other organisations with regard to plans and projects concerning
conservation of Bhutan's architectural heritage.

-

Co-ordination with foreign donors with regard to projects concerning Bhutan's architectural
heritage.

-

Organisation of workshops and small training sessions for the protection and promotion ofarchitectural heritage in the country.

-

Besides conservation work, the Division (with its Architects and Engineers) is also
responsible for the establishment of new structures or sites for cultural activities.

-

The Division also provides technical assistance for the maintenance, repair and developmentof all existing buildings of the Department of Culture. This includes the Paro National
Museum, the National Library, the Textile Museum, the Folk Heritage Museum, and theRoyal Academy of Performing Arts.

Role and Responsibilities of the District Office:Although the Department of Culture is the main organisation, the protection and preservation of
the heritage of the country is considered to be a shared responsibility between all bodies,49

institutions, the Districts (Dzongkhags), the local communities and each individual.
The District offices and the grass root level communal offices are key players in theprotection of our architectural heritage, and in keeping with the national policy of decentralization
the respective District Office has the following functions:-

To enforce all rules and regulations with regard to the protection and promotion ofarchitectural heritage in the country in the District.

-

To establish, operate and encourage facilities for the conservation of cultural and historicalstructures and sites.

-

To create awareness among the local communities of the significance of architectural
heritage.

-

To care for and carry out the conservation, maintenance and support of historic and culturalmonuments and sites and their respective functions.

-

To identify and select the monument or site to be conserved in their District.

-

To manage conservation Projects in their District.

Future Steps for the Conservation of Architectural Heritage in Bhutan:
In comparison to many countries in the world, Bhutan is fortunate to still have its beautiful ancientarchitectural heritage largely intact. Thus Bhutan still stands in a unique and wonderful position to
be still able to make choices and choose a good path for the conservation of this heritage.
However, as Bhutan heads towards modern development, change and evolution ofcultural traditions and values attached to them cannot be ignored. Traditional architectural systems
are now suddenly challenged by new values, the introduction of new materials and externalarchitectural systems. Consequently, this emerging threat means that traditional architectural
heritage is now in need of protection.
Bhutan is keen not to make the mistakes that many other developing and developed
countries have made, where architectural heritage has often been sacrificed in the name of progressand has been pushed into the fringes of society. However, there are no ready-made standard
formulae for Bhutan to pick from for the conservation of its architectural heritage. The
conservation of architectural heritage in Bhutan means choosing a path, which cannot be just based
just on past values even if the origin of this architectural heritage sprang from those values. It can
only be based on the present understanding of those past values and also on future values that thepresent values strive to predict and influence.
An important step in the conservation of architectural heritage in Bhutan would be theconsideration of the development of strong legislation for its protection. Currently the Division for

50

Conservation of Architectural Heritage is working on research to formulate a Legal Act for theprotection of Architectural Heritage in Bhutan. Examples of Acts from around the world are being
studied in order to generate ideas to put together a Legal Act that will benefit Bhutan and its own
particular context.
However, one of the most significant steps that could be taken for the conservation ofarchitectural heritage in Bhutan would be to create awareness and appreciation among the local
public and craftspeople of the values of their heritage and traditions. It means building pride in
heritage now so that this is not left too late in future. The Division for Conservation ofArchitectural Heritage has taken initial simple steps to create awareness among the public. Essay
competitions were organised between different schools and the general public in the last three
years to facilitate discussions on the value of architectural heritage. The Division is also planningto bring out supplemental papers on architectural heritage in Bhutan’s national paper to help createawareness of architectural heritage values and its conservation concepts. However these are justinitial steps and there is still much to be done.
An importance aspect in the conservation of architectural heritage in Bhutan is the factthat almost all architectural heritage structures are still in use for various activities. Architectural
traditions are still practised in Bhutan. Old buildings were simply ‘renewed’ according to needs
and changing requirements of the people. Thus a ‘living’ tradition continued. Clearly asarchitectural heritage in Bhutan is conceived and utilised in a context that is different to ‘westerncontexts’, one cannot help but raise new conservation issues.
However, if one totally accepts and applies only the values inherent in the acceptance ofchange in the context of architectural heritage, then one has to accept that within the near future,architectural heritage in Bhutan, in its current form, will no longer exist as these values justify its
replacement by new modern materials and designs. This also means that even the intangible
heritage found in architectural systems that have survived for hundreds of years may not exist, as
the acceptance of values of total change may also justify its replacement by modern architectural
systems. This means that Bhutan would follow a similar pattern of heritage as seen in the West
where any traditions that exist are relegated to societal fringes and the ‘past’ is rendered as the‘past’.
The future of Bhutan’s heritage thus rests mainly upon on the understanding of it, theappropriate values attached to it, and consequently actions taken to conserve and promote thesevalues. Only through awareness and understanding of their heritage can people feel motivated tosafeguard it. Thus the people themselves become the best custodians of their own heritage. This
understanding and affection towards their heritage is in itself, in the long term, a cultural asset.
Therefore, understanding the values of architectural heritage in Bhutan and taking appropriate
steps towards its conservation, development and promotion are of immense importance.

51

Conservation in Bhutan thus could mean choosing a middle path that lies in the balance ofliving traditions and consequent changes balanced with the values of the total preservation ofarchitectural heritage fabric itself in its authentic static state. The path that Bhutan must choose forthe conservation of architectural heritage lies in the reconciliation of these two extremes.
The path has to be based on the balance of the inherent Buddhist values from whicharchitecture in Bhutan derives its essence from with the new values and requirements that emerge
from Bhutan’s modern development process. One has to acknowledge that this is not considered aneasy task. The balance of values is never straightforward. There is a constant balance to be struck
between the competing and changing practical, political, resource and economic circumstances
affecting the cultural heritage and the best ways to deal with these issues. Therefore, the guidance
needed today for the care and future of architectural heritage in Bhutan usually falls somewhere in
the middle between outright conservation philosophy on the one hand, and the replacement
philosophy on the other.
In the end ‘judgement is everything. However, appropriate judgement demands skill,
knowledge, training and practical coordination. The most appropriate and sound solutions are thus
based on detailed study and analysis of accurate information. This means that it is imperative thatthorough research, analysis and documentation of the architectural heritage in Bhutan are carriedout and the young are educated in the field of conservation.
The investigation and the understanding of a heritage site: its significance, history,materials, methods of construction, intended use, current use, along with its present context, aretherefore, the essential key to the successful process of conservation where architectural heritagebuildings in Bhutan are concerned. Although changes cannot be avoided during conservation,
whatever changes are carried out on historical sites need not compromise the significance of thatheritage.
Unlike economic goals that are often defined and predicted by numbers, cultural goals are
extremely complicated and difficult to predict. The future for Bhutan’s architectural heritage is,thus, also unpredictable but one can be assured that it will have a bright future as long as Bhutan
continues to follow its current development philosophy that is guided by the country’s concept of‘Gross National Happiness’ (rather than the achievement of high levels of Gross National Income),
under which cultural heritage is given equal, if not more significance than just economic andmaterial advancement.

52

Cambodia
Sim THAN
Conservation Architect
Conservation Division, Department of Monuments and Archaeology
APSARA Authority

COUNTRY REPORT FOR THE TRAINING COURSE ON THE
PRESERVATION AND RESTORATION OF CULTURAL HERITAGE
IN THE ASIA – PACIFIC REGION 2005
CONTENTSI.

Introduction

II.

Cambodian Geography

III.

Brief History of Ancient Khmer Wooden Heritage

IV.

Traditional Khmer Housing ArchitectureV.

Characteristics of Khmer Temple Architecture

VI.

Previous Responsible Work and Current Work

VII. History and Organization of APSARA Authority
VIII. Conclusion

I. Introduction
It is with great honour and delight that one of the members of the Department of Monuments andArchaeology from the APSARA Authority and the Kingdom of Cambodia was selected by the
ACCU Nara office in cooperation with ICCROM and UNESCO to attend the 2005 training courseon the conservation of wooden heritage in Nara, Japan.
Among of the many countries in the Asia Pacific region, Cambodia is one rich in cultural
heritage, particularly, in the region of Angkor, Siem Reap province, Angkor Borei in Takeo
province, Sambor Prei Kuk Complex in Kampong Thom province, the group of Koh Ker in Preah
Vihear Province, and other heritage places in various provinces.
The cultural heritage of the sacred land of Angkor has been inscribed on the UNESCOWorld Heritage list since 1993, but was actually given official status in 1995.
During this time the Royal Government of Cambodia created the National Authority toProtect and Manage Cultural Heritage Sites, to work closely with UNESCO and collaborate withother International Institutes.

53Thus, in regard to the great opportunity of attending the ACCU Nara training course, I
have prepared one report dealing with the topic of the conservation of wooden heritage, with theaim of addressing the topic of human resource development for the preservation and restoration ofcultural heritage in Cambodia.

II. Cambodian Geography
The Kingdom of Cambodia is located in Southeast Asia between 10 o north of the equator to 15 o
Northern latitude and 102 o longitude to 108 o Eastern latitude.

Cambodia borders three

countries:-

The East and the South border Vietnam-

The North borders Laos-

The West and the North border Thailand-

The Southwest borders to the Gulf of Thailand
The territory of Cambodia is roughly square in shape. The distance from East to Westrepresents 560 km, and 440 km from North to South, with a surface of area of 181,035 km2. The
population is approximately 12, 492, 014 (according to the 2004 Ministry of Interior census). The
Capital is Phnom Penh.
Cambodia is half the size of Vietnam and Thailand and almost two-thirds the size of Laos,and has 300 km of shoreline along the Gulf of Thailand. It consists of 21 province and 3cities with
its central at Kampong Thom Province.
Cambodia’s longest river is the Mekong, which flows across China, Laos Thailand,
Cambodia and Vietnam. It takes its source from Tibet in China and is 4,200 km long.

The

Mekong is divided into four branches at Phnom Penh directly in front of the Royal Palace, where
the King presently lives, and is called Tunle Chakdumouk (the four sided river).
The biggest lake in Cambodia is called Boeung Tonle Sap (which means, fresh water lake),
and is 150 km long and 32 km wide during the summer. Cambodia also possesses a multitude oftemples among which is Angkor Wat Temple,
considered to be the 7th wonder of the ancient world.
There

are

3

main

domains

comprisingCambodia’s national economic stability, these are thefollowing:-

Agricultural domain-

Tourism domain-

Garment industry

Map of Cambodian Indochina

54

III. Brief History of Ancient Khmer Wooden Heritage
There are many archaeological remains in Cambodia,
such as, monuments, bridges, habitats, inscriptions,sculptures, Buddhist monasteries, Buddha statues, andother objects.
All of them are mostly made of sandstone,
laterite, bricks and metal. Due to their age of a hundredyears ago, they were regarded as very important
antiquities in Cambodian national heritage, and some

Ox-cart in bas-reliefs at Bayon Temple

antiquities were inscribed on the UNESCO World
Heritage list. Beside these objects made of stone, brickor metal, some other heritage properties are made ofvaluable wood that still remain visible today.
Through the bas-reliefs of Bayon and Angkor
Wat temple, carvings of wooden houses and other tools

Boat in bas-reliefs at Bayon Temple

used in daily life made of wood are depicted, forinstance, ox-carts, boats, and other items.

Therefore, we might say that the Khmer people had

their own cultural ideas for using wood for dwellings, religious buildings (i.e. Buddhist
monasteries), statues, and daily tools since ancient times.
Research and excavation at the Royal Palace in the Phimean Akas temple compound by
Jacques Gaucher from 1996-1997 yielded fragment of roof tiles, parts of wooden columns, wooden

Phimean Akas Temple, 12th Century A.D.

Excavation at the Royal palace in the Phimean Akas Compound by Mr Jacques Gaucher, who found partof a wooden building in historic sediments (Depth: 2.5m to 3m).

55

planks and other wooden architectural accessories. Gaucher concluded that the Royal Palace wasconstructed from A.D. 1169 to 1171. Today, some items of this wooden heritage were reburied
while others were kept in the EFEO warehouse.
In the Northern Khleang Temple, located in the Angkor Thom compound, researchers
found wooden beams still in their original location in 2 places on the doorway of the central temple
towerI. The function of the beams are used for supporting the stone on the doorway. According toseveral researchers, the age of the beams are perhaps several hundred years old. Presently, they arein bad condition, and decaying steadily. They have neither been repaired nor conserved.
At the TA KAV gateway and dead gateway of the great city (Angkor Thom City), a
wooden beam remains on the top of it, and right now it’s almost completely decayed.

However, it

has also never been restored or conserved. Furthermore, each of the four gateways at Angkor Thom
City have some traces on the stone for wooden door frames. Traces of door frames and door andNorthern Kheang Temple, built in the10th century A.D.

Wooden beam

Angkor Wat (12th-century)

Wooden beam found in situ at
Northern Kheang Temple

Traces at deadgateway of Angkor
Thom city.

Wooden door

Wooden ceiling

Traces of dead gateway
at Angkor Thom city

Wooden door

Wooden door

56

ceiling frames made of wood still remain at the central tower of the Angkor Wat temple, and all ofthese frames are very old and in bad condition.
There are over 300 wooden Buddha statues at the gallery of the thousand Buddha at
Angkor Wat Temple. These statues are kept in the warehouse of the Angkor Conservation office inSiem Reap Province. They are believed to have been created during the middle Khmer period

Wooden Buddha Statues (14th – 17th century A.D.)

WoodencolumnWooden pediment

Wooden construction accessories

Wooden Naga head

Wooden habitat in Siem
Reap (1917)

57

Wooden furniture (1917)

Wooden habitat in Battambang

around the14th to 17th centuries A.D.
All of these wooden statues now are in very risky conditions, and there is a lack of
specialists for required for conservation and repair.
Beyond the value of the wooden heritage properties themselves, also lie the value ofancient Khmer identity and history itself, as described above. There is more wooden heritage left at
ancient pagodas in the old villages, made by local people, for example, carvings on the Vihara’s
pediment, architectural decorative elements, Khmer habitats, and other construction accessories.
Some of these have been collected and are being kept in the Angkor Conservation office whileothers are kept in the ancient pagodas and the old villages, for now, as we do not yet have a
specialist to repair and conserve this wooden heritage.

IV. Traditional Khmer Housing Architecture
Places where people live that are built out of wood, bamboo, brick, or cement-are called “houses”.
There are several types of houses in Cambodia that have different appearances. Some people makesmall houses, some make large houses, while some make long or short houses.

Different kinds ofhouses in Cambodia have many different names but the ordinary names by which they are mostremembered are: the Roong Daul house, the Keng house, the Khmer house, the Bet house, theKondaing house, and the Bôtel house. My discussion of houses touches on the following points:
1. The form of the house
2. The house in time
3. Lweng or interior space in the house
4. Decorative additions to the house
5. Habitat and location of the main house and the kitchen
6. The raising of a house (house construction)
7. The ceremony for entering a new house
1. The form of the housea)

The Roong Daul house: This type of house is long with a V-shaped roof running lengthwise.
Dai sna, or triangular supports, are added to the sides of the roof so that it doesn’t sag. The
ends of the roof are closed off by a vertical section called the how jeang, that drops to join aprojecting awning, called the hob. Houses with these projecting roof awnings in the front andthe back are called roong daul. If the house only has a projecting awning in the front, thenthe house is called a “house with the back hob cut off”. Why are there smaller houses withthe hob cut off? This is because people who lack equipment, materials or possessions build

58such houses. In the countryside these smaller houses with the hob left off the back are also
called roong daul houses. The roong daul house with a front and back hob is built with threeinterior columns; the resulting house will have four lweng or interior spaces. Others build
roong daul houses with four interior columns, that result in five lweng. The columns of thehouse are dug into the ground, but stones or cement are rarely used as a foundation.

The roong daul houseb)

The Keng house: the purpose of this type of house is to serve as lodging for monks and has amulti-level roof. We can think of the upper roof as having two levels and the lower jutting
roof sections as having two levels as well. The high walls are attached to the roof just at the
point where it beings to slant outwards much
more quickly. Outside, a level walkway, usuallyslightly lower then the inside space, is enclosed
by a balustrade.

People do not generally live

in keng houses; this type of house is usuallyfound in vat where it is know as the kut keng.
c)

The keng house

The Khmer house: This type of house generally has four rows of columns with horizontal
supporting beams called tnem connecting the columns. A vertical beam rises straight up fromthe centre of the beam, supporting the top of the very pointed v-shape roof. Both ends of thisroof are closed off by large how jeang (or vertical v-shaped closures, sometimes also called
the fronton). The front of the house has a projecting awning or hob while the back of thehouse ends in a straight vertical. This type of structure has traditionally been called a Khmer
house. The Khmer has two levels of floors. The entrance porch, or section of space under the
protruding hob, is slightly lower than theinterior living space into which it leads. The
Khmer house is usually quite small (about 4
meters wide and 6 meters long). This type ofhouse is often found in vats where it is used tolodge monks and known as kut Khmer.

The Khmer house

59

d)

The Bet house: the bet house is built with no crossbeams supporting the roof. The maincolumns of the house support all the roof beams. The bet house is not as long as the roong
daul house. It usually measures 6 meters wide and 9 meters long. Some bet houses are built
using wood columns dug into the ground, sometimes with a cement base. The space underthe bet house can be filled in to make a cement wall space as well. The floor of the upperinterior space can be tiled as well. Some bet
houses have only interior columns and thus
three lweng or interior spaces. Other bet
houses have three interior columns and thus
four lweng while still others have fourinterior columns and thus five lweng or

The Bet housee)interior spaces.

The Kantaing house: this type of house has a simple long hall with a v-shaped roof that has
no hob. Sometimes this house is built with three columns along its long axis; the house
usually measures 1 meter in length and 6 meters wide. The kantaing house can also only
have two columns along its long axis in which case it is usually about 6 meters long and 4
meters wide. Under the rule of King Reacheanukauod (1704-1727 C.E.), kantaing houses
were almost exclusively built by Chinese and Vietnamese businessmen. Since the kantaing
house was originally built on the ground, rather than raised above it, it was a good structurefrom which to sell goods or offer food and drinks for sale. From the reign of King Monivong(1927-1941) onwards, the kantaing house became popular with Khmer people as well. Somehave kept it as a simple ground level structure, while others have built kantaing houses on
stilts, even adding several stories to them. The kantaing house can have additions andvariation by which, for example, a hob or protruding awning is added to the front and backof the house. In this case it is called a kantaing klay or “changed” kantaing house. The
kantaing house can also have an altered roofline if they cut off the ends of the long axis of
the roof, leaving a slanting triangle at the each end, that has a beak-like shape. A house withthis type of roof alteration is sometimes called the kantaing bak nok or goose kantaing house(the word bak nok is probably Thai).
The type of kantaing house, that ismost commonly built today, is a houseon stilts about 6 meters wide and 10
meters long.

The kantaing house

60

f)

The Bôtel house: The bôtel house is not made of bamboo or wood. Instead it is made ofcement, metal, gravel, sand, lime and bricks. The bôtel house can have one, two, three ormore stories. Some are square others are rectangular according to the wishes of the owner.
The bôtel house has walls made of brick. Its roof has none of the crossbeams and rafters ofwooden houses since the roof of the bôtel house is flat. This roof is not tiled but rather isbuilt by laying down a metal mesh and pouring concrete on it. People in the Cambodian
countryside do not usually build the bôtel house. It is in Phnom Penh that many of the houses
are now being built, following the models provided by the Royal Family who were the firstto build bôtel houses.

2. Time and the House
From the age of Angkor through the reign of King Suramarit (1955-1960), the Khmer people
preferred to build houses of the roong daul, and Khmer type. They built these houses following thepath of the sun across the sky. The front of the house faced East in honour of the sun, because for along time the Khmer people believed that the sun (Preah Attet, as the Khmer usually refer to it) is
Suryarit, the son of the goddess, sent to give light to the world. During the traditional Khmer
wedding ceremony, before the groom enters the house to meet his bride, he kneels and pays
homage to the East where the sun has just risen. They call this ritual sopheah preah attet or homage
to the sun. Locating a house to face the East is also giving homage to the sun (this tradition and thebelief it embodies. long ago the Khmer liked to build the roong daul type of house, and they havebeen built continuously up to the present as we can see, for example in khum kleng Sbaik andKhum Chraing Chomreh. In more recent times, and during the present day, Khmer have also begun
to build the bet and kantaing type of house. Today some people build their houses lengthwise,
following the course of the sun, while others build their houses with the long axis cutting acrossthe course of the sun.
3. Lweng or Interior Space in the House
From all the houses listed above, except for the kantaing house, if the house has two interior
columns, there are three lweng or interior spaces. If the house has three interior columns there will
be four lweng, and if the house has four interior columns there will be five lweng. The middle
lweng, or the heart of the interior space, is called the lweng chan and is the space for sleeping. The
sleeping space is reached by traversing the first lweng, the front porch that traditionally faces east
and is covered by the front hob. The lweng at the back of the house face west and traditionally has
several purposes. On the southern end of the interior space, next to the back wall, is a storage place
for unhooked harvested rice. Next to this storage space, a small space is reserved for the virgin
girls of the family to sleep. It is here also that trunks of clothing would be stored. On the northernend of this back lweng, a cooking stove, plates, and jars are kept. This kitchen space, as well as the61rice storage space, is only included in theinterior of the house if there is separate spacefor cooking and storing.
The keng and Khmer type of house
have two levels: the interior is one level, while
the front porch reception and relaxation area
are dropped slightly lower and consideredanother level. As the for the kantaing house, if
it has two supporting columns, then it only has

Interior space in traditional houses

one lweng or interior space. If the kantaing has
three columns, it has two lweng, and a four-column kantaing house has three lweng. The kantaing
house has many additions and variation as we have noted above.
4. Decorative Additions to the House
Despite the distinctive roof types described above, it seems that some people make additions anddecorations to their houses according to their wishes. For example, they make only large living
spaces but then add two roofs or Pi Kong (in Khmer). Sometimes a part of the house is left open
without walls, and other times roofs, balconies, verandas, awning extensions, and stairways areadded.
5. Context and Location of the Main House and the Kitchen
In Svay Rieng for example, the main house is built in the middle of the lot and all theaccompanying structures are then arranged in particular directions. Thus, the kitchen is in theeastern section of the lot, the rice storage area is to the North, the hut for the cow is to the South,
while the buffalo shed is placed to the East (either on the lot or outside of the lot). The well is
outside the lot in the northeast or the southeast corner. The bathroom is to the East of the mainhouse.
6. The Raising of a House (house construction)
First the house is raised above the ground within the area of the building lot and levelled. Then all
the necessary equipment and construction material for building the house are acquired. An
auspicious day for raising the house is then chosen after looking at the calendar.

Traditionally,

Khmer raised their houses during the periods roughly equivalent to December, March, and May(the calendar used by farmers follows the moon and differs from the Western calendar). The rainyseason occurs during the seventh and ninth months so houses are not usually raised then. As for the
day on which to raise a house, the best days are Wednesday, Thursday, Friday and Saturday. Long62

ago, Khmer never raised their houses on a Sunday or Monday because of an old proverb thatwarns: “Sunday and Monday, stop what you are doing and be careful”. If people still persisted inbuilding houses on those days, they had to be careful since there were often building accidents.
Thus, houses are not often raised on Sundays and Mondays. As for Tuesday, you can raise a houseon that day but it will not get finished. They believed that if you raise a house on a Tuesday, you
would have to use mats for walls since the house will not get finished. So, in general Sunday,
Monday, and Tuesday are avoided. If you raise a house on the other four days, it will go well andeveryone will be happy.
Before beginning work, Sla toa (an offering of banana stalks with incense and betel
arranged on them) are placed on the side of the building.

Incense is lit and prayers are made to

the spirit of the land, asking for the right to build on the land. The building area is then measured
and the locations for the columns are marked in straight rows, using a snung to mark the ground.
This process is called “girding” or marking the lot. When holes are dug for the columns, care istaken so that no garbage falls into them because if it does, this means that the house will have an
excess of guests.
When the columns are set in the ground, a red cloth is tied at the top of the central column.
A length of sugar cane with the root still on it is tied to the central post at a height higher than thehuman heart. Offerings are given to the spirits, such as a boiled pig’s head, a chicken, and two cupsof tea. Sometimes there is a bottle of an alcoholic beverage, four pieces of fruit, money, as well as
white sompot (length of cloth used for a skirt) and a shirt. A basin of perfumed water is sprinkled
on the tools of the mai jeang (chief of the construction team) and placed with the offerings. Thenthe achar, a layperson who leads ceremonies, chants prayers and sprinkles the perfumed water on
the column. The mai jeang (chief of the construction team) recites prayers to the bisnakar (thearchitect of the heavens), and then the achar beats a gong three times and the workers quickly raise
the columns of the house. They take the red cloth from the column and draw magical designs in the
shape of the eyes of a quail, attaching this cloth to the top beam at the centre of the rafters of thehouse in order protect the house from fire.

This is a tradition of the people in the region of Svay

Rieng, who believe that it will bring them happiness and prosperity.
7. The Ceremony for Entering a New House
When the house has been completed, the calendar is once again consulted to choose an auspicious
day for the ceremony to enter the house. Proper adherence to these customs ensures happiness andhealth to the occupants of the house.
In some areas of the countryside, like Svay Rieng for example, extended family and all
the neighbours are invited to come. At dusk, around 7:00 in the evening, four monks are invited tocome and chant prayers of protection. One must go and ask the head monk respectfully to send63monks who know “the prayers for entering a new house”, so that the monks who come will know
the special prayers used for the ceremony to enter the new house. When the monks are saying theprayers, the husband and wife who live in the new house kneel in an attitude of respect in front of
the monks. The monks sprinkle them with sacred water.
When the monks have completed their sprayers, the achar (the lay leader of theceremony) wishes the husband and wife happiness in the house and tells them that the front porchis called the lweng of happiness; the middle lweng is the lweng chan for sleeping, and the backlweng is the space for keeping possessions. Using a chisel and a large wood block, the achar beats
the central column of the house three times and then talks to the column saying: “Central column!
You were once a tree, a Koki tree, a Kakoh tree, a Pjek tree... Now you are to be a column! Please,honourable column, protect this husband and wife who are the masters of this house, as well as
their children, so that from this day onwards, they will only have happiness and prosperity”. Somepeople end the ceremony with this blessing while others invite the monks to come back for a meal
the next morning.
In some area, like Kampong Cham Province for example, the columns are raised and thefloor of the house laid in the morning, and the entering ceremony is held in the late afternoon sothat the family can sleep in the new house that same evening. A day does not pass from theconstruction to the time that the family can sleep in the house. In order to do this, everything forthe basic structure of the house must be prepared in advance. At least fifty or sixty extended family,
friends, and neighbours are called to come and join in the work and the ceremony. In the evening,when the house has been raised and the ceremony performed, the family sleeps on the floor of the
new house. Or during the ceremony to enter the new house, in order to have happiness andprosperity, the family should assemble various objects and elements and arrange them in the houseaccording to the nine directions as follows:
1.

The East - one should put a cooking stove.

2.

The Southeast - one should put an umbrella.

3.

The South - one should put rice and pots.

4.

The Southwest - the monks should chant here.

5.

The West - one should put plants for marking rope.

6.

The Northwest - one should put ivory and metal items.

7.

The North - one should put stored rice and baskets.

8.

The Northeast - a pregnant women should sit here and a cat as well. This is the place forstoring silver and items made of brass.

9.

The Middle - mats cushions, and weapons to defend oneself (a knife or gun) are laid out
here.

64

When a house is arranged like this during its opening ceremony, then the master of thehouse will be happy living in it. The items that must be arranged according to the descriptions
above do not have to always be kept in these places. They are just arranged for the time in which
the ceremony for entering the house is performed. Later on, items can be moved around and stored
in different places without any ill effects.

V. Characteristics of Khmer Temple Architecture
To gain a proper understanding of what a Khmer temple was, it should first be recalled that it was
not a meeting place for the faithful, but rather the palace of a god, who was enshrined there toallow him to bestow his beneficence on the founder and his familiars. There was, thus, the need tobuild the finest possible residence for him, to be sure, although as he was there in the form of astatue there was little need for a large space. One of the largest is the central shrine of Angkor Wat,and his cellar has internal dimensions of 4.6 metres by 4.7; the pedestal of the statue being
approximately the width of the door, that would have been 1.6 metres square. Thus, a great temple
would not be a vast palace for single god but a grouping of multiple shrines with a main divinity inthe centre. Prah Khan temple, for example, was originally conceived to house more then 400
deities, and many others were to be added subsequently. The shrines could be linked or surroundedby galleries, which usually had doors and also housed certain divinities. In any case they were in
no way intended to provide passage for great processions as has too often been asserted; suchprocessions would have been greatly impeded and rendered impossible by the presence of doors
and their disproportionately large thresholds. Some are not even accessible on foot, for example Ta
Keo which, it seems, was not even a provision for doorways. As the residence of a god, or gods,
the sacred territory in which the temple is situated is an image of the universe, where the gods sit
on Mount Meru, the centre of the world, surrounded by the primordial ocean. This is the image
which the sacred compound of the state temple in the Khmer country offer us, in which the prasat,the sanctuary tower, usually represents Mount Meru and can be flanked by four further prasat; thevarious enclosures being the mounting surrounding it, and the moat being the ocean.
This world image was to impose a rigorous order of construction on Khmer architecture,from the simple building to the most complex monumental groups. This characteristic applies ofcourse to the temple as originally conceived. In reality, as might be expected as long as a temple
remained an active place of worship, the Khmer added smaller or greater numbers of extra shrines
to the original coherent group-especially from the reign of Jayavarman VII onward. This isparticularly evident at Prah Khan, and the practice can result in an impression of chaos to themodern eye. It is not too difficult, however, to ascertain the original layout.
From Sombor Prei Kuk at the beginning of the seventh century to Angkor Wat in thetwelfth century, the temples are designed in enclosures of quadrangular shapes that centre on themain shrine, or on the central group of shrines, and laid out according to precise methods.
65

Geometrical rules, which probably varied according to the type of shrine, determine the sitting anddimensions of each subsidiary group in relation to the centre of the temple and sanctuary. But inthe absence of written documents, there is no alternative but to retrace the original design aposteriori.
The order is marked too by the hierarchy of elements of the overall plan, the central
prasat is dominant, at least through its height, although not always its overall area, and the otherelements are distributed around according to their size and volume, so as to grant its fullsignificance as to the exact centre of the temple. The primacy of the central shrine is alsoemphasized by the elevation on a terrace of variable size, or in the case of the state temple, on a
stepped pyramid. Hierarchical consideration also dictated the type and positioning of thedecorative work. It is more profuse and richer on the central shrine, which is sometimes covered
entirely, and diminishes progressively in scope as it recedes from the centre. The most obvious
example is Banteay Srei, where the three main shrines are richly decorated over their whole surface,whit dvarapala cared on the central tower and devada on the north and south towers, whilst thepreceding hall, with a screen or newel, is adorned with a patchwork of small squares in alternate
patterns. The "libraries "feature fine decoration on the main East and West face, and havepediments that count among the most beautiful in Khmer art, but their sides are undecorated. The
decoration becomes less profuse as it reaches the gate-lodges and ancillary buildings, up to theentry pavilion to the so-called fourth enclosures. An alternative explanation might be possible,
namely that the original intention was to cover the whole temple with decorative carvings,
beginning

traditionally

with

the

centralshrine,andmovingprogressively

outwards.

Counter-examples would however be easy to adduce, and the reality is that, for one reason or
another, not a single Khmer temple was actually "completed".
There are other conventions governing the design of Khmer monuments. In the case of
the sanctuary towers, the superposition on the central mass, and abode of the gods. In the "temple
mountain" design, however, the pyramid is itself an image of Mount Meru, through the ascending
concentric universes of its superstructure, echoing those of the sanctuary towers. The elements
which form the towers and the levels of the pyramid diminish progressively in size, producing theeffect of "vertical soaring: a genuine optical illusion, a trick of perspective, which enhances theactual height".
These steadily diminishing proportions are also present in the miniature buildings nestlingin the corners of each scaled-down level of the pyramid, like elements of an acroterium. An
outstanding example, illustrating reduction in both scale and imagery can be seen in the northerngroup of monuments at Sambor Prei Kuk. On the east side of the central shrine's South face, there
is ' flying palace'-a kind of picture of a facade sculpted in brick. Every detail is present: the frame,
the colonnettes, and the lintel with its makaras, the pilasters and the pediment. The sculpted panel
is about two meters high. At the top of the carved picture, in the tympanum of the pediment, is a66miniature of the same 'flying palace', also sculpted in brick. The temple thus "Decorates itself in its
own likeness.
The inscriptions often mention the date, and sometimes the precise moment, at which astatue was 'brought to life' (the text speaks of 'opening a statues eyes'), which was the crucial
instant in the life of the temple. There was no solemn ceremony for the inauguration of a temple onits completion (which would have been difficult to determine exactly) nor one for laying the firststone. We know, however, that the Indian Shastras which laid down the rule of architecture,emphasized the extreme importance of the initial ceremonies for a building, and this is wellattested by the presence of various ' foundation offerings' deposited beneath the actual foundationof the shrine, and also beneath the pedestals of the statues (which is why they have all been
overturned by thieves), or even at the summit of the towers. The offering was deposited in a squareflagstone with various cavities, some of which were marked by letters and covered with a lid. In
these cavities, precious stones, thin gold leaves, or even strands of hair or nail-clippings from thedonor’s body, were placed.
One final point is that the deity was not always a statue at the centre of the shrine,
especially in the case of Siva who, as supreme god, was most often represented by the linga, orphallus. Inserted in the pedestal, the linga in Khmer sculpture comprises three sections, and is asymbol of the Brahman trinity. Only the cylindrical top third was visible, sometimes ending in an
ovoid shape, and representing Visnu, while the bottom third was a square stone slab with a central
hole and a spout to allow the lustral water to run off and be collected by the faithful. When the
linga is a central feature, this slab is called a yoni, a ’womb’, which is a symbol of fertility and, byextension, prosperity.
V-1 The main constructive element
Khmer temples are based on a symmetric conception of space, which involves the repetition of
typical elements:
1.

. The enclosure walls and ground2.

. The libraries

3.

. The terraces

4.

. The galleries

5.

. The towers

The following is a brief examination of these elements.

67V-1-1 The enclosure walls and groundThe enclosure walls were usually built of dry stone blocks of laterite or, very occasionally, insandstone (Banteay Srei); they are very thick (80-100cm) and about 4.0-5.0m high.
The Khmer builders took great care in placing the horizontal layers, but overlapping
between the blocks was often inadequate or totally absent, creating potential vertical joints.
Ponds were often created outside the first tier of enclosure walls; the water levels varywith the seasons causing settlement and subsidence of the soil, which have caused parts of thewalls to lean or collapse.
In the middle of each wall there is the entrance, or “gopuras”, whose cruciform planinterrupts the geometry of the wall.
In the earlier temples the gopuras were made of brick and the doors had sandstone lintels
supported by pillars; the connection between these elements is the same as for the wooden
constructions and equally ineffective. A load-bearing corbelled arch transmits the weight of theoverhanging wall and the lateral structures.
In the earliest temples the gopuras were made of brick and the doors had sandstone lintels
supported by pillars; the connection between these elements is the same as for the wooden
constructions and equally ineffective. A load-bearing corbelled arch transmits the weight of theoverhanging wall to the lateral structures.
In the eleventh century these kinds of construction were built of sandstone blocks,
following the same methods as above. It was at this time that the construction of temples began to
evolve: enclosure walls were replaced by galleries and the composition of the gopuras became
more complex, resembling towers joining the axes of the enclosure gallery and entrance.
V-1-2 The libraries
The libraries were usually placed on the east side of the temples inside the first enclosure andsymmetrically to the main axis. The role of these buildings is not yet clear; they were probably
some kind of sacred site where holy books or cult objects were kept.
In the earliest temples, such as Pre Rup, the libraries were built from bricks. They wererectangular and tower-like in plan.
In the later constructions the height of the overhanging structure was reduced, the walls
were not so thick and the use of more resistant sandstone blocks made it possible to make openings,
such as balustrade windows, in the walls and porches.

68V-1-3 The terraces
These massive structures were created in order to raise the base of mountain temples, symbolizing
Meru, the magical mountain home of the gods.
Where there were no natural hills (as there was in Phnom Bakheng) artificial mounds
were formed with retaining walls of laterite often covered with sandstone blocks and filled withearth. The average slope was about 70 degrees on the horizontal plane.
Many of the retaining walls are affected by large deformations or displacements between
the blocks as in Pre Rup and others; this is related to the load induced by the fill and towers and to
the action of rainwater, that runs along the joints, creating supplementary pressure on the retaining
walls.
V-1-4 The galleries
The galleries were built from the eleventh century to connect the towers and other buildings. They
are made from sandstone or laterite blocks, built as corbelled arches and make continuous vaults.
The earliest temple of this type of structure, and made entirely of sandstone, is in the
Phimeanakas temple; it has a small span and the roof is an upturned U composed of three blocks
and two joints on strong supports.
The development of building techniques and improved knowledge of new materials
enabled the Khmer builders to build real corbelled vaults, where the upper blocks provide thenecessary thrust to the equilibrium; often the arrangement of the blocks in the interior was notprecise and the vault was closed by a ceiling.
It is possible to distinguish different types of galleries by their supports. The earliest
structures had continuous walls, with one or two rows of balustrade windows.
Later, in Angkor Wat, the galleries were built on discontinuous pillars and flanked bylateral wings.
Stone lintels ensured the connections between the lateral and main structures; the low
bending residence of these lintels means that they are very sensitive to any displacement of thefoundations.
Thee right-angled intersections of the galleries form cross-shaped porches.
V-1-5 The Towers
The towers are the shrines containing the idol. They represent the fundamental element of Khmer
architecture.

69

The towers were square or cross-shaped with a small east-facing hall in front of theentrance. False doors, usually made from sandstone blocks, were set into the other sides. The
towers rise in a number of concentric rings of decreasing diameter, for which the corbelling
technique was used; the structural aspects and the causes of damage will be analyzed in section 6.
The towers were usually built on a stone pedestal, with the floor on a lower level than the entrance.
In the earliest constructions the towers and their bases were made entirely in brickwork(Lolei and Bakhong temple); later laterite was used for the pedestals (Pre Rup). In their stone block
constructions the Khmer make small grooves on the horizontal layers of the blocks in order toensure a better connection. Sometimes towers were built at the corners of the galleries, on top of
the vault intersection.
V-2 Building Techniques
Used in different proportions across the centuries, brick, sandstone, and laterite were the threematerials used by Khmer builders in their temples. Domestic structures and even palaces were inwood and as such, have not survived. The earliest temples were in brick, because it was the easiest
to use, while stone, which demanded more manpower and greater skills, made a gradualappearance, beginning with secondary use as doorframes and only later being used for basic
construction. Laterite, easy to work but always rough in its finished appearance, was throughout afavorite choice for foundations and other massive elements. Of the three, sandstone was the mostexpensive and would be used in its entirety only for the important temple, except, of course, where
there was a good local source.
V-2-1 Brick
Khmer bricks varied in size with the largest and oldest being about 30 x 15 x7 cm. Experienceenabled the builders to use them to great effect, both structurally and in appearance. They werebonded with a vegetable compound rather than mortar, and the result was great strength and analmost invisible joint. The facade was sometimes directly carved, as displayed at its best at Prasat
Kravan. More normally, however, decoration was in stucco, as at Phreah Kô and Lolei, both at
Roluos. Often there is only a sketch on the bricks of what has to be applied in stucco.
Bricks and arkoses were used together in the construction of the sanctuaries and prasat ofthe pre Angkor period and were often decorated with stucco relief (from Preah Kô to Pre Rup).
Bricks were used mainly in the construction of towers and gopuras (the entrance
structure) during the ninth and tenth centuries; the bricks were made especially in the first period;
their size varies, even in individual construction, from 22 x 12 x 4cm to 31 x 16 x 8.5 cm [1].
Brick masonry is made without mortar, probably using vegetable glue composed of lime70

and palm or liana sap. This method of construction makes it possible to obtain masonry without
visible joints. The bed joints were usually horizontal and the head joints not aligned. The thicknessof the masonry was often filled with broken pottery, rocks, and earth.
Brick masonry exposed for many centuries to weathering and the growth of fungi andvegetation, is often ruined. However, the main cause of deterioration in bricks is the formation
inside the pores of crystals produced by soluble salts as the moisture produced by rainwater orrising damp evaporates. The extent of this phenomenon depends on the porosity, which in turndepends on the composition of the bricks and the procedures used in baking them.
V-2-2 Sandstone
The stone used exclusively by Khmer builders was sandstone, and at Angkor the source was theKulen Mountains. Its weight and the distances over which it needed to be hauled added to thestructural problems that the architects had to face. These included finding designs for structuresthat would not collapse under their own considerable weight, and it was not until the end of the10th century at Angkor that the Khmer had the confidence to build more or less exclusively instone. The first large sandstone temple was Ta Keo. Khmer temples were not places ofcongregation, thus, there was no real need for vaulting or creating large interior spaces, as inEuropean cathedrals at the time. One of the problems with sandstone, derived from its geologicalstructure, was that when used for upright supports (in other words against the way it was laiddown) it had a tendency to flake. For their purposes the device known as corbelling was sufficientand simple to execute with no need for scaffolding. Each higher stone course projects a little over
the one below, until the sides finally meet at the top. Gravity prevents collapse as the sides of thegallery roof press in on each other. One of the great of advantages of sandstone was fine carving
details, and from the beginning door surrounds and lintels were elaborately carved. The evolving
decorative styles on these elements provide a fascinating and useful method for dating Khmer
temples. The decorative use of sandstone reached its apogee at Angkor Wat, with its nearly 2,000
square meters of bas-relief panels, not to mention apsaras, lintels, pediments and friezes.
V-2-3 Laterite
Laterite is Aeolian clay formed in topical conditions by the weathering of igneous; it is usually of abasic composition, consisting chiefly of hydroxides of iron and aluminums; the latter may bepresent in varying quantities until bauxite is formed.
Laterite is reddish brown in colors and can be classified in two types: porous andpisolitic.
Porous laterite has large pores of a few centimeters in diameter. The pores were probably
originally filled with Kaolin, which was washed away by rainwater. Pisolitic laterite consists
71mainly of pisolitic, of 10 to 20 mm in diameter, and is more homogeneous than porous laterite [2].
Both types of laterite were used in Khmer constructions: porous laterite was used for
instance in the towers of Prasat Suor Prat, the foundations of Angkor Wat and part of the buildings
and pavement of Banteay Srei. Pisolitia laterite was for the base of Ta Keo, the wall of Phnom
Krom and other monuments.
Laterite is not strong; it is easily broken by a hammer and has bending strength. In the
Preah Khan temple, where laterite was the principal material used, preliminary tests have shown
the following strength: compressive strength = 108 MPa; bending strength =2.65 MPa; and bulk
density = 2327kg/m3 [3].
Blocks of laterite are a fairly good material for foundations and enclosure walls, but
create huge problems when used in the bases of structures an they are sensitive to decay caused bywater, and present a kind of viscous behavior that amplifies the deformations, mainly rotations,over time.
Blocks of laterite used in masonry usually vary in size from 60cm x 30cm x 40cm to80cm x 50cm x 45cm, but some blocks (bridges) are much longer (up to 200 cm [1].
Laterite is susceptible to alteration in a humid environment; tests reveal the effects ofsoftening or swelling of its components. Its durability differs depending on where it was quarried:laterite with high mud content, or that is, more porous, is more susceptible to decay. Like bricks,
blocks of laterite that have absorbed water (especially water that has been chemically transformedby combining with minerals) lose their original resistance.
V-2-4 Wood
Wood was probably used in the construction of the earliest buildings. During the pre-Angkor
period, it was used to make beams in joinery.
The wood used in the buildings and palaces of Angkor has been completely lost. Only in a
few temples can fragments still be found of wood beam and planks used as lintels over door frames,
as is the case in Bakong, Lolei and Prasat Sour Prat.
Often the wooden beams were placed inside blocks of stone, carefully carved in a "U"shape. In these cases the wood has been destroyed by termites or rotted, with the consequentcollapse of the weakened lintels. Where the wooden beams were placed outside, under a stone
lintel, they are still in good condition.
Wood was also used for palaces, houses, and monks' dwellings. It was also used intemples for certain roofs, ceilings and temporary structures such as pavilions. At Angkor small
pieces of the wooden ceiling to Heaven and Hell have been found. Exterior wooden roofs would72

have been tiles and remains of these have been found. Recently lead tiles have been discovered.
Interestingly, Zhou Daguan noted that the Royal palace was roofed with lead.
Although wooden structures have virtually disappeared we can gain a good idea of Khmer
techniques from observing stone doorways and false door and balusters carved in imitation wood.
In particular the joints of doors and windows are those of the wood carver, not the stonemason.
V-2-5 Painting
It is often not appreciated today that the surfaces of Khmer temples were painted. Traces of painthave been found at Preah Khan, Neak Pean and Angkor Wat. Although in the latter case, thepainting could have been added later or reapplied in renovation work.

VI. Previous Responsible Work and Current Work
VI-1 Management of erosion from temporal

TtI aM
gTI2
eragTgkNþ
alW

destruction in the Temple-

Control and follow any damage in theNWtemplescausedbyerosion

of

E

the

S

N

S

sandstone, Laterites, some blocks of thetemple collapse.

RISK LEVELTANEI TEMPLE

PLAN : RISK MAP-

Establish the risk map.

-

Prepare technical documents in order to
Emergency interventions in the weakplaces of the temples according to therisk map.

Emergency Intervention (Taprom Temple)

Study project (proposal) Taprom Temple

73

MEDIUM

Research and Establishment of the Risk map(Tanei Temple)

make restoration proposals.
-

HIGH

E
NO SCALE

VI-2 Management of the Trees that Threaten the Temples-

Control and follow damage caused by trees-

Establish the risk map-

Emergency interventions

Cutting trees that threatens a temple

Establish
the(Taprom Temple)

Banteay srei Temple

Banteay kdei Temple

Srash srang

risk

map

Bayon Temple

Taprom Temple

Emergency Intervention

VI-3 Management of the Ant-hill and Bats in the Temple Compound-

Daily check for any damages caused by termites and bats-

Establish the risk map and remove the ant-hills.

-

Daily clearing of bat excrement and termites.

74

Taprom Temple

Termites and Bats in Taprom Temple

VI-4 Management of the Maintenance and Sanitation of the Temple Complex-

Daily cleaning around the temple.

-

Daily maintenance of the infrastructure in the temple complex.

-

Management of the small merchant stalls and parking surrounding the temple.

-

Management of the tourist itineraries in the Angkor Park.

-

Management of the Environment in the temple complex.

Daily cleaning

Maintenance infrastructure

Merchants’ stalls

Traffic and parking problems

Religious ceremony at theTempleIllegal excavation in the Angkor
ParkVII. History and Organization of APSARA Authority
V-1 Organization at the International Level
After Angkor was inscribed on the World Heritage List, it was necessary to establish working
mechanisms to promote national and international collaboration.
At the first Intergovernmental Conference on the Safeguarding and Development of theHistoric Site of Angkor, held in Tokyo in October 1993, an International Coordinating Committee
75

for the Safeguarding and Development of the Historic Site of Angkor (ICC) was created. This
Committee is co-chaired by France and Japan with UNESCO as acting secretariat. Its inaugural
meeting in December 1993, assembling representatives of more than twenty countries andorganizations, marked the first high-level international discussions on Angkor ever to be held in
Cambodia itself.
The subsequent creation of a sub-committee responsible for holding discussions andmaking decisions on technical issues regarding Angkor (the Technical Committee) reinforced
structures for effective management of international efforts at the site. The Committee holds
plenary sessions in Phnom Penh or Siem Reap twice a year. All national and international projects
concerning Angkor must be submitted to the ICC via its Technical Committee, for discussion. In
1997, the Committee decided to create the Ad Hoc group of experts, responsible for advising
APSARA on technical solutions to precise problems (such as the collapse of Angkor Vat's westernmoat step) as well as broad questions related to the safeguarding of Angkor.
Thesemechanisms

allow APSARA tocollaborate directly

withinternational

governmental and non-governmental agencies, to coordinate actions undertaken in many domains,
and to strengthen national technical capacities.
VII-2 Organization at the National Level
A Royal Decree created APSARA in 1995. A second additional Royal Decree reinforced its
authority in January 1999. Today, APSARA is placed under the double supervision of the
Presidency of the Council of Ministers (technical supervision) and the Ministry of Economy and
Finance (financial supervision). APSARA's Director General is President of the Administrative
Board, assisted by several Deputy Directors General. APSARA, in collaboration with othergovernmental agencies, is responsible for:-Protecting, maintaining, conserving and improving the value of the archaeological park, theculture, the environment and the history of the Angkor region as defined on the World
Heritage List.

-

Refining and applying the master plan on tourist development according to the five zones,
defined in 1994 in the Royal Decree on the protection and management of Siem
Reap-Angkor and taking action against deforestation, illegal territory occupation as well as
anarchy activities in Siem Reap-Angkor.

-

Finding financial sources and investments.

-

Participating in the policy of cutting down poverty of the Royal Government in Siem Reap
Angkor-Cooperating with the Cambodian Development Council on the investments of all the projects

76that are involved with APSARA Authority’s mission.
-

Cooperating with ministries, institutions, funds, national and international communities aswell as international governmental institutions and non-governmental organization on all
projects related to the APSARA Authority.
The territorial authority of APSARA is clearly specified in Article 5 of the Law on theProtection of Cultural Heritage promulgated in 1996. The term "Siem Reap-Angkor" is defined in
the Royal Decree establishing Protected Cultural Zones, with five degrees of protection in theregion. Backed by these legal tools, APSARA is mandated to represent the Royal Government
before all international partners concerned with cultural, urban and tourist development of thisregion. The Authority thus presides the Cambodian delegation to the International Coordinating
Committee (ICC), and it’s Technical Committee.
VII-3 Internal Organization
The Director General presides over the APSARA Authority. The directors of the departments
second him as follows:1.

Department of Personal Staff, Finance and Communications

2.

Department of Monument and Archaeology 1

3.

Department of Monument and Archaeology 2

4.

Department of Angkor Tourism Development

5.

Department of Urbanization and Development in Siem Reap Angkor Region

6.

Department of Demography and Development

7.

Department of Water and Forest

8.

Intervention unit for cracking down on deforestation, illegal territory occupation and taking
action against anarchy activities in Siem Reap Angkor.

The APSARA Authority has two office locations:-

Siem Reap, where it acts directly in the field, with its national and international partners.
APSARA is based inside the Angkor Conservation Compound, at the northern end of Siem
Reap town.

-

Phnom Penh, where it is in constant rapport with its supervisory ministry.

The APSARA

offices are located in building #187, Pasture Street, Sangkat Chaktomouk, Khan Don Penh.
Angkor-Archaeology FundThe fund was created as a special account called the "Angkor-Archaeology Fund" to collect andreceive donations from national and international communities for improving Angkor. The

77

Angkor-Archaeology Fund is under the direct control of the APSARA Authority.

VIII. Conclusion
On behalf of the APSARA Authority and all Cambodians, I would like to say, thank you very muchindeed to ACCU Nara and the government of Japan for giving me the chance to join and learn fromthis program.

This is a extremely valuable, useful, and brilliant service for cultural heritage

conservation.
Lastly, I would like to convey my best wishes to the ACCU (Nara office), the governmentof Japan, and to all the people who love cultural heritage.

All the best from the bottom of myheart.
Thank you!

References(1)

Boisselier J. and J. Picard, (1966) “Le Cambodge”, in Manuel d’Archeologie
d’Extreme-Orient-Asie du-Est, Paris.

(2)

JSA, “Annual Report on Technical Survey of Angkor Monument”(3)

Gavrilovich P. and Phrah Khan, (1994) Conservation Project Historic City of Angkor, Report
5, Field Campaign II, Appendix V/A, Structural Repair and Consolidation Methods, World
Monuments Fund, New York

(4)

Reyum Institute of Arts and Culture, (2001) Cultures of Independence: An Introduction to
Cambodian Fine Arts and Culture in the 1950's and 1960's, Phnom Penh

(5)

Jacques Claude, (2000) Ancient Angkor (River Book Guides)(6)

Croci Giorgio, (1998) The structural behaviour of the temples of Angkor, Phnom Penh78

Indonesia
Rina PRIYANI
Researcher
Centre for Research on Tourism,
Institut Teknologi Bandung, Indonesia
Member of ICOMOS Indonesia

CULTURAL HERITAGE PRESERVATION AND
TOURISM DEVELOPMENT IN INDONESIA
A Case study from Alor Regency, East Nusa Tenggara

Introduction
The concept of cultural property in Indonesia is as recent as Cultural Property Act No. 5/1992, thatrefers to the former act created during the Dutch colonial period, called the Monumenten
Ordonantie No. 238/1931. According to the 1992 Indonesian Cultural Property Act, culturalproperty, or benda cagar budaya (in Indonesian), is identified by the following dual definitions:yMan-made objects that are movable or immovable, as a whole unit, parts, or remains, witha minimum age of 50 years, or that represent a unique style within a 50 year period, andhave significant value for history, science, and culture.

yNatural objects that have significant value for history, science, and culture.
There are three actions concerning the preservation and restoration of cultural property,

namely protection, preservation, and new development. Recently, the justification of benda cagar
budaya has not been satisfactory for the community, stakeholders, and practitioners in the field ofpreservation activities. They assumed that the definition itself has limitations as it protects only
single objects from structures of known ages. Thus it can also be interpreted that the man-madeheritage is separate from its environment.
With the theme “Celebrating Diversity”, Indonesia Heritage Year in 2003 was one of themilestones of heritage preservation in Indonesia. Indonesia Heritage Networks and theInternational Council on Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS) Indonesia initiated the Indonesia
Heritage Charter. The rationale of this charter is to reinterpret the cultural concept, from that ofbenda cagar budaya (or cultural property/object) to pusaka saujana (or cultural landscape), thus
allowing a broader view of cultural heritage. The term of pusaka can be understood as a value orobject handed down from generation to generation. Pusaka saujana means to have a sense that the79

preservation and restoration activities in the future should merge with the environmental context
rather than focusing on a single cultural object. Moreover, this charter focuses more attention on
the preservation and restoration of vernacular architecture and traditional environments, and alsopresents opportunities to initiate community-based approaches and tourism-driven heritage
preservation.

Some Issues on Cultural Heritage Preservation in Indonesia
The problems and needs in preserving cultural heritage in Indonesia today are closely related to thedecentralization era, that arised since 1999. Autonomy Act No. 22/1999 justified the affairs thatshould be managed at the local (municipality or city) and provincial levels. Other levels ofgovernment services included within the Act are urban planning, trade, transportation, and tourism.
In the past these affairs were administered solely by the national government. Though cultural
heritage preservation has not been stated clearly in the Autonomy Act, in my opinion, some issues
raised relating to cultural heritage preservation and decentralization are of immediate concern,such as cultural heritage preservation in urban planning contexts, the necessity for a local identity,
and cultural tourism issues.
The spatial master plan defines the previously conserved and the functional zones relating
to urban and regional planning. Apparently, it has been perceived that the preservation of cultural
heritage is an activity that is performed in a conserved area. As we know, cultural properties are notalways located in a conserved area. The functional area, i.e. educational facilities, housing, also
have the value that should be preserved and restored. Consequently, the value of cultural heritagethat was formulated in the restoration plan should be merged with the spatial master plan. The
concept of zoning can be noticed as a support to preservation, but on the other hand this will be alimitation on the concept and practices of preservation.
Although the decentralization era brought lots of problems for Indonesia, it can also beseen as a raise for finding a hidden cultural identity. The local government and community arereformed and simultaneously they seek a symbol derived from their cultural heritage. It can betangible, intangible, or both tangible and intangible heritage that will shape their new identity. The
necessity of cultural identity in local level can be observed from the discourses about theprotection of ethnic character and language, folk tradition, traditional and vernacular architecture,and listed monuments and buildings that are done by the local government.
The third issue is tourism-driven heritage preservation. The necessity of tourism
development in Indonesia is perceived as an agent of change to a better quality of life. New
concepts of tourism namely ecotourism and cultural tourism have promising opportunities to drive
the preservation of cultural heritage. The latest campaign by the Ministry of Culture and Tourism
Republic of Indonesia: ”Ayo tamasya jelajahi nusantara” or “Let’s go adventuring to the80archipelago” is not intended for foreign tourists but puts heavy attention towards the domestic
tourists needs. The campaign is succeeding in developing the community’s pride towards theircultural heritage. Even though such pride can lead to a spirit of preservation and restoration, this isdebatable if the preservation is done for the sake of the tourists rather than the needs of thecommunity.
Considering these issues, the decentralization system clearly has a strong impact, possibly
creating a new model of preservation. Some questions raised and have not been responded either innational/central or local policies, such as why the cultural preservation should or must bepreserved? Whose heritage is it? Who will manage? At the end, the benefits for local people which
are often assumed to be an economic benefit should be considered both in national and local
practices.

Tourism Development in Eastern Indonesia: Alor Regency, East Nusatenggara as aCase Study
The concept of planning and managing tourism at the destination level as explained in Guidelines
in formulating tourism master plan from Ministry of Culture and Tourism Republic of Indonesia(2001) that tourism planning should pay attention to a spatial master plan. At the destination level,
the government bodies in charge of formulating the spatial master plan are the planning bureau,
while the tourism master plan can be prepared by both the planning bureau and tourism office.
In this paper, Alor Regency which islocated in Eastern Indonesia is chosen as acase study. This represents the eastern part ofIndonesia, that is famous for cultural diversity,and underwater heritage but on the contrary
this area is categorized as a less developedarea. It is also important to take notice that thisarea is combined with Austronesian and

Fig.1 Map of Indonesia

Polynesian Cultures. Up until now, the westernpart of Indonesia has rarely been researched byIndonesian scholars, both in tourism andcultural heritage preservation.
Alor was culturally influenced by the
Majapahit Kingdom, the Ternate Sultanate, thePortuguese Period, and the Dutch Period (late1950s). These influences can be seen from thecultural heritage such as the Dutch-Colonial Fig. 2 Map of East Nusatenggara Province

81Building, Portuguese Movable Heritage and Vernacular Architecture. Tourism stakeholder in Alor
Regency among others are community, tourism association, hotels and restaurants, travel agents,
government or public sector such as culture and tourism office, planning board, transportation
office, educational institutes, non governmental organizations, and the private sector.
From the demand side, tourists visiting Alor can be categorized as backpacker tourists,business tourist, and special-interest tourist. The backpacker tourists mostly arrange trips bythemselves and relay the information using travel books and the internet. Most backpacker tourists
are from other countries. The second type, the business tourist arrange their trip through theiroffice or travel agent. Surprisingly, business tourists are mostly domestic tourists coming from
Surabaya, Bali, Makassar, and Kupang. The special-interest tourists can be differentiated fromtheir motivation or activities, there are two main motivations such as diving or mountain climbing
and the second is for study or research, mainly in anthropology and ethnic language subjects. The
tourists came to Alor by airplane, ship, and cruise ships.
From our observations, the strength of Alor tourism development is the uniqueness,authenticity, and the diversity of natural and cultural heritage. Additionally, Alor has international
scale tourist attractions, namely diving spots in Pantar Straits and Takpala Village. The weakness isthe lack of transportation facilities and infrastructure. While the opportunity is there are special
interest tourism needs or trends for international and domestic tourist market especially from Bali
and other places in Nusa Tenggara. The challenges for this area are its location in a disaster-pronearea, that includes earthquakes, tsunamis, and it is quite far from the main tourism market gates.
Considering the supply and demand side, initial policies of Alor tourism development arethat (1) Tourism development should reveal the local value of Alor, (2) Tourism development
should sustain the community and environment, (3) Transportation and infrastructure development
should be implemented in stages, (4) The quality of tourism and its human resources should beenhanced, and (5) Tourism promotion should be directed towards the target market. These initial
policies should be directing tourism development over the next 10 years.

Notes on Wooden Structures and Cultural Heritage Preservation in Alor Regency
The wooden structures in Alor Regency that we found during our observations were built during
the 17-18th century. The main structure of the building posts and beams were made from wood andbamboo, while the roof material was made from coconut leaves. The function of the buildings
ranged from houses, ceremonial places, and current use as displays for tourists. Some of thebuildings are still inhabited by the community and some of them are temporarily used for
ceremonial events.
The community maintains the building structures as living architecture. They fix andchange the broken parts or members and repaint the carved columns and beams using traditional82

techniques. Although these structures have not yet been restored, the documentation andinvestigations completed here highlight some of the findings of the wooden architecture from thisregion.
The documentation of the wooden structures in Alor Regency is shown in Table 1 andFigure 3 to Figure 9.
Name of village/place

Building function/use

Building
structure

Ornaments

a. Bampalola

Ceremonial place

2 storey

Carved column, painting
in: black, white, red

b. Takpala

House and ceremonial place

2 and 3storey

Wall painting in black,white, red, yellow

c. Lembur

House, display for tourist

3 storey

Carved beam, painting inblack

d. Monbang Kopidil

House

3 storey

No carved column, no
painting

e. Kepa homestay

Homestay

2 storey

No carved column, no
painting

Table 1 Wooden structures in Alor villages

Fig.3 and 4
WoodenBampalola House

structuraldetails

Fig.6 Facade of Takpala House, showing
painted wall and door (red, white, black,yellow)ofFig.5 Place of worship in TakpalaVillage

Fig. 7 Detail of Lembur House showing painted
beams

83

Fig.8 Roof detail of Monbang Kopidil House

Fig.9 Kepa Homestay

Lessons learned from the observation of vernacular architecture include a respect for
spiritual and historic places and cultural practices. Indigenous South-East Asian religions generally
do not make use of separate temples or places of worship. From this case, Alor people as an
Eastern Indonesian society also make use of ancestral stones for worship. The place of worship
now becomes a “tourist attraction” and daily cultural activity become cultural performances.
The relationship between tourism activities and cultural heritage preservation in Alor
Regency can be sum up as follows:y

The tourism activities become important as a major priority, so that there are mutual
benefits regarding cultural heritage preservation and development.

yThese activities also call for the management of the relationship of the host and guest in
historic areas.

yCultural heritage preservation and tourism should be planned as small-scale tourism
development.

yTourism planning and heritage preservation of small islands should be merged with risk
management.

The Problems and Special Needs for Preserving Cultural Heritage in Indonesia
Considering the main issues of preservation in Indonesia and the case study presented above, theproblems and needs for cultural heritage preservation, among other, are:
1. Lack of the concept of cultural heritage
The concept of cultural heritage in Indonesia is well-known as benda cagar budaya (culturalobject) rather than pusaka saujana (cultural landscape). Although this concept has been developing
since the 1990s, it has problems concerning the ownership of cultural heritage. Whether thecultural heritage is owned by privately or publicly, in what ways must the public or government
protect it. In otherwords, taking over somebody’s cultural heritage has now become one of the84remarkable issues throughout Indonesia. This calls for the interpretation of cultural heritage rooted
within our traditions, and the dissemination of the cultural landscape concept to the community.
2. Lack of community awareness
Relating to point number 1, when we faced with cultural heritage preservation, the community
always ask some questions like why protection or preservation should be done and for what
reason? In my point of view, most people in Indonesia have a low appreciation for heritage
preservation. The community realizes that old buildings or structures exist but still doubt that they
have values that can generate social and economic benefits. The public campaign should be doneby pointing towards the reason for the preservation work and the benefits for the community.
3. The need for legislation and a preservation planning system
As mentioned in the introduction to this paper, Indonesia requires new legislation for cultural
heritage preservation. The national policy should be pointing towards the cultural landscapeconcept and giving clear job description/responsibilities for provinces and at the local levels.
This can include ideas as simple as who is responsible for certain kinds of preservation. The
preservation planning system is also essential for us since we have listed buildings but suffer froma lack of preservation actions.
4. The needs for preservation techniques and craftsmanshipIndonesia has a vast diversity of vernacular architecture in wooden structures but lacks theknowledge of methods for its preservation and restoration. This calls for the preservation of
traditional techniques not only for the architect but also the carpenter. It is related to point no. 3
that wooden building techniques and craftsmanship can be preserved through the support of thelegislation and planning system, and the university curricula.
5. The need for risk management in cultural heritage areas
I regret to say that the risk management efforts in cultural heritage areas in Indonesia have beenabandoned despite the urgent need for them since Indonesia lies in a disaster sensitive area.
Volcanic and seismic activities, like earthquakes and tsunami occur frequently in the archipelago.
Furthermore, the risk management and preparedness regarding the safeguarding of cultural heritage
should be merged with public awareness initiatives in order to protect cultural heritage.

I will close this report with my objectives for participating in the ACCU (Asia Pacific Cultural
Centre for UNESCO) Training Course on the Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Heritage in
the Asia/Pacific Region, 2005, as to learn, 1) the legal aspects of preservation and restoration, 2)
wooden structure preservation technology, and 3) risk preparedness in cultural heritage
management. Since Japan has advanced experience and a long history in protecting and managing
85

their wooden architecture, I believe this training will present many excellent techniques andmethods. I really hope that I can share my knowledge of cultural heritage preservation andrestoration with other participants from the Asia/Pacific Region. Moreover, experiencing Nara as aunique region that possesses the oldest wooden structures will be a valuable experience in
expanding my career in the field of cultural heritage preservation.

References
Jaringan Pelestarian Pusaka Indonesia & ICOMOS Indonesia (2003) Piagam Pusaka Saujana
Kementrian

Kebudayaan dan

Pariwisata (2001)

PedomanPenyusunan

RencanaInduk

RencanaInduk

Pengembangan Pariwisata Daerah tingkat Kabupaten/Kota, unpublished report
Kelompok

Penelitiandan

Pengembangan

Kepariwisataan

ITB(2004)

Pengembangan Pariwisata Kabupaten Alor, Provinsi Nusa Tenggara Timur, unpublished report
Undang-undang Republik Indonesia tentang Benda Cagar Budaya No. 5/1992

Acknowledgements
Wooden architecture research in Alor Regency is part of the Tourism Master Plan of Alor Regency
which was kindly supported by the Local Government of Alor Regency East Nusa Tenggara
Province and the Centre for Research on Tourism - Institute of Technology Bandung, Indonesia(2003-2004).

86

Iran
Mehrdad JAVADIManager of Restoration Department
Technical Office
The Deputy Office for Conservation and Restoration
Iranian Cultural Heritage and Tourism Organization (ICHTO)

THE HISTORY AND PROCESS OF CONSERVATION IN IRAN
Before discussing the main preservation problems in Iranian cultural heritage, it is necessary tobriefly mention some background information on the different periods of conservation andrestoration of historic properties specific to Iran. A review such as this is important because someof the present problems appear as the result of inaccurate decisions and problematic activities due
to a variety of reasons. We can divide the activities concerning the protection and preservation ofheritage objects, archaeological sites, historical monuments, and the urban texture in Iran into four
particular periods, that are discussed below.

First Period (1928-1800)
This period coincides with the discovery of archaeological traces and marks the first official
government efforts to preserve cultural heritage properties, particularly archaeological objects.
During this era, there was a serious lack of control regarding the illegal removal of heritage
properties and antiquities despite the existence of clear regulations and procedures. The result wasthat important objects recovered from archaeological excavations found their way into personalcollections and foreign museums, especially in Western countries. In 1272 A.H., a French group
who acquired permission from the government of Naser Al Din Shah Qajar began archaeologicalexcavations in Iran.
Permission was granted to a French team when the Qajar era government was in debt for ahuge sum of money to the French government. After the conclusion of the official agreement, aFrench team with the project title, "Delegation en Perse", monopolized all of the archaeologicalexcavations, research, and antiquities in the entire country. Furthermore, the team launchedarchaeological excavations without any Iranian government control nor the authorization to
conduct exploration and excavation from other foreign governments.

Second Period (1928- 1960)
This period can be considered the beginning of practical activities in the field of conservation andpreservation in Iran. Its starting point coincided with the Propagation Act of Antiquities in autumn,
871928. This act was approved in 1930, at the same time that the first efforts at listing moveable andimmovable cultural heritage and antiquities were undertaken. The motivation for this legislation
was to provide active support for all heritage objects.
Currently in Iran, within the scope of archaeology and cultural heritage, under which issubsumed the field of Iranian art and architecture, cohesive research deals with the recognition andintroduction of traces (i.e. artefacts or movable cultural heritage) and monuments established byprevious cultures. Additionally, the main purpose and philosophy of museums in Iran is to protect
cultural heritage that has accumulated as a result of years of research.
This era coincides with the first Pahlavi government and with public renovation in the Iran.
The necessary situation for establishing administration unit for archaeology was provided in 1928,
and followed the announcement of the Antique Act in 1930. Part of this mandate was to provide
suitable space for its activities of 1932.
One of the first Iranian international cooperation projects with a foreign institution was thewith the "ISMEO" Instate , an Italian institution working on research in the Near and Far East that
conducted research in 1955 in the Sistan Province. Among the most important restoration work thatthe archaeology administration completed after World War II, was the restoration of "Mozafarieh"school and the end part of Nezam-Almolk Dome in the Jame Mosque in Isfahan. This wasundertaken in 1935 after World War II. From 1945 to 1960, it is possible to enumerate dozen more
field cases.
The restoration activities in this era concentrated mostly on the reconstruction of parts ofstructures, and observations on the repair of brick ornaments and tiles. Strengthening therestoration of arch and domical vault structures was conducted by using metal bars or concrete
reinforced loop and doughnut. Coinciding with the restoration of the entrance of Jameh Mosque in
Yazd, a new street was opened in front of it that featured an extensive passageway or boulevard,
lined with trees. Unfortunately this directly to the demolition of the immediate surroundings andthe historical context of the Mosque environs that included traditional houses surrounding themosque on all sides.
Thus, in Iran even the preservation of traces and monuments seems so difficult. In addition,
ornaments are very good sources for the antique seller's trade and transaction because merchants of
antiques and collections were interested in implanter works, hewn stones, and ancient tiles as they
were easily transported and reloaded. During this time, the only solution presented by thearchaeological administration for the prevention of these incidents was the separation of ornamentsfrom monuments, and transferring them to the Iran Ancient Museum in Tehran or consigning themto the nearest affiliated administration of the Culture and Art Ministry .
The affairs during this period seem to be a suitable way to prevent the stealing of88

ornament parts, but on the other hard, we must mention the bad conclusion of these acts. In the best
situation, the pieces and objects mentioned above remain unknown and unavailable in thewarehouses of museums. In some cases they became damaged and disintegrated or ruined becauseof a lack of conservation methods that could have stabilized the artefact. On the other hand, thevalue of every historical monument to the uniqueness of the building, including its naturalenvironment, historical environment, and ornaments are related to its architecture.
Separating the ornaments and transferring them to another place decreased the value of themonuments. This does not, however, include cases where there is no other way to preserve them.

Third Period (1960-1977)
This was a period when specialists tried to establish a protective organization. The working methodof this organization consisted of the separation of different parts for preservation and theestablishment of proportional centres and institutions for doing related executive affairs. But theprovision of executive and managing staff for these institutions was also the main purpose of theseaffairs. One of the implications is that foreign people could be replaced by Iranian researchers andtechnicians in over the long term.
Based on the activities of the general archaeology office in this period, the case ofpreservation and protection of the central historical context must also be mentioned. Although thissubject was not considered a prime aspect of work, and only a few of these ancient urban centres
were influenced. On the other hand, the method of study and ways of getting close to the subject
during that time were disputable topics. Although similar to the documents that indicated thesensitivity of the attendants of that period, it is important in the case of Iranian central historicalcities.
Suggestions only had an inactive aspect and could mostly be used in relation to the study ofarchitectural history and urbanism. Practical suggestions in this case consisted of the right-of-way
for ancient urban spaces and distance assignment for preservation. In this period, the introductionof the historical scope and acceptable scales of research projects was not determined.
Additionally, the introduction of monuments that lacked appropriate historical context was
witnessed.
The most important counsellors of this organization in those years were Italian, and twocases in particular can be mentioned during these thirteen years by "ISMEO" in Iran. First thearchaeological sites of Persepolis and Pasargadae, second Isfahan and its suburbs. The case of
Persepolis involved the recognition of scientific reparation of various parts by the anastylosis
method. Completion of this task occurred by repeated use of the historical pieces that were foundin different excavation in 1930.

89

The prices were chosen by research and through the study of recovered parts. The nationalpreservation of archaeological traces could also profit from this experience and also from the workof experienced masters at other sites. The results of the professional "ISMEO" group’s work at
Isfahan was first faced with many difficulties; one of them consisted of comparing the related
theories to the basis of reparation methods with Isfahan historical monuments that had native
materials and building techniques. Therefore, using methods that could benefit by the combinationof modern methods for reparation and traditional structural methods, required specific studies andresearch. Because of choosing this flexible method in fulfillment of the practical theories, thefoundation of western reparation methods at Isfahan was an unavoidable affair.

Fourth Period (1977 – 1987)
This was the era before the Islamic Revolution that involved different affairs and problems
related that will be mentioned later during the session dealing with the current period.

Tradition in Architecture
Iranian traditional masons in the 20th century, do not have an academic background, rather theywork under the method of master and student (apprenticeship). The master's best section althoughthat is considered art, technical and practical experiences reach back from generation to generationand increases the experiences based on newly discovered artefacts. In addition, it gradually
becomes more productive from generation to generation. There is always the danger of oral history
on native arts (i.e. traditional architecture) disappearing. The, teachers and students have a more
fluid relationship in comparison with the modern teaching system. The people in change of art andtraditional architecture whether they are managers, architects or supervisors of different art fields,(i.e. technical, ornament, gardening and irrigation) were masters or authorities on those works.
And almost all of these teachers had experience in all of the fields. In addition, they found theirown methods and came to agreements. Miners, mineralogists, and architects, and their audiences(the public) are all related with a common language. Everyone respected his own limits and thoseothers. All took part in the creation of an architectural trace and honoured the acquaintances of thedetails of the work, even if the trace was registered and identified for only one person.
This unsuitable replacement of new engineers was the result of a rejection of the oldarchitecture, and gradually caused more inaction and rupturing of traditional architecture to theextent that today, except for a few people, nothing remained from the hidden group of traditionalarchitecture. Furthermore, there was nobody to sustain and develop this exterminated system of
traditional architecture. Thus, traditional lifestyles and all of its authenticity obsolesced. This was
also combined with the social behaviour of none-native patterns. This was also destroyed andshown to be relative to the ability of each specialist. We can see its extensive reflection informing
the appearance of today's architectural cities, in that it substituted traditional architectural within90

its city context, and separated it.

Restoration and Restorers of Historic Buildings
Conservators that have graduated from university have a chance to co-operate with laboratories or
research or art teams related to the field of reparation and have a liability to their national culture.
However, in Iran there is a long way to go before the organization, management, and planning of
cultural heritage is reaches a high level. We cannot expect to become equipped like other westernregions and to compensate for one step of this backwardness.
Another way includes reparation by traditional methods. Conservators eagerly did theirbest and were humbled in front of their masters to learn what they did not know. With the help oftraditional masters that had their experience from the current oral culture in the society, they
proceeded to the reparation protection and introduction of cultural traces. They were responsible
for the important experience of this affair. It seems that with the existence of many damages andalso the wave of renovation in large amounts, that they were not bounded in the protection ofsystems and cultural values and the importance of the historical construction experiences, thus theydamaged them. Despite the conservator’s regard to the architecture and native urbanism
authenticity, there is no communal language between the manager and the public, and each of themuses their own words from their own positions, hence the other side had contradictoryunderstanding.
Conservators lost the familiar language related to traditional construction; oral traditions
and experimental architecture are the creators of historical masterpieces and also not equipped to
the related system of progressive culture. In addition, they had no initiative, and were waiting for
guidelines for conclusion of an agreement with the private sector without any clear form of the
problems, nor did they have the opportunity to teach or supervise.
The subject of service descriptions is still ambiguous. It has uncounted subjects, and at theend of the financial year the accomplished affair along with arbitration and signatures was handed
in, without any evaluation of the work done. Conservators and architects have no other way ofunderstanding the nature of monuments and sites except for decoding the identification of pasttraces by dissolving adjacent layers. Comparisons of their correspondent parts and dating can also
provide more exact results.
It is apparent that the public in this region, views archaeology as a non-native science thatbelongs to foreigners.

It is clear, at least, that most people are not familiar with that the methods

and goals of archaeology. In this situation, a conservator without any acquaintance with theunwritten philosophy of reparation, and also the unwritten philosophy of architecture, history andart, should not do the type of work required by someone acquainted with native art, anthropology
and native archaeology. The reason for this is that the science is still not developed and the noble
91

history of this region is still unwritten.
The trained conservator has learned reparation techniques developed in other countries
based on another language (other than those of Iran). In addition, conservators know that they haveencountered traditional monuments but still have no knowledge and experience about theircomplex contents. Furthermore, they have no support despite thousands of years of experience andthere is no background of experimental architecture and traditional art supporting them.

Other Reparation Problems in IranIn addition, the previously mentioned problems, and the most important ones, are related to one of
the basic problems concerning the reparation and preservation of historical traces in Iran. This is
the decreasing number of traditional masters and no students that can replace them. It is necessary
to mention other cases that cause many problems in the process of the prevention and reparation ofcultural properties in Iran. The following is a synopsis of these problems:yThe lack of appropriate coordination between different government and non-governmentalorganizations and administrations with the Iranian Cultural Heritage and Tourism
Organization in constructing projects during the conservation activities such as dam
construction, the passing of electricity lines, oil and gas pipelines, the foundation andwidening of streets in historical cities and villages, to name a few. In spite of many
enactments and circulars in high levels of the country, in accordance with the necessity ofthese co-ordinations, we can, unfortunately, still witness these kinds of development
activities threatening cultural properties.

yUnqualified (new) managers with unrelated specializations and backgrounds do not haveany former responsibilities in the area of cultural heritage. Despite the activities of expert
organizations who try to help them to better understand the situations, problems, solutions
and the ways of facing the relevant work, as we observed before, the problems is going on,hence facing these acts we need to have the specific knowledge of the history andappropriate professional experiences.

y

The wrong policy about and lack of coordination in different related sections in recent
years are repetitive changes that have occurred in management policies of the Iranian
Cultural Heritage and Tourism Organization. This causes decentralization and establishes
some Technical Committees in the provinces despite the lack of enough experienced staff.
This could culminate in some incorrect decisions and consequently, some damage to thehistorical monuments during the restoration process.

y

The lack of Long term planning for prevention and reparation of historical traces andundetermined targets for reparation affairs in some cases culminate in sectional reparation92

termination. This also causes incomplete work, and a lack of comprehensive plans for thehistorical property. This is one of the reasons why some different and numerous problems
and damages occur to cultural traces. Thus, in some cases, the time of reparation for
cultural properties takes a long period, and the personal inclination of different managers is
also affected in this process. In many cases, the results of the works are contradictory tointernational reparation standards. Also we can observe many uncompleted reparationplans in an unexpected time period, which in some cases, it happens is the result of a lackof allocated budgets in a certain period of time.
y

Iran is a wide country with a large number of cultural properties scattered in every part ofthe country, furthermore, there are a wide range of historical and prehistoric periods withvarious construction styles and masonries such as: stone constructions, wooden structures,brick constructions and the like. Also, there are different climates and subsequently,
different environmental affects. As a result, we need a wide range of various experts withspecialized knowledge as well specific equipment to help support all kinds of culturalproperties.

y

The Iranian Cultural Heritage and Tourism Organization is a research–executive
organization and in some cases these two are do not encounter each other.

Due toconsiderations of the special executive quality of the activities in the field of cultural
heritage various encounters have to take place based on necessary studies and research.
Time is a parameter that has not been the main rule based on the importance in the
Organization's activities in comparison with other organizations and administrations in the
country; this is due to the nature of these particular kinds of duties. Unfortunately, in somecases that take place with a lack of coordination or delay in informing the Iranian Cultural
Heritage and Tourism Organization, and this causes inevitable rescue operations. In
preparing documentation on historical properties that are in danger (e.g. drowninghistorical monuments in order to get a water supply for dams in many regions). It seems
difficult or sometimes even impossible to document the monuments due to such reasons,leaving no time for sufficient study and research. Therefore, many mistakes are made anddata lost.
y

The reparation and reconstruction of some historical monuments in past historic periods
proves that Iranians have an interest in cultural heritage and their past.

Despite thisinterest, because of some ignorance of current prevention and reparation methods forhistorical monuments, sometimes we observe work done on historic monuments by
non-specialists that are, in some cases, irreparable. When we consider the size of Iran, andexistence of a huge number of historical and cultural monuments, the best way to avoid
such problems is by increasing public awareness concerning the protection of their own
cultural properties.
93y

If we examine the situation with an overall view, most of the pre-historic and historic
settlements in Iran were discovered for two reasons, 1) because of the lack of water sourcesin most parts of Iran, and 2) the presence of modern villages besides rivers and springs.
As a result, most of the historic sites are located among or beside contemporary settlements.
New construction projects and urban development could damage the historical identity of
the cities and villages, which is why we must pay more attention to the control of thesedevelopments and share in monitoring them, especially those projects and activities thatcan damage our monuments.

yOther factors that have had more effect on the process of preservation and reparation ofhistorical monuments in recent years are decreasing expertise and relationships with otherdeveloped countries and their own specialized methods and experiences in the case of thepreservation, restoration and protection of cultural heritage. This is due in part because of
the pace of the progress in technology and access to more up to date information in several
specific cases. It is necessary to properly harness the potential of this international
collaboration and expertise. By using these ideas and approaches, we can increase ourknowledge in a shorter time and have more accurate and confident methods. This will
never happen unless we train the young generation of experts who work in these fields
through international training courses, seminars, restoration workshops, and keep them intouch through communication on the internet. On the other hand, young foreign experts canincrease their skills by conducting fieldwork in Iran, since it is one of the richest countries
in the field of cultural heritage. This desire to open Iran to further research and cooperationin cultural heritage preservation is based on my personal opinion that cultural heritage
belongs to the whole world.

94

Kazakhstan
Lazzat Beisembayeva
State Institute for Scientific Research and Planning on Monuments of Material Culture
Almaty,PROBLEMS AND NEEDS FOR THE CONSERVATION AND
RESTORATION OF WOODEN STRUCTURES ANDHISTORIC BUILDINGS IN KAZAKHSTAN

The history of conservation and restoration of historic buildings in Kazakhstan is not along one. In fact, it started in the 1940’s with the repair work at the 14 century Mausoleum of
Khoja Ahmed Yasawi. This is the most important architectural monument in Kazakhstan, and has
recently been inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List. The limited conservation work istargeted at strengthening the threatened parts of the building. Conservation was continuously
implemented in 1945, 1951-54 and in 1956-58.
The next major restoration work was undertaken during the 1970’s and lasted about 10
years. During the same period, the system of agencies and organizations, devoted to historicpreservation, started to form, with their final establishment in the early 1980s, along with thecreation of our institute.
Starting in 1980, about 20 000 monuments and sites were detected in Kazakhstan by the
expeditions of the Institute, and registered on the inventory documentation. In collaboration withother public agencies, the Institute carried out multidisciplinary studies and surveys and Protection
Zoning Plans for all the historic cities and towns of Kazakhstan, as well as for rehabilitation
projects and the adaptive re-use of some districts of historic cities.
The Scientific Experimental Laboratory of the Institute carried out tests and analyses onmaterials, cases of deterioration, and conservation technologies.. It elaborated a number ofintervention methodologies and techniques. More than 400 projects for conservation, restorationand the adaptive re-use of architectural monuments and historic buildings have been elaborated andimplemented.
Nevertheless, in spite of 25 years of experience, we still face a number of problems,
including those related to conservation techniques and materials. Although the historic building
materials in Kazakhstan are mainly represented by earth, fire brick and stone, we have a number ofwooden structures as well. These structures are mostly related to the early 19th and 20th centuries.
The most interesting wooden building I have ever seen is the Zharkent Mosque, dating to95

the late 19th century. It is situated in South-East Kazakhstan in, the town of Zharkent close to theChinese border. According to a local legend, it was built by a Chinese carpenter who was the samebuilders from Bukhara and Samarkand. This structure is unique in Kazakhstan, as it represents a
combination of Islamic traditions with Southeast-Asian design and construction techniques. The
load-bearing wooden framework of walls is filled with mud-bricks, the wooden minaret looks likea Buddhist pagoda, and the wooden roof resembles the shape of the roof of a Buddhist temples.
The architectural decision of the complex concerns the type of domestic mosques. The
building of a mosque settles down in the middle of a courtyard enclosed within a wall. Within thesame fencing are located, other buildings and the constructions combine different architectural
styles, various building receptions and materials.
Construction includes wooden parts, mud and fired bricks, covering materials and– ghanch(a kind of local gyps plaster). In addition, clay plaster and paintings were used. Decoration of amonument is presented by decorative paintings and carved ghanch.
The basic construction of the complex is the building of a mosque in an original Chinese
form. The mosque is based on the idea of piling it up, and paved by special fired brick. The basis
represents an embankment from a cobble-stone with the clay, imposed by large earthen blocks. The
top of the blocks are covered with fire bricks with square and rectangular forms.
In a body of basis there are special ventilating channels. The building of a mosque is
supported by one hundred twenty two columns, they are connected with each other by longitudinaland cross beams. External columns have height of 3.2 meters and diameter in the basis of 0.3
meters, they form a gallery around the entire mosque (fifty two pieces). The following line ofcolumns has a height of 5.6 m and a diameter of 0.4 m and they are basically a skeleton of walls.
(forty eight pieces) The walls of a mosque are made from mud bricks. The outer side of walls is
riveted with fired bricks and inside with plaster panels. An average of two lines of columns has aheight of 9.3 m and diameter in the basis of 0.55 m. These columns carry the weight of a roof (22pieces.). All columns are covered with a waterproofing layer and are painted red.
The basis of each column represents a circle drum from silicate masses stacked on thestrong solid pieces of fundament - sandstone. Columns do not have any capitals; this is peculiar to
Chinese architecture. The system of longitudinal and cross beams is located on the top of columns
together with special wooden brackets. It gives stability to the columns in the gallery and allocatesloading of the roof on the beams and columns.
The roof on the edges has formed the characteristic windings by a system of beams andbrackets. The bright decorations and carvings give considerable elegance to the cornice.
The cornice consists of many bars, consoles and boards, and is collected by means ofvarious cuttings without any metal fastenings, as well as many sites in the building. Colouring is

96

created by bright paints mixed with water.
The interior of the mosque is represented by a spacious hall, divided by two lines ofcolumns into three naves. In the western part of the hall the middle nave is separated from thegeneral hall by a decorative wooden lattice. There is a michrab (bay for worship).
The miсhrab has a deep bay that is decorated with gyps stalactites. There is a two-stored
minaret above the miсhrab (A vertical tower of a mosque from which the muezzin calls
worshippers to prayer). The entrance of a tower is through galleries that are located in the hall of
the mosque above the extended naves.
The ladder leads to the second floor. Four columns in the miсhrab form the basis of thetower. They rise up to the second floor of the tower. The interior of the tower contains flower
drawings in high jugs. These drawings are made by chalky paints, from the eaves of the mosque.
Ten doors and 28 windows are in the mosque. The second object of the complex is theportal with a tower-like pagoda.
The portal is executed in the typical architecture of Central Asia. Its height is 12m. In the
middle of the portal there is a big lancet arch 2,4m in depth. A front gate conducts through a room
towards the territory of the complex. The facade of the portal is divided into rectangular bays thatare colourfully painted with vegetative ornaments and Arabic writing (quotations from the Koran
and names of the builders).
The corners of entrance portals are three-quartered columns covered with carved
ornaments. On both sides of an entrance portal there are two rooms of 50 square meters covered
with domes. The southern room was used as a storehouse. Except for these constructions, thecomplex of "Zharkent mosque" includes a Medresseh (a higher Islamic ecclesiastic school), a
prayer house, a pool, and a garden. There are also additional gates.
This complex has undergone several restoration episodes resulting in the replacement ofroof tiles with metal sheets, and also in the renovation of painted ornamentations of the wooden
beams and ceiling.
In general the building is in good condition. The absence of rotting of wood is very
important after the replacement of some elements during the previous restoration.
The soundings of colourful layers of columns revealed two kinds of layers:
1.

First coating; gunny; second coating: drying oil; a red paint; a brown paint;

2.

First coating; gunny; second coating; a brown.
In the first case the initial layers are kept, and the new paint is covered over with old paint,in the second - there is only a restoration of a colourful layer. The colouring of columns was
97

similarly made with the previous paintings, and probably, a glutinous structure with the addition ofgyps was applied to the basic coating.
Wooden elements also have other kinds of damages, such as trees with shrinkage cracks
and numerous traces of insect damage to dry wood.
Insects’ holes range from 2 to 7 mm and are oval in shape. From some holes mouldering
dust pours out. Especially the 5th column to the right of an entrance and a beam above a ladder.
Measures of struggle with insects should be determined by experts from Institute ofprotection of plants.
In the previous restoration many cracks were found and closed with wooden inserts or
filled by mastic. Now the majority of the filled cracks require restoration.
It is necessary to note the damage to the paint of the wooden elements of eaves. The eaves
suffered extensive damage from doves because of their droppings that spoil and damage thedecorative surfaces of wooden beams and eaves. As a measure of protection from this damage,
grids were employed or the use of a frightening sound was emitted inside the mosque.
wooden constructions are also damaged by bats.

The

The floor was painted in 2002, and in someplaces the paint has now swollen or faded from bat urine.
I hope the training course in Nara will help my colleagues and I to answer many questions
related to the conservation of Zharkent Mosque, as well other historic wooden buildings.

98Malaysia
A Ghafar AHMAD
Associate Professor
School of Housing, Building & Planning,
Universiti Sains Malaysia

CONSERVATION OF COLONIAL HERITAGE BUILDINGSIN MALAYSIA: ISSUES AND CHALLENGES
I. Introduction
In Malaysia, the reigning of the Portuguese (1511-1641), Dutch (1641-1795) and British(1795-1957) colonial powers for over 300 years have bared their marks distinctively on the
country’s town planning, commerce and administrative patterns. These unique colonialarchitectural styles have also played a major role in the creation of heritage cities throughout
Malaysia including the cities of Malacca, Georgetown, Ipoh, Taiping, Kuala Lumpur and Kuching.
Recognising the importance of these heritage assets, many local authorities have designatedheritage zones within their city limits in an effort to boost heritage tourism and generate foreignexchange. Several colonial heritage buildings, ranging from mansions and churches to railway
stations and government offices, have since been conserved and adapted into new uses to improve
economic gains as well as promote heritage tourism in the country (Fig. 1). By the same token, theindigenous traditional buildings, mainly that of the Malay vernacular architecture, have also beenrecognised for their architectural and historical values which are worthy for conservation (Fig. 2).
Forty-eight years have elapsed since Malaysia’s independence in 1957 and seventeen years

Fig.1 Examples of the colonial buildings in Malaysia that have been conserved and adapted to new uses toboost heritage tourism

Fig. 2 Examples of the Malay vernacular buildings that are worthy for of conservation.

99

have passed since Malaysia adopted the World Heritage Convention in 1988. Apparently, the futureof colonial heritage buildings in Malaysia has remained uncertain. It is an irony that Malaysia hadsince managed to list only 52 colonial heritage buildings to be protected under the Antiquities Act
of 1976. The rest of the colonial heritage buildings, mainly those of the British architecture, havebeen poorly maintained, dilapidated and even abandoned by the public and private owners. It isimperative that the crucial issues of building disrepair be addressed promptly and effectively if
Malaysia aims to propagate heritage tourism and stand to nominate other heritage sites for the
UNESCO World Heritage List. Two of Malaysia’s natural treasures, the Kinabalu Park in Sabah
and the Gunung Mulu National Park in Sarawak, have already been included oin the World
Heritage List (in 2000).
This report discusses several key issues and challenges that confront the future of
Malaysia’s colonial heritage buildings, particularly in the light of insufficient legislations andenforcement, uncontrolled urban development pressures, changing lifestyles and consumption
patterns of city dwellers, tourist expectations, lack of technical skills, technological factor, and lackof public awareness in building and urban conservation. It also focuses on initiatives and measures
undertaken by the government and other agencies to conserve the colonial heritage buildings in
Malaysia.

II. Colonial Architecture in Malaysia
From historical accounts, the spread of Islam became most prominent in the Malay Peninsular in
the 15th Century during the reign of the Malay Sultanate of Malacca. Owing to its strategic
location and good governance, Malacca had flourished as a port city specialising in the trading of
spice, an item highly most sought for after by the Europeans. However, the glory of the Malay
Sultanate of Malacca was short-lived when the Portuguese invaded the city in 1511. Successions ofcolonial powers then ruled over the Malay Peninsular: the Portuguese (1511-1641), Dutch(1641-1795) and British (1795-1957).
1. Portuguese and Dutch Architecture
As a country that has been colonized several times in its history, the remains of the its colonialarchitecture could still found in most major cities in Malaysia. The Portuguese and Dutch
architecture
Malacca.

are

Some

found

mostlyexamples

of

in
the

Portuguese architecture in Malacca
include the Porta de Santiago Gate
(1511) and St. Paul’s Church (1590)
Fig.3 The Portuguese architecture in Malacca including the
Porta de Santiago Gate (left) built in1511 and St. Paul’sChurch (right) built in 1590.

100(Fig.3).

Unfortunately,

duringtheDutch occupation both buildings weredestroyed and were left in ruins. The
Dutch

Stadthuysbuilding,

built

between 1641 and 1660 for the Dutch
Governor, has undergone many stagesof restoration before it was finallyconverted into a museum. AnotherFigure 4: The Dutch Stadthuys building (left) built in1641-1660
and the Christ Church (right) built in 1753 in Malacca.

example of the Dutch architecture found in Malacca is the Christ Church (1753), claimed to be theoldest Protestant church in Southeast Asia (Fig.4).
2. British Architecture
Many colonial buildings were also built during the 160 years of British occupation in Malaysia.
These buildings were found in Georgetown, the first British colonial settlement in Southeast Asia,
as well as in Kuala Lumpur, Ipoh, Taiping, Seremban, Johor Bahru and Kuching. These colonialbuildings range from mosques, Anglican churches and official residences to railway stations andother public buildings. Aesthetically, the British colonial buildings built in Malaysia are essentiallyhybrids. They can be categorised into four major architectural styles as follows:i. Moorish influence
The Moorish influence can be seen in many historic buildings the heart of Kuala Lumpur including
government offices, railway stations
and mosques. To portray the Islamicfaith of the Malays, the British
architects responsible during thecolonial period had adopted the
Mogul architecture and Italianatestyles for inspiration. Onion-shaped
domes, turrets, impressive colonnade

Fig.5 Moorish influence at the Sultan Abdul Samad Building (left)
built in 1897 and the Old Railway Station (right) built in 1911 in
Kuala Lumpur.

walkways and decorative Islamic patterns are some of the features that portray the Moorish
influence. For examples, the Old General Post Office (1894), Sultan Abdul Samad Building (1897),
Old Railway Station (1911), Railway Administration Headquarters (1917); and the Jamek Mosque(1909) in Kuala Lumpur (Fig.5).
ii. Tudor
The Tudor architectural style mainly features exposed wooden beams and frames in half-timberedwalls that are usually painted in black and white. The style is a typical model for some earliest
social club buildings, hill station bungalows and guesthouses in the country. For examples, the101Royal Selangor Club (1884) in
Kuala

LumpurSmokehouse

and

the

Old

in

CameronHighlands (1930’s) (Fig.6).

Fig.6 The Tudor architectural style of the Royal Selangor Club (left)
built 1884 in Kuala Lumpur and the Old Smokehouse (right) built in
1930’s in Cameron Highlands.

iii. Neo-ClassicalThe Neo-Classical style has become synonymous to most British colonial buildings andmonuments throughout the country. Like most old buildings in the West, the Neo-classicalbuildings in Malaysia are symmetrical with central porte-cochere, elaborated pediments withclassically proportioned columns andplaster,using

Doric,

IonianorCorinthian capitals to create majestic
structures. For examples, the Old City
Hall Building in Georgetown (1879),
the Town Council Offices in Klang
Fig.7 The Neo-Classical style of the Old City Hall Building (left)
built in 1879 in Georgetown and the Town Council Offices(right) built in 1910 in Klang.

(1910) and the Seremban State Library(1912) (Fig.7).

iv. Neo-Gothic
There are a few colonial buildings built in the
Neo-Gothic style in the country. Most of the
Neo-Gothic buildings can be seen in oldchurches portraying stained-glass windows,
spire towers, pinnacles, rose windows andbuttresses. For examples, the Holy RosaryFig.8 The Neo-Gothic of the Holy Rosary Church(left) built in 1903 in Kuala Lumpur and the Wesley
Church (right) built in 1896 in Ipoh.

Church (1903) in Kuala Lumpur and theWesley Church (1896) in Ipoh (Fig.8).

III. Conservation of Heritage Buildings in Malaysia
Despite the relatively large array of heritage buildings scattered throughout Malaysia, for many
years heritage building conservation has been considered as a new practice oin the local
architectural scene. Up until recently, the public attitude towards local heritage building
conservation has remained rather dismal. Dictated by the market forces, many buildings,
102monuments and sites of historicalimportance have been demolishedin the name of profit and progress.
Apparently, many developers haveeyed aimed to develop for modern,high-rise buildings rather than for
the revitalization of old premises.
As

the

idea

of

Central Market, Kuala Lumpur

Fort
Cornwallis,
PenangGeorgetown,

heritageconservation and preservation isfairlynew

inMalaysia,

forinstance most building owners
may

not

readily

economyrealisedadvantages

of

the
a

two-storey shop house over a
50-storey building. Some critics
have

even

accusedheritagebuilding conservation as being an
inappropriate

act

of

Syed Al Attas Mansion, Tourism
LumpurGeorgetown, Penang

Information

Centre,Kuala

Fig.9 Conservation projects that have triggered public awareness on
the significance of protecting heritage buildings in Malaysia.

neo-colonialisation.
Despite all the predicaments, the eye-opener for the local heritage building conservation
came with the adaptive re-use of the Central Market in Kuala Lumpur during the early 1980s. In
accordance with the basic conservation principles of minimum intervention, this wet market built
in the 1930s Art-Deco style was successful converted into a colourful handicraft and cultural centre.
Central Market is now one of the popular tourist destinations in the capital city. Other highly
publicised conservation projects including the restoration of the Fort Cornwallis and the Syed Al
Attas Mansion in Georgetown and the Malaysian Tourism Information Centre building (MATIC) in
Kuala Lumpur have further heightened public awareness on the significance of protecting heritagebuildings (Fig.9).
The Government, through the Department of Museums and Antiquities, Ministry of Works
and other related agencies has taken several initiatives to protect and conserve the Malaysian
heritage buildings and monuments. Under the Malaysian Antiquities Act of 1976, a historicbuilding or monument aged at least 100 years old can be listed or gazetted by the Government
through the Department of Museums and Antiquities to provide protection and encouragement for
preservation and conservation. Till Until this date, some 137 buildings and monuments have beengazetted under this Act. However, only 52 of those gazetted (38%) fall under the category ofcolonial architecture. The remaining hundreds of colonial heritage buildings in Malaysia, either
public or privately owned, have yet to be recognised and gazetted for their immense architectural103

and historical values. The delay in this process may be due to the inappropriate system adopted for
discovering and recording the colonial heritage buildings in the country, apart from the costconsiderations.
The Conservation of heritage buildings requires in-depth knowledge and expertise onbuilding structures and materials, as well as its defects and causes. This is important in orders toensure the authenticity of the building structures and fabric while protecting their historical andarchitectural significance of the building. In Malaysia, several conservation projects haveincorporated dilapidation surveys, scientific studies and systematic documentation in an attempt toestablish a framework for good practices in building conservation. Such procedures are briefly
discussed as follows:
1. Dilapidation Surveys
Dilapidation survey is a practice of securing information on building conditions and defects prior
to any conservation works. It is a procedure of identifying and recording building defects throughphotographic and digital documentation. The dilapidation surveys, that, which areis usually carriedout by building conservators and other professionals, requires in-depth analyses of the building
defects, their probable causes and the proposed methods and techniques of building conservation.
Normally, data and information obtained from the dilapidation survey are analysed anddocumented in a technical report. This important report serves as a basis for preparing related
project briefs, building specifications and the Bill of Quantity (BQ). Generally, the dilapidation
surveys are instrumental in regard to the following aspects:i

Understanding the state of defects

ii

Determining the causes of defectsiii

Identifying appropriate methods and techniques of building conservation

iv

Providing reference materials to clients, consultants and project contractors

v

Providing a vital resource for conducting the Historical Architectural Building Survey(HABS)

2. Scientific Studies and Laboratory Tests
In Malaysia, some conservation projects require the building contractors to conduct both scientificstudies and laboratory tests during conservation works. This is important as the studies and tests
provide vital information in identifying and solving building defects and problems. It also serves as
inputs in making decisions during the conservation works, particularly in selecting building
materials, identifying appropriate methods and techniques of repair; and in structural modifications.
Such scientific studies include archaeological excavation, microbiology, roof clay tiles, termite

104infestation, salt contamination, local temperature, relative humidity, rising dampness, timber
species and paint colour scheme. Whilst, the laboratory tests include the identification of saltcontent in building structures, the component elements of building materials such as lime plaster,mortar joints and concrete; and the compressive strength of red clay bricks as well as new lime
plaster.
3. Documentation of Building Conditions in Stages
A methodological system of documenting and recording the building conditions before, during andafter restoration through the Historical Architectural Building Survey (HABS) has been practiced
in most conservation projects. Practically, all walls, windows and doors of a building are fixed withyellow strings to form small grids of 1m2. Each grid is then coded systematically, photographedand stored in a computer database. Recognised as a requirement by the Department of Museums
and Antiquities Malaysia, such system records all information on the building conditions,conservation techniques, grid locations and photographs in a standardised format before they are
stored in a database for future references and final documentation.

IV. Importance of Colonial Heritage Buildings
Colonial heritage buildings in Malaysia are valuable assets to the country’s development. The
conservation of colonial heritage buildings in the country has been considered very important for
the following reasons:
1. Historical & Architectural Values
The unique colonial architectural styles in Malaysia have played a major role in the creation ofheritage cities throughout the country such as the cities of Georgetown, Ipoh, Malacca, Taiping,
Kuala Lumpur and Kuching. Colonial heritage buildings usually provide a distinctive character andflavour to a city. They build a lucid image and a unique identity of the heritage city which
differentiates it from cities elsewhere.
2. Protection against Economic Pressures
Sometimes colonial heritage buildings have been conserved to protect them against economic andpolitical pressures. Heritage buildings, especially those located in the central business districts,
have often been under threats of demolition from the public and private developers seeking morelucrative project ventures. It is imperative that the local authorities, conservation bodies andconcerned citizens keep watch on possible abuse of old buildings in their jurisdictions. Proposals
for infill and new development in the conservation areas should be reviewed thoroughly tosafeguard the interests of heritage.

105

3. Sensitivity Towards the Past
Colonial heritage buildings are often adorned with building elements that are remarkable andunique. Nonetheless as these buildings aged, they are prone to building defects and deterioration,
which may lead to complete destruction or removal if improperly maintained. These buildings
should therefore be handled with great sensitivity and skills in order to preserve the rare qualitiesof the buildings materials, architecture and craftsmanship. Continuous community involvement inrelated events such as heritage seminars, forums, exhibitions, heritage trails and workshops arealso crucial to garner threshold support for heritage. Aspects of heritage should be taught early inschools to instill greater heritage understanding and appreciation amongst the younger generations.
4. Continuity & Stability of Physical Environment
From the urban design viewpoint, colonial heritage buildings have been conserved in groups orrows of buildings because they usually complement and strengthen each other, whilst maintaining
the continuity and stability of the physical environment. The scales and proportions of thesecolonial heritage buildings have often portrayed and exuded a well-defined sense of place andharmony within the area. Even buildings of a less outstanding architectural quality are sometimes
conserved for the very reason that they represent a special class or type of building when viewed
from a broader perspective.
5. Assets to Tourism Industry
Colonial heritage buildings have also been increasingly conserved for the benefits of the tourism
industry. These heritage buildings usually demonstrate interesting aspects of a country’s history
and its evolving culture. People and tourists, in particular are often attracted to buildings that are ofhigh historical value and are architecturally outstanding. Some colonial heritage buildings in
Malaysia have been converted into new uses including hotels, museums, restaurants, entertainment
centres, art galleries and cafés to promote local tourism and to generate income. Restoration andadaptive re-use of heritage buildings have been a common practice found in many heritage cities in
Europe including York, Bath, Cambridge and Oxford in England; Paris in France; Venice, Pisa andFlorence in Italy; and Amsterdam in Holland.

V. Issues and Challenges of Colonial Heritage Buildings in Malaysia
Several key issues and challenges are outstanding in the conservation of the colonial heritagebuildings in Malaysia. The issues and challenges are discussed as follows:
1. Insufficient Legislations & Enforcement
There are presently six acts and enactments relating to heritage building conservation in Malaysia.
106

They are the Antiquities Act 1976 (Act 168); Town and Country Planning Act 1976 (Act 172);Federal Territory Act 1982 (Act 267); Urban Development Corporation Act 1971 (Act 46); theMalacca Enactment No. 6 1988; and the Johore Enactment No. 7 1988. Critics have highlighted theshortcomings in these acts and enactments to address sufficiently the various aspects of building
conservation in an integrated manner. The destruction of the historic Metropole Hotel (1900) in
Georgetown in 1993 is a classic example of the inadequacies of these laws to effectively protect
heritage buildings. In recent years, controversies over building height allowances and the repeal of
the Rent Control Act in the Georgetown conservation zones have further staggered private sector
investments in the city.
2. Uncontrolled Urban Development Pressures
In a city growth dynamics, an attractive city blessed with unique historical heritage may easily
attract in-migration of new residents and visitors, as well as new businesses and investments.
However, the influx of people and capital should be moderated and gauged to avoid excess andsuccessive problems. The designation of conservation zones in inner city Georgetown, Malacca
and Kota Bharu, for instance, has provided a haven for heritage conservation (Fig.10). The
respective local authorities have demonstrated their true conscience over the heritage issues.
However, other localities should also be considered for protection from real estate speculations andpotential encroachments, including the Fort Cornwallis and the Esplanade in Georgetown, the Lake
Garden and Bukit Larut (Maxwell Hill) in Taiping and the Bukit Bendera (Penang Hill) in Penang.
Conservation approaches including adaptive re-use, restoration and urban infill should be fosteredand encouraged to maintain the authentic structure and fabric of these heritage buildings and sites.
3. Changing Lifestyles andConsumption Patterns of City
Dwellers
Most heritage cities in Malaysia
have

been

blessedwithavibrant social life and lively
cultural

events,religious

ceremonies,

Georgetown

Malacca

Kota Bharu

Kuching

includingmulti-

cultural fests and festivals. The
city lifestyles as a whole may
well be considered as a part ofthe cultural heritage that shouldbe treasured for the future
generations. However, factors

Fig.10 The designation of conservation zones in inner city Georgetown,
Malacca, Kota Bharu and Kuching has provided a haven for heritage
conservation.

107

of urban demographic changes, over-consumerism, changing lifestyles and consumption patterns
amongst the urbanites have somewhat affected the way of life in cities. Many young urban
professionals had now preferred condominium living with air-conditioning, rather than stay inheritage buildings with air well ventilation. They also went for Starbucks’s coffee rather than the
traditional coffee shops. Wet markets and neighbourhood
stores are fast losing customers to hypermarkets. All thesechanges of modern living have affected the economic values
and social functions of colonial heritage buildings in theurban areas.
4. Changing Expectations of Tourists
Literature has argued that the present tourists have different
travelling behaviours. Travelling used to be an escapism formany people, but today, the idea of travelling has changed tothe enrichment of knowledge. Tourists now no longer visit forthe sake of visiting, but they demand much more. Tourists
now prefer to feel, learn and experience the sense of place
Figure 11: Tourists now prefer to feel,learn and experience the sense ofplace and energy in arts andcultures, rather than observe them inmuseums and galleries

and energy in arts and cultures, rather than observe them inmuseums and galleries (Fig.11). However, conserving theauthentic qualities of colonial heritage buildings and cultures
as demanded by these tourists may be rather costly.
5. Lack of Technical Skills
Building conservation is a multi-disciplinary field, which
involves

inputsfromvariousprofessionals

includingarchitects, engineers, historians, archaeologists, geologists,chemists, environmentalists, and other experts. Overall,
Malaysia still lacks technical experts and skilled workers in
conducting the conservation works to repair and maintain thehistoricbuildings(Fig.12).

Inaccordance

with

the

conservation principle, the practice of building conservation
should maintain as much as possible the original building
structure and fabric. Good practice of building conservation
may further enhance heritage tourism.
Fig.12 Malaysia still lacks technicalexperts and skilled workers in
conducting the conservation work inorders to repair and maintain thehistoric buildings.

108

6. Technological Factor
Colonial heritage buildings in Malaysia have often been noted for their unique architecturalproperties, which allow for natural ventilation. These elements include high ceilings, air wells,
fanlights, verandahs, canopy, overhangs and other shading devises, which provide for indoor
thermal comfort. However in vogue with the modern technologies, several colonial heritagebuildings in Malaysia, especially those converted into business uses, have been installed with
air-conditioning units. At times, improper installation of air-conditioning units onto the building
façade has affected the aesthetic values of colonial heritage buildings for tourist appreciation.
7. Lack of Public Awareness
In Malaysia, public awareness and support for colonial heritage buildings have generally been
lukewarm. Colonial heritage buildings have been perceived as a reflection of a dark period in the
Malaysian history and as a new type of colonialism. Such views have somewhat hurt theconservation efforts somewhat. Moreover, there has been an overall lack of drive and rigour by thegovernment to educate the public at large on the values of heritage buildings. Most heritage cities
by virtue of their glorious past life usually have some historical, cultural and political assets, whichthat could support a change in leadership and vision. However, leaderships in Malaysian heritage
cities have yet to rally full grassroots supports through improved public participation andawareness of heritage matters.

VI. Initiatives and Measures
Several initiatives and measures have been put forth to address the pending issues and challenges
of colonial heritage buildings in the country. They are discussed as follows:
1. Sufficient Legislations and Enforcement
Sufficient and effective laws and legislations pertaining to heritage and urban conservation are
considered the most crucial for heritage survival. Policy makers, town planners, urban designers,
architects and other professionals directly involved in the development of the heritage cities shouldhave a great sensitivity and understanding of heritage and urban conservation. While sufficientlaws and legislations are important, their effective enforcement is equally critical. In the past,
heritage buildings in Malaysia have been threatened by demolitions, incompatible extensions andother insecurities. This phenomenon has reflected negatively on the law enforcement by therelevant authorities.
2. System of Discovering and Recording of Colonial Heritage Buildings
It is most unfortunate that Malaysia has not been able to document all her colonial heritage109

buildings in the country after seventeen years of adherence to the World Heritage Convention. It isa tragedy that some of these heritage buildings might have been demolished before they were evendiscovered and listed for protection under the Antiquities Act 1976. The Department of Museums
and Antiquities as a major actor in this endeavour should play a more proactive role in ensuringthat all local authorities are aware of heritage buildings and sites within their administrative limits.
Seminars, workshops and field visits should be conducted at regular intervals to train and re-train
the local taskforce on heritage building documentations.
3. Conservation and Design Guidelines for Heritage Zones
Appropriate conservation and design guidelines usually serve as an important tool for the planningand development control of the heritage areas, particularly the colonial heritage buildings. The
Penang Municipal Council and the Kuala Lumpur City Hall, for instance, have gazetted heritage
zones in their inner city areas with specific design guidelines and allowance for building heightcontrol, façade treatment, signage, parking space and landscaping to control future development aswell as enhance heritage tourism. Proposals for re-development of heritage buildings, in particularwould have to comply with various planning legislations, building by-laws and safety requirements.
Some of these requirements include providing wide corridors, water sprinklers, emergency
staircases, fire doors, signage and access for emergency vehicles.
4. Local Involvement in Heritage Conservation
Heritage cities constitute not only the physical structure, but also the living and working
communities. Ideally, the preparation of conservation and design guidelines for heritage areas
should involve not only the local authorities and conservation bodies, but all concerned citizens inthe spirit of enhancing public participation and public consensus over the future of a common
heritage. The Penang State Government, for instance, has taken measures to ensure the city
populace continue to appreciate and value their heritage. Several NGOs including the Penang
Heritage Trust have encouraged active public participation in heritage seminars, visits andworkshops. More concerted efforts should be undertaken by all sectors to educate the people about
heritage conservation.
5. Provisions of Grants and Incentives
The government through various agencies should provide more grants and financial incentives tothe owners of colonial heritage premises. Without a decent financial backup, private building
owners would be unable to maintain their buildings regularly. In the long run, they might be forced
to abandon their dilapidated buildings or move elsewhere. In Georgetown, the abolishment of theRent Control Act has left many building owners without the means to maintain and upgrade theirbuildings. The sight of heritage buildings in a state of disrepair is an eyesore to both tourists and110the local peoples alike.
VI. Marketing Strategies & Heritage Tourism Promotion
All heritage and tourism activities should be managed effectively to enhance the development of
the heritage cities. These efforts include authentic product development and presentation,
information dissemination, provision of facilities for tourists and the local community, financial
management, and heritage marketing strategies. Updated information on heritage and tourism
products should be provided effectively through various channels, including websites, mass media
and advertisements. Effective management of heritage would improve the quality of the tourist
experience at heritage sites. Good marketing strategies and effective tourism promotion on heritage
products would benefit many including city dwellers, traders and tour guides.

VII. Conclusions
This report has discussed the challenges facing the colonial heritage buildings in Malaysia. Since
her independence in 1957 Malaysia has inherited hundreds of heritage buildings from the colonial
era apart from the indigenous traditional buildings. Most of these heritage buildings are boasting ofsignificant architectural, historical and cultural values, which arguably should be treasured for the
next generations. However, Malaysia’s track record on the efforts to conserve these colonial
heritage buildings has been far from satisfactory. Till this date, only 52 colonial heritage buildings
throughout the country have been gazetted, whilst the remaining hundreds of buildings have yetremained to be discovered and listed for protection against demolition as well as other economic
threats.
Several policy recommendations are have been put forward in support of the future ofcolonial heritage buildings in Malaysia. It is a high priority for the relevant ministries, particularly
the new Ministry of Culture, Arts and Heritage, the Ministry of Tourism and the Ministry of
Housing and Local Government, as well as other agencies to fully recognise the colonial heritagebuildings as valuable assets to the country’s development, apart from being marketable tourism
products. Placing the colonial heritage buildings under the auspices of these ministries would allow
for a more extensive promotion of the Malaysian heritage treasures throughout the world. The
Department of Museums and Antiquities Malaysia should be in the forefront in documenting thecolonial heritage buildings for future references and maintenance purposes.
In addition, the provisioning of financial incentives, technical advice and tax exemptions
to owners of colonial heritage buildings and private developers are also crucial for encouraging theflow of private investments for building maintenance and upgrades. Also high on the agenda is thecontinued efforts to increase the public awareness on the values of conserving heritage property toposterity. More conservation bodies, which that champion the cause of colonial heritage buildings111

should be on the front line in order to propagate and promote the conservation of these buildings.
Educating the masses about the significance of colonial heritage should be a prime agenda for all
citizens concerned with reviving the past for the future.

References
Ahmad, A.G. (1997). British Colonial Architecture in Malaysia 1800-1930, Museums Associationof Malaysia: Kuala Lumpur.
_____________. “Understanding Common Building Defects: The Dilapidation Survey Report”,
Journal of the Malaysian Institute of Architects, Volume 16, Issue 1, 2004, p. 19-21.
Ahmad, A.G. and N. Badarulzaman (2001). Aspek Economi dalam Sektor Perhotelan Bercirikan
Warisan Seni Bina di Malaysia, Universiti Sains Malaysia: Penang.
Badan Warisan Malaysia (1990). A Guide to Conservation of Buildings of Historic andArchitectural Significance, BWM: Kuala Lumpur.
Badarulzaman, N. (1999). Tren Pembangunan Sektor Perniagaan Runcit di Pulau Pinang: Dari
Rumahkedai ke Hypermarket, Universiti Sains Malaysia: Penang.
Chen, V. F, ed., reprinted, (2001) The Encyclopedia of Malaysia: Architecture, Archipelago Press,
Singapore, Volume 5.
Heritage Conservation. Available at http://www.hbp.usm.my/conservation, September 2005.
Holland, L. (2001). “Malaysia: Whose Heritage?” Far Eastern Economic Review, May 3.
Lim, T.N. and Lillian, T., eds. (2000). 80 Years of Architecture in Malaysia, PAM Publication,
Kuala Lumpur.
Kotler, P., et. al. (1993). Marketing Places: Attracting Investment, Industry and Tourism to Cities,
States and Nations, The Free Press: New York.
Kuala Lumpur City Hall (1991). Conservation Guidelines, DBKL: Kuala Lumpur.
Masters Planning Studio (1999). Kajian Tren Pembangunan Sektor Perniagaan Runcit di Pulau
Pinang: Pusat Bandaraya George Town, Technical Report, Universiti Sains Malaysia: Penang.
Mohamed, B. (2000). Heritage Tourism in Penang, paper presented at Workshop on the Listing of
Tentative Heritage Sites of Melaka & Penang, Melaka, September 28-29.
Penang Municipal Council (1987). Design Guidelines for Conservation Areas in the Inner City
Area of George Town, Penang, MPPP: Penang.

112

Mongolia
Batbaymba LUTKHUUArchitect Restorator
Suld-Uul Co. Ltd.

CULTURAL HERITAGE PRESERVATION IN MONGOLIA
Mongolia is located in Central Asia and plays a leading role in the history of the world’s nomadic
cultures and civilizations. As Mongolia has thousands years of history based on a nomadic lifestyle,she is rich in her historical and cultural heritage.
Not only her territory, but also under its soil, Mongolia is rich in unique historical andcultural heritage including the skeletons of huge dinosaurs, that existed millions of years ago, rockand cave paintings, graves, derr-stones, stone statues of men, various architectural monuments:
monasteries, remnants of ancient cities, settlements, and sites and places connected with historicalevents and individuals.
According to architectural surveys, findings, documents and historic manuscripts, there
were at least some 300 cities and settlements, more than 4000 temples, and about 770 monasteries
in Mongolia.
The Mongolian people have a long history of preserving their historical and cultural
heritage. Even during the Hun’s period the Mongolian government used to preserve and protect
mountains, rivers, and wild animals as sacred things. During the period of the Great Mongolian
Empire (the time of the reign of Chinghis Khan’s) protected zones were officially established under
the Law called “Ikh Zasag”.
The first written regulation for the preservation of ancient heritage was issued in 1925. In
1937-1938 when the communist regime was very ferocious, hundreds of monasteries and historicaland cultural monuments were destroyed. But since 1944, restoration of historical and cultural
heritage such as Erdene Zuu and Amarbaysgalant monasteries and other monuments commenced
under state supervision. The Law of the Protection of Cultural Monuments was issued in 1970.
Because of Mongolia’s transition into a market economy in 1990, public attitudes toward
historical and cultural heritage changed, and the government required the regulation of all issues
related to the protection of historical and cultural properties. Therefore, in 1994, the Law for the“Protection of Items of Historical and Cultural Values” was amended. The purpose of this law is toregulate, the classification, evaluation, restoration, preservation, ownership, possession and usageof items and sites of historical and cultural value.

113

In 2001, the Law for the “Protection of Items of Historical and Cultural Values” wasfurther amended and the “Law on Protection of Cultural Heritage” was newly adopted.

This newlaw regulates issues of both tangible and intangible heritage.
The National Program for the Preservation and Restoration of immovable Historical andCultural Monuments for the period of 1999-2005 was adopted in 1998, and the Fund for theProtection of Historical and Cultural Monuments was established in 1995.

The purpose of thelatter was to fund important activities aimed at preserving unique historical and cultural sites.
Established in 1973, the “Historical and Cultural Heritage Restoration Organization” haddeveloped projects and restored more than 30 historical and cultural heritage sites or buildings,
including Erden Zuu, Amarbaysgalant and Gandan monasteries, the complex of Zaya monasteries,
Green Palace Bogd Khaan, Choijin Lama’s temple, Tsetsen Khann Palace, and others, from
1976-1995. In 1995, this organization was privatized and now the private companies of “Tuukh
Soyol” and “Suld Uul” are running businesses centred on the restoration of historical and cultural
heritage.
“Suld Uul” Co. Ltd, my employer, specializes in the restoration of historical and cultural
memorials was established in 1996 and the restored the temples, topes and wall of Baruun Zuu,
Erdene Zuu, the Mausoleum of Avtai Khaan and Tusheet Khaan Gombodorj.
“Suld Uul” has been carrying out its restoration activities according to the National
Program on Preservation and Restoration of the Immovable Historical and Cultural Monuments
approved by the Government of Mongolia. Among the monuments restored by our company andaccepted by the state are the Main temple of the Shankh monastery (1999), Laviran temple, Great
Gate, the Wall of Dambadarjaa monastery (2000), the complex of buildings and construction of theTuvkhun monastery (2001), the three temples of the Faithful Nomun Khan Monastery (2002), thePalace of Khanddorj, the Golden Stupas of Erdene Zuu (2003), the Library Temple of Bogd Khan’s
Palace Museum, and the Central Zuu temple of the Erdene Zuu monastery (2004; see photographs
1-10)
Among the above mentioned undertakings, the most interesting, and difficult, was therestoration of the Central Zuu Temple of the Erdene Zuu monastery. Erdene Zuu, the first big
monastery representing the Mongolian Buddhist religion was established in 1586.
The Erdene Zuu had 62 temples headed by the Central, Right and Left Zuu temples, over
500 construction and wall fence with four great gates, 108 stupas and consisted of a total inside
area of 400×400m². Over 10 000 monks and the successive reincarnated Tsorjs all lived within thewall. The monastery was destroyed during the persecutions of 1937-1938, and remains of the wallwith 18 temples and stupas were placed under the protection of the state and rearranged as
museums for the public. Restoration of the remaining temple walls and stupas of the Erdene Zuu

114

monastery were made in 1945-1946, 1961-1965, 1968-1998 (see photographs 11 and 12).
The construction of the Central Zuu temple, one of the first temples at Erdene Zuu,
commenced in 1956. Maintenance overhauls of the Central Zuu temple were completed in 1940
and 1960.
The Central Zuu temple at Erdene Zuu monastery was designated unfit for further use in2003 as it had suffered serious damage and breaks such that it had an 10 cm incline to the right due
to subsidence. In addition, the wooden parts were decayed, and the main beams were deflected.
Therefore, it was dismantled and rebuilt in 2004. Along with the restoration of the Central Zuu thefollowing activities were performed: razing and rebuilding of the wall, replacement of decayed
beams and columns with new ones, and renewal of the paintings (see photographs 13-16)
The roofing tiles used in the restoration of the temples done by Suld Uul are supplied by
the roofing tile plant of Khukh Khot city in China.

We use natural earth colour paints and drywooden materials for at least 2-3 years in their natural conditions, thus eliminating moisture andresins.

115

Myanmar
Daw Lwin Mar Oo
Assistant Director
Department of Archaeology (Upper Myanmar),
Mandalay,

PROBLEMS AND NEEDS FOR CULTURAL HERITAGE
PROTECTION AND RESTORATION ACTIVITIES IN MYANMAR
I. Introduction
Myanmar is a Theravada Buddhism country in South-east Asia. The historical period in Myanmar
began from Pyu period (before the 1st century A.D to the 10th century A.D). The Pyu period was
followed by the Bagan period from AD 108 to A.D. 1369. After the Bagan period, the Pinya - Inwa
period began (from the 14th to the 17th century A.D.), followed by the Taung-gu-Nyaung-yan
period (from the 16th century A.D to 18th century A.D) and the Kon - Baung period (from the 1st
century A.D to the 19th century A.D).
A Large number of religious monuments such as pagodas, temples, stupas and monasteries,tazaungs, pyatthats, palaces, zayats, and dwelling houses have been built throughout the country
since the Pyu period. These monuments are made of stone, brick and wood depending on theavailability of the material. Among these buildings, ancient monasteries are one of the mostinteresting religious monuments. They are mostly made of wood, which is in abundance especiallyin upper Myanmar, in hot regions, like Mandalay, Bagan, Innwa, Sa-Le, Sa-Lin. and Pakhan-gyi.
As all of you know, Myanmar is in the tropical zone, and the climate is hot and humidity ishigh all year, especially in the rainy season. This means that most of the monuments havedeteriorated somewhat.
In my paper, I would like to deal mainly with the preservation of wooden monasteries andthe problems faced in our department.

II. Major Laws Concerning the Preservation of Cultural Heritage
In Myanmar cultural heritage, ancient monuments, and antiquities have been protected since 1957
by passing “The Burma Antiquities Act" on the 1st of April, 1957. Later in 1962, the Governmentof the union of Burma amended this Act. A new law entitled "The Protection and Preservation ofCultural Region Law" was promulgated on September 1998. It consists of nine chapters namely (1)Title and Definition (2) Objectives (3) Determining Cultural Heritage Region (4) Function andDuties of Ministry of Culture (5) Protecting and Preserving the Cultural Heritage Region (6)Applying for Prior Permission Scrutinizing and Issuing (7) Prohibition (8) Offence and Penalties

116and (9) Miscellaneous.

III. Organization Responsible for Preservation
In Myanmar; the government organization responsible for the preservation, restoration andreconstruction of cultural heritage monuments is the Department of Archaeology. There are six
archaeology branch offices in six historical cities. These offices are the following:1.

Mandalay archaeology Divisional Office2.

Bagan Archaeology Branch Office3.

Innwa Archaeology Branch Office4.

Pyaay Archaeology Branch Office

5.

Bago Archaeology Branch Office6.

Myauk-U Archaeology Branch OfficeIV. Wooden Architecture in MyanmaryWood has been the prevalent material for the construction of all residential buildings, fromthe makeshift huts of the lowliest commoner to the sumptuous gilded palaces of the kings
of Myanmar.

y

The majority of Buddhist monasteries were also built of teak wood. Unlike their masonrycounterparts, the wooden edifices of Myanmar owe more to an indigenous domestic
architectural tradition. Traditional buildings in Myanmar were only one storey. Due to thesacred nature of the human head, Myanmar people did not like the idea of others living
above them.

To erect a house in Myanmar was a relatively simple affair. Building materials, such as palm,
bamboo, and wood were readily available. Professional architects and carpenters were not required,for house-building was a skill passed down from generation to generation. With the help ofrelatives and neighbours, a simple, four-roomed dwelling made of bamboo and matting andconsisting of a shrine-parlour, bedroom, kitchen, and store room could be built within a day or so.
The average life of such a house was not more than ten years since hazards such as insects, fire,
flood, and war, did not encourage the construction of structures of a more permanent nature.
The well-to-do, however, preferred something more substantial and permanent. They
would contract a master carpenter who would have his journeyman build a larger, but basicallysimilar style of house, using teak posts and plank partitions instead of bamboo house-buildings.
However, this was subject to sumptuary laws. Carving, gilding, and elaborate roofing systems werelimited to monasteries and the homes of nobles and high officials.
For the building of a monastery (hpongyi-kyaung), a contingent of carpenters and woodcarvers would be contacted by the donor, who would specify the length and breadth of the desired
edifice. The master carpenter would then be able to calculate the dimensions of the various

117component parts comprising the image room (pyathat-hsaung) in the east, followed by the room forthe chief monk or Sayadaw (a sanu hsaung), the reception hall/ school-room or dormitory formonks (hsaung- ma- gyi) at the back, and the surround veranda (zinggyan). He would base his
calculations on the traditional Myanmar system of measurement that used the approximate
dimensions of various parts of the body.
Once the carpenters had assembled the basic post and lintel skeleton, the carvers would
begin the arduous work of carving hundreds of decorative details for the doorways, windows,
balustrades, and multiple roots from planks and blocks of well-seasoned wood. Decorations werecarved section by section and assembled later. They were attached to the building by tenons andnails. A large monastery might take from three to ten years to complete. Artisans were usually paidin silver and received food and lodging for the duration of the project.

V. Purpose of the built wooden structures
The period of the Konbaung dynasty (1752-1885) left examples of different traditional woodenbuildings. Zayats, tazaungs, pyathats, monasteries ( pongyi kyaung), royal palaces (nandaw)- allthese buildings are represented in various versions, differing from each other both in volumetriccomposition and in type of decoration.
Zayat
The Zayat is the most common building in Myanmar after
the dwelling house. Generally the zayat is a very simple
structure, looking like a roof on posts. Zayats are wellknown under different names in many oriental tropical andsub-tropical countries. Each country developed its own
Fig.1 The second most common
building in Myanmar is a Zayat. This

one is situated on a long roadtype made of different materials, with different proportions
and decorations. Myanmar zayat are nearly always built ofwood. The entire structure of the simplest zayat is definedby a roof supported with log posts and a wooden floor lifted slightly above the ground.
One can find such structures in every village, monastery, at all the sacred compounds and,the most simple along the roadsides. The main purpose of the zayat is to serves as a place forresting and lodging. In the most worshipped sacred places zayats are almost the predominant
structures, being rest houses for pilgrims. At the same time zayats are also used for some religious
ceremonies, for preaching or simply as meeting places in villages.
Sometimes zayats are built for a special purpose, particularly for ecclesiasticalexaminations. Buddhist Singh organise such examinations regularly to test the level of learning
reached by the monks. Zayats built especially for the Buddhist examinations are called tudhamma
zayats. They have two-staged roofs and wall panels richly decorated with woodcarvings.

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The rest form a thoroughfare leading to the foot of the hill. A magnificent ensemble of 33
tudhamma zayats were built at the foot of the Mandalay hill in 1862 by an order of the King
Mindon before the Fifth Great Synod of Buddhism to house the 10,000 invited monks.
Nearly half of the zayats are stretched in a straight line of about 450 m along the Northmoat of the Mandalay Royal City.
Nowadays Tudhamma zayat have lost many of their original details. Beautiful
woodcarving of roofs has virtually disappeared. Lifting walls, clearly visible on the century-old
photos, do not exist anymore. In spite of all the losses, these building in their rhythmic like rows
still express monumental unity.

Tazaung
Tazaung is another type of wooden structure widespread in Myanmar. In the broad sense Tazaung
is a temple. Placed at the foot of a pagoda they shelter statues of the Lord Buddha under their roofs,
in front of which people pray and meditate.

Pyathat
The most widely used roofing of the Myanmar tazaung is a pyathat, a very specific Myanmar
architectural form with an original pyramidal shape, pyathat consist of an odd number of squareroofs, decreasing upwards. Roofs with small decorative gables in thecentre of each pitch are most common. Roofs are nearly always richly
decorated, usually with woodcarvings. The crowning part of a pyathat
resembles an onion shaped body elongated upwards and square inplan. It is a conventional image of a hnepyobu - banana bud which is
requisite to complete each Myanmar pagoda and pyathat. An iron hti(umbrella) crowns the hnepyobu. Significant pyathats often had a gilt
covering.
Myanmar pyathat look intricate, but in fact have a simple andlogical structure. A wooden skeleton is formed by a number ofthree-dimensional frames narrowing upward. Over the bottom frameFig. 2 A Tazaung, a common
wooden temple in Myanmar

lie two strong beams, crossing in the centre of the pyathat. The
support pole is considered the spire of the pyathat skeleton. The poleends with a hti (umbrella) and other crowing elements. A system ofinternal diagonals ensures the strength and stability of the structure.
The frames are faced with boards. Decorations of elaborate carved
elements hang on the pyathat's frames. Even without this suspended
adornment the shape of a pyathat looks clear-cut and expressive.
The roofing levels of a pyathat were not allowed to exceed

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Fig. 3 Pyathat with typicallayered roofs

nine in number. Usually there were three, five or seven roofs (see photo above), the number
depending on the significance of the tazaung. Pyathat with three roofs bore the name yahma with
five-thuba; and seven - thuyahma. The silhouette of a pyatthat is common is common for Myanmar
scenery just as the silhouette of a pagoda is in China. Pyattha over the tazaungs crowning gates andtowers of the Mandalay Royal City are among the most significant examples. Their refined andfragile shapes tower over mighty brick walls and form an impressive composition based on their
sharp visual contrast. Some of the Mandalay tazaungs are considered old, although they belong to
the middle of the 19th century.

Palaces
In Myanmar, palaces were built throughout the historical periods. The historical period in
Myanmar began from the Pyu period (before the 1st century AD to the 10th century A.D). The Pyu
period was followed by the Bagan period (from A.D 108 to A.D 1369), Pinya-Inwa period (from14th to 17th century A.D), Toung-gu-Nyaung-yan period (from 16th century A.D to 18th centuryA.D); and Kon-baung period (from 18th century A.D to 19th century A.D) followed respectively.
During the Pyu period many Pyu ancient cities were found in Pyay (Sriksetra) in the south,
Beikthan in the centre of the country, and Hanlin in the north. Each Pyu ancient city has fortified
city walls. Beikthano Pyu city wall is square in shape whereas the city wall of Sriksetra is oval andthe city wall of Hanlin is rectangular in shape. At every
Pyu ancient city, the palace site was found to be located in
the centre of the city. The palace site was usually fortified
by a massive brick wall and a wide moat was again
surrounded outside. Archaeological excavations could
reveal the location and the remaining brick platforms of thepalace. All of the palace super structures were totally
damaged due to fire, weather, and other effects, thus theyFig. 4.Typical example of a palace in
Myanmarhave been under reconstruction since 1989 by thegovernment.

Monasteries
Monasteries occupy a very important place among traditional wooden buildings in Myanmar. They
are called kyaung or pongyi kyaung. Kyaung also means school, and pongyi means monk.
Monasteries and schools bear the same name because during the feudal period only monasteries
functioned as schools.
A Myanmar Buddhist monastery may consist of one or several buildings that look likeordinary dwelling houses. The monastery, surrounded with a fence (serves more of a symbolic
function than for real protection), can be seen anywhere, such as among dwellings, on the territoryof sacred compound, in a picturesque grove, on the riverside, or near a pond. The number and120

composition of monastery buildings depend on theirsignificance, size and wealth.
Among many monasteries one can single out
examples built according to the regular plan, which aresometimes genuine pieces of folk wooden architecture.
How, and when the classical composition of a Myanmar
wooden monastery building developed, is not certain.
However, by the end of the 18th century these were wellFig.5. Kyaung or monastery

established.
A classical Myanmar wooden monastery is generally divided into two areas. An official
area for visitors occupies the eastern side of the building with the residential area on the western,
private side. This scheme resembles that of the Bagan monasteries, where the official public hallwith a Buddha statue built of wood adjoins a brick dwelling building. This similarity in the overall
general planning concept is the only common feature to the Bagan and wooden monasterybuildings of the 18-19th centuries. The latter are known only in the form of fully developed
examples, that have no analogues in India, China or in any other neighbouring country.
A Myanmar wooden monastery is, as a rule, symmetrical along the East-West axis. Its floor
is elevated for 2.5-3m over the ground. The building is surrounded by an open gallery accessed byseveral massive brick plastered stairs. Every monastery room is covered with a separate roof.
Shweinbin Kyaung in Mandalay, erected at the end of the 19th century, is a definitive example oftraditional monastery composition. The main entrance is the Eastern one. The King and the abbot
were the only persons who had the right to use the Eastern stairway. The first entrance hallformerly enclosed one or several images Buddha and is crowned with a pyathat, hence its namepyatthat saung. The next small room sanu saung (intermediate room), is sometimes considered theabbots residence, and was also used by him for talks with visitors, and for receiving presents anddonations to the monastery.
The sanu saung leads into the maraphin saung (saung magyi), a large hall-like room
divided with a partition into western and eastern parts. The name of the hall originates from thispartition because maraphin in Myanmar means 'partition, or dividing a hall into two parts'. It isalways the largest room in a kyaung, covered by a separated three-tiered roof, clearly distinct in thecomposition of the building in the eastern section of the maraphin, near the centre of the partition,
stands a throne with an image of Buddha. The floor in the middle of the maraphin is always
elevated for two to three steps, with a low fence usually surrounding this elevated area. This is thescene for various activities. A monk sitting on the elevated floor delivers sermons, teaches novices
and monastery school pupils, who take their place on the lower level. At the western part of the
maraphin is a private room, closed from strangers. Monks used to sleep on the bamboo-mats along
the walls in the different pats of the maraphin. Boga saung or anau saung (Western room) on themain monastery axis is separate from the maraphin house novices and pupils, and it may also be121

used as a store-room.

VI. Preserved Monasteries of Upper Myanmar
In upper Myanmar, there are over 50 ancient wooden monasteries. Among them the following havebeen preserved by the Myanmar Department of Archaeology, in line with budgetary considerations.
The following is a selected list of some preserved monasteries:
1.

Shwe-Nan-Daw wooden monastery (kyaung), Mandalay

2.

Shwe-In-Bin wooden monastery, Mandalay

3.

Thin-Gazar wooden monastery, Mandalay

4.

Thaka-Wun wooden monastery, Mandalay

5.

Bagaya wooden monastery, Innwa

6.

Lei-Zin wooden monastery, Salin

7.

Maha-Mindin wooden monastery, Mandalay

1. Shwe-Nan-Daw wooden monastery (kyaung), Mandalay
The Shwe-Nan-Daw wooden monastery (or kyaung) in Mandalay was originally the northernchamber of the Glass Palace. This building is of great historical importance, for it is the only
apartment of the former nineteenth century Kon-baung palace complex left to posterity. It was
refurbished from 1878-83 as an act of filial piety by the last king of Myanmar in order to gain
merit for his father, King Mindon. No expense was spared in its construction.
The monastery consists of a 35m by 21m main hall (saung ma gyi) surrounded on all sides
by a 2.5m wide veranda. A total of 150 teak pillars (15 rows from east to west and 10 from north tosouth) support the monastery which is constructed on a platform built nearly 2m above the ground.
The pillars, set in lotus petal shaped rock, are made of sagyin- marble, and have been anchored into
concrete foundations added sometime during the 1960s by the Department of Archaeology in aneffort to preserve the building. Outward-facing effigies of rearing dragons that appear in triplicate
at the corners guard the foundation pillars around the perimeter. Curtains of batwing (lin-no-daung)ornament in subdued relief span the interior spaces between the pillars below the veranda and serve
as a foil to the writhing vertically oriented reptilian forms. A low 70m high surrounding fence ofclub-shaped, stucco-coated sein- daungornaments keeps stray animals awayfrom the building.
The monastery was refurbishedin 1996. It was leaning badly towards
the south side and the veranda flooring
was disintegrating in some areas.
Fig. 6 Shwe-Nan-Daw wooden monastery (or kyaung) in
Mandalay

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Under the auspices of the Department

of Archaeology, the flooring was renewed, the leaning problem corrected, and missing carvings
have been replaced with new ones.

2. Shwe-In-Bin Wooden Monastery, Mandalay
The Shwe- In- Bin monastery was built in 1895 by a wealthy Chinese merchant U set Shwin andhis wife Daw Bwa. Although constructed a decade after British annexation, the monastery isremarkable for its classic proportions and its elaborate well-preserved relief-carvings of scenes
from Myanmar and Buddhist folklore. This monastery is built on a nearly 2m high platform andsupported by a total of 167 sturdy oiled teak pillars. It is dominated in the east by a seven-tiered, 9
by 9m cruciform-shaped image room (pyathat-hsaung) with projecting gables in three directions.
Light enters this room through small porthole windows which are also the focus for the diagonallyarranged planking comprising the walls of the pyathat spire. This apartment adjoins anapproximately 14m by 5m, tiered ein-daw roofed former chief monk's room (sanu hsaung) which
up until 1996 had served as a library for the monastery's manuscripts that are housed in gilded
boxes (sadaik) and cupboards.
The largest apartment, the reception hall (hsaung -ma-gyi) over 32 m long, which ismarked externally by a series of three classic (zei-ta-wun) roofs is divided into two parts by apartition wall. The western section of the reception hall which serves as a dormitory for monks isconnected to the storeroom (baw-ga-hsaung) by an interesting architectural feature in the form of acovered arched hallway or kon- hsaung surmounted by a small tiered roof. This area is used forgatherings of monks and may also serve as a place to stay when the usual dormitory is full. The
11m by 5m storeroom is marked externally by three triple zei- ta- wun roofs which are lower thanthose of the sanu- hsaung to the east but higher than those of the covered kon -saung hallway to thewest. A total of eight masonry staircases, three on both the north and south sides and a further one
each at the east and west ends.

3. Thin-Gazar wooden monastery, Mandalay
Built sometime during the reign of King Min-don (1853-1878), this monastery is supported on an
approximately 2 m high, 40 m long platform. The shrine room (pyathat-hsaung) intermediate area(sanu-hsaung), main hall (saung-ma-gyi), and storeroom (bawga-saung) apartments, aresurrounded by a corridor following the typical Kon-baung axial layout from east to west. The main
hall has been partitioned into a reception room and sleeping quarters. Extra apartments on the left
and right sides (ya-hsaung and we-hsaung) have been added to the wings on the north and south
sides. Access is by way of a pair of mango bud’ masonry staircases on the north side and single
staircases on the east and south sides. There is a masonry ordination hall on the south side.
The Department of Archaeology undertook the preservation of this monastery in 2000.

4. Thaka-Wun wooden monastery, Mandalay
This monastery was built in A.D-1879 by U Kaung, Kin-wun Min-gyi, a senior minister during the123reigns of Min-don and Thi-baw.
This four-storied monastery measuring over 26 m east to west and 19 m north to south is
supported by 108 nearly 3 m high, square fluted columns set in blocks of concrete on a brickplatform. To provide for extra storage, the central portion of the ground floor under the monasteryhas been enclosed by trellis-work.

A.
B.
Fig. 7 Plan view of Thin-Gazar wooden monastery in Mandalay (A) with a photo (B).

Access to the first floor is by way of masonrystaircases on the north, east, and west sides. A large, central,stucco-decorated European-style staircase on the north side
opens onto a 2.5m corridor enclosed by a European-stylebalustrade which extends the length of the building. Aboveon the east and west facades are pediments each featuring a
European carved eagle with outspread wings, while a row ofFirst floor of Thaka-Wun Monastry

circular carpentry motifs, is discernable above the central
entryway.
Access from the corridor to the former reception area(hsaing-ma-gyi) is via a series of imposing arch-shaped
doors separated by fluted Ionic columns. The doors are
distinguished by their finely carved flora open - work
surmounted by semi- circular fan - lights which offer littlebrightness to the interior. Two sets of doors at the back of theFig. 8.Front view of Thaka-Wun

reception area open into corridors that offer access to apossible former shrine (hpaya - hsaung) and abbot's (hsaya - daw's) rooms on the east side anddormitories

on the west side . The corridors also open into the side entrances accessed by a small

flight of stairs. These enamel-painted rooms with their fluted columns, shutter windows, Chineseinspired fret moulding, and European door panelling surmounted by open-work carving, areoverwhelmingly Western in spirit.
The upper storey where the main shrine was originally located may be reached via a spiralstaircase located in the north-west corner of the first storey. The focal point of this room is a 3.5m
wide Italian-inspired rotunda that originally housed the main image and was later used as a library.

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When the Monastery was first built there was a prayer roomin the loft.

5. Bagaya Wooden Monastery, Innwa
The Bagaya Kyaung measuring approximately 31m from
north to south and 56m from east to west has been built froma total of 276 teak posts, the largest of which is 18m high andnearly 3m in circumference. Access to the two meter-highFig.9.Plan of Bagaya Monastry

platform is via five 'mango'voloute masonry staircases, threeof which are located on the north side while the remaining
two have been situated on the eastern and southern sides. The
cruciform-shaped shrine room at the eastern end is in theform of an open-sided pavilion and is marked externally by agabled pyathat spire. The section that follows is a plain,unpretentious apartment covered by a single style of roof, thatis dwarfed by the large towering apartment of the triple-tiered
roofed reception hall (hsaung-ma-gyi). There is no separate

Fig.9. Front view of Bagaya Monastry

apartment for a storeroom.
The image room (pyathat-hsaunng) leaning badly towards different directions and hand railand floorings were disintegrating in some parts. The leaning problem has been corrected by the
Department of Archaeology in 2000.

6. Lei-Zin Wooden Monastery, Salin
Situated in Salin, this approximately 30m long by
15m wide monastery rests on a 3m high platform supported
by 245 posts. It was donated to the order in 1889 by a Daw
May Bu, whose family had built other monasteries within thecompound. The building, surrounded on all side by a veranda,
is of classic proportions consisting of a seven-tiered
cruciform

shrineroom(pyathat-hsaung),aPlan of Lei-Zin Monasterynarrow

intermediate apartment (sanu-hsaung) and a main room(hsaung-ma-gyi) subdivided into two apartments.
There is no storeroom. Access is by way of six brickand stucco staircases on the north and south sides. An
earthquake in 1975 damaged the structure. Because of
crumbling masonry and encroaching vegetation, only two
staircases are currently usable. The special charm of thismonastery lies in its fine proportions and its well-appointed

125

Fig.10 Front
Monastery

view

of

Lei-Zinunder-roof ventilation in the form of boldly carved screens of
open-work under the eaves. The panelling on the exterior of theshrine room is also worthy of note, as are fragments of crisply
carved floral balustrades which, unfortunately, are in the processof being devoured by invasive creepers. There are still a few
examples of competently carved smaller dragons in relief
tenoned to the top of some of the outer foundation posts below
the floor of the building. The Department of Archaeology
preserved this monastery in 2003.
Plan of Maha-Mindin Monastery

VII. Conservation Measures
As I am an architectural engineer as well as assistant director in
the Department of Archaeology, Upper Myanmar. I have theresponsibility for the conservation of the ancient monuments inupper Myanmar. I would now like to mention a brief account of
the conservation measures that I recently carried out at Maha
Fig. 11 The condition ofMaha-Mindin Monastery before
conservation

Mindin wooden monastery in Mandalay in 2004.

Maha-Mindin wooden monastery, Mandalay
Background History
This monastery, built at the behest of Mindin, Minister of Elephants during the reign of King
Min-don, was originally constructed at Innwa. With the changing of the capital, it was moved to
Amarapura and Mandalay, and re-sited not far from the present day Mogaung monastery complex,
in a previously existing kyaung-taik along with a number of other monasteries. With the passage oftime, most of the other buildings, with the exception of a pagoda and an ordination hall (thein)
have disintegrated. To preserve what was left of the Mindin monastery, that was initially one ofthree wooden buildings, it was rebuilt on a smaller scale.
The original monastery, which was about 6m larger, was a very grand affair. It was
supported by some 350 pillars, and was accessed by six staircases. Today it consists of a single,
triple tiered zei-ta-wun roofed structure over an approximately30m long apartment. Set on an
approximately 2m high platform, the edifice is supported by some 260 pillars held in place bytraditional tenon and mortise joints.
Access is by way of four crumbling stairways placed at either end on the north and south
sides of the platform. Originally of masonry, some have been replaced by flights of wooden stairs.
Picket fencing has replaced the original balustrades. The large veranda overhang is supported atregular intervals on the north and south sides by slender graceful pillars some of which still show
trace of red lacquer, and the remnants of fine open-work carving around the architraves. The

126

apartment may be entered either through the upward opening kela windows or via splendid classic
Kon-baung style doors.
The interior is divided into two virtually identical sections by a partition wall. Both rooms
are paneled and are dominated by large imposing central thrones demarcated in front by a boldly
carved railing replete with lively figures framing well-turned bulbous balusters. There are also
small relief carvings of floral work and double-bodied lions (manok-thi-ha) at the base of the side
pillars. Fine open-work carving may be seen in the architraves linking the pillars surrounding theshrines that may be approached via central staircases. Parallel rows of vegetal carving in low relief
adorn the molding (maung-ma- lei) around the base of the shrine, while concentric rings of carved
lotus add interest to the ceiling.
The conditions of the monastery before conservation
I will now discuss the Maha Mindin monastery that wasrecently preserved in 2004. It would be still be in danger, andwe would lose this precious cultural heritage building if we did
not have a chance to preserve it.
According to our traditional building methods, all of themonasteries were built by digging holes for wood pillars. Thus,
the parts of the wood pillars in the ground were ruined several
years later. Following this, the upper part of the monastery
leaned in different directions and eventually collapsed into aheap of wood.
In this part, we had a chance to preserve the reception
hall (hsaung-ma-gyi), but unfortunately, we missed a chance toredo the image room (pyathat-hsaung), the room for the chiefmonks (sa-nu-hsaung), and the storeroom (baw-ga-hsaung).
Therefore, these rooms totally disappeared over the last decade.

Fig. 12 The condition of theMaha-Mindin Monastery before
conservation

As a result, our Department tried our best to save the remaining parts of hsaung-ma-gyi.
After thoroughly examining the causes of deterioration, the following damage has been
noted:(a) Rainwater leaks through drains, windows and roofs so that some parts are badly
deteriorated.
(b) During the rainy season there is water accumulation around the monastery that stays thewhole year round, and therefore some supporting pillars under the monastery sink and are
fragile.
(c) Due to water accumulation another problems is that the whole building is leaning
approximately 20 degrees towards the east side and in different directions so that it isdangerous for the monks who live there.

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(d) The sculptures and carvings outside are decayed and eroded due to prolonged exposure to
weather.
Process of onservation work carried out
Before starting the conservation work, a photographic record was taken from each andevery corner. The process of conservation work was carried out as follow:(a) First, the water accumulating under and around the monastery was pumped out by using awater pump.
(b) Each of the pillars was dug out at the foundation in a square shape.
(c) Some portions of the structure such as a projecting corrugated iron sheet roof at the side of
the monastery, roofs of the main structures, and side windows etc. were dismantled
temporarily in order to reduce the heavy weight of the whole structure as far as possible.
(d) Then the whole was pulled back and straightened upright by workers and then supportedwith long wooden posts from the side that was leaning.
(e) When the whole structure was straighter up vertically all the basement of the Pillars werefilled up with reinforced cement concrete in an octagonal shape in order to reinforce theFig. 13 The conservation work for foundation of Maha-Mindin Monasterywhole structure.
(f) The ground level under and surrounding area of the monastery was positioned slightly
higher by elevating the base with soil and constructing a slope so that water is not allowed
to stagnate around the base again.
(g) Some decayed wooden pillars, floor planks and iron sheet roofs were removed andreplaced with new ones.
(h) Portions temporarily dismantled were replaced.
(i)

All the missing portions of the brick staircase were repaired to get the original shape anddesign.

(j)

All the pillars and exposed parts of the building were applied with thick crude oil in orderto protect them from the effects of weather.

(k) All the zinc sheets were applied with red oxide external paint in order to protect them fromrainwater.

128

Problems faced during the preservation
work
Problems facing during the preservation
work are listed as follows:(a) Due to lack of sufficient funding
the work was not completed intime as expected.
(b) Up to date facilities, such as
construction equipment, likecranes and derricks have not beenused so that more money has been
unnecessarily spent for labourcharges during the operation.
(c) Additionally, there have not beenenough skilled workers, and moreare required.
(d) As teak wood is very expensive
and not readily available, andother kinds of wood only have to
be used and replaced, wood is notdurable in the long run.

Fig. 14 The condition of Maha-Mindin Monastery after(e) Although the conservation work conservationformonasteries
hasbeen
completed, the annual maintenance fund is still required.

(f) In terms of further conservation work, advanced methods of conservation are required
There are a few well-trained technical assistants in my department and it is difficult to copewith a large quantity of ancient monuments.

VIII. Benefits from the Training Course
After attending the 2005 ACCU training course, I believe that I will be able to undertake further
preservation and restoration of historic wooden buildings in my country. I will apply the usefultechniques and methods of preservation of wooden monuments that I studied in Japan to myrestoration and presentation work in Myanmar. I will also share my experiences with younger
conservators.
Thank you.

129

New Zealand / Aotearoa
Tere-kaunuku Dean FLAVELL
CuratorTauranga Museum

PRESERVING CULTURAL IDENTITY
A tangible depiction of the intangible aspects of Maori Architecture
Introduction
The purpose of this report is to identify the tangible and intangible aspects within Mäori
architecture and how these concepts can be catered for through the practising of conservation andpreservation methods, techniques and treatment. I hope the content of this report may assist andgive insights to conservation architects who wish to understand Mäori cultural knowledge(mätauranga) and customs (tikanga).
As the Tauranga Museum’s Poutiaki Taonga Mäori Curator, I am grateful to have been
selected as the New Zealand representative to attend this course in the preservation and restorationof wooden buildings in Nara, Japan. The knowledge from this month-long course, organised by
UNESCO's Asia/Pacific Cultural Centre (ACCU) and the associated Rome-based International
Centre for the Study of the Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Property (ICCROM) is aninvaluable opportunity to learn and exchange information and experiences from other cultures.
As Mäori Curator I am responsible for the management of the Mäori and Pacific collectionof artefacts. This includes the preservation and conservation treatment of 102 surviving wooden
pieces. These wooden artefacts are the remaining pieces from two traditional ancestral meetinghouses c1800, which are currently stored in the Tauranga Museum. It is envisioned that thesesurviving pieces after treatment will become a major part of future exhibitions.
New Zealand museums are seeking to be more active in promoting care, management andunderstanding of indigenous collections. An estimated 45% of this collection is wood based. To
enable Maori to participate at a more comprehensive level of care and protection in regards toconservation and preservation of these objects, there needs to be greater effort in promoting theimportance of having more Mäori properly trained in conservation techniques.

Preserving cultural identity
A tangible depiction of the intangible aspects of Maori Architecture”
In my capacity as a master carver and practitioner of traditional customs, I have worked on various
buildings and structures throughout New Zealand. My interest in the traditions of Mäori culture has
130generally been in the field of preserving traditional knowledge and skills, with a particular interestin wood carving and traditional architecture, including canoe building. This is best described in the
Mäori language as whakairo-rakau (whaka to create, iro to beautify and rakau wood).
There is no formal qualification in New Zealand that recognises the meaning of Tohunga
whakairo (master carver & architect) as this title is sanctioned and bestowed upon a person by therespective tribe. Secondly the range of knowledge and skill required is extensive in every aspect ofunderstanding terrestrial and celestial lore as these concepts govern the design and order of the
traditional ancestral house.
In ancient times this discipline was handed down from father to son, however with thearrival of Europeans and the adoption of Christianity the old lores were challenged and change
eventuated. After World War II there was a surge to revive traditional skills and record traditional
knowledge systems associated to the construction of ancestral houses.

Maori Architecture found in oral traditions
The whare-kura or whare-wänanga (house of learning) was an extremely sacred institution. Tribal
experts have managed to preserve the principal names from the original homeland including names
derived from mythology and tribal traditions. The following list is a chronology of importanthouses and temples of cultural importance to Mäori. This record firstly illustrates our migrations,journeys and settlements over a vast period of time and distance and secondly highlights thefundamental purpose of why such buildings were created.
yMatangi-reia was the original of all the whare-kura, and formed the pattern from which
subsequent houses of learning were built, and from whence came all knowledge, broughtfrom the twelfth heaven Te Toi-o-nga-rangi by the god Täne-matua; this was the temple of
the Supreme God Io. It is said to have been situated in the Sun's path in the heavens, thename itself having that meaning. This style of house is called matarua.

yRangi-atea was another temple in the twelfth heaven where the whatu-kura being thepersonification of the sacred stones connected with teaching also had custodianship of themale and female guardian spirits of their domain which is what we call the marae.

yTawhiri-rangi was the temple in which the spirits of mankind, who were deemed worthy toascend to the presence of Io, the Supreme God in the twelfth heaven, were purified before
their admittance into that heaven. It was situated below the summit in the first heaven.

yWhakamoe-ariki was a sacred house where dwelt the minor gods, Rua-tau, Aitu-pawa,
Rehua, and the spiritual beings named Te Tini-o-Pono-aua who were the servants to themessengers of the gods. The first three named were the guardians of the heavenly treasures.

yTangi-te-wiwini was another temple situated in the ancient fatherland of Irihia, at

131

Tawhiti-pamamao, at Te Hono-i-wairua. It is also said another temple, named Te
Rangi-tapu, at Kaupeka nui, was built in the ancient fatherland of Irihia, or Hawaiki-nui.
yWharau-rangi was another temple built in Irihia; the sage was Māui-mua it is believedthat if Māui-mua was the priest, it is probable that this temple was built after the firstmigration of the people from the fatherland, the name Irihia probably covering more than
one country.

yTakapau-rangi, this house was under the command of Taka-waerangi and others, but it is
not stated where it was situated, however it is mentioned in prayers and gives probability to
the lands resided for less lengthy periods on their migrations from Irihia Hawaiki-nui, tothe islands of the Pacific.

y

Te Mahu-rangi, was the house of Uenuku-rangi who was the principal teacher
unfortunately no locality is stated, but Uenuku-rangi flourished about thirty seven
generations ago therefore in accordance with tribal lore our ancestors were then in the
Hawaiian Islands.

y

Te Kau-whanga-nui house stood at Tahiti and Te Pae-whenua was the chief also there wasanother house called Te Hauhunga-roa and Timu-whakairihia was the teacher, he lived in
Tahiti or the adjacent islands. According to genealogical tables we can safely say that thishouse was in use about the twelfth or thirteenth century.

y

Te Kohu-rau was the house of Te Rongo-patahi, Rua-wharo, and Tupai, under these threepriests the sacred stones, emblems of the gods, the sacred axes, and other paraphernalia
pertaining to the temple, were brought to New Zealand circa A.D. 1350 in the Takitimu
canoe.

y

Te Rawheoro was the house built at Uawa Hinganga-roa was the teacher and architect. It isfrom the teachings of this house that dominate the art of carving and architecture
throughout the eastern parts of New Zealand. This house was visited by Captain James
Cook on his first voyage to New
Zealand circa1700s it remained inuse up to the middle of thenineteenth century.
yTe whare whakairo o Ruatepupuke,
stories associated to this house arefound in esoteric lore and can berecalled in legend associated to the

Photographs of the sacred house Ruatepupuke,
Chicago Museum

132

origins of carving and architecture
constructed in New Zealand today. A

carved house currently in the Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago was originallyconstructed to commemorate this ancestor.

Design of whare-tupuna / Ancestral houses
The traditional ancestral house is based on the personification of a prominent ancestor, the entire
structure is centred on the human form and expression is given to traditional Maori culturalreferences to ancestors in the physical and spatial structure of the ancestral housefor example thefacade of the house represents the head (koruru - face mask), arms (maihi - barge boards), legs(amo - upright supports) and the interior takes its form from the internal parts of the body such as
the backbone (tahuhu - central beam) and ribs (heke - supporting rafters). This type of practice
gives reverence to the structure for it is then considered to literally be the living embodiment of afounding ancestor. Within the structure is established the genealogical connections to otherprominent ancestral figures including tribal events and history.
There are three main disciplines related to the decorating of an ancestral house these arewhakairo rakau or carved images of ancestral figures, tukutuku or lattice work which records
celestial knowledge of star compositions and lastly kowhaiwhai or painted panels which depict thesignificance of terrestrial knowledge of the natural environment.
It is the responsibility of the Tohunga whakairo (master architect) to ensure that all theseelements are catered for in the development of the structure.

Traditional ancestral house of great significanceThis house is an example of when an object of cultural property is placed outside the protection of
traditional expertise. Hinemihi was built in 1881 and stood in the village of Te Wairoa in New
Zealand’s central North Island, in a district of hot volcanic lakes. On June 10, 1886, Mount
Tarawera erupted, destroying the village and killing 153 of its inhabitants. Hinemihi was one of the
few buildings remaining, and had provided shelter to numerous people during the eruption. Te
Wairoa was abandoned and Hinemihi stood empty for six years. She was purchased by the fourth
Earl of Onslow, who was Governor of New Zealand from 1889 to 1892. The house was dismantled
and shipped, with instructions for reassembly in England 1892. Since that date she has stood within
the grounds of the Onslows’ seat, Clandon Park in Surrey, whichbecame a National Trust property in 1956.
Hinemihi

waspresumably

reassembled

by

Lord

Onslow’s estate labourers. At some point during dismantling
and reassembling (Hinemihi has stood at two sites at Clandon)
the building was shortened and some of the carved elements
were reaffixed incorrectly.
Hinemihi

133

Whilst Clandon Park remained in the ownership of the Onslow family, Hinemihi was animportant reminder of the fourth Earl and his family’s links with New Zealand. Clearly, in being
removed from Te Wairoa Hinemihi has lost her original cultural purpose. However, during WorldWar One she was cared for by recuperating Maori New Zealand soldiers and over the last 15 years
or so Hinemihi has increasingly become a focus of Maori culture in the United Kingdom.

Conservation
The roof of Hinemihi is failing and there will be discussions as to which material will be mostappropriate, traditional reed or totara wood shingles. The excellent photographic and documentary
records of Hinemihi mean that the form of the roof can be accurately reconstructed.
Twenty-five years have passed since the last major repair work on the house, and theEnglish climate has taken its toll. The insect-infested birch bark saplings that form the internal roof
covering may need to be replaced or repaired. The front of the building which is the mostdecorative elevation has twin carved supports amo. These have been raised on concrete bases toprotect them from damp ground conditions.
However, these plinths retain their original grey colour, impacting on the look of thebuilding, especially in contrast to the painted red ochre of the carved supports. A proposal to paintthese in an appropriate colour so that they are visually toned down may be put forward following
further research and consultation.
There is a need to protect the building from rain in the entrance way, as well as insect,plant and animal damage. One of the most notable defects, especially to the rear of Hinemihi, is the
decaying elm planking, rotting from the ground up. The appearance of salts on the interior would
suggest that this is due to ground moisture. This has, in turn, caused the traditional lattice-workhung on the interior walls to discolour and deteriorate. In many places this planking may need to be
replaced with appropriate timbers.
A damp course was inserted in the 1970s but this no longer seems to be wholly effective
and the ground levels will therefore need to be investigated. Boards are also being affected byrusting nails, which are failing and causing staining. Appropriate alternatives will need to beinvestigated.

Conclusion
Hinemihi has immense cultural significance and historic importance owing to her rarity. Though
she has received conservation & restoration work in the past, the National Trust is again planning
another programme of conservation repair to address mistakes made in earlier restorations and toensure her long-term future.
Again, the importance of the cross-disciplinary approach will be a key to the success of134this project, which will involve input from the Property Manager, the Building Team, and theCuratorial, Conservator and Archaeology Sections. Consultation with the Maori community is
crucial to ensure the cultural significance of any work is fully appreciated, and involvement by
Maori artists and craftsmen will also be essential.
Hinemihi is unique, not only to the National Trust but also as the only Maori ancestralhouse in the United Kingdom, and one of the few to be found outside New Zealand. The hugesignificance makes it important that she is conserved and restored to the highest possible standard,so that she may continue to be enjoyed by visitors and to fulfil her role in the ancestral traditions of
the Maori people.
Conserving and preserving Mäori architecture in New Zealand / Aotearoa
New Zealand’s Mäori built heritage is an important taonga (treasure) to preserve for the future. The
New Zealand Historic Places Trust actively assists whänau, hapü and iwi initiatives to preservetaonga through the Mäori Buildings Conservation Programme. Caring for these taonga is often achallenge requiring specialist knowledge in both traditional and modern preservation techniques.
Conservation Workshops
The Trust has some capacity to provide conservation training workshops to assist whänau, hapü
and iwi in developing skills to carry out project work. Workshops can be provided on theconservation of whakairo, painted artwork, tukutuku and traditional linings. Workshops are
marae-based and practical sessions cover conservation techniques, materials, safety and on-going
maintenance work.
Funding Support
The Trust can also provide written support to funding applications and can assist in the planningwork for applications to the New Zealand Lottery Grants Board and other funding agencies.
Conservation Assessments
Conservation reports serve as a basis for assessing the condition of a building and planning a
conservation project. They are generally prepared by specialist conservation professionals such asconservation architects, conservators, and engineers, to ensure that quality advice is provided for
project work planning. Funding for these reports is also available through the Lottery Grants Board
Marae Heritage and Facilities Committee.

135

Nga Kaupapa - Projects
Projects for inclusion to this report will be given as examples ranging from full restoration, partial
restoration and feasibility and assessment reports.
Full restoration programme 1999 - 2005
Full restoration and conservation planning workshops were organised for the tribal group
Upokorehe of Whakatohea focussing on their ancestral house Tamaterangi. This request to
formulise a conservation plan for the protection and maintenance of their ancestral house isrecommended. The marae committee have opted to have an assessment conducted every five years.
The first assessment for conservation work was carried out earlier this year in the following
manner.
y

Met with the elders and the Marae committee.

yPreservation & Conservation measures – treatment required.

y

Weighing up the project – identifying cost.

y

Alternatives – consideration of options to replace or conserve.

yResearch the project including historical background and traditional skills and knowledge.

yStart and finish dates for project with consideration to stages of preservation.

yFive year monitoring plan - assess condition, identify causes of any adverse effects,
education work shop on remedial methods of conservation, evaluate.

yIdentification of risk factors was the proximity to state highway, natural disasters (storms/
flooding), temperature fluctuation, fire, vandalism.

yPreventive systems installed were no smoking zone, new fire sprinkler system including
fire alarms.

Partial restoration project 2000 - 2001
Partial restoration and conservation of a meeting house at Whangaehu Marae called Rangitahuahua.
For many years the Ngati Apa people had built their houses in the ordinary fashion of a simple
structure without carved or painted images that depict their history. In 1983, under the direction of
the Whangaehu Marae committee they completed the fully carved meeting house Rangitahuahua. I
re-visited this building and its people in 1993, to do remedial conservation work mainly on theexterior carvings, which were showing areas of deterioration due to climatic conditions and its
close proximity to a coastal region. This project required local people to participate, which also
lead to the development of an annual condition assessment plan for the monitoring of any further
damage that may occur in the future.
Conservation Technical Advice
Historic Places Trust Mäori Built Heritage Regional Advisers can assist throughout the process and136

help coordinate appropriate specialists to work with marae committees.
The Trust has its own in-house specialist conservator who can advise on conserving
whakairo, tukutuku and painted artwork and assist directly with project work.
Marae wanting to apply for funding to the Ministry of Culture and Heritage through thelottery commission, will be required to have a feasibility report done by a registered conservationarchitect

this assessment will accompany the application for funding. If the application is

successful the grant could range from full subsidy to 2/3 of the over all cost this would be
dependant on a variety of conditions.
Natural material management / Te taiao – Natural environment
For the past twenty years I have been involved in the building and restoration of carved housestructures with particular interest in reviving traditional knowledge systems and techniques
associated to their construction. I have found an essential part of the conservation process, is theearly assessment of traditional building materials and the availability of such resources within thelocal region. This can help to determine what measures are required for preserving or restoring any
damaged sections of the house. In most areas of New Zealand there are good natural resources
available, however some traditional materials are becoming harder to source and there is a need toreplenish these resources for future usage. Over the past few years I have been advocating theplanting of various plant species, such as a varieties of kiekie (cortaderia fulvida) and a nativeplant species called pingao (desmoschoenus spiralis) both species are valuable in the constructionof traditional houses.
In July 1989, Paneke Incorporated made application to the Environmental grants scheme
to investigate and research both species in the Manawatu region of New Zealand.
ObjectivesyLocate and record their existence within a set boundaryyRecord seasonal growth patterns including identification of any detrimental environmental
effectsy

Determine the degree of usagey

Record any restrictions that may cause non usage by Maori to practice traditional craftsyMaori perspective of the plant – harvesting, preparation, and practical usage, included
stories and oral traditions.

yDetermine any medicinal characteristics

Sustainable environment for kiekie
Kiekie (Freycinetia baueriana) (sub-species banksii) is a climbing shrub found in New Zealand137

native bush areas. It has many uses the most predominant use is
as a weaving material. The demand on kiekie has increased
recently with the increase of traditional Maori arts and crafts
being practiced; the harvesting has become even more difficult,with the decrease of native bush areas.
Kiekie (freycinetia baueriana) (sub-species banksii) is amember of the Pandanaceae family. Plant species from thisfamily are well known for their fibre and as a food source. EG;
the Australian aboriginal eats the leaf buds and the fruit, thepandanus utitis is a pacific island species and valued for its
edible fruit and strong fibre.
kiekieMost varieties of Freycinetia genus can be described as

climbers which have long aerial roots. There are over 60 varieties found in the pacific region,
Kiekie being the most southern species and the only native species found in New Zealand. Kiekie
has a tendency to grow over or on other trees utilizing its aerial roots to cling to the outer bark of
the host tree or alternatively forms a tangled mass on the ground.
The flower of the kiekie appears in October and is the largest of the NZ flora, the male andfemale flowers occur on separate plants. The Maori terms are Ureure and tawhara both edible andpopular with bush rats and opossums. Often yellow spots appear on the leaves of the kiekie plant;
this usually occurs in the spring and summer and could be related to the effects of the sun.
Sustainable harvesting of Pingao
Pingao (desmoschoenus spiralis) has a strong cultural, spiritual and traditional significance toMaori. It has legends associated with it and is highly prized as a weaving material. The renaissancein Maori culture has served pingao well as it has meant that attention has been drawn to its plightand attempts to re-establish it to provide a sustainable source of weaving material has assisted in its
conservation.
There is a proverb describing the physical appearance of this plant “Manaakitia nga
tukemata o Täne” translated it means “Caring for the eyebrows of Tane”.
The traditional pingao harvest is conducted in autumn
and the technique employed was to remove the head from theleaves and at the same time remove a side shoot from the plant
and transplant it deep in the sand next to the parent plant. This
was to ensure the pingao survived, and was also a means tothank Tane Mahuta for his abundance.
Pingao138

In the 1980's an increase demand was experienced for a supply of pingao for weaving. Thisoccurred at a time after pingao had experienced a decline in abundance and this prompted Forest
Research Institute to conduct an investigation examining what method of harvest was the mostsustainable. The effect of three harvesting methods clipping of leaves, cutting of whole shoots andwrenching of the middle leaves were investigated, measuring factors such as plant survival,
number of shoots, number of flower heads, differing harvest seasons (summer or autumn), andfibre yield.
They found that clipping resulted in the least adverse effects to the plant (survival andmean number of shoots were comparable to unharvested plants), this method was also the mosteffective (greater number of leaves harvested) and most efficient, as only desirable leaves wereselected for clipping so there is minimal wastage as a result of discarded leaves. Both the othermethods resulted in damage to the growth shoot causing severe mortality and would inevitably
result in some wastage.
Clipping has been recommended as the most desirable harvesting method that will promotea sustainable supply of fibre. Cutting and wrenching should be discouraged as these methods not
only damage the growth shoot causing significant mortality, but are also wasteful. It has also beensuggested that sustained cutting or wrenching to a pingao plant may also contribute to fore-dune
instability due to a reduction in vegetation cover.
Use of kiekie and pingao as an important resource in Maori architecture
Kiekie and pingao are rated as the most used natural fibres for the decorative quality they bring in
the construction of traditional ancestral houses. It is widely used in tukutuku and whariki and ishighly prized as the proper material for interior wall panels and mats of the traditional ancestralhouses. The myths and legends associated to these plants originate from the earliest known
traditions and therefore bring great prestige to houses that exhibit such panels.
Their value is also in the ability to readily absorb dyes this enables variation in patternformations. The traditional techniques for dying fibre are still practiced using iron oxides, various
tree barks and berries however even these resources are increasingly under threat. So whenpreserving traditional skills the conservator needs to consider the entire process of preparing
tradition materials for the refurbishment of older ancestral houses.
Creating sustainable resources for traditional use
Conservation schemes to re introduce native species such as kiekie and pingao have been proactive
especially in regards to pingao as part of coastal planning to decrease erosion of sand dunes.
However the natural environment for the kiekie is decreasing and its availability for harvesting has
become difficult because accessibility to areas is usually difficult.

139With the introduction of the Resource Management Act and amendments 2003, local
authorities now needs to recognise and protect historic heritage sites

this amendment is placedalong side section (6e) which requires authorities to consult with Mäori and their cultural traditions
with their lands, water, sites of significance, wahi tapu and other taonga (treasures). This piece oflegislation has enabled Mäori to participate in the planning of future developments within theirrespected regions.
One such project that we are currently involved with is the development of a business park
venture that requires storm water reticulation and filtering prior to entering natural water-ways.
The most common approach is to create a wetland / swamp area that holds water creating asustainable environment for ecological restoration planting. The planting of native species will
help to sustain the availability and rejuvenation of traditional natural resources for future use in therestoration of traditional house structures.
Closing statement
In conclusion, buildings and the natural materials used in their construction are subject to a wide
variety of problems and require constant attention. Preventative measures can help alleviate manyof these problems by careful planning, regular inspection, continuous maintenance and goodhouse-keeping that can greatly extend the life of a building.
Written and photographic records provide valuable information for scheduling maintenanceand improvements which are helpful for long term planning. Relationships and continued
communication with owners or committees responsible for historic buildings is essential for
conservators.
In considering the where the needs of Mäori conservation and preservation currently lie, it
is clear that more technical training would assist in alleviating the work load of the few
practitioners in this sector. Tangible aspects of preservation and conservation can be measured in
one form or another. The intangible aspects of cultural customs, methods and knowledge
associated with the preservation of buildings are sometimes best dealt with continuously
throughout the entire process. This helps to ensure the process concurs with the original purpose of
the building.
The sharing of knowledge is the foundation to a successful outcome. I would like to thankall who have been involved in providing this opportunity to attend the ACCU training programme,
and I end my report with a proverbial saying that can sometimes be sufficient to encourage thesharing of resources.
Tena koutou katoa e tetahi korero, nau te rourou, naku te rourou ka ora nga tangata“.
With your food basket and my food basket we will have enough”

140Republic of Korea
CHO Eun kyung
Researcher
National Research Institute of Cultural Heritage
Problems and Needs for Cultural Heritage Protection and Restoration Activities in Korea

SAFETY INVESTIGATIONS OF TRADITIONAL ARCHITECTURE
IN KOREA
I. Introduction
There are many architectural cultural properties in Korea. There are about 250 wooden structures
and about 530 stone structures designated by the national government as heritage properties. In thisdesignation of architectural cultural properties, we can subdivide these into treasures and nationaltreasures. Additionally, in general these cultural properties can be divided into function. Important
categories of wooden architecture include palaces, temples, architecture for ceremony to ancestors,
buildings for Confucianism, domestic houses, and others. In terms of stone architecture, there arestupas, stone storage structures, caves, bridges, and other structures.
Since cultural heritage continues for many years and is passed on from one generation toanother, they become antiquated and structurally weak. There are many causes of damage towooden architecture, for instance, biological deterioration, termite, decaying of members, anddeclination.

However, when we decide to dismantle an architectural cultural property, it meansthat the property has serious problems in its structural integrity. Eventually, structural integrity is avery important aspect for conservation and preservation.

Fig.1 Gyeongbokgung geunjeongjeon

Fig.2 Hwaeomsa

Fig.3 Cheomseongdae

II. Safety Inspection of Cultural Heritage
When serious problems occur in the structural integrity of cultural heritage properties, we should
decide whether or not they really need to be repaired or dismantled, and if so to decide the proper
time and methods.
141

In Korea, we have a process for this decision. As a first step, we do safety inspections ofimportant cultural properties. Safety inspections have been done by the National Research Instituteof Cultural Heritage (NRICH) since 1981. The selection of the objects can be made mostly throughtwo ways. One way is to make requests by the national government or cultural heritage
administration, and the other is requesting at the municipality level. When NRICH is asked to
conduct a safety inspection of cultural property, we roughly examine information pertaining to theproperty such as drawings, documentation, previous restoration and so on. These records help to do
the work. Then we visit the actual site. We investigate the property using various equipment andinvestigate the, surrounding circumstances. After that we analyze the investigation data and judge
the follow-up measures. If we judge that the site needs further investigation, we decide on which
properties to do periodic safety inspections. If more serious problems occur, we do the inspection
over many years. But, if our periodical measurement data reveals that the site is in danger of being
destroyed, we suggest more precise safety recommendations to the Cultural Heritage
Administration or Municipality.
As a result of these precise safety recommendations, a more detailed investigation is done,
and we can assume the reason for the structural problems and then establish the proper restoration
methods. The precise safety diagnosis is done by specialists of structural analysis or academic
conservation institutes. In a few case, if the result of safety inspection reveals that the culturalproperty is in danger, we suggest that it should be dismantled and restored. The restoration plan isestablished by conservation architects. In Korea, the contract is open to all conservation architectsthat are registered to the Cultural Heritage Administration.
Usually the NRICH does periodical safety inspections of twenty cultural properties every
year while some properties are done twice and others once a year. Inspections are conducted
especially for two specific cultural properties; Sungryemun (the South gate of Seoul, nationaltreasure No.1) and Heunginjimun (the East gate of Seoul, treasure No.1), NRICH does continuous
Cultural Heritage Administration

askingMunicipality

National Research Institute ofCultural Heritage

Safety Inspection

Periodical safety Inspection

Precise safety diagnosis

Repair / Restoration

NRICHresearcher / specialist

Safety diagnosis specialist

Conservation architect

Fig.4 System and process for safety inspections in Korea

142

monitoringofsafetyinspections. I will now
discusshowsafetyinspections are conducted
The first thing to
do is to observe it with the
naked eye. This is done by

Fig.5 Deformation Fig.6 Declination

Fig.7 Cracks of the member

observing by considering
structural aspects such as
the inclination of structuralmembers, or their droop
and twist. In addition to welook into the surrounding

Fig.8 Crack and weathering Fig.9. Discoloration

Fig.10 Scaling andweathering

circumstances like traffic conditions or drainage systems. We also investigate biologicaldeterioration and a certain extent of weathering. Through these observations the experts can not
only judge what are the structural property problems, but can also consider related situations. Thus,
it can be said that this is the most basic and important step.
After this observation we can decide what equipment can be applied to a safety inspection.
At NRICH, in order to keep pace with the tendency toward being scientific and high-tech, theResearch and Development project for safety inspection systems was initiated in 2000. One of theaims of the project is to introduce and to develop high-tech inspection equipment and more
effective methods.
We developed non-destructive investigation equipment such as ultrasonic CT for wooden
members and radar systems for stone. In the case of ultrasonic CT, its development was started forthe investigation of the termite damage. But owing to the development of this equipment, we caninvestigate whole inner conditions of the column members that have deep cracks or have arerotting. The principle of ultrasonic CT is as follows. If the wooden member doesn't have any
defaults and is in good condition, the ultrasonic waves will pass through the member without any
diffraction.
If there is condition of the wooden beam is poor then the ultrasonic waves should diffract.
We can find the defaults of the member in use of the length of diffraction.
Radar systems can be usually applied to stone stupas. The stone stupa is a very importantarchitectural cultural heritage, as well as wooden cultural heritage. Usually, the stupa is 3 or 5
stories high. Stupas consist of three parts; ‘gidanbu’ (a foundation part for a building or structure),'tapsinbu' (the roof and body stones of the stupa), and 'sangnyunbu' (the finial of the stupa). The
important structure parts are the gidanbu and the 1st story of the tapsinbu, as they are made up of143

several stone members and are filled with soil and small stones. The soil and small stones can be
swept away because of the inflow of rain or gaps between members. Using the radar system we caninvestigate the inner condition without dismantling or destroying any property. The principle ofradar systems are similar to GPR systems used in archaeology.

Fig.11 Ultrasonic CT
st(1 development )Fig.14 Crack of the column

Fig.12 Investigation by ultrasonic Fig.13 Ultrasonic CT censor
CT

Fig.15 Ultrasonic CT data

Fig.17 Radar equipment for stone
heritage

Fig.16 Image column section

Fig.18 Image of the members

Fig.20 Gidanbu figure of the stone Fig.21 Microscope survey
stupa

144

Fig.19 Image
condition

of

inner

Fig.22 Photo of inner condition

During safety inspections, it is very important tojudge if the inclination, cracks, and gaps are progressive ornot. For investigations of displacement in the whole
structure, we use a theodolite. We stick targets to somepoints that can be checked from the base point. Then weperiodically measure the horizontal and vertical distancefrom the base point to the measuring points for many years.
If

ourmeasurement

data

have

increasedout

Fig.23 Surveyingofobservational errors,, we can judge whether or not the structural problems of the cultural property
will be more serious later on. In this case, we suggest that precise safety diagnosis of the property
should be done.

III. New Classification of the Structural System
It is very important to investigate cultural properties with non-destructive equipment, and at thesame time it is necessary to understand the whole structure and analyze it. Even though weinvestigate if a member is displaced in the wooden architecture, it is useless if we don't know what
will be happening or why this has happened. From 2002 to 2003, the NRICH developed astructural analysis program for traditional wooden architecture. But the project made theframework only. This was intended to change the parameter of the program used for analysis ofmodern architecture and applying it to the wooden architecture more easily. We knew many studies
and experiments for structural analysis were needed for the completion of this project.
In 2004, NRICH established a long time plan for this work and has chose professors
specializing in structures to work on this study. The subject of the 1st year study was the"classification of traditional wooden architecture in structure and structural experiment in crosssection".
One classification is possible to divide structures according to differences in thecomposition of the members, especially 'gidung' (column) and 'bo' (girder) in the upper part of thebuilding. This can be said to be done by differences in load transmitting from roof to support. So
the criteria are as follows;

Fig.24 Safety diagnosis programme

Fig.25 Safety diagnosis
programme

145

Fig.26 Safety
diagnosis programmeyIs it a statically determinant structure or indeterminant?

y

Are there any differences in the bending moment occurring on a 'bo' (girder)?

yIs there any regularity in the use of the 'toetbo' (additional girder)?
First, I would like to explain the division of structures according to differences in thecomposition of the members. We knew that there are only a few buildings that have a staticallyindeterminant structure. Therefore, only statically determinant structures are dealt with.
The first type is composed of two columns, one beam and one dondjaju (short post). There
are two types of variations to be presented. These will be shown in the diagrams below. One is thetype that has additional girders in the front and rear. The other has secondary additional girders,and short posts on the first. These types can be said to be statically indeterminant structures
because bending moments have a tendency to concentrate in the middle of the girder.

Fig.27 Cheongpyeongsa
Hoejeonmun

Fig.28 Gaesimsa
Daewungjeon

Fig.29 Muwisa Geungnakjeon

The second type has major members of the building structure comprised of two columns,
two girders and two short posts on the girder. Two short posts are erected one-third to one-quarter
from both sides and the upper girder diminishes the bending moments by about 50 percent incomparison with one support. The load to four supports is that between a bracket and a short post
'jungdori' (middle beam). So, in this structure the numbers of concentration supports on the girder
are 4. The type load to two supports of 'jungcheung' (in Korea this word used in case that it looks
like a 2 storied exterior, instead of a 1 story interior) which can be seen usually in gate architecture.
The load to two supports of an additional girder at the front and/or rear is in case a 'toetkan'(additional bay) is added146

Fig.30 Gwanryongsa Yaksajeon

Fig.31 Milyang Youngnamru

Fig.32 Pihyangjeong

The third type is composed of three columns, two girders and two short posts. It can becalled a load to two supports reaction. The length of the girder is longer than that of the 1st and 2nd
types. Thus, in addition to one column with more inner space, it would support the loads of thegirder. Usually the inside column is composed below one of the two short posts, and in this area thepoints of the longer and shorter girder are linked. Therefore, the length of the girder is reduced andeventually loads from the top can be diminished. The variations are similar to the diagrams below.

Fig.33 Gyeongbokgung
geunjeongjeon

Fig.34 Hwaeomsa Gakwhangjeon Fig.35 Bongjeongsa Daewungjeon

In Korea most wooden architecture is statically determinant. The three basic types can bedivided into cross section structural systems. Among these types, the second two- columns, one
girder and two supports holds by 50.8%. There are 17% of the first type and 32.2% of the third
type.
classificationload to one support

load to two supports

basic

variation

basic

-

3

2.54

variation

front-rear additional girder

17

14.40

basic

-

31

26.27

load to four points

1

0.85

look like 2 storied

1

0.85

front and rear additional girder

25

21.19

front or rear additional girder

2

1.69

-

15

12.71

front and rear additional girder

5

4.24

two moved supports

3

2.54

all in one

15

12.71

variation

basic
load and reaction to two supports

rate (%)

variation

Table 1. Statically determinant structure147

Fig.36 Jusimpo styleFig.37 Dapo styleFig.39 7beams and 1 higher column

Fig.38 Ikgong styleFig.40 9beams and 2 higher column

In actuality, the classification is taken from the style of the structure. The important thing
in the former classification is the position of the bracket. We divided this into three types:'jusimpo' (brackets only on the column), 'dapo' (brackets on the column and between columns) and'ikgong' (brackets only on the column, but different jusimpo). Another was defined according to thenumber of beams and columns. However, we couldn't analyze the difference of the structure
according to types.
The new classification is derived according to the different composition on the part of the'gongpo' (similar to a bracket). The bracket is regarded as the support to transmit loads from theroof.
It is said to be divided according to the transmitting factor of the load, the number of
supports to the bracket, and the position and number of the supports to the girder.
<table 2> classification according to bracket
basic concept
the type ofbracket type by
routenumber of points transmitting load casetransmitting
transmitting loadfrom the top
bracket girderload

concentrated

two points

soro

2

148

2

6

rate

5.36

concentrated
uniform load

two points

one point

soro

2

2

7

6.25

contact

1

1

16

14.29

contact

2

1

17

15.18

contact

2

2

31

27.68

contact

2

2

6

5.36

contact

3

2

17

15.18

contact

3

3

11

9.82

contact

-

-

1

0.89

contact

two points

uniform load

three points

slope

After this classification was completed, the structural experiments were done. These dealt
with the deformation and destruction to the lateral and concentrative loads in cross- section. The
first experiment was about the deformation of the bracket to the lateral loads in cross-section. The
second was to the column and girder. And the third was the adding load and destruction experiment
to one bay in cross-section. Thus, it was possible to gather information about transmitting anddeformation of traditional wooden architecture. Of course, this is just the starting point because theexperiments were done for only one type of structural component of traditional architecture.
However, studies like this will be done for a long time. Eventually, we will understand traditional
wooden architecture, and when safety inspections are conducted, we can judge or decide thedirection of conservation or restoration of cultural heritage.

149

Fig.41 Drawing of part of bracket

Fig.42 Part of bracket modelFig.43 Drawing of part of frame

Fig.44 Part of frame model

Reference
Seoul National University (2005), “The study on the structural valuation of the wooden cultural
heritage”, Seoul

150

Sri Lanka
Hemantha Kumara BALACHANDRA
Assistant Director
Central Cultural Fund

PROBLEMS AND NEEDS FOR CULTURAL HERITAGE
PROTECTION AND RESTORATION ACTIVITIES IN SRI LANKA
Introduction
Sri Lanka is an island surrounded by the Indian Ocean and located at the Southern tip of India. It
covers an area of 65,000 Sq. km. and has a population of over 19 million people. The major ethnic
group is Sinhalese accounting for 74% of the population while Tamils, Muslims and Burgers
constitute the balance of twenty-six percent. Buddhism is the major religion with 70% of the
population practicing Buddhism, Christianity, Hindu and Muslim are the other religions practiced
in Sri Lanka. Cultural diversity is a feature of the Sri Lankan society as each ethnic group practices
their own set of rituals and customs, more or less connected with their religious beliefs.
The Island civilization extends as far back as the 5th century B.C. with the settlement of
the Ariyans, who migrated from India. The early settlement on the banks of river Malvatuoya wasbased on Agriculture. The reason for selecting the river valleys for early settlements is because theriver valleys which possessed fertile soil and water provided basic resources required for theAgrarian society.
Island culture changed dramatically with the introduction of Buddhism in the 3rd century
B.C. from India.

Soon after its introduction, Buddhism spread the length and breadth of thecountry. All spheres of Sri Lankan society, such as arts and architecture, sculpture, customs andbeliefs, have been subjected to the influence of Buddhism, which resulted in a unique and glorious
civilization.
Buddhism became the state religion soon after its introduction. All Sinhalese kings
patronized the religion by establishing large monastery complexes with gigantic stupas andcolossal image houses, Bo-tree shrines, monks’ residences etc. The Tooth Relic of Lord Buddha
was the most sacred object and every king had to make sure that sacred Tooth Relic was very well
protected. The custodian of the Tooth relic became the king and he had to ensure its protection andcontinuity.
The Sinhalese kingship was started with King Pandukabhaya in the 4th century B.C.
Thereafter, the tradition of having a king as a ruler continued through the centuries although it had

151certain setbacks during times of various invasions. The Chola invasions in the 7th century resulted
in holding the power by Chola kings from India for a brief period of time. But Sri Lanka kingshipwas re-established again in the 11th century A.D. by King Vijayabahu I.
The Sinhalese kingdom and Buddhism as the state religion continued until the 18th century
in which the country lost its sovereignty and fell into the hands of colonial rule. The country
regained its independence in 1948 and presently has a democratic socialist republic form ofGovernment.

Legislation for Cultural Protection:
Sri Lanka has several legislations ensuring the protection of its cultural properties. The following
legislations are currently in force:(1) Antiquities Ordinance (1940)(2) Central Cultural Fund Act (1980)(3) Galle Heritage Foundation Act (1992)(4) Cultural Property Act (1998)(1)

Antiquities Ordinance:

The Antiquities Ordinance which is the principal enactment was first introduced in 1940. But lateron, this Ordinance was amended on several occasions to accommodate the subsequent needs
relating to the protection of cultural heritage. Its final revision was in 1998.
Although the Act is called the antiquities ordinance, its proper title is an ordinance toprovide for better preservation of the antiquities of Sri Lanka and of sites and buildings ofhistorical and archaeological importance in Sri Lanka.
The Antiquities Ordinance consists of 8 sections dealing with the following:
PART I-

Property in Antiquities

PART II-

Excavation

PART III-

Ancient Monuments

PART IV-

Archaeological Reserves

PART V-

Export of Antiquities

PART VI-Power and duties of the archaeological commissioner

PART VII-

MiscellaneousPART VII-

Interpretations

Part I:This section of the Sri Lankan Antiquities Ordinance describes antiquities properties.

Artefacts, whether found on private land or crown land, are deemed to be the property of thearchaeological commissioner. Any person who finds and retains an artefact on his possession
152without informing the archaeological commissioner of such findings could be prosecuted under the
Antiquities Ordinance.
According to the provisions of the act, no person shall undertake excavations with theintention of finding antiquities. The commissioner of archaeology is empowered to issue a license
for excavation to individuals or companies subject to that the archaeological commissioner issatisfied with the objective of such excavations, skills and qualifications of such companies orindividuals.
All antiquities found during any excavations should be brought to the notice of theArchaeological Commissioner without delay.
Monuments:

Buildings or structures that date back, or are believed to date back, to before the

2nd of March, 1815, and having archaeological value, are considered to be monuments under theprovision of the Antiquities Ordinance.
Monuments in Sri Lanka fall into two groups:(a) Archaeological Reserves(b) Protected Monuments
Archaeological Reserves:

Buildings or structures situated on crown land that qualify asmonuments under the criteria laid out in the Antiquities Ordinance are declared as anarchaeological reserve by a gazette notification.
After the notifications, the conservation, maintenance and management of that site orproperty will be the responsibility of the Department of Archaeology.
Protected Monuments:

Buildings which are of archaeological importance, but located on

private lands are declared as protected monuments.
Protected monuments can continue to be under private ownership subject to the condition
that any conservation, restoration or alternation of such property should be executed only after
written approval is obtained from the Director General of Archaeology for such works.
Power of the Archaeological Commissioner
The archaeological commissioner is empowered to carry out the following tasks:(a) to prepare a list of ancient monuments.
(b) to conserve, maintain, repair and restore all ancient monuments on crown lands andprotected monuments.
(c) to purchase valuable antiquities.
(d) to carry out archaeological excavation.

153

(2)

Central Cultural Fund Act (1980)

The Central Cultural Fund Act was enacted in 1980 for the purpose of preserving cultural heritagein Sri Lanka. The Central Cultural Fund, that was established under act No. 57 in 1980, is
empowered to collect and disburse funds for cultural activities.
Policy matters and the approval of projects and budgets thereof are done by the Board ofGovernors which meet regularly once a month. The Prime Minister of Sri Lanka is the chairman of
the Board and several other Ministers holding the portfolios of Culture, Finance, Education andTourism are ex- officio members of the Board.
The Act clearly spells out the objectives of the fund. The main objectives for which funds
can be utilized are development of cultural monuments, provision of religious activities within Sri
Lanka or abroad, and the advancement of religion. The funds collected are disbursed with theapproval of the Board of Governors in order to meet the goals of the specific projects mentioned in
the Act itself or any other related activities that the Board may consider appropriate.
(3)

Cultural Property Act (1998):

The cultural property act was introduced in 1998. The objective of introducing this act was to curb
the illegal exportation of the cultural heritage and property of Sri Lanka.
The act deals with movable cultural property and spells out in detail the procedures to beadhered on exporting cultural property, penalties imposed on illegal exports, registration of culturalproperty, and other issues.
(4)

Galle Heritage Foundation Act (1992):

Several departments and institutions that fall under the rubric of various Government Ministries
are presently handling activities related to conservation at the UNESCO World Heritage city ofGalle Fort. Preservation activities are not properly coordinated and monitored due to the difficultyof coordinating the many institutions and departments responsible for the protection of the Fort.
Therefore, the current feeling on the part of many is the need for an umbrella organization
to properly coordinate the activities of all stakeholders involved in the World Heritage Site of Galle
Fort. The Galle Heritage Foundation was established to fulfil this need. The Galle Heritage
Foundation Act was introduced in 1992 for the effective coordination and management of heritage
activities in the World Heritage City of Galle.

Institutions responsible for the preservation and management of Cultural Heritage in
Sri Lanka
The following institutions are directly responsible for the cultural heritage activities in Sri Lanka.

154

(a) Ministry of Cultural Affairs and National Heritage(b) Department of Archaeology(c) Central Cultural Fund(a)Ministry of Cultural Affairs and National Heritage

The Ministry formulates the policies and guidelines relating to the preservation, conservation andmanagement of cultural heritage in Sri Lanka.
All the Department and institutions engaged in cultural heritage preservation come under
the purview of the Ministry.
Each Department and institution prepares a work plan and budget inline with the broad
cultural policy of the country in order to achieve specific objectives of that Department or
institution and submit them to the Ministry for approval and allocation of funds for implementationof those plans.
In the annual budget, the government treasury will allocate funds for all the Ministries for
implementation of the planned work. The Sri Lankan treasury is always in short of required funds,
and thus evaluates all the plans submitted by the Ministries whereupon they allocate funds on thebasis of priority. Unfortunately, cultural heritage and culture in general always receives a low
priority in the agenda of the treasury. The reason for this is that they treat culture as a bottomless
pit where there is no return for the investment. This attitude is fast changing due to the emergenceof Cultural Tourism, and thus the cultural sector is gradually getting its due recognition from thetreasury and other planning and development institutions.
After making the relevant funds available, the Ministry will supervise and coordinate theactivities of all Departments and institutions and conduct regular meetings in order to review the
progress against the annual work plan and time targets.
(b)

Department of Archaeology

The Department of Archaeology is the legal custodian of all the antiquities in Sri Lanka.
The Department was established in 1890. There are well over 100,000 cultural sites
scattered throughout the Island, and the conservation, management and maintenance of which falls
under the purview of the Department. It is a daunting task to even maintain these sites, let alone
conduct research, as the Department presently lacks the necessary financial and human resources.
(c)Central Cultural Fund

The Central Cultural Fund, where I work, was established under the Central Cultural Fund Act No.
57 in 1980.

155

The major project implemented under the Central Cultural Fund from 1980-1998 was the
UNESCO- Sri Lanka Cultural Triangle Project. The Cultural Triangle Project was the largest
heritage project ever implemented in the country, due to the very kind patronage of UNESCO.
The project generated considerable direct employment opportunities as well as several
other indirect avenues of employment for the rural populations living in close proximity to these
heritage sites.
The influx of tourists to Sri Lanka could be attributed to the addition of new dimensions tothe cultural sites through the research, excavation, conservation, maintenance, preservation workof the Cultural Triangle project.
Mechanisms that generate income are placed back into the site itself, and will ensure thesustainability of this unique heritage of mankind.
The Cultural Triangle was formed by linking the three major cultural heritage sites in Sri
Lanka, namely Anuradhapura, Polonnaruva and Kandy. The excavation, conservation anddevelopment of these major cultural heritage sites and two other sites, Dambulla and Sigiriya thatfall inside the Triangle have been executed under the UNESCO–Sri Lanka Cultural Triangle
Project.
The unique feature of this project was that the required budget for the planned work was
generated from the project itself in the form of the entrance fees for tourists visiting the various
sites.
Presently the annual budget of the institution is around 400 million Rupees (Rs.). This
amount is generated through the sale of tourist tickets without depending on the treasury. The
Cultural Triangle thus changed the age-old attitude of the policy makers that culture is a bottomlesspit. They now understand the vast income generating capacity of the cultural sites and the role thatthe cultural sector could play in achieving the goal of sustainable development.
The unique feature of the Fund is that unlike the Archaeology Department, which has tocredit all of its fund collection to the consolidated fund, it is empowered to utilize the generated
fund for the conservation and development of these sites.
UNESCO has identified the fund-generating mechanism of the Central Cultural Fund as amodel for other developing countries where the allocation of the funds for heritage conservation isin the hands of the financial controllers of the treasury.

However, the problem lies in the fact thatthe controllers in other developing countries know very little about the value and importance of theconservation and maintenance of these valuable heritage sites.
The Central Cultural Fund presently conserves, develops and manages the following
UNESCO World Heritage Sites, in addition to several other sites:(1) Ancient city of Anuradhapura
156

(2) Medieval capital of Polonnaruwa(3) Rock fortress of Sigiriya(4) Painted caves of Dambulla(5) Sacred city of Kandy(6) Fortified city of Galle
The Central Cultural Fund has a professional staff dedicated to conservation, preservation,and management, and has a workforce of approximately 3000 skilled and unskilled labourers.
These skill labourers have been an asset to the country as they have gained a wide range ofexperience in the field of heritage preservation over the last twenty years.

UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Sri Lanka
Sri Lanka is proud to have the following six major cultural sites on the prestigious UNESCO World
Heritage list. In addition to the six Cultural Sites there is one Natural Site, the Sinharaja
Rainforest.
(1)

The Ancient City of Anuradhapura:

Anuradhapura was the first capital city of Sri Lanka. The history of the city dates back to the 4th
century B.C. when the written chronicle recorded that king Pandukabhaya built a walled palace
complex during that time.
However, the city developed in a much more organized scale with the introduction of
Buddhism in the 3rd century B.C.
The city comprises a city centre, well laid out monastic complexes, an intricate system ofcolossal man-made reservoirs and other engineering and architectural features. The urban
landscape of the city is dominated by its great monasteries consisting of colossal stupas, gigantic
image houses, Bodhi tree shrines, chapter houses, refectories, and monks residences. The stupas
are of considerable proportions and height, and occupy the central space in the monastic layout.
The other buildings (described above) are arranged around the stupa.
The following sites are presently handled by the Central Cultural Fund.
The Abayagiriya Monastic Complex
The Abayagiriya monastic complex is spread over an area of
200 hectares and once sheltered more than 5000 monks. The
excavations carried out under the Cultural Triangle Projectproved that it was a well organized Buddhist education centre
as for back as the 5th century A.D., and contained all thebuildings and facilities needed for such a centre for the157

Fig.1 Layout of Abayagiriya monastic
complexdissemination of knowledge not only in Sri Lanka but also among other Asian countries.
The presence of the Chinese monk Fa-hien in the 5th century A.D. bears witness to the factthat it was a great centre of Buddhist education.

His writings throw much light on the scale ofthis massive complex and the role it played in propagating Buddhism.
The Abayagiriya stupa is a monument of gigantic proportions rising to the height of 116
meters. The stupa is still proudly standing at the centre of the complex in its original form althoughsubject to deterioration due to exposure to weathering elements over several centuries. (Fig. 1)
The conservation of this massive stupa is one of the most daunting tasks undertaken by theCentral Cultural Fund.
The Jetavana Monastic Complex
Jetavana is also a well planned monastic complex in Anuradhapura, although not as large as the
Abayagiriya monastic complex.
The Jetavana stupa is still the tallest brick edifice in the world rising 120m above the stoneterrace. The Jetavana is only second to the two stone built pyramids at Giza in Egypt in height.
Like in Abayagiriya, the other religious buildings were arranged around the central stupa. (Fig. 2)
The monks’ residences at Jetavana also have a unique layout. This layout, popularly known
as “Panchavasa”, has been the feature of the monastic layouts in ancient Sri Lanka. The residential
units of the monks are laid out in a court surrounded by aboundary wall. One such unit consists of 5 residential units.
The largest unit, setout at the centre of the court, is theresidence of the senior monks while the other four units arelocated at the four corners of the court. The teaching of
Dhamma and other subjects to the pupils took place at theFig.2-Jetavana stupa, Anuradhapura

central unit occupied by the senior monk.

The Mahavihara Monastic Complex
The Mahavihara is also a major monastic complex in Anuradhapura. The layout of Mahavihara issimilar to the other major monastic complexes in Anuradhapura that were described earlier.
The “Sri Maha Bodhi” or Bodhi-tree Shrine that was bought to Sri Lanka in the 3rd century
B.C. is the oldest recorded authenticated tree in the world.
The Ruwanveli stupa, the 3rd tallest stupa in the World. It has been completely restored
and white washed in 1930’s, and has been a subject of great discussion among the conservators andreligious authorities since these two parties have different views on the complete restoration andwhite washing of ancient stupas.

158

The Dakkina stupa and Mirisavetiya stupa were the other two major monastic complexes inAnuradhapura.
The city also has two groups of monasteries that surround the major monastic complexes
known as “Pabbata Viharas” and forest monasteries. Forest monasteries with the absence ofreligious buildings are very different from the other two groups of monasteries. The unique featureof these monasteries is that it has a very simple layout. In most cases it was a brilliant adaptation ofnatural elements to form a habitat where monks can practice meditation without any disturbancesin the midst of the natural forest.
(2)

The Medieval City of Polonnaruwa

With the fall of the Anuradhapura Kingdom, the capital of Sri Lanka was shifted to Polonnaruwa.
Before Polonnaruwa became the capital of Sri Lanka, it was an important Provincial City evenduring the Anuradhapura Period. It was used as a camp city or ”Kandavuru Nuvara” where
garrisons of the Sinhalese kings were kept during the internal strife between the kings ofAnuradhapura in the North and Magama in the South.
King Vijayabahu I reestablished the Sri Lankan kingdom in the 10th century A.D. defeating
the Cholas of India. A number of Hindu shrines that exist in Polonnaruwa, symbolize the Hindu
influence in arts and architecture during the Polonnaruwa period.
The reign of the King Parakramabahu I was the golden era of Polonnaruwa. The King built
the largest man made tank in the country in Polonnaruwa with the aim of developing agriculture
which was the backbone of the economy of that society. The tank “Parakrama Samudraya” or Sea
of Parakrama was the main tank which fed the set of small tanks at lower elevations through acarefully designed net work of irrigation channels.
During this period Sri Lanka was also known as the granary of Asia. This lable wasentirely plausible due largely to the untiring efforts of King Parakramabahu I.
The gigantic image houses, colossal stupas and stupas of modest scale, chapter houses andmonks residences bear witness to the patronage of the Sinhalese rulers for the improvement of
Buddhism in the country.
The large palace complexes, audience halls, and royal baths symbolize the grandness of theSinhalese rulers during the Polonnaruva period.
City Planning: The Polonnaruva city has a citadel surrounded by the city walls with gates
at four cardinal points. It consists of a Royal Palace, Council Chamber, gardens, royal baths andother secular buildings.
The royal palace of the King Parakramabahu was said to be seven stories high, although
the remnants of the three bottom floors are all that is left at present.

159

The inner city is surrounded by the outer city with citywalls and gates. The Sacred Quadrangle located within the outercity contains the two Temples of Sacred Tooth Relic of King
Vijayabahu I and Nissankamalla, and the Vatadage or circularstupa house, the Thuparama Image House, and the Sathmahal
Prasada are also located in the Sacred Quadrangle.
During the Polonnaruwa Period, the image housebecame the prominent monument unlike the Anuradhapura
Period, where the stupa occupied the central place of the greatmonastic complexes.
Fig.3-Lankathilaka Image House,
Polonnaruva

Brick- built image houses of colossal scale are the mostimpressive among the monuments in Polonnaruwa. These image

houses have a mandapa in front and the sanctum where a Buddha statue of huge scale is kept.
There is also a circumambulation path around the sanctum of these image houses. (Fig. 3)
The mandapa in front has corbelled and circular vaults on top while the inner chamber was
roofed with a corbelled and circular dome built entirely of bricks.
The stucco work of the models of the Hindu vimama’ decorates the outer face of these
massive brick walls.
The Galvihara or “Uttararama”, which is the most visited place in Polonnaruwa, bear
witness to the stone carving ability of the Sri Lankan craftsmen. The four Buddha statues carved
out of living rock display the finest quality of stone carvings during the Polonnaruwa period. The
facial expressions and excellent proportions of the images bring the visitor to a state ofcontemplation.
(3)

The Rock Fortress of Sigiriya:
Sigiriya rock fortress was built by King Kasyapa in the 5th
century A.D. The palace on the summit of the rock and well laidout garden with water ponds of different proportions anddesigns is located on the Western precinct of the rock.

Thisgarden is one of the finest examples of Asian landscapearchitecture, that reached its apogee during this period andextends as far back as the 5th century A.D. (Fig.4)
Sigiriya also witnessed a classic hydraulic agricultural
system. Water is brought down from the top through a well laidout terra-cotta pipe network and feeds the series of ponds
Fig.4 Rock Fortress, Sigiriya

160

located below the rock.
Sigiriya is also world famous for the “Apsara” paintings
on its Western face. It is believed that the entire Western face ofthe rock was once covered with these paintings, althoughfragments of which are presently left in the niches of Westernface of the rock. The reason for their survival could have been
the low exposure to the weathering elements compared to otherparts of the rock.
The mirror wall is also a notable feature of Sigiriya.
Visitors to Sigiriya from the 7th century onwards, impressed by

Fig.5 Painted caves of Dambulla

the Apsara paintings have inscribed their experience in poetical verses on the very shiny plaster ofthe mirror wall located just below the fresco pocket. These verses popularly known as “Sigiriya
Kurutugee” graffiti throws much light on the states of Sigiriya and the evolution of the language ofthe region from the 7th century onwards.
(4)

The Painted Caves of Dambulla:

Dambulla is a rock cave where five caves of different size and appearance stood in a row.
Dambulla is world famous for its rock paintings. The entire cave surface is plastered and painted
without leaving a single square inch unpainted. The cave has more than 2,000 sq meters ofpaintings and belongs to the different periods of Sri Lankan history. Most of the early paintings
were under the painted layers of later periods. (Fig. 5)
Most of the paintings belong to the 18th century Kandyan Style as this techniques ofpainting was popular during the Kandyan Period. (17th –18th century).
(5)

The Sacred City of Kandy:

Kandy is the last kingdom of Sri Lanka before the country fell under British rule.
Kandy still holds the title of “the most sacred city” in Sri Lanka. The Tooth Relic of Lord
Buddha, the most sacred object in the Buddhist religion in Sri Lanka is enshrined in a casket kept
at the inner chamber of the Temple of Tooth Relic located in Kandy. (Fig. 6)
As such the special temple was built to enshrine the
Tooth Relic which was brought to Sri Lanka in the 4th century
A.D. A new temple was built for the Tooth Relic every time akingdom was shifted. The tradition of building a Tooth Relictemple continued until the relic was finally housed in the templeof the Tooth Relic in Kandy, the last kingdom of Sri Lanka.
Fig.6 Sacred city of Kandy

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Kandy is still the centre of Buddhism. The two headquarters of the Buddhist Chapters, The
Asgiriya and Malwatta monastic complexes are in Kandy. Kandy also contains four devalas shrines
dedicated to the gods of Natha, Pattini, Vishnu and Kataragama. In Natha Devala, the Buddhist
image house is also located very close to the Devala that shows the coexistence of Buddhism and
Hinduism during the Gampola and Kandyan periods.
(6)

The Fortified City of Galle:

Galle is the best preserved fortified city built by the Europeans, particularly the Dutch in all ofSouth and South East Asia.
Galle witnessed the adaptation of European design concepts to the local climate. The
architecture that was created was a continuation of Sri Lankan building traditions in different
forms due largely to the fact that these houses were built by local craftsman using local building
materials and technology.
This dual parentage created a unique architectural style popularly known as “Dutch
Architecture”. Galle was first fortified by the Portuguese, but later the Dutch developed the fort ina more organized way by building ramparts and bastions that follow the irregular coast line tocreate a perfect fortress well protected from both the land and sea sides. After the Dutch fort wasconquered by the British and used as their administrative centre,
the Galle Fort assumed its traditional functional role yet again.
(Fig. 7)The Bay of Galle is also very important from a maritime
archaeological point of view. The ancient Galle Port holds about
20 ship wrecks dating from the 9th century A.D. to modern
times. This valuable maritime heritage adds a new dimension to
Fig.7 Fortified city of Galle

the heritage values of the Galle Fort.

Wooden Heritage and Timber Buildings in Sri Lanka
Timber was a very common material used in the construction of buildings in very ancient times.
The first evidence of timber construction in Sri Lanka was evident in the 3rd century B.C.
The Lovamahapaya of which only the stone pillars of the ground floor are left was
originally a nine story building built of stone and timber. The timber beams rested on the stonepillars on the ground floor laid out in a grid pattern. The width of this square building is gradually
receding when it goes up? The building had a square roof at the top floor, and the roofs on theother floors were arranged in a cascading form giving the building a spectacular appearance. The
radiating rafters of the roof at the top floor met at the central timber log, popularly known as the“madol kurupava” or “boss gediya”.

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The “madol kurupava” which was above the centre of the building is held in position by
the radiating rafters. The tiles that were found during the excavation were bronze. The charredtimber found during the excavations was dated and proved to be material from the 3rd century B.C.
VATADAGE: Another type of wooden building is a circular stupa house or “chetiyaghara”. The
building consists of a stupa of modest scale and four Buddha statues placed facing the four cardinal
directions. The building has several rings of stone circular columns of which a timber ring beam
was placed. The series of timber beams were interlocked to form a perfect timber ring beam which
demonstrated the high-skill of the Sri Lankan craftsmen at thattime. Rafters were laid in a radial form and all of which came togather at the timber log placed at the centre of the roof.
The finest examples of this built form were found inAnuradhapura, Medirigiriya, and Polonnaruva. The decorativeround circular columns which once supported the roof are stillintact. (Fig. 8)

Fig.8 Vatadage, Polonnaruva

TAMPITA VIHARA: Another unique type of timber construction is called building on pillars or“Tampita Vihara”. These buildings were constructed on a set of stone pillars that had a height ofabout 2’ to 3’ ft normally. The set of timber beams were laid on these columns in both ways. The
timber columns of the super structure rested on these timber beams. The reason for having abuilding on pillars is to protect the timber structure from termite attack which is a primary agent
responsible for the deterioration of timber in tropical climate. (Fig.
9)
The inner chamber of the building was built from wattle
and daub construction. The Buddha statue was placed in an innerchamber, and the exterior walls of which were plastered andpainted with Jataka stories related to the previous births of Lord
Buddha.
There is a colonnaded verandah built around the innerchamber. The verandah has two functions. The columns of theverandah supported the overhanging roof of the inner chamber
which protects the painted walls from the elements (i.e. wind, rain,humidity). The outer verandah also acts as a circumambulation
path for the devotees.

Fig.9 Tampita Vihara

AUDIENCE HALL AND EMBEKKE DEVALA: The Audience Hall and Embekke Devala inKandy are built entirely of wood and bear witness to the heights achieved in timber construction by
the local craftsmen. The form of the building is simple but perfectly suited to the hot humid
climate of the country.

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The building has four rows of timber columns of equal
size and shape. These columns were very elegantly carved withthe motif of flowers, drummers, dancers, swans etc. The set of
timber beams are placed one on top of the other placed on thetimber columns. These beams ends were projected out andFig.10-Audience hall, Kandy

highly decorated with carvings. (Fig. 10, 11)
The roof is made of double pitch. The lower portion of
the roof has a fairly low angle while the upper portion of theroof is very steep. The high angle of the roof is a direct responseto the climatic need as this region very often experiences
torrential rains.
The rafter edges jutting out from the support are very
intricately carved. This carving has a rectangular hole at thecentre of the carving of the rafter edges through which a timberpole popularly known as “heen leeya” is inserted, tying theFig.11 Timber carvings at
Ambekkeedges of the all the rafters together. The skill of the craftsman istested based on the straightness of the timber pole.

Problems and Needs for Cultural Heritage Protection and Restoration
Problems and needs for cultural heritage protection could either be general or specific to themonument it self. The problems that are more or less common to most heritage sites are discussed
below.
(a)

The Absence of a regular monitoring programme due to a lack of facilities for ascientific monitoring system.

Cultural sites are often attractive for local and foreign visitors. As a result, cultural sites draws a lotof local and foreign visitors.
Therefore, it is very important to keep records on the number of visitors on a daily, weekly,monthly and annual basis, and to have a closer look at visitor movements and their impact on thesites.
The Sigiriya rock fortress which is the most visited site in Sri Lanka has been subjected toexcessive wear and tear due to the presence of large number of foreign and local visitors
throughout the year.
The palace complex located at the summit of the rock can be reached through a very steep
pathway and a flight of steps built of limestone and bricks. (Fig. 4)
The limestone, although a reasonably a hard material, has been worn off due to the164excessive visitor movement on these steps.
The bricks, out of which the other steps were built, have experienced the same problem.
Although this problem of excessive use has been evident for a long time, adequate measures toarrest this kind of deterioration have not yet been introduced.
Dambulla painted cave is another classic example of the same problem. Dambulla painted
cave is visited by a large number of devotees and foreign visitors throughout the year. The
Buddhist devotees flock in large numbers especially on the full moon poya days to pay theirhomage to the lord Buddha. The front wall was built enclosing the natural cave and the tiny
doorway on the wall provided access to the cave. The humidity inside the cave is fairly high as thespace inside the cave does not get enough ventilation due to the absence of an opening except thetiny door placed on the front wall. Therefore, the presence of a large number of visitors especiallyon Full Moon poya days contributed to the sudden rise of the humidity inside the cave. On a Vesak
Poya Day about two years back, the plaster on the rock surface on the historic paintings collapsed
as a result of the increased humidity.
Therefore, regular monitoring of the temperature and humidity variation inside the cave
together with the fluctuation of visitor traffic is absolutely vital for the sustainability of theseinvaluable cultural properties.
The other object often subject to excessive wear is the “Sandakada Pahana” or moonstone,
which is placed at the entrance to the sacred buildings. This is a highly decorative object with the
motifs of animals, swans (?) and flowered designs. The motifs which were carved into the stone
display the finest stone carvings. Most of the carvings are worn off due to visitors’ treading directlyon these fine carvings.
Therefore, it is very import to monitor the rate of wear of these invaluable sculptures.
All of the above factors very clearly prove, that if the heritage sites are not managed
properly, taking into consideration the carring capacity of the site, these valuable heritage sites
might be in danger of loosing their authentic value.
(b)

Insufficient research on the factors of deterioration, traditional technologies andbuilding materials

In most of the Sri Lankan monuments especially those at Anuradhapura and Polonnaruva, thehistoric plaster fragments are still left. Although these plasters have been exposed to weatheringfactors over several centuries, some of these plasters are still in good shape.
Most of these plasters are lime based. But lime plasters which are produced today are notcompatible with the plasters left on the ancient monuments. Most of the lime plasters produced
recently take a very large time for setting and sometimes it might not set at all under very damp
conditions. In order to overcome this problem of setting, Portland cement is added. Cement solves
this problem, but it creates several problems at the same time. Adding cement will create the165

following problems.
(1) Colour of the cement plaster may not be compatible with that of lime.
(2) The strength of the cement plaster is high compared to that of lime plaster(3) Cement plaster may add soluble salts to the historic structures.
(4) The strength of the cement plaster is high and not compatible with the ancient lime plaster.
(5) Adding a more hard material obviously creates pressure on the low strength lime plasterleading to more deterioration of the lime plaster.
Therefore it is necessary to carry out more research on the ancient lime mortar and develop
a lime mortar and plaster that is compatible with the properties of the historic lime plaster.
In the conservation of the Abayagiriya stupa, which is a brick built structure using mud as amortar, it was decided not to use cement, as the use of cement creates long term problems.
The Central Cultural Fund in collaboration with the National Building Research
Organization in Sri Lanka has developed a mortar for the following proportions and presently thismortar is used in the conservation of the Abayagiriya stupa.
-

Lime
Ant hill clay
Tile power
Paddy husk

-

1
2
2
1

This mortar is slightly slow in setting under damp conditions and takes a fairly long time
to reach full strength. Therefore more research on this mortar is necessary in order to develop a
motor that eliminates these draw backs.
(c)

Deterioration of Bricks:

Most of the monuments built during the Polonnaruwa period are brick built structures. The gigantic
brick image houses of Lankathilaka and Thivanka Pilimage are presently in danger due to the rapid
deterioration of bricks. Although several preliminary research studies have been carried out to findout the exact causes of deterioration, more systematic scientific research on this problem is still tobe undertaken. It is understood that the deterioration of the bricks are a result of several
deterioration factors acting on the bricks at the same time.
The one of the cause of deterioration is sand blasting. The heavy wind blowing across themonument brings a lot of sand and dust particles with it and these particles hit the bricks walls withintense pressure. Frequent occurrence of this phenomenon finally leads to the disintegration of thehomogeneous particles of the bricks.
Another factor responsible for the deterioration could be identified as subffloracence.
Ground water contains salt and rises through the wall due to capillary action, bringing a soluble

166salt with it. The presence of high winds at the location
evaporates the water forming salt crystals beneath the surface ofthe bricks. These crystals formed beneath the surface exertpressure on the surface leading to the disintegration of surface
particles. (Fig. 12, 13)
Due to this deterioration, cavities are formed in the
brick wall. The wind which starts rotating in the cavities
accelerates

water

evaporation

leadingtomore

Fig.12 Deterioration of plaster

rapid

deterioration of the bricks.
Therefore, it is necessary to analyze the factors ofdeterioration and decide upon the best method of intervention.
(d)

Deterioration of timber monuments

Fig.13 Formation of salt crystals

Timber is a very widely used building material in Sri Lanka.
Most of the monuments built in the Gampola and Kandiyan period are of timber.
Deterioration of timber members due to the actions of several deterioration factors are oneof the challenges that conservators are often faced with. Biological deterioration has been a major
cause of deterioration over the last centuries.
The large carpenter beetle (Hymenoptera) always attacks the sound as well as thedeteriorated wood by drilling holes in to the wood. The drilled holes are of varying size, and canoften be observed in the timber monuments in Kandy. Carpenter beetles create their nests inside thewood. The larva in the nests feed on the wood creating large cavities inside the wood. This process
goes on inside the wood and is not visible from the outside. The accumulation of timber dust on thefloor and the bodies of dead beetles are evidence of this problem.
Termites, also known as white ants are also major causes of deterioration of wood.
Termites which are present in large numbers, feed on wood and in a relatively short period of timethey can eat out the entire timber member.
This problem of termites is more common in the timber structures which are in contact
with the ground. Therefore timber structures were built on raised platforms as evident in theTampita Vihara construction, in order to eliminate this menace.
(e)

Scarecity of timber

The timber members, especially those used as structural members are very large cross sections andfairly long. When these members deteriorate, it is very difficult to find a timber section similar tothat of the original. The reason is that the species used for those constructions are now very scarce.

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The species commonly used in ancient timber constructions were Gammalu (Ptero carpas), Jak,
Halmilla, Teak, Mee, and others.
“Gammalu”, the variety widely used for decorative columns is not available today. Whentimber members are replaced, it is a standard practice to use similar species and to keep thedimensions exactly similar to the one being replaced. The structural beam at the
Wijesundararamaya chapter house in Kandy has a cross section of 14”x12” and a length of 20ft’.
It is a massive timber structural timber beam. This is very badly deteriorated especially the lower
section, and had to be replaced. Although every attempt was made over a period of six months tofind a timber beam similar to the one to be replaced, they were not successful.
Therefore an alternate method had to be found instead of replacing the original one. The
existing beam was analysed to identify the strength of the beam and the type of load it had to bear.
This analysis showed that although the bottom section was badly deteriorated, the top sections
were in fairly better condition. The analysis of forces on the timber member revealed that thebottom section was no longer capable of bearing the tensile stress although the top section still
could carry the compressive strength. Therefore member had to be improved against the tensile
strength. The U channel was carved in the bottom section and an iron “I” section was inserted that
could take the tensile strength. Finally this “I” section was concealed with the timber casing tokeep the appearance as it was before the intervention.
(f)

Scarcity of trained craftsman

The most of the structural and non structural timber members used in ancient timber construction
was either very finely carved or painted. The timber members in absence of decorations or carvings
can be replaced more liberally in conservation than those carved or decorated.
When the conservation of the Natha Devala drumming hall in Kandy was undertaken, there
were only 9 very finely decorative timber columns left out of
the total 24. The timber columns were replaced with themasonry columns in previous interventions obscuring theappearance of this unique monument. The reason for
introducing the masonry columns in place of the timber column
would have been the enormous cost and time needed for the
reproduction of the columns similar to the original. The 9
columns which were left of the time of the restoration were also
very badly deteriorated.
When the restoration was undertaken under the
UNESCO-Sri Lanka Cultural Triangle Project, the decision was
Fig.14-Introdution of new timberin place of deterioration

taken to reproduce the columns despite the enormous skill and168

time required. (Fig. 14)
Although about 40 skilled carpenters were working
under the Cultural Triangle Kandy project, only two of themwere able to reproduce the carving similar to the original. There
were 15 timber columns to be carved and it was a massive task
due to the unavailability of skilled craftsmen. One craftsman
took more than six months to finish one column. In fact, theentire restoration took a period of one year. (Fig. 15)
Thus, a notice was printed and circulated inviting
craftsmen throughout the Island. Carpentry teams responded to
the notice and they were given a trade test to decide on whether
Fig.15 Reproducing columns

they had the required skills.

The carpentry team came from Ambekke village, known to be a craft village, and were able
to produce the carving more or less similar to the original within a reasonable time. They were
given the contract and it was accomplished to the satisfaction of the institution.
This conservation effort clearly rings the alarm on the scarcity of skilled craftsmen.
Families that were engaged in wood carving for ages tend to find other employment for better
income.
The sustainability of these craft industries are now under threat and could jeopardise futureconservation work. Therefore the training of skilled craftsmen is vital for sustaining these
traditional crafts and technologies.
(g)

Use of synthetic resin in conservation:

The growing of weeds and small plants on the conserved brick monuments has been a threat to theconserved monuments (Fig. 16). This has been a subject of continuous discussion over the past
decades among the professionals engaged in the field ofconservation. The application of a layer of epoxy resin has beenin the experimental stages over the last two decades. The same
experts are against the use of synthetic resin while some are forit. Two main reasons have been quoted by the conservators who
do agree with the use of synthetic resin. One reason is that theapplication of synthetic resins form a thin impermeable layer on
the face of bricks that completely suffocate the monument. The
other reason is that the synthetic resins have not been directly
tested on the ancient material and it is unknown what impact
they would have. These materials have not been time proven as

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Fig.16-Biological deterioration

they are materials of recent origin.
The synthetic resin was once applied to the conserved Rankoth Vehera at Polonnaruwa.
After a few years of such application, tiny cracks were visible on the brick dome of the stupa.
Some argued that cracks were the results of the increase of volume due to the blocking of
evaporation of water by the synthetic impermeable layer.
Filling of cavities of the wood members with synthetic resin is also practiced inconservation of timber buildings. In cases where areas to be filled are large enough to insert a pieceof timber of the same species, the use of a synthetic resin could be avoided. But instances wheretiny holes are to be filled, the sawdust mixed with synthetic resin has been in practice.
In both cases, the new materials introduced should behave the same way as the original
with the fluctuation of temperature and humidity. The properties of the materials introduced should
be compatible with that of the original. The new material should harmonize with the old in colour
and texture
If the two materials do not expand and contract same way, two problems can occur. If theoriginal material expands morethan the filled material, the filled

New member
falling out

material could fall out. In the…..

other way, more contraction of theold piece could result in cracking

cracking

expansion(h)due to the restriction of the forces.
contraction

Deterioration of timber columns

Deterioration of timber monuments has drawn the attention of conservators over a long period oftime. Deterioration of the base of the timber columns due to termites and the presence of moisture
was evident in many timber monuments. Therefore, various methods have been tried in order toovercome this often visible problem with timber monuments.
The introduction of a stone base and copper plate as atermite shield has been the method employed in theconservation of timber columns over the last few decades. (Fig.
17)
The bottom portion of most of the decorative timbercolumns are often found in a very deteriorated condition.
In the conservation of timber monuments, every effort is
Fig.17 Introduction of a copper
plate

made to retain the timber components that have carvings or
painted layers on them. The replacement of these members is170

done only in instances where the existing member isdeteriorated beyond repair.
The deteriorated bottom portions of columns are
replaced with a new timber component from the same species.
In cases where the same species is not available, the species
that has similar properties as that of the original are used. The
similar species is permitted only after every effort in finding

Fig.18 Deteriorated base of theoriginal replaced

the same species has failed. (Fig. 18, 19, 20)(i)Vandalism

Vandalism is a problem not only in Sri Lanka, but it has
become a global problem also. Those responsible forvandalism do it intentionally sometimes. But in most cases,
the vandalism is not intentional. Whether it is done

Fig.19 Joints exactly copied andreproduced

intentionally, or unintentionally, it completely ruins theappearance of the whole monument and sometimes distorts
valuable information.
The mirror wall at the Sigiriya World Heritage sitewhich contains “graffiti” written by the visitors to Sigiriya
around the 7th century is under threat of vandalism. The
graffiti throws light on the Sinhalese alphabet of that era andprovides invaluable information on the history of Sigiriya.
This graffiti also reveals the artistic ability and sensitivity ofthe people of the 7th century.

Fig.20 Fixing detail on top

During the recent past, some visitors have inscribed
their names on the mirror wall on top of the “graffiti” at Sigiriya. Therefore, it was decided thatsome sort of protection in the form of a barrier should be introduced to keep visitors away from themirror wall. It was further agreed that intervention should be conducted in such a way that theaesthetic beauty of the site should not be affected in any way.
The encasing of a mirror wall with a transparent glass is one suggestion under discussion.
The mirror wall should not be completely encased with a transplanted glass box as it may create a
microclimate inside that might have a negative impact on the plaster of the mirror wall.

Conclusions
The problems regarding the conservation of monuments and sites described in detail in theprevious pages clearly shows that if appropriate actions are not taken now, our valuable heritage

171

could be in danger. If we allow the deterioration of monuments to continue without intervening toconserve them, it will be detrimental to their existence and to the sites of which they are a part.
Therefore it is clear that there must be well thought out master and management plans for
all monuments and sites, the implementation of which should ensure their sustainability.
The development of a conservation charter for the Asian region could lay the foundation
for the systematic and more scientific approach for conservation within the region. The manuals
should be developed using modern documentation techniques and how these accurate modern
techniques, can be adapted to places where traditional techniques are used as they consume moretime as well as resources. The countries in this large region could prepare their own manuals
specific to their monuments and contexts within broad guidelines provided in the Asian Charter.
Research on traditional building materials and technologies must be encouraged as muchas possible since knowledge on the production of traditional materials is fast disappearing. The
establishment of a centre for research on traditional materials and technology with complete
facilities and equipment may would be appropriate in this regard. Professionals and technicians
should be given opportunities to develop their knowledge and skills through national andinternational training, and on the use of modern equipment and how this equipment could be usedin analyzing the materials used in the ancient monuments.
Although Sri Lanka has well over 100,000 monuments and sites, a comprehensive database has not yet been prepared. Studies of database preparation practiced in other countries would
be appropriate in order to develop a system that will fit our requirements. On-site workshops by theexperts are to be organized with a view towards imparting this knowledge to all those responsible.
Preparation of comprehensive maintenance plans after conservation is also vital and must
be the final phase of the conservation process. If the conserved sites do not have a proper
maintenance plan, all the efforts of conservation and resources put therein could be in vain.
The preparation of comprehensive plans and capacity building of personnel responsible
for their implementation will ensure the sustainability of monuments and sites in order to preserve
the heritage of mankind for the generations yet to be born.

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Thailand
Chamorn PORAPAKPRALAI
Architect
Monuments Conservation Group
Office of Archaeology
The Fine Arts Department

PROBLEMS AND NEEDS FOR CULTURAL MONUMENTSPROTECTION AND RESTORATION ACTIVITIES IN THAILAND
I. Introduction
Thailand is one of several nations situated in the region known as Southeast Asia. The Chao Phraya
River, the main river in Thailand, flows from Northern Thailand to the Gulf of Thailand. Thai
people prefer living close to rivers, especially people from central Thailand. Many of the ancient
cities in Thailand were established near the Chao Phraya. As same as more Country around South–East Asia, the ancient age of the area called Thailand were the consist of many States in the sametime, they were established, grew and fell.
Before discussing monument protection and restoration, a presentation of the backgroundof Thai history is necessary.

II. A Rough history of Thai Architecture:A) Dvaravati (12th-16th Buddhist century)
More evidences have been found from the central part of the Country to Pattani province on theSouthern peninsula. There were states around these areas from the Dvaravati or Sri-vijaya age.
Town of Dravati
1.

Central part of the Country: The centre was Nakara-Jaisri

2.

Southern parts of the Country: The centre was Jaiya

Architecture of Dvaravati
More architectural ruins were found under hillocks, especially Buddhist Stupas. These Stupas
consisted of masonry architecture. Raw clay bricks were used and the mortar was very small
because of the use of special techniques such as glue that was used to hold bricks together.
Today in the southern parts of the country many Dvaravati Buddhist ruins were found in the middle

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of rubber gardens occupied by Muslim people.
B) Khmer influence (12th-18th Buddhist century)
The influence of Khmer culture is distributed all around the country, from the central, north-eastern,western, and northern parts. There was more evidence such as objects and architecture, like thePrang sam Yod in Lopburi district, and the Sadok-kok Thom in the Sakaew district.
C) Sukhothai (19th-20th Buddhist century)
Around 1200, a state called Sukhothai was established in the lower northern part of Thailand by
King Sri-indra-ditaya . He gathered Thai citizens, built the ancient city of Sukhothai and founded
the Pra-ruang Dynasty at Sukhothai. His son and other kings developed the Sukhothai into a
powerful state, and increased more area. They established Sri-sajanalai city and Kampang-petchcity under Sukhothai power. Today Sukhothai city, Sri-sajanalai city and Kampang-petch are
UNESCO World Heritage sites.
Sukhothai was the ideal image of a free society with the liberty of Thai citizens,
commercialization, and the centre of Buddhism.
Between rulings of King Li-dai is the grate age of Buddhism. He sent some monks to
many town, especially Sri-Lanka, and received new idea to developed the stupas form. This designidea would later be passed to Ayutthaya arts.
Sukhothai was ruled by one dynasty, and between the reigns of King Boropan the 10th
dynasty king.

The Sukhothai state merged to be a part of the Ayutthaya state.

Sukhothai Architecture
Sukhothai city is a formal city. It was a rectangular city, surrounded by city walls and ditches. In
Sukhothai city there is a lot of Buddhist architecture spread all over the area .Most of thisarchitecture was brick architecture with wood and laterite. Sometime Khmer architecture wasfound inside the Sukhothai architecture such as at Wat Mahathat monastery, and sometimes theinfluence of the Ayutthaya arts was found.
Wat Mahathat monastery
The most importance monastery of the city, placed in the middle of the city. The Composition ofelements such as Main hall minor halls and group of stupas of this monastery presented theprinciple of Thai Cosmos. The centre Stupa was defied as Sumeru Mountain surrounded by sevensatellite mountains and four continents. The principle of the Cosmos was found later at Ayutthaya
and in the Ratana-Kosinda architecture.

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Wat Mahathat monastery at Bhisanu-Loka:
The Sukhothai living monument remains today, and without doubt elements of the monasteryproclaim the principle of Cosmos. This place used to have roof structures and decorated elementsof the main hall, minor hall and corridors. The Ayutthaya influence can be found on the main Stupa
form, and on the hall elements.
D) Ayutthaya (19th-23rd Buddhist century)
A state was established in the central part of the Country at the same time as Sukhothai. It was the
Ayutthaya state, King Rama the 1st, who leaded his people from an unknown location to establish a
new city here. First it was founded in the southern part, in the area of the Wat Buddi-Sawan
monastery, and then moved to the upper area in the region of Ayutthaya..
Ayutthaya state grew to be a powerful state. It was ruled many cities in the central part ofthe country such as Supanburi, Lopburi, Jaya-nath, Petchaburi and others.

Sukhothai state

become a part of Ayutthaya and then received more ideas from Sukhothai such as the Cosmos.

At

the same time it received ideas from other states and developed everything, such as Hindu’s
Deva-king. The good factor of Ayutthaya’s development was the influence of foreign influences;
certainly this was true about the ArchitectureOver more than 400 years of Ayutthaya rule, there were five Dynasties and 33 Kings.
The name of great Kings come from this era*King Rama the 1st, King Naresuan, King

Songdham, King Prasat-Thong, and King Narai.
Ayutthaya city and its Architecture
Ayutthaya architecture can be divided into three periods: the initial, middle and final periods.
Ayutthaya city was surrounded by two rivers. The shape of the city looks like a shipfacing to the East. Ayutthaya people built city walls and forts next to the river to protect the city.
The ancient city of Ayutthaya is now a UNESCO World Heritage site.
The Ancient Palace
The ancient palace was placed on the Northern part of Ayutthaya city. It was the Palace for the 33
kings of Ayutthaya. Today many ruined monuments have been looked after by the Fine Arts
Department and have been reserved for a long time since the time of King Chulalongkorn and on totoday.
Wat Buddi-Sawan monastery
The situation of this monastery was on the Ayutthaya 1st.palace site. There was a grand Stupas on
the centre surrounded by a corridor, and other elements, certainly it presented the idea of Sumeru

175Mountain.
Here there was architecture with wood roof structures. They lived a long time to bewitnesses of Ayutthaya Architecture.
Wat naprameru: is a living monument and a good example of Ayutthaya Achitecture, andwood craftE) Ratanakosin (Bangkok, 1782-present)
King Rama the 1st established a new city on the east side of the Chao Phraya River in the area of
Bangkok. He established the Chakri Dynasty that has continued to the 9Th King.
Between the reign of King Mongkut the 4th King, Siam was declared to be the name of
Thailand. This time Colonialism influences came, and Siam began changing everything,commercialization began, army, education, city planning, and architecture all changed. The
influence continued to the reign of King Chulalongkorn. Experts from Western countries came, andwere involved in everything including Architecture.
During the reign of King Vajiravuth (the 6th king) the Fine Arts Department was foundedin order to protect every type of Thai Culture Heritage.
Between the reign of King Prajadipok (the 7th king), the 1st National Museum was founded.
Around 1933, the government revolution took place and the democracy system wasinstalled in place of the Monarchy.
The new government wanted to develop the country, and change the name from Siam to
Thailand. The influence of this modern movement eventually changed everything.
Architecture of Bangkok Period: The Wat Chetubhon Monastery
King Rama the 1st founded a monastery near the Palace. He took many Buddha images from
Ayutthaya City and Sukhothai City to the corridor, and minor halls. Planning was based on thecontinuity of the cosmos concept from Sukhothai, Ayutthaya and Bangkok. Today, this is an
important and great monastery with many monuments that are in need of restoration.

III. Problems and Needs for Cultural Monument Protection and Restoration in
ThailandThe conservation, protection and restoration of Cultural heritage in Thailand are the main priorityof The Fine Arts Department.
For cultural monuments there is a group of conservators who work under the Office ofArchaeology. The monuments, ancient object, and museum law was declared in 1957. Some parts176

of it are devoted to the control and protection of cultural monuments. There are presently many
problems and needs regarding the conservation of cultural monuments in Thailand.
A) Social
Presently, there are invasions upon monument areas, whether they are registered areas or not.

A

landowner had submitted to the building of 4 floor massive buildings on the ditch of the ancient
city of Supanburi. Additionally somebody wanted to build a godown near the ditch of the ancient
city of U-Thong near Supanburi. Why did they want to do that? Possibly because of the city was
growing from an agricultural area into a commercial area, and the growing population raised thecost of living.
B) Worth
An abbott wanted to have a larger area for Buddhist learning, and thus built a big building on thespace next to a monument or in the vicinity of the monument.
An abbot wanted to demolish an old, monument in order to build a new building forreceiving Buddhists followers.
The preference for new things is the main idea that lies at the roots of many people who
create and live in built cultural heritage and monuments.
C) Law
The Monument Law does not control the area near monument areas, and the Environmental Law
does not discuss Cultural Environments, thus many big buildings have been built next to manymonuments.
D) Materials:
Some occupiers want to restore some monuments, but they did not use original materials.

Somepeople want to change the roof decoration from wood to precast concrete because concrete cement
is not maintained, but the monument may damaged later because of the rigidity of the cement andthe salt in the cement.
E) Moisture and salt damage:
Many of the monuments are situated near rivers, and most of the monuments were wall-bearingbuildings with their foundations still in mud, clay and water, thus moisture from rivers could
damage many more, monuments. There is more salt in water and earth, thus walls suck salt throughthem, which damages the bricks and the wall finishing.

177

Rain is always a factor, as traditional clay roof tiles were used on many of monuments,
these tiles were out of quality control between production. Rain came into the monuments anddamaged the ceiling, roof structure, upper wall and also mural paintings. Sometime rain leaks
inside through small cracks between walls or roofs.
F) Structural collapse
Some wall bearing monuments collapsed because of ground subsidence.
G) National development
Sometimes government projects were factors that damaged monuments, for example a new railway
project might come too close to monuments in Nontaburi province, and a new leveled road might
cover an historic canal.
H) StealingI) Budget

In conclusion, it is time to protect and restore the monuments in Thailand. We have to resolve
many favours and establish the anxiousness to cultural heritage regarding government parts andindividual parts, and to identify ourselves through our cultural heritage.

178

The Kingdom of Tonga
Isileli Vea TUITUPOU
Chief Architect
Building Division, Architectural Section
Ministry of WorksCONSERVATION OF WOODEN HISTORIC BUILDINGS
Problems and Needs for Cultural Heritage Protection and Restoration
Tongan Fale House form a Cultural Heritage Property: Evolution and Rationale
Background
This paper is written for the requirement of a training course on Preservation and Restoration ofCultural heritage in the Asia – Pacific Region 2005 in Nara, Japan.
Tonga, a group of tiny Polynesian islands in the South Pacific Ocean spreads throughout
vast sea area of about 362,500 square kilometre between latitude 15 and 23 degrees South,
longitude 173 and 177 degrees West. As a result of this location, Tonga is proud to lay claim to thefirst nation to welcome the sunrise each day.
The government of Tonga has been ruled by a Constitutional Monarchy for nearly 3
centuries. The population of Tonga is believed to exceed 120,000 people, inclusive of overseas
migrants. Tonga experiences a moderate temperature and climate throughout the year with a cooler
period in March to September and a warmer period from November to February. During thewarmer periods, tropical cyclones frequently occur and a national is disaster is declared.
Furthermore historical statistics reveal a 20 year cycle that causes the worst devastation to theKingdom. Disaster preparedness is monitored at the national level, in addition to cyclones andearthquakes. Tonga lies along Southwest Belt of Fire, and is, hence, subjective to seismic activitiesof the zone B tectonic plate.

Migration Theory
Tonga vernacular dwelling houses are known as Fale. They have been chosen as study cases here
because of their direct relevance to the adoption of a conservation program for Tongan
cultural/architectural heritage.
Evolution of the Fale house form and shape is seen to be directly related to the migration
theory of its dwellers. Oral historical accounts stipulate that Tongan ancestors were seafarers who
made a long-distance journey in large kalia or canoes, from Southeast Asia 1200 years ago.

179

Archaeological evidence has led to the definition of a prehistoric cultural period known as theLapita Pottery Culture that supports this theory. The primary line of evidence has been the
excavation of several sites that represented early settlements at coastal areas on the main island of
Tongatapu. Sketch drawings by early European explorers show a curved roof dwelling perched onlarge canoes lending further support to the idea that the starting point of early settlements used thegeneral Fale shape. More recently as 1960’s photos of curved thatched roofs were found along thecoast south of Papua New Guinea and East Timor.
Fale:

Transitional Forms and Shapes

Archaeological evidence indicates that the two sides of the curved roof shapes were shifted inlandfrom the kalia and erected on coastal lands where they were later elevated to perch upon four
supporting poles and lashed to hold them down.
It was customary practice that during hurricane warnings the family members would
unlash the post to bearer junctions, then lower the roof structure to the ground for shelter during
the storm. It would then be replaced after the cyclone passed.
It is believed that the rounded end structures were added at later stage after a long trial
and error period that proved that the curved mid-section was an effective cyclone resistance design
shape and structure (please refer to the floor plan, section and elevation drawings presented in thisreport).
Fale House Form:A Natural Disaster Resistance Design

Several explanations based on the results of engineering studies indicate that a curved thatchedroof shape has been proven effective for hurricane resistance. This is particularly true with caneleaf thatching or coconut leaf thatching. Wind pressure lands and infiltrates inward into thedwelling thus reducing internal pressure that would avoid potential uplift.

The balance of severepressure is dissipated onto the roof structure where is it absorbed by allowable movements atlashed junctions i.e roof battens to strutting members and beam to poles connections.
Similar behaviour is said to occur at seismic ground movements. The lashed connections

Transition of fale (drawn by the participant)180

absorb the forces of shake by allowing rhythmic movement in respond.
At later stage when metal straps and nails were introduced to replace the kafa lashing.
Tragic damages were to occur at previous lashed junctions particularly when original wood
members were aging.
Cultural and Social Influences
It is vital to note the social influence over the changing shape of Fale form. The high vaulted dome
roof was no doubt offer symbol of power and success at political and social arenas. Big chiefs
would acquire the fale form to celebrate his social status in the community. At arrival of early
missionaries in mid 17th century Fale form was to grow larger scale i.e from four support poles toeight and to house 100 people for worship.
Architectural Enhancement Periods
Further reference to imperialist and civil war period in 16th century, Tongan chief and war lords
declared battles with its neighbours Samoa and Fiji in later years. Tonga sovereignity was spread tosettle Samoa. Fale shape was built for Samoan chiefs and to become Samoan house form to thisday. On the same period onwards specialized family builders and craftsmen were assigned for theconstruction of fale. What were to follow were refinements to structural connection detailing,
decorative lashings adopted. Such lashings were to become artistic that add symbolic values andmeanings to fales owners status and builders reputation as well.
Christian Influence
Fale shape continues its changing to introduction and employ of imported steel roofing and glass
pane windows the befitted with timber joinery pulpit. Construction process was to become acommunity affair where skilled craftsmen contributed voluntarily. Again more joinery detaildecorations, wider range of lashing patterns were introduced for the sake of glorifying Christianbelief.
Today Commercialisation
Restoration and Reconstruction of Architectural Cultural Heritage
I discussed earlier the introduction of imported materials as against the structural mechanism of
traditional fale roof structure. Sudden fatality was evident when traditional structure was to wipeout rapidly by series of cyclones of 1961, 1981 Issac, and 2001 Waka i.e. 20 years mentioned
earlier. Included in the destruction of major earthquake in 1972 was Saione Motua the largest scalechurch in fale shape but was documented, dismantled and stored away. Follow on were series of181

reconstruction in fale shape and form but in concrete and steel replica.
Commercial functions was starting to emerge employing fale shape. A symbol of Tongan
traditional community environment with its complex roof structure and scale offer meaning tosustainable goodwill business venture, the very reason for Eco tourism market.
Christian churches continue to construct fale shape in order of maintain a stronghold
belief but above all is to symbolize identity.
Schools continue to construct fale shape to mark success of schools achievement inacademic, sports, and to mark 50th anniversary.
Fale an Architectural Heritage for Tonga
Original fale shape and form are as rapidly diminished in unmonitored level. Part restoration work
to some are seen very costly. Continuous protection of remaining vernacular fale throughpreservation program is possible. Continuous reconstruction of fale shape in original structure,
replica, is a potential trend as far as current interest of churches sector and tourism industry. Such a
conservation program shall need government sectors support.
Ministry of Works has continued documentation and filing of large scale destructed fale.
Design data to roof curvature in proportion to floor and walls scale has been computerized. Design
proposals to upcoming government complex such as new parliament house would be an excellent
opportunity for promoting of fale form and shape as preservation of architectural heritage.
Current reconstruction projects of chapels in fale form should be seen as good sign tostart enacting guidelines to protection of cultural heritage. Such guideline shall pave way toenactment of law to preservation of fale form and shape – a symbol of success of our ancestors, thevery basic meaning of Tonga architectural heritage – a qualified designated property.

Arigato Gozaimasu
Malo Aupito.

182

Vietnam
VO Dang Phong
MA. Arch
Hoi An Center for Monuments Management and Preservation

SOME EXPERIENCES ON THE RESTORATION AND
PRESERVATION OF HOI AN ANCIENT TOWN
1 Outline of Hoi An Ancient Town:
1.1. Hoi An Ancient town is located in the centre of Hoi An town, Quang Nam province. It is 30
km from Da Nang city in the Southeast and 58km from Tam Ky township in the North. The total
area encompassed by Hoi An is 6084 Hectares with a population of 83, 186.
1.2. Hoi An Ancient town includes 1,268 architectural and art relics with many kinds and styles. In
addition, there are many buried artefacts.
1.3.
-

Hoi An is one of the places where Christianity and Buddhism were propagandized earlyin Dang Trong (the Central area of Viet Nam). The “Quoc Ngu” (the national language ofVietnam using alphabetic characters) was created in the 17th century.

-

Festivals were held year-round. There are many traditional craft villages and many
special dishes, abundant folklore, and friendly people.

1.4. Hoi An Ancient town was recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage site based on 2 criteria:-

Criterion II: Hoi An is an outstanding material manifestation of the fusion of cultures
over time in an international commercial port.

-

Criterion V: Hoi An is an exceptionally well preserved example of a traditional Asian
trading port.

2. Orientations and Measures for Hoi An Ancient Town Preservation:
2.1. Preservation situation:-

During hundreds of years, the Hoi An people have maintained, protected and promoted
the values of their ancestors cultural heritage.

-

Hoi An Ancient town was recognized as a national heritage town by the Vietnamese
Ministry of Culture and Information on March 19, 1985.
183

-

Hoi An Ancient town was recognized as a world cultural heritage town by UNESCO on
December 4, 1999.

-

Hoi An authority and people have carried out many policies and measures for better
preserving and promoting the Hoi An Ancient town’s values:•

Cooperation in the organization of many scientific symposiums•

Establishing many specialized management offices.

•

Investing tens of millions of Vietnamese dollars for restoring hundreds of seriously
damaged monuments requiring urgent conservation.

•-

Restoring, preserving and promoting the values of intangible culture.
Despite all of these efforts, it is still necessary to resolve many additional problems in
Hoi An Ancient town:•

The complex of architectural monuments in Hoi An ancient town is mainly made ofwood originally built hundreds of years ago. Time and the tropical environment havecaused extensive damage quickly to these houses.

•

The lay-out of space of the wooden houses in the 19th century has caused many
obstructions to residents who live in these houses in the 21st century.

•

82.8% of the monuments in Hoi An ancient town belong to private owners. Theirawareness and profits have never been unified with preservation principles.

•

In general, the Hoi An authority and people are still poor, so it is difficult to invest thebudget for restoring and embellishing its monuments.

•

There is considerable pressure from development from the eco-human environment(especially the high speed of economic tourism development that is quickly increasing
in numbers.)•

There is also a lack of professional staff and limited ability.

2.2. Orientation of Hoi An ancient town preservation:-

Objectives of preservation:•

To prove the creation of Hoi An people during the historical period through an
economic - cultural exchange process.

•To express the gratefulness of contemporary people to their ancestors and to educate
younger generations in the traditions of the culture•

To promote economic and social development, especially tourism, services.

•

To implement the international legal regulations that Viet Nam has signed and taken

184

part.
•

Principles of preservation:•

Each wooden house preservation with the preservation of the whole complex ofarchitectural monuments of ancient town has to be closely connected.

•

We have to preserve maximum of the original elements of traditional architecture andto meet the living demands of contemporary people.

•

To carry out only the restoration and reconstruction of wooden houses when reallynecessary, and have enough scientific evidence and sufficient conditions forrestoration.

•

It is necessary to base restoration on the historical characteristics and the economic social conditions of local and central governments when preservating wooden houses.

•

We have to solve the harmonious relationship between the responsibilities of wooden
house preservation with profits brought from their exploration and promotion.

•

The responsibility of wooden house preservation first belongs to each owner of themonuments of Hoi An.

2.3. Measures of Hoi An ancient town preservation:
2.3.1. Management:-

Continue to speed up the scientific researching activities on Hoi An.

-

Strengthening management and preservation of Ancient town:•

Enhancing effective legal documents.

•

Supplying means: equipment for preventing and extinguishing fires; and enhancing theconsciousness of people for preventing and extinguishing fires in the Ancient Town.

-•

Restraining means of communication in the Ancient Town.

•

Moving and ending activities causing pollution in the Ancient Town.

•

Staving off and restraining impacts of storms and floods.

•

Training staff, co-ordinating with related offices
Promoting movement and education of people so that they love, respect and enhance theconsciousness of preserving the heritage of-

their ancestors.

Building new surrounding residential areas to decrease population density in the Ancient
Town.

-

Implementing investment projects of relic restoration authentically combined with termite
treatment.

185

-

Supporting finance, advising techniques and guiding procedures for homeowners to
restore themselves.

-

Harmonizing relations between preservation of heritage and the life of the people.
•

Preserving original elements of traditional architecture.

•

Meeting the daily life demand of people.

•

Making convenient conditions so that homeowners develop economy and improve life
to promote the value of heritage.

•

Harmonizing relations of interests of government and people.

-

Supporting materials and local traditional technique for restoring relics.

-

Promoting propagation and broadcasting the value of Hoi An Ancient Town.

2.3.2. Restoration:
The restored buildings are divided into many kinds depending on the damage to buildings.

Oneof the many restoration methods can be used, such as: restoring one part, all of parts, or only
repairing the roof (the roof is an important architectural part that aids in determining the age of thebuilding). In general, the implementation of steps is done as follows:
2.3.2.1. Research before restoration:-

Surveying, drawing and documenting the existing state of the building.

-

Surveying the vestiges of buildings (on the wall or under the ground), checking photos,
old files or listening to stories of witnesses to restore buildings that have collapsed
completely.

-

Drafting restoring plans, consulting the ideas of professionals and completing design
documents.

-

Choosing professional and suitable contractors.

2.3.2.2. Research during the restoration process:-Research is usually implemented during the dismantlement process. Research is done inorder to check the dimension and design measures that were implemented during former
design documents; check damage parts, material structures and methods of grafting
mortise. From this information, we can decide official design document.

2.3.2.3. Restoration:--First preparations of the restoration plan are carried out. Before restoring, a building186must be guarded and steel scaffolding installed with a roof to protect and restrain thebuilding from the impact of weather. However, in Hoi An, the guarding of buildings isvery difficult because surrounding areas are limited, if it has it is only one guarded façade,it may decrease breakdowns.
-

The second step is the work of marking structures (wooden structures). Wooden
structures are marked to define their position by painting a small wood and pin into thestructure position.

-

The third step is the work of dismantling buildings. The dismantlement is implemented
by a compulsory process, that is, to dismantle complementary structures first after themain structures.

-

The forth step is the work of classifying structure quality. The structures can be
reinforced or changed. The reinforcement must ensure its strength.

-

Adjusting the height and the location of stonebases. (Because the heights of stonebases
are different and their location is displaced due to the impact of the users and the time).

-

Installing the whole workframe. Before installing, , conservators often put the leaden
peace of 3-5 mm under the end of pillars to insulate the damp wood, or at the location
where wood is put next to the wall or inside the wall, they sweep up a coat of tar or othersuitable materials against damp and mould.

-

Scaling off and plastering the whole work, consolidating the cracked parts of the wall andthe foundation. If the wall is seriously damaged, they will dismantle a part or the whole
work to renew it. The material for plastering is cement mortar # 100 with traditional lime.
Depending on each work, they can implement this step after dismantling wooden
structures or after installing the main wooden structures.

-Installing purlins and rafters in their former places. Damaged purlins and rafters can be
replaced.

-

Reconstructing the gable, covering Yin - Yang rooftile. The number of row of new Yin
Yang rooftile can be built much more than the number of row of old Yin Yang rooftile but
they must be odd. The mortar for building the rooftile must be traditional one (other ones
can not be used for building Yin Yang rooftiles).

-Completely covering the floor. Before covering, people always

dig some small ditchs

and use drugs against termites.
-

Cleaning and polishing the whole wooden structure.

-

Whitewashing the whole work (using traditional lime) as the original colour. People often
use saffron blue.

187

2.3.2.4 Making the archives after restoration, including:-

Design documents-the legal documents relating to the work.

-

Work diary, pictures, documentary films during the restoration process.

-Some valuable records of the origin of architectural styles and scientific basics througheach historical period.

3. Conclusion:
The architectural complex of Hoi An ancient town Hoi An is an outstanding material manifestationof the fusion of cultures over time in an international commercial port, including almost all ancientarchitectural styles in Vietnam, a gathering of traditional art elements, and it is also rich in thecontribution of foreign art.
From these important values, we have to preserve and take care of Hoi An ancient town
using suitable measures so that preservation yields the best results: Not only preserving the
maximum of original elements of traditional architecture, but in meeting the living demands ofcontemporary people.
In recent years, because of many difficulties, the Hoi An authorities and its people haveeffectively managed, preserved and promoted the values of Hoi An ancient town with their loveand effort. However, there are still many tasks remaining, and we are looking forward to receiving
the support and assistance from international friends in order that Hoi An ancient town remains aworld cultural heritage site forever.

Annex:

Photos of Monuments Restoration in Hoi An

188

189

Restoration of Painting of Architectural Monuments- Text for ACCU Training Course

KUBODERA Shigeru
Architectural History Section, Department of Cultural Heritage

National Research Institute for Cultural Property, Nara
1. Introduction
In conservation of architectural monuments, restoration is necessary to maintain the structure.
Painting on the outside of monuments tends to deteriorate due to the effects of sunlight, wind,and rain. In Japan, restoration of paintings has been implemented for many years to preserve
our cultural properties. However, repainting hides the original and in the worst cases can evendestroy it. In other words, restoration of painting that involves complete repainting leads tothe loss of original painting that had been maintained as historical heritage/cultural heritage.
Restoration is an act that affects what historical heritage is. We need to first recognize thispoint.
Many architectural monuments have been repainted in the past. The current painting
restoration in Japan gives us an impression that the basic principles of painting restoration
have not yet been fully established. This paper describes the methods of painting restoration
currently applied in Japan and examines future directions of painting restoration.

2. Role of Painting for Religious Architecture
Many wooden structures in East Asia, including Japan, are painted in some way, particularly
religious architecture. What was the role of painting in religious architecture? It can bebroadly divided into two roles.

Fig.2 The main building of a Shinto Shrine

Fig.1 The torii gateway at the entrance to a
Shinto Shrine

193

The primary role was to protect the surface of the structure from weathering. Paint
coats and effectively protects the wooden base. In case of wooden architectures, painting is
extremely effective for protecting the wood’s surface.
The second role was to announce the functions and roles of the structure by converting
religious characteristics to visual information of colors and shapes, or to enhance its religious
authority. Many types of religious architecture are extensively decorated by paintings thatplay this role so as to secure their solemnity. A variety of painting methods are used for thispurpose, including the method of directly drawing Buddhas on pillars and board walls, and themethod of translating religious themes into symbolic colors and patterns.

3. Method adopted for Restoration of Paintings in JapanFirst, let’s look briefly at how painting restoration has been conducted with the aim ofpreserving and restoring cultural monuments in Japan.
In Japan, the restoration of cultural properties started in 1897. The restoration ofpaintings from 1897 to 1928 was implemented based on the following rules.
(1) If a painting is conserved relatively well, only exfoliation-preventive measures are taken
and no colors are added.
(2) New replacement wooden parts are painted to look old so that they cannot be immediately
distinguished from the original parts.
(3) Except for Nikko Mausoleum, exterior lacquer is mainly re-applied, and colors are also
repainted in the original colors.
(4) If an original pattern is identified through minute study, even if it is badly exfoliated, someparts may be restored to their original colors.
(5) Reproductions and sketches of wall paintings and decorative patterns are created to retain
records of the original state.
Not all practical restorations are conducted in the above ways. However, they were theprinciples behind painting restoration at that time.
Since then, painting restoration involving repainting has become more common, while
holding to the above concept, and this trend has continued up to the present.
The concept of protection of cultural properties, i.e., its governing principle, isconnected to social attitudes. Historical development of charters on the protection of culturalproperties, including the Athens Charter in 1931, the Venice Charter in 1964, and the so-called
Nara document in 1994 are evidence of this connection. Next, methods applied to actual
painting restoration in Japan are described.

194

Type I: Repair to maintain the Present State
A method adopted when the painting is in good condition, and when the values of the painting
contents are artistically and culturally high. This case is mainly seen on the painting of theinterior parts of the building. In this case, no restoration is applied to the actual painting. The
surface is cleaned, and treatment to prevent exfoliation is applied if its present condition, suchas detachment of the painted layer from the base material, has a detrimental effect onconservation.

TypeⅡ：Partial Repainting (Partial Repair)
A method of maintaining the present state, but at the same time, supplementary painting is
conducted on parts where exfoliation has occurred and the wooden base is exposed. A
treatment for preventing exfoliation may be applied to a part where deterioration of painting is
noticeable. Even though the wooden substrate has not yet been exposed, repainting may be
carried out in limited areas where deterioration is progressing.
This restoration method is often applied when the deteriorated portion on the painting
is small, or for maintenance restoration needed after a complete repainting has been
undertaken for restoration (described next).

TypeⅢ： Complete Repainting
A method adopted mainly when an entire painting is exfoliated and has deteriorated. The
repainting area is limited to the exterior or extends to the interior. In some cases, the current
painting is totally scratched off and repainted. In other cases, items in good condition areconserved and repainted. Even in this complete repainting restoration, some parts may bepreserved in their present state.
The majority of restoration and conservation projects adopt this complete repainting
method. However, in the light of the fact that the painting itself is a part of the cultural
heritage, this is the most controversial method.
Painting restoration in Japan takes place based on the above three methods. In fact,
since deterioration of architectural painting is not uniform, these methods are combined inpractice.
I have mentioned that complete repainting has been conducted on both interior andexterior of architecture for restoration of many cultural properties in Japan. I also mentioned
at the beginning of this paper that painting is likely to deteriorate due to weathering. I havealso pointed out that the principles of painting restoration have not been firmly established inpractical painting restoration in Japan. Taking into account the fact that cultural heritage isoften completely repainted and that painting itself is a part of the cultural heritage, we need to195urgently re-establish guiding principles to govern painting restoration. What concept should it
be based on?
In tackling this challenge, I will first confirm the positioning of painting itself in thehistorical relics, and then examine what form restoration should take in the future.

4. The Cultural Value of Painting
When preserving and protecting cultural properties,
what should we keep and pass down to following
generations? In considering this issue, it is important togain an accurate grasp of the historical and culturalvalues of each target relic selected to be preserved. I
have already described the roles and functions ofarchitectural painting in historical monuments. Here, I
will discuss further the value of painting as cultural
heritage.
From the past days, colors have been effectively
used

for

enhancingarchitectures.

What

the

solemnityofdocolorsarchitecturalinreligious

monuments tell us in the present day? Investigation of
Fig.3 Painting inside the pagoda

this point leads the understanding of the value ofpainting as cultural heritage. Colors are examined next

with respect to their design and techniques to study this point.

4-1. Cultural Value of Painting from the aspect of Style
When we enter a colored religious monument, we sometimes experience an extraordinary
feeling that space and time, in its religious form, envelops the monument.
The primary intention of coloring religious monuments is to convey suitable religious
messages while giving it a magnificent and dignified appearance. Accordingly, the paintings
appear to be based on religious doctrines and ethnic beliefs. We can thus understand thatcolored monuments play the role of conveying religious faith directly to people.
Paintings have two ways of fulfilling this role. One approach is to create pictures suchas Buddhist paintings based on subjects that directly represent religious doctrines. The other is
to express the same subject, but converted into patterns and designs. Colors are also one formof expression. In other words, the coloring of religious monuments is not just for decorative
purposes: it is another way of expressing the essence of religious and ethnic beliefs.
On the other hand, the importance of the coloring of historical relics with respect to196

design is related to the interest of those observing the relics. The positioning of coloringalready described is directly linked to the transmission of religious messages to the population.
However, the importance of coloring in relics tends to be in proportion to the interest of theviewers. More specifically, it is possible to make comparative studies of religious and cultural
aspects in East Asia through coloring in addition to coloring as a specific religious message.
We can also study the aesthetic differences among countries.
In this way, diverse academic studies can be developed through painting, and thus
painting as design has a variety of useful values as a cultural property. Next, the value ofpainting as a cultural property is studied with respect to techniques.

4-2. Value of Painting as Cultural Property from the aspect of Techniques
There are several methods of classifying coloring techniques. One is to focus on the coloredsurface. In Japan, one method is to classify coloring by drawing style. For example, thisincludes hira saishiki and okiage saishiki. Another approach is to classify techniques bydifferences in coloration methods and finishes. All of these techniques affect the coloredsurface, and the techniques used are characteristic of particular historical eras.
Next, another approach is to classify coloring techniques by the process of painting
itself, and to identify the techniques applied ineach process. This is briefly described below
by process, referring to research tasks thatarise.
The coloring process is roughly divided
into the steps of design planning, base coating,pattern transcription, and coloration.
Design planning involves thinking andexamining

what

to

draw

by

makingaFig.4 Painting by hira zaishiki techniques

preliminary sketch. It is rare for the sketch to
be kept. However, if the preliminary sketch fora particular work were to be found, it would
represent a major academic advance in the
study of art and art history.
Base coating is the step of coloring thebase material for the first time. The rest of thecoloring is applied to this base-coated surface.
Accordingly, under normal conditions, thebase coating does not appear anywhere on the197

Fig.5 Painting by okiage zaishiki techniquessurface. The research focus with respect to base coating is thus a study of the materials used
for base coating.
Pattern transcription is the step of transferring previously sketched designs andpatterns onto the target surface. One research issue in this step is to investigate what kind of
materials and tools are used for transcription, such as a nenshi (a sheet of paper on which
outlines of images and patterns are drawn) and pattern paper. Transcription methods can often
be read from remains on the base coating.
Coloration is the final step. This may be divided into two steps: the first coat and top
coat. Similar to investigation of paints used for base coating, paints (pigments, etc.) used inthis step have been more actively studied in the pursuit of materials science, with theparticipation of numerous researchers in the fields of history of art and conservation science.
The researches into each step of coloring lead to a better understanding of thetechniques used in the past, and thus the immense value of paintings as cultural records can beassumed in view of the techniques used.
However, these techniques can only be studied if coloring as an object, i.e., the actual
painting layer, exists. All depends on the presence of the original painting layers. In particular,
attention to the techniques in each step, described above, is related to making provisions ontechniques for restoration, and is thus very important.
Furthermore, in Japan, the study of techniques used in original painting has thepotential to lead to academic achievements extending over much broader areas: the history oftechnology, culture, and so on, since painting techniques in Japan were mostly introduced
from China.
In general, technologies and techniques are handed down practically and specificallyfrom person to person over centuries. At the same time, however, we must not forget that
information is also handed down in the form of physical objects. Original paintings are of
crucial importance as an information source on painting technology and techniques that aretransmitted to us through physical objects.

5. Principles for Restoration of Painting
As described above, when we recognize the value of painting in architecturalmonuments as a cultural property, we realize the gravity of the problem of painting restorationin accordance with the policy of complete repainting. Next, I will discuss what form painting
restoration should take in the future. To examine this issue, I will first present three problems.
First is related to the essential role of painting in architecture: how we should interpretthe presence of painting as a protective covering of a wooden base.
Second is how we should interpret the actual painted objects, which are defined here as198

religious monuments, and how we should interpret architecture, which is also part of ourhistorical heritage. In other words, religious architecture continues to live spiritually as places
for practicing religious activities. Naturally, the paintings applied to such architecture cannot
be simply regarded as “cultural heritage-type physical objects”.
Third is how we should protect and preserve painting itself as part of our historical
heritage in line with the problems mentioned in 1 and 2.
When examining future painting restoration by comprehensively interpreting the above
three points, I believe that the principle of protecting cultural properties can gain broad social
support. This may not be easy, but I wish to envision a future image of painting restoration.
Firstly, I will discuss the first problem. Painting applied to wooden architecture caneasily experience damage due to weathering, as I mentioned at the beginning. In case of
lacquer, the urushiol in raw lacquer, which is tree sap, suffers significant deterioration when
exposed to ultraviolet rays. The animal glue used as a conglutinating agent for the coloring is
weakened by the effects of ultraviolet rays, humidity, etc. When this kind of painting which
protects the wooden base is lost, the wooden base is completely exposed, and its surface
rapidly deteriorates.
From this viewpoint, this is not just a problem of painting but is also a danger to thesurvival of the wooden structure itself. Horyu-ji Temple, a wooden structure, has survived fora long period but still only one thousand and several hundred years. Protecting thesestructures, made of organic materials, far into the future, is a major challenge. It is importantfor countries that have wooden architecture to examine the principles of restoration from thisviewpoint when considering future painting restoration. It will be necessary to carefully
examine restoration technology and work methods in line with restoration principles.
Next is the second problem. To what extent can today’s Japanese truly understand thereligious nature of historical sacred architecture? Japan has progressed far economically, andpeople now pay less attention to religious issues in their lives.

Although registered ascultural properties, religious structures are also definitely sacred sites.
In the contemporary world of faith, it is believed that the role of painting, to give
solemnity to a religious architecture, must be contemporary and not antique (this expression
may not be appropriate, though). In other words, it is quite possible that painting which has
lost its original effect may be repainted from this standpoint. Those involved in restoration are
required, therefore, to have a respectful attitude toward the owner of the cultural architecture.
I believe it is important to understand what kind of restoration the owner requests, after which
it is necessary to examine the restoration policy in accordance with the principle ofpreservation of historical heritage.
Lastly, the third problem. How we should examine the principles of painting

199restoration? I hope to consider the significance of historical heritage not only for us living
today but also for people living in the far future.
For example, in a study of the culture, social climate, or aesthetic feelings of any
country, their historical heritage contains valuable information. In that case, it is important for
full-size historical heritage items to exist. At the same time, one must obviously have a certain
knowledge on which to base one’s study, not to mention a good imagination. This is because
an architectural heritage item you see in front of you cannot reveal its original appearance.
Architecture changes with the passage of time. In this sense, restoration of cultural properties
also involves studying how to preserve their appearance in an appropriate way as historical
heritage.
Since restoration is unavoidable in the preservation and protection of historical
heritage, we must determine the principle of painting restoration as an urgent task so as toadopt better painting restoration early.

6. Principles for restoration of painting – author’s proposal
First, a protective treatment needs to be applied to interior painting of architecture to maintainits present state.
This is because interior painting is not directly exposed to ultraviolet rays, which is amajor factor in painting deterioration, and thus paintings in many cases remain in goodcondition. Accordingly, I believe it is necessary to preserve these paintings’ condition as longas possible. In wooden structures, however, lacquer and coloring are not physically integrated
with their wooden base. Therefore, parts which may suffer exfoliation due to a deteriorated
painting layer need to be treated to prevent exfoliation.
Second, there should be no repainting, not even supplementary painting of paintings
inside wooden structures.
Even if exfoliation advances, and thewooden base is exposed, I believe interior
painting

shouldnot

be repainted

unlessabsolutely necessary. This is because myunderstanding is that surviving painted pieces
have value as a cultural property, and a trace of
painting, even a faint trace, remaining on awooden base has more significant value interms of historical heritage.
Third, it
Fig.6 Working for preventing exfoliationis necessary to conduct

protective treatment (treatment to prevent200

exfoliation) to conserve the present condition of the remaining painting on the exterior of thestructure.
Also, for exterior painting, a restoration policy of maintaining paintings should beconsidered for those that have remained in relatively good condition. I think it is necessary to
avoid restoration based on repainting just because it is exterior painting.
Fourth, for parts of paintings where the wooden base is exposed, protective treatment
should be applied and repainted in principle using the same paint. Before taking this step, one
should seek the opinions of several experts before making any decision.
In wooden architecture, in particular, it has been proved that painting has, historically,
contributed significantly to the protection of wooden surfaces. Accordingly, from thisviewpoint, parts where the wooden base is exposed in exterior painting should, as a generalrule, be repainted.
Fifth, repainting should be conducted in strict conformance to authenticity of historical
heritage, and using original materials and techniques.
The use of original materials and techniques for restoration also means handing down
traditional technology to future generations. It is important to conserve each individual
cultural characteristic, and thus careless introduction of modern materials must be avoided
when possible.
Sixth, traces of paintings in their best condition should be sketched. Also, to keep arecord of their present state, images of both interior and exterior paintings should be captured
using a medium with good retention qualities.
It is a strict rule in restoration of cultural properties to keep records of their state
before restoration. Recorded data should be retained permanently. Accordingly, it is necessary
to consider the best place to retain these records for management.
Seventh, deterioration of both interior and exterior paintings does in fact progress.
Therefore, regular inspections should be conducted by conservation experts to conserve
existing paintings for the future. If their stateof preservation is judged to have deteriorated,
appropriate protective measures should betaken immediately.
Cultural properties need to be restored
at the right time. This is also reasonable withrespect to restoration expenses. Irresponsible
neglect of damage leads to waste of nationaltreasures.
Fig.7 Draw the trace of painting to keep arecord its present state201

7. Conclusion
In this brief study, I have examined the future restoration of painting in cultural properties,
and have given my views on the principles that should govern the restoration of painting. I
have not touched on reconstruction accompanying painting restoration. Problems related toreconstruction are a remaining task. I hope to examine them on another occasion.
I chiefly stress the need for conserving original painting by preventing exfoliation.
Treatments for preventing exfoliation have been conscientiously applied and experimented on,
but there are still several problems as to materials used and techniques. In some cases, aprotective treatment ultimately had a detrimental effect. The specification of materials to be
used and the development of restoration technology are tasks to be faced before it will bepossible to carry out appropriate restoration.

202

Structure Reconstruction in Historical Site Development- An Example from the Ichijodani Asakura Family Site-

YOSHIOKA Yasuhide
Cultural Properties Protection Department,
Cultural Affairs Division, Education Bureau,
Fukui Prefecture

1. Introduction•

Objectives of preservation and utilization of historical sites•

Notes of importance in preparing plans•

Methods of historical site development

2. Structure Reconstruction Based on Materials from Archaeological Excavations as an Approach
to Historical Site Development•

Historic sites in Japan predominantly constructed using wooden architecture•

Difficulty in perceiving daily lifestyles during historic periods* Structure reconstruction from materials unearthed by (archaeological) historic sites•

Primary materials
A) Structural members: Foundation stones (or traces where they are laid), mortises,
continuous plinth courses, filling stones, platforms, paving stones, pounded earth floors,
flooring, joists (or traces), pots, ovens, fireplaces, wells, etc.
B) Artefacts: Structural members (Pillars, beams, doorsills, walls, fixtures, fittings, tiles, etc.)•

Secondary materials
C) Overall geology, arrangement of structures, groundwork, etc.
D) Excavated artefacts•

Reference materials
Structures from the same period, paintings, etc.

3. Development Project for the Ichijodani Asakura Family Site
* Ichijodani Asakura Family Site (278 ha. Has been designated a historical site and scenic location)
Ruins of seat of government of Asakura Warlords during the age of civil wars (15-16C)•

Flat area: High-density concentration of structures•

Hillside area: Castle and towers dotting the forested slope•

Zoning and development method: Building and floor plan reconstruction, landscapepreservation, and protection and development of forest vegetation.

•

System of organization: Shared between Fukui Prefecture and Fukui City•

Over 10 ha. studied and developed since start of study (1972) until now (2005).

•

Cityscape reconstruction project: Reproduced approximately 200m of cityscape.

203

4. Summary: What Is Required of Future Building Reconstructions?
A) Participation of architectural historian from start of site investigations.
B) Cataloguing and corroboration of materials unearthed from archaeological excavations.
C) Importance of secondary materials.
D) Reports and corroboration.

1. Introduction
The preservation and development of historical sites are viewed in the Law for the Protection ofCultural Properties as the physical means for preserving and utilizing cultural assets. The fundamental
objective is to protect and preserve ancient sites and structures. In addition to this, the goal is to utilize
these properties as focal points for scholastic education and life-long learning, host sites for citizen
activities, and a core for community development by bringing out and opening to the public the hidden
values of these sites, and to help protect the environment that surrounds us.
In planning these objectives, it is necessary to accurately assess the site, set clear development
objectives and targets, express the site in an accurate and easy-to-understand manner, ensure thesincerity of restoration work, and strive to protect the harmony with the surrounding area. Additionally,
the opinions of residents must be reflected in the plans, and consideration must be shown for
management and operation methods.
There are an increasing number of examples of historical site development projects in Japan inrecent years, and the approaches they take are broad in nature. These approaches include those that aim
to maintain the current state of the site, those that aggressively seek to express the original state of astructure by rebuilding it, and those that take diversified ways of utilization into perspective. The main
issue is how to convey information on buried structures to visitors as it has been a struggle exploring
ways to restore the original state of lost or damaged structures.
The term reconstruction can have a broad meaning, and the effects of reconstruction are
equally as extensive. The problems of the easy approach have been pointed out.

2. Structure Reconstruction Based on Materials from Archaeological Excavations as a
Methodological Approach to Historical Site Development
In Japan, where wooden structures predominate, there are few superstructures remaining today torecount the situation of the past. Indeed, most sites consist of building foundations buried in the ground.
It is difficult for the average person to imagine how the structure looked in its original state byobserving only the unearthed foundation stones.
In this respect, it is very effective to directly convey the culture and technology of the times to204visitors, in order to reconstruct and to exhibit structures that no longer remain.
This paper discusses the basic concepts of rebuilding historic structures from remains
unearthed at archaeological excavations.
The materials excavated in archaeological digs that are important towards the reconstruction ofa structure can be roughly divided into those that are directly related to the structure (hereinafter,
referred to as “primary materials”) and those that are indirectly important towards inferring how thestructure looked (hereafter, referred to as “secondary materials”).

• Primary Materials
Primary materials are categorized into structural elements that maintain their position such as
foundation stones (or their traces), mortises, continuous plinth courses, filling stones, platforms, pavingstones, pounded earth floors, flooring, joists (or traces), pots, ovens, fireplaces and wells, and structuralmembers recognized as having some sort of movement such as pillars, beams, doorsills, walls, fixtures,
fittings and tiles. These structural elements generally demarcate the floor plan or basic structure (stonebase pillars vs. dug-in pillars) and sometimes floor structures such as earth floors and joists. In fact, thelocation of street gutters often indicates the projection of roof eaves. Furthermore, the size of pillars
and structures themselves can basically be inferred to some extent from foundations and mortises,
although they are considered more an indicator of the floor plan. In contrast, remains such as structuralmembers, although normally a part of the whole structure, can determine details such as specificarchitectural styles and dimensions. Needless to say, in cases that a collapsed structure still remains at
the site, the materials can best indicate the style of a structure.

• Secondary Materials
To begin with, the overall geology, arrangement of structures, and groundwork are essential for
inferring the use of a particular structure. They are important materials for studying floor plans. It
should also be reiterated that the diversity of artefacts and their distribution are materials for inferring
the function of the structure, the class of people who used it or lived in it, and the social background of
the technologies and culture. Building a structure involves not only carpenters but other numerous
craftsmen such as roofers, plasterers (for walls), paperhangers and metal fitters, thus secondary
materials can be thought of as the embodiment of the technologies and cultures of the society as awhole.
There are many people who think about only primary materials, however, secondary materials
are just as important in the reconstruction of a structure and deserve attention. It must be understoodthat the reconstruction of a structure is not possible without using both primary and secondary materials
in order to determine the overall period, such as spatial features.
During the actual research, prior to the reconstruction of a structure, reference materials such205

as other cultural assets belonging to the same period (including paintings) should be added to materials
unearthed from archaeological sites in order to complete the designs.

3. Development Project for the Ichijodani Asakura Family Site
• Ichijodani Asakura Family Site
The Ichijodani Asakura Family Site was the seat of government of the Asakura Warlords during Japan’s
age of civil wars from A.D. 1471 when the first generation head, Asakura Takakage established control
until 1573 when the fifth generation head, Asakura Yoshikage lost a battle to Oda Nobunaga, who wastrying to unite Japan into one nation, and subsequently the structures were burned to the ground.
A project aimed at converting the site into a park is underway according to the vision that wascrafted in 1972 with basic plans drawn up in 1974. The site is roughly divided into a flat area where
there is a high density of buildings concentrated within a localized area, and a hillside area where
structures such as a castle and towers dotted the forested slope. The flat area was further zoned by thetype of buildings that consisted of a labyrinth of apartments and gardens belonging to the Asakurafamily. The buildings were systematically arranged and comparatively large residences for seniorindividuals and also included some temples and a district of small townhouses. Around the complex
area is a wondrous natural environment with splendid landscapes. In order to utilize these structures
and the landscape, it was decided to zone the site, reconstruct buildings and floor plans, preserve thelandscape, and protect and develop the vegetation of the forest. Also, in addition to the aforementioned,
an infrastructure necessary for a historical site park is being sequentially built, including a visitor centre
with conveniences for tourists, a museum and a research centre for exhibiting research results andunearthed artefacts, a park management office, parking space for visitors and paths and walkways.
Because the designated site area is a vast 278 hectares, the project is being implemented by
Fukui Prefecture and Fukui City. To conduct studies and built structures, Fukui Prefecture created the
Ichijodani Asakura Family Site Research Institute (currently a museum), while Fukui City created the
Ichijodani Asakura Family Site Administration Office as the management organization for operating
services including land acquisition. Moreover, local residents formed the Ichijodani Asakura Family
Site Preservation Society, which maintains the grounds and manages a restaurant and gift shop. The
project has received high praise from many arenas thanks to the way the local area has come together
to preserve this historical site, The Ichijodani Asakura Family Site Research Institute (renamed the
Ichijodani Asakura Family Site Museum in 1981) that Fukui Prefecture created to study and build thepark has researchers in the fields of archaeology, ancient literature, landscaping and architecture, andcontinues to conduct interdisciplinary studies and research. In the thirty years since the start of theinvestigations, an area of over 10 hectares has been excavated, studied and developed as a park.
Studies have produced several structural elements that were preserved in extremely goodcondition and more than 1.5 million artefacts of significance. The research has provided a window on

206the history of this area, the most significant discovery of which was that Ichijodani was a city
systematically built directly by the Asakura family.
To physically represent these findings and build a historical site park as a place where people
could experience history, a project to rebuild the cityscape by reproducing the site in 3-dimensions
according to the results of digs was started in April 1991 and lasted four years. Within the approximate
200 m of cityscape with samurai homes found in 1982 ~ 1983, the gates and earthen walls (total lengthof approx. 250 m) of 8 samurai homes and 10 townhouses were reconstructed as accurately as possible
in terms of materials and techniques based on research findings, and the interiors were created to matchthe lifestyle that was inferred from the unearthed artefacts. One foot inside, a visitor is transported backin time where he/she can experience Japan’s age of civil wars.

• Reconstruction Concepts
Since the Ichijodani Asakura Family Site received special designation as a historical site in 1972, an
exclusive organization has been studying and developing the site based on an overall vision. As a result,an understanding of the entire site has been gained and the zoning into districts has come to light, whilecharacteristics and uses of most of the structures targeted for rebuilding have been identified. Moreover,reconstruction work was made a specific part of the development project that was aimed at preserving
and using the site, therefore designs were scrupulously prepared and buildings were built. The detailsof the reconstruction work at the Ichijodani Asakura Family Site are reported in project documents(Development Report of Ichijodani Asakura Family Site II: Reconstruction of Samurai Homes and III:
Reconstruction of Townhouses).
The concepts of reconstruction design specifically identify the relationship of theaforementioned unearthed materials and structure reconstruction. As an example, let us look at thegates. The gates targeted for reconstruction consisted either of four foundation stones or two dug-in
pillars. The residences of this former gate are comparatively larger than those of the latter leading one
to think that the owners were of different social status. The structural elements directly relating to thegates include the foundation stones, mortises and the filling stones in between. In addition, also
important for the overall structure of the gate are the foundation pieces of the fences on both sides of
the gate and the stone steps descending from the front. The construction of each gate must be studied
from these elements. The unearthed artefacts included the bolt box fittings, round-headed studs anddecorative fixtures of the door panel.
Some examples of gates with four foundation stones that we see everyday are Yakui-mon stylegate and Korai-mon style gate, while two examples of gates having dug-in pillars are Muna-mon gate
and Kabuki-mon gate. All of the structural elements can be considered. The style exhibited in
Yakui-mon gate and Muna-mon gate was selected after viewing paintings from the same period. Also,
after examining details of the two uncovered dug-in pillars, it was decided to space pillars 8 shaku(2.42m) apart and shape the pillars almost 8 sun (0.24m) square for the gate’s reconstruction. Moreover,207

from the positional relationship of the road to the front, the gutters and the fences on both sides of thegates, it was decided to project the eaves of the gate roof outward about 4 shaku (1.21m). From actual
gates of the late Muromachi Period and dimensional calculations recorded in carpenter’s notes, thefoundation was found to be proportional to the spacing between pillars and the thickness of the pillars.
The actual dimensions were determined based on this. For what regards the roof style, which is a big
factor in determining how a structure looks, it was surmised from the facts that no earthen tiles werediscovered at the site, wood panels that could have functioned as roof shingles were found here andthere at the site, and shingles appear in paintings, that long split panels were used.
Let us next look at an example of a structure that could have been a townhouse.
This district revealed a continuous row of lots approx. 6 m across by approx. 15 m deep, facing
the street. The building foundations almost filled the breath of the lot as they touched the gutter stoneson the adjacent boundaries. Moreover, from the foundation layout, it became clear that bearing pillars
were spaced 1 ken 6.2 shaku (1.88 m) apart and were 2.5 ken (4.92m) at the front and 3.5 ken (6.89m)
to the rear. Also, small stones that could have served as spacers between pillars in-between thefoundation stones were found. What was conspicuous about these foundation stones was that there wasa full size larger stone positioned at the centre of the front and rear planes. They were positioned
halfway between the 2.5 ken (4.92m) spacing and were slightly larger than other stones. Because they
were positioned at the centre of the front and rear planes, it was logical to think that there stood thepillars that supported the ridgeline. In paintings such as the Rakuchu Rakugai Zu Screen (screen withpainting of scenes in and around Kyoto), townhouses are constructed with this kind of structural post
rising all the way to the ridgeline where meeting with ridgepoles, so this hypothesis was backed up.
Additionally, it is common that a moat demarcates this kind of small lot of home within the site andgutters were rarely discovered, therefore a vernacular style with gable ends was thought appropriate.
Also, about halfway to the rear inside the home, a buried pot was found and assumed to have served forthe trade of the owner. Thinkable trades that would use such items as buried pots were those of fabricdyeing and sake brewing, but the house was small and, during the age of civil wars, fabric dyeing was
the most widespread trade, and that looked like a set, so it was felt that there was a strong possibility
that it was the home of a dyer. That supposition was thus put forth. Moreover, since the area with theburied pot and well could be considered an earth floor room and a pillar stood from a single foundationstone positioned in an independent location inside, which made it strongly seem like an internal
partition, the building’s floor plan was imagined. The size of the building’s pillars could not be directly
known from the structure found there. However, from the evidence of the foundation stones andunearthed pillar fragments, and the fact that the 4 sun square was conceivably common, this size wasadopted. For the structural style, the aforementioned vernacular style with gable ends and ridge posts inthe front and rear plane was chosen. Home structures of the Muromachi Period were researched and, on
this pretext, this was presumed to be the basic style. Paintings and shingles were commonly used withtownhouses and gutters, and were logically used as boundaries between adjacent lots, but if a thatched208

roof was used, there would only be about 3 shaku (0.91m) between adjacent buildings, and that was
hard to accept, therefore the same split panel shingles used for the gate were selected. Also, afterreferring to paintings, logs, planks and, where necessary, stones were used as retainers.
Besides the roofing materials, pillars and fittings mentioned before, some other primarymaterials that specifically told us how the building looked were uncovered such as doorsills, tatami
mats and wall mortar. From the pillar fragments, not only were the dimensions learned but also that
1/10 chamfering, planes and hatchets were used to finish the pillars. Also, the pillars finished with aplane were cypress while those finished with a hatchet were either pine or chestnut. Furthermore, fromthe depth, width and arrangement of the doorsill gutter, it was discovered that sliding wooden or shoji
paper doors were used as well as how to bolt them. From the thickness of the wall materials and pillars,
it was learned that there are half-timbered walls, straw lath framework was used and a diversity ofplastered walls were finished with a first layer of mud, a middle layer of plaster and a sand and paste
topcoat, as were cases of techniques with cloth dressing. Other than that, there was a wide range of
hinges, locks, handles and worked metal decorations. Moreover, tatami mat fragments were found andit was learned that they were common at that time. However, what was found to be more important
than anything else after years of studying these houses was that the reference distance between pillars
was almost a standard 1 ken 6.2 shaku, suggesting that they were constructed by a team of engineers.
As an overall assessment, it was evident that the level of building technology of this city was very high.
Add to that the fact that many, many daily utensils, tea utensils, writing implements and tools were
unearthed, and it tells us that a high level of culture existed in the city and suggests the spread of Cha
no Yu. It was not possible to put the individual structural members into a complete structure without
taking into consideration the entire social environment that surrounded the structure.
Needless to say, existing structures served as verification of the uncovered archaeologicalmaterials. Through this kind of approach, specific dimensions are determined, designs drawn,
construction techniques chosen and the building ultimately reconstructed.

4. Summary: What Is Required of Future Building Reconstruction
Lastly, I would like to raise a few topics concerning the future of cultural property reconstruction.
First of all, what must be pointed out is the participation of someone knowledgeable ofarchitectural history in site investigations. This paper has laid out the thinking behind the Ichijodani
Asakura Family Site, but to arrive at actual reconstruction, I was engaged in digging right from thevery beginning and I was constantly thinking about the superstructure throughout the whole process.
This was an extremely important point. In general, an archaeologist does the site investigation; there
are very few cases in which an architectural historian is involved. After a structure has been found, thearchitectural historian is usually asked for his/her comment. However, if you consider the fact thatmany sites consist of structural members, it seems obvious that an architectural expert would be needed
during the dig and even more so in site development if reconstructive development is being studied. In

209many reconstruction projects, the architectural expert does not come onboard until the digging iscomplete. For this reason, all determinations regarding reconstruction must unavoidably be made fromexcavation results alone. The following example is given of this situation: it could be determined that
there is no evidence of pillars in a particular ruin. Depending on whether this is interpreted to mean thatpillars never existed or that they were simply undetected for some reason or another (overlooked in
scraping or studies), the reconstruction concepts can differ greatly. Completely opposite results will be
produced depending on whether it is decided to do a “structure without pillars” or “accept thepossibility that pillars existed”. If this is kept well enough in mind during the study process, the issue
can be resolved.
Secondly, there are a vast number of foundations for building reconstruction because of theastonishing increase in archaeological excavations, but preliminary work is necessary in order to utilize
these materials for research on the architectural history of a building. For example, the materials need
to be catalogued and corroborated. In terms of ruins, structural members mainly serve to interpret thefloor plan of the structure as mentioned, therefore it is necessary to understand the peculiarities such as
the use of the structure. The standard for collecting and studying accumulated materials should be thatcase studies have a wide scope, and at the core should be studies that enable determinations andcorroborations of spatial characteristics and other variables. Moreover, setting apart the high-end
structures such as palaces and governmental buildings, there is a big difference between dug-in pillars
and base stone pillars. It is necessary to decide how to examine this aspect of a structure. The situation
today is such that architectural historians do not sufficiently realize how many materials have beenunearthed from archaeological excavations. Of these, those structural members that are directly related
to the structure are important. A single artefact reveals a tremendous amount of information aboutmaterials and techniques, and is essential for learning about the social environment such as thetechnology behind the structure. At the same time, the tools used to wield this technology and themarks of their usage are, like the artefacts themselves, valuable materials that show the degree oftechnological attainment, regional discrepancies and more. It can also be pointed out that this work has
the potential for changing common sense ideas in architectural history.
Third, it should be pointed out that secondary materials are also important. They are essential
towards understanding the spatial features of a structure. Someone may point to a particular structure
and ask what kind of structure it was, but they may be at a loss for an answer. Without studying thebasic position that the structure played within the whole, it is not possible to think about the characterof the structure or provide a proposal for reconstruction. Unless the entire makeup of the home(grounds) is understood, its function cannot be pinpointed from plans of the structure only. Accordingly,
reconstruction is also a difficult subject. To understand the spatial characteristics, it is absolutely
essential to understand the makeup of the whole home. As pointed out with the reconstruction of the
Ichijodani Asakura Family Site, secondary materials were important towards understanding space,studying the floor plan, and starting the reconstruction of the superstructure. The bottom line is that a210structure is a reflection of the social environment that surrounds it. The differences in technology andmaterials must be presumed from the class, area, and other variables. This need is predominant withstructures from periods prior to the Middle Ages, therefore attention should be given to the regional
differences in technology. Moreover, it must be recognized that there are significant differences
between capital and other cities, urban areas and rural areas. At Ichijodani, buildings basically employ
a foundation stone construction because of the city’s role as the seat of government of a warlord during
Japan’s age of civil wars. However, it is well known that the use of dug-in pillars was common in ruralvillages from the same period. Furthermore, both the environment and culture of the site targeted forreconstruction are very important.
On a final note, it should be known that the publication of reports is a necessary element ofreconstruction projects. There are cases in which a brief overview has not even been published,however, in order for the reconstruction of a building to have any sort of significance from theperspective of architectural history, those studies must be publicized and widely corroborated.
Historical sites are valuable cultural assets for the public, thus without their understanding,preservation will be more difficult to undertake. It cannot be denied that before the emphasis ofhistorical sites was placed on preservation, findings from studies remained only within research circles.
Today, thousands of residents crowd archaeological sites under excavation in order to hear
explanations about historical properties. There is increasing recognition of the value of the site as adirect record of how people lived long ago.
The development and restoration of historical sites can deepen an understanding of its
associated structures and draw out their value and charm. Cultural properties can be truly protected bypreserving and utilizing them in keeping with the Law for Protection of Cultural Properties. This isperhaps the reason for the growing importance of conserving and restoring historical sites.

211

Reconstructed town of Ichijo-dani（Photo by ACCU Staff）

212

Training Course on the Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Heritage in the
Asia-Pacific Region 2005 - Preservation and Restoration of Wooden Structures

Future Tasks in the Preservation of Cultural Heritage+ International actors/guidelines
Report on the lecture presented by:
Kazuhiko NISHIICCROM

1. Introduction
During the Training Course on the Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Heritage in the Asia - PacificRegion 2005, “Preservation and Restoration of Wooden Structures”, held in Nara from 27 September to 28
October 2005, an ICCROM staff member gave a presentation and facilitated a discussion at the end of thecourse. His presentation consisted of two parts, international framework for conservation and “our futuretasks”.

The first part aimed at introducing international organizations for heritage conservation as well as various
guidelines, including charters, declarations, recommendations and conventions. The second part was focusedon more general issues, changing situation and consequent new challenges. These presentations took awhole day, followed by a half day discussion on the second issue with all the participants. This extensive
discussion aimed to get a rough consensus on the future direction of conservation in Asia and the Pacificregion, especially for wooden architecture. Since each country has their own context (conservation,
economy, social system, awareness for heritage, etc.), it was not intended to have a clear single direction.
The discussion was carefully designed for the participants to realize that. While there are various tasks based
upon each respective social context, some basic ideas could be shared through the region.

213

2. Presentation
2-1. Introduction
First of all, the whole structure of this presentation
was explained. It consisted of three parts.
International and regional guidelines•
International organizations for heritage•
conservation“Our future tasks”, in other words, future•
direction of heritage conservation in Asia and thePacific region
2-2. International and regional guidelines
This part was intended to introduce various text
(charters,
declarations,recommendations,conventions, etc.) to participants, in order to sharebasic idea of the foundations of conservation thesedays. At the beginning of this part, differences
between various type of texts were explained.
Declarations: moral or political commitment,•
linking States on the basis of good faith.
Recommendations: invitation to one or more•States to follow certain actions or conduct.
Conventions: international treaty, that needs•
to be ratified by the government of each country.
Legal commitment involved.
Charters (from Oxford American Dic.)•
Then several important text were mentioned
chronologically, with some movements related toheritage conservation.
1931: Athens Charter•
Recomposition of international organizations•
after WWII.
1954: UNESCO convention on the•protection of cultural property in the event of armed
conflict (1954 Hague Convention)
1956: UNESCO recommendation on•
International principles applicable to archaeologicalexcavations
1959: Creation of ICCROM•
1964: Venice Charters•
1964: UNESCO recommendation on the•means of prohibiting and preventing the illicit
export, import and transfer of ownership of culturalproperty
1965: Creation of ICOMOS
214

1970: UENSCO convention on the means of•prohibiting and preventing the illicit import, export
and transfer of ownership of cultural property
1972:
UNESCO:
recommendation•
concerning the protection, at national level, of thecultural and natural heritage
1972: UNESCO convention concerning the•protection of the World Cultural and Natural
Heritage
1979: Burra Charter•
1994: Nara document on authenticity•
2000:
China principles•
2000: ASEAN Declaration On Cultural•
Heritage(1)2001: UNESCO convention on the•protection of the underwater cultural heritage
2003: UNESCO convention for the•safeguarding of the intangible cultural heritage
2003: The Hoi An declaration on•conservation of historic districts of Asia
It was highlighted that, especially after late-70’s,
more emphasis was put on regional specific texts.
Since these guidelines are not templates or recipes,
it is important to understand these international
standard based upon each context.
(1) Although this declaration was not mentioned in
the presentation, a participant kindly suggested toinclude this since this is another important text in
the region.
2-3. International organizations
Then some important “actors” for conservation ofcultural heritage were presented. This part was
intended to explain not only various organization
themselves but also their difference in their types,
aims and systems.
a) Intergovernmental organizations
UNESCO•ICCROM•b) Non governmental organizations (international)
ICOMOS•ICOM•c) Other organizations related toconservation
The Getty Conservation Institute•215

heritage•••World Monuments Fund
Universities
National / Regional organizations

ICCROM’s official introductory DVD was shown
to the participants.

2-4. “Our future tasks”
Then, the presentation went into the main part ofthis session. At first, he mentioned the importanceof understanding current (changing) situation, inorder to take a “right” direction in conservation
works, or efficient prioritization in everyday workof participants. It was highlighted that not only
principles of conservation, but also various
social/economic factors should be considered inheritage protection.
He presented four factors as important aspect ofchanges in conservation filed.
Meaning or range of cultural heritage•
Views and approaches to heritage•
preservation
Treats to cultural heritage•
Potentials
of cultural heritage•
As an example of expansion of the definition ofcultural heritage, several pictures were shown, forinstance,
From…
Castles•Villas•Temples•plus…
Early modern age housing•
Architecture
in EUR, Rome•
Station in International Style•
Factories•
Coal mine•
Various “fusion” buildings•
Machines•
Indigenous
heritage••

216

Sacred places (based upon its sacredness)

Then, other changes in the management of cultural
heritage were discussed, especially on such themesas;Importance of setting, surroundings, contexts•
of cultural heritage.

Importance of understanding each•
cultural heritage as a system, rather than
individual buildings or structures.
Integrated management•
For the first and second issues, he explained somecase studies based on his experience in Japan. For
instance, he showed several photographs of theMoroto house in Mie prefecture, and mentioned theimportance of protecting its whole system,
including buildings, gardens, canals, and also
including the unspectacular house for billiards,
since it is a testimony of wealthy class’ way of lifein the modernization period in Japan.
For “integrated management” issue, he raised two
aspects related to this, cultural landscape andintangible values of cultural heritage. The
definition of the cultural landscape was discussed.
He also mentioned his experience in the pilot
project of Living Heritage Sites Programme in
Phrae, Thailand, where some “authentic”
ceremonies on religious customs have been
continued.
The views and approaches to heritage preservation
are also changing. Now various aspects ofconservation approaches are considered.
•••

Values / significance based conservation
Diversity of cultures, and heritage
Cultural context of Authenticity

In this area, taking some case studies, he explained
the importance of balancing user needs andconservation needs.

Restoration of Sho-bo-ji temple: since
the temple situated in the heavy-snow area,
structural reinforcement was needed. Althoughthese reinforcement pillars and beams would
have visual impact on the building, it was
decided to insert them, based upon theunderstanding that, otherwise, it would beabandoned.
the same time, Shirakawa-go WH area:•
after registration on the World Heritage List,•

217

tourism pressure was considerably raised. At thesame time, without doubt, the sustainability ofconservation of this remote place have been raised.
With some pictures, possible “balance” wereextensively discussed.

Another major area of the present situation inconservation is natural disasters and man-madethreats. Risk preparedness has become one of
the most important aspect in protecting cultural
heritage. Issues raised were;
•
•
•
•
•

Natural Disaster
Earthquake
Fire
TsunamiFlooding

Man-made threats•
Economic pressure•
development•
illegal destruction•
illegal trading•
Armed Conflict•
Inappropriate recovery process of natural•
disasterlack of management•lack of resources•
human resources•budget•Finally, the potentials of cultural heritage wasdiscussed. Cultural heritage itself or conservation
process could be beneficial to people’s life,
economy, pride, identity etc. Various aspect ofpotentials were raised, such as;
Development of areas linking heritage places•
Heritage conservation as a means of poverty•
alleviation
Benefits to the society through tourism•
activities
Self generated funding from heritage sites,•
which could lead to strong sustainability
Awareness for the importance of people’s•
own place, their own pride, their own identity.
Conservation process could be a “bridge” acrossgenerations.

218

Again, it was highlighted that these potentials
should be understood based on respective context.
As an example of broad possibilities of cultural
heritage, a DVD on the AFRICA2009 programme
was shown.

Understanding current situations surrounding
cultural heritage mentioned above, possible
directions for conservation specialists in Asia andthe Pacific region were suggested. It was not meant
not to present guidelines, but to suggest hints forparticipants in order to think by themselves, based
upon their own context.
At first, he stressed the importance of thinking
preservation as a part of broader perspective, as apart of the social systems. Since cultural heritage,
especially for structures made by wood, is deeply
connected to social systems, it is crucial to takethese relationship into account in restoration
process or everyday management. For example,
even small nails could be a challenge in restoration
due to changes of the construction economy. We
have to recognize the relationship between
conservation and laws (not only for protection ofcultural heritage, but rather for construction, city
planning etc.).
The importance of recognition of various timespans in conservation was also mentioned.
Considering sustainability and establishing asufficient management plan, which consider short-,
medium-, and long-term objectives, is crucial. In
order to transmit our heritage to the next
generations, recording and documentation is ourbasic task. It is also important to establish efficient
cycle of conservation process, where consists ofmonitoring - evaluating - decision making(modification).
Another important direction is cooperation withoutside specialists. For the sake of this,international / regional network, such as Asian
Academy for Heritage Management initiated by
ICCROM and UNSCO Bangkok, could be very
useful. While, personal network based on individual
relationship is also important, since specialist could
turn experiences of others into their own throughpersonal networks.
219

Finally, issues of collaboration with local
populations or dialogue with them were discussed.
Regarding this new challenge, we are confronting
several questions.
Who’s heritage?
•
How to make dialogue with local people?
•
Various perceptions for heritage•
Various expectations from heritage•
Awareness,senseofownership/•
custodianshipThe responsibilities of professionals as•
outsiders
The Living Heritage Sites Programme, ICCROM’s
attempt to find out some answers to these questions
was presented.

220

3. Discussion
A half-day session for discussion was held on the issue of future direction of conservation
specialist in Asia and the Pacific region. In order to visualize the points of discussion, at the
beginning of the session, all participants were given three cards and asked to write down theirrespective important key points, maximum three words on a card. Then the facilitator, with thehelp of two participants, put all the card on the whiteboard. Then, through re-organizing, grouping
and positioning of the cards, extensive discussion were made on various aspect of their future(immediate and mid-term) tasks. Keywords raised by the participants were as follows;

Group1 (General policy)•

Community Awareness

•

Money

•

Conversation•

Politics•

Conservation Principles / Techniques(Awareness and Implementation)
Group2 (Strategy)•

Intangible / Tangible•

Mission, Goal, Strategies•

Master Plan

Group4 (Restoration)•

Management and Restoration•

Define Presentation Perspectives•

Organization & Management•

Restoration and Preservation•

Mapping Wider Concepts•

Conservation and Restoration•

Proper Administration Structure•

Preservation,•

Well Management

Restoration

•

Risk

•

Preservation of Wood Structure•

Maintenance

•

A

•

Presentation

TemplePreservation & Restoration of Ancient•

Design and Supervise

Monument
•

lot

of

Conservation

Ruins

in

and

Khmer

Need Preservation / Restoration

Group3 (Tactics)•

Dissemination, Application, Training

Group5 (Cooperation)•

Independent Courses, Visit Monuments,•

International Cooperation•

Level - Countries - Restoration

Visit Restoration•

Training Courses, (Master) Plan•

Networking•

Education People•

Archaeology - Architect - City Planning•

Awareness (Understanding of Heritage

Values and Potential)•

Awareness of Intangible / Tangible

221

Group6 (Sustainability)•

Sustainable City•

Economic

SustainabilityofTourismGroup7 (legislative matters)•

Historic District Proposals•

Legislation and Policies / Planning•

Laws / Planning System•

DesignateGroup8 (Techniques)•Technique of Restoration•

Traditional Techniques•

Shirakawa-go

Group9 (Storage)•

Well Storage•

Scientific Storage

Group10 (Research)•

Research•

Module•Research of Traditional Structure•

Technology research•

Study of Modern Architecture•

Research, Restoration, Respect•

New Idea, Method•

Survey and Research•

Survey and Planning

Other Considerations•(Living

Heritage)

Community

Participation Heritage Conservation•

Cultural Spirit•

Recognition•

Documentation for Future Generation

Presentation•

The Tree that regarded as Heritage but

Threaten the Temple

Host

Community
•

•

222

A View for the Comparative Study on the
Theory of Architectural Preservation in East Asia

SHIMIZU Shigeatsu
Architectural History Section, Department of Cultural Heritage

National Research Institute for Cultural Properties, Nara

1.

Introduction: Significance of Comparative Analysis of Conservation of Historical
Buildings in East Asia

The restoration of historic buildings is conducted according to different methods, depending on thecharacteristics of the buildings as well as the cultural accumulation in the respective country andregion. The Venice Charter, which prescribes the principles of preservation and restoration, wasformed with the features of Western architectural structures made mostly of stone, and with their
history. Therefore, it bases itself on a different set of principles from that for wood-basedarchitecture in East Asian country. When the Venice Charter is applied to East Asia, it is a matter ofcourse, that some cases of discrepancy or non-conformance to the principles are generated.
However, it is true that there is no uniform theoretical principle in the East Asian region
comparable to the Venice Charter yet. With ever increasing international exchange activities in thearea of cultural property protection, it should be considered an impending task to start considering
a separate theory for conservation and restoration of wooden buildings within the framework of
East Asia.
Below are some points for international comparative study on the wooden architecturalconservation and restoration in East Asia, which are considered relevant in the analysis.
a. Conservation systemb. Restoration work·

Theoretical background·

Organization·

Principle: Philosophy for reconstruction and restoration·

Method:Dismantling repair, replacement of members, method of colour restoration,

structural reinforcement
Among the elements outlined above, the study of the history of conservation andrestoration systems, and comparative analyses among them is relatively advanced (See Plate 1).
Conservation and restoration activities commenced in Asian countries after the latter half of the
19th Century. Their formation process started with the introduction of Western conservation andrestoration theories, but the course each country followed thereafter was quite diverse. Considering

223

Fig 1 Comparison of preservation system in China, South Korea and Japan (ZHOU Suwu, 1999)（徐蘇武「東亜州建築文化遺産保護之比較研究」『建築史論文集』第 11 輯、より）224

the fact, it can be presumed that the peculiar characteristics of the conservation and restoration
technique of each country was generated in line with: (1) the peculiar characteristics of the local
wooden structure, (2) the respective traditional conservation and restoration method, and (3)historical context of when and how methodology of Western origin were adopted in the modern
times.
That is to say, comparison of the restoration method in each East Asian country will enableclarification of the following three points: ① factoring out of the restoration methods in East Asia
before the modern period, ② difference in the respective westernizing process in the modern
period, and ③ the status of conflation of Asia and West in the respective country.
As an introduction to this issue, comparison between South Korea and Japan will befeatured, with a special focus on the issues of restoration. It will provide ① the comparison
between South Korea and Japan in terms restoration methods and ② the theorization ofrestoration in the modern Japan.

2.

A Comparative Study Between South Korea and Japan

2.1 Restoration Works in South Korea and JapanThe restoration of historic buildings in East Asian countries resemble one another in part, andpeculiar characteristics of each country is quite difficult to extract by mere summarizing of theconcept involved within the respective country. Through comparative study, the essential

Fig. 2: Architectural preservation methods in Korea
Upper Left: Daejeokgwangjeon Hall of Gwisinsa Temple,
Lower Left: Gangneunggaeksamun, Right: Gangneunggaeksamun225difference of each country, albeit faintly, can be attained. Following are the differences observed in
a comparison between Korean buildings under restoration work in 2004, namely, Daeungjeon Hallof Beopjusa Temple, Daejeokgwangjeon Hall of Gwisinsa Temple, Gangneunggaeksamun (Gate to
an official inn in Gangneung), and Japanese restoration cases.
① Changing damaged members to new ones
The Japanese practice is intended to limit the replacement of material to the very minimum, suchas by reusing a wooden member by trimming its damaged part. On the other hand, in South Korea,
a total replacement of wooden components especially around the roof is the common practice, andchanging of damaged wooden members with new ones can be observed more frequently than inJapan.
② Structural Reinforcement
In Japan, there are many cases, where structural reinforcement involves use of steel beams andreinforcing bars, in addition to wooden members. In South Korea, the restoration by structural
reinforcement using metal is few
and far between, though there is amethod of wrapping iron bands
around wooden members in the
Koryo

Period.

The

structural

reinforcement using wood is in themainstream.
prop③ Traditional repair work

props in saltire

For the repair work of wooden
members, both countries apply
their traditional method of repair

Reinforcement for the overall or local

work, such as joining (tsugite),

distortion of roof truss

angled joining (shiguchi), andsplicing at the base (netsugi).
However,
reinforcement,

terms
Japan

is

of
more

active in introducing the modern

supports
Wedge-shaped
wooden gap filler

intechnology, whereas South Korea
gap fillingboard on the
brick floor

Fig.3 A Repair Technique of Frame Structure In China （ QI
Yingtao,1993）

226

uses more of updated traditional
reinforcement method instead.

④ Restoration of wooden members with use of synthetic resins
In Japan, restoration of wooden members with synthetic resins is getting out of mode in the recent
years. On the other hand, Koreans reuse wooden members a lot by treating them with synthetic
resin, mainly at the skeletal framework of the building. This is said to be the influence of the
Korean system of cultural property repairs based on contract work system.
The differences outlined above should be considered not as a marker of progressiveness,but as characteristics that were formed through the years against the country-unique cultural
backdrop. In comparison of Japanese and South Korean concepts of building restoration, thefollowing three observations can be made as Korean-unique.
a.

The basis of the wooden structure restoration lies in restoring the health of the structure by
the use of wooden component as a traditional material. The use of non-traditional material
such as iron is best avoided.

b.

The emphasis is placed on the structurally important main members serving as the skeletalframework, though attention is also paid on ancient wooden members.

c.

The traditional repairs are strictly observed, with the notion that the original construction
technology and today’s technology are virtually close.
These policies imply that the Koreans intend to pass down to the future generation thehistoric architectures as a whole, together with the technology of preserving them. This is done byrecognizing a certain level of historic consistency in the construction technology of woodenbuildings, and by promoting the preservation of buildings with the utmost utilization of wood andtraditional technology.
On the contrary, the construction technology in Japan has been disconnected over time,with some continuity flowing through the antiquity, medieval and pre-modern times. Recovery of
structural health is thus realized through utmost restoration of the wooden members of the building,and on top of wood as the most preferred reinforcement material, other materials are also used as
thought fit, and use of modern technology is encouraged. Thanks to this practice, it seems, therestored building also serves to encapsulate the technology and preserve it.
In addition to the restoration techniques of South Korea and Japan, the building restorationin China should be also briefly mentioned. The texts on restoration in China reveal the fact that it isbasically conducted to maintain the current status of the building. A total dismantling is the lastresort to be used in absolutely inevitable cases due to severe damage, although China does also
implement dismantling repairs as in Japan and South Korea. Also, reference to the way of
restoration works is made with an emphasis on restoration without disassembly, such as repairs by
jack-up. It gives an impression that China is a legitimate heir of the traditional technology before
the pre-modern period.

227

2.2 Causes of Difference in the Way of Restoration WorksSurely, the building restoration varies among Japan, South Korea and China, even though they also
have some commonalities. Some factors behind such disparity should be discussed, which thecomparison of South Korea and Japan suggests.
① Peculiar Characteristics of Historic Buildings in Each Country
The difference in the way of restoration works depends, for one, on the characteristics of thehistoric buildings in the respective country themselves. This section focuses on the relations
between the characteristics of the building and way of restoration works, as indicated by acomparative study of South Korea and Japan.
·

Existence of freestanding support (nogoya)
The roof structure of Japanese wooden buildings in the antiquity was faithful to that in China or
Korean Peninsula. Since Kamakura Period (1192-1333), in order to accommodate the humid
Japanese climate, the pitch of the roof was made more acute and an architectural structure
called nogoya with double corner rafters was established. As a result of invention of nogoya, alarge hidden space under the roof came into existence. This space enabled independence of theroof structure from the skeletal framework, hence insertion of many reinforcing members.
It must have been a matter of course, that the concept of structural reinforcement by insertion ofreinforcing members in the hidden area of the building was applied to the Japanese building

Fig. 4 Comparison of Japanese Ancient Temple Architecture and Korean Temple Architecture

228restoration, reflecting the structurally separated skeletal framework and roof, plus existence ofnogoya.
·Composition of Corner Rafters
Japanese design of the corner rafter at each corner of the roof is different from Chinese andSouth Korean. China and South Korea feature the fan-shape corner rafters, while Japan places
them in parallel since the ancient time. At the corners of the roof, curvature of the eaves isaccommodated. On the one hand, the fan-shaped design attains the curve by allocation of corner
rafters to fit the curve of the horizontal beams laid parallel to the ridge (keta) to that effect. On
the other hand, the parallel design necessitates quite an intricate composition foraccommodating corner rafters and hip rafters precisely. This of logically composing the roof
structure is called kiku, or exact plan to the actual size of parts of a structure, at which theJapanese repair experts make a great effort. On the contrary, South Koreans seem to be lessinterested in kiku than the Japanese, probably due to their fan-shaped design of corner rafters.
The sophistication in composition is an imperative in Japan, because of the significance of kiku.
The roof as a whole should not have any distortion, in order to arrange all the related
components in place. It is considered that orientation toward reconstruction is required for thispurpose.

Fig.5 Composition of corners of the eaves(Left: Korean architecture; Right: Japanesearchitecture (Main Hall of Shin Yakushiji Temple)

229

·

Issues of Species of Wooden Members
In Japan, high-quality, easy-to-process tree types, such as Japanese cypress and cedar are usedas the main construction material, and warped but highly tensile tree like pine is arranged in
hidden areas. In South Korea, on the other hand, pine tree is the main construction material, andwooden members should not necessarily be homogeneous. The use of tree type must havesomething to do with the drastic replacement of wooden members in the Korean building
restoration, especially around the roof.
As has been discussed thus far, the features of building are considered to define the way of

restoration works to a certain degree. In other words, the act of restoration is inseparable with thevalue of the building itself.
②

Difference in Introducing Process of Western Restoration Theory in the Modern Period

Since the latter half of 19th Century, East Asian countries adopted Western restoration theories.
However, the disparity was generated among them, depending on how such theories were
historically embraced, and which phase of the Western theory was implemented, and from whichcountry.
The Meiji Japan started to conserve and restore buildings in the modernized way byintroducing the 19th Century European concept. However, it remained thereafter loyal to it for an
extended period of time without active information exchange with European countries thereafter,
resulting in mere fragmented reflection of the subsequent development of theories in Europe.
Especially in the area of restoration, Japan modernized its traditional way of restoration works
based on the theory of stylized restoration, which swept through Europe back in 19th Century. Thisway of restoration works was engraved at its core with its strong inclination toward reconstruction.
Meanwhile, in South Korea, the cultural protection was conducted by Japan before WorldWar II, and its course was partially retained and partially disconnected under the new system ofgovernment in the post-war period, as new methods were sought. In China, the method rooted in
the West was fully implemented between the prewar and postwar period. Against this backdrop, theWestern concepts kept flowing in through USA and USSR, including the critique on the stylistic
restoration and other theories that followed it. In that process, a framework for the system ofcultural protection was formed quite differently from the other East Asian countries, which issymbolized with the system of national unit for prioritized cultural protection established in 1961.

3. The Formation Process of the Restoration Theory in Modern Japan
Now, taking Japan a case study, the formation process of building restoration theory since the latter
half of 19th Century will be explored. Japan consolidated its building restoration method in Meiji
Era by applying new concept and technology from the West to the traditional way of restoration
works, and updated it. In that process, various discussions on the restoration policy took place.

230

Among them, the topic of reconstruction was kept on focus. The concept of confining
reconstruction to a very minimum is also becoming popular in Japan nowadays, but until 1970, theoverall view was pro-reconstruction. The formation of the restoration theory in the modern Japan
shall be discussed below, cantered on the problems of reconstruction.
3.1 The History of the Restoration Theory in Modern Japan: Restoration or
Anti-restoration?
In the history of building restoration in Japan, there were three major discussion starters onreconstruction.
①

Occurrence of the Theory of Restoration: 1894 - 1897

The building restoration by the state commenced around the enactment of Law for the Preservationof Ancient Shrines and Temples in 1897, when restoration works were conducted under thesupervision of Japanese architects, who had studied at the Imperial University (Tokyo University
today). The prototype of theory for restoration was put forth in 1894 by NAGANO Uheiji, who
conducted a survey for restoration of ancient shrines and temples in Nara Prefecture, prior to theenactment of the said law. In his written opinion on temple restoration in Nara in 1894, he asserted
that the reconstruction should remain royal to the current appearance of the ancient temple
architecture, because it takes from the ancient structural design, even if they have beenreconstructed in between. He also emphasized that one should pay attention to the structural
reinforcement, stating that ancient buildings are structurally immature.
After Law for the Preservation of Ancient Shrines and Temples came into effect in 1897,
Main Halls of Shin Yakushiji Temple and Toshodaiji Temple in Nara Prefecture went throughrepair work under the supervision of an architect, SEKINO Tadashi. Faced with the ancientarchitecture, Sekino set up the principles of repairs indicated below.
1

Affirmation of the act of reconstruction

2

Exclusion of extrapolation in reconstruction

3

Reconstruction at visible parts, and reinforcement at invisible parts

4

Respect to ancient timbers and patina

It is clear that all the elements of the basic principle of today’s building repair work in Japan are
already pointed out here.
②

The Controversy on Restoration and the Fixation of Intension to Restoration: 1899 - 1901

Sekino conducted a drastic reconstruction at the Main Hall of Shin Yakushiji Temple, the first
restoration project he was in charge, by removing the added eaves and ceiling from Kamakura
Period. In his second project at Main Hall of Toshodaiji Temple, he inserted a Western truss
structure inside the roof framework, by which he sensationally posed a question of the way of231

reconstruction to the society. His policy brought about a flood of response, and triggered acontroversy regarding reconstruction.
In 1899, TAKAYAMA Rinjiro (Reigyu), a thinker pointed out that the extent ofreconstruction is unique in each building, and reconstruction policy behind it is not evident. He
asserted in his thorough pro-reconstruction theory, that since architecture is an art of style, it
should be reconstructed with the same style as the original in the ultimate sense. In the following
year, MIZUTANI Senji remonstrated with an anti-reconstruction theory that allowed no act ofreconstruction, arguing that every renovation in every era possesses a historical value. Against
these two extreme opinions, TSUJI Zen’nosuke, a historian, spoke for Sekino and Nagano in 1901,
and summarized the repair policy indicated above. There, he took the position of justifying the actof reconstruction itself, while stating that the policy for each repair work should be modified on acase-by-case basis, depending on the clarity of its ground for reconstruction.
This controversy invited the two extreme opinions on the act of reconstruction in
restoration work, and expanded the horizon of the topic. This marked an opportunity for the people
involved to keenly recognize the clarification of ground for reconstruction, while it also bolstered
the tendency for reconstruction as a result. After this dispute, this reconstruction-based repair
policy was carried on throughout the effect of Law for the Preservation of Ancient Shrines andTemples.
③

Restriction on Alterations to The Existing State by National Treasure Preservation Act: 1929

In 1929, National Treasure Preservation Act replaced Law for the Preservation of Ancient Shrines
and Temples. Under this new legislation, restriction on alteration to the existing state of thedesignated building was stipulated, putting harness to reconstruction to a certain extent. However,the law did not forbid reconstruction itself, and left a room for reconstruction works with a clear
ground, specifying a procedure to be followed for altering the existing state. It was based on theconcept that reconstruction is an act of recovering the health of the building.
In this context, the subsequent restoration works made a great leap in clarification of theground for reconstruction by improving the accuracy of examination associated with dismantling.
In particular, the extensive repair of Horyuji Temple started in 1934, in which the national
government established the Horyuji National Treasure Restoration Work Office to restore majorbuildings in the temple premise intensively. Consequently, it led to establishment of an
examination method for restoration.
To summarize, the following can be pointed out.

1.

The aspiration for reconstruction was originally an idea, which was conceived in theEuropean architectural viewpoint.

2.

The history of argument on repairs of architecture, and history of restoration since Meiji
Era were directed toward justification of restoration.

232

3.

Restoration was regarded an improving alteration to the existing state. The development of
the Japanese restoration theory was directed toward expansion in reconstruction methods,
but not toward questions of what cultural properties are, or what restoration means.

3.2 The Core of the Controversy on Restoration and Anti-restoration
The controversy on pros and cons of restoration in Japan erupted repeatedly, but each time ended
in a pro-construction conclusion by the same logic. The core of the issue can be extracted from a
representative dispute in the 1970s, where criticisms on reconstruction were confronted withcounter arguments. (OOTA Hirotaro, “Reconstruction and Restoration” in Juyobunkazai((Important Cultural Property)), Appendix 12, Mainichi Shimbun, 1974.) Following are thecriticisms on reconstruction and counter arguments against them.
Criticism 1: “Later-added elements and alteration are also part of its history.”
Counter Argument 1:

The designation of the structure as a cultural property is made byappraising its architectural value as from a specific period.

Restored or altered structure cannot

evoke the original design of the building when it was first built. Also, as an art object best
represents the uniqueness of the artist in its original form, and its value is diminished if altered, so
does architectural structure. Later addition and alteration are in most cases an act of degradation,
thus their historical value is relatively lower than the original. Therefore, reconstruction is the best
way to enhance the value of the building.
Criticism 2: Query to the evidences for restoration: absolute reliance on the method of
examination and analysis
Counter Argument 2: After the extensive repairs of Horyuji Temple in the early Showa Era(1934-55), the accuracy of examination associated with restoration showed marked improvement.
The architectural historical methodology in critical study of building as a historical record was
firmly established, providing a firm ground for reconstruction.
Criticism 3: Loss of age valueCounter Argument 3: It is merely a temporary sense of incongruity.
In the background of such counter arguments lies the following concepts.
① Absolute trust in the methods of examination and determination of historical authenticityof the reconstruction
Behind this concept is an idea that it is good to restore the structure back to the state discovered in
the examination. However, even though such methods are established, they cannot be effective,
when evidences have been lost. In the reality, the policy is determined on each individual case with233

meticulous deliberation.
② The ultimate goal of designation of cultural property is to show the culture from one
historic period.
A historical period is considered a pure independent stratum, irrespective of the feature of the otherperiods. The orientation toward reconstruction is inseparably entwined with the cultural property
protection system of Japan. However, limiting the concept of time frame of the architecture to themoment of its construction is too narrow. Even if it is a viable theory in the context of culturalprotection, it is not necessarily an elixir of historical evaluation that covers architecture in general.
3.3 Restoration Problems Peculiar to Wooden Buildings
Then, why were so many arguments in Japan inclined toward pro-reconstruction? It seems to beimportant to understand, they stem in the peculiarity of the Japanese climate, as well as of its
wooden buildings.
①

The architecture put together on the structural balance of wooden members

Wooden structure by the pillar and beam method cannot be viable as a building without keeping
their structural balance. The recovery from damage or distortion is usually not a fundamental but apatch-up type of restoration work, which is sometimes called

stopgap restoration. ’ In many acase, such restoration works demand recovery of structural balance. Similarly, remodelling of thebuilding is often limited to relocation of partitions or architectural elements with an interior finish
within a bay, and does not affect the building frame. It is said that not all remodelling or restoration
are of historic or aesthetic value.
②

Perishability of wooden members

It is no surprise that the wood is a flammable material. In addition, some wooden members andjoints require periodical replacement by nature. Even though the wooden members are expected toremain in use for an extended period, they are not intended to last perpetually. The perishability ofmaterial gives a sense that the existence of buildings is also frail, which in turn increases thepaucity value of ancient buildings. Thus, the sense of the value is reinforced in part: the older thebuildings are, the more valuable they become.
③

Technique of dismantling repairs

Due to the characteristics of buildings outlined above, periodical dismantling repairs are absolutely
necessary. At the time of dismantling repairs, the reconstruction to restore the structural balance
and the reconstruction is conducted based on detailed discovery of the architectural technique andthe process of past repairs.
To put it differently, restoration can be characterized by the inherent nature of the wood234

itself; ① from periodical restorations and replacement of wooden members, and ② from thestructural point of view.

In that sense, it can be said that Japanese buildings and their restoration

characteristics had an affinity for the reconstruction-oriented theory of the 19th Century Europe,
which led to its total adoption.
There are three perspectives in the positioning of reconstruction in the restoration work;①aesthetic, ②historical, and ③structural.
reconciliation of elements ① and ②.

In general, restoration theories are formed on theOn the contrary, ③ is considered to have played a majorrole in Japan.

4. Toward Re-theorizing of Preservation and Restoration in East Asia
Finally, some outlook toward theorization of conservation and restoration in East Asia should be
mentioned.
① Relations between the value of cultural properties and restoration
According to the European system of thought, restoration is defined as an act of interfering with abuilding that exists as a whole. It is believed in the restoration that the degree of such interference
should be kept to a minimum. Possibly, the practice of applying the Western system of thought tothe East Asian wooden building may be posing an impediment to the development of argument onreconstruction in Japan.
So that they can remain intact, wooden buildings require periodical restoration works.
In that respect, the act of restoration can be considered as a part of the existence value of thebuildings themselves.
② Restoration work as an action to sustain a building as a structural body
The structural viewpoint is essential in determining the authenticity of wooden buildings. It is also
true that the act of reconstruction is an inevitable element for consideration in this issue. The
method of restoration should be theorized as an act of maintaining the building as a structural body,
based on the way of restoration works accumulated throughout the years.
③ Comparison of restoration and modern architectural history in East Asia
Comparison of restoration reflects the westernizing process steps of each East Asian country. In
other words, the history of restoration poses the problems of modern architectural history. It should
not necessarily be discussed apart from the general architectural history. It is strongly desirable,that the examination of repair work and restoration in each country in East Asia will be further
advanced.

235

Bibliography
Bunkazaihogoiinkai (ed.), Bunkazaihogo no ayumi, Printing Bureau, Ministry of Finance, 1960.
ASANO Kiyoshi, Kojikaitai, Gakuseisha, 1969.
Architectural Institute of Japan, (ed.), Kindai nihon kenchikugaku hattatsushi, Maruzen, 1972.
INAGAKI Eizo, Bunkaisan wo dou uketuguka? Sanseido,1984.
Feature Page: World Cultural Heritage Nara Conference (in Japanese)” Architectural History
Studies, Vol. 24, Society of Architectural Historians of Japan, March 1995.
Shin Kenchikugaku Taikei Iinkai (ed.), Rekishiteki kenzobutsu no hozon (Shin kenchikugaku
Taikei, Volume 50), Shokokusha, 1999.
Japan ICOMOS-Charter National Committee (ed.), Bunkaisanhogokensho: kenkyu, kentou
houkokusho, Japan ICOMOS-Charter National Committee, 1999.
HIRAGA Amana, Koshajihozonho jidai no kenchikubutsu shuurishuhou to hozon gainen, Privatepress, 2001.
Agency for Cultural Affairs, Japan (ed.), Bunkazaihogoho 50-nen shi, Gyousei, 2001.
National Research Institute for Cultural Properties, Nara (ed.), Mokuzo kenzobutsu no hozon no
arikata to shuho, National Research Institute for Cultural Properties, Nara, 2003.
SHIMIZU Shigeatsu, Nihon kindai ni okeru kenchiku hozon gainen no seisei ni kansuru kenkyu,
Private press, 2005.
Kankoku kenchikushi kenkyu (2 volumes), Baleon, 2003.
QI Yingtao, Chugoku kodai kenchiku no hogo to Iji shuuri, Koto chosa hozon kyoryokukai, 1993.
LUO Zhewen, Luo Zhewen kokenchiku monju, Bunbutsu Shuppansha, 1998.
ZHOU Suwu, “Toashu kenchiku bunkaisan hogo no hikaku kenkyu” Kenchikushi Ronbunshu,
Vol.11,1999.
WANG Shyh-Jen, Wang Shyh-Jen kenchiku rekishi riron monju, Chugoku Kenchiku Kogyo
Shuppansha, 2001.
LUO Zhewen, Chugoku kodai kenchiku, Shanghai Koseki Shuppansha, 2001.

236

Bangladesh
Firoz AHMED
Introduction
I would like to thank ACCU for providing me with the splendid opportunity forparticipating in this precious training course. I would also like to thank my Government for
nominating me to enjoy this opportunity. This is a rare chance for anyone who is concerned withconservation, restoration, and archaeology, to come to the Asia Pacific Cultural Centre (ACCU)
that has a proven record of imparting relevant training to concerned people and exerting thepotential in this field. Many conservators from different part of the world have had this training
and they have been using the knowledge in improving the restoration, conservation and protectionof cultural heritage in their respective countries.
Japan is one of those countries, that is well equipped with modern technology andtechnical knowledge. It has modern computerized technical tools and a robust economy to conduct
the management of the conservation, restoration and preservation of cultural heritage. It has strong
legislative measures to control and monitor the multifarious facets of this highly delicate andtechnical job.
I would like to thank ACCU for making room for all of us without which we would not beable to gather in Japan to watch and observe the abundance of cultural heritage and technicalaspects of protection and preservation

Bangladesh Perspective
As I mentioned in my country report, a specific conservation policy to protect cultural
heritage has yet to be formulated in Bangladesh. Since its inception in 1971 as an independent state,
the Department of Archaeology has been shouldering the responsibility for the restoration,conservation and preservation of cultural heritage. It is the only department under the Ministry of
Cultural Affairs performing this gigantic task. In spite of multifarious impediments such as ashortage of adequate funds, a dearth of adequate skilled manpower, and the absence of appropriate
modern technology, the Department has performed stupendously. It has already conserved andpreserved 322 monuments by doing appropriate and innovative maintenance. There are many
declared protected sites that need immediate care and have yet to be taken under the managementof the Department of Archaeology, Because of an inadequate allotment of funds and a shortage ofrequired manpower, hardly any progress has been made so far. Apart from these problems, there isalso a lack of opportunity for using equipment and technical knowledge in the process ofconservation in Bangladesh.

239

The Government of Bangladesh is trying to ameliorate the situation by making the
Department more effective. In this regard reengineering at a certain level is going on. As a result
some remarkable projects have been implemented, such as Paharpur.
In Bangladesh, timber buildings are limited but almost all monuments have wooden parts.
Different varieties of timber have been used in different buildings such as beams, rafters, in theroof and ceiling, ornamental doors and windows, partitions and screen walls. There are somecolourful wooden pagodas, temple and Buddhist monasteries in the eastern part of Bangladesh.
Some of them are damaged or destroyed and have been badly repaired. These must be taken care ofwith appropriate technical knowledge to keep them in their original condition.

My experience at ACCU
The training course began in the last week of September 2005 and finished at the end of
November 2005. It took place at the National Research Institute for Cultural Properties Nara andthe ACCU office. During the month long course, there were lectures, practical training activities,
and onsite lectures.
In the first week we had a very good introduction to the law for the protection of culturalproperties in Japan, the history of protection of buildings, and the system of designation for
cultural properties.
The second week was mainly concerned with participant presentations. This gave us an
opportunity to get an understanding of the different types of historic buildings in the Asia/Pacificregion, and the methodology of conservation followed by each country. These presentations
provided us with an opportunity to exchange ideas and evaluate the system of conservation
methods in each country.
The third week was concerned with a practical training exercise at Toshodai-ji temple. We
visited the temple and observed the actual restoration site. Through the exercise on wet rubbing
and dry rubbing, we learned two techniques that can be used to get the exact form of the carvingson timber as well as roof tiles. These two techniques learned can be adopted for conservation workin Bangladesh. The exercise on the drawing of the bracket detail was excellent. Through thisexercise we learned the components of the brackets and how these components are fixed with eachother.
Through the study of a small shrine at Toshodai-ji temple we learned how the historicbuildings should be analysed in terms of interventions during different periods.
Bangladesh has rich cultural properties, but unfortunately there is no modern equipment.
This type of exercise would be very useful for me and easy to utilize in my country.
During the fourth week we visited several important historic buildings and sites. During240my visit I observed preservation districts that have been designated by local municipalities. This isa unique concept in that the preservation district’s character and the harmony of the buildings arevery well preserved. These local municipalities have a very good rapport with the community.
The communities understand the value of their heritage and the local communities also
very closely work with the authorities for the preservation of their heritage. The provision ofsubsidies for the owner is also a very positive thing in order to build up a good rapport with theowner. The government and local authorities cover the cost of repair up to a maximum of eighty
percent. The provisioning of subsidies certainly encourages the owner to undertake restoration
work

Conclusion
During my study at ACCU I gathered valuable knowledge that will help to contribute in
improving the situation in my country. This course was a tremendous combination of theoreticaland practical approaches in training. My knowledge had been improved in such a way regarding
my profession that I can see a new light in thinking about my field of experience. My stay at
ACCU helped me exchange views with the participants from different countries that enriched me alot. This riveting memory will show me a new track for the future regarding my work.

Acknowledgements
I would like to thank the Cultural Heritage Protection Cooperation Office Asia/Pacific
Cultural Centre for UNESCO Nara, The National Research Institute for Cultural Properties, theMinistry of Foreign Affairs of Japan, the Japanese National Commission for UNESCO, the Nara
Prefectural Government and the Municipal Government of Nara, and the International Centre forthe study of the Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Properties ICCROM. I also wish to thankMr. Yamamoto Tadanao, Dr. Yasushi Nishimura, Ms. Chiyako Hata, Ms. Kayoko Ishii Mr. MarkDiab, Ms. Yuri Nakamura, and Ms. Mayu Iwade for the outstanding coordination. Finally I would
like to thank The Ministry of Cultural Affairs and Department of Archaeology in Bangladesh fornominating me to participate in this training course.

241

Bhutan
Dorji YANGKI

Evaluation Report on the 2005 ACCU Training Course
Week 1: 27th September – 30th September
The introduction to Japan’s cultural heritage protection system and general presentation of theconservation of wooden architectural heritage in Japan by Mr. Yamato was very useful for an
overall understanding of the general history and current status of cultural heritage properties inJapan. In addition, it was important to appreciate the various systems in Japan that are set up for
heritage protection, and the principles and practices of the conservation of wooden architectural
heritage as practised in Japan. All this general information laid a good foundation for the rest of thecourse.
Information of particular value and usefulness to my current and future projects in Bhutan:y

The information on the definition and criteria of the different categories of culturalproperties and the various steps used for the designation of cultural properties in Japan wasparticularly useful and very informative. In Bhutan, we have yet to legally designate or
categorise architectural heritage. This is something that my office is presently considering
undertaking in the near future. Therefore, this information presented me with manydifferent ideas on how to perhaps create a system to categorise and designate architectural
heritage properties in Bhutan.

yBhutan is yet to carry out proper academic research on the different periods of architectural
history and heritage in Bhutan. Therefore, the presentation on the different periods ofarchitectural history in Japan and how the different styles that appear to be similar but arerecognised as being from different periods from careful observation of subtle differences(joints, design, colour, etc.) was very useful. My office is currently carrying out inventory
research work on architectural heritage in Bhutan and this information will allow me to be
more observant about subtle differences in different periods of architectural developmentin Bhutan.

yEven though I would have liked to have had more time to observe things, the short visit to
the Nijo-jo castle in Kyoto was nonetheless very beneficial. Bhutan has many old fortresscastles from the 17th and 18th Centuries. The majority of heritage castles in Bhutan are notpresented as museums (as it seems to be the case in Japan and many economicallydeveloped countries) but are used as ‘living’ places (often with functions that haveremained unchanged for centuries). Although there are many measures to continue these242

living heritage traditions, there are currently two projects in the pipeline in my office topresent some sections of two castles in Bhutan (The Semtokha Dzong for which I am the
project co-ordinator and the Trongsa Ta Dzong) to visitors as exhibition spaces. Therefore,
the visit to the Nijo-jo castle presented me with many very simple but effective ideas on
how to deal with visiting public and with various ideas how to present heritage spaces tovisitors while still conserving the important heritage elements.

Week 2: 3rd October – 7th October
The presentations from the participants from different countries around the Asia- Pacific region
illustrated how the rich and diverse heritage in each country. The presentations also illustrated how
there are also many similarities shared by each country, especially in terms of the problems facedin the conservation of architectural heritage. This presentation from the participants was extremely
helpful to learn about the overall Asia- Pacific region and it greatly increased my appreciation for
the rich heritage in the region and the efforts by different Governments, groups and individuals toconserve this heritage. The presentation by Dr. Myklebust from Norway broke away from theregion and gave us a brief glance into the universal problems faced in the analysis and juggling ofvarious values attached to heritage.
Information of particular value and usefulness to current and future projects in Bhutan:yThe session by Dr. Shimada on the various principals and issues attached to reconstructionof historic sites was very constructive and gave me new insights into the reconstruction ofhistoric sites. This is a subject that I have read about but one that I have never been very
confident of. His presentation on the various approaches to interpretation of historic sites
and the intense and different types and methods of research carried out for such projects
was particularly interesting. The methods of research and various approaches used in thereconstruction of historic sites and the presentation of such sites will be useful for the
Drapham Dzong historic site project in Bhutan. This will be the first archaeological project
proposed for implementation in Bhutan. My office is considering various approaches topresenting the historic site which presently consists of a few stone foundation remains.
Therefore, the presentation by Dr. Shimada regarding site reconstruction was particularly
informative.

y

The comparative study on conservation between Korea and Japan by Dr. Shimizu was very
useful information. This is because the presentation gave me many ideas on how tocompare and analyse different architectural heritage structures in different areas in Bhutan.
His presentation of the ‘subjects of comparison’, ‘the ways of analysing’ and ‘viewpointsof comparison’ are definitely methods that I will be using in my comparative studies ofbuildings in Bhutan.
243

This presentation also made me more aware of how to rationalise why different
methods of conservation are carried out. Often this may not be very clear in the beginningwhere buildings appear to be similar in style but he illustrated how after careful
examination of the subtle differences in elements such as aesthetic design and structuralarrangements, one can then understand how different types of conservation principles or
methods develop. Therefore, it is not possible to judge conservation of architectural
heritage with a single standard.
yThe most interesting part of the week was the presentation on painting conservation
principles and methods by Mr. Kubodera followed by the practical training with him on
surveying methods of paintings and preparation of restoration plans for paintings at the
Jibutsu-do shrine at the Todai-ji Temple complex. Although paintings are often an
important and integral part of timber heritage, this was the first time I had participated insuch practical training on paintings and it taught me many things. This practical training
will definitely prove useful for all my current and future projects since almost all timberarchitectural heritage elements in Bhutan have paintings on them.
I also really appreciated the frank sharing by Mr. Kubodera of the mistakes hemade in the methods he has used in the past, and the lessons he has learned from thesemethods. This will allow me not to repeat the same mistakes in projects in Bhutan, thus
insuring that important cultural properties in Bhutan (at least those that I work on) areconserved as appropriately as possible.

Week 3: 11th October – 14th Octobery

As a person working in the central agency for culture in the Government of Bhutan, thesystem and project planning for the restoration of important cultural properties by Dr.
Murakami was extremely enlightening. His step by step presentation on the classificationof restoration practices (‘major repair’ and ‘partial repair’) was of particular usefulness andwill also be a classification method that will be applicable to the classification ofconservation work on timber elements in Bhutan.

yDr Nishioka’s lecture on the Seki Family residence in Kanagawa Prefecture presented mewith a very practical example on how to carry out conservation of a vernacular house thatis still used partly by the owner and is at the same time open to visitors. This example isvery useful because presently my office is trying to attempt to save many vernacular
heritage buildings in Bhutan. Using this example, Dr. Nishioka very effectively
demonstrated the various different processes of conservation in Japan. Using a realexample that he has worked on (and not one he has read or learned about) made thepresentation even more authentic and allowed us to relate more intimately to all the various

244issues that one has to go through while conserving a heritage house in use.
y

The practical training at Toshodai-ji temple was definitely one of the most enjoyable anduseful parts of the course where I learned so many constructive things that were not only
fun to work on but also very practical and essential for conservation.

y

Although all the other practical training days were really informative, the ‘rubbing’
methods to record architectural heritage were new to me. I found the methods to not only
be very useful that provide very accurate documentation but also an easy and enjoyable
way to carry out documentation of cultural properties. This is definitely a technique I
intend to use in Bhutan in my projects and perhaps if I am able to, I will even teach thistechnique to the District Engineers/Architects in the next national training workshop that
my office will be organising next year.

Week 4: 17th October – 21st October
Travelling to other prefectures and to actual cultural properties around central Japan was definitely
a very exciting and a good way to learn about heritage on actual sites. It was also very helpful tomeet people who have worked on these places. Each place presented its own set of unique issues
and it was interesting to learn about how each place has been conserved or presented to the public.
Information of particular value and usefulness to current and future projects in Bhutan:yHistoric Districts do not exist in Bhutan so visiting historic districts during the excursion
and learning about how these sites were conserved was especially interesting. My office
may consider putting forward proposals to the Government to designate some places in
Bhutan as Historic Districts in the next few years. Therefore, learning about how HistoricDistricts are designated, the issues connected to these Historic Districts and also seeing
first hand such districts (Takayama) and meeting actual people who are working on theconservation of such sites was very useful for me.

yMany ancient villages in Bhutan are still being used as they were for many centuries andcould be considered as cultural heritage sites in the near future. Therefore visiting thebeautiful village of Shirakawa was a highlight of the excursion. The communal cooperation
for the conservation of the village was very encouraging. The central Government in
Bhutan intends to decentralise all works on cultural properties in the future and learning
about communal grass root participation will prove very useful for future projects in
Bhutan. The problems with increases in the number of tourists and how this is affecting the
local people and area was also very interesting and will provide a good example to gain
ideas from for similar future projects in Bhutan. Although presently in Bhutan, theprotection of the locals is considered far more important than tourism and often sites are245not open to tourists, this may change slowly in the future. Therefore, the example of
Shirakawa village will provide my office with many good solutions and perhaps even withsome examples of what not to do in a ‘living’ heritage village.
y

So far Bhutan has not allowed any archaeological projects in Bhutan (for various reasons)but my country is planning to undertake its first archaeological project (the Drapham
fortress site) in the very near future. My office has just completed a brief proposal reportfor the first phase of this project and presently we are waiting for funding. Although thesite in Bhutan is in a completely different context, there are many similarities between thesite in Bhutan and the Ichijo-dani historic site. The visit to the Ichijo-dani site was very
useful and provided me with many ideas for the project in Bhutan. How the issues ofreconstruction and presentation to the general public have been handled in Ichijo-dani wasparticularly interesting.

Week 5: 24th October- 28th October
The lecture by Mr. Nagao on the conservation and management of cultural heritage and the lecture
on traditional techniques by Mr. Takeuchi were both extremely useful. Dendrochronology is not asystem that is used in Bhutan or may be used in Bhutan in the near future due to financial issues
but it was nonetheless very interesting.
Information of particular value and usefulness to current and future projects in Bhutan:yFire is a big cause of destruction of heritage properties in Bhutan as timber is used
extensively in many parts of heritage buildings. My office is still struggling with providing
fire protection systems at heritage building sites so the information on the various fire
protection systems and devices used in Japan was very essential information for me. The
annual fire drill practised every January in Japan could be a system that Bhutan should
follow too, as it is not enough just to install equipment.

yBhutan considers the protection, conservation and development of traditional architectural
techniques and skills very important and is taking many steps to continue such traditions.
Such traditional skills are still very much part of the mainstream construction industry in
Bhutan. However, they are slowly starting to face many problems from the introduction ofmodern techniques and materials. The information on such traditional techniques in Japanand the measures taken in Japan for the conservation of such traditional techniques wasthus interesting and informative.

y

My office in the Department of Culture in Bhutan has recently been facing issues in terms
of procuring the appropriate types of timber for heritage building conservation projects.
There are plans for my office to have a big meeting with the Department of Forestry in the246

next few months to solve such issues. Therefore the information (even though it was short)on the issues of procurement of materials, the creation of heritage forests and also themeasures to cooperate with the Forest offices in Japan will prove invaluable. I can perhaps
present the examples from Japan during the meeting in Bhutan between my office and theDepartment of Forestry of Bhutan as good measures taken in heritage conservation andperhaps those that Bhutan can learn from and adapt to advantage in Bhutan.
yThere are thousands of paintings in Bhutan painted directly on mud plasters. They are often
hundreds (or perhaps even over thousands) of years old and are in dire need ofconservation. Presently, Bhutan does not have any fully trained local conservators who aregood with the conservation of such paintings. Our office has thus faced many problems
with such projects. Although perhaps what I learned here in this course is not enough, theinformation on the conservation of paintings on earth plaster was informative and very
useful for me as it gave me a general idea on how these paintings could be saved. The
example shown by Dr. Kawanobe will be a good example that I can perhaps use to try toconvince the Government that there are very effective but fairly simple methods to savethese heritage paintings on earth plaster and thus people need to be trained for such tasks.

yThe small samples of the different carpentry joinery techniques used in Japan (shown by
Mr. Takeuchi) to conserve timber sections in buildings illustrated several very useful ideasthat perhaps can also be used in Bhutan to save some sections of heritage timber columns
and beams rather than total replacement with new material. In Bhutan, traditional
carpenters often replace timber columns and beams that have deteriorated only partly withtotally new material and therefore, this is definitely a method that I will experiment withamong the traditional carpenters in Bhutan. These methods will be useful as they aresimple but effective techniques and they also still maintain the overall structural strength ofthe members.

yThere is a recent tendency in Bhutan where people often think that new materials are better
than old ones. This has become a problem that my office is starting to face in many
projects. Therefore, the presentation by Mr. Kawanobe of examples of the use of suchmaterials (such as epoxy resins), with often negative consequences in the long term, andhis presentation on how there is now an emerging trend to return to the use of naturalorganic materials in conservation practices presented me with good examples. These areexamples that I can use in Bhutan to convince people to keep the use of traditional
materials and techniques rather than use untested new materials.

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Overall Comments:
This course was one of the best courses that I have ever attended. I learned so many things in avery short time that will prove extremely valuable to my projects. At the same time, the course also
highlighted many areas that I still have to learn more about!
I also enjoyed sharing the course with participants from 15 different countries. This
allowed me to learn many things about the rest of the Asia- Pacific region and I am sure thefriendships formed with the participants from different countries will prove invaluable in the
future.
The best parts of the course were the practical training activities and the visits to actual
cultural property sites. As a person who works in the field, the presentations by professionals who
actually have hands-on experience and have worked on actual projects (rather than those who havejust read or learned about them from others) made the presentations extra informative, useful andbelievable, thus allowing one to relate more intimately to the issues presented on the conservationof heritage.
…………………………………………….
I would like to extend my very deep appreciation to the sponsors and the course organisation team
who not only arranged an excellent course but also looked after all the participants very wellduring our stay in Japan!

248

Cambodia
Sim THAN
Introduction
The training course on the Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Heritage in the Asia-PacificRegion (27 September – 28 October 2005) presented information and significance on theConservation of wooden heritage and analytical methods of ancient time in Japan and many
Asia-Pacific countries.
Cultural Heritage is an issue of great national and historical pride for every nation and for
its future generations. Each nation has a cultural heritage that consists of historic buildings, ancientmonuments and ruins. Among the many countries in the Asia-Pacific region, Cambodia is one thatis rich in Cultural heritage, particularly, in the region of Angkor. The cultural heritage of the sacred
land of Angkor was subscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage list in 1993. The Angkor
monuments, and the origin of the Khmer culture amaze us by their magnificent scale and structural
beauty, but they are in urgent need of preservation and restoration. In 1989, the Japanese
government established the UNESCO/Japan trust fund for the preservation of world cultural
heritage. In order to cooperate worldwide for safeguarding Angkor, the JSA was organized in 1994
to carry out a concrete project concerning the Angkor monuments.
Attended by representatives of 15 different countries, it provided an opportunity for the
study of the preservation and restoration of cultural heritage methods employed in Japan and forcomparisons to be made by the participating Asia-Pacific Countries. Organized by the cultural
Heritage Protection Cooperation Office, Asia/Pacific Centre for UNESCO (ACCU), the course
enabled participants to learn from Japanese heritage professionals and to have their own
experiences.

My impression after the training course
The training Course focused on the Preservation and Restoration of Wooden Structure, aparticularly famous type of cultural heritage in Japan. Wooden Structures in Japan are modest, butvery strong and endowed with a firm book of rules and principles. Very interesting points can beseen in the structure of the wooden temples in Japan that have ordinary round columns, and on the
top of each round column are supported many of the principle members of the structure. This canbe admired very much.
During the course each participant from the Asia-Pacific region gave a presentation about
conservation and cultural heritage in their country. I think that in some countries such as
Kazakhstan, Korea and Mongolia there are wooden architectural structures (specifically part of the249

roofs) that are similar, but not identical to wooden architectural structures in Japan. I observedsome points between Japanese Cultural Heritage and Cambodian Cultural Heritage. I think that, In
Japan, there are rich wooden architectural structures (wooden temples) that are famous cultural
heritage sites. In Cambodia, there are rich architectural structures made by sandstone, brick andlaterite, that are also very famous Cultural Heritage sites. In Japan many temples are lit up but in
Cambodia we do not allow the use of electricity in any temples. In Japan most of the temples arerestored, but in Cambodia a few temples are being restored and a lot of damaged temples are notyet restored. In Japan some temples have been destroyed by time and earthquakes (i.e. nature) but
there are no earthquakes in Cambodia.
The Government of Japan and ACCU Nara are making a great contribution to thepromotion of cultural heritage protection in the Asia-Pacific region by conducting these kinds oftraining programs for officials in charge of cultural heritage so that they may enhance theirknowledge of the conservation and restoration of cultural properties. During this training course I
had an opportunity to view historical wooden structures in Japan and study methods of restorationand conservation activities. I was very much impressed with the Historic Sites of Nara Park such as
Kofuku-ji Temple, Todai-ji Temple, many other shrines, gardens, and landscapes surrounded bysteep of mountains. In addition, I visited Nijo-jo Castle located in the ancient city of Kyoto. This
cultural property is carefully managed and falls under the highest protection laws in Japan. I wasvery much impressed with the Historic Villages of Takayama, Shirakawa, Kanazawa and Fukui.
The cultural property management systems of these sites provided me with a lot of experience andshowed me the best methods in the field of preservation and restoration of wooden historic sites. I
was also very much impressed by other activities during the training course, such as the lectures in
the classroom, on-site lectures, study trip, sites visits, practical on-sites workshops, and discussions.
All of these activities help to promote an understanding of the history and culture of the
Asia-Pacific region, particularly, in Japan.

The Causes of Damage to Khmer Monuments
Kaleidoscope of crises, Decision, Quests and Emotion…
The main causes of ruins in Khmer temples are many and each case differs. Examples include:
1.

Agedness of temple (the Angkor site dates from the 6th century to the present),2.

Abandonment (due to wars) has led to a lack of preservation.

3.

Differential settlement of the structures.

4.

Tropical climate (hot and humid).

5.

Destruction by trees.

6.

Human activity such as looting.

7.

Insects (termite, bats).

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The Management System of Cultural Heritage In Cambodia
In the past, the Kingdom of Cambodia was a large country and was spread widely over most of
Indochina. It had its own arts, culture and traditional customs. It had a glorious civilization in theregion of Southeast Asia. It progressed from the Pre-Angkorean to the Angkorean period (from the
6th Century to the 14th Century). As we see today, there were many historical remains left
throughout the country, such as: stone temples, sculptures, inscriptions and the area of historicalsites and regions that are the most important and useful in the field of archaeology, anthropology,
religion, traditional custom, and local people’s lifestyles in the region of Angkor in Siem Reap
province. Since Cambodia is rich in Cultural heritage like this, a brilliant idea thought of by King
Narodom Shihanuk and the government of Kingdom of Cambodia was to appeal to UNESCO tocome to the rescue, and manage the heritage in Cambodia. A special request was made to put
Angkor on the UNESCO World Heritage list.
Heritage Management in Cambodia was divided into two parts:yOther heritage sites are located in other provinces and cities that are not inscribed in theWorld Heritage list yet, they are under the authority of the Ministry of Culture and Fine
Arts, and under the direct responsibility of the Department of Heritage and Techniques.

yThe heritage that is registered on the UNESCO World Heritage list already, such as theregion of Angkor, are protected and Managed by National authorities.

In the case of

Angkor it is called the APSARA Authority (Authority for the Protection of the Site andManagement in the Region of Angkor). This authority is directly under the ministry of thecouncil of ministers, and its duty is to manage and protect the whole region of Angkor, andto coordinate and cooperate with international institutes for all temple restoration anddevelopment in all Angkor park projects. All these works must fall under the decision of
the International Coordinate Committee (ICC), with Japan and France as co-chairs. This
committee arranges meetings twice per year every year, with the aim of following up andcontrolling all conservation and restoration projects in the region of Angkor.
To establish the protected cultural heritage zones for Management Purposes
The Angkor region is divided into five different protection zones:
Zone 1: Monumental sites.
Zone 2: Protected archaeological reserves.
Zone 3: Protected cultural landscapes.
Zone 4: Sites of archaeological, anthropological or historical interest
Zone 5: The socio-economic and cultural development zone251Conclusion
The 2005 ACCU training course in Nara city offered many methods on its course menu and createdmore interest for conducting the preservation and restoration of cultural heritage work in the all of
the Asia-Pacific countries, particularly, in the Kingdom of Cambodia. In conclusion I can say that
this training program was very fruitful for me, and I also believe the same holds for all participants.
The experience that I have gained during this training program is, in most cases, applicable in mycountry.
Finally I am sincerely grateful to the ACCU Nara Office for inviting me to Japan andproviding me with the opportunity to be involved in this training course. I believe that in the future
all participants of these training courses will continue communication between themselves in orderto share their experience for the benefit of cultural heritage protection promotion in their respective
countries.
I would like to express my gratitude to the government of Japan and other institutions inJapan for the financial support provided for my stay in Japan. I would like to express my thanks to
the Director of the ACCU Nara office, all lecturers, and the ACCU staff for the excellent andwonderful organization during the whole period of the training course. I am deeply grateful to allof the participants for helping me during the training course.

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Indonesia
Rina PRIYANI
1. Introduction
This final report has been prepared for the Training Course on the Preservation and Restoration ofCultural Heritage in the Asia-Pacific Region 2005: Preservation and Restoration of Wooden
Structures. The training was held in Nara, Japan from September 27 until October 28. It was jointly
organized by Bunkacho, the Asia/Pacific Cultural Centre for UNESCO (ACCU), the International
Centre for the Study of the Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Property (ICCROM), and the
National Research Institute for Cultural Properties.
This report mainly discusses the initial plan on how to apply the knowledge from thetraining course with considerations of the problems and needs for the preservation and restorationof wooden structures in Indonesia.
2. Problems and needs for the preservation and restoration of wooden structures in Indonesia
As one of the largest archipelago countries, Indonesia has a heterogenic culture as it originatedfrom Austronesian and Polynesian cultures while Hindu, Buddhism, Islam, and the Colonial Period(Dutch, English, and Portuguese) also had influences all over the islands. These cultural mixtures
can be observed through vernacular architecture which mainly used wooden structures, e.g. Malay
houses and palaces in Sumatra and Kalimantan that represent Austronesian; Tongkonan house in
Toraja Village, South Sulawesi and Nias Village in North Sumatra that represent both Austronesianand Polynesian; and boat/ship-like buildings in Flores, Sumba, Timor, and other islands in East
Nusa Tenggara that represent Polynesian culture.
From these facts, we can conclude that Indonesia has a vast diversity of vernaculararchitecture in wooden structures. The function of the buildings range from houses and communal
buildings, rice-paddy barns, places of worships (mosques, churches, Chinese temples, etc.) topalaces. Most of the buildings apply the post and beam structures with raised pillars; thatched orwooden shingle roofs; a combination of bamboo, wood, or rammed earth for walls, fences, andplatforms. Decoration techniques of paintings and carvings are also applied in some parts of thestructure members, that put more emphasis on the main structures and entrance area.
The preservation laws in Indonesia are as recent as Cultural Property Act No. 5/1992,
which refers to the former act during the Dutch Period, Monumenten Ordonantie No. 238/1931.
Current practices show that the laws generally encourage the preservation of colonial architectureand do not specifically cover vernacular architecture. Above all, urban planning and building
regulations are heavy on regulating the concrete and steel structures/buildings than wooden ones.

253

This situation clearly shows that wooden structure preservation has not been an important agenda
in Indonesia. I regret to say that it will cause the loss of vernacular wooden structures together with
their traditional techniques and craftsmanship.
Another problem in the preservation of wooden structures in Indonesia is the lack ofcommunity awareness of the meaning and significance of cultural heritage. The community
realizes that historic buildings or structures exist but still doubt that preservation activities cangenerate social and economic benefits.

3. Application of the training course to my research practices
The application of the knowledge from the training course will be explained in selected topics,
comparing the situation in Japan and Indonesia, and ending with the initial future task and main
actors involved in the preservation and restoration fields. These topics are based on a subjective
interpretation, related to my research practices, i.e. architectural history, cultural heritage planningand tourism development.
The observation of cultural heritage preservation in Japan was made during a short time,
during the 5 week training course in class and on-site/practical training. The Indonesia situation ispresented based on previous research and practices. For that reason this discussion needs further
research and development before application to the real condition. However, there are five main
topics which need to be considered in any future tasks for cultural heritage preservation inIndonesia, as follows:1.

the concept of cultural heritage preservation

2.

planning system and legal aspects of cultural heritage

3.

wooden structures technology and craftsmanship4.

risk preparedness of wooden structures5.

presentation and interpretation of cultural heritage to the public
The first and second topics are mainly about the software or the concept of cultural

heritage and Japanese way of preservation that can be applied in Indonesia. The application
activities among others are to reinterpret the cultural heritage concept and definition, combine thewestern and eastern concept, and investigate the preservation concept that is rooted in Indonesian
culture. The leading actors involved are the national government together with the university
and/or research centre.
The specific wooden structure topics focused on in this training are presented in the third andfourth topics. I will highlight the fact that the preservation of wooden structures is not about
conserving the building itself but also the construction techniques and skills. Community
awareness about the preservation of wooden structures in Indonesia has to be built together with254

starting up a preservation institute, and any associations relating to cultural heritage preservation.
The fifth topic is the presentation and interpretation of cultural heritage to the public. The
application of this topic will put more emphasize on preservation as a tool for a better quality oflife. This is also related to the reconstruction activities and tourism impacts. Detailed explanation
about how to apply the knowledge are presented in Table 1, entitled the application of thepreservation and restoration of wooden structures training course, as shown below.

4. Conclusion
From my point of view, the ACCU training course on the Preservation and Restoration of Wooden
Structures gave me valuable knowledge particularly in how the Japanese deal with cultural heritage
preservation, restoration, and reconstruction in their unique approaches supported by enormous
resources. Though the duration of the training was relatively short (four weeks), the informationand know-how was presented in an effective way. The programme enabled the participants toenrich their theoretical and practical knowledge related to cultural heritage preservation both inclass and through the on-site/practical training.
Finally, I found that answering the question on how to apply the knowledge of thistraining course in Indonesia is neither a simple task nor a direct one. The future tasks as statedpreviously need to be considered within a broader view. The significant difference between
Indonesia and the Japanese situation is that the Japanese have a strong-rooted spirit in preserving
their cultural heritage. This is a key point since the community has already become attached totheir cultural heritage. The homogeneity of Japanese culture (compared to the diversity ofIndonesian culture) also supports this factor. One important thing about Japan is that it has
sufficient resources in preservation fields, such as competent human resources, advanced
techniques and craftsmanship, and a huge government budget for preservation.

5. Acknowledgements
I would particularly like to thank the ACCU Cultural Heritage Protection Cooperation Office, Dr.
Yamamoto Tadanao and Dr. Nishimura for the sincere attention to the participants during thetraining course and our daily life in Nara. Many thanks to Ishii Kayoko, Mark Diab, Hata Chiyako,
Yuri Nakamura and Mayu Iwade for their kind and great help, attention, and friendship.
On the Indonesia side, I would like to thank the following institutions and persons fortheir supports and kindness:y

UNESCO National Commission of Indonesia; especially the Cultural Affairs Section, fornominating me as the Indonesian representative for this training course.

y

ICOMOS Indonesia; Ms. Frances B. Affandy for her kind support and Dr. Johannes

255

Widodo for a valuable information about Bunkacho and UNESCO.
yThe Centre for Research on Tourism - Institut Teknologi Bandung; Dr. Rini Raksadjaya
who supported me to do the investigation of wooden structures within tourism
development issues in the eastern region of Indonesia.

y

The Ph.D. Programme in Urban Planning, School of Architecture, Planning and Policy
Development - Institut Teknologi Bandung; many thanks to Prof. Djoko Santoso Sujarto,
Dr. Roos Akbar, Dr. Haryo Winarso, Dr. Benedictus Kombaitan and Dr. Myra P. Gunawan.

Last but not least, I would like to thank all of the participants, for sharing the experiences inpreservation and restoration fields and also for the friendship that made my stay in Japan moreenjoyable. Domo arigato gozaimashita.

256

257

Wooden structures
technology andcraftsmanship

Planning system andlegal aspects

2.

3.

Concept of cultural
heritage preservation

1.

Topic/issue(s) from thetraining courses

Applyasustainable
conservation concept
Inherit traditional wooden
structures
construction
techniques and skills
Preserve the traditional tools
and materials
Provide a promising career
path
forconservationarchitects and carpenters

The preservation planningsystem has set up and run wellby Bunkacho,
Tobunken/Nabunken,
JACAM and other institutions
Sufficient of cultural heritage
laws and ordinances

in JapanRange from single building togroup of historic buildings(theconcepthas
beendeveloped since 1897)
Apply
eastern/Japaneseconcept of preservation andrestoration: kaitai shuri

Woodenstructures
preservation has not been asignificant agenda

Indonesia is in the process ofsetting up the preservation
planning system by/under the
Ministry of Culture andTourism
Lack of cultural heritage laws
and ordinancesin Indonesia
Consist of natural andman-made objects(theconcepthas
beendeveloped since 1992)
Apply western concept ofpreservation

Existing situation

Reinterpret the Indonesia cultural
heritage preservation laws andordinances
Carry out in-depth learning inpreservation planning system i.e. fromJapan and the Netherlands
Set up the planning system ofpreservation (national and local)
Introduce the essential of wooden
structure technology in preservation
fields (lessons learned from Japan)
Build the community awareness ofIndonesia traditional wooden structure
Set up the preservation
institute/association dealing withwooden structures preservation

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

for

Reinterpret the cultural heritage
concept and definition using in laws
and ordinances
Combine the western-eastern concept
and theory of preservation
Investigate the preservation concept
rooted from Indonesian culture

tasks

•

The
application/future
Indonesia

Table 1 The application of the preservation and restoration of wooden structures training course

Government(national,
local); University;
Research centre;
Non-Governmental
Organization/NGO

Government(national,
local); University; Research
centreGovernment (national);
University;
Research centre

Main actor(s)258

Risk preparedness ofwooden structures

Presentation andinterpretation ofcultural heritage

4.

5.

Topic/issue(s) from thetraining courses

A detailed documentation of
the preservation process has
always been made using
certain rules
Reconstruction is viewed as abest way to present andinterpret the cultural heritage
to the public
Reconstruction of cultural
heritage in a huge scale has
become a debate in Japan
preservation discourses
Tourism impact on cultural
heritage, esp. the community

in Japan
Risk management has carriedoutbyinvolvingthecommunity•

Reconstruction of cultural
heritage in huge scale has notbeen applied

Having the same situation
with Japan

Introduce the essential of the
documentation of preservation process
and reconstruction of cultural heritagein Japan
Disseminate the urgency and practicesof the documentation of preservation
process
Balance the needs of preservation
within tourism development

•

•

•

•

for

Lack of documentation ofpreservation process

tasks

Introduce the essential of risk
preparedness of wooden structures
Disseminate the urgency and practicesof risk preparedness
Set up the risk preparedness systemfor preservation

Theapplication/future
Indonesia•

in Indonesia
Lack of community awarenessand practices in disaster/riskmanagement

Existing situation

Government(national,
local); University; Research
centre;NGO; Private sectors

University;
Research centre;
NGO;
Government (national, local)

Main actor(s)IranMehrdad JAVADIIntroduction
As a general rule one of the best ways to educate beginners in the artistic and technical sciences is
to give them expert knowledge through the organization of training courses. In the case of therestoration of historical monuments, and especially of cultural heritage buildings, education
courses are very important since, in terms of restoration, they not only need technical knowledge,
but they also need to use art, taste and creative power. Without all of these factors, imperfection
will invariably be the result. Additionally, when education and training courses are international inscope, scholars and trainees from several countries can meet and exchange their expertise. They
can also learn methods related to that expert knowledge and they have the opportunity to get
acquainted with many kinds of cultures, customs and traditional ceremonies. In fact these things
have a direct relationship with the conservation and restoration of historical-cultural effects. They
can also learn other technology and experiences, with attention to similarities in design andfunction from other cultures.
Therefore, the training course on the preservation and restoration of cultural heritage in the
Asia-Pacific region, especially the preservation of wooden structures, organized by the ACCU
Nara office in Japan, was suitable and effective. This training course involved Japanese professors
and specialists and was also very useful for all of the trainees.
Some of the important results of this course during the one month of lectures and site
visits are the following:
1.

A general acquaintance with Japanese people culture, customs and beliefs.

2.

An acquaintance with Japanese professors and specialists for the restoration andpreservation of wooden structures.

3.

An acquaintance with the restoration of cultural effects rules and laws.

4.

An acquaintance with wooden structures and restoration technology of these structures.

5.

Organization of presentations by trainees.

6.

Comparison of Japanese architecture and South Korea’s architecture.

7.

Acquaintance with methods of restoration for decorations, especially paintings on woodand the practical instruction of the effects of weathering and age.

8.

Organization of practical instruction courses in an on-site restoration context (Toshodai-ji
temple).

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General Acquaintance with Japanese People Culture, Customs and Beliefs
Becoming acquainted with Japanese people culture, customs and beliefs in the past and nowadays
is very important for recognizing cultural attributes. Certainly, cultural beliefs have an effect on themethod and restoration of cultural structures and without relative advice regarding such things,
correct decisions for the restoration of settlements and religious buildings is impossible or very
difficult. I think, for each restoration activity during each historical period (and today), theharmony of the restoration regarding its consequences for human life is necessary. If we abide bythis rule, historical buildings can continue to live for the future.

Acquaintance with Japanese Professors and Specialists in the Restoration and
Preservation of Wooden Structures
When the natural world of Japan is considered, we can understand why the architecture of thiscountry is based on wood because there are so many forests. In fact, the correct and best use ofwood is an important skill for Japanese carpenters. Undoubtedly, they learned that skill during
several centuries. Not only did they know the real value of wood, but they also found the best
methods and technologies for resisting earthquakes. These skills were passed down by the ancientJapanese specialists to the new carpentry offspring in Japan. The preservation of wooden buildings
and especially rebuilding of old temples is very well done.
In this course, we had the opportunity to meet many professors and to see their work
directly. For example, the rebuilding of the Nara Palace main hall and new technology forearthquake resistant buildings was very interesting for me.

Acquaintance with the Restoration of Cultural Effects, Theories, and Laws in JapanThe quality of the cultural effects of the restoration of monuments in each country is different, andproportional with geographical, historical and cultural conditions. However, in some cases they are
similar in all countries, and every country must act in accordance with the general rules ofrestoration charters.
In Japan they also have some special laws. Many things seem so different from West Asianand European restoration laws, but in fact, formalities and customs, climatic conditions and alsobuilding materials are different from each other. Certainly, in the case of restoration, and manyothers items, there are diversity of opinions.
The Japanese system for restoring destroyed buildings (the most common reason for
destruction is fire), is changing the destroyed part and using the old safe part of the building, even
if those safe parts are a small parts of pillars or other things. However, an interesting aspect for me
was the quality of restoration for that kind of building, and especially the location of the building
despite its total destruction. In this case, Japanese restoration includes rebuilding every part of an260

old building using traditional materials and new methods. The theory of restoration for this kind of
structure in other countries is completely different, for example in Iran, restoration includes only
documentation and the present condition of ancient buildings. The restoration of completely
destroyed building is not usually done in Iran. I believe that rebuilding of this kind should beundertaken only with recourse to historical documents otherwise a new and modern building
without any real historical identity is created.

Acquaintance with Wooden Structures, Their Construction and Restoration
Technology
During our one month stay in Japan, we visited many restoration workshops and cultural-historicalsites, for example: Todai-ji Temple, Toshodai-ji Temple, Nijo-jo castle, Doshisha University, Nara
historical sites and others. Visits to these sites were a valuable opportunity for more acquaintancewith the quality of preservation, and it introduced the historical effects of conservation in Japan. In
addition, it also allowed us to learn about the system of workshop mobilization and doing
everything before and during restoration operations. Education for the public and visitors in thiscase is very important, and I feel that other countries should adopt a similar approach.
Other good chance for us was to visit some sites currently under restoration in Nara. Thiswas useful to acquaint us with all steps of the Japanese restoration operation.

Presentations by Trainees
The presentations by every trainee in this course was not only useful for learning about wooden
structures of other countries, but we also got considerable information about culture, costumes andtraditional ceremonies, clothing and other cultural things. That was so important for me because I
am living in the west part of Asia and quite far from other trainees’ countries. In this course I
became acquainted with restoration and the quality of methods for preservation. Additionally, I wasable to make comparisons with the restoration activities of my country.
Other interesting and important things in this course for me were the explanations by Dr.
Myklebust of Norway and Dr. Inaba of Japan.

Comparison of Japanese and South Korean Architecture
The cultural similarities between Japan and South Korea and the comparison of their architecture
were very interesting for me. I was able to understand the details of the conservation andrestoration activities, and the form of wooden structures. I did not have much previous information
about the kinds of wooden structures found in these two nations and the differences in architectural
methods from Iran appeared quite challenging to me.

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Acquaintance with Methods for Restoration of Painting (specifically painted wood)and Practical Instruction
Methods for restoring decorations, especially painted wood and practical instruction, was anotherimportant part of this course. We visited many historic sites with decorated wooden parts andstructures. For instance, the painting restoration workshop at Nijo-jo castle in Kyoto was very
interesting for all trainees since the Japanese paint restoration lecture introduced to us to how
copies can be made from old paintings and the material used to make colours. Frequently, painting
conservators use natural materials such as minerals from various coloured stones. For instance, theone-day workshop with Mr. Kubodera, gave us the opportunity to try drawing and colour-blending
from the design remains on the external surfaces of Jibutsu-Do Temple. On that day, we also had
an interesting discussion between trainees and Mr. Kubodera about the damage of the designs, andcritical arguments about past restoration in Japan.

Practical Instruction: Restoration Workshop at Toshodai-ji Temple
This part of our course took place over a three day period with three separate activities:
1.

Damage and presentation of a restoration plan for a small shrine.

2.

Tracing and measurement for part of Toshodai-ji Temple’s structure.

3.

Topography, tracing, and rubbing of the design of ceramic roof tiles to preserve theirdesign styles.
In this part of the course, trainees were divided into three groups (5 or 6 people per group)and each group rotated for one of three activities.
It is incumbent upon me to mention that during this condensed course, the activities andvisits to many wooden structures, and the enthusiasm, energy, hard work, and expertise of all thetrainees was rounded out my feelings of satisfaction regarding my experiences. In addition, all of
this would not have been possible if it were not for the work and planning of our hosts. Finally, theeffort, help, and education of the trainees by all professors, scholars and workshop directors wasvery useful and worthy of my sincere appreciation.

Acknowledgements
I feel that the one month training course at the ACCU office in Nara Japan reached a successful
conclusion. I would like to thank the Director of the ACCU Nara office and all the staff membersof ACCU Nara who helped us in every way. Heartfelt thanks go to Dr. Tadanao Yamamoto, Dr.
Yasushi Nishimura, Ms. Kayoko Ishii and Mr. Mark Diab.

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Kazakhstan
Lazzat BEISEMBAYEVA
I started my work in the field of cultural heritage preservation in 1991, after a degree in civilengineering and three years of employment in the Municipal Architectural Department of the cityof Turkestan, South Kazakhstan. Working since 1991 at NIPIPMK, I participated in several
projects for the conservation and restoration of architectural monuments, ranging from the 12th tothe 20th century – mosques, Moslem mausoleums, public buildings, and traditional dwellings. I
also participated in some projects on the conservation of archaeological sites, including the
UNESCO/Japanese Trust Fund Project on the Preservation and Restoration of Otrar Tobe, South
Kazakhstan and the UNESCO/Japanese Trust Fund Project on the Preservation of the Silk Roads in
the Upper Chui Valley in Kyrgyzstan
During my training course at ACCU, I learned about the Japanese conservation system for
cultural heritage. The training programme was very important and relevant to me because itsupplied me with me with a lot of information relating to the preservation and restoration ofwooden structures, and the reconstruction of historical sites.
Japan has a rich experience in the preservation of cultural heritage for more than 100
years. During this period the law for the protection of cultural heritage was enhanced and further
developed.
I have learned a lot of things about the organization of the restoration process. The
Japanese government gives financial support, and invests a lot of money in the protection ofcultural properties and research management every year. The administrative structure provides
active participation of both national and local agencies, and organizes the management ofconservation projects, the use of traditional techniques and advanced technology, scientificresearch for the implementation of conservation and restoration projects, and for the protection andpreservation of cultural heritage in Japan.
The most important thing for me was the Japanese approach to the preservation of wooden
structures, based on ancient traditions and scientific research of historic structures. The restorationof wooden structures in Japan is characterized by the careful selection of wood and its preparation
for the replacement of damaged parts, aiming to achieve a full compatibility of new parts with theold material. The protection and preservation in Japan of traditional techniques of the construction
and the traditional craftsmanship of Japanese carpenters are unique in the world The very fact thatthe historical records not only of the construction, but also of restorations of architecturalmonuments, are available in the archives and museums proves that restoration is an essential partof the history of Japanese architecture.

263

Complicated joints and construction systems used for the building of temples, vernacularhouses and other wooden structures in Japanese historic architecture, with its 'module' system of
proportions, shows a combination of perfect engineering and aesthetic quality. The knowledge of'module' systems of proportions helps to better understand the project of the construction, and also
the principles of the work of wooden elements in the different parts of structures.
My scientific work on the research of Muslim mausoleums consists of a search for thegeneral modular system for some monuments built during various periods (12th-16th centuries).
Unfortunately, during last centuries the modular system used in construction by ancient builders ofMuslim mausoleums was lost.
To the best of my knowledge, I find that the ancient builders used the modular system of
proportions in the construction of ancient temples in Japan. For these builders, the length of one
unit was equal 30.3 cm. In the 14th century Mausoleum of Khoja Ahmed Yasawi, an historicbuilding in Kazakhstan, the module was also represented as 30.3x2= 60.6 cm.
The use of the modular system of proportions and the traditional techniques forconstruction is an important point in the reconstruction of heritage sites.
In my opinion, I think that reconstruction of historical site is necessary for helping people
to understand ancient structures. However, reconstructions demand large financial expenses and a
profound knowledge of historical heritage.
A significant impression was on me when we visited the village of Shirakawa-Go. In
addition to the preserved groups of historic buildings and their historic surroundings, it is also
important to preserve and to pass on to future generations the lifestyle, and traditional techniquesof building construction.
This course has created a favourable condition for participants from 15 countries aroundthe Asia-Pacific region as it allowed an opportunity to exchange experiences about the preservation
and restoration of cultural heritage. Cooperation with foreign organizations in the research andrestoration of culture heritage is of great importance for Kazakhstan.
I want to use the knowledge received in this training course in my practical work. I will also sharewhat I have learned with other colleagues working in the field of preservation and restoration, anddisseminate, through publications in local and national newspapers, the information of theJapanese system for the protection and conservation of cultural heritage. Additionally, I will also
give my impressions of my one month stay in Japan.
I would like to thank ACCU for the informative training programme and highly
professional organization of the training process.

264Malaysia
A Ghafar bin AHMAD
1. Introduction
The training course on the Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Heritage in the Asia-PacificRegion (27 September to 28 October 2005, Nara, Japan) focused on important information related
to the preservation and restoration of Japanese wooden structures. The course was jointly
organized by Japan’s Agency for Cultural Affairs (Bunkacho), the Asia-Pacific Cultural Centre for
UNESCO (ACCU), the International Centre for the Study of the Preservation and Restoration ofCultural Property (ICCROM); and the National Research Institute for Cultural Properties, Japan.
The course was attended by representatives of 15 different countries within the Asia-Pacific region.
The aim of the course was to introduce concepts and methods of the preservation and restoration ofvarious wooden structures with reference to Japan’s Important Cultural Properties. It provided aplatform for all participants as well as the Japanese heritage professionals and specialists to shareand learn methods of investigating wooden structures, ideas and concepts, applied technologies,
and documentation in the preservation and restoration of wooden structures.
This report, prepared as the requirement of the course, evaluates and comments on the
training course mainly on its curriculum that included lectures, hands-on training, on-site lectures
as well as participants’ presentations and discussions. It also discusses a few important issues that
Malaysia can learn from Japan in preserving and restoring important cultural properties mainly forwooden structures. The report concludes with some suggestions that the organizers may wish toconsider in conducting similar training courses in the future.

2. Training Curriculum
Over the course period of 30 days, the training was structured into three main curricula that
included a series of lectures conducted at the ACCU office and the National Research Institute forCultural Properties, Nara (NRICPN), practical training and on-site lectures including a 3-day study
tour outside Nara Prefecture, and participants’ presentations and discussions. Personally, I think thetraining course was well structured and covered many important aspects of preservation andrestoration of cultural properties mainly on the wooden structures of Japan. The course was very
informative allowing me a great opportunity to polish my knowledge in the field of thepreservation and restoration of important cultural properties not only in Japan but from otherparticipants representing different countries. I learned a tremendous amount from the experiencesof this training course. I will, of course, share and utilize such knowledge and experiences for myfuture lectures and restoration projects in Malaysia. In the following pages, I present brief
evaluations and comments on the content of the training curriculum.
2652.1 Lectures at ACCU and NNRICP Offices
All lectures given at the ACCU and NRICPN offices were adequate and relevant to thepreservation and restoration of important cultural properties. The lectures, mainly focusing on theJapanese experiences, including the legal system, the tradition of wooden architecture, scientificapplications, as well as some case studies of historical sites and buildings were important to allparticipants. It is appropriate to have these lectures delivered at the beginning of the training
course as participants could relate the information during the hands-on training and site visits set in
the second and third weeks.
Credit should be given to Dr. Yamato, Senior Specialist for Cultural Properties from
Bunkacho, for his two excellent lectures on “The Tradition of Wooden Architecture in Japan:“Outline and Protection of Cultural Property Buildings: History of Protection of Buildings” and“The Investigation, Designation and Registration of Buildings”. The lectures were very
informative and also relevant to the training course as the participants acquired an in-depth
knowledge of Japan’s tradition and legal system for the preservation and restoration of wooden
structures. The supplementary handouts given out to the participants during the lectures were
sufficient and valuable.
A lecture given by Dr. Myklebust, a senior advisor, Directorate for Cultural Heritage,
Norway on “Wooden Architectural Heritage in the Asia-Pacific Region” was mainly focused on theconcepts and philosophy of cultural heritage in which the aspects of history, interpretation andmaintenance were considered in the analysis of cultural values. The lecture contents seemed
relevant to the general theme of the training course but unfortunately most study cases shown inthe slide presentation did not relate to the title of the lecture as outlined in the program schedules.
The lecture only showed examples of European cultural properties but not wooden architectural
heritage from the Asia-Pacific region.
2.2 Practical Training and On-site Lectures
All practical training and on-site lectures were relevant to the theme of the training course. Such
practical training and on-site lectures gave the participants a great opportunity to apply theknowledge gathered from the lectures given at both ACCU and the NRICPN. This included the two
hands-on practical training activities that included the one-day “Survey on Painting and
Restoration Planning” at the Jibutsu-do, Todai-ji Temple conducted by Mr. Kubodera, Head of theArchitectural History Section, NRICPN; and a three-day practical training at Toshodai-ji Temple.
Both temples were located in Nara Prefecture. The latter practical training was a lot moreinteresting as participants were given three different tasks to be carried out at the temple structures
including scaled drawing of wooden beams and brackets of the main temple hall, wet rubbing
techniques of the roof tiles; and the survey of damages on an old shrine. In general, both practicaltraining activities were very challenging as they required technical skills from the participants. All
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participants learned a great deal from this practical training.
Apart from these hands-on practical training activities, participants were also given theopportunity to visit Japan’s Important Cultural Properties outside of Nara. A 4 day visit to Gifu,
Ishikawa and Fukui Prefectures in the third week was considered the highlight of the training
course. Participants were given on-site lectures at various interesting heritage sites including the
Takayama Local History Museum, Sanmachi preservation districts for groups of historic buildings,
World Heritage Site of Shirakawa Village, Kanazawa School for Craftsmen (Shokunin Daigaku),
Kenroku-en Garden, Higashiyama Higashi preservation district for groups of historic buildings,
Edo Mura Village, and the Ichijo-dani site. All site visits were guided by experts and officials fromvarious heritage agencies of the respective Prefectures. Sufficient lecture handouts and readingmaterials were also given to all participants for reference purposes during the visits. Even though
the visits were packed with lectures and guided walking tours within the designated heritage areas,
the participants really enjoyed themselves, particularly with every new discovery they made during
the site visits.
2.3 Participants’ Presentations and Discussions
Two days were allocated during the training course for all participants to present the status ofpreservation and restoration of their own country’s cultural properties. The presentation sessions
were coordinated by Dr. Inaba, Head of Project Planning/Conservation Systems Section, NRICP,Tokyo; and Dr. Myklebust. Each participant presented about 20 minutes on problems and needs for
cultural heritage protection and restoration activities in his/her respective country followed byshort discussions. The participant’s presentations were seen to be very encouraging because they
allowed all participants to share ideas and comments on issues pertaining to his/her country’s
efforts to preserve and restore important cultural properties. Credits should be given to Dr. Inaba
for her constructive comments and ideas during the two-day participants’ presentations. Her
expertise and experience on issues related to the cultural properties in the Asia-Pacific region madethe discussions stimulating.
3. Lessons from Japan
In Japan, cultural properties including both tangible and intangible properties have been consideredas important cultural assets that have been handed down to the present generation. Japan’s long
history of preserving and restoring important cultural properties such as wooden structures oftemples, historic castles, archaeological remains and groups of historic buildings have gained
worldwide recognition. Many of these important cultural properties have been inscribed on the
UNESCO World Heritage List. Despite many differences between Japan and Malaysia in terms ofhistorical, architectural, economic, political and social background, there are a few aspects that
Malaysia can learn from Japan in terms of preserving and restoring important cultural properties.

267

The following lessons that Malaysia can learn from Japan are presented below.
3.1 Standard Criteria for Recognizing Tangible Cultural Properties as Important Cultural
Properties and National Treasures
Like Japan, Malaysia also has various kinds of tangible cultural properties. However, Malaysia
needs to have a set of standard criteria for recognizing these tangible cultural properties. In Japan,
tangible cultural properties can be recognized as Important Cultural Properties as well as National
Treasures. On the contrary, the Malaysian legal system, under its Antiquities Act of 1976,
recognizes National Treasures based on the age of cultural properties that are more than 100 years
old. This criterion is considered insufficient as some of the cultural properties are unique in many
aspects even though they are less than 100 years old of age. In Japan, tangible cultural propertiesare defined into three major types as follows:1.

Buildings (for examples homes, business offices, factories, shrines, temples and public
structures etc.)

2.

Civil engineering works (for examples bridges, tunnels, floodgates, dams etc.)

3.

Other structures (for examples smokestacks, fences, tower etc.)
As Japan recognizes different types of tangible cultural properties, any architecturalmonuments and structures that fulfil one of the following criteria and that represent theirconstructed era may be considered as an Important Cultural Property:
1.

Superior in design

2.

Superior in technique3.

Having high historic value

4.

Having high academic value

5.

A remarkable monument among its school or local characteristic
As such, these Important Cultural Properties may then be considered as National Treasures

if they pose special high values and cultural meanings to Japan. The country’s present law for theProtection of Cultural Properties, Article 27-2, regulates that National Treasures shall be
designated from among Important Cultural Properties “which are of especially high value from theviewpoint of world culture and which are unique treasures of the nation”. As a result, a total of
2,250 buildings throughout Japan have been designated as Important Cultural Properties (as of
May 2004), of which 2,050 are classified as traditional buildings and 200 are modern buildings.
Such standards using these criteria within this legal system may also be suitable for Malaysia.
3.2 Preservation and Management of Groups of Historic Buildings
In Japan, groups of historic buildings are considered as Important Cultural Property. Some ofwhich have been designated as National Treasures and a few have been inscribed on the UNESCO

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World Heritage List. This may include post towns, castle towns, port towns, old districts, andfarming and fishing villages that have heritage values both architecturally and historically. There
are more than 60 groups of historic buildings or preservation districts designated as Important
Cultural Properties in Japan. Examples of groups of historic buildings in Japan are Sanmachi,
Takayama; Higashiyama Higashi, Kanazawa; and Shirakawa Village (on the World Heritage List).
Once these groups of historic buildings have been recognized as Important Cultural Properties;
various aspects have been considered in protecting and preserving their structures and surrounding
areas. Continuous management of the sites is very important in maintaining the authenticity andoriginality of the areas. In Japan, the following aspects have been looked into when it comes to thepreservation and management of groups of historic buildings or preservation districts that Malaysia
may consider in its own policy regarding heritage conservation:
1.

Restoration of structures2.

Conservation of landscape3.

Design guidelines for new structures

4.

Disaster prevention facilities

5.

Community involvement and commitment

6.

Financial support from the Government

7.

Tax incentive for land and building owners

8.

Tourism promotion

3.3 Inheritance of Traditional Techniques and Skills
In Japan, traditional techniques for building construction have been passed on from one generation
to another. Construction skills such as carpentry, roof fixing, painting, wood carving and wall
plastering are taught by master builders to younger generations. To ensure such traditional
techniques continuously survive in Japan, several initiatives have been taken by both the Japanese
Government and conservation associations. Several courses have been subsidized by thegovernment to offer training courses on traditional techniques and skills to conservation architects,
carpenters and building experts. For instance, the Japanese Association for Conservation ofArchitectural Monuments (JACAM) is presently taking the lead to offer various courses on
traditional techniques and skills to its members. Such courses include traditional techniques for tile
roofing, wood processing, timber ink-marking, structural painting, tatami production andornamental metal fitting. Another example is the Shokunin Daigaku established by the city ofKanazawa (Ishikawa Prefecture) in 1996. The School offers various courses on traditional
techniques and skills, mainly to the citizens of Kanazawa. The School offers courses include
carpentry, wall plastering, roof fixing, moulding copper plates for rainwater goods and tatami
production. Japan’s efforts in protecting its traditional techniques and skills through the traditionalcourses is a good example that Malaysia may want to consider.

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4. Conclusions
Overall, the training course on the Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Heritage in the
Asia-Pacific Region (27 September to 28 October 2005, Nara, Japan) was very informative andeducational. Many new methods and techniques for preserving and restoring wooden structures canbe learned from the Japanese experience. The course has furnished all participants withcomprehensive knowledge in various aspects of preserving important cultural properties of Japan. I
have gained a lot of knowledge and experience from the training course. Such knowledge andexperience may be shared with my students, colleagues and conservation architects in Malaysia.
There is so much that needs to be done in order to improve the current situation of preservation ofimportant cultural properties in Malaysia.
However, there are a few suggestions that the organizers may want to consider when
conducting a similar training course in the future. This includes allowing more on-site lectures andhands-on training to participants, mainly at heritage buildings and historical sites. Participants
should be given more tasks during the site visits either in groups or individuals, followed by shortpresentations and discussions. It is important to acknowledge that most of the participants
attending the training course came to Japan for the first time. Some participants were notaccustomed to Japanese culture. Therefore, it would a good idea to let them experience theJapanese culture throughout their stay in Japan, for example, attending basic Japanese language
lessons during weekends, staying with a host family for a short period of time, as well as
experiencing Japanese culture such as the tea ceremony and flower arrangement. It is a goodexperience for participants to spend some of their free time socializing with local people as thiswould encourage cultural exchange between them.
5. Acknowledgements
I would like to thank Japan’s Agency for Cultural Affairs, ACCU Nara Office, ICCROM, and the
National Research Institute for Cultural Properties for giving me this great opportunity to attend
the training course on the Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Heritage in the Asia-PacificRegion 2005: Preservation and Restoration of Wooden Structures. My special thanks to Mr.
Tadanao Yamamoto, Director of the ACCU, Nara office, Dr. Yasushi Nishimura, Ms. Kayoko Ishii,
Mr. Mark Diab, Ms. Chiyako Hata, Ms. Yuri Nakamura and Ms. Mayu Iwade for their support andexcellent coordination throughout the training course. I would also like to express my sincere
gratitude to all the lecturers of the training course including on-site lecturers and facilitators who
have provided vital information on the important cultural properties of Japan. Finally, many thanks
to the National Commission for UNESCO of Malaysia and the Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang
for giving me the opportunity to represent Malaysia in this training course. Terima kasih.

270

Mongolia
Batbyamba LUTKHUUIntroduction
I have been an architect-restorator since 1996, and I work for Suld uul Co. Ltd based in Mongolia.
I have participated in restoration projects on a number of temples in Mongolia, such as:yKhar-Khorin, Erdene zuu (1996)yDambadarjaa (1998)y

Shankh (2000)yKhar khorin, Erdene zuu (2003-2004)yBogd Khan’s Palace Museum

Problems and Needs for Cultural Heritage Protection Activities in Mongolia
Traditional Architectural Materials and Techniques
Recently, a variety of modern materials have been used in restoration work due to matters of cost
performance and circulation. Traditional materials and technique are necessary for actual
restoration work. There are many cases where the use of modern materials actually creates more
problems for historical buildings.
Lack of Professional Restorers
Mongolia is currently suffering from a lack of many kinds of qualified restorers, including
restorer-architects, painters, craftsmen, carpenters, and others. Most of the current restorers are nottrained and there isn’t any training course available for them to improve their skills. Therefore,
local craftsmen should be further trained in restoration work according to internationally accepted
standards.
The ACCU training programme was very important and relevant to me because it supplied
me with a lot of information relating to methods for the protection of cultural heritage sufferingfrom various causes of damage. In addition, I became familiarized with restoration andreconstruction techniques for historical buildings.
Some Impressions and Thoughts
I would like to express my sincere gratitude to the Cultural Heritage Protection Cooperation Office,Asia/Pacific Cultural Centre for UNESCO (ACCU) for inviting me to participate in this training271

course on the Conservation of Wooden Structures in Asia and the Pacific, 2005.
During the training course in Nara, I had an opportunity to visit many ancient cultural
heritage sites consisting of wooden structures.
During this training course, I have also fixed in my memory the conservation techniquesand methodologies applied by Japanese professional architects and conservators for the restorationand conservation of cultural heritage.
The knowledge I have learned in this training course will be applied to the present work
undertaken by our office and will be disseminated to other people in order to educate them about
the conservation of cultural heritage. I hope that the ACCU office will continue to provide suchtraining course to help other countries do better in the conservation of wooden structures.
The training course was attended by fifteen participants and two observers. All participants
may have come here because they would like to learn about Japanese conservation andpreservation techniques for wooden architecture, and to become aware of the application ofadvanced technology for current practice.
I found the training course helpful in allowing all of the participants to share information
about other countries’ traditional and modern conservation practices for all types of buildings orconstructions, wholly or partially made of wood.
The training course included classroom and on-site lectures, and onsite practical trainingthat acquainted the participants with the fundamentals about the conservation of Japanese woodenarchitecture. It also gave participants a chance to discuss our ideas about the diversity of regional
wooden structures as well as the customs, beliefs, spiritual development, and aesthetic thinking ofdifferent people and different nationalities.
This training course has been an invaluable opportunity to receive knowledge about thecultural heritage of Japan and Asia Pacific region. Although it was mainly concerned with theconservation of wooden structures, it covered a vast area and other related topics.
We benefited not only from the lectures, but also from the arranged site visits, practicalwork, and lectures. For the free weekends, we were provided with the necessary travel information
so that we could to see more things in Japan.
I felt that the interesting point about the practical training at Toshodai-ji Temple was thediscussion concerning issues on restoration work and a workshop that allowed me to experience
restoration work procedures for an historic wooden structure. I also learned about the restoration
technique of joining new materials to damaged parts, and methods of fixing wooden pillars onto
base stones.
I hope that these techniques will be useful for restoration work in all of our countries. This272

training course has also allowed me to gain knowledge about how we can preserve historic districts
and townscapes.
The best method for conservation is to protect an historic building from the causes ofdamages; I had never thought about conservation in this way. I learned a lot concerning routineconservation, methods used to protect cultural heritage from various causes of damage and how we
can prevent damages. This function involves not only conservators but also the public andcommunity.
The study tour and site visits demonstrated the success of conservation work in Japan.
Communities and cultural properties can exist harmoniously. This is the result of suitable policies,
the cultural heritage protection system, and effective conservation practices. Communities andprofessionals are able to preserve these places in good condition and use them in a modern context.
During this training course I have learned about the protection of cultural property
buildings, the history of conservation, and the investigation, designation and registration of all
cultural properties. Finally, I have learned about different wood species used in traditional
Japanese wooden architecture.
Impressions on the System of Conservation in JapanI learned about the Japanese restoration and preservation methods for Cultural Heritage, such as:yHolding regular training program for craftsmen to develop their skills as well as theirknowledge of history and culture.

yProviding the owner with the knowledge for routine maintenance and repair and providing
financial support and technical assistance.

yPrompt damage control through maintenance and repair to take measures to prevent thedamage from worsening or spreading.

yPrecautions for natural disasters.

Acknowledgements
I am sincerely grateful to the Government of Japan and the ACCU Nara Office for inviting me to
Japan and providing me with this training course. Finally, I have to give special thanks to Dr.
Yasushi Nishimura, Ms. Kayoko Ishii, and Mr. Mark Diab and to all of the ACCU staff.
Thank you very much273

Myanmar
Daw Lwin Mar Oo
1. Introduction
The Cultural Heritage Protection Cooperation Office, Asia/Pacific Culture Centre for UNESCO(ACCU) in Nara, Japan organized the training course on the Preservation and Restoration ofCultural Heritage in the Asia-Pacific Region 2005, entitled “Preservation and Restoration of
Wooden Structure”. This course lasted about one month from 27 September 2005 to 28 October
2005. It was very comprehensive and consisted of very useful topics. There are 15 participantsfrom different countries in the Asia-Pacific region.
I am an assistant director of the Department of Archaeology, upper Myanmar. I have theresponsibility for the conservation of ancient monuments in upper Myanmar. These monuments are
made of stone, brick and wood. Due to disasters, most of the cultural properties all over the world
are faced with the danger of deterioration day by day. It is necessary to take immediate andeffective measures for the restoration and preservation of those cultural properties. Nowadays,
every country is trying to protect and preserve the cultural properties long time by various ways.
Myanmar is also trying to protect and preserve our cultural properties.

2. About the Training Course
All of the lectures were quite interesting and furnished me with much information about thetradition of wooden architecture in Japan and protection of buildings designated culturalproperties.
Japan has a long history of protection of its cultural heritage through legislation and othermeans. Those are protected by the Law for Protection of Cultural Properties. And I learned that the
government grants subsidies for the national treasures and provides other forms of support for thepreservation and restoration of designated cultural properties. In my country, cultural properties
have been also protected by the law for protection and preservation of cultural heritage regions
since 1998.
Japanese architecture is shaped by circumstances of climate, geography and customs. In
Japan, with its high humidity, seasonal change and plentiful forest, wood has been the traditionalbuilding material. Traditional Japanese architecture has good foundation, ventilation, airy rooms,
slanted roof, long overhangs and tatami mat-covered floors.
In the traditional Japanese architecture, tatami mat is one of the important elements. Its
fixed size that is different depend on region determines the building size.

274

We also observed Buddhist architecture, castle architecture, residences and Western-stylearchitecture. Japanese wooden buildings use two types of wooden construction methods, i.e.,
masonry construction and frame construction. Although masonry construction has existed in Japan
since ancient times, for climate or other reasons, it was not continuously practiced and was used
only for storehouse buildings. Frame construction has also been widely used for wooden building
since ancient times. Most of Japanese wooden buildings use the frame structures with posts thatbear the structural load.
In the three-day practical training at Toshodai-ji Temple, I learned about the restoration ofwooden buildings as follows:
Use the same type of wood as in the original construction, and follow the original forms andmethods.
Replacement is only permitted to heavily rotten or damaged elements.
Replacement may be done on elements that were changed under previous restoration works.
All restoration works and changes made must be fully documented.
One of the most important aspects I learned is the use of traditional materials andtechniques in the restoration of historic wooden buildings. Most of the wooden buildings in Japanare more than 500 years old, employing different method and tools in construction, as compared tomodern buildings. In the restoration of wooden structure, depending on the extent of damage,wooden member may be reused after being repaired with traditional method that uses plug, joint orgraft. Sometimes weakened members may be reinforced by filling gaps with artificial wood,synthetic resins such as epoxy and Araldite. However, this is avoided as much as possible, as
synthetic resin also faces problems of discolouration, cracking and peeling.
Temple buildings differ in shape depending on their functions as gate, main hall, or pagoda.
There are one-storied and two-storied gates, which have only two posts with either four props oreight props respectively. Almost all the Japanese historical structures are made primarily of woodwith paper screens, straw for mats, plaster and clay for mixed walls, and bark shingles or planks ortiles for roofs. Stone was largely avoided. We observed Todai-ji Temple, Kofuku-ji Temple, Nijo-joCastle, Toshodai-ji Temple, Sanmachi (Takayama), Higashiyama Higashi (Ishikawa) andIchijo-dani site (Fukui Prefecture).
Another important aspect of cultural asset preservation and restoration in Japan is thedisaster preparedness plan. One of the greatest threats to historic wooden buildings is fire, as theoutbreak of fire will destroy everything. It is no exaggeration that the history of preserving wooden
structures in Japan is in fact the fight against fire disaster. Japan has installed modern andsophisticated physical equipment in most historic wooden buildings. It was what I learned at
Sanmachi groups of Historic buildings (Takayama), Shirakawa Village and Higashiyama Higashi

275

(Ishikawa).
In Japan, such landscapes as historical gardens are seen as a part of the cultural assets andgiven due recognition, as most of these gardens were created in association with temples andshrines. Today, these gardens have become tourist attractions to the local and foreign visitors alike.
I am very grateful to have been given the opportunity to visit some gardens including Kenroku-en
Garden (Ishikawa Pref.), Ichijo-dani stone garden (Fukui Pref.) and Nijo-jo Castle garden.

3. Conclusion
Japan is one of the most advanced countries of the world, which has achieved great success inscientific and technological fields. Of course, preservation and restoration of cultural properties are
better done than in other countries. Through this training course, I have gained new ideas, newadvanced knowledge and improved my current technical skill, which world help to develop mycountry in the field of preservation and restoration of cultural properties. During this training
course, observations of the sites at different places gave me more new light on both traditional andmodern techniques of preservation and restoration of cultural properties, including sitemanagement. In all, this training course benefits me and Department of Archaeology in Myanmar
where I belong.

4. Acknowledgement
There are many things I leaned during this one month course, but time and space do not permit me
to cover all. I would like to express my since gratitude to ACCU (Nara Office) for giving me thisrare opportunity to further enhance my knowledge on the preservation and restoration of cultural
assets, particularly historical wooden building. Thanks to Mr. YAMAMOTO Tadanao, Director of
the Cultural Heritage Protection Cooperation Office UNESCO (ACCU), my training coordinators
Mr. NISHIMURA Yasushi, Ms. HATA Chiyako and Ms. ISHII Kayoko. They made all the efforts
to ensure that the course run smoothly as scheduled as well as translate for us, as most of thesubjects were delivered in Japanese. I will apply the useful techniques and methods of preservationof wooden monuments, which I learned in Japan in doing preservation works in Myanmar. I will
share my experiences with young conservators in my country. Thank you very much.

276

New ZealandTere-kaunuku Dean FLAVELL
The 2005 ACCU training course has been very stimulating and has provided a lot of subject matterto consider in the field of restoration and preservation of wooden architecture. From the outset of
the training programme, all participants were privileged to have had lecturers of high quality,
sharing their experiences, expertise and assistance in their various fields and professions.
I would like to express my gratitude to the following lecturers: Mr. Yamato Satoshi for the
introductory lesson in the history of protected buildings in Japan, and for explaining the system ofdesignation and registration of buildings. Also the explanation of traditions associated withwooden architecture found in Japan. Our visit to the Ninomaru Palace, Nijo-jo, where we got tomeet Mr. Numata Osamu a lecturer and painter based within the palace grounds, spoke to us about
the process of reproducing traditional artwork as a means of preserving original artwork. Mr.
Kubodera Shigeru gave us a workshop in the preservation and restoration of painted work. First,
we had a lecture at the ACCU classroom, and then at the Jibutsu–do at Todai-ji temple weparticipated in a practical workshop on painting and planning for paint restoration.
Prior to this lecture we attended a presentation from Dr. Myklebust of Norway, conservator,
who gave a very philosophical view of world cultural heritage and cultural values centred onwestern views of culture heritage.
Dr. Myklebust and Dr. Inaba attended country presentations and gave comprehensive
comments about the issues facing various situations that confront each of our countries, and also
gave comparisons on how Japan deals with similar issues of the cultural protection of wooden
structures and heritage in general.
I also found the lecture from Mr. Murakami Jin`ichi the Executive Director of the Japanese
Association for Conservation of Architectural Monuments (JACAM) interesting. He gave an
overall view of JACAM`s roll in Japanese restoration systems and the project planning ofimportant cultural properties. This was followed by an insight into the restoration project of the
Seki Family residence, presented by Mr. Nishioka Satoshi, also a member of JACAM. I think it
would be beneficial for New Zealand professionals in this sector to have some form of ongoing
relationship with JACAM.
The application of dendrochronology in Japan was delivered by Dr. Mitsutani from the
Nara National Institute for Cultural Properties, who gave a lecture comparing the Japanese
restoration methods with the Korean house. This mainly focussed on the differences found from Dr.
Mitsutani’s observations in his fieldwork. The practice of dendrochronology as an identification
system is informally used in New Zealand and could be utilised better in determining aspects of277

timber strengths, age and species.
The second practical workshop proved to be the most valuable as we were privileged to beable to work on-site under the guidance of the Toshodai-ji restoration staff; we participated in threeoccupations essential to restoration procedures associated with gathering information. First,
sketching and measuring joints, connecting members and supporting brackets (toshi-hijiki, maki-to,hiji-ki, Dai-to); these are only a few that I have mentioned. Secondly, the transfer of patterns
through two processes: wet rubbing to record tile decorative images, and dry rubbing to extract
information from wooden members. Third, the assessment of the Benten-sha shrine located within
Toshodai-ji Temple, this workshop was directed by Mr. Hatano Tsuneo who shared his knowledge
and expertise of how to analyse and develop pre-restoration information.
The lecture and site visit to Heijo Palace, (the Nara site museum) by Mr. Nakajima(NRICPN) and Mr. Yoshioka specified the importance of managing the preservation ofarchaeological evidence also the process of obtaining relevant information in regards to the historic
dimensions and style of the architecture. Mr. Yoshioka gave an example from the work he hadbeing involved with from the Ichijo-dani, Asakura family site re-construction in the Fukui
Prefecture which we visited on the last day of our second series of on-site lectures andobservations. The area I appreciated most was firstly the management of archaeological findings
into two categories. Primary materials directly linked to elements of past structural evidence andsecondary materials to determine the society and the overall period in which the city, town or
palace existed. This combination of evidence can also help ascertain the layout of a site as seen in
the Ichijodani example. Secondly and probably the more important is the application of educating
the public and this is where the basis of having interpretation centres on-site is valuable in thesignificance of displaying authenticity. The other obvious benefits of reconstructing such ancientsites are the practical attainments and preservation of traditional skills and knowledge. Which havelead to such initiatives as the Kanazawa Institute of Traditional Crafts, this in turn has created an
opportunity to facilitate employment and secure future protection from loss of traditional skills.
The Shirakawa-go village and Kanazawa historic buildings sites were the highlights. It washere that architecture, culture and identity blended together, and allowed me to gain an
appreciation of in situ architecture and environment.
The street markets and businesses of the Kanazawa historic buildings site displayedarchitecture that was preserved and maintained, while providing for contemporary usage. Bustlingwith tourists and Japanese visitors, who were there to experience the ambience of a traditionalmerchant streetscape, whether they realised it or not the visitor is sub-consciously observing thearchitecture that provides the background environment.
I found the Shirakawa-go village to be the most compatible with traditional Mäori
structures. The gassho style house structure and method of construction is very similar to the278methods used to create Mäori traditional houses from New Zealand. Commencing with thephysical appearance such as the high gabled roof structures with roof thatching to the lashingmethods used to secure the internal structural rafters, post members and roofing materials. The
method of using smoke for timber preservation against pest infestation is also a technique that was
utilised. Other similarities are the large open interior spaces that create an aura of serenity. The
earth rammed floors which have been evident throughout all Japanese styled houses is anothertechnique found in traditional Mäori houses although the components differ.
Similarities can also be found in the context of house architecture including storage
structures positioned in their natural environment, the proximity to mountains, rivers and valley
areas utilised for horticultural purposes, and historically close to natural resources that the village
community relied upon for their survival. The other consideration is the climatic change of seasonsand the influence this has on architectural design and customary practice such as winter storage.
Shirakawa-go, Ogimachi and Gokayama village people are situated within their original landscape,continuing to practice their unique lifestyle this has proven to have its advantages anddisadvantages. However the inspiration that they provide and share with all who visit is an
exceptional example of community spirit and commitment to preserve their customary traditions
and history.

Course Summary
I found the site visits very valuable in understanding the reasons why Japan implements full
restoration and partial restoration techniques of historical buildings. We were told that this practicesometimes raises areas of criticism about whether this is a truthful or proper method in maintaining
historic buildings.
My assessment of this practice after having an insight into these projects has given me
confidence that this method is appropriate in regards to:Assessing cultural values and the decisions made to accommodate change that isn’t
adversive to cultural needs.
yPreserving the integrity of cultural identity.

yAssisting in the preservation of historical evidence to sustain cultural history.

y

The practise assists in the preservation of traditional knowledge systems and skills
associated with traditional craftsmanship.

Suggestion for Future Training ProgrammesyPossible introduction of a one page evaluation form to be completed at the end of specifictasks or workshops to encourage comments. I think some people are not used to speaking

279

publicly or in front of large groups possibly due to shyness. Thus, in order to accommodate
their thoughts this could be an option; e.g. Toshodai-Ji practical training workshop could
have questions for each of the three topics briefly asking;1.

What were the most valuable skills learned from these topics

2.

Do you have similar methods in your own country for extracting designs?

3.

Would you apply this method in your own work?

4.

How do you feel about this particular workshop overall?

5.

What was your favourite area during the workshop activities, and why?
The theoretical and practical delivery of the training programme was well balanced. The

combination endorsed a solid comprehension of techniques and provided an insight into the workof the conservation architects and carpenters.
Throughout this month we have visited many historical sites. I have been intrigued at the
number of Japanese people who travel to such places as Nara, Kyoto and Shirakawa-go toexperience and learn their culture. This is an important factor in fostering a sense of identity which
in turn will promote national pride. Therefore the practise of restoring ones cultural identity
appears to have immense support by the Japanese public.
The economic advantages of restoring cultural identity and heritage are also elements forconsideration. Tourists visiting Japan have an expectation to be able to view the many temples,shrines and ancient cities whether promoted through tour packages, or visited by the low budget
back-packer, all want the same experience. The restoration of historical buildings including the
scenic beauty of their surrounding environment contributes largely to this market.
Japanese history could be likened to a fabric or tapestry woven into the natural landscape.
The Japanese culture is encompassing, its foundation stable. It accommodates and considers every
aspect of its past history, through science, professional research and traditional practice this is very
prominent throughout the areas we visited. In New Zealand the Mäori (indigenous people) have aterm “Turangawaewae” meaning “The land on which one can rightfully stand”. Japanese people
are the people of this land, proud and yet humble as a nation. In my humble opinion it is yourhistory, your culture and therefore the responsibility is yours to safeguard your own heritage.

Course overview
As the Tauranga Museum’s Poutiaki Taonga Mäori Curator, and practicing Tohunga Whakairo(Master Carver and Architect) I am grateful to have been selected as the New Zealandrepresentative to attend this course on the preservation and restoration of wooden buildings in Nara,
Japan. The knowledge from this month long course organised by the Asia/Pacific Cultural Centre
for UNESCO (ACCU) and in associated with the Rome-based International Centre for the Study of280the Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Property (ICCROM) has been an invaluable
opportunity to learn and exchange information and experiences from other cultures.
The occupation of heritage protection and preservation is an enormous responsibility
worldwide and there are many aspects within this context. However this course has focussed on thepreservation of wooden structures, which in my opinion is the most important in regards tomaterial usage in architecture. Wood as a material is prone to numerous conditions which canaffect its long term stability as a building material. This is evident in the lack of ancient wooden
structures that have survived in comparison to stone or brick architectural structures. Therefore if
we understand that wood is a perishable material then consideration needs to be given to how toextend its durability and longevity. This, I think, is what the Japanese are practicing.
As already indicated there are many aspects considered when dealing with the preservationof wooden architecture here in Japan. Application of the training I have received over the lastmonth will greatly increase the extent in how I approach my own work in the future. The level ofdetail that can be extracted from observation conducted in a systemic manner assists when
considering the best approach to conserve the integrity of a structure and its components.
The traditional craftsmanship of the carpenters combined with the guidance of theconservation architect and archaeologists are areas that I will endeavour to promote and practicewhen providing project feasibility assessment reports.
The degree of restoration practice opposed to complete replacement is also up for
deliberation as the cultural attitude still remains in most areas of New Zealand, that the structure
has a natural lifespan and there is no regard given to preserving the old. This way of thinking ischaracterised in a proverbial saying “To cast aside the old net and prepare the new”. The challenge
here is educating our people about the wider perspective towards the preservation of cultural
identity. This has been strongly reflected throughout the course.
To date archaeological evidence has been digitally recorded some with the addition ofcomputerised imagery, however nobody has successfully challenged the concept of reconstructing
on an original site. This I feel is mainly due to land ownership issues and the influence that thepractice of archaeology has in preserving an undisturbed site.
However, the basis of most significant archaeological sites in New Zealand are of Mäori
origin and range from fortified Pa sites, defensive ditches, terracing with palisading to extensive
gardening sites, and subterranean storage pits, as well as post holes and earth floors that indicate
house positions and sizes. Thus, in this regard it is relevant that Mäori begin to consider how wewant to manage our heritage.
New Zealand doesn’t currently have any architecture of world heritage status and it would
be unlikely that any traditional Mäori structures would gain such acknowledgement in the near281

future. I have however witnessed what a small dedicated agricultural community (Shirakawa-go)
can achieve. This is stimulating and has created a possibility for future aspirations in regards to theinterpretation of Mäori history in Aotearoa / New Zealand.

Acknowledgments
I would like to acknowledge all our lecturers and onsite presenters from the various
institutes, agencies and restoration work sites that provided their valuable time and expertise,
which I believe were very beneficial contributions to the success of this training programme. It hasenhanced my understanding and personal knowledge of techniques and management systems forthe preservation, restoration and conservation practiced here in Japan.
I would like to also commend our host staff from Nara ACCU, our course coordinator
Nishimura san and staff Ishii san (organiser), Mark Diab (course assistant), Hata Chiyako(interpreter), Yuri Nakamura (support), and thank you for your support and guidance throughout
the entire programme.
Arigatou gozaimashita

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Republic of Korea
CHO Eun Kyung
1. Introduction
The role of the ACCU Nara Office is mainly to help promote cultural heritage protection activities
in the Asia-Pacific region, thus it conducts a wide range of programs, with three primary functions,acting as an “Information Centre” and engaging in “Cooperation” and “Exchange”. This training
course belongs to the “Cooperation” part, especially ‘Group Training Courses’. The objective ofgroup training courses is to provide opportunities to learn the latest knowledge and techniques
regarding the investigation of archaeological sites, preservation/conservation science, andpreservation/restoration of historic buildings, all with reference to the characteristics of Japanesearchaeological sites and historic buildings.
Under these themes the ACCU Nara office prepared various programs. The programs forthe 2005 training course can be classified according to its contents. And based on this classification
I was able to give my opinions.

2. Development Possibilities According to the Composition of the Training Course
In my opinion, the composition of the training course is as follows:yprinciples of conservation for cultural heritage-

The presentation by Dr. Myklebust-

Future tasks in the preservation of cultural heritage

First, I want to have common sense for the conservation of cultural heritage in the
Asia-Pacific countries because many concepts and ideas of have been developed in Europe. It isdifficult to apply these concepts to Asia-Pacific countries. But, I came to realize that the principles
can be applied anywhere. We should make efforts to find and perceive the values of our cultural
heritage. Through these efforts we can identify our nation, our people, and so on. Occasionally weforget why we should preserve our cultural heritage. Without principles we may misunderstand thevalues and forgot to preserve them. This forgetfulness can result in serious problems. We should
hand down our cultural heritages to future generation. Also we should regard them as common
property. The important thing is not to forget these principles at all times. The methods andapplications can be changed according to our own countries, but the principles cannot be changed.
y

The Japanese system of conservation for cultural heritage-

Introduction to the cultural heritage protection system in Japan283

System and project planning for restoration of important cultural properties
Policy and problems regarding the conservation of Historic Districts in Japan
Cultural heritage preservation and restoration
I think the introduction of the Japanese system and the process of conservation is very
useful to many participants. Actually, many countries in the Asia-Pacific region do not have asystem for the conservation of cultural heritage yet. We can use the Japanese system as reference
data.
Actually, there are a lot of similarities in between the conservation system of Japan and
Korea. However, through the training course I could understand the Japanese system as a whole. In
my opinion, there are some characteristics of the Japanese system that are different from Korea.
First, it is impressive to me that the technical specialist, that is to say, the conservationarchitects from JACAM can control the whole repair or restoration work. I think it is very
important that the division of contractors and the conservation architects who have a lot ofpractical experience still take training courses. Based on this system the restoration work can be ofhigher quality in terms of the meaning of techniques, and the result is the conservation of cultural
heritage in the true sense of the word. Also it is very interesting there is another system especiallyin historical area like Kyoto, Nara and Shiga prefectures that have their own conservationarchitects. We have very important areas in history and they are designated as ‘ancient cities’.
These cities do not have so many historic buildings remaining. But, I think it will be possible toapply this system because there are many districts to be preserved in addition to their historicscenery. We have many problems, most notably a lack of specialists to design and plan historicsites.
Second, whenever they need conservation architects, they can have advice from theprofessionals from the Agency for Cultural Affairs or the National Research Institute. Conservation
work needs many various professionals like conservation science and architectural research. It isnecessary to have a close relationship between these other parts. Of course administrative support
is also very important.
The concept and methods of the application of the Japanese system
Design for the reconstruction of ancient buildings on the Nara Palace site
Comparative study on the theory of conservation and restoration in East Asian countries
Overall process of conservation in Japan
Landscaping and management of the sites
Protection of traditional techniques and materials for sustainable conservation
An introduction to the conservation science of wooden architecture
Dendrochronology in Japan and its applications

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These sessions showed us how they could apply their system in many other parts. I think
the emphasis of techniques and materials is the main characteristic in this training course. This is
the strong point in Japan. In many countries they have a tendency to overlook the importance ofmaterials and techniques. They consider only the result of their works. But without theconservation of primary resources, we cannot achieve sustainable conservation.
The comparative study was especially good for me. Most of the sessions wereintroductions of the Japanese methods and ideas but I think it needs comparison and exchange withother countries. All the countries in the Asia-Pacific region have already started the conservation
activities with perception of the importance of their own cultural heritage and many countries haveexperienced for many years with their own specialists. In addition to there are various
characteristics in other countries. Maybe the problems of complex wooden structure may exist only
in a few countries as like Korea, Japan and China. Eventually it’s time to exchange our own
experience rather than to get handed down. In this viewpoint, the comparative study is very good
trial. For this session I could think about the Korean way of conservation.
yactualizing of the concept and way : on-site observation
Clark memorial hall restoration in Doshisha university
Reproduction of paintings in Nijo-jo castle
Hida-Takayama
Shirakawa-go
Kanazawa
Ichijo-dani site
We could see the concrete actualization of Japanese conservation methods from theseon-site observations. The observations of various sites like the institute for craftsmen, thedismantlement site in Kanazawa, the preservation of historic buildings in some cities andreconstruction districts are very interesting and useful. Especially it was very impressive to see theclose relationship and cooperation between municipality and local people. Actually this is a very
difficult and serious problem to actualize. But the cities achieved to the successful cooperation andtheir community. In Korea the laws for the preservation of the historic buildings failed. I think oneof the causes was that the national government and municipality depended only on the legal force.
On the other hand, local people considered only their economic profit. Only through the continuous
negotiation and taking a broad view positively will be able to be resulted in the conservation anddevelopment.
yExperience of Japanese practical work
Investigation and restoration plan of painting in Todai-ji temple
Investigation and restoration plan of shrine in Toshodai-ji temple285Precise measurement in Toshodai-ji temple
Rubbing in Toshodai-ji temple
For these sessions we had technical training in Japanese methods. It was impressive that inJapan they regarded the traditional techniques as a part of their tradition and artwork. Because of
the development of equipments and tools so many changes are done in many fields nowadays. But
we know the importance of the traditional techniques. So the succession can be only the educationand training. In the field we could understand their will.
participant’s presentations: conservation for cultural heritage in many countries
As I said previously, exchange with other countries is very important. In spite ofdifferences in each country we have possibilities to get our common sense regarding theconservation for cultural heritage. We have common principles and experiences. Many countries in
the Asia-Pacific region have cultural heritage based on the same materials, religion, and historicalbackgrounds. Owing to these aspects we will be able to go forward using common sense. I came tounderstand this through the presentations of the participants.

3. Conclusion
From the training course I received knowledge about the conservation for cultural heritage. The
various sessions and practical trainings will be helpful to my work. I could compare the systems,
concepts and ways between two countries. I think there should be further cooperation in research
and administration between Korea and Japan. Of course this cooperation is being done already. But
more continuous and long-term plans are needed. Our cooperation will be useful to other countries.
We have more possibilities.
In addition to I could make important contacts with many other countries in the
Asia-Pacific region. But, above all the most important thing for me is to recognize what isconservation. I will always consider what we should do, why we should do it, and how we should
do it. These are most valuable lessons that I learned from this training course.

286

Sri Lanka
Hemantha Kumara BALACHANDRA
Introduction
The objective of this report is to indicate the knowledge gained from the ACCU training course andhow that newly acquired knowledge is applied to the preservation and restoration activities that I
am handling at present. Additionally, this report will evaluate the relevance of the course tocultural heritage protection in Sri Lanka.
The training course, which had duration of five weeks consisted of lectures, discussions,practical workshops, excursions and on-site lectures. The course dealt with the regulatory
framework for the protection of Cultural Properties, the methodology of conservation,
implementation and the management of heritage sites in Japan.

Law for the Protection of Cultural Properties
Cultural Properties in Japan have been categorized into three Groups. The first two groups which
are National Treasures/Important Cultural Properties and Registered Cultural Properties areincluded in the Antiquities Ordinance, this latter is the present law for the protection of Cultural
Properties in Sri Lanka. However, the third category which is the Preservation Districts for Groupsof Historic Buildings, decided by the Municipalities, is a system that has not been covered in thepresent law in Sri Lanka. This system can be considered as a system of decentralization and the
responsibility for preserving heritage is in the hands of the Municipality and the local residents.
The preservation Districts for Groups of Historic Buildings at Takayama-shi Sanmachi andHigashiyama Higashi and Kazuemachi at Kanazawa city are perfect examples of the effectivenessof this system. The two preservation districts have a group of buildings with a unique character andharmony. The two municipalities have very good cooperation with the community who owns theheritage, and the families living in the community also have a very strong relation ship. Therefore,both the municipality and the community are well aware of the value of their own heritage, a factthat ensures its protection.
Sri Lanka also has groups of buildings in municipalities. However, the municipality has no
responsibility towards the preservation of its own cultural heritage. All the designation andactivities for the preservation of their heritage operate only at the national level. Sri Lanka alreadyhas more than 100,000 designated sites, and the Department of Archaeology, which is the national
body for the protection of cultural heritage, is not in a position to manage all of these sites.
Therefore, introducing a concept similar to the one presently operating in Japan for the Protectionof Groups of Buildings at the Regional or Municipal level would be a good starting point for theprotection of heritage at the regional level.

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Methodology of Conservation
Repair with Total Dismantlement
The conservation system operating in Japan is based on the unique system of repair with total
dismantlement. When the monument is in a deteriorated condition especially in the case ofstructural deterioration, the system adopted is that of total dismantlement, repair of members andreassembly. In the case where the roof covering material has deteriorated, the method followed ispartial dismantlement. The system of total dismantlement is a totally new concept that has not beenin operation in Sri Lanka.
The three day workshop at Toshodai-ji Temple which belongs to the Nara Period A.D. 710-794 provided us with the perfect opportunity to study this system in detail. At the time ofinspection, the reassembly process was in operation and we were able to observe and understandthe bracket system that is a distinctive feature of wooden architecture in Japan. The exercise on the
preparation of the drawing of the bracket was immensely useful for understanding the structural
system, the geometry of the members, and the method for fixing them.
The introduction of hidden steel or timber members as method of reinforcement for the
purpose of structural stability against earthquakes and other destructive forces is also unique.
These reinforcements are also introduced after the careful analysis of all of the forces and stresses
to which the monuments could be subjected in the case of earthquakes and other disasters. Thisapproach shows the application of modern technology and scientific methods in the process ofrestoration. These methods are really applicable to countries like Japan as Japan experiences theearthquakes more often.
Total dismantlement as a method of repair for historic buildings is not practiced in Sri
Lanka. The reason for not practicing such a system is that the preservation of the authenticity ofthe structure and the materials are very important considerations in making decisions with regard
to the degree of conservation. Therefore, every attempt is made to repair the deteriorated members
without dismantling the structure. In critical cases where the structural members are in a
deteriorated condition to the extent that the structure is in a verge of collapse, partial
dismantlement and reassembly are carried out.
Structural Reconstruction in Historical Site Development
Structural reconstruction as a method of historic site development is also a distinctive system
adopted in Japan. This system of site development was observed in the reconstruction of ancientbuildings at the Nara Palace and the Ichijo-dani Asakura family site in Fukui Prefecture. The site
visits to these two sites provided an opportunity to have a very close observation of this system.
The site is first excavated and the material evidence of the buildings or structures was found. As
Japan has the tradition of making wooden buildings, in most cases only the base stone of thewooden columns are found. Based on this material evidence and the knowledge of timber building288

traditions of Japan, reconstruction is carried out. As the buildings are reconstructed, the visitor isable to get a clear and more distinctive picture of the historic site and its associated structures. The
project of reconstruction, especially the reconstruction of the Heijo Palace Site is on a huge scaleand requires an unprecedented cost.
In Sri Lanka, the reconstruction of archaeological sites is not carried out for historical site
development. Structures which are found from excavations are conserved and presented to thevisitor as they have been excavated. In Sri Lanka, most of the excavations reveal the foundations
and two or three layers of the original brick layers. In such cases only two layers made of bricks ofthe same size are added to the structure and presented. However, in using this method a visitor is
not able to comprehend the overall form of the structure and cannot perceive the three dimensional
aspect of the site.
Although the unique approaches to preservation and historical site development in Japanthat I learned during the course may not be not directly applicable to the our context as mentioned
above, the valuable in-depth knowledge gained from these approaches will definitely be useful inaddressing future challenges in the field of cultural heritage protection in Sri Lanka.
Conservation of Vernacular Settlements
The site visit to the World Heritage Site of the historic Village of Shirakawa provided an
opportunity to learn the concepts adopted towards the preservation of this unique village. The
Gassho Style houses and their distinctive feature of the thatched gable roof are in an excellent stateof preservation. The concepts that the community have been given, which is to take the leadingrole for the preservation of their own heritage is indeed appreciable. The formation of the
Preservation Board by the inhabitants themselves is a very appropriate method in preserving
vernacular heritage. Through this process, the community understands and appreciates the value of
their own heritage. The importance of community participation in the process of conservation isevident in this settlement and result of this process is remarkable.
Sri Lanka also has unique vernacular settlements, however not enough attention has been
made towards their preservation and these unique settlements are fast disappearing. Therefore, theapproaches learned in the protection of vernacular settlements in Japan is of utmost value.

Management and Presentation of Historic Sites
Presentation of the historic sites in Japan through the site museums, information Centres, site
brochures, site maps, signage are highly useful for a visitor to get a broader understanding of thehistoric sites. Open air museum at the Shirakawa site and the site museum at Ichijo-dani site
provided the opportunity to obtain the valuable information related to the history of the site and its
development before visiting the historic sites.
As the most of the conservation activities of the five World Cultural Heritage Sites under289

the Cultural Triangle Project in Sri Lanka is nearing completion, presently more emphasis is on thepresentation of those historic sites. Therefore methods and techniques learned in the presentationand management of historic sites is really appropriate at this juncture for the preparation of morecomprehensive site presentation and Management System.

Provision of Financial AssistanceJapan also has a system of providing subsidies for the conservation of Cultural properties. In somecases, these subsidies cover the cost of repair of the cultural property up to the extent of 80%. The
provision of subsidies encourages the owner of the cultural properties to undertake the repair or
restoration. The repair or restoration of cultural property requires a huge amount of resources in theform of both human and financial, unlike the repair of contemporary buildings. The repair of thehistoric building needs the skill of a craftsmen who is experienced in traditional technology andmethods, and traditional tools and materials that have properties similar to the materials used inhistoric structures. Therefore, the intervention of the authorities who are providing subsidies isvery essential for the successful implementation of the restoration project, as in most cases, theowner could not bear the enormous cost of repair.
This method of providing subsidies is very applicable to the World Heritage City of Gallein Sri Lanka. The world Heritage City of Galle has a unique set of Buildings creating a distinctive
streetscape. These buildings have timber colonnaded verandas and the façade walls contain verybroad timer windows and doors of unique character. Although the Archaeology Department has
introduced a set of guide lines, residents started changing the facades, especially replacing thehistoric doors and windows with aluminium partitions or other widows that can be produced withreadily available materials from the market at a low cost. This practice destroys the character of thestreets. The reason for the introduction of aluminium is that the reparation and maintenance oftimer doors requires continuous attention and more financial resources. If the Department ofArchaeology in Sri Lanka intervenes and provides subsidies as practiced in Japan, the introducingof aluminium partitions in place of timber doors and windows could be avoided. But, unfortunately
the Department is not in a position to provide financial subsidies due to a lack of financial
resources.

Training of Craftsmen
Knowledge of traditional techniques and methods is fast disappearing. The skilled craftsmen
experienced in traditional techniques are a prerequisite for the successful implementation ofcultural heritage protection projects.
Therefore, the establishment of a centre for the training of craftsmen in traditional methods
and techniques is very timely action taken by the Mayor of Kanazawa city. The training ofcraftsmen will keep traditional methods and techniques alive that will, in turn, make possible the290development of cultural heritage protection projects.
Sri Lanka also has the problem of a lack of skilled craftsmen experienced in traditional
methods and techniques of construction. Therefore, the craftsmen training college is a perfect way
to preserve traditional methods and techniques that are on the verge of extinction.

Conclusion
The ACCU training course provided me with in-depth knowledge of Japanese historic structures
and the unique methods for preserving them. The concepts and methods, and their application,
studied during the five week course will definitely equip me to meet future challenges in the fieldof restoration of cultural properties in Sri Lanka (as explained above). As far as the structure of thecourse is concerned, it can be divided into two main categories consisting of three weeks oflectures at the ACCU/NRICPN and two weeks of practical workshops at temples, sites, historic site
visits, and on-site lectures. If we had had two weeks of lectures and three weeks of practicalworkshops and on site lectures, it would have been more appropriate since conservation is ascience that has to be learned directly on the site, and experiencing the actual restoration work on
site.
The contents of the course were very appropriate and the coordination of the course
admirable. The distribution of the notes before the lectures was very useful so that we were able tobetter prepare for the lectures. This should not be the end of the training course as conservation is acontinuous learning process. The problems to be addressed in this sector can either be unique toparticular contexts or the country, or common to the Asia-Pacific region or world. Therefore, theexchange of information and dialogue that was initiated at the beginning of the course should
continue in the future between the ACCU Nara office and participants, and among the participants
themselves.

Acknowledgements
I would like to express my gratitude to the Japanese Government and the ACCU Office for giving
me an opportunity to participate in this valuable course on the restoration of cultural property. I
would like express my heartfelt thanks to the Director of the ACCU Nara office, Dr. Yamamoto,and also to Dr. Yasushi Nishimura, Ms. Ishii, Mr. Mark Diab and all of the staff of the ACCU officefor their excellent handling of the course from its inception to completion, providing all theguidance and necessary information. I also thank Ms. Hata for very skilful translation of thelectures and other relevant information. My thanks also go to all the lecturers for their expert workon the lectures. I also thank Ms. Yuri and Ms. Mayu for their assistance extended during thelectures and especially during the site visits.

291

TongaIshileli Vea TUITUPOU
Introduction
This paper is written according to in the requirements for the training course on the Preservation
and Restoration of Cultural Heritage in the Asia – Pacific Region, 2005 held in Nara Japan on 27th
September to 28th October.
This paper shall attempt to gather relevant information offered by the training course
relevant to the Tongan situation. At present Tonga has drifted silently in a preservation andrestoration program which is administered by the Tradition Committee under the auspices of the
Palace Office and His Majesty. Other sectors like churches and schools launch their own programswith their own funds or sponsors based on attaining symbolic value or merely preserving cultural
heritage in order to reinforce its identity and traditional line of interest.
The Ministry of Works in Tonga is responsible for the administration of Governmentbuilding facilities in which Royal Palace official command has been part of its assignment in themaintenance of palaces and associated facilities.
This training is relevant and timely as far as the Tongan situation is concerned since wehave been conscious of the preservation of architectural heritage. However Tonga is still needs to
set up a formidable administration structure, proper guidelines or policies to regulate work
procedures, ad hence, the enactment of laws to police such a conservation programme.
Tonga has to run preservation work with different concepts and ideas for the future.
Perhaps what is missing is nationwide attention to what is defined as preservation. This training
course has offered more than what is needed at this early stage in Tonga’s cultural heritage
protection plans. At least there are tools to lead the way and the rest of technical know how should
be simultaneously tested as time and budgets permit.

Lessons LearnedFirst, Tonga should attempt to define what conservation is in its overall perspective nationwide forits own interest. Second, a mission statement should be drawn up that defines its goal for thepreservation and restoration of cultural/architectural heritage. Third, an action and strategy plan
defining the magnitude, quality and quantity of its journey through at least the next five years.
Japanese lessons could be a guide.
A governing body is to set up to discuss and decide on:
Overview of certain characteristics of tangible and intangible cultural heritage to be qualified
292

for preservation or restoration programs.
Conservation practices considered suitable.
Extend the type of traditional techniques and materials for each type of preservation work.
The scope of preservation work to be done.
Discuss issues which may confront the preservation program.
Ministry of Works, Ministry of Education, and Palace Offices auspices have theappropriate expertise to share the responsibility in setting up this office.

Enactment of Laws
The plan mentioned above must acquire the support of a proper administrative structure in order tomonitor and regulate procedures and protect the interests of the people concerned with theconservation of cultural heritage.
This law shall cover:
Designated cultural properties
Define and register important cultural properties
Monitor classification and qualification of important cultural properties
The Japanese guidelines for selection are important. i.e.:
Aesthetic value
Historic value
Technical value
Academic value
Locality
The same administrative body will be responsible for offering incentives; Tonga shall be
tax exempt, lower development taxes, and any other subsidies should be applied.
In Tonga it would be feasible to classify important cultural properties by:building type and architectural value
type of accommodation
construction type and historic value (e.g. fale construction)groups of historic sites
Monuments
Japanese preservation and restoration ideologies could be guides for Tonga. Shrines andTemples are true architectural heritage for Japan and so is the Tongan fale (or traditional house).
However, in order for the fale to be restored in an authentic way, training of traditional builders

293and craftsmen should be revived.

Restoration Work – Toshodai-ji Temple
Japanese restoration work is authentic. Tonga may follow their ideas except the selection ofbuilders must be through the most transparent method of competitive bidding and the engagementof conservation architects must be reputable.
Traditional tools are available, however, training would be needed as surviving traditional
skills are about to disappear.
Important lessons to learn from the Japanese work are based on the investigation work thatneeds to be done. Decision making, as what to part to replace or to simply improve is done at earlystage before dismantling. One can feel the reluctance to do an entire replacement mainly for
maintaining authenticity. This is a good moral lesson for Tonga.
Conservation architects are obliged to make decisions on what to replace, and whatconnections to make during the dismantling stage. They must also explain the degree of expertisethat they possess.
A vast detailing option displayed on many sites again adds a lot of value to the degree ofauthenticity that the contractor must fulfil, hence the conceptual message for the entire restorationteam is clear.
The original design is very complex but would lead to an oneness theme that elevates theglory of Buddha, holiness, and eternal life. I personally feel the contactors attitude to the work
should be one of humility, respect, gentleness, diligence, and meticulous attention to detail. The
use of traditional tools orchestrated the whole show.
I believe that architectural expressions displayed in the vast detailing in the bracket system,
pillar size, beam and the rafters exaggerated shape has done an adequate celebration to the interior
ceremonial space itself.
Another good moral lesson for contractors in Tonga is to perform a good spiritual work forthe restoration of a temple if it is meant that temples are for people seeking salvation.
Careful recording of painting, decoration, and reviving work must complete the restoration
finishing touch because this is where the meaning of building functions come from. Maintaining
original traditional pigments is a difficult task, however, its present equivalent in local sources stilltells the story of authenticity. Only that timely recording of design could be attended before itschange by the ravages of nature. Tonga should undertake the accurate pre-recording of lashingpatterns before fales disappear.

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Gassho Houses and Group Historic Sites
Takayama, Shirakawa, Fukui Prefecture
Takayama offered great lessons on town restoration in wood construction. The functions of acommunity village are reflected in the improvement work. I wish to note that the scale and methodof monitoring the preservation work would be an ideal practice for Tonga,
I observed that refurbishment work coinciding with a revitalization of community
functions as explained in the tour. It is such a brilliant idea for the restoration of important culturalproperty with the improvement of people’s inner life.
The scale of preservation work has done well to gradually enhance the community with thebudget that it has. Incorporating the architectural façade improvement, sun shading features,
weather resistance features, and security features as well as the articulated restoration of cultural
heritage property. I believe this is an additional dimension to conservation in Japan.
Shirakawa-go offered broader techniques for preservation in Japanese traditional vernacularhouses. This is a good lesson for Tonga during the inception stage as far as budgets allow for a tryout period. Initiation of a proper infrastructure especially fire fighting services should restore
confidence within the village and visitors alike. Water storage reservoirs in many strategic
locations also give reserves in case of any droughts in the future.
I observed the logic of centrally located fire places, thus allowing a rising up at the open
vaulted roof space. Two major obvious reasons were to warm up the living areas and to keep
termites and insects away from the roofing. Not to mention that a beautiful dark red stain will coat
the wood structure over the long life of the house.
It was significant to note that the wood structure arrangement, size of members, andquantity of wood revealed the social status of the owner and the abundance of wood at Shirakawa.
As explained, the roof thatching method of tying roof battens is similar to the Tongan falecoconut leaf thatching. I think the history of this village is well told in a bold manner.
Kanazawa
The aim of establishing the institute for craftsman is logical. The training program allows themaintenance of traditional skills as long as the Restoration and Preservation program survives
within the district and in Japan. New techniques and research on new materials offers a bright
future to any challenges that the restoration work may face.
Restoration work at the Edo Mura Village site allows a good observation of wood structuresduring the dismantling stage. Recording and documentation processes were done in an orderly295

manner. My most exciting moment was viewing a structural pillar at the mid-upper floor. It waserected on a grid at ground level and curved toward the roof space to support roof joists at an
incline of the roof plane off of the grid. This pillar member was one long run log. This work ofarchitectural art and engineering occurred in the central bedroom, and is brilliantly displayed. It is
an important cultural property worth keeping.
Fukui Historical Sites –Yokokan, Ichijodani
The observation of a Samurai settlement is a lively story for me to contemplate during my lifetime.
It represents the unfolding of a real story. The architecture, layout planning, the scale, security
features, waterways and materials do explain the power and heroism of a warrior. It also reveals
the commitment, services and loyalty of the warlord to his master. The relics in the museum tellthat these warriors were simply human who had a lot of responsibility.

General Overview of the Training Course
The ACCU training program had a good logical order starting from day 1 in terms of theintroduction to conservation and preservation. Lectures, theories, and concepts were welldemonstrated during the on-site practical training and observations.
However there were little things that may need revising, such as,
It would be more helpful for understanding the course content to provide definitions orinterpretations of some frequently used terminology relating to the conservation and its
application to Japanese cultural heritage.
Preservation:

to explain its scale of work in Japan

Restoration: to explain that it differs from preservation and part replacement.
Technical words such as pillar as opposed to poles or posts.
Finally I found this training course very resourceful and informative indeed. Above all I
had such a great time in Nara with its mild weather in October.
My deepest gratitude go to all of the staff at the ACCU office, especially to Nishimura San,
Ishii San, Mark San, Hata San, and Yuri San for your help, care and patience during the five longweeks of my stay in Japan.

296This poem is dedicated for you all ACCU, Cultural Heritage Protection Cooperation Office
Arriving, thrilling at Kix
Konichiwa offer me opportunity to be rigid
Ohayo gozaimasu ACCU, I replied with a shaky speechHai, Tonga is here for cultural heritage to fix I plead
Hai, its commitment
Hai, its loyalty and humbleness
Hai, has echoed in work of your architects
Japan you have great reason to preserve
Such a rich cultural heritage
Participants it’s a lesson to learn
Asia – Pacific it’s a fortune to take and earn
For Tonga will be first to action a plan
Where time begins, Tonga gets up
and do something about your eroded Cultural Heritage.
Arigato Gozaimasu
Malo Aupito, Nofo a
From participant of The Kingdom of Tonga
Farewell SongAlu a ko e
Mo ke fiemalie x malie
Kuo ke motuhi mai au
Keu tau moe ofa mamahi
Sing sayonara to you
So sad to leave ACCU x aacu
Nara temples with garden of beauty
Will ponder my memory for good297

Thailand
Chamorn PORAPAKPRALAI
I. What I Have Seen?
1. To Share
The first thing I found here is to Share,
To share Experience,
To share Friendship, Brotherhood and Sisterhood,
To share Difference,
To share Information,
To share Ideas
To share Equality
2. The Spirit of Nationality
In this Land the Culture seem to have been deep rooted in the souls of the Japanese people. They
try to reserve witnesses of their nationality. They declare the existence of the Japanese people inthe mind of globalization current in the West and America. They appreciate the aesthetics of theirnational culture, and define it as the most precious matter. So, they are proud of what they havebeen, what they are, and what they will be.
3. Develop Ourselves
Everyday, I have to develop my mind by myself, ready for new fresh matters.
One of the Buddhist teachings is that every one has a seed of Buddha’s soul and may growup to be the final state of the human soul. The only thing to do is to develop ourselves everyday
through training. This can be appreciated from the following Zen poem:
Word of each day;Each day in life is training

Training for myself

Though failure is possible

Living each moment

Equal to anything

Ready for everything

I am alive, I am this moment

my future is here and now

For if I can not endure today

When and where will I?

By Soen OZEKI, Disen-in
4. Simple is the BestI have seen museums in Nara, Kofuku-ji temple, Toshodai-ji temple, and the Nara Palace Site. I298

hoped to see high technology instruments for presentation in exhibition rooms, but I found only aguide and a simple way to show materials. Everyone can understand and appreciate these methodsof presentation. I realized that there is no need to use high technological tools for these purposes.
I was surprised to see many examples of empty rooms, no need for furniture, nothing inside
the rooms, and only a place to see the gardens outside.
I was also astonished when I went to Kyoto by myself to see an empty garden in a Zen
temple, there was nothing to see over there but many things to think about.
5. Complexity and Contradiction
Japanese Architecture is always based on a rectangular, simple plan, and simple form, but it has acomplicated roof structure inside and shows some parts of eaves and support members as if they
were decorated members.
At the same time, the traditional style of architecture is based on a modern style of life.
We have always seen many reinforced concrete buildings and bridges made of wood. Theybeg the question: are they made of concrete or wood?
To keep the image of traditional agricultural villages, sometimes inhabitants have to stop
the demands of their modern, such as a having new cars, a new room, a new house, even if they can
support it or not. It looks like the socialist way.
Expensive high technological shelters for village houses or any site are sometimes made.

II. Similarity and Difference
1. Cultural Property Definition
Japanese divide cultural property into two parts, on the one hand they have tangible property andanother is intangible property. Craftsmanship and Carpenter Skills are also included as Intangible
property.
In Thailand, we have at least two types of Craftsman and Carpenters, one for high classcraftsmen, and another for normal craftsmen. The high class Craftsmen means craftsmen who areskilful at high traditional arts to serve religion and royal court work such as mirror work, lacquerand golden leaf, wooden carving, traditional painting, and stucco. However, certainly it does notinclude normal carpenters who work on village houses or vernacular houses even though they may
be skilled carpenters.
For tangible cultural property, we define groups of historical building as cultural property
but we never include vernacular houses.

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2. Designate
Recently we just started System of Designation of Cultural monuments. We have 2 Main
Definitions for our monuments: The National Class and Regional Class. We separate the National
Class into 4 levels:
Very Important Cultural Monuments
Important Cultural Monuments
Cultural Monuments
Cultural Inheritance
We just started but we have many problems. The important problem is to understand the
problem, and classification, confusion, and equipment, laws, rights, management and any researchneeded for support.
The Japanese system may be a good example that we can apply to our system, but it may
take a long time to be a practical system for the designation of Thai cultural monuments.
3. Organization
Mr. Murakami from JACAM gave a lecture on the 11th of October. He introduced us to the role of
JACAM. It taught me about a new way to create an excellent organization, free from general
official practices, and also to use good methods for monument management, such as forclassification systems, owners of monuments, architects, techniques, and times.
4. Policy
The policy of prefectures to control towns and city systems is an interesting science. Naraprefecture is a good sample for the benefit of cultural monuments, such as Nara Palace, Toshodai-ji
temple, and other sites.
yLaws
In 1868 Japan started to enforce The Law for Preservation of Ancient Shrines and Temples.
Another law came into effect later such as the,-National Treasure Protection Law in 1929
-Law for protection of Cultural property
Then after 1996, Japanese administrators created laws to covers all types of cultural
heritage, including historical group buildings, vernacular buildings, and technical skills.
However, in Thailand we have only one Law for Cultural Monuments. It is called
them “Monuments, Ancient Object and Museum Law” and was created in 1957, and revised
twice. Some parts of it are devoted to controlling and protecting cultural monuments, but
the definition of Thai monuments seems narrower than that for Japanese monuments.
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yBudgets
In Japan, much more money is spent for the preservation, protection, conservation,
restoration, and reconstruction of cultural heritage. Sometimes budgets for shelters
exceeded our budget for the conservation of Thai cultural monuments. Certainly, thebudget for Japanese cultural monuments is very high for equipment and risk prevention
such as fire protection systems, seismic protection, and others. It seems to be a habit for theJapanese government to pay a lot of money for these systems.

y

Tax incentives
These ways are very interesting for me. It seems fair for everyone who works with culturalmonuments to pay only some part of the maintenance and conservation costs of theirmonuments. And it is also better to have some money from the government to subsidize thecosts. We have not begun to start this type of program in Thailand yet.

yConservation Methods and Decisions
There are many decide to be made regarding the conservation of cultural monuments, suchas whether or not to dismantle some parts, engage in reconstruction, protect and preserve,
and others. It makes me realize that we should select only the right way to conserve
cultural heritage. In addition, we need procedures and strategies for managing this way tosucceed.

yTraining
Training for Risk preparation and Training for equipment
Training always takes place everywhere in Japan. The discipline of Japanese people may
be stricter than Thai people. More and more they understand the way to train for risk
preparation. And they are also ready to pay for this training. This training may be hard to
do in Thailand.

yRecording and Documentation
A very good way to save precious data is to have many copies and keep them in different
places. I have seen this method during the training course.
Construction
When I visited the Nara offices and institutes I realized that both Thai architects andJapanese architects use similar methods to create accurate architectural drawings. The main
method is to draw in true size (or scale).

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5.

Architectural Monuments

From Sukhothai and Ayutthaya, to Bangkok, we do not have the same scale wooden architecture asin Japan, especially regarding the architecture in Nara city. We have large buildings but they
always have brick-bearing walls and wooden roof structures. Our widest span for wooden roof
structures may be at the Emerald Buddha Hall. It is around 15-18 metres, however, it may be achild compared with the Daibutsu Hall at Todai-ji Temple.
I was so astonished to know later, that Nara city was the capital city of Japan for only 84
years. This is such a short time for a big scale city full of giant architecture. It has been a heavy
duty for the Japanese government to protect and reconstruct many of its precious architectures.
Some projects took 10 years, and thus we have to buy a 500 yen ticket everywhere we visited tosee inside or pray--sometime to see only only one room.
Complicated roof structures were always used in Japanese architecture, but they are so hardto understand, and it is especially hard to understand that these beautiful structures will be coveredby ceilings later. This way of covering roof structures may be a similar idea to ours, but in manycase we frequently show roof structures.
Cypress wood is always used for all members of architecture. Cypress wood is softwood.
Because of this reason we usually have structures for beams and columns.

III. Adaptation for Thai Cultural Heritage
1. Practice for Cultural Monuments
The following may be some ways that I should adapt precious Thai cultural heritage:yDon’t hurry to do anything on cultural heritage sites.

yDon’t let anybody decide to do anything on our heritages, until we study every bit of
information, such as,
Excavation, evidence, archives, photographs, and public reactions
Investigation and examination,
Brainstorm and discussion,
Study sites as much as possibleyKeep the originality as much as we can.

yHeritage conservation has to have:
The right time and space
The right management methods and strategies,
The right people and organizations,
The right understanding and intentions,
But every item will be worth nothing, if we don’t have the spirit of conservation.
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I have received this spirit of conservation in the Japanese way, and I have a duty to
distribute it to other people.
2. Laws and Organizations
Thailand needs to improve its monument and tax laws in order to cover all types of cultural
heritage to match the standards as Japanese laws. Thailand also needs to create policies to induce
the cultural monument owners to coordinate with government organizations.
At the same time, Thailand needs to develop the organization involved in cultural heritage
roles in order to be free from general office practices, such as annual budget systems, budget
investigation systems, ordinary contractor employment systems, and ordinary official managementin general.
I wish to thank every staff member at the ACCU Nara office, all researchers and institutes,
and every course participant.

303

Vietnam
VO Dang Phong
Preamble
I would like to acknowledge my sincere gratitude to the Vietnamese National Commission for
UNESCO, Quang Nam Provincial People’s Committee, Hoi An People’s Committee, Hoi An
Centre for Monuments Management and preservation, and especially to ACCU who facilitated thegood chance and helped me to attend this training course. I would also like to thankwholeheartedly all of the ACCU officers for the assistance during our stay in Japan. In addition, I
would like to thank all of the professors, managers, and researchers who kindly helped and guided
us during the training course.
It was a good opportunity to understand more about Japanese architecture as well as therelic management, restoration measures, project building methods and heritage conservation for the
future. However, we also had a chance to exchange our opinions and work together (15 participantsfrom 15 countries) about restoration measures and the management of each kind of property inmany countries.
Once again, I give my kind thanks to ACCU and their officers who gave us a good
opportunity in order that we can learn more on the conservation principals of Japan. The
knowledge will help me and also all participants in our work.

The Training Course Content
During the one month of this training course, which was not too short and also not too long, wehave learned many matters on the management, preservation and restoration of architecturalmonuments as well as how to preserve each kind of monument. We have also learned much on thepreservation methods for all kinds of architecture, and the materials used in relics (especially forwooden architectural relics). The experiences in the restoration, management, and steps in therestoration process during the lectures and on-site work will be very useful to us. In addition, we
also directly implemented some stages of restoration work in order to understand more about thecarefulness of restoration.

Comments on Japanese Traditional Architecture
Through the class lectures, reference documents at the ACCU office library, the practicalworkshops site visits, surveying some restoration sites as well as restored properties, I realized thatJapanese traditional architecture is very human. Despite these thorough course components, I havenot fully understood Japanese traditional architecture. It is closely mixed with its nature. The
304

architectural buildings are rather harmonious with their existing landscape. Depending on the
climate of each area, the former inhabitants built many architectural buildings (such as houses)
suitable to the climatic conditions (for example: houses with thatched – roofs or shingle-roofs).
Japanese traditional architecture is not only attached to important natural landscape, and has
external ornamentation, but also it has internal ornamentation, especially gardens in courtyards(gardens in houses have a unique style in Japan). Some structures like bancon, console and main
doors also fully show the Japanese culture and behaviour regarding the cold climate.

Restoration in Japan
Before attending the training course on architectural building restoration in Japan held by ACCU, I
had many opportunities to research Japanese architecture from JICA experts who carried out
historical house restoration at Hoi An. Part of my training included consulting documents andbooks of many domestic and foreign specialists on restoration experiences in Japan. But, this was
only theoretical work. However, after attending this training course with its practical workshops, I
release that Japan is interested in all kinds of architectural buildings and carries out careful,authentic architecture (based on archaeological results, historical documents and photos).
Restoration measures are also implemented methodically. The restoration materials are also chosencarefully. Apart from the use of modern machines (in some stages for saving money and labour),Japanese researchers and administrators have fully observed their restoration principals. In
particular, they use traditional tools for the maximum protection of the authenticity of relics.

Comparing Vietnamese Restoration Measures, Especially Hoi An, to JapanThe conservation process includes policies and principles from UNESCO and belongs to theexisting conditions of each region and country. Viet Nam in general and Hoi An in particular also
have conservation measures similar to the knowledge I learned in Japan. However, there are somedifferences in tools, materials, and architectural building categories. Another feature is adaptation
after restoration (especially traditional houses).
Hoi An is like a “living museum” where many generations also live in one house. So, thecomplete implementation of restoration measures is very difficult. The conservators in Hoi An,
myself included, always try to keep the authenticity of ancient towns but also try to meet thedemands of modern life. Until this time, I would like to say that Hoi An people have had successful
results in preserving the ancient town by creating a high level of awareness and through the kindparticipation of many communities.
In Japan, the state owners’ relic preservation system does not face any difficulties. The
conservation here seems to be carried out very well. However, for private relics, there are few
inhabitants living in the house. Gradually, the traditional activities will be lost. Thus, apart from305

the tangible conservation, Japanese people should also protect their intangible culture.

Conclusion
Historic architectural building preservation, especially the preservation of UNESCO world cultural
heritage sites is difficult work not only because of the lack of experience of people who directly
preserve heritage, but also due to the complex government policies, differing points of view,
economics, and culture. In addition, cultural heritage preservation is also influenced by existing
living conditions, the awareness of local inhabitants, tourism, and even war.

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A.

List of Participants

Bangladesh
Firoz AHMED
Estimator(Conservation Asstt) Conservation Section
Department of Archeology 22/1-Block-B, Babar Road,
Mohammadpur, Dhaka-1207
Tel:(+880)2-9113387 Fax:(+880)2-8112785
archaeology@agnionline.com / firsabd@agnioline.com
BhutanDorji YANGKI
Head of Division, Architect
Division for Conservation of Architectural Heritage,
Department of Culture, Ministry of Home and Culture Affairs
Post Box 233, Thimphu
Tel: (+975)2-322694/2-321285 Fax: (975)2-321285
dyangki@druknet.bt

CambodiaThan SIM
Chief of Conservation Section
Monument and Archaeology Apsara Authority
Angkor Conservation, Siem Reap Province
Tel: (855)63-760-662 Fax: (855)63-760-079
apsara.dma@onlinecom.kh

Indonesia
Rina PRIYANI
Researcher
International Council On Monuments & Sites (ICOMOS), Indonesia
Jalan Llre Martadinata No.209 Bandung
Tel: (62)22-2501439 Fax: (62)22-2501263
priyani@p2par.itb.ac.id

Iran
Mehrdad JAVADIHead of Conservation Department
Technical Office, The Deputy for Preservation and Restoration
Iranian Cultural Heritage and Tourism Organization
Masoudieh Historical Complex, Ekbatan Ave., Baharestan Square, Tehran
Tel: (98)21-3111130 Fax: (98)21-3111139
mehrdadjavadi2003@yahoo.com

309

Kazakhstan
Lazzat Serikbayevna BEISEMBAYEVA
Senior Conservation Engineer
Department of NIPIPMK for Conservation Planning in the City of TurkestanState Institute for Scientific Research and Planning on Monuments ofMaterial Culture
21 Tole bi Street, 050010 Almaty
Tel: (+7 3272) 914386 Fax: (+7 3272) 916111
nipi_pmk@nursat.kz
Malaysia
A Ghafar Bin AHMAD
Associate Professor
School of Housing, Building and Planning
Universiti Sains Malaysia 11800 Penang
Tel: (+60)4-6532820 Fax: (+60)4-6576523
aghafar@usm.my

MongolBatbyamba LUTKHUUArchitect Restorator
Suld-uul Co. Ltd.
Building #2, 5th Khoroo, 5th Microdistrict, Sukhbaatar District, Ulaanbaatar
Ulaanbaatar 21 P.O.Box1064
Tel: (976)11-319046 Fax: (976)11-315058
suld_uul@mobinet.mn

Myanmar
Daw Lwin Mar Oo
Assistant Director
Cultural Heritage Division,
Department Archaeology, Ministry of Culture
Corner of 70th and 28th Street, Mandalay
Tel: (95)2-36365 Fax: (95)1-512136 / 1-544944

New ZealandTere-kaunuku Dean FLAVELL

Curator, Poutiaki Taonga Maori
Department of Maori and Pacific Collections, Tauranga Museum
28 Newton Street, Private Bag 12022 Tauranga
Tel: (07) 574 8432 Fax: (07) 574 8462
deanf@tauranga.govt.nz

310

Republic of Korea
CHO Eun Kyung
Researcher
Division of Architectutal Studies
National Research Institute of Cultural Heritage472, Munji-dong, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon 350-380
Tel: (+82)42-860-9213 Fax: (+82)42-861-4926
cek92@nricp.go.kr

Sri Lanka
Hemantha Kumara BALACHANDRA
Assistant Director
Central Cultural Fund
Ministry of Cultural Affairs and Nationa l HeritageNo.212/1, Bauddhaloka Mawatha, Colombo 07
Tel: (94)11-2595447 Fax: (94)11-2500731
hemb@sri.lanka.net

Thailand
Chamorn PORAPAKPRALAI
Architect
Monument Conservation Group, Office of Archaeology
Fine Arts Department
81/1 Sriayudhia Rd., Vajira, Payathai, Bangkok
Tel: (662)281-3482 Fax: (662)281-3947
chamornaaa@yahoo.com

Tonga
Ishileli Vea TU'ITUPOU
Chief Architect
Building Division, Architectural Section, Ministry of Works
P.O.BOX 52, Vaololoa, Nuku'Alofa
Tel: (676)23-100 Fax: (676)25-440
mowbldg@tonfon.to

VietnamPhong Dang VO
Architect, Deputy Chief
Department of Speciality in Monuments Management
Hoi An Centre for Monuments Management and Preservation
51 Tran Hung Dao St. Hoi An, Quang Nam
Tel: (84)510-862367 Fax: (84)510-861779
ttqlbtdt@dng.vnn.vn

311

B. List of Lecturers
Lecturers from Abroad:
Dag MYKLEBUST
Senior Advisor on International Affairs
Norwegian Directorate for Cultural Heritage
P.O.Box 8196 Dep, N-0034, Oslo, Norway
Office Phone: (+47) 22-94-0400 Office Fax:(+47) 22-94-0404
E-mail: dm@ra.no
NISHI Kazuhiko
Project Manager
International Centre for the Study of the Preservation and Restoration of Cultural
Property (ICCROM)
Via di San Michele 13, I-00153 Rome, Italy
Office Phone: (+39) 0658553388 Office Fax: (+39) 0658553349
E-mail:kn@iccrom.org

Lecturers from Japan:
YAMATO Satoshi
Architect, Senior Specialist for Cultural Properties
Agency for Cultural Affairs, Japan
2-5-1 Marunouchi, Chiyoda, Tokyo 100-8959
Office Phone: (+81) 3-5253-4111
E-mail:syamato@bunka.go.jp
SHIMADA Toshio
Senior Researcher
Architecture Section, Department of Heijo Palace Site Investigations
National Research Institute for Cultural Properties, Nara
2-9-1 Nijo-cho, Nara 630-8577
Office Phone: (+81) 742-30-6832 Office Fax: (+81) 742-30-6730
INABA Nobuko
Section Head
Project Planning and Coordination Section
Japan Centre for International Cooperation in Conservation
National Research Institute for Cultural Properties, Tokyo
13-43 Ueno-koen, Taito-ku, Tokyo 110-8713
Office Phone: (+81) 3-3823-2150 Office Fax: (+81) 3-3823-4867
E-mail:ninaba@tobunken.go.jp
SHIMIZU Shigeatsu
Researcher
Architectural History Research Section, Cultural Heritage Division,
National Research Institute for Cultural Properties, Nara
2-9-1 Nijo-cho, Nara, 630-8577
Office Phone: (+81) 742-30-6812 Office Fax: (+81) 742-30-6811
E-mail: shimizu@nabunken.go.jp
KUBODERA Shigeru
Section Head
Architectural History Research Section, Cultural Heritage Division,
National Research Institute for Cultural Properties, Nara
2-9-1 Nijo-cho, Nara, 630-8577
Office Phone: (+81) 742-30-6812 Office Fax: (+81) 742-30-6811
E-mail: kubodera@nabunken.go.jp

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MURAKAMI Jin’ichi
Executive Director
The Japanese Association for Conservation of Architectural Monuments
1-28-10 Hongo, Bunnkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0033
Office Phone: (+81) 3-5800-3391 Office Fax: (+81) 3-5800-3390
E-mail: kikaku@bunkenkyo.or.jp
http://www.bunkenkyo.or.jp/en/index.html
NISHIOKA Satoshi
Technical Researcher
The Japanese Association for Conservation of Architectural Monuments
1-28-10 Hongo, Bunnkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0033
Office Phone: (+81) 3-5800-3391 Office Fax: (+81) 3-5800-3390
E-mail: kikaku@bunkenkyo.or.jp
http://www.bunkenkyo.or.jp/en/index.html
HATANO Tsuneo
Councillor
The Japanese Association for Conservation of Architectural Monuments
1-28-10 Hongo, Bunnkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0033
Office Phone: (+81) 3-5800-3391 Office Fax: (+81) 3-5800-3390
E-mail: kikaku@bunkenkyo.or.jp
http://www.bunkenkyo.or.jp/en/index.html
HAYASHI Yoshihiko
Specialist for Cultural Properties
Cultural Properties Preservation Division, Nara Prefectural Board of Education
30 Nobori-oji-cho, Nara 630-8501
UEDA Tetsushi, Deputy Director
HOTTA Yujiro
TOUNOUCHI Yasushi
Toshodai-ji Office of Cultural Properties Preservation,
Nara Prefectural Board of Education
13-46 Gojo-cho, Nara 630-8032
Office Phone: (+81) 742-34-9275 Office Fax: (+81) 742-34-9276
NAKAJIMA Yoshiharu
Researcher
Site and Garden Research Section, Department of Cultural Heritage
National Research Institute for Cultural Properties, Nara
2-9-1 Nijo-cho, Nara 630-8577
Office Phone: (+81) 742-30-6847 Office Fax: (+81) 742-30-6846
YOSHIOKA Yasuhide
Manager
Cultural Properties Protection Section
Cultural Division, Fukui Prefectural Board of Education
3-17-1 Oote, Fukui 910-8580
Office Phone: (+81) 776-20-0582 Office Fax: (+81) 776-20-0672
NAGAO Mitsuru
Specialist
Agency for Cultural Affairs, Japan
2-5-1 Marunouchi, Chiyoda, Tokyo 100-8959
Office Phone: (+81) 3-5253-4111
E-mail: nagao@bunka.go.jp313

TAKEUCHI Masakazu
Specialist
Agency for Cultural Affairs, Japan
2-5-1 Marunouchi, Chiyoda, Tokyo 100-8959
Office Phone: (+81) 3-5253-4111
KAWANOBE Wataru
Section Head
Restoration Material Science Section, Department of Restoration Techniques
National Research Institute for Cultural Properties, Tokyo
13-43 Ueno-koen, Taito-ku, Tokyo 110-8713
Office Phone: (+81) 3-3823-4922 Office Fax: (+81) 3-3823-4835
E-mail: kawanobe@tobunken.go.jp
MITSUTANI Takumi
Section HeadPalaeonvironment Section, Centre for Archaeological Operations
National Research Institute for Cultural Properties, Nara
2-9-1 Nijo-cho, Nara 630-8577
Office Phone: (+81) 742-30-6845 Office Fax: (+81) 742-30-6856
takumi@nabunken.go.jp

On-site Lecturers:
TSURUOKA Noriyoshi
Specialist for Cultural Properties
Board of Education, Kyoto Prefecture
601 Genbucho, Kamigyo-ku, Kyoto 602-8580
Office Phone and Fax: (+81) 75-213-4038
SAKAI Kiyoshi
Office of Moto-rikyu Nijo-jo
Culture and Citizen Affairs Bureau, Kyoto CityNUMATA Osamu
Artist Painter
Office of Moto-rikyu Nijo-jo
Culture and Citizen Affairs Bureau, Kyoto CityIMANISHI Yasuyoshi
Operations Division
National Research Institute for Cultural Properties, Nara
2-9-1 Nijo-cho, Nara 630-8577
Office Phone: (+81) 742-30-6739
TANAKA Akira
Director
Takayama Museum of Local History
75 Kami-ichinomachi, Takayama-shi, Gifu
Office Phone: (+81) 577-32-1205 Office Fax: (+81) 577-35-1970
OSAKI Keisuke
CuratorTakayama-shi Municipal Board of Education
2-18 Hanaoka-cho, Takayama-shi, Gifu 506-8555
Office Phone: (+81) 577-32-3333 Office Fax: (+81) 577-35-3172
E-mail: bunkazai@city.takayama.gifu.jp314

MATSUMOTO Keita
The World Heritage Shirakawa-go Gassho Style Preservation Foundation
2495-3 Ogimachi, Shirakawa-mura, Ohno-gun, Gifu 501-5627
Office Phone: (+81) 5769-6-3111 Office Fax: (+81) 5769-6-3113
KONDOH Hisayoshi
Shirakawa-mura Board of Education
517 Hatogaya, Shirakawa-mura, Ohno-gun, Gifu 501-5692
Office Phone: (+81) 5769-6-1311 Office Fax: (+81) 5769-6-0016
SENBO Tetsuo
Lecturer
Kanazawa Institute of Traditional Crafts
1-1 Daiwamachi, Kanazawa 920-0046
Office Phone: (+81) 76-265-8300 Office Fax: (+81) 76-265-8301
TOISHI Hisanori
General Manager
Kanazawa Institute of Traditional Crafts
1-1 Daiwamachi, Kanazawa 920-0046
Office Phone: (+81) 76-265-8300 Office Fax: (+81) 76-265-8301
ISHIURA Yuji
Chief
Municipal Government of Kanazawa City
1-1-1 Hirosaka, Kanazawa 920-8577
Office Phone: (+81) 76-220-2208 Office Fax: (+81) 76-220-2069
OOKURA Yasuo
Researcher
Municipal Government of Kanazawa City
1-1-1 Hirosaka, Kanazawa 920-8577
Office Phone: (+81) 76-220-2208 Office Fax: (+81) 76-220-2069
MIZUNO Kazuo
Deputy Director
Ichijodani Asakura Family Site Museum
4-10 Abaka-cho, Fukui 910-2152
Office Phone: (+81) 776-41-2301 Office Fax: (+81) 776-41-2494

Other Assisted Organizations
Todai-ji Temple
Toshodai-ji Temple

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C.

List of Interpreter and Tutors

HATA Chiyako (Interpreter)
Training Coordinator
JICE Osaka
Ibaraki-Daidoseimei Bldg. 2F
5-10 Nishi-ekimae-cho, Ibaraki, Osaka 567-0032
IWADE Mayu
Special Researcher
Japan Centre for International Cooperation in Conservation
National Research Institute for Cultural Properties, Tokyo
13-43 Ueno-koen, Taito-ku, Tokyo 110-8713
NAKAMURA Yuri
Graduate Researcher
Graduate School of World Heritage Studies, Tsukuba University
SAWADA Chikako
Graduate Researcher
Graduate School of Human Culture, Nara Women’s University
KUROSAWA Ayako
Interpreter

D.

List of Staff Members, ACCU Nara

YAMAMOTO Tadanao, Director
nara@accu.or.jp
KOMEDA, Muneo, Deputy Director
komeda@accu.or.jp
NISHIMURA Yasushi, Director of Programme Operation Department
nyasushi@accu.or.jp
ISHII Kayoko, Chiefishii@accu.or.jp
Mark DIAB, training course assistant
Cultural Heritage Protection Cooperation Office,Asia/Pacific Cultural Centre for UNESCO (ACCU)
757 Horen-cho, Nara 630-8113
Office Phone: (+81) 742-20-5001 Office Fax: (+81) 742-20-5701
nara@accu.or.jp
http://www.nara.accu.or.jp/(Staff involved in the Training Course)

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