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The Executive Council of the International Advisory Board

Mr Mitsumasa Aoyama
Director, The Yufuku Gallery, Tokyo, Japan

Professor June Henton
Dean, College of Human Sciences, Auburn University,
USA

Lord Charles Bruce
Lord Lieutenant of Fife
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Scotland
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Professor Michael Hudson
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Professor Donald E. Hall
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Lehigh University, USA
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and Chair of the Department of English

Professor Koichi Iwabuchi
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the Monash Asia Institute, Monash University, Australia

Professor Arthur Stockwin
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Professor Chung-Ying Cheng
Professor of Philosophy, University of Hawai’i atManoa, USA
Editor-in-Chief, The Journal of Chinese Philosophy
Professor Steve Cornwell
Professor of English and Interdisciplinary Studies,
Osaka Jogakuin University, Osaka, Japan
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Professor A. Robert Lee
Former Professor of English at Nihon University,
Tokyo from 1997 to 2011, previously long taught
at the University of Kent at Canterbury, UK
Professor Dexter Da Silva
Professor of Educational Psychology, Keisen University,
Tokyo, Japan
Professor Georges Depeyrot
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French National Center for Scientific Research(CNRS) & L’Ecole Normale Superieure, Paris, France
Professor Johannes Moenius
William R. and S. Sue Johnson Endowed Chair of
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The University of Redlands School of Business, USA

Professor Sue Jackson
Professor of Lifelong Learning and Gender & Pro-Vice
Master of Teaching and Learning, Birkbeck, Universityof London, UK
Professor Sir Geoffrey Lloyd
Senior Scholar in Residence, The Needham ResearchInstitute, Cambridge, UK
Fellow and Former Master, Darwin College, Universityof Cambridge
Fellow of the British Academy
Professor Keith Miller
Orthwein Endowed Professor for Lifelong Learning in
the Science, University of Missouri-St.Louis, USA
Professor Kuniko Miyanaga
Director, Human Potential Institute, Japan
Fellow, Reischauer Institute, Harvard University, USA
Professor Dennis McInerney
Chair Professor of Educational Psychology and CoDirector of the Assessment Research Centre
The Hong Kong Institute of Education, Hong Kong
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Professor Brian Daizen Victoria
Professor of English
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Professor Michiko Nakano
Professor of English & Director of the Distance
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Professor Thomas Brian MooneyProfessor of Philosophy
Head of School of Creative Arts and Humanities
Professor of Philosophy and Head of School of
Creative Arts and Humanities, Charles Darwin
University, Australia

Professor Baden Offord
Professor of Cultural Studies and Human Rights & CoDirector of the Centre for Peace and Social JusticeSouthern Cross University, Australia
Professor Frank S. Ravitch
Professor of Law & Walter H. Stowers Chair in Law
and Religion, Michigan State University College of Law
Professor Richard RothSenior Associate Dean, Medill School of Journalism,
Northwestern University, Qatar
Professor Monty P. Satiadarma
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Rector of the University, Tarumanugara University,
Indonesia
Mr Mohamed Salaheen
Director, The United Nations World Food Programme,Japan & Korea
Mr Lowell Sheppard
Asia Pacific Director, HOPE International
Development Agency, Canada/Japan
His Excellency Dr Drago Stambuk
Croatian Ambassador to Brazil, Brazil
Professor Mary Stuart
Vice-Chancellor, The University of Lincoln, UK
Professor Gary Swanson
Distinguished Journalist-in-Residence & Mildred S.
Hansen Endowed Chair, The University of Northern
Colorado, USA
Professor Jiro Takai
Secretary General of the Asian Association for Social
Psychology & Professor of Social Psychology
Graduate School of Education and Human
Development, Nagoya University, Japan
Professor Svetlana Ter Minasova
President of the Faculty of Foreign Languages andArea Studies, Lomonosov Moscow State University
Professor Yozo Yokota
Director of the Center for Human Rights Affairs, Japan
Former UN Special Rapporteur on Myanmar
Professor Kensaku Yoshida
Professor of English & Director of the Center for the
Teaching of Foreign Languages in General Education,
Sophia University, Tokyo, Japan

The Asian Conference on the Liberal Arts 2019

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ISSN: 2435-3922© The International Academic Forum 2019
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Table of Contents
How Higher Education Institutions Prepare Students for Job Market: Lingnan
University as a Case Study
Yao Lujia

pp. 1 - 16

A Longitudinal Study of Japanese Students’ L2 Oral Grammar
Robert W. Long III
Hiroaki Watanabe
pp. 17 - 26
Synchronic and Diachronic Exploration in Faith-based History Teaching
Elya Kurniawan Wibowo
Yenty Rahardjo
pp. 27 - 34

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How Higher Education Institutions Prepare Students for Job Market:
Lingnan University as a Case Study
Yao Lujia, Lingnan University, Hong Kong
The Asian Conference on the Liberal Arts 2019
Official Conference Proceedings
Abstract
The study on higher education is conducted under the qualitative research method
through interviews. That the post-secondary level of education is on expanding theseyears. At the same time, the world economy is developing. A deeper level ofcollaboration among different institutions is needed. In that way, higher education
also assists the industry through teaching and research. Higher education itself also
experienced structural change. The combination trend among Asia higher education
sector is described as massification. It points out that the expansion not only
influences economy flow but also affects the quality of teaching (Mok, 2007). Student
satisfaction is more and more being considered by the education sector in its reform
process. The same attention is also paid to industry satisfaction as from a stakeholder
view. How to combine different sides of partner in higher education to meet theirdifferent needs is a challenge. The trend of internationalization is also a force thatshaped education function. Under this trend the human resource is more and moremobile and flows with job market needs. That Lingnan University is also influenced
by this education trend. It is an institution that focused on Liberal Arts education
under this education trend to face the competition. In one way it stressed internshipprogram to lead cultural communication. In another way, it stressed community
identity locally, with the combination of social networks. This is described as amulti-layer of the education system. Government social organization and school
sector together shaped the education (Hou et al, 2017).
Keywords: Integrated Learning Program (ILP), Christian culture, group building,multi-layer of education

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Introduction
Higher education is embracing globalization and internationalization, and the trend
has been well described by many scholars. Some of the major strategies to achieve
such goals include the introduction of student exchange programs, structured
extra-curricular activities. It meant to provide students with new skills aside from theusual academic curriculum. It is also a way to enhance the whole sector of education
quality. In Hong Kong, these ideas are strongly supported by the University Grants
Council (UGC). The UGC is in charge of public universities in terms of funding andquality assurance. Hong Kong is largely influenced by the global economy so that theschool seeks to provide educational opportunities to all kinds of people. Hong Kong
would also like to create an international study environment that can help students
gain learning experience in their education. So that government and social factors, aswell as schools together, shaped higher education for service. This is the concept fromthe multi-layer education model from educator Angela Hou (2017) in her paper
talking about higher education in some east Asia countries and regions.
The paper is to prepare a further study for the relevant student in our major involve ininternational higher education and present my learning experience with course
learning to form a strategic plan for school as my suggestion.
That school may face a challenge in all running processes and so as our daily study tofind a correct career. These challenges can also be found in Lingnan University, as away to follow the UGC suggestion on promoting education. Our program oninternational higher education is a newly established course that started in 2017. The
school will survey to know about the willingness of students to take such kind of
study program through school email. Also, the school website can update the newcourse (Lingnan University Strategic Plan 2019-25).
The idea for a quality education stresses a pathway for career-building function on
tertiary education. The government sector is also helping in enhancing the quality
issue by providing third party review. For example, the Hong Kong government
conduct report on higher education through the Quality Assurance Council to provide
quality information on higher education institutions to the public. It began in the yearof 2016. The other factors also engaged in higher education in ranking system issues.
The ranking systems are often referred to by people on world-round universities
ranking matters. They provide a total quality by simply showing ranking numbers to
the public, so that helps the university building its image. The stress then came on
how to improve ranking from university management sight. The pressure may befrom the industry that seeks well trained human resources more than degree certificate
only. At the same time, some management job calls for whole-person well-being.
Such as mental and body health as well as technical skills.
Therefore, the idea of liberal arts was widely used among universities to prepare aholistic development in student well-being. It focuses on small-size classroom
teaching. The teachers are offered with different opportunities to lead students. So thatstudents of different interests can have a chance to practice their learning both in andout of class. Apart from the spare time activity, the daily schoolwork also includes
analyzing other companies and project development plans on institutional matters.
The study is enhanced with an outcome-based education system, as what skill can be

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applied right after the end of the study process as stated in the QAC audit (Quality
Assurance Council Audit Manual Second Audit Cycle, 2016).
Within recent years Asia higher education's expansion on private sectors, the situation
on student enrolment is more by market-driven. That calls for the government inproviding more information to the public. In that way, both students and the job
market can have better matching-result. At the same time, tuition fees are sometimes afinancial burden for both family and school. University Grants Council (UGC) is
responsible for financial grants for eight public universities in Hong Kong. And thegovernment also give tuition fees support to their students.
Lingnan University aims to develop into a liberal arts university to distinguish itself
from others. The same situation is found in many universities with a Christianbackground. To remember the history, these alumni in these universities in Hong
Kong formed an association to celebrate the background called CCUAA (Chinese
Christian University Alumni Association). These universities with a liberal arts
background are on an alliance regionally. So that the same kind of tertiary education
institutions can learn from each other and share good practice on preparing students
for the job market. The idea of quality improvement can also be shared among these
universities. That institutional exchange program occurred among these universities.
It focused on quality learning and skill preparing. These changes are made according
to the school plan, and under an outcome-based education environment that follows
the QAC instruction.
The concept of the Integrated Learning Program (ILP) is one of the key strategies of
Lingnan University to ensure the whole person's development and prepare students
adequately for the job market drawn from learning habits. So that primary educationin Lingnan education also takes the various form of activities for quality learning.
Some of the activities include public speaking, music, dancing and drawing
competition and so on. That the school provides various activities for students toexperience. This way of active learning can build a life-long learning foundation for a
student. This was drawn from the parent's aspect of sharing his view to the Lingnan
primary education. It can be found on the 90th anniversary of the Lingnan primaryschool album book (2013). That the same value can be shared on the tertiary
education somehow. As liberal arts take care of life-long learning more than skill
development and training.
As students have different expectations towards their learning from ILP education.
They could choose their course on gaining the ILP unites. That student can go throughthe development course to be a responsible citizen. They can learn in a peer to peer
learning environment apart from the classroom experience. It could gain students
more chances for a group identity to meet their learning expectations. What's more,
the group experience could cumulative as the school culture, from a perspective oforganizational learning (Law, 2007). However, little is known about how the ILP has
impacted on students’ preparedness for the job market and their experiences about theactivities involved.
This paper explores students' views of the lessons and experiences they obtained fromthe ILP program and its implications for the job market preparedness. Thus, what thestudents have learned from the school program, apart from the regular course? The

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study will employ an in-depth interview to obtain the experiences of some final year,
undergraduate students, at Lingnan University. Including a high diploma graduate. To
show their experiences from the ILP and how it prepared them for the job market andlife in general. The study will also inquire about student's challenges concerning the
ILP.
Literature Review
2.1 The Leisure Activities’ Role in Shaping the Students
This chapter draws from the idea of how students focus on learning outcomes throughthe education system. That the outcome-based education can in which way to
influence the way on students learning. That study may be based on the case ofLingnan University, the ILP in Lingnan University is a new learning system that may
help shape students on their learning in out of the class experience. It was introduced
from the year 2001.
That through lecture learning from class the students may only in one way make
improvements. That through students contributing time to leisure activities, in anotherway shape their experience and model them for the job market and encourage them tothink critically and creatively.
ILP could be something out of knowledge. As experience is sometimes considered aspart of the learning. So that civil participation is one kind of experience one can getfrom the community-related workshop. The leadership building is also one aspect of
ILP highlight. The student could form a group participating in extended activities.
They can help to shape the education culture. The learning is not only in teachingpractice. It could also be in practice on local cultural, and to redistribute social
resource through the group sharing practice. That could be understood as a way tobuild student esteem in leadership training. Apart from that, the interest formed in theactivities could help build one's life-long learning. That may be a chance for one torebuild a career, based on what interests himself that combine with the major he takes(Salih & Erol, 1999).
Why should we address the importance of extra-curricular activities? Apart fromlecture tutor in higher education learning, one can gain a close relationship with staff
and peer leaders from after class training and group practice. The after-class tutor may
be more influential than the tutor on a regular lecture basis due to the frequentmeeting times. As stated by an experienced school administrator in America higher
education sector from the book he wrote on engagement (Arthur, 2003). That theclose relationship shaped from those after-class activities between students and theschool faculties made students willing to hear the advice that came from the elderly
aspect. That is because the students may be more likely to hear from those with moretime to witness their growth. That during a social confliction or a movement, thestudents may have a negative feeling toward society or school. So that the familiar
school faculty can in time to reach those troubled students. They can give them aproper suggestion to overcome the bad time or feeling. The fact is that with a morepositive view on social issue and the friendly felling from an experienced school
faculty, reduced the students' drop-off rate and helped them go through the education
system.

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So that except for the balanced advice made from a school administrator, what else
learning domain can the leisure activity contribute to school education, and preparethem for a career? That from Lingnan University's liberal arts case on using the ILP
program, we can have a better understanding of the learning domains of the activities.
2.2 The ILP Education System
The ILP program is under the Student Service Centre (SSC) of Lingnan University.
The early program sheet can be found on the University Digital Commons as early as
2001-2002. It mainly serves as an interest to develop an initiative on course design. At
the same time, mandatory courses by lectures are mainly focused on knowledge
systems and professional training.
So that these universities in Hong Kong would give each academic course a rubric forstudents at the beginning of the course. It can guide students to learn in detail. The
academic learning outcome is on a rubric, with grading standard indicators. Also,
academic class activities are settled before the course. The different universities may
have a little different on the rubric. In my learning experience, a teacher in China
usually does not give us detailed course descriptions for us to refer to. It is a big
difference that students are with different expectations on the course. So that effort ismade after the class could make a big difference. The school education systemprovides the academic outcome level with rubric indicators, as well as theextracurricular learning domain. That these domains may give us different
expectations on whole personal development.
The Integrated Learning Program (ILP)'s six aspects on an effective learning base,that focus on the undergraduate level. Below are the six domains.
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)

Intellectual Development
Social and Emotional Development
Civic Education
Aesthetic Development
Physical Education
Hostel Education
Table 1. Six Domains of Integrated Learning Program

That the postgraduate study is quite addressed on critical thinking, apart from theunderstanding and memorial ability. It can be found from the Hong Kong Education
Bureau website on the seven levels of qualified education, namely General Level
Descriptors or GLD (2018 Revised Edition). It could be discussed in further research
on a quality-related issue. That the higher level of study calls for more specialized
knowledge. For that case, the GLD framework generated a descriptor for learners to
pursue life-long learning.
That the undergraduate level of students is the most at Lingnan University. And the
ILP is delivered to their learning needs. They gain experience in the Hong Kong
Quality Framework system, and as a learner of eight public universities. They will
also experience exchange programs during their studies. At the same time, the school
sector enrolls a certain number of mainland and oversea student to shape theinternational university. The teaching language is in English for most of the courses

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for tertiary education. This may be a hard dish for students to overcome, according toa quality report conducted at Lingnan University in 2016. That not all courses are in
English, some literature course is in Chinese. Started from 2014, Lingnan University
gives full accommodation to the undergraduates and provides a residential life for the
students. So that the ILP program educates on leisure activities are introduced earlier,as to enforce the learning as a whole matter.
The education on Lingnan introduces a liberal art foundation and enhances the overallbehavior of students' well-being. These ideas on Integrated Learning Program (ILP)
are helpful for the build of an erudite and elegant person (QAC, 2016). That itprovides the way for us pursuing life hobby, rather than only learn from books andlectures.
These learning domains are the need for the betterment of whole life well-being. As
the students may also develop their careers that combine with their interests develop.
These learning domains can improve the students for self-quality pursuance so thatthey can use leisure activity to improve their weaknesses as well as to pursue a careerin their strength.
What inspires and aspirations may be something the students gain from student
activity in their social behavior concept. Traditional teaching is limited to telling
students about their life problems. That the activities in the extra-curricular may
provide a tutor in a specific area in providing them the kind of knowledge relates totheir needs, which is called interdisciplinary study. It stresses the acquiring of
knowledge to solve problems by understanding ability and knowledge level. It
combines social service into university and largely contributes to different levels of
the sector from society participate in school.
That according to the Hong Kong Education Bureau Qualifications Framework
General Level Descriptor (2018), the doctoral level of study stress forinterdisciplinary study more than any other area of study. That is partly from the senseof the leadership of a doctoral degree.
The student may develop their interest in art or sport in a school concept. That school
provides tutor on the development of student interests within groups. The learning
domain is in a knowledge transfer view through various activities that students cantake.
That the activities are cultural preserving and extended from different knowledge
subjects. That may introduce local history or act as the internship program to broaden
the horizon on students. The interest develops may also exceed the concept of acertain campus and calls for organizational cooperation. Students are also encouraged
to experience the different social concepts in off-campus exhibitions and so on.
From this concept that the school can offer different training sector on extra-curriculardevelopment. So that different staff can join the concept of teaching and form a close
relationship with students. That serves as part of student social experience through theconcept of school education on ILP domains. The concept is extended to the whole
sector on school education collaboration. So that formed the concept of liberal arts
education.

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2.3 ILP, Lifelong Learning, and Career Planning
The idea of building life-long learning is the same for both Lingnan University and its
primary school. With government guidance on education quality expression
framework that we can have a look at the education environment created. Lingnan
education is to create various career opportunities for students. The training academic
is only one way of building learning.
On the other hand, people from the whole learning settings may focus on using the
new applied technology in everyday life. Then, such changes on Artificial Intelligenceand big data science may have already acted as a solution for a social issue. Many
students may be unaware of this knowledge in the big data industry. People fromdifferent learnings may also have a different view and understanding of this newconcept. That through tutor training and sharing ideas, these new technologies canadapt to citizens in a friendly environment. So that Lingnan University functions as
a translator in adapting the change in a smart city to the community. The research
project of "Social Innovation & Socialpreneurs Development: Smart Aging with
Geotechnology" has won the award in teaching and social issue, with financial
support by the Jockey Club Charities. That the research project also helps set a newprogram in academic learning to meet the change in society. There was a survey byLingnan University through email on the students' interest in the course on social
service. That through providing the service in education the university also changes
with a social concept such as aging, and Artificial Intelligence develop.
These new changes are driving research and knowledge transfer among higher
education institutions. Through the training program, technology and knowledge canbe used in taking care of the elderly and protecting the natural environment. Thatmeans teaching and learning are far beyond normal classroom activities. The
government and social like to benefit from higher education, from its research andpractice. That the tertiary education may shed light upon the whole nature and society.
That from the stakeholder theory, the city, and overseas finance party may also seek agood future from the situation on the development of tertiary education institutions.
The different sectors in the university are included in ILP training to gain students
learning. The activities gave a chance for administrative staff, alumni and otherlearners to participate, apart from what the students major at. Some activities are heldwith social organizations such as hospitals and elderly homes. So that take theexample on Total Quality Management (TQM), these changes in tertiary education
institutions are well explained as from the industry management issue. The TQM isused from the 1990s among universities when higher education expansion came out(Baldwin & Daily, 2002). That the perceived higher education users are those middle
school students and even unborn babies. This paper collects data from graduates inhigher education to know their idea of education quality and their daily school
practice through interviews.

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Methodology
3.1 Qualitative Research
It is qualitative research and should focus on local undergraduates mostly. As in theundergraduate level of study, the students are mostly local in Lingnan University. And
the people chosen may be from the Lingnan Christian (LNC), and they are in different
majors. They are easier to get in touch with. As the Chaplain's Office provides thesocial activities that take place inside it. So, we meet in their choir training andfellowship activity sessions regularly during semesters.
The reason for choosing qualitative research is that it can be cross-disciplinary,according to the research method. The qualitative research can be applied to casestudy, politics and ethics comments, participatory inquiry, interview, participant
observation, visual methods and interpretive analysis (Denzin & Lincoln, 2011).
The difference between qualitative and quantitative research is they are either from awhole sector explain things or use personal sight to record the experience. The
similarity is that they both capture a view from the third party. The qualitative method
can collect personal experience in sharing and shaping their peer influence. According
to the tertiary education topic, the quantitative method can explain the trend in student
numbers and major sectors but does not mention individual experience in expanding
interests in life-long learning.
What's more, the qualitative method is used in first-person accounts, history telling,
attached photos, biographical presentation and organized story on real-life personal
history and so on. The qualitative method can be presented in mathematical models,graphs and statistic tables on findings and present in third-person prose. From myexperience, the case for qualitative research can use photo collection in presenting
local history. And it can help build a link between personal life stories and local
history. The biography and organizational observation and report are another way tocollect data for presentation stories. The biography can take the form of a site visitand document analysis. The organization observation can choose document analysis
as well as face to face talk. That the education quality report QAC is one of theexamples that use round visits on the site interview. So that according to the topic of
the education learning domain and the learning outcome on career issues, we havebetter introduce the qualitative research method.
Here an individual in-depth interview used to obtain detailed experiences of theparticipants in the study. About four to five undergraduate students from different
academic disciplines shall be included in the study. They can talk about what people
they have met in those ILP activities. Such as company managers, hospital patients,
singers, writers as well as a third party on social organization matters. So that they cantalk about what career they can think of from these engagements on extra-curricular
activities. What they can apply to their career development.
The interviews also explore how ILP programs can introduce students to the job
market in meeting with social responsibility. That young person may have fears on
job issues. The research can combine learning domains with the social issue that could

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cause fear for students in joining the job market. Discuss how the academic training
and interest develop can help them improve the learning outcome.
Thus, how these elements can help build students learning in an outcome-basedlearning environment.
3.2 Research Instrument
Here we introduce an interview file to find students' participation in the social activity
that is being conducted as an ILP course at Lingnan University. The question takes
among final year undergraduates mostly.
1. Target: Lingnan University's final year undergraduates. (Also welcome those whoare not a final year but also would like to share your ideas). Especially those inChristian Groups.
2. This interview is for the use of the final capstone project of Master of Arts inInternational Higher Education and Management (IHEM).
1)
2)
3)
4)

Your fear of jobs.
How the academic track builds your career confidence.
How the ILP unit program can train you into a life-long learner.
The outcome-based learning can in what degree help you gain enough careerchance?
Table 2. Interview on ILP Units Learning and Job Market Prepare

The interview will be carried out in one-to-one phone calls or face to face talk.
The data is collected from meeting talk and represent a few aspects for the graduate
interest develop and the academic attitude. That through group engagement they bothpresent a view to welcome peer influence. It can be regarded as outcome-basedlearning according to career choice issues. Apart from the professor's and parents'
opinion, the peer group can form largely on their development of career attitude.
From the aspect of the need for group acceptance and appreciation. So that theattitude is formed during the practice in a group activity. Most activities are students
leading and can give them a chance to practice leadership and communication skills.
They appreciate the skills developed from that practice and welcome the future as
from both the academic skills achievement and the attitude formed in everyday
practice in ILP related courses.
Here is the detail interview content that collected when these graduates are packaged
for leaving school or came back from home for the interview.
3.3 Interview Content
First Interview: Jonathan Leung. The first interview is conducted with a 21-year-old
final year undergraduate. He is Jonathan Leung from a Marketing major. He is amember of the Lingnan University Christian Choir. According to the talk he is not
recruited by any company yet. He explained that:

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Official Conference Proceedings“The academic study provides me the chance to present before others. It makes me
better at expressing ideas. It also gains my skill. I participated in ILP with highattendance. The music provided by the school help me to improve. I met a lot of
people and became friends.
After all, both the elderly and peer would give me advice on the job. If you listen to
their advice, you'll have a big chance to find a suitable job."
Second Interview: Abijah Chung. The second interview is shared by a high diploma
graduate in the Lingnan Institute of Further Education (LIFE). Her major isCounselling Psychology. Her name is Abijah Chung. We met in the Chaplain’s Officein the English Bible sharing activities many times. She said that the integrated
learning course is not a must for her graduation. That everyone can join the course.
After graduation, she will continue to study another program that related the program
she now participated in. It is a course on psychology major at Hong Kong Baptist
University. She will choose to learn the course according.
“Apart from the lecture, I also took part in social service a lot. This term I went to anelderly center for practice. I got more to the flow of psychology issues now. The ILP
and practicum both can help me in personal development. I like these practices as
they provide me with confidence in profession develop.”"The interaction with peers is more frequently than with elderlies. If I didn't follow
their choose, I will be afraid to fall behind. To conclude, the choice for a job is aninteraction between both generations. Accepted and appreciated by peers help inbuilding my confidence.”
Third Interview: Eva Ng. She is an English major, in her final year of study as anundergraduate. Her major is English. Also, she is 21 years old and takes part in the
Lingnan University Christian choir.
“I want to make use of my language and the use of my communication skills and havecontact with people. So, I am quite a confidence with my English skills. And I was acommittee member in the choir. And I learned a lot of skills like how to do theadministration work, and how to learn with different people. And because it doesn't
spiteful for me to know more about a different thing, ILP doesn't help me to develop
my interest. Physically I joined the ILP program mostly. I don't like sports. I don't
think it can help me to develop interests in sports.""I think I am confident enough to prepare myself for my career. I explore mycharacteristics and my personality from that choir. And because of the exchange
program, I have a chance to talk to people overseas. I am confident enough to plan mycareer, or to work in labor career and the job market."Forth Interview: Anthony Chan. He is in Political Science major. He is a final year
undergraduate at the age of 22. He is a former member of the Lingnan University
Christian Fellowship. He has already had a job.
"Usually I write essays and reports for my politician. And I need to analyze the article
as usual and apply what I have learned. I become the assistant of the politicians. At

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last, it will have something to do with my learning. Because we mainly learn the bookon concept issues. The school guests sharing on ILP have little to do with my career
choice. When the rats and flies are gathering, I’ll write letters to the Department of
Health, and let them do cleanings.”"Then the school ILP activities contain a different stream of practice. For the case of
sports, that it can be basketball, Tai chi or soccer. And my hobby has nothing to dowith art. At the same time, there is some much useful practice. One example is thepractice of the school counseling office. And they also hold activities such as chalkcolor painting that can be applied in our daily life. There are some ILP that cost muchtime. The ILP give me a glimpse of the various industry and provide me a chance totalk with professionals.""As in Hong Kong people take study certificate very seriously. Then in my job choice,
my mother didn't show any dislike. She supports my choice freely that can let me
explore myself. But the salary is not very high, with only 12,500 HKD per month.
That I have a local issue to take care of in daily work. It will be more related to local
citizenship, than with people in other regions.""What I learn in the Christian fellowship on how to get on well with others, it is very
important for my communication with them. It is very important because in my work
there will be people in various situations. So, it is a job that cares about people morethan other issues."
Findings
4.1: Peer Group and Interaction with Others Shape the Career Develop
That the opinions in the interview represent their understanding of the academic
training from higher education. Then it may reflect the education structure thatcombined with social interaction with school Christian background. That they
engaged in Christian fellowship under the assistant of Chaplain’s Office. That theoffice is also a Christian organization under Chinese Young Men's Christian
Association (Chinese YMCA). The volunteer in the organization contributes to thestudent Christian fellowship and the Christian choir with guidance and company. That
served as another kind of education based on Christian background. It could date backto school history in Guangzhou (Lee, 2000). This background stressed for a care andpatience environment. At the same time, education takes the form of a multi-layer
partnership model as presented in the literature review. Their analysis of the ILP
activities can reflect as part of the student opinion towards the school education
through the ILP activity and fellowship and choir they engaged.
After all, the qualitative represent some common idea on higher education. Theinterview took place among graduates so that can present the stakeholder's view on
students' aspects. That the activities they take in one way enjoy themselves. In anotherway, the Christian fellowship and choir represent the school. It made the weekly
gather and practice more than skill training. So, they fell the time is limited in gaining
the ILP domains. But they took the responsibility in contributing to the school
Cristian culture. So, their opinion could show the school education as a participant.
And their opinion towards the career and the education training is meaningful and

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important. As well as the family influence on student study. That quality doesn't mean
to be academic excellence, in the cultural concept these Christian youngsters can also
show the quality in obeying group rules in keeping on practice. It is quite a kind oforganizational learning that stresses culture (Law, 2007).
Add to the role that Lingnan University plays, that the community-based development
goal is also what those interviewers represented. The job that they are facing with or
already take, have much relation with the local issues. Instead of to be very ambitious
in the career they may only need to listen to family advice to choose a career they
prefer. That the group relation in career can reflect the profession track which seems
to be more theoretical on tertiary level training. The peer group and ILP somehow
provide the students with a chance to practice. The communication skill and the way
people gather are one of the learning that they gain from the practice. These skills canbe very important in a real work setting. As we can show our respect to others throughspeak and our attitude on how to give other needed help. That is a practical exercise
rather than a book theory. So the confidence in a career does not only come fromacademic training, but it also comes from group relation training. We can have more
confidence if in a peer group we give others the needed help. So, learning, on one
hand, takes theoretical training, on another hand it takes practice. We need to show
our respect and role relation building in peer groups to learn the behavior, so thattakes the environment as a whole to interact with it. So, the career is the interaction
with both peer and family issues, as we try to find our role to play in society. Our
career and learning are much influenced by relation-building and interpersonal skills.
And that is shaped mostly through the extra-curricular activities in the tertiary process.
That can reflect our attitude toward life-long learning as we can choose how to spend
the time on the group. The group develops a goal in another way can lead individual.
Whether the group identity is optimistic to the future also shapes the personal
development. As the group identity is not something only in theory, it can reflect thesocial state through the link in the industry. Like the group in the choir may face withthe confusion as to how to shape the pursue in the art behavior to develop themselves.
That the whole society may also have the same kind of confusion somehow. Even
though the family support is important, that the group identity is also what shapes
personal development.
4.2: The Suggestion on Education Issue
After the quality talk, the career is quite related to attitude building in daily practice.
Both through academic learning and group building. Then the talking contains somepoints can be taken as suggestion or findings. That the university prefers to collectsuggestions from students through email when making a development plan. So, theinterviewers talked about some points that can serve as a suggestion for school. And
these are the collected points from what they mentioned.
First, about career choice. The fears on career issue can be:(1) Unfamiliar with the professional track.
(2) How to continue to study at work to make continuous improvement in personal
development.
(3) To gain family support and interaction between generations.

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Official Conference Proceedings(4) To adjust understanding of academic learning domains and make self-evaluation
on skills.
Second, about the suggestion on tertiary education, especially for Lingnan
University to take.
(1) Help students know the meaning of ILP and let them participate with pleasure.
(2) Conduct more activities in different areas and save students more time.
(3) To accept a different kind of preference from students on the activities they take.
To let some domain left blank in participation and make it acceptable by the school.
(4) To balance ILP domain and academic score with a balance on student behavior
evaluation. Both can stand for student confidence.
(5) To make ILP practical, experience gaining for students.
Third, the school also can keep some good practices. That can serve as a way for
quality education that gains students' practical experience. Here are the goodpractices:(1) To keep those exchange on program and major course.
(2) To keep on the school in academic training strength.
(3) Keep on inviting a guest in a professional area to share in ILP activities.
(4) The counseling office is very helpful in teaching students on mental wellness.
Discussion
The interviews are in peer groups. They hold the view on the value of go on the
training to improve what they learned. These learnings are part of the GLD learning
identification. That the education system has provided the students with adequate
academic criteria to do self-evaluation as well as make continues improvement.
The interchange with a group in the idea of doing service together is a good practicein the school culture. They can expand the ILP with their preference. The theory canbe explained as organizational learning.
The limitation of the interview is that the talk is with only a few people. The quality
interview showed that the graduate accepts different activities as a way to broaden thelearning. The academy track can influence the career very much. At the same time,family and advice from elderlies are also strong support for a career choice. Without
the balance on communication, the influence from peers and family is hard to makethe career clear.
Even though the graduates are facing fears on the first choice of career, they have arather positive evaluation of the academic track they take. The common opinion isshared by peers on the track of the group study. The same time value on the grouplearning attitude mainly provided the basement for a career. The way on how tocollaborate and give assistance to group members gained them the most confidence.
It makes education meaningful that the quality indicator is related to student realexperience.

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Conclusion
From the data in the interview, we can have a short conclusion on the learning in
tertiary education toward career issues. That the experience in an education process isimportant in shaping the student. From both attitude building and acceptance gaining.
The service attitude describes how they interact with the group. The acceptanceamong the group is the team-building practice, that has culture link with school
issues.
During the tertiary education process, the students enter the life process to accept
guidance from teachers with family support. They need elderlies to make sure whicharea of the industry they want to join. The elderlies serve as the role of experience
contributor. The academic track is a guide for life-long learning. That without thetraining on school education, the students will not get a detailed indication of what to
do in the learning. The learning is not only the task to fulfill as an academic
requirement. It also relates to what to pursue as a career choice. That the career canhelp them develop the learning process in the way they can adapt to. That the course
outline provided by school gives them a clear guide on the learning domains. The ILP
also relates to learning domains but different students may prefer one or two subjects
in it. They can adopt the ILP as a course as well as life-long interest develop.
The indicator of learning outcome is a useful tool to solve life problems. Then with a
General Level Descriptor, the students can pursue improvement in both work andschool.
The study here is not into deep relation with quality issues. This can leave as an areafor further study, to combine teaching requirement with study outcome. Question isleft on what can gain the student confidence apart from knowledge.
The family influence on a career choice is vital. It is not clear what career the family
wants the student to take. As each family has their own goal to develop. Even though
the peer groups can share the same kind of interest like singing and drawing. They
will have different career apart from a hobby. The professional track considers salaryand family duty. That school education provides the track for career development.
The peer group provides the chance for practice. The last is to make sure if the career
can meet the student's expectation of improvement as well as the acceptance from all
sectors.

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Acknowledgments
I want to give special thanks to the fulfillment of my study of Lingnan University
with the help of my father and mother. I followed my father’s suggestion to enter thiscourse on international higher education and received financial support from them in
Hebei Province, China. The forgiveness they gave me when one of my courses seems
to be failed, also made me feel encouraged to go on my study.
During the process of my study, my tutor Pro. AMOAH Padmore Adusei in Lingnan
University was very kind and easy to get close to. The professor has shown his
knowledge as well as introducing different background scholars to present in ouracademic course. I have learned a lot from the professor at Lingnan University andthe guests.
The administrative staff Sandy Keung and Juliana Tang in the Division of Graduate
Studies helped me a lot in school matters. Pastor Cheng, Chu Sir and his colleague
Martin in Lingnan University Chaplain’s Office also gave me much help and agathering place to help me become familiar with many local students in Lingnan
Christian (LNC). As we can take a variety of activities there.
That thanks all these people that contributed themselves and helped me carry on mystudy at the master's degree.

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References
Arthur, S. (2003). Enhancing Student Engagement on Campus. Univ. Press ofAmerica.
Baldwin, L. M., & Daily, B. F. (2002). Total Quality Management in Higher
Education: The Implications of Internal and External Stakeholder Perceptions.
ProQuest Dissertations and Theses.
Denzin, N., & Lincoln, Y. (2011). The Sage handbook of qualitative research (4th ed.).
California: SAGE.
Hou, A. Y. C., Hill, C., Chen, K. H. J., & Tsai, S. (2017). A Comparative Study ofStudent Mobility Programs in SEAMEO-RIHED, UMAP, and Campus Asia:
Regulation, Challenges, and Impacts on Higher Education Regionalization. Higher
Education Evaluation and Development, pp. 12-24.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s12564-018-9550-9
Law K. M. Y. (2007). The Development and Implementation of Project Action
Learning Framework (PAL)-From Theory to Practice. Doctoral Dissertation, City
University of Hong Kong.
Lee, S. M. (2000). Archives of Lingnan University: Guangzhou Lingnan University
History Files. Hong Kong: Lingnan University. Center for Literature Translation.
‘Lingnan Primary School’ (2013). 嶺南小學 90 周年紀念特刊 = 90th-anniversarycommemorative publication. Hong Kong: Lingnan Primary School.
Mok, K. H. (2007). Questing for Internationalization of Universities in Asia: Critical
Reflections. Journal of Studies in International Education, pp. 433-454.
https://doi.org/ 10.1177/1028315306291945‘Qualification Framework Secretariat’ (2018). Hong Kong Education Bureau
Qualifications Framework General Level Descriptor (2018 Revised Edition).
http://www.hkqf.gov.hk
Salih, M. E., & Erol, I. (1999). The Role of Extra-Curricular Activities in theLife-Long Education of Engineers. Global Journal of Engineering Education, 3(3), pp.
199-202. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/265923521
Stuber, J. M. (2009). Class, Culture, and Participation in the Collegiate
Extra-Curriculum. Sociological Forum, 24(4), 877-900.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1573-7861.2009.01140.x‘University Grants Committee’ (2016). Quality Assurance Council Audit Manual
Second Audit Cycle. Hong Kong: University Grant Committee.
http://www.ugc.edu.hk/org/qac
Contact email: 1163401712@qq.com

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A Longitudinal Study of Japanese Students’ L2 Oral Grammar
Robert W. Long III, Kyushu Institute of Technology, Japan
Hiroaki Watanabe, Kyushu Institute of Technology, Japan
The Asian Conference on the Liberal Arts 2019
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Abstract
It is assumed that our educational lectures and materials are having some impact on
students’ knowledge and skills. This longitudinal study examined the reality of how
Japanese L2 students’ accuracy in English changed over an academic year. In April
and May 2018, 23 Japanese students gave a self-introduction monologue, which was
repeated again in early 2019. These L2 interactions by Japanese speakers formed theJUSFC2018 corpus and the JUSFC2019 corpus. Research questions related towhether or not there was a significant difference between in grammatical accuracy
from the first interview session to the second year (regarding errors in clauses per 100
words, global errors and local errors, and in specific errors related to parts of speech)
and what were the most frequently occurring errors in both corpora. Descriptive
statistics showed marginal differences in error-free clauses per 100 words and withclauses with errors per 100 words. Similarly, while global errors did decline, local
errors did increase; there was a 27.3 percent increase in local errors though the overall
percentage in total words spoken decreased by half. For errors related to parts ofspeech, a t-test confirmed there was a significant difference between the two speechcorpora. As for error reoccurrence, four types of errors were noted: incorrect phrasing,article omission, preposition omission, and errors related to plurals. No improvement
in oral grammatical accuracy was noted, with some errors doubling or worsening
significantly. This data highlights the difficulty of L2 teachers of having students selfedit themselves and paying more attention to being more accurate with their speech.

iafor
The International Academic Forumwww.iafor.org

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Introduction
One of the important issues when evaluating students’ language skills is inunderstanding that passive knowledge can be vastly different from student output. For
example, standardized test scores on grammatical forms may reflect a level ofconsciousness (or the ability to discern the right answer) instead of how that student
might be able to use these forms in impromptu speaking or writing. All too often,
many educators lose sight of this distinction, and as a result, continue to rely on too
many communicative-type tasks such as shadowing, fill-in-the-blanks, short-answer
replies that avoid the realistic nature of communication (pragmatic norms, turn-taking,and the issue of actual production. Both teachers and students naturally assume thatsome degree of language learning will take place as a result of outside factors such as
MEXT directives, and overall school curricula, as well as the various in-class tasks,
tests, and presentations that are given over the school year.
This study seeks to provide a glimpse of how students’ grammatical accuracy has
improved regarding monologic speech. In the study, Japanese L2 students provide a 4
to 10-minute self-introductory monologue, in 2018 and another in early 2019 before
the end of the academic year: the transcripts make up the JUSF2018 corpus and theJUSFC2019 corpus. The research questions focus on whether or not there was asignificant difference between in grammatical accuracy from the first interview
session to the second year (regarding errors in clauses per 100 words, global errors
and local errors, and in specific errors related to parts of speech) and what were themost frequently occurring errors in both corpora. By better understanding the kindsof errors that students initially make in their spontaneous speech, and how these errors
change (or do not change) over time, allows educators to better focus time and energy
on issues relating to fossilization and editing. As Corder (1967, p. 167) notes, that“learners’ errors can also provide to the researcher evidence of how language islearned or acquired, what strategies or procedures the learner is employing in the
discovery of the language.” In short, the issue of acquisition is a crucial issue foreducators as it shows which forms students are effectively able to use and master intheir L2 conversations.
Review of Literature
Sources and treatment of errors
Error correction in interlanguage has a long history. In 1971, Richards cited four
significant types or causes of intralingual (developmental) errors: overgeneralization,
ignorance of rule restrictions, incomplete application of rules, and false concepts
hypothesized. Later Richards (1974) identified seven sources of errors, namely, (a)interference, (b) overgeneralization, (c) performance errors, (d) markers oftransitional competence, (e) strategies of communication and assimilation, and (f)successions of approximative systems, (g) universal hierarchy of difficulty. Thus,
researchers realized that at the beginning of language learning, performance would be
impacted by the interlingual transfer from the native language. Researchers also
identified two types of errors: performance errors (often made by learner’s
carelessness) and competence errors (mistakes due to inadequate learning), whichwere later termed mistakes by Gefen (1979). Selinker (1972) was the first to discuss
the learner’s “interlanguage” and the problem of fossilization, mainly how the L2 can

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be influenced by the learner’s native language, interlanguage, and target language.
Errors are also categorized into omission, substitution, addition, and permutation(Corder 1973) and Chaaraoui (2017) found in his study on monologues the error types
ranked as follows (1) 25 types of erroneous substitutions, (b) 23 types of erroneousomissions, (c) 11 erroneous additions, and (d) 6 erroneous permutations. This led Ellis(2003) to observe, “Form-focused instruction . . . needs to be in context. As theacademic context is foreign, form-focused writing would be very helpful in making
the L2 grammatical norms recognizable. Teaching English as a means ofcommunication would be very productive as a great deal of errors can be corrected”(p.100).
Terrell (1991) presents evidence that direct grammar instruction did not guarantee L2
learners the ability to engage in spontaneous conversation freely. On the other hand,she demonstrates in her research that grammatical knowledge plays a significant rolein the learners‟ overall language proficiency. Many researchers who are programmarians, such Ebsworth and Schweer (1997), promote that knowledge ofaccurate grammar helps accuracy and increases the speed of L2 learning andacquisition, and Terrell’s study does reveal the strong relationship that grammar has
with all language skills. However, in responding to errors, James (1998) proposed that
educators use techniques to enhance the students’ accuracy in expression. He also
discussed the importance of students’ affective factors in correction to avoid facethreatening issues. Touchie (1986) states that teachers should only correct errors
affecting intelligibility, concentrating on global errors rather than on local errors.
Furthermore, she argued that high frequency and generality errors should be corrected
more often than less frequent errors, for example, plurals. The commonality of errors
is another issue that should attract the attention of educators. A third issue is that ofirritability, which, according to Touchie, relates to errors that may elicit ridicule fromstudents in higher socioeconomic classes.
Preliminary Research
Preliminary research focuses on the results of two studies. The first study (Long and
Hatcho, 2018) studied intralingual and interlingual errors from L2 conversations
Based on the Japanese University Student Corpus (JUSC). 1 An inventory taken fromthis corpus, containing 400 errors in context, was formed for teachers to rate theerrors as being intralingual, interlingual, or undetermined. A second aim was to
identify frequently occurring errors. The results from this study indicated that 35% of
the 400 errors were deemed as being intralingual [859 responses], 51% were seen as
interlingual [1233 responses], and 12.5% were undetermined [301 responses]. In
addition, the primary errors were as follows: incorrect use of articles (381), incorrect
verb tense form (162), incorrect use of prepositions (158), the omission of verbs (152),
modifier errors (111), and incorrect subject-verb agreement (76). The study
highlighted the commonality of particular errors and the issue related to fossilization.
Regarding other kinds of errors, the misuse of plurals, deletion of words, andwording/rephrasing were the most common mistakes. In short, the researchersconcluded that L1 is a factor in grammatical accuracy.
The second study focused on another corpus (in which this study is based) andexamined grammatical accuracy in dialogic output. Results showed that global errors
showed a significant decline, while local errors increased from 97 to 158 errors. As

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for errors related to parts of speech, a t-test confirmed there was a significant
difference (t (23) = 2.19366, p < 0.0386), between the two speech corpora, but withmore error frequency occurring in the 2019 corpus. While the number of words
spoken did increase by 549, the number of local errors increased by one-third, from97 to 158. There was minimal change in errors concerning lexical phrases, articles,
and propositions, modifiers; however, in regards to noun phrases, errors increased
dramatically, from 4 to 13 for subject formation and using plural forms correctly, 14
to 21. Agreement was also problematic in verb phrasing.
The Study
Rationale
The study aims to see if students progress in their grammatical accuracy as it relates
to their verbal output. As tasks, homework assignments, and test scores are poor
indicators as to students’ actual performance; progress must be gauged only on actual
spontaneous output. Thus, teachers need to examine errors in clauses per 100 words,
global and local errors, and specific parts of speech.
Research Questions
Question 1: Do error-free clauses and clauses with errors per 100 words change
significantly over the year in monologic speech?
Question 2: In monologic speech, do global and local errors change significantly over
the year?
Question 3: Do students become more accurate with specific grammatical forms andwording in their self-introductory monologues? Which forms showed the least
improvement or worsened? Will the data in monologic output reflect similarities thatwere found in dialogic output?
Transcripts
Twenty-seven Japanese students were asked to give a self-introduction monologue,
which was then followed by a three-question dialogue. Based on the TOEIC scores ofthese participants, three groups were formed, with the first group having scores that
ranged from 150 to 370, the second from 371 to 570, and the third from 571 to 770.
The interactions were videotaped and transcribed, and the transcriptions make up theJapanese University Student Fluency Corpus (JUSFC2018), which has 23,539 words,
and the JUSFC2019, which has 5,460 words.
These videotaped interviews were started in April and May 2018. Students did notknow of the contents or questions of any topics beforehand. Students gave written
permission for the videotapes to be used for research purposes and to be shown inconferences. Students were not paid for their interviews; coding of the transcripts
reflects the Conversational Analysis Conventions. See Appendix A for three
examples of transcripts from the three groups, starting at the lowest range.

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Results
In examining the first research question, concerning Japanese L2 grammaticalaccuracy with error-free clauses, clauses with errors / 100 words over an academic
year, results showed for the 2018 corpus that Japanese students averaged 5.5 errorfree clauses and 2.7 clauses with errors. In the 2019 corpus, a decrease in proficiency
was noted with error-free clauses averaging 8.7, along with an increase of 5.2 inclauses with errors, resulting in a 58.1 percent increase in error-free clauses and a 92.5
percent increase for clauses with errors, see table 1. As for the second researchquestion, see table 2, concerning the question relating to global and local errors,
results showed that for global errors, significant differences existed regarding both thedifferences in total errors from both corpora, and in the overall percentages of theaverages of errors. While a decrease in global errors is noted in the 2019 corpus, and27.3% increase is noted in local errors as well.
The last aim of this study was to examine whether students become more accurate
regarding specific grammatical forms and phrasing and to identify which grammaticalforms showed the least improvement or worsened. In the preliminary study, it was
found that there was minimal change in errors concerning lexical phrases, articles,
and prepositions, pronouns, and modifiers; however, in regards to noun phrases,
errors increased dramatically, from 4 to 13 for subject formation and using pluralforms correctly, 14 to 21. Agreement was also problematic (in the preliminary study)
in regards to verb phrasing, with students making 11 errors in 2018 and 18 errors one
year later. In the monologic output, similar data was found, with minimal changes
being noted in the same categories (except for pronouns and articles) and errors
relating to noun phrases, see table 3. T-tests for the use of L1 showed significancet(27) = 3.401, p < 0.0021, with a mean differences of -2.64, SD = 4.111. As for error
reoccurrence, four types of errors were noted: incorrect phrasing, article omission,
preposition omission, and errors related to plurals.
Table 1. Phase 1 Analysis: Clause Analysis_____________________________________________________________________
2018 Monologues
2019
Monologues
2088 words
2015 words
1. Error-free clauses per 100 words
5.5 clauses
8.7
clauses
2. Clauses with errors per 100 words

2.7 clauses

5.2 clauses____________________________________________________________________
Table 2. Phase 2 Analysis: Global / Local Errors____________________________________________________________________
Total
%
Total
%
Global Errors
6
0.28
2
0.03
Local Errors
95
4.54
121
2.2
____________________________________________________________________

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Table 3. Phase 3 Analysis: Categorization of Errors___________________________________________________________________________
Total
%
Total
%
Lexical phrase choice
Extraneous / incorrect phrasing
0.29 Omission
0.03
Dangling misplaced modifier

1

12
0.04

0.57

16

0

0

0

0

Incorrect insertions
Omission

0
30

0
1.43

0
37

0

Agreement001

MisuseIncorrect insertion

5
0

0.23
0

8
1

0.1

Omission

11

0.52

10

0.1

3
4

0.14
0.19

8
6

0.1

0

0

3

3

0.14

7

2

0.09

3

Misuse

3

0.14

10

Omission

0

0

1

10

0.47

20

4

0.18

5

0
1

0
0.04

0
2

20

Article errors
0.67
0.01
Prepositions
0.01
Verb formation
Tense
Omission
0.10
Agreement
0.05
Form
0.12
Incorrect verb usage
0.05
Pronouns
0.18
Nouns / noun phrasing
Singular/plural errors
0.36
Subject formation
0.09
Agreement: gender, number
Omissions
0.03
Conjunctions / transitional signals

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Omission
Incorrect insertions
Misuse

0
0
0

0
0
0

0
0
1

0
0

Incorrect use of adjectives

5

0.23

5

Incorrect use of Adverbs

1

0.04

3

Incorrect insertion
Incorrect relative pronoun

0
0

0
0

1
1

0.1
0.1

Affixation-related errors: misuse ofprefixes or suffixes
0

0

0

0

0.01
Modifiers
0.09
0.05

Other

Total
101
140
2.5
____________________________________________________________________
Discussion
Concerning the aims of this paper, it was found that students’ speech worsened overthe school year. Similar results were found in both dialogic and monologic output. As
to why students are showing no progress in their grammatical accuracy, the answer
lies in the lack of attention given to communicative output and performance:
knowledge of particular forms of any L2 does not necessarily reflect the subject’s
ability to use the forms correctly in spontaneous speech. The results also show theneed for teaching students about the importance of editing their speech.
Educators also are challenged in giving feedback to 30 or more students in any one
class. The one positive change was that global errors were reduced, so students wereable to gain some level of mastery of English phrasing and usage. The data also points
out that L2 educators in Japan need to work more with noun phrasing, articles, andpronouns with special attention given to articles, which do not exist in L1.
More practice will be needed to overcome the issue of knowledge of L2 not reflecting
the correct usage in spontaneous speech. Perhaps attentive feedback from teachers
will encourage students to notice their mistakes. The challenge is upon teachers aswell as students in class sizes of 30 or more, which requires time-consuming
dedication to edit their speech. Without such efforts, students’ speech will not change
or even worsen in some cases.
Conclusion
The study points out the importance of understanding the overall issue of student
progress. While test scores and homework tasks might indicate a student’s familiarityand knowledge of a form or language issue, this may or may not be able to beadequately expressed in spontaneous interactions. We feel that these data represent a

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broader problem with many L2 students throughout the world, as little attention ispaid to grammatical accuracy in both dialogic and monologic output, and due to thedifficulty of teachers providing this feedback. Thus, it is argued that the issue offossilization requires more attention, along with students editing their speech. The
data shows that the field of error analysis (EA) is still important and that educatorsneed to stand back and to look more deeply at the students’ progress over the school
year.
Notes
1. The Japanese University Student Corpus (JUSC) can be foundwww.genderfluency.com.
2. This article is now under consideration with JALT’s The Language Teacher.

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References
Chaarauoui, J. (2017). Grammar accuracy, language threshold level, and degree ofbilingualism in the Saudi EFL learner’s interlanguage. International Journalof Language and Linguistics, 4(3), 86-101.
Corder, S.P. (1971). Idiosyncratic dialects and error analysis. International Review ofApplied Linguistics, (9): 147-159.
Ebsworthm, M. & Schweer, C. (1997). What researchers say and practitioners do:
Perspectives on conscious grammar instruction in the ESL classroom. Applied
Language Learning, 8(2), 237-259.
Ellis, R. (2003). Task-based Language Learning and Teaching. Oxford, England:
Oxford University Press.
Gefen, R. (1979). The analysis of pupil’s errors. English Teachers’ Journal, 22,16-24.
Long and Hatcho (2018). Gender as a Variable in Grammatical Accuracy. Asia
TEFL Journal, 15, 3, (Fall 2018 issue), 890-898.
Richards, J. (1971). Error analysis and second language strategies. Language
Sciences,17,12-22.
Richards, J. (1974). Error Analysis: Perspective on second language acquisition.
London: Longman Group Ltd.
Selinker, L. (1972), Interlanguage. International Review of Applied Linguistics, 10,
209–231.
Terrell, T. (1991). The role of grammar instruction in a communicative approach.
Modern Language Journal, 75, 52-63.
Touchie, H. (1986). Second language learning errors their types, causes, andtreatment. Proceedings of the JALT Journal-Volume 8, Number 1, 75-80.

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Appendix A. Transcripts from the Japanese University Student Fluency Corpus
2019, 5,460 Words
Name: H. W.
TOEIC score: 290
Monologue
Oh ↑, (7.8) (laughter) eh: (6.2) I belong to (.) shourijin kempo club and karate club,and ki-, kidadorokon there club is so fun. (4.8) but ↑ (.) very busy (12.7) I continue tocontinue to do these (17.3) my hobby is in, my hobby, ↑ I (11.2) in holiday, I: (2.6) I
can bring game a TV game.
Name: K. O.
TOEIC score: 470
Monologue
I’m nineteen years old; I’m going to (2.0) go abroad, (2.4) next month, in Australia,
to study English, (1.8) but uh my English skill is very low so↑ I want to (3.6) I wantto↓ (2.4) skill I want to skill up skill up↑ about English. (5.7) (laugh) so eh (1.3) I: ah:
I study English every day to (6.1) go abroad.
Name: A. S.
TOEIC score: 770
Monologue
I I’m from Fukuoka (.) city↑ and I’m nineteen years old. I: ↑ come to this school to:(1.8) study about machine, and I’m interested in space engineering, so I want I want
to go to the space engineering course, but↑ it is very: (1.3) high, it is very high (3.4) it
is very difficult to go to the course, so I have to study hard↑ now↑ (laugh) I (2.0) uh↓
I: (3.8) I: (3.4) I talk about my family↑ I my my brother is (2.1) two two years older
than me, so he is greatful in university, he go he↑ goes to university in Tokyo so he (.)
this↑ spring he has to start job (laugh) (2.8) job: finding↑ so so: this new year’svacation, he bought a new suit, ( ) (suit) because he has to work hard to get a better
job, but he doesn’t do anything↑ about that, so my parents, (2.9) parents said said him
a lot of things. (laugh) and and we I went to Taiwan↑ in (3.0) summer vacation withmy family, and then my mother broke her arms bone in Taiwan, he slipped, (2.2) it
was raining, ↑ so he slipped in the road, and when he slipped, he broke her right arm’sbone, and uh, we he of course she has she had to go the hospital, and we we called
am- ambulance, and she went to the hospital. (laugh) It we went to Taiwan three days,
but she broke her arm in day two↑, so I we cannot enjoy Taiwan very much (laugh)and even now↑ she went to hospital to (.) to to do rehabilitation and she she (1.8) she
is tired about that, she she said she she doesn’t want to go Taiwan (laugh), so and uh(5.6) my cousin↑, my cousin↑ start starts to have (1.4) uh a pet dog, a very small dog,
and it is about one kilogram, very small dog, and my cousin is nine↑ years old, andshe always say she wants to have a dog but her parents (1.6) didn’t say yes, because itis very difficult, and need many time to have a dog, so: but (3.2) last week, herparents bought a dog for her, and uh she is very happy now, she (2.1) she often comesto my home to get dinner together, but now she did she doesn’t want to come to myhome because she wants to play with her dog in her home. My my home is apartment,
so dog can not come in my home, so she didn’t she doesn’t want to come my home. I
I like dog, but I like dog, but (2.1) I I don’t like to touch it. (laugh) I like just seeing,(laugh) so I I: (3.6) and her dog is very small, so I I’m very (2.9) ner- nerv- to touch it.

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Synchronic and Diachronic Exploration in Faith-based History Teaching
Elya Kurniawan Wibowo, Pelita Harapan University, Indonesia
Yenty Rahardjo, Pelita Harapan University, Indonesia
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Official Conference Proceedings
Abstract
Historicity is a fundamental element in the effort to mediate tensions between
Christian Liberal Arts critical thinking, interdisciplinary, and holistic citizenship withpragmatic, economic utility. In Art, Design, and Architecture, design thinking has
shifted away from designing material object towards socio-materiality as an end goal.
The design process is increasingly appointed towards building, recreating, redefining
social frameworks, rituals, habit, and placement; how to use, mediate, or synthesizes
various perspectives to create pre-determined conditioning. This disciplinary
development made historical consciousness a dominant aspect in comprehending thedirection and possibilities of competing narratives and cultural hermeneutics. To
mediate learning that allows socio-materiality and faith-based emphasis, history ofArt, Design, and Architecture must be taught not as a chronological exploration ofartefacts produced, but as a critical reflection of human being, worldviews,
civilization, artefacts produced by individual and social groups, in particular time andplace. The Initial Historical Reflection is designed to constrain the quantity of dataand information; providing an in-depth analytical reading of a given text, visual,
supporting narratives. Initial Historical Reflection utilizes Cultural Studies andDesign categorizations to allow students to build collective reflection synchronically
across all variables of one place and timeframe. The result of this initial reflection iscollected as a repository to execute Diachronic Historical Reflection. This Diachronic
Reflection is designed to allow students to build a hypothetical correlation between
different timeframe and place on a selected phenomenon. Combined SynchronicDiachronic historical reflection produces historically grounded ideation, post-course
discourses for further stages of disciplinary praxis.
Keywords: historicity, socio-materiality, synchronic, diachronic

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Introduction
The Synchronic- Diachronic Exploration in Faith-based History teaching started as adisciplinary response to institutional Christian Liberal Arts general education. The
challenge given by the institution was threefold, firstly to fully engage its underlying
faith-based presuppositions in all teaching and learning process; secondly, to create
coherent relationship between Christian Liberal Arts general education and specificdisciplinary education; thirdly, to fulfill vocational expectation posit by theprofessional and governmental regulatory board.
A common ground needs to be identified between faith-based, Liberal Arts, anddisciplinary pedagogical expectations. This so-called common ground may consist ofa framework, a starting point, or a common element that are present and intertwinedin what seemed to be less compatible pedagogical expectations. To search andidentify possible alternatives for this common element, a collaborative task force
between Liberal Arts and Art and Design disciplinary educators tested several joint
teaching modules. Analysis was carried out to determine specific compatibility issues
between existing faith-based, liberal arts, and disciplinary expectations. This
collaboration resulted in the decision to investigate the possibility of making theworldview approach as common ground of developing faith-based, liberal arts, anddisciplinary pedagogy.
From Worldview to History
Historically since the late nineteen century, Christian philosophers and education
scholars have utilized the worldview conception as an instrument of pursuing holistic
intellectual and spiritual formation. The utilization of Worldview conception also
occurred in various disciplinary sciences. From Polanyi and Kuhn in natural sciences,
Freud and Jung in psychology, to sociologists like Karl Manheim and Peter Berger.
The utilization of worldview conception allows converging shifts in the way the faithbased, liberal arts, and disciplinary elements form a compatible pedagogy. The shift toworldview terminology and thought allows faith-based foundational framework not tobe taught dogmatically as a completely separated normative principles. It allows its
dogmatic propositions to be understood and studied in its underlying presuppositions.
It became for formative learning purposes, a study of behind-the-scene distillate pretheoretical formation. This shift opens a dialogue and comparative analysis to similar
pre-theoretical conviction held in every disciplinary science. The shift provided a
deeper understanding in each discipline of its own internal presuppositions and pretheoretical formation, beyond instrumental utilization. To the Liberal Arts general
education, the shift increases the possibility of interdisciplinary learning.
In his worldview investigation, Buijs (2012) reveal an important element indirectly
instrumental in evaluating our present pedagogical approach in faith-based teaching.
The implication that a person’s worldview conception is never a unity, nor private,
but constantly in tensions of disunity in its communal and societal context, seriously
challenges rationalistic, ahistorical, proposition-based pedagogical approach.
Why historiography as means to engage worldview? Sire's (2015) and Buijs' (2012)
development of worldview understanding provide fundamental critique towards ourpresent pedagogy. Sire’s (2009) revised the focus of a worldview. Worldview is

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understood as a fundamental orientation of the heart, which can be held consciously
or subconsciously, consistently or inconsistently would be put into contrast withstable, completed framework, constructed with normative propositions upon whichclear differentiation of any given context can be defined. Buijs’ (2012) explanation ofworldview as communal phenomenon raised questions of how current deductive
learning, through propositions taken out of its historical and societal context, cansufficiently support critical reflection of worldview contestation embodied daily at thepresent. Due to various constraints, the utilization of worldview conception ascommon ground in our pedagogy remain incoherently rationalistic, mostly detachedfrom situatedness of disciplinary practices. It failed to act as a bridge between
systemic or normative concern with the embodied situatedness. This condition
seemed to reflect the late development of worldview conception in Christianphilosophy.
Buijs (2012) proposed a solution to the incoherent disunity of rationalistic ChristianWorldview, a new role for worldview. After explaining the current context of what
Charles Taylor (2007) called The Age of Authenticity, Buijs underlined how thecharacter of the age that fight against any idea of external ideological, imposing
framework brought a deathblow to a rationalistic, comprehensive all-encompassing
idea of worldview. Buijs (2012) offer a possible role for worldview in the current
context. This role no longer placing worldview as intellect-driven (propositional,
abstractions, deductive learning) comprehensive framework but as reflections, deep
explorations towards any deep commitments any patterns of life may be rooted. Buijs(2012) stated that these deep explorations can be in two forms as follows:“The first form may be that of narratives: novels, myths, parables, biographies, theatre
plays, movies and so forth. In many (if not all) of these kind of narratives, ways of life
are explored and analyzed, some of whom may seem attractive at first, but then turnout to be quite harmful to oneself or others, whilst other ways of life may be just theother way around. In the background of the stories one can also sometimes discern
deeper issues that come close to what is called ‘a worldview’. However, in an ‘age ofauthenticity,’ the primary focus is probably going to be on the question whether acertain story helps me to understand life in general and my life and the A second form
that ‘worldview’ may take in an ‘age of authenticity’ is that of personal examples andpersonal inspiration. The key question may not simply be what your ‘encompassing
framework’ is, but: ‘by whom are you inspired?’, ‘who is your great example?’, ‘who
is your hero?’. This line goes a long way back in Christian history, of course: whom
are you going to follow? Do you choose the Imitatio Christi? Or are there otherleading stars in your life? Next to storytelling, this second form requires personal,
face-to-face encounters.”
This developing understanding of worldview in Christian philosophy cruciallyinfluence pedagogical assumptions set for this research. Its comprehensive andholistic nature, not merely as rational propositions, affirms the value of worldview asa pedagogical instrument where deep assumptions upon which we perceive reality is
known and disclosed. Its historical precedent of being expressed through storytellingalso play an important role in how further methodical development is conducted.
Bloch (1953) quoted in Bradley and Muller (2016) observed the importance of history
to Christianity as a consequence of situating its whole narrative of Creation, Fall,

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Redemption, and Judgment in the canvas of world history. Thus, whether it is ahistory of Christian thought, doctrine, dogma, or worldview, it must be identified in astill broader field of inquiry. It can only be adequately understood in relation to its
broader situatedness in the historical context of time, place, and society. Bradley andMuller (2016) observed that in the pluralistic concerns of the present, traditional
divisions of historical investigation such as history of theology, the church, thedogma, becomes inadequate without placing it in wider situatedness such as Western
intellectual history and Western civilization.
Thus, the development of Christian worldview conception, also its relationship tohistoriography becomes an important foundation for any interdisciplinary
development. Concurring with Pannenberg (1976) quoted in Bradley and Muller(2016) I propose that not only Church history, but also the history of theology, anddogmatic propositions constructed in response to a historical context as subject-mattermust inescapably engages pressures of the whole history. Thus propositions, words ormeanings as distinct from events have of themselves no discerning value. Events andinterpretations, facts and meanings must, therefore, be viewed in embodied
situatedness, synchronically at their original historical context.
Christianity’s challenging relationship with history is reciprocated in the developmentof how historicity is regarded and situated in disciplinary and special sciences
education.
Strauss (2009) investigate the way in which academic disciplines are influenced byphilosophy, while at the same time acknowledging the dependence of philosophy on
developments within the special sciences. While plenty of discourses can be drawn
based on Strauss’s investigation, this research is interested in the way and how aphilosophical historiography approach provided constant historical interplay between
underlying philosophical presuppositions and distinctiveness of disciplinary
development. As such, problems resulted from systematic distinctions and theconnection between disciplines are brought in a different light, resulting in fruitfuldiscernment. Strauss’s historical investigation is both synchronic and diachronic,
offering investigation of underlying unity that runs underneath various special
sciences development of certain time and place. It also investigates continuity anddiscontinuity of presuppositions, considering the historicity of all human knowledge.
Synchronic and Diachronic Historiography
Looking further back from Strauss’s synchronic and diachronic historicalinvestigation of interaction between disciplines and special sciences, the experimentwill now draw lessons from Christian philosophical historiography to develop
disciplinary historicity that emphasis discernment and deep reflection to worldview.
Historiography in Christian philosophy tradition, as exemplified in Vollenhoven’s
philosophical historiography method addresses several inadequacies of rationalistic
worldview pedagogy. To understand why we need to look back at some underlying
considerations that Vollenhoven’s tried to address through his historiography method.
Wolters, as mentioned in Seerveld (2014), situated the development of Vollenhoven’s
philosophical historiography as a response to Neo-Positivistic historicism. As such thehistoriography method address the tension between normative stability and the

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relativizing in interpreting every phenomenon. The method is, by how it wasconstructed, fashioned with specific categories that allow specific Christianpresuppositions to be brought into in-depth reflection within another competing
framework. As it was a reflection upon presuppositions brought within a criticallyshared historicity, it avoids the early-on detachment and rejection to absolutizing
normativity. As it makes openness for deeper contextual relevance in interpreting
meaning in any subject matter, it preserves the normative stability and macrointerpretation of history through methodical categorization.
The next phase of developing faith-based, liberal arts, and disciplinary integration isconducted separately in each domain. Having established a general argument todesignates worldview through historiography as common ground, a more thoroughexamination is conducted to identify the existing historiography and the role that
historicity took in each domain.
History Teaching at School of Design
At the School of Design, further examination identifies the nature of historicity inrelation to pedagogical practices in Arts, Design, and Architecture. Firstly, it agrees
that Arts, Design and Architecture practices generally posit historicity as an importantelement in generating concepts, interpreting practices, and constructing values.
Secondly, it identifies the presence of both synchronic and diachronic historicalinvestigation in various stages of our teaching and learning process.
Diachronic historical investigation is mostly characterized as foundational knowledge,
in which each time period or traditionally accepted categorization is introduced. The
historical analysis would narrow its focus on what considered as representing the bestmaterial culture and artefact produced by specific time, place, or stylistic movement.
Synchronic historical investigation mostly appears as part of preliminary ideation, inthe stage where the design process search for contextual understanding. At its existing
practices, the diachronic historical investigation of artefacts and material culture
provide a basic understanding of similarities and differences, but less concerned andfrequently detached from its specific situatedness. The absence of synchronic
historical investigation in preliminary search for contextual understanding resulting invarious forms of social, cultural, and ethical misappropriation. In the age of
information where identity becomes a primary design element, the challenge tounderstand and consider multiple contexts appropriately is crucial.
In Art, Design, and Architecture, design thinking has shifted away from designing
material object towards socio-materiality as an end goal. The design process isincreasingly appointed towards building, recreating, redefining social frameworks,
rituals, habit, and placement; how to use, mediate, or synthesizes various perspectives
to create pre-determined conditioning. As this happened, the emphasis in design tostudy contingent interaction between human actors and material objects shifted frommerely taking the human consideration as an initial means of generating materiality.
Materiality and objects must now be understood by its social impact, as arepresentation of values, norms, and intentions.
This disciplinary development above made historical consciousness a dominant aspect
in comprehending the direction and possibilities of designing. Material culture now

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must be understood to represent competing narratives, whether presently or in its
historical past.
To mediate learning that allows socio-materiality in Arts, Design, and Architecture
requires similar changes to how historicity is situated for faith-based emphasis.
History of Art, Design, and Architecture must be taught not as chronological
exploration of artefacts produced, but as a critical reflection of human being,
worldviews, civilization, artefacts produced by individual and social groups, time andplace.
To allow theoretical arguments above be tested pedagogically, the explorative
practices must be strategically placed in the School of Design curriculum structure. In
relation to Liberal Arts and faith-based institutional subjects, the test-bed subject islocated synchronically in the first year to allow interdisciplinary dialogue. In thecontext of an interdisciplinary approach to specific disciplines, the test-bed subject isfaculty developed and presently taught at Visual Communication, Product, andInterior Design.
The exploration tested ideas as follows:
1. The utilization of worldview and historicity as common ground for disciplinary,
Liberal Arts, and faith-based subjects.
2. The utilization of Diachronic historiography to develop a normative proposition.
3. The utilization of Synchronic historiography to develop deeper temporal andcontextual understanding.
4. The combined utilization of Synchronic and Diachronic historical investigation asmeans of historically grounded interpretation and ideation.
The Synchronic Diachronic Exploration is presently conducted for three years since2017 in the duration of 16-week semesters. Each semester with 3 to 4 classrooms
running simultaneously in Visual Communication, Interior, and Product Design.
Result and Exposition
The Initial Historical Reflection is designed to constrain the quantity of data andinformation; providing an in-depth analytical reading of a given text, visual,
supporting narratives. These constraints are designed to allow utilization of
Synchronic Historiography to the fullest. The 16-week semesters are designed toallow students to work collaboratively in a minimum of two selected Synchronic
investigations. The synchronic investigation is subjected to collective questioning, inwhich each contextual understanding must be subjected to sound historical reasoning.
A series of Synchronic historical investigation conducted by students are subjected to
Diachronic Historical Investigation conducted by Lecturers. The Diachronic
Historical Investigation draw out comparative analysis between two synchronic
investigation. It generates a question of continuity and discontinuity between two or
more synchronic investigation, which resulted in a normative proposition to beconcluded collectively.

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To create further possibility of cross-examination across disciplines and subjects,
Initial Historical Reflection utilizes existing Cultural Studies and Design
categorizations that allow students to build collective reflection synchronically acrossall variables of one place and timeframe.
The combined Synchronic investigation by students and Diachronic investigation by
Lecturers is collected to be utilized in the next stage of the process. The result of thiscombined initial reflection is collected as a shared repository to execute Diachronic
Historical Reflection. This Diachronic Reflection is designed to allow students tobuild a hypothetical correlation between different timeframes and places on a selectedphenomenon. Combined Synchronic-Diachronic historical reflection produces
historically grounded ideation, post-course discourses for further stages of
disciplinary praxis.
Conclusion
The Synchronic Diachronic Teaching was designed from the first with the intention toallow continuing student’s engagement and participation to independently construct
and accumulate relevant themes for contextual discourses. The exploration has
demonstrated ongoing discussion and interest to both Synchronic and Diachronic
historical investigation between normative principles taught in different disciplines
and contemporary interpretation of certain phenomenon. While specific turn ofinvestigation that incorporates faith-based or Liberal Arts questions regularly appear
in School of Design classes, no current evaluation has been conducted in related faithbased and Liberal Arts subjects. Further stage of collaborative development between
Liberal Arts and School of Design is needed.

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References
Anderson, Tawa J., Clark, Michael W., Naugle, David K. (2017) An Introduction to
Christian Worldview: Pursuing God’s perspective in a pluralistic world. Illinois,Intervarsity Press
Buijs, G.J., (2012) ‘Worldview, the credit crisis and the “unity of life”. From“framework” to “deep commitment”’, Koers - Bulletin for Christian Scholarship77(1), Art. #186, http://dx.doi.org/10.4102/koers.v77i1.186
Bradley, James E., Muller, Richard A. (2nd edition © 1995, 2016) Church History:
An Introduction to Research Methods and Resources. Michigan. Wm. B. Eerdmans
Publishing Co.
Day, Mark. (2008) The Philosophy of History: An Introduction. London. Continuum
International Publishing Group.
Seerveld, Calvin G., Kok, John H., (Ed.) (2014) Cultural Education & History
Writing. Iowa. Dordt College Press.
Sire, J.W., (2009), The Universe Next Door: A Basic Worldview Catalog, 5th Edition.
Downers Grove, Illinois, IVP Academics
Sire, J. (2015), Naming the Elephant: Worldview as a Concept, 2nd Edition, Downers
Grove, Illinois, IVP Academics
Strauss, D.F.M. (2009) Philosophy: Disciplines of the Disciplines. Grand Rapids,
Michigan. Paidea Press.
Van der Walt, B.J. (2006) Philosophy of D.H.Th. Vollenhoven (1892-1978) withspecial reference to his historiography of philosophy. Tydskrif vir Christelike
Wetenskap / Journal for Christian Scholarship 42, pp. 35-59
Contact email: elya.wibowo@uph.edu

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