Bhutan / China / India

18

2017

The Eighteenth Regular ReportIndonesia / Kazakhstan / Maldives

ACCU Nara International Correspondent
The ACCU correspondents periodically send reports on cultural heritage protection activities in which they have been
recently involved. This is a collection of ten reports submitted by international correspondents in the Asia-Pacific region.

The Eighteenth Regular Report
Contents
Bhutan1

Karma Tenzin
Ruins of Drukgyel Dzong

China

6

Zhao Peng
Preliminary Study of the Research-oriented Conservation Project — Hall of Mental Cultivation

India

12

Nagaraju Kaja
Refreshing Forgotten Reminiscences: Conservation of CIB Building at Basheerbagh, Hyderabad

Indonesia

18

Dewi Puspito Rini
Inventory of Archeological Resources in Pangandaran Regency, West Java Province, Indonesia

Kazakhstan
Gulnaz Kulmaganbetova and Abildin Askar
Regular Report, Results of Archaeological Research of Ancient Taraz

21

Maldives

27

Shiura Jaufar
Second Season of Excavation in the Maldives for the ‘Cowrie Shells: An Early Global Commodity’
Project, 2017

Nepal

31

Sabina Tandukar
Restoration of Kageshwor Mahadev Temple at Kathmandu Darbar Square

Pakistan

35

Tahir Saeed
Activities of the Federal Department of Archaeology and Museums in the Field of
Archaeological Exploration in Pakistan

Papua New Guinea40

Jim Onga
Kuk Early Agricultural Site Threat Assessment Report

Philippines
Louella Solmerano Revilla
Conservation and Restoration of Mexican Crucifixes

44

Bhutan
BhutanRuins of Drukgyel Dzong
Karma Tenzin, Sr. Architect
Archaeology Section, Division for Conservation of Heritage Sites, Department of Culture, Ministry of Home and Cultural Affairs
Introduction
Fortresses in Bhutan, locally known as dzongs, arearchitectural masterpieces and regarded as the mostsignificant architectural heritage in the country. Dzongs are
aesthetically majestic, unique in design and form,
strategically located on top of a hill or ridge overlooking avalley or in between the river confluence for defense(fig.1). Most of the principal surviving dzongs in the
country are attributed to the great historical and religious
ruler Zhabdrung Ngawang Namgyel (1594-1651) and his
successors (MoWHS 2014, see fig. 2). He is regarded as theunifier of the country as a nation state and built a chain ofdzongs in the country in the process of unification, gained
control over the different regions, then ruled through local
chieftains and the clergy of different Buddhist sects (Hasrat1980). He also established a dual system of governance inwhich the secular and spiritual affairs of the state functioned
from the dzong (Phuntsho K 2011).
The ruins of Drukgyel Dzong (fig. 3), one of the renowned
archaeological sites in the country, was also built under
the command of Zhabdrung Ngawang Namgyal tocommemorate victory over the Tibetan forces. The nameDrukgyel was derived from (“Druk,” the local name of
Bhutan and “gyel,” which means victory). According to
Lhoyi Choe Jung, the dzong was built in 1649 primarily asa Dra Dzong (for defensive purposes) to protect the routefrom possible Tibetan attack (Namgyel et.al 2007; Claude
J. W. 1914). The other defense fortresses were Gasa TrashiThongmon Dzong, Haa Damthang Dzong, and Lingzhi
Dzong. The Drukgyel Dzong was unfortunately later
completely destroyed by fire in 1951. Hereafter, the ruinsof the dzong continued to be protected as an importantmonument linking the people of Bhutan with the great
events that contributed to maintaining the sovereignty of
the country.
The Archaeology Section under the Division forConservation of Heritage Sites, Department of Culture,
Ministry of Home and Cultural Affairs carried out a detailed
survey and documentation of the Drukgyel Dzong ruins in
2016-2017 to aid future conservation works, and to ensure
the protection of the heritage sites for posterity in a formof a record. This report briefly highlights some of theunique features present in this dzong compared to rest of
the dzongs in the country.
Geographic location
The Drukgyel Dzong ruins are located on top of a hill of aphonde village under Tshento gewog, Paro Dzongkhag (fig.
4), nearby the border with Tibet for strengthening defenses
against future invasions, and adapting to the topographyof the hill. It is located 14 km from Paro town, and covers
approximately 19 acres of land.

1

Exact Location
Coordinates (WGS84): 27°30’N 89° 20’ E
Geo URI geo: 27.5, 89.333333
UTM: 45R730506 3043985
Altitude: 2,609 m above sea level
Drukgyel Dzong ruins and its unique features
The ruins of the Drukgyel Dzong (fig. 3) are comparatively
well preserved with major portions of the stone andrammed earth wall structures still standing up to a certain
height. Since the main fortress complex of the ruins ofDrukgyel is similar to other dzongs built by Zhabdrung
Ngawang Namgyel, it is comparatively easy to understandthe layout and the features of the fortress complex.
The main dzong complex (fig. 5) consists of three distinct
courtyards arranged in a northwest to southeast orientation.
Each courtyard is enclosed by elongated square andrectangular buildings also known as shabkhor (residence/living quarters/stores) built according to the profile of theterrain similar in layout to other dzongs. The main tower,
known as the Utse, is situated in the innermost courtyardon an elevated level higher than the first and second
courtyards. The main entrance to the fortress complex on
the southeast is connected by fortified pathways to a water
cistern tower at the base of the hill connected in between
by two rectangular and one round watchtower. Similarly,
it is also connected by a fortified pathway passing throughtwo watchtowers in a northeast direction facing Mount
Jomolhari. The total land area of the ruins is more than 19
acres.
Although the layout of the main dzong complex is similar
to that of other dzongs, one of the distinct differences isthe presence of watch towers and a water cistern connectedby fortified pathways to the main fort complex. Drukgyel
Dzong, being built principally as a defensive fortress, highand massive stone masonry walls built along the profile ofthe steep slope of the hill enclose the inner space of thedzong, with the only entrance from southeast guarded by
the fortified pathways and several watch towers situatedbetween the entrance and the foot of the hill (fig. 6). As
Samuel Turners states in his book An Account of an
Embassy to the Court of the Teshoo Lama, these defense
mechanisms could even preserve safe communication
within themselves even in times of the greatest peril.
However, in most of the dzongs built by Zhabdrung, watch
towers known as Ta- were clearly built shortly after toguard the dzong. They are generally located on top of ahill, not within the fort complex as in the case of Drukgyel
Dzong. For instance, Namgyel et al (2007) maintains that
the Paro Ta-dzong was built in order to protect Paro
Rinpung Dzong and similarly, Trongsa Ta-dzong wasapparently built in 1652 to guard the Trongsa Dzong(fig.7). Furthermore, the presence of a water cistern, asThere are views that all the buildings within the second
and third courtyard are internally connected to each otherso that one can walk all the way through the passage
doors connecting rooms from the inside. This is clearly
evident from the door remnants in each structureinterlinking every other structure. The 360 degree accesswithin the fort complex must have been a good way tokeep a close watch for enemies in all directions.
Furthermore, the dzong had been constructed as afortification complex as a whole with the first courtyard asa horse stable, which is also one of its unique featurescompared to other dzongs (fig. 5).
There are numerous arrow slits like in other dzongs acrossthe country. However, unlike other dzongs, Drukgyal
Dzong has some very interesting unique arrow slits facing
the north. They have made in such a way that the arrowslits are targeted towards the north by constructing slanting
stone walls from inside (fig. 9). Another two distinctive
arrow slits can be seen in the walls inside the entrance
door of the second courtyard, through which one can see
who is coming into the dzong from the main entrance
door of the fortress complex.
One of the unique features is the presence of a longunderground channel measuring 300 x 500 mm, startingfrom the base of the platform near the circular structure
running farther down in the direction of the northeast
water cistern (fig. 10). It is quite certain that it is a water
channel; however, since it is not connected to the courtyardor any drains from the courtyard, one can conclude that it
is not part of the drainage system. Therefore, excavation ofthis channel further downhill is important to understandthe purpose of this channel. There is a myth that says there

was a lake inside the dzong complex. At the moment, one
can assume that the so-called lake must have been somekind of system where rainwater was harvested, and thiswater channel might have been used to drain out excesswater.

BhutanClaude J. W. (1914, p.374) explains, would allow occupants
to access the water supply under cover in the case of asiege. Thus, the presence of three water cisterns (figs. 5
and 8) also signifies that the Drukgyal Dzong housed ahuge number of armies in the past. Therefore, being built
for defense, namely to protect the route from possible
Tibetan attack, it was for military purposes, without
administrative and religious functions (Namgyel et. al
2007; Claude J. W. 1914), whereas most of the dzongs
served as a center for administrative and religious functions,a dual system of governance introduced by Zhabdrung.

In conclusion, Drukgyel Dzong ruins, being one of thedzongs principally built as a defensive fortress, is uniquein its layout and the way it functioned compared to theother dzongs. Although the courtyard concept plan issimilar to other dzongs, with the main tower in the centersurrounded by shabkhor, it has numerous watchtowers
connected by fortified pathways and a water cistern built
solely for the purpose of defense. Moreover, Drukgyel
Dzong, being primarily built for defense, had a military
purpose, without an administrative or religious function,
unlike other dzongs which served as religious andadministrative centers.
Glossary
Drukgyel = Name of the present site
Dzong = Fortress
Tshento = Name of a block
Gewog = block
Paro = Name of place
Dzongkhag = Districts
Utse = main central tower
Shabkhor = the surrounding living/residential structures
References
MoWHS (Ministry of Works and Human Settlements) 2014.
‘Bhutanese Architecture Guidelines’. Royal Government of
Bhutan, MoWHS
Namgay, Tenzin. Yeshey Dorji., and Ian Kean (2007).
‘Dzongs of Bhutan’ Thimphu: Bhutan Times, Print.
Phuntsho, K (2013). ‘The History of Bhutan’. India: Random
House. Print.
Turner. (2013). ‘An Account of an Embassy to the Court of
the Teshoo Lama, in Tibet’. Cambridge University Press.
White, J. Claude (1914). ‘Castles In The Air’. Washington,
D.C.: National Geographic Society. Print.

Fig. 1 Dzongs. Source: MoWHS (2014 p.19)

2

BhutanFig. 2 Timeline of historical dzongs in Bhutan. Source: Namgyel etal (2007), Phuntsho (2014)

Fig. 3 South-west view of Drukgyel Dzong. Source: DCHS

Phonde village

Fig. 4 Location of Drukgyel Dzong. Source: Google Earth3

Bhutan

Watch tower

Watch tower

Fortified pathway
Watch cistern

Utse

Second Courtyard

Third Courtyard
First Courtyard

Fortified pathway

Main entrance
Watch cistern

Watch tower

Fig. 5 Ground Plan of Drukgyel Dzong ruins. Source:
DCHS

N

Watch tower

Watch tower

Fig. 5 Ground Plan of Drukgyel Dzong ruins. Source: DCHS

Fig. 6 Fortified pathways and watch towers (above and below). Source: DCHS

4

BhutanFig. 7 Paro Rinpung dzong (left) and Paro Ta-dzong (right) showing the location of the main dzong and watch tower. Source: DCHS

Fig. 8 Water cistern (right and left). Source: DCHS

Fig. 9 Arrow slit. Source: DCHS

Fig. 10 Underground channel. Source: DCHS

5

ChinaChina

Preliminary Study of the Research-oriented Conservation Project — Hall of Mental Cultivation
Zhao Peng, Deputy Director
Architectural Heritage Department, the Palace Museum
1. Background information and overview of the projectAt the end of 2015, the Palace Museum launched the“Research-oriented Conservation Project of the Hall of
Mental Cultivation.” The emphasis on the name “Researchoriented Conservation Project” suggests that the Palace
Museum will explore new implementation mechanisms
and ways of inheritance with respect to architectural
restoration. Currently, the Palace Museum is responsible
for the preservation and maintenance of more than 1,200
ancient buildings, covering an area of approximately
23,000 square meters. It is not only the largest palace
complex in the world, but also the most complete andintegrated ancient architectural complex with wooden
structures in existence. Within the region surrounding theHall of Mental Cultivation, there stands ancient buildingsthat are laden with exceptionally deep cultural associations.
Hence, this region is rendered the central focal point ofarchitectural restoration within the Forbidden City,
consisting of 18 buildings in total, with an area of morethan 3,800 square meters. The Hall of Mental Cultivation
served as the resting quarters of 8 Qing Dynasty emperors,
the first of whom being emperor Yongzheng. Moreover, itfunctioned as the heart of Emperor’s daily administration
over a long historical period until the late Qing dynasty. In
fact, every ancient building in the Palace Museum has its
own unique life course. We should dig deep into all thehistorical data that corresponds to different temporal
periods, much like the method of archaeologicalexcavation—paying attention to the study and protectionof historical information on every archaeological site.
During the implementation process of the “Research-oriented Conservation Project of the Hall of Mental
Cultivation,” three fundamental principles must be
acknowledged and actualized: maximize the retention ofancient architectural historical information; make nochange to the relics and status of the original ancientarchitecture; pass on the traditional craftsmanship ofancient architectural restoration; these three principles
should be implemented throughout the restoration ofancient buildings in the Forbidden City.
The ancient buildings in the area of the Hall of Mental
Cultivation have not been systematically maintained andprotected for a long time; therefore, the present status ofpreservation is poor, and the buildings are in urgent needof systematic renovation. Defining the restoration of theHall of Mental Cultivation as a “research-oriented project”
expresses the hope of breaking away from the managementmode of general construction projects, placing scientificresearch in a more important position, and allowing thepace of the project to bow to the quality of restoration.
The primary tasks of the project are to optimize andperpetuate its value, to fully restore its health, to effectively
improve its environment and to show its glamor in ascientifically palpable manner. In a sense, the problems
expected to be encountered during the architectural
restoration in the Forbidden City are not only related tocraftsmanship and technique, but also understanding andattitude, namely, the question of how we should treat
Chinese traditional culture and the cultural heritage ofmankind.

Floor plan and aerial view of the Hall of Mental Cultivation

6

China

2. Existing problems
Because annual maintenance is not completely finishedmany architectural components are seriously damaged.
The glaze on roof tiles keeps peeling off, the mortar layers
are decaying and coming loose, some components havebeen lost, and gutters are damaged; the timber structure
has become rotten and the sinking of some components is
obvious; the underneath layer of colored painting issagging and partly peeling, the painting on the flying
rafters is basically all cracked and peeling off, and someparts have flaked off already; a large section of the oilpainting appears to be hollowing, peeling off and evenshowing the bare wood structure; the decorations on theeaves, silk fabric and paint have been damaged by insects,
or are broken or missing; about 90 percent of the surfaceof the floor tiles in the courtyard appears to be somewhat
damaged, and the undulating surface of the ground
prevents the confluence of rain to the outlets, resulting in
ponding in multiple places. These conditions affect theviewer's safety and the World Cultural Heritage image of
the Forbidden City to varying degrees.
3. Research plan of the project
The restoration of the Hall of Mental Cultivation is acomprehensive project being jointly carried out by thewhole Palace Museum with the aid of outside scientificresearch teams. The main contents are divided into 20
subsections, including overall planning, value assessment,
construction investigation, archives research, movablecultural relics protection, material base construction,
infrastructure transformation, etc. Of these, the recording,research and protection scheme of this architectural
heritage project is 90 percent complete, which is essentiallythe overall project’s preliminary research. In addition, we
have also completed the location records of 1,168 pieces
of movable cultural relics inside the Hall of Mental
Cultivation, the field experiments on the application ofphotogrammetry technology in the complex’s indoor
space, and development of the technical scheme ofequipment.
According to various aspects of craftsmanship such as thetimber structure, tiling, colored painting, wallpaper, walls
and flooring, etc., the architectural heritage subsections arefurther divided for classification to each establish a
professional team, with the hiring of experts with extensive
experience to provide on-site guidance, and graduallycompleting the project plan according to the protection
procedures in the Principles for the Conservation of
Heritage Sites in China.
The overall goal of the research and protection scheme is
to be able to make disease assessment levels, study theenvironmental characteristics, analyze the causes of
diseases, and conduct an overall assessment of structuralsafety by completing a thorough scientific and detailed
record of the architectural structure and diseases.
Combined with historical documents, we analyze thestructural features of the Hall of Mental Cultivation, andprobe the value of the architectural relics in depth, striving
to date all components. On the basis of the scientificdisease assessment and value assessment, we ensure thesafety of the architectural structure, maximizing thepreservation of historic information while insisting upon
the principle of not altering the original status of the relics,
formulating reasonable measures to protect the architecture,

The architectural damage of the Hall of Mental Cultivation

Experts with extensive experience on site to provide guidance

7

Location record of movable cultural relics

4. Research results
The preliminary study of the Research-oriented Conservation
Project of the Hall of Mental Cultivation is a process ofcognition that focuses on finding value, an attitude thatgives far greater priority to the issues of utilization andmanagement in the latter phase, even before the project is
implemented, a consideration that covers how to inherit
culture, and for whom we are protecting the architecture.

China

and archiving all the records and information. During thisprocess, an expert consultation system will be established
to realize the participation of the expert teams in the wholeprocess. This research-oriented approach will penetrate
the entire project. Through the Hall of Mental Cultivation
project, we are striving to consolidate the standard ofsurveying and mapping for investigation of the architecturein the Forbidden City, form protection design requirements
and disease assessment criteria, and transform the project
into a restoration model for Chinese ancient official
architecture.

The results of the preliminary research will directly impact
and guide the implementation of the restoration scheme,
which is expected to start in the second half of 2018.
References:
1. 
Shan Jixiang, “Thoughts on establishing a research
restoration mechanism of ancient architecture in the
Forbidden City” speech script, 2016.

Analysis of timber structure8ChinaAnalysis of colored painting

Analysis of wallpaper

9ChinaAnalysis of walls

Analysis of doors and windows

10

ChinaValue assessment

Experiments on restoration of colored painting

11

IndiaIndia

Refreshing Forgotten Reminiscences: Conservation of CIB Building at Basheerbagh, Hyderabad
Nagaraju Kaja, Asst, Professor of Architecture
School of Planning and Architecture, Vijayawada (Ministry of HRD, Govt. of India)“What a country chooses to save is what the country chooses
to say about itself”, these words by Mollie Beattie, former
director of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service hold true incase of India, city of Hyderabad in specific, which iscommitted to conserving the 18th century Majlis-e-Aaraishe-Balda (City Improvement Board) building of the Nizam
era, reinforcing the fact that the region is proud of its
vibrant history and heritage. Hyderabad, the sixth mostpopulous metropolitan city in India, an Information
Technology (IT) & Bio-Technology hub; yet the cityrefuses to part with its glorious past and embraces its
various layers through food, culture, art and architecture.

The CIB building before its conservation

The CIB building restored

The responsibility of restoring this building was given toConservation Architect Prof. N. Ramaswamy, originallybelonged to Nizam era. This project has received accolades
and awards under Heritage and Restoration category.
Experienced persons in the restoration of Nizam’s palaces
and a team of 60 workers from Kerala have worked in thistask of restoring the structure.

was leased to a developer by the State Government, thedevelopers wanted to demolish all the existing structures
including the CIB building, a Grade-I Heritage structure to
make room for a commercial complex. Owing to theefforts of the Indian Institute of Architects (IIA), Andhra
Pradesh (AP) Chapter, a Public Interest Litigation (PIL) was
filed in the court. The court directed the developers to
restore the buildings and conserve the site and conservation
works were then taken up for the restoration. The court
directed that the works be taken up according torecommendations and in accordance with the standards
and ethics of international conservation practices for thebuilding to be restored to the known original details,
which were submitted by the State Department ofArchaeology.

A brief timeline of the City Improvement Board (CIB)
building and site:•1890s:Constructed by Paigahs as a maintenance officeof the Besheer Bagh Palace & Garden•1914: Converted to Majlis-e-Aaraish-e-Balda (Headquarters of City Improvement Board with
Moazzam Jha, son of Nizam as president)•
1958: Handed over to Gandhi Medical College
established on the site•2003: Handed over to Dept. of Tourism after Gandhi
Medical College moved to Secunderabad•2008: Restoration process of the structure has started
Present: Heritage Gallery of Greater Hyderabad
Municipal Corporation (GHMC)
Project Ambit
Soon after Gandhi Medical College was shifted to its new
campus built in Musheerabad, Secunderabad, the obsoletesite at Basheer Bagh became a favored spot for private
developers. As the site along with all the heritage structures

The original dreamy setting of the structure was at thecentre of the Basheer Bagh Palace garden. The building
boasts an Indo-Saracenic style of architecture comprising asingle storey made of granite and lime mortar. The
restoration works were completed at an approximate costof five million rupees.

History of the Building
The City Improvement Board building was a representativearchitectural marvel of the bygone Nizam era. The building
was constructed by Nizam as part of a garden complex in
the 19th century and is located today in the maincommercial hub of Hyderabad city. The structure originallystood in the centre of the garden; ‘Basheer Bagh’ appearing
as a beautiful art/sculpture planted amidst of the green
landscape and very well blended with the environment.
The Architectural Heritage
The CIB heritage building is a representative example of12Indiathe architectural character of Deccan and Islamic style. The
building is simple in plan with a central hall and a wrap
around verandah with a roof supported by double columns
and with foliated arches on three sides. The central hall
had a vaulted roof raised above the flat terrace roof of theverandah, forming a clearstory. The building was profusely
damaged due to unsympathetic intervention when it wasused as the Principal’s office of the old Gandhi Medical
College. The verandahs on the north and south wereenclosed and converted into rooms and a toilet was addedon the south-east side of the hall. The walls, constructedwith cement mortar not only enclosed the pillars of thestructure but also damaged the capital, arches and columns.
The century-old CIB building was weakened further due
to all the demolition activities around it, and as a result, theroof and walls were rendered fragile. Over the years,
various modifications had been made to the structure
including dissenting additions and the use of inappropriate
building materials, which had further damaged thestructure.

The Post-Restoration building plan

The simplicity of the building plan is in contrast with thegrandeur created by the configuration of the various
architectural components arranged in complementing
layers and levels. The plan is a central rectangular hallwhich is protected from direct heat and rain by a wrappedverandah on three sides. The vaulted roof of the central
hall is at a higher level than that of the flat terrace over thepillared verandah. This level difference creates a distinct
clearstory, which enhances the lighting and ventilation of
the hall. Characteristic cusped arches at openings, fluted
twin columns with ornamented capitals, along with domed
kiosks create a distinct drama. The stone chajjas braced bydecorated brackets create a rhythm in the exterior facade.
The terrace parapet is liberally adorned with mouldings inlime plaster. The roof levels are enhanced by small kiosks
at the corners alternating with double vases.
The concept of restoration was to take the building backto its original form using the traditional materials andtechnology with which the building was constructed. The

13

building was thoroughly studied and documented prior tothe commencement of restoration work. All the missing
parts were recreated in drawings to scale, and the later
additions were identified for removal. The concept was torestore the building to the time when it was originallyconstructed, while keeping in mind the global norms andethics of conservation.
The idea of conservation was maximum retention, sensitive
restoration and careful repair to return the building to a
known period using traditional knowledge of the materials
and techniques with which the structure was originallyconstructed. The works were taken up by skilled traditional
workers and craftsmen only after careful scientific study
and documentation of the style and architecture. The
missing or damaged parts were refurbished in scaled
drawings and the later additions were marked for removal.
The Project Interventions•The enclosure created on the north and south sides ofIndiaThe Post-Restoration North-side building elevation

Enclosed verandah before restoration

The verandah after restoration

the verandah, damaging the pillars, capitals, arches andthe toilet inappropriately added on the south side, weredismantled.

tiles were laid. Another layer of lime concrete preparedin situ by slaking lime stone and adding water withvegetable additives ensured complete waterproofing of
the roof.

•The dilapidated roof was made water proof and theblocked drainage holes were cleared. The bitumen sheeton the roof top was removed carefully, and was cleaned
with water to remove any dirt & dust. It was then leveled
to apply the first layer of coarse lime mortar over which•The interventions made with cement were reworked inlime. The cornices, ornamentation, and other features
which were spoilt were redone in traditional lime
plaster. The entire building was finished in cebara, a fine

Cleaning of the terrace in progress

Waterproofed and finished terrace

14

IndiaThe column ornamentation before and after the lime finishing works

Kiosks, bowl-shaped finials and parapet wall detailing before and after restoration

lime finish and exterior lime wash.
• The damaged parapet wall, kiosks, vases and decorative
ornamentations in plaster on both roof levels wereredone. A total of ten kiosks on the roof were dustedwith a soft brush and flaked plaster was removed.
Twelve bowl-shaped finials were reworked and restored
to their original shape and size.
•The projecting chajjas of the roof of the central hall aresupported by 48 brackets, and the roof chajjas of the15verandah are supported by 76 brackets, most of whichwere wrecked. These brackets were reworked andrestored through the processes of cleaning, scraping ofloose plaster and replastering with lime mortar.
•
In the central hall, the blockage, obscuring the jaali
screens of the clearstory windows was removed. The
cement repair work done previously to the high ceiling
was thoroughly scraped off and lime mortar was
reapplied. The steel sections were scraped and an anticorrosive coating was applied.

IndiaThe revamped brackets of the chajja over the verandah before and after restoration

Images of the ceiling before restoration

Finished ceiling

The installed doors and windows

The finished verandah•The door, window frames and shutters were cleaned,polished and installed in the same position, except for
two windows on the eastern wall, which were enclosedwith jaalis

paint, was cleaned and the original Shahabad cladded
grey stone was revealed.

•
The walls, cusped arches and the portion above thecapital of the pillars decorated with pilasters and cornices
which were restored. The portion above the cusped
arch in the exterior façade, which was covered with•
A set-back of 12 meters was defined all around thebuilding within which no construction is allowed. The
landscaping plan includes a paved walkway all aroundto enable visitors to walk around and appreciate theexperience offered by this magnificent, yet humble
piece of heritage.

16

India17

The cusped arched façade with Shahbad stone before and after restoration

The column capitals before and after strengthening and finishing

The verandah opens to visitors after the completion of works

The conserved structure and completed landscaping with walkways

Conclusion
Considering the rapid commercialization and growth ofthe present times, the world needs to ensure that heritage
structures crafted through the various layers of history that
we have inherited from our ancestors and which havechallenged the test of time are protected, as in the case of
the CIB building in Hyderabad. It becomes our fundamental
duty to ensure that the treasure trove of heritage is passed
on to future ages. After all, as Frank Gehry has penned,“In the end, the character of a civilization is encased in its

structures”. India, being a country which has witnessedvarious cultures starting from the very first humansettlements, is gifted with numerous overlapping
inheritances which are and will be protected for as long as
possible, with utmost pride and humility at the same time.
Acknowledgements
The author wishes to thank Prof. Ramaswamy, aConservation architect, for allowing using photos anddrawings in writing this article.

Indonesia
Dewi Puspito Rini, Archaeologist
Heritage Conservation Office of Banten, Ministry of Education and Culture
Archaeological resources are cultural treasures that matterto the understanding and development of history, scienceand culture. Archaeological resources are also very
important indeveloping national pride and awareness ofnational identity, and supporting the success of education,science, religion, economics, and tourism programs.
Therefore, archaeological resources need to be preserved
and managed in the sense of being protected, developed,
and utilized. From these statements, it is necessary to carryout a series of actions on archaeological resources that
include authorization, ownership, discovery, search,
protection, maintenance, management, utilization andsupervision in accordance with applicable laws andregulations.
At its most basic, conservation is the endeavor for a cultural
work to remain or to reside within the context of living
culture (system context), through reuse, recycling andrevitalization (Tanudirjo, 2008). For example, the researchand restoration of collapsed temples buried in the groundand abandoned by the support community—including
Borobudur Temple and Prambanan Temple—was an
attempt by the Indonesian government to return thetemples back to the community, although this function
was later changed. This effort can be referred to as“recycling”. There are several stages of preservationaccording to Pearson & Sullivan (1995):
1. Identification: discovering, recognizing, and recording
various aspects related to archaeological resources,
whether its location, environment, the size, shapeand type, amount, the ownership, or other aspects ofarchaeological resources or region.
2. Determination of important values: examining anddiscovering the essential values ​​of archaeologicalresources and its parts that may contain, indicate, orreflect these important values.
3. 
Recognizing the constraints and potential forpreserving and managing archaeological resources.
4. Designing a management policy based on theimportance of archeological resources (the result ofimportant value determination) taking into accountthe constraints and potential for preserving andmanaging the archaeological resources.
5. Determining strategies for realizing management
policies through management and conservation plans
and their programs.
6. Developing ways to monitor and evaluate theimplementation of management and conservation.
  
Referring to the stages of preservation, in March 2017, theHeritage Conservation Office of Banten (Balai Pelestarian
Cagar Budaya Banten) began to take an inventory ofarchaeological resources in Pangandaran Regency, WestJava Province. This inventory activity aims to identify
archaeological resources in Pangandaran Regency so thatIndonesia

Inventory of Archeological Resources in Pangandaran Regency, West Java Province, Indonesia

it is recorded in the archaeological inventory list of BPCB
Banten. The results of this activity will be used as a guideto determine the strategy for archeology resource
management in Pangandaran Regency.
In this activity, BPCB Banten team has identified several
archaeological resources:
1. Sutra Reregan Cave
Sutra Reregan Cave is administratively located inSelakambang Hamlet, Selasari Village, Parigi District,
Pangandaran Regency. Sutra Reregan Cave is a natural
cave located in karst hills. Geographically, the Sutra
Reregan Cave is located at 108° 31' 19.3" East longitude
and 07° 36' 55.5" South latitude with an average heightof ± 159 meters above sea level. Sutra Reregan Cave has
two mouths, facing the west and east.

Measuring and drawing the cave

In this cave there are archaeological finds in the form ofstone tools of obsidian rock material, kjokkenmoddinger(“kitchen garbage” in Danish) comprising piles of fossilsof seashells and snails, and animal bones.

Kjokkenmoddinger (kitchen garbage)

2. Panggung Cave
The administrative location of the Panggung Cave isSelakambang Hamlet, Selasari Village, Parigi District,
Pangandaran Regency. Panggung Cave is located not18

Indonesia

too far from Sutra Reregan Cave. Geographically,
Panggung Cave is at 108° 31' 22.7" East longitude and07° 36' 57.9" South latitude with an average height of ±150 meters above sea level.

Surface survey inside the cave

Based on the results of ground-level surveys, the teamfound shards of pottery, kjokkenmoddinger in the formof piles of fossil shells and snails, charcoal, animal bone
fragments, fossil canines, and stone tools.

From the results of ground surface surveys in the cave,the team found indications of archaeological remains
such as pottery shards, kjokkenmoddinger, animal
teeth, and foreign ceramics.

Pottery shards

4. Mangunjaya Site
Mangunjaya Site is located in Pasir Laja Hamlet,
Mangunjaya Village, Mangunjaya District, Pangandaran
Regency, precisely at coordinates 07° 29’ 13.4” South
latitude, 108° 41’ 47.1” East longitude with a height of
32 meters above sea level.

Stone tool found in Panggung Cave

3. Peuteng Cave
The administrative location of Peuteng Cave is also
Selakambang Hamlet, Selasari Village, Parigi District,
Pangandaran Regency. Peuteng Cave lies not too far
from Panggung Cave. Peuteng Cave is located at 108°
31' 27.5" East longitude and 07° 36' 58.6" South latitudewith an average height of ± 157 meters above sea level.

Measuring and drawing the cave

19

Measuring and drawing archaeological finds

The finds at Mangunjaya Site comprise yoni fragments
and two rounder busts. The yoni is split down the
middle into two parts. The yoni is in an upside down
position, with the spout at the bottom, while therounder busts are immediately to the west of the yoni.

Yoni and rounder busts at Mangunjaya Site

Indonesia

5. Prayanagara Site
This site is not far from Mangunjaya Site. Prayanagara
Site is located in Gimbal Hamlet, Mangunjaya Village,
Mangunjaya District, Pangandaran Regency, atcoordinates 07° 28’ 56.1” South latitude, 108° 41’ 36.9”
East longitude with a height of 38 meters above sea
level. Prayanagara Site consists of four round ubiquitousstones, and one round stone like a cannonball.

Lingga, rounder bust stone, and brick fragments

Rounder bust and round stone at Prayanagara Site

6. Lingga Kencana Naga Wiluya
Lingga Kencana Naga Wiluya, as it is locally called, islocated in Sentul Hamlet, Lingga Block, Sukanegara
Village, Padaherang District, Pangandaran Regency,
precisely at 07° 33’ 10.7” South latitude, 108° 44’ 05.9”
East longitudeatan altitude 28 meters above sea level.
The lingga (Siva phallus) is in a cupola, placed on arounder bust stone, and some old brick fragments areplaced near the lingga. The lingga is split in two inside
the cylinder.

In an inventory of archaeological resources activities,
not only physical buildings and historical backgroundare recorded, but also supporting data such as building
ownership, building area, and other information related
to the archaeological resources. Object data collection
is done by observation, both of objects related to thebuilding and their environment, and then taking andrecording of the coordinate points of where the objects
lay, measurement and depiction of the building plan,and visual recording using a camera are carried out. In
addition, interviews are also done to complete theverbal data, of course with competent sources. Thus, it
can be said that this activity is carried out with thoroughdocumentation, both verbally and pictorially, covering
the historical background, archaeological value, andarchitectural review, which is necessary for theconservation effort.
Reference:
Pearson, M. and S. Sullivan. 1995. Looking After Heritage
Places. Melbourne University Press.
Daud Aris Tanudirjo. 2008. Konsep Dasar Pelestarian
Benda Cagar Budaya. Article. Not published.

20

Kazakhstan
Kazakhstan

Regular Report, Results of Archaeological Research of Ancient Taraz
Gulnaz Kulmaganbetova, Research Engineer
Kazarchaeology LLP
Abildin Askar, Research Member
Kazarcheology LLP

The third year of research of the ancient city of Taraz
according to the Program of the Ministry of Culture andSports of the Republic of Kazakhstan — “The archaeologicalresearch of the medieval settlement of Taraz with the
purpose of creating an Archaeological Park” — became
the most fruitful so far. A significant area of ​​the ancient city
had already been discovered — over 20,000 square metersof solid excavation of the central part of the city in termsof the cultural layer of the 10th to 13th centuries, in places
until the 5th to 6th centuries.
The cultural layer of the 10th to 12th centuries in Taraz
refers to the period of the Karakhanid state. This period ismarked as the heyday of the ancient city.
Layout of the city
Excavations revealed a “quarterly” development of thecentral part of the city. The main part of the medieval cityis the central stone-lined street, stretching from the eastgate to the west. Along this street there were aryks linedwith stone slabs, feeding water from the main pipeline,
laid from the south to the north. Perpendicular to thecentral street, there were small cobblestone streets that
divided the urban development into quarters. Quarters arealso indicated by raw walls on a stone foundation with awidth of up to 1 meter. Inside the blocks there were bothresidential and public buildings (caravanserais). Residential
quarters comprise a closed quadrangular space, boundedby walls. From the inside to which the rooms are attached,
the central part served as a common courtyard. The yard
as a rule has several well-shaped pits of various depths,
which were used as garbage cesspits.
On the outside of the blocks, from the central street side,
there were commercial premises in the form of small
adjacent single-chamber rooms.
In the excavation, the remains of caravanserais 2,
occupying the space between the quarter streets, wererevealed. This served as a trading building, and is also
arranged by trading premises along the perimeter andcourtyard. The powerful stone walls suggest that theceiling above the rooms was vaulted.
In the southwestern part of the excavation, a small area,
carefully laid out with a stone flagstone, was revealed.
Finds
Ceramics, consisting of two main groups: handicrafts
created on a potter’s wheel, and home-made hand-madedishes.

21

Pottery produced by professional potters was made from agood homogeneous clay. The outsides of these dishes
were decorated mainly with wavy lines, trefoils andzoomorphic “qoshqar muyiz.” Some of these vessels werecovered with glaze with a multicolored yellow, blue,
white, brown, and green watering. In the ornamentation ofthis glassware predominate vegetable and geometricornaments.
Of particular interest are complex ornaments in the formof “braids” with interlacing epigraphic patterns. There
were also mythological stories composed of images ofhorned dragons, or Idahar. The symbolic horns serve as asting for the subsequent dragon and unite them into asingle composition. The dedicated dragon’s head turns
into the body with the signs of a reptile — a dark back andbright stripes on the belly.
Molded ceramics are of great importance for studying theethnic composition of the urban population, allowing
them to be associated with a particular people. The moststriking type of this cookware is the cauldrons, or kazans.
They have a characteristic rounded bottom; the main
advantage of this cookware is the ability to make certain
types of food in it. Being one of the most common typesof kitchenware from the cultural layers of ancient Taraz,
they show nothing more than a connection with thenomads of the Eurasian steppes. We found such boilers inthe burial mounds of the Kazakh steppes from Merke andKordai to Kegen and Alakol. In the cultural layers ofancient settlements south of Taraz, cauldrons are rare.
To study the history of nomadic peoples and the processof their settling in cities, a special so-called “nomadic”
pottery is of great importance, ornamented as carved,
stamped and molded ornaments in the form of zoomorphic,
floral and anthropomorphic models. These dishes,
presented as rough kitchen utensils, as well as pots andjugs, are original and diverse.
The molded nomadic pottery, like no other source,
illustrates the achievements of the population of the
Kazakh steppes in achieving a high level of development,
when whole cities of sedentary craftspeople grew out ofsmall settlements in the fertile autumn-winter nomad
camps. The achievement of high results in the mining andsmelting of metals, forging and other crafts, along with thedevelopment of indispensable companions in the form ofnomadic cattle bred with irrigated agriculture, made it
possible to form urban centers.

This numismatic collection is one of the most informative
sources on the political and economic development ofancient Taraz, its international connections and significance,
as shown by medieval written sources.
Artistic metal
With the excavation of Taraz, a truly unique collection of
metal products has been obtained. First of all, the great
historical significance of Taraz in the ancient world isconfirmed by items from two treasures found during our
excavations.
Jewelry bracelets, earrings, rings, amulet-fogs, intricate
patches made of gold, silver and bronze, and usually
gilded or covered with silver plates, perfectly illustrate theaesthetic tastes of the medieval population of Taraz.
Rich, expensive “imported” dishes and lamps made fromsilver, bronze and copper have a rich ornamentation.
Items made from silver, along with the ornamentation, arecovered with black ink. The candelabra of the lamps arecovered with an intricate openwork pattern.
In the cultural layers of Taraz, there were numerous beadsof ornamental stones, glass and paste, and Indian corals.

Kazakhstan

Money
Based on the results of our study of the cultural layers of
Taraz, the coin collection today amounts to more than
2,000 coins. Their special historical value is represented by
the silver dirhams of the Taraz Chekan, Turgesh copper
coins, and Chagataid silver coins. In addition to the local
coinage, the collection comprises gold solide of the
Byzantine emperors Foki and Justinian I, gold dinars of the
Samanids chased into Nishapur, Chinese copper coins of
the Tang and Qin Dynasty, and the silver dirham of theAbbasids.

The results of archaeological excavations make it possible
to supplement and richly illustrate the information of
medieval written sources on the ancient city of Taraz, theonly city existing in our country today that has a continuous
two-thousand-year history, and that experienced periodsof power and prosperity, as well as decline and oblivion.
The study of Taraz will help solve the most important
problems of our country’s history, to understand and toprove the genesis of urban culture in the state, thedominant view that the economy was based on nomadic
herding, the basis for the cult mentality of free citizenriders, the cult’s ancestral spirits, saints, and especially thevenerated blacksmiths.
The basis for the emergence of cities was not external
influences in the form of trade routes, but internal
development, leading to the emergence of strong Kaganate
states. The authorities demanded the creation of politicalcenters, and strong power and a sufficiently developed
industry and agriculture made it possible to join the world
economy and its political structures.

View of the excavation in 2017 from a height22

Kazakhstan
View of the excavation in 2017 from a height

View of the excavation in 2017 from a height

View of the excavation in 2017 from a height23

Kazakhstan

Amulet-fogsBronze bowl with zoomorphic image

Bronze lamp partBronze lamp with two spouts

Bronze plaqueAnomalous bronze image

Bronze plaque 2

Bronze tripod

Collection of ceramics

24

Kazakhstan
Decorated lid of a vessel

Decorative front ceramic tiles

Fragment of a ceramic table-dastarkhan

Fragment of a bronze censer

Gold and silver earrings

Gold coin – “bracteate” of the Samanid. Nishapur

Golden solid – ”bracteate” of the Emperor Justinian 1

25

Jewelry made of blackened silver

Kazakhstan

Molded nomadic pot with one handle

Sipaya – an image of mythical dragons – Aidaharov

A gold coin – the Samanid dinar. Nishapur.

Treasure # 2 from Taraz

Tubek - hygienic vessel for a cradle

Patricia

Stone three-tank vessel

A gold coin – the Solidus of Emperor Focky

Twisted bracelet. Silver26

Maldives
Maldives

Second Season of Excavation in the Maldives for the ‘Cowrie Shells: An Early Global Commodity’
Project, 2017
Shiura Jaufar, Archaeologist
Department of Heritage, Republic of Maldives
The second season of excavation for the project ‘Cowrieshells: an early global commodity’ was carried out earlier
this year in the Maldives. As mentioned in my report lastyear (which summarised the excavations carried out at the
beginning of last year, 2016), Prof. Anne Haour from the
University of East Anglia received a grant from theLeverhulme Trust to conduct research in the Maldives aspart of a research project investigating the timescale andnature of the importation of cowrie shells into West Africa
between 1150 and 1900 AD.
Thus, this paper will briefly report on the archaeologicalfieldwork undertaken in early 2017 in the Maldives which
involved the continuation of the excavation of one of thefive trenches (trench 3, which was located within avegetated area marked as a tourism zone on the northwestern side) on the island of Utheemu in Haa Alif Atoll,
as well as the large-scale excavation of seven units on theisland of Kinolhas in Raa Atoll. In addition, archaeologicalsurveys were also conducted in Kinolhas to record anddocument any architectural features visible within andaround the site. The field team consisted of the Principal
Investigator Prof. Anne Haour, Post-Doctoral Researcher
Dr. Annalisa Christie, Field archaeologist David Vigouroux,
and the author as the PhD candidate for the project. The
aim of the research was to identify sites likely to date to
the medieval Islamic period.
Work was first started at Utheemu at trench 3, which wasleft tarpaulined and backfilled last year until the team
could come back and investigate the coral stone blocks

that had been discovered. This 2 x 1.5 m trench was
extended, resulting in a 5.5 x 3.5 m trench in order to
identify the associated material culture and for better
understanding of the nature of the coral stone blocks. The
5-day excavation at this trench resulted in the full exposureof one of the coral stone blocks that was half exposed
before as well as other similar coral stones. Thus, although
it was not possible to identify the nature and function of
the slabs, some progress was made in identifying othercoral stone blocks within this trench and the material
associated with them, which included a lot of pottery andsome faunal remains.
The following four weeks of this season were spent on
Kinolhas as this is historically a very important island with
reports of a medieval harbour, and one of its claims tofame being that Ibn Battuta first landed here during both
his visits to the Maldives. The archaeology of the island
includes mosques as well as a shrine of a king who used
to rule across the Maldives. In addition, the shrine vicinity
also had two white marble gravestones—the inscribedstone of one is now housed at the National Museum inMale while the other stone is still left where it was foundwithin the shrine area. These stones are said to have comefrom Gujurat in India (Ludvik and Claude 2005).
The island of Kinolhas is about 0.5 km2 in size and roughly
a third of the island is covered in dense vegetation. The
medieval settlement was said to be located at the westernend of the island, which was largely occupied by vegetable
fields and forest. Thus, an area of roughly 180 x 160 m was

Fig 1: Trench at Ha. Utheemu (Haour 2017)27

Maldives

Fig 2: Map of R. Kinolhas (Google Images)

sampled at the western end by digging shovel test pits
every 20 m with some amount of clearing through theforest in order to be able to excavate and move around. A
total of 45 test pits were dug within this area and the finds
were compared with each other to determine where to
conduct large scale excavations. Finds included pottery,
and faunal and stone remains. After focussing on theparticular concentration of materials, seven of these test
pits were selected for large scale excavations, which weretrenches 325, 321, 449, 544, 631, 443 and 360.
Four of these trenches were extended to 2 x 2 m units(325, 321, 449 and 544) while two were extended to 1 x 2m units (360 and 443). One of the most outstanding of theseven was trench 631, which was extended to a 6 x 4.5 m
unit. This trench recovered a rectangular sandstone
structure in the south west corner of the unit of the trench,
adjacent to a large mound of coral and stone rubble spreadover the northern part of the trench. The coral stones were

subsequently found to be tombstones in varying degrees
of fragmentation. The remaining sandstone rubble wasprovisionally interpreted as having come from thedestruction of the associated rectangular structure. The
coral stones in the rubble represented the remains of atleast six tombstones. Moreover, a dispersal of many large
fragments of Chinese porcelain (mostly fragments ofbowls) was recovered and associated with the coral andstone rubble mound.
Finds from the trenches include a lot of pottery including
a great deal of broken coarse ware, Chinese porcelain andIslamic pottery as well as a miniature pot from trench 449,
an intact coarse ware jar from a shovel test pit, faunal
remains (including many cowries, various kinds of fish
species, chicken and other mammals), metal fragments,
glass items (including broken bracelets), a yellow pendant,beads, charcoal and stones foreign to the Maldives.

Fig 3: Plan drawing of all the test pits indicated by the three digit numbers, large scale excavated units indicated with the red squares,
and stone features recorded during the survey indicated by the stars (Christie 2017)28

Maldives
Fig 4: Drone image of the sampled area showing the vegetation and clearing that was done (Image taken by a local drone owner)Fig 5: Trench 443 (Christie 2017)

Fig 7: Pottery from the excavations (Vigouroux 2017)29

Fig 6: Trench 631 showing funerary features (Christie 2017)

Fig 8: Processing bones (Haour 2017)

Maldives

Fig 9: Miniature pot with associated cowrie shells from trench 449 (Vigouroux 2017)

Fig 10: Gravestone from trench 631 (Vigouroux 2017)

Moreover, due to the presence of many quadrilineal
features within and around the study area, an area ofroughly 50 x 100 m was surveyed to document and map
any stone features including measurements, photographs
and GPS points for each feature. This resulted in therecovery of about 21 features (both coral and sandstone)
including a probable bathing tank as well as remains ofwells, tombstones, walls and other domestic features.
After four weeks of excavations, surveys and finds analysis,
the team has now completed the excavations for the
project and returned to England, and are now in theprocess of analysing the finds and preparing for further
publication.
Acknowledgements
The author would like to thank the project team at theFig 11: Recording a squared well (Haour 2017)

University of East Anglia (United Kingdom), Department
of Heritage, Maldives National Museum, Academy of
Dhivehi Language, Boduthakurufaanu Memorial Center,
Kinolhas council and the locals of both islands for theircontinuous support for this project.
Bibliography
Haour, Anne (2017) Fieldwork, https://crossroadsofempires.
wordpress.com/page/9/ [Last accessed 31st August 2017].
Kalus, Ludvik and Guillot, Claude (2005) Inscriptions
islamiques en arabe de l’archipel des Maldives, Archipel
70(1): 15-52.
National Centre for Linguistic and Historical Research(2004) Heritage Sites in Maldives, Male: NCLHR.
Riyan (2011) Preliminary Inventory of Cultural Resourcesof Maldives and Heritage Action Plan (Unpublished
Report).

30

NepalNepal

Restoration of Kageshwor Mahadev Temple at Kathmandu Darbar Square
Sabina Tandukar, Architect
Kathmandu Valley Preservation Trust

Kageshwor Mahadev Temple before the April 25th earthquake.
(Photo:2005-11-25)

Kageshwor Mahadev Temple during the April 25th earthquake.
(Photo:2015-04-25)

The temple of Kageshwor Mahadev is located in front of
Taleju Temple in Kathmandu Darbar Square, one of theseven monument sites in the valley listed as a World
Heritage Site. The temple is unique because of the skirt
roof sheltering the colonnaded circumambulatory in its
lower part with the upper part built as a Shikhara. This
composite style was introduced mostly in the mid-19th
century. The temple has a solid masonry core as its lower
floor with a steep staircase on its western side leading to
the upper floor where the main sanctum is situated. The
copper idol of Shiva Linga sits on a stone base at the centerof the sanctum and can be accessed from all four sides ofthe balcony-like space on the upper floor level.

and it was decided to provide timber members embedded
within the brick masonry core during the rebuilding of the
Shikhara. As the work started on site, the dismantling of
the upper floor level further revealed that the timber
members that were provided to tie the walls of the masonrycore were already disintegrating due to rising damp, andin many places bricks were also disintegrating due tomoisture. A lot of plastic debris was also found, possibly
carried by mice and rats running around.

The temple suffered major damage during the earthquakeof April 2015. The Shikhara collapsed and the fall had aconsiderable impact on the skirt roof, breaking a few
rafters on the northern side. Due to violent shaking, theroof was out of plane in many places and a thoroughphysical assessment revealed that the walls of the solid
masonry core were bulging out above the cornice level on
the ground floor.
The task of restoring the temple was carried out by
Kathmandu Valley Preservation Trust (KVPT) in
collaboration with the Department of Archaeology. The
project was funded by the US Ambassador’s Fund for
Cultural Preservation (AFCP). The restoration project
started in December 2016 and is scheduled to be completed
by September 2017.
A study carried out by a group of conservation architects
and engineers revealed that since the Shikhara was built
using brick masonry in mud mortar, it could only carry acompressive load and was not good enough to resist
tensile forces. It was concluded that the absence of timber
members was one of the primary causes of the collapse

31

During the rebuilding of the masonry core, wall plates
were provided at regular intervals. These shall act as ties
to hold the outer veneer wall to the inner masonry core.
The upright timber posts at the four corners of the sanctum
were erected as planned on a stone base from a depth of1350 mm from the sanctum floor level. Cross tie beams
were also provided at important levels. The tie beams
connecting the outer timber colonnade and the main
structure were carefully studied and the timber members
heavily affected by termite attack and ones not in good
shape to carry the load of the entire roof were replacedwith new sal wood sections. The number of tie beams was
also increased to dissipate the load properly.
For further protection against rising moisture, all the timber
coming in contact with brick masonry was coated with
bituminous paint. For those timber members that are to beembedded within the masonry core, copper platewrappings were provided.
During the rebuilding of the Shikhara in brick masonry,care was taken to provide copper rod ties at regularintervals to tie the thick masonry wall. The brick cornices
and the turret details were reproduced to match theoriginal details. At present the lime plaster works on thesurface of the Shikhara is ongoing.

NepalKageshwor Mahadev Temple south elevation

Kageshwor Mahadev Temple first floor plan

Section of the skirt roof showing the structural details. (2017-04-03)

32

NepalCarpenters preparing the new timber sections on site, which shall replace
the affected and non-reusable timber sections. (Photo: 2017-03-31)

Upright timber posts were erected at four corners of Shikhara. The portionof timber embedded within the brick masonry was coated with bituminous.
(Photo: 2017-05-25)

The bottoms of the timber upright posts to be embedded within the masonrywere coated with bituminous paint and wrapped with copper sheets forprotection against moisture. (Photo: 2017-05-25 )33

The corner timber posts are tied together at regular intervals with timber tie
beams for seismic strengthening. The upright posts on either sides for the
sanctum entry are also provided. Such timbers are embedded inside brickmasonry and are under constant threat of moisture penetration; to avoid
such conditions necessary barriers are provided. (Photo: 2017-06-11)

NepalConstructing the arches above the entry to the main sanctum.
(Photo: 2017-06-15)

South-west view. The skirt roof rafters are being laid while the sikhara
structure continues to rise. (Photo: 2017-06-26)

Sikhara structure turrets construction continued with rafters on the skirt roof
below. (Photo: 2017-06-26)

New timbers were used for rafters of the skirt roof. Each rafter is properlyaligned and fixed in place using wooden pegs. (Photo: 2017-06-30)

Timber wall plates provided at important levels of the Shikhara.
(Photo: 2017-07-17)

View of the rising Shikhara from the north (Photo: 2017-07-27)

34

Pakistan
Pakistan

Activities of the Federal Department of Archaeology and Museums in the Field of Archaeological
Exploration in Pakistan
Tahir Saeed, Ph.D. scholar / Deputy Director
Department of Archaeology and Museums, Islamabad, Pakistan
Introduction:
The ancient land where the Islamic Republic of Pakistan istoday located has been the seat of a number of the world’s
leading civilizations. It has a rich history that belongs toboth the victor and the vanquished. The various monuments
spread out across the length and breadth of the country
are architectural testimonies to its diverse cultural history– a heritage that speaks of its glorious past. There are anumber of archaeological evidences dating from the prehistoric period to support this claim. Traces of humanactivity during the Stone Age are well attested on the soilof Pakistan in the Potohar region in Punjab and at Kot
Mondahi and Las Bela in Balochsitan. Remains from theearliest Neolithic period have been discovered byarchaeologists on the Kacchi Plain near Sibi at Mehrgarh.
It was here that people started to settle and engage incultivation during the 8th to 9th millennia BCE. This provides
the base for the subsequent emergence of one of theoldest civilizations of the world in the form of “Indus
Valley Civilization” during the 3rd millennium BCE. The
Achaemenian of Persia established their sovereignty during
the 6th century BCE over most of the lands comprisingpresent-day Pakistan. The Macedonian invasion led byAlexander the Great in 326 BCE is likewise a great event in
the history of this region, which served as a vehicle in theprocess of cultural interaction between eastern andwestern civilizations. Buddhism reached Gandhara in the
3rd century BCE during the reign of Asoka the Great of theMauryan dynasty and flourished under the royal patronageof the successive ruling dynasties of the Indo-Greeks,
Scythians and Parthians. It reached its climax in the 2nd
century CE under the Kushans. The first impulse of Islam
was felt in the southwestern regions of Pakistan when ayoung Arab general, Muhammad Bin Qasim, entered Sindh
Province in the early 8th century CE. Mughal rule from the16th to 18th centuries CE was very important in terms ofboth the socio-cultural as well as political history of
Pakistan. This country is endowed with a number ofancient sites and historic structures.
Pakistan is a treasure house of ancient heritage, spanningscores of centuries. The archaeological discoveries provedthat the cultural heritage of Pakistan is spread over many
centuries, starting from prehistoric times to the present day
and can be reviewed in the following periods:i)	Pre-Historic Period (Ancient Period Ca.10,000 BCE).
ii)	
Proto-Historic Period; Indus Valley Civilization(2500 – 1500 BCE).
iii)	 Historic Period (600–300 BCE).
iv) Gandhara Civilization (1st – 7th centuries CE).
v) Hindu Period (6th– 9th centuries CE).
vi) Islamic Period (8th – 18th centuries CE).
vii) British Period (19th century CE).
Department of Archaeology and Museums, Islamabad:
The Federal Department of Archaeology and Museums

35(DOAM) is custodian of the rich cultural heritage of thecountry, which is a continuation of the “Archaeological
Survey of India” created in 1860 during the British Colonial
Period. It was established for the purpose of archaeologicalsurvey, archaeological researches including excavations,and protection and conservation of the moveable andimmoveable antiquities of British India. After the creationof Pakistan on 14th August, 1947, we inherited the samedepartment by changing its nomenclature to “Departmentof Archaeology and Museums” to fully express its functional
obligations.
Previous Archaeological Surveys and Explorations:
The reports of travelers in the 16th and 17th centuries
brought Europe’s attention to the ancient sites andmonuments in the sub-continent. Important records were
contributed by John Huighen van Linschoten in the late
16th century and Pietro della Valle in the early 17th century
before the beginning of a systematic and scholarly interestin the middle of the 18th century. Early records ofmonuments began to appear with recognition of thehistorical and archaeological importance of the subcontinent. The interest in Gandha-ra, however, started in
the late 19th century with the collection of coins, reliquaries,and sculptures by adventurers such as Charles Masson,
who worked outside the boundaries of British colonial
control and by members of British military units whocollected objects during punitive raids into “tribal areas”.
Proper archaeological exploration, excavation, as well as
study of epigraphy, establishment of museums including
effective legislation on preservation of cultural properties
in the sub-continent is however a legacy of the Britishcolonial period.
British explorers had, in fact, long since started looking at
the Indian colonies conquered by the British. William
Finch (1608-11) was among those who first described the
Ashoka pillars in Dehli & Allahabad and recorded
observations about the architecture of Dehli, Agra, Lahore
and other cities. However, there were also many otheradventurers who travelled all over India such as Duarte
Barbosa and Tavernier from the Portuguese colonial era,
and Thevenot, Niebur, Mahilton, and Tieffenthaler fromthe French colonial era, and many others. When Maharaja
Ranjit Singh (1780-1839) built his kingdom on the banks of
the Indus facing British India, he recruited French officers,namely, General Court, Allard and General J.B Ventura,
who after Waterloo (1815) had travelled east to the Persian
court and from there crossed Afghanistan to the Sikh
capital, Lahore. The French officers were steeped inclassical culture and familiar with Greco-Roman sources.
Among them General Court explored the Mankiyala Stupaand sent an excavation report to the Asiatic Society ofBengal (JASB, 1834). Alfred Foucher, a French expert inIndian culture, made a long journey along the Afghanborder in 1897. He was fascinated about the material

A significant step was taken in the year 1860 when theArcheological Survey of India was established. Major
General Alexander Cunningham, who had a civilengineering background, was appointed its first Director.
He carried out archaeological researches at many places
including at Taxila. In the latter half of the 19th century,
Alexander Cunningham identified several ancient sites andthis process was continued by his successors. However,
the early archaeologists were keenly interested inrecovering sculptures and art objects of exotic and aesthetic
value. Sir John Marshall’s outstanding contribution escorts
the activities of the Archaeological Survey of India before
his retirement in 1928. Another major contribution iscredited to Sir Aurel Stein whose major works comprised
on archeological tours, surveys and excavations in different
regions of the sub-continent.
A systematic study of the Paleolithic sequence in the
Potohar region was, however, carried out by De Terra andPeterson during 1933, which gave ample evidence of the
Paleolithic period of Pakistan. Peterson was followed by
the Italian Mission to Northern Areas of Pakistan incollaboration with the Federal Department of Archaeology
and Museums, led by Paolo Graziosi in 1964. He conducteda brief investigation in Potohar Valley. The Paleolithic
period survey of Rawalpindi was also carried out by theAmerican Archaeological Mission led by Elden O. Jonsonfrom Minnesota University in 1964. A survey in Punjab
Province was conducted in 1972 and archaeologicalreconnaissance in the surrounding area of Taxila valley
was carried out in 1973 by a team from the Federal
Department of Archaeology and Museums. An extensive
survey in Cholistan and Bahawalpur was carried out during
1974-77.
A detailed archaeological exploration/survey of the
Paleolithic period in the Potohar region was undertaken
by a British team headed by Bridget and Raymond Allchinof the University of Cambridge, in collaboration with theFederal Department of Archaeology and Museums and the
Geological Survey of Pakistan during 1979 to 1990.
Archaeological exploration in the Sheikhupura district,Punjab was conducted during 1981-82. The Federal
Department of Archaeology and Museums also conducted
a comprehensive survey in the country during 1992-1996
and documented a large number of sites and monuments
ranging from the pre-historic, proto-historic, historic andMuslim periods.
Recent Archaeological Explorations:
To fill the gaps in the story of the evolution of humansociety and to provide meaning and substance to the drybones of history, archaeological explorations constitute an
essential source. Therefore, by piecing together theevidence from explorations, archeologists write the blankchapters of the history of nations. One of the main
custodians of the nation’s cultural heritage, the Federal
Department of Archaeology and Museums is supposed tocarryout archaeological research in different areas of thecountry. In order to fulfill the obligations entrusted to it,

the Federal Department of Archaeology and Museums,
under the auspicious of the National History and Literary
Heritage Division, planned to carry out a comprehensive
exploration/survey of cultural heritage sites andmonuments in the Islamabad capital territory (I.C.T) during
2016.

Pakistandiscovered by British excavators in different areas of the
sub-continent.

Historical Context of Islamabad Territory:
Islamabad, the capital of Pakistan, is a transitional region
between the highlands of the North-West and the alluvial
plains of the Indus River System, which was a meeting
point of ancient trade routes. Keeping in view the cultural
importance of Islamabad and its surroundings, which
possesses a rich cultural heritage dating back two million
years, recently a project for an archaeological survey ofIslamabad Capital Territory started in October, 2016 by the
Department of Archaeology and Museums, which iscurrently in progress. The cultural context of the Islamabadterritory consists of the following distinctive features:•
Fossil remains of animals discovered in Punjab andBalochsitan provinces•Traces of the Paleolithic Period in different areas ofPakistan•Rock shelters in Margalla Hills, Islamabad•Archaeological mounds spread throughout the capitalterritory• Historical monuments located in Islamabad
Need and Scope of the Survey Project:•Archaeological potential of ICT•Rapid expansion of towns and development projects isa threat to archaeological sites in ICT•Dire need for thorough survey to protect, preserve andpromote the cultural heritage of ICTSurvey Team:The survey team comprised officers and technical staff ofthe Federal Department of Archaeology and Museums(including this International Correspondent) in addition toa number of students of archaeology from Quiad-i-Azam
University, Islamabad, who participated in on-site fieldtraining in this survey project.
Documentation of sites and monuments:
During this recent archaeological survey, 16 archaeologicalsites and 6 historical monuments have been documented
and recorded in Zone-IV of the Islamabad Capital Territory.
The names of these sites and monuments are as follows:
1. Hindu temple at Rawal Dam (Hindu Period)
2. Rawat Fort-cum-Caravan Serial (Muslim Period)
3. Pharwala Fort (Muslim Period)
4. Serai Kharbuza, G.T Road (Muslim Period)
5.	Hindu Temple and Gurdaara in Saidpur village(Hindu Period)
6.	Ban Faqiran Stupa, Margalla Hills near Shah Allah
Ditta village (Buddhist Period)
7. Shah Allah Ditta Caves (Buddhist Period)
8.	Mughal Period Remains in Shah Allah Ditta Village(Muslim Period)
9. Kos Minars in Golra Village (Muslim Period)
10. Hindu temple in Golra Village (Hindu Period)
11.	Archaeological Remains inside FACTO Cement
Factory Area (Pre, Proto and Historic Periods)

36

Pakistan

12. G-13 Rock Shelter (Historic Period)
13.	G-10 Rock Carvings (Historic Period)
14.	G-12 Archaeological Mound near Mehrabad (Preand Historic Periods)
15. G-12 Ancient water ponds (Bani) (Historic Period)
16.	
Gangal mound on Islamabad Expressway (ProtoHistoric Period)
17.	Ancient well in village Chang (Historic Period)
18.	Pavilion near Kuri village (Chak Shahzad) (Hindu
and Muslim Period)
19.	Kuri Archaeological Sites (Chak Shahzad) (Hindu/
Sikh Period)

20.	
Ruined ancient structures near Kuri village (ChakShahzad) (Pre and Historic Period)
21.	Zinda Wali Bethak, Bari Imam (Muslim Period)
22.	Darya Wala Pir Graveyard near Simly Dam (Muslim
Period).
It is, however, very likely that a large number of newarchaeological sites and monuments will be explored anddocumented during this ongoing project of the Federal
Department of Archaeology and Museums in the near
future.

Map showing location of Pakistan

37

Pakistan

Islamabad Capital Territory (ICT)

Islamabad Capital Territory (ICT)

Rewat, Potohar Plateau, Pakistan
Gravel deposits, with fresh looking
stone tools on the uppermost levels
that are dated to two million years.
The tools are more likely tohave been flaked by hominids

Rewat, Potohar Plateau, Pakistan Gravel deposits, with fresh looking stone tools on the uppermost levels that are dated to two million years.
The tools are more likely to have been flaked by hominids

38

Pakistan
39

Rock Shelter, G-13, IslamabadRock Shelter Near Kurri Village

Shadra Cave

Water Tank, Shah Allah Ditta Caves

Chhappar Mound

Section with Pot Sherds, Gangal West Mound

Kuri Monument

Pehunt MoundPapua New Guinea
Jim Onga, Acting Manager
World Heritage Programs, Conservation and Environment Protection Authority (CEPA)
Objectives
The primary objective of this report is to submit to ACCU
a threat assessment report on one of Papua New Guinea’s
World Heritage Sites, which was conducted recently from
6-8 June 2017, to be included in its International
Correspondent report.
The reasons for this assessment report are to:•Conduct a threat assessment at Kuk in order to inform a
critical chapter in the Kuk site management plan andassist with budget planning, resourcing and informing
the drafting of the implementation plan.
•
Reassure the community that the Conservation andEnvironment Protection Authority (CEPA) will deliver on
its commitment to complete the management plan in2017 and present it to the World Heritage Centre by theend of either October or November.
• Provide an update on the status of the management plan
being drafted by Consultants.
• Consult with the community on their views/priorities forthe management plan.
•Meet with other key officials to update them on thedevelopment of the site management plan.
Background
The Kuk Early Agricultural Site was inscribed on the World
Heritage List in 2008. At the time of inscription, the World
Heritage Committee in decision 32COM 8b.26 requested amanagement plan be presented by February 2009. The
decision was unusual as it is not common practice toinscribe a property without a management plan in place.
For various reasons, PNG is yet to finalise a management
plan for Kuk Early Agricultural Site.
CEPA, as the implementing agency for the World Heritage
Convention in PNG, has been working with key
stakeholders in 2017 and is committed to finalising amanagement plan for submission to the World Heritage
Centre by October/November 2017, as agreed at the
stakeholders meeting in February and the follow-up
workshop in April in Port Moresby.
Threat Assessment (Environmental Factors)
A threat assessment was conducted by the Conservationand Environment Protection Authority and National
Museum team. The assessment took place at the boundaryof the core area and moved into the main block where
excavations took place. The threat assessment document
will be incorporated into the management plan.
The key observations during the visit included:
Flooding - Kuk is historically a swamp area, and researchneeds to be done on how flooding events may impact
heritage values underground. Water assists in preserving
material at Kuk, however too much (or too little) and rapid
flooding (instead of gradual water seepage into the groundover many years) may present management issues.

Papua New Guinea

Kuk Early Agricultural Site Threat Assessment Report

Drought - PNG has experienced major droughts in the past
two decades—in 1997 and more recently in 2015. The
1997 drought was far worse than the recent one. Comparing
the two droughts, the 1997 was far more serious as it lasted
for almost a year.
Having said that, Kuk World Heritage Site is basically aswamp area and the scientific evidence beneath the soil ismaintained by the water table. We believe the prolonged
drought may affect heritage values beneath the soil. No
excavations or monitoring equipment are being used at
this time to monitor the situation. (Follow up with experts
for advice on this)Chemicals are used to control weeds and grass at the site
and gardens. It is not clear to site users whether chemical
seepage into the ground may damage heritage values.
Further research on the types of chemicals and theirpotential to damage material underground needs to beundertaken as a priority.
Population growth is a concern. There are already relatively
new structures/housing located within the core area. As
the region’s population continues to grow, there will be
demand for land, roads, housing and gardens. Currently
the community has little ability to prevent settlers frommoving into the core area. Further research into
management mechanisms to prevent this and to support
enforcement, as well as any national gazettal implications,is needed.
Climate Change - Local understanding of the expected
impact of climate change is limited. It is not clear if theregion expects more rain, or potentially higher chances ofdrought (e.g., stronger el Niños - which have occurred
recently). Further research needs to be done with relevant
experts/authorities on likely scenarios so that this can beconsidered by the management plan. Drought would
likely be the most serious concern.
Deep-rooted crops and plants - Deep rooted crops andplants have the potential to impact evidence under the
ground. Currently, rules governing the types of crops
grown in the core area are limited. Advice is provided tothe community and there is a general expectation ofcompliance, but it cannot be enforced. The community
would like to see guidelines established for the types ofcrops and what can/cannot be done on the land so thatvalues in the core area can be protected.
Knowledge about methods/means to protect the values at
Kuk is held by only a limited group of people in the Kukcommunity. This knowledge is largely dependent onrecalling advice provided by experts. Documented

40Papua New Guinea

guidelines for managing land within the core area must bea priority. This knowledge is also likely to include cultural
heritage values.
Deep Drainage - Drainage is necessary at Kuk for the
maintenance of gardens. However, drains deeper than
0.5m have the potential to seriously impact the preservationof archaeological evidence. The construction of new drainsor the re-digging of old drains may lead to the direct
damage of buried material. Deep drains may also lead to asignificant lowering of the water table, leading todecomposition and oxidation of buried organic materials,
and soil formation that would destroy archaeologicalfeatures and inter-mix deposits of different ages. Locals
have been advised not to dig deep drains to drain out
excess water for gardening. It is understood that heritage
values beneath the soil are maintained by the water leveland deep drainage may affect the value if such drains are
dug.
Human Factors
Mechanized cultivation - Mechanized cultivation, such as
the use of agricultural machinery, could cause irreversible
damage to the fragile landscape, erosion of the soil, andeventual exposure and disturbance of the buriedarchaeological remains.
New infrastructure - The construction of new buildings
within the property should be limited, particularly if
construction activities require digging to a depth of 0.5m
or more. Traditional and contemporary single-storey
dwellings are unlikely to lead to significant damage if
digging is not required. However, supporting infrastructuresuch as pit toilets, earth ovens, wells, etc. could seriously
impact buried remains due to the digging required forconstruction.
Population - An increased population in the community is

expected to lead to demands for an extension or
intensification of existing cultivation practices. This may
increase the desire for greater food production at Kuk inorder to participate in the market economy. As the region’s
population grows, demand for access to land for housing
and gardening will increase.
Landowners may face pressure from settlers wanting to
occupy and cultivate land at Kuk. New settlements,
including infrastructure and non-traditional agricultural
practice have the potential to impact upon Kuk’s
significance. Currently there are limited means forlandowners to resolve instances where settlers have begun
to occupy land in the Wahgi Valley.
Population is one of the major issues within the community.
Because of the population pressure within the community,
the demand for land to build houses and gardening is veryhigh. It is not happening now but we strongly believe it
will happen in the future, which will affect the buffer andcore areas of the site.
Tourism - Tourism activities are likely to increase at Kuk inthe coming years, although impacts from tourism are
expected to be very minor. Any supporting facilities (suchas the construction of new buildings and toilets) should belocated outside the core area to avoid potentially damaging
digging and construction activities upon buried material
Adjacent Pressures
As mentioned, population growth may lead to demands
for an intensification of agriculture in the region. Drainageof sites adjacent to Kuk for agricultural activities could
lower the water table in the Kuk swamp, leading to apotentially serious impact on buried evidence. Activities
outside the property that may negatively impact on thewater table at Kuk must be avoided by landowners andrelevant authorities.

Drain dug by locals near core area/excavated site for gardening (Photo: J. Onga, 2010)41

Papua New Guinea

Traditional banana plot surrounding onions (Photo: Jonga)

Mixed crop plot (Photo: Jonga 11/09/2017)

Original Musa species (Photo: Jonga 11/09/2017)

Three months plot with corn and other crops (Photo: Jonga 11/09/2017)42

Papua New Guinea
Newly plot prepared for planting (Photo: Jonga 11/09/2017)

Plot planted with sweet potato (Photo: Jonga 11/09/2017)43

Philippines
Louella Solmerano Revilla, Head-Conservation Laboratory
San Agustin Museum, Intramuros, Manila
For the past few years, there have been conservation andrestoration works at San Agustin Church and Museum in
Intramuros, Manila (World Heritage Site since 1993). I
have mentioned these in my previous papers. This time, I
will write about a specific collection in the museum: The
Conservation and Restoration of Mexican Crucifixes. These
sacred imageries date from the 16th to 18th centuries, andare representations of the Passion of Christ that show
aesthetic beauty and realism. They are examples oftangible cultural heritage artefacts showing mastery in
Christian sculptures derived from Spanish and ancientmanufacturing techniques in Mexico. It was during theprocess of conservation and restoration that specificmaterials used and artistic methods applied werediscovered. The crucifixes were made of pasta de caña demaize or cornstalk paste and mixed media. Each of the
Mexican crucifixes reveals the exemplary working skills of
the artist who created them during the period they were
made.
These Mexican crucifixes were acquired by the latearchitect-Filipinologist Don Luis Maria Araneta, during his
visit to the former Nueva España. His collection, comprising
religious reliefs, altars, santos, paintings, furniture andcrucifixes, was formally inaugurated in the Old Refectoryof the San Agustin Monastery on June 29, 1876. In 2013,
his entire collection was given to the Augustinian Fathersin Intramuros, Manila, provided that extreme care andmaintenance shall be undertaken. Today, the Mexican
Crucifixes can be seen in several exhibition halls. Three ofthe restored Mexican Crucifixes collection which I havementioned in this paper can be viewed inside the recently
inaugurated Luis Maria Araneta Gallery at San Agustin
Museum.

Philippines

Conservation and Restoration of Mexican Crucifixes

the representations of the Passion of Christ, particularly of
the Crucifixion, from the 16th century onwards. The
Spaniards in Mexico in the middle of the 16th century
constituted but a small minority, imposing the whole rangeof their values upon the great centers of the indigenous
population. In the Passion of Christ in studies of Mexican
art, it is common to insist that the representations of the
Via Crucis, and particularly those of the Crucifixion, were
only widely tolerated when evangelization of the country,
that great spiritual achievement of the 16th century, hadlaid the foundation of faith with some success, or in otherwords, when the Christian religion had triumphed over theold idolatrous cults. (Mexico Angustia de SusCristos, 1967)
PASTA DE CAÑA DE MAIZE IMAGERY
Based on some readings, maize or corn was the main
staple food in Mexico and continues to be so today. The
ancient P’urhépechas, the original inhabitants of the
Mexican state of Michoacán, found a different use for thisplant, combining it with local ingredients to create figures.
This substance is called J’atzingueni—a legacy of theP’urhépechas to the world. It was a tradition that
Mesoamericans would carry images of their gods to war.
They used to carry heavy and bulky figures that would
increase their chances of winning on the battlefield. They
believed that if they were defeated and the figures ended
up in the hands of the victors, the idols would wreak
revenge upon them while in their custody. The
P’urhépechas found a way to transport their deities bycreating them out of cornstalk paste or J’atzingueni, amaterial made of lightweight cornstalk fibers boundtogether with a substance extracted from the bulbs of awild orchid that grows at Lake Pátzcuaro.
According to research written by Eva Leticia Brito Benitez:

The Catholic faith remains a legacy of the years of Spanish
rule in the Philippines and Mexico. The link between
Mexico and the Philippines dates back to the “LegazpiUrdaneta” expedition when King Philip II of Spaincommissioned Fr. Andres de Urdaneta, OSA—professed in
the Augustinian Order in Mexico in 1553—under thecommand of Miguel López de Legazpi to prepare an
expedition to the Philippines. From Acapulco, theexpedition arrived in the Philippines in 1565. Fray Andrésde Urdaneta returned to Mexico on June 1st of the same
year and discovered the tornaviaje, the route which was
followed by the Manila Galleons from 1565 to 1815.
Mexico became an important trading partner of thePhilippines during the Spanish occupation that lasted for
200 years.
The Passion of Christ, one of the great themes of universal
art, has absorbed artists for nearly twenty centuries. It has
been an inexhaustible source of piety and inspiration for
Spanish art. It is the images themselves, judged as works
of art, which reveal the degree of importance achieved byMaize was a sacred element and the central point of
the religiosity for pre-Columbian civilizations in
Mexico. The Tarascos, an ancient culture that settled
in the western region of Michoacán, manufactured
images using parts of the maize plant to represent
their gods. After the Spanish conquest in the early
16th century and the beginning of the evangelizationof native people, the first Bishop of Michoacán Vasco
de Quiroga, promoted the birth of an inedited art
creating Christian sculptures with the ancientmanufacturing technique. … (It is understood) as theamalgamation of the native religion and Catholic
beliefs. … Maize is a plant originally from America. …
The pre-Hispanic Tarascan culture settled in
Michoacán (AD 1200-1521), western region of Mexico,used parts of the maize plant to manufacture
lightweight sculptures representing their deities,
which could easily be transported by their priests tothe battlefields. … After the discovery of America andthe arrival of the Spaniards at the beginning of the

44

Philippines

16th century, a new religion was imposed to theMesoamerican cultures. … The missioners looked forsymbolic elements in the pre-Hispanic iconographythat could converge with the Catholic faith, so that the
Indians could identify themselves with it. It was thefirst Bishop of Michoacán, Don Vasco de Quiroga,
who promoted the birth of an inedited art of Christianreligious imagery applying the Tarascan manufacturing
technique. In a similar form as the effigies werecarried by the priests during wars, their lightness
resulted ideal to load the new sculptures during theprocessions of the Holy Week and other festivities ofthe liturgical calendar. … The images of Tarascan
deities of maize later disappeared. This was principally
due to the fact that Spanish missioners destroyed andreplaced them with new Christian figures. … In 1538,
Vasco de Quiroga was named the first Bishop of
Michoacán and became the principal promoter of thecreation of Christian imagery applying the Tarascan
technique. … Although pre-Columbian images of thiskind did not survive, Christian sculptures from the16th to the 18th centuries still exist in Mexico.
This is how pasta de caña sculptures were formed: Aframework was constructed of dried maize leaves fastened
together with fibers of the agave cactusroughly covered
with a paste composed of the pith of cornstalks mixed
with ground-up bulbs of a local orchid. For fingers andtoes turkey feathers were used. These parts were boundwith strips of cotton or agave cloth to reinforce strong
joints and extremities. A fine coating would be applied
over it. Coloring effects were added. A quick drying oilthat gives luster to the figure was lastly placed. The
representations of blood were simulated by a compoundof cochineal and lampblack. Head and beard could bemade of human hair or modelled and stained black. [P.
Kelemen, Baroque and Rococo in Latin America, 1967].
An excellent summary of the Mexican practice of making
deity figures from maize dough can be found in Esther
Pasztory’s classic work, Aztec Art, 1983. Dough, resin andpaper had primarily ritual importance. For one festival,
dough images were made of all the mountains around theValley of Mexico in a ritual of ancestor veneration; this wasappropriate to Aztec thought because, according to one
creation myth, man was made out of corn meal. The

Conservation and Restoration
Below is documentation of three Mexican Crucifixes

significance of dough images is related to eating, an
important concept in Mesoamerican thought. The gods, inthe form of grain and animals, are the food of men; andmen, in the form of blood and hearts, are the food of thegods. Many important deities had at least three distinct
types of image: a permanent representation as an effigy
made of stone, wood, or terracotta, which was fed, dressedand scented; a temporary representation in a dough image,which was sacrificed and eaten by the people, representing
the gods’ original sacrifice; and another temporary
representation in the form of a living victim who wassacrificed and then eaten by the people, standing for theoriginal sacrifice of the deities as well as man’s return of
their gift of life. In Aztec thought these perishable andcommunally ingested deity representations were asimportant as the permanent statues. In the book Christian Texts
for Aztecs: Art and Liturgy in Colonial Mexico (2008) by
Dr. Jaime Lara, it refers specifically to crucifixes made ofcorn paste: The use of a light and pliable mixture derived
from the pith of the corn had deep significance, for corn
was the staple food and had itself been a god in the Aztec
pantheon. In a very Hebraic way, maize had been one ofthe principal “first fruits” offered in the Mesoamerican
temples, among the sacrifices to the divine mouth of theearth deity. The Nahuatl word for maize dough is in fact
“our sweet sustenance” (toneuhcayotl), which lent itself
metaphorically for the flesh of Christ hanging on the crossor eaten at Eucharist. In fact, the Nahuatl verb ‘to sacrifice’
was the same as ‘to knead and spread out’, like the act of
preparing the dough of the corn tortilla before roasting. Dr.
Lara goes on to describe the process of making one of these
crucifix figures made of corn paste, and to give clues as to
how the artistic tradition evolved from pre-Hispanic times.
Bishop Vasco de Quiroga encouraged the modeling of such
images under the direction of an aged Tarascan convert, aformer pagan priest who knew the ancient technique.
Many of the images now extant were probably manufactured
in Michoacán around the mid-16th century. They are vivid
in color and extraordinarily lightweight, ideal for the longand exhausting Lenten processions. In their own symbolic
way, these effigies linked the Passion of Christ on the crossto his eucharistic body and blood ingested in the powerful“sacred tortilla” of the Mass. He notes later that in Nahuatl
Eucharistic texts, the word tlaxcalli—tortilla—is commonlyused for the communion wafer.

showing evidence of the variety of materials and methods
used to create these divine works of art:

1.

This 18th century Mexican Crucifix measures 159 x 74 cm
in height. It had darkened due to accumulated dirt, dust,
yellowing varnish, and grime. There are aging cracks on45

the cross and the image of Christ. The cross was attacked
by insects in localized areas which created structural losses
that caused the wood to become weak. The details of the

the Mexican indigenous method of using cornstalk pasteand other media. The use of cornstalk paste served inparticular to create lightweight sculptures for use inprocessions. Support losses were applied with fillers andretouched. At the top of the vertical crosspiece is a plaquebearing the letters INRI, which stands for Iesus Nazarenus
Rex Iudeorum, “Jesus of Nazareth, King of the Jews.’ The
Roman practice was to use such a scroll to identify theoffense committedby an individual.

Philippines

carving and the authentic gold leaf applied on the crosssurfaced during the cleaning process. The back of thecross was painted with several layers of paint, such as
brown, green, yellow ochre, and red. The broken part of
the arm of the image of Christ revealed aspects of its inner
structure. The materials used for the arm do not havetraces of wood grain except in the peg used forreinforcement, nor does it have the thickness of gesso tomould the arms. The materials found here are evidence of2.

This is another 18th century Mexican Crucifix thatmeasures139x 90 cm in height. The surface of this Mexican
Crucifix had turned dark. There were localized paint andstructural losses. From optical observation, one glass eyeof the image appeared to be missing. Traces of insect eggs
were present on the surface of the cross. Mechanicalcleaning was initially done to remove dirt and dust.
Solubility tests on the paint layers were done prior to thechemical cleaning process. There are ground and paintlosses. Paint colors used for the skin tones andrepresentations of blood in yellow ochre, green, black,

red, beige, and brown are still intact. The depiction of theloincloth around the waist of the image of Christ has tracesof gold leaf. The head of Christ is composed of two pieces
of wood which are already loosely attached to each other.
The missing left eye was found in one of the holes of theeye in between these two pieces of wood. The right eye
was full of soil particles. Mechanical and chemical cleaning
was done before restoring the eyes and the head. Whencarried, the weight of this image of Christ is heavy
compared to the other Mexican Crucifixes because of thekind of wood used for this image.

3.

This is an 18th century Mexican Crucifix that measures175
x 108 cm in height. This crucifix suffered severe damage
due to biological attacks. Insect excretions can be found.

There are dirt, dust, stains, and discoloration of paint.
Gesso, paint, and structural losses are also evident.

46

Philippines

Note the remarkable artistic intent and aesthetic creation of
the artist on the wound, blood, and ribs using creative
forms, a variety of materials and colors. Except for somesmall holes and cracks, the paint colors of the blood on
the body of Christ are still intact. There is an embossed
portrayal of the grape vine on the cross, a Christian symbol.
The materials and method used for the body and the crossare cornstalk paste, wood, simple tabby weave textile,rope, polychrome, gold leaf, and paint medium. This
crucifix showed evidence of previous restoration sincepart of the upper right side of the cross that supports theright arm had a different color. The twisted forms on the
cross on that particular side are more defined and uniform
compared to the original parts.

The use of sized cloth or textiles in creating these kinds of
crucifixes allowed the creation of multi-material
constructions and facilitated easy formation of delicate
parts often difficult to carve. Sized cloth also served forrestoration or reworking purposes during the restorationof the crucifixes.

Nacional para el Conocimiento y Uso de la Biodiversidad,
México, 2009, pp. 19-25
D. R. Piperno, K. V. Flannery, The earliest archaeologicalmaize (Zea mays L.) from highland Mexico: New accelerator
mass spectometry dates and the implications, Proceedingsof the National Academy of Sciences of the United Statesof America 98(4), 2001, pp. 2101-2103, doi:10.1073/
pnas.98.4.2101
E. Vela, Breve historia, Arqueología Mexicana, Edición
Especial 38, 2011, pp. 10-27
P. Kirchhoff, Mesoamérica. Sus Límites Geográficos, Composición
Étnica y Caracteres Culturales, Revista Tlatoani, Suplemento
3, Escuela Nacional de Antropología e Historia, Sociedad
de Alumnos, 1960, pp. 1-13
J. E. S. Thompson, Grandeza y Decadencia de los Mayas,
Fondo de Cultura Económica, México, 2003
J. Corona, P. Kirchhoff (eds.), Relación de las Ceremonias
y Ritos y Población y Gobierno de los Indios de la Provincia
de Michoacán (1541), reproducción facsímil del Ms. ç. IV.
5. de El Escorial, Morelia, 1977
Don Vasco de Quiroga y Arzobispado de Morelia, Editorial
Jus, México, 1965
B. de Sahagún, Historia General de las Cosas de Nueva
España, Consejo Nacional para la Cultura y las Artes,
México, 1988

The Universal Principles in Conservation and Restoration
were practiced during the process. Reversible materials
were used for the consolidation of loose paint layers andtextile, for fillers, and for retouching. The original paintlayers and gilding were softly cleaned and retained. Only
the areas with ground and paint losses were retouched.
Areas of damaged support were reinforced and maintained.
Methods used in the art of retouching were applied. By
using this process, the original paint layers and retouchedareas are identifiable. It is of great importance that we
preserve these works of art for future generations toappreciate and to learn from.
References:
The Carmen Zaragoza Araneta Gallery at the San Agustin
Museum, Intramuros, Manila. Pg. 33-34
E.B. Araneta and P. Maria Araneta. In My Father’s Room.
P. Galende and R. Trota Jose. San Agustin art and History.
P. 55.
Eva Leticia Brito Benitez, Symbolism and Use of Maize in
Pre-Hispanic and Colonial Religious Imagery in Mexico.
Dr. Jaime Lara.Christian Texts for Aztecs: Art and Liturgy inColonial Mexico (2008)pp. 213-215
Esther Pasztory’s classic work Aztec Art, (1983 pp. 78-79).
Mexico Angustia de Sus Cristos. Instituto Nacional De
Antropologia e Historia, 1967)
PálKelemen, Baroque and Rococo in Latin America, 2d ed,
2 vols. (New York, NY: Dover publications, 1967). 53
L. M. Mera, C. Mapes, El maíz, aspectos biológicos, in: T.A.
Kato, C. Mapes, L. M. Mera, J. A. Serratos, R. A. Bye (eds.),
Origen y Diversificación del Maíz. Una Revisión Analítica,
Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Comisión47

Acknowledgements:
My appreciation to the following for making this paper
possible:
San Agustin Museum for giving me the privilege to workon the conservation and restoration of the Mexican
Crucifixes, the laboratory team who helped make thispossible, Ms. Eva Leticia Brito Benitez for allowing me touse as reference herresearch material, Dr. Patricia Ma.
Araneta for showing me the importance of conservation
works, and Mr. Gerardo Puertas, Ms. Lorena Rodriguez,
Ian Mursell of Mexicolore, and Dr. Jaime Lara for otherreference materials.

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