Training Reporton
Cultural Heritage Protection
Training Course for Researchers in Charge of Cultural Heritage Protectionin Asia and the Pacific 2010 - Mongolia 16 November -16 December, 2010, Nara, Japan

Cultural Heritage Protection Cooperation Office,Asia-Pacific Cultural Centre for UNESCO (ACCU)

Training Reporton
Cultural Heritage Protection
Training Course for Researchers in Charge of Cultural Heritage Protectionin Asia and the Pacific 2010 - Mongolia 16 November -16 December, 2010, Nara, Japan

Cultural Heritage Protection Cooperation Office,Asia-Pacific Cultural Centre for UNESCO (ACCU)

Edited and Published by
Cultural Heritage Protection Cooperation Office,Asia-Pacific Cultural Centre for UNESCO (ACCU)
Nara Prefectural Government “Horen” Office Ground Floor
757 Horen-cho, Nara 630-8113 Japan
Tel: +81-(0)742-20-5001
Fax: +81-(0)742-20-5701
e-mail: nara@accu.or.jp
URL: http://www.nara.accu.or.jp
Printed by MeishinshaⒸ Cultural Heritage Protection Cooperation Office,Asia-Pacific Cultural Centre for UNESCO (ACCU) 2011

Practical training on plane-table surveying

Measured drawing of earthenware

Taking photographs with a film camera

The closing ceremony at the ACCU officeContents
PrefaceI.

Introduction
1. General Information… ………………………………………………… 3
2. Programme Schedule…………………………………………………… 6

II.

Summary of Lectures… ………………………………………………… 9III.

Participants' Country Reports……………………………………… 31

IV.

Lecturer Paper… ………………………………………………………… 49

V.

Participants' Final Reports…………………………………………… 83

VI.

Appendix
1. List of Participants…………………………………………………… 91
2. Lecturers and Interpreters…………………………………………… 92
3. Staff Members, ACCU Nara………………………………………… 94

PrefacePreface
The Cultural Heritage Protection Cooperation Office, Asia-Pacific Cultural Centre for UNESCO(ACCU) was established in August 1999 with the purpose of serving as a domestic centre forpromoting cooperation in cultural heritage protection in the Asia-Pacific region. Subsequent to its
establishment, our office has been implementing a variety of programmes to help promote cultural
heritage protection activities, in close cooperation with the Agency for Cultural Affairs, Japan(Bunkacho); National Institutes for Cultural Heritage, National Research Institute for Cultural
Properties, Tokyo and Nara; the Nara Prefectural Government; the Nara Municipal Government;
universities; and museums.
The ACCU Nara’s activities encompass training programmes for the human resources development;international conferences and seminars; the training of young leaders in cultural heritage protection;
the website for the dissemination of information relating to cultural heritage protection; and theworld heritage lectures in local high schools. In addition to those, ACCU Nara Office offers “theLocal Training Workshop” which dispatches a group of lecturers from Japan and implements thepractical training on cultural heritage protection on sites. Besides, we annually appoint “International
Correspondents” from each country for the purpose of establishing closer ties with the countries in the
Asia-Pacific region, who will periodically send latest reports on cultural heritage protection in theircountry.
Our office has been conducting two types of the training course in Nara: for the group and for theindividuals. The group training course offers the opportunity to sixteen experts from Asia-Pacificregion for about one month with two themes in alternate years: “Preservation and Restoration of
Wooden Structures” and “Research, Analysis, and Preservation of Archaeological Sites and Remains.”
Meanwhile, the individual training course is organized for a few researchers from one country on thespecific theme according to their requests.
ACCU Nara has learned that one of the most urgent issues currently facing Mongolia is a shortageof trained experts for cultural heritage protection, and therefore we have invited three researchers
into the Individual Training Course 2010 for providing them with basic and practical techniques onrecording/documentation of archaeological sites and artefacts. They belong to Institute of Archaeology,
Mongolian Academy of Sciences, being engaged in excavation and research on cultural heritage
protection in Mongolia. This programme was also organised so as to provide them with opportunities
to be exposed to as many reconstructed or restored heritage sites in Kyoto, Nara and Kyushu districts
as possible. They saw with their own eyes how the sites were preserved and managed in Japan. It is
hoped that their acquired knowledge and experience will contribute to heritage protection activities
back in Mongolia.

Finally, we would like to express our sincere appreciation to Agency for Cultural Affairs, Japan(Bunkacho); Nara National Research Institute for Cultural Properties; the Museum, Archaeological
Institute of Kashihara; Nara University; Office of Yoshinogari National Historical Park; Saga
Prefectural Board of Education; Kyushu National Museum; and Dazaifu Municipal Board of Education
for their cooperation and support.

NISHIMURA Yasushi
Director
The Cultural Heritage Protection Cooperation Office,Asia-Pacific Cultural Centre for UNESCO (ACCU)Introduction

I. Introduction
1. General Information
2. Programme Schedule1. General Information
Training Course on Cultural Heritage Protectionin Asia and the Pacific 2010 - Mongolia (16 November - 16 December 2010, Nara)
1. Organisers
The course is jointly organised by Agency for Cultural Affairs, Japan (Bunkacho); Asia-Pacific
Cultural Centre for UNESCO (ACCU); and the National Institutes for Cultural Heritage, Nara National
Research Institute for Cultural Properties.

2. BackgroundThe democratisation of Mongolia in 1990 enabled Japanese researchers to continuously participate inarchaeological and historical survey in the country. It was gradually revealed through these projects
that Mongolia also expected Japanese aid in the field of cultural heritage protection. Accordingly,
to explore the feasibility of implementing sustainable and comprehensive international cooperationin the sphere of cultural heritage protection, researchers from JCIC-Heritage (Japan Consortium forInternational Cooperation in Cultural Heritage) carried out survey in Mongolia as part of its project in2008. They reorganised and analyzed various challenges currently facing Mongolia in the report andrevealed that one of the most serious issues was a shortage of heritage professionals on protection.
Related parties in Mongolia expressed high expectation for Japanese support and cooperation in humanresource development.
ACCU Nara began accepting nomination by the members of JCIC-Heritage for annual “Group
Training Course” from 2008, and promoted cooperation with them to the “Individual Training Course”
in order to make the best use of their research result from 2009. Accordingly, ACCU Nara invited threeresearchers from Mongolia into the training programme on conservation science in 2009. Even after
that, authorities concerned in Mongolia repeatedly requested to implement training on archaeology
and the organisers have decided to invite three promising researchers from Mongolia to the above
mentioned training course, being highly beneficial to the protection of cultural heritage in the country.

3. Date and Venues
Date: 16 November (Tue.) to 16 December (Thur.) 2010. [31 days]
Venues: Cultural Heritage Protection Cooperation Office, ACCU (ACCU Nara); Facilities andmuseums of cooperating organisations, etc. Please refer to “Individual Training Course Schedule2010” for each venue.

4. Objectives
A sequence of the individual training course aims at mainly providing participants with the opportunity
to acquire basic knowledge and practical techniques on recording/documentation of sites (mainly on
structural remains and artefacts) such as measurement, measured drawings and photography.

35. Training Curriculum- (Lecture) Introduction to Recording/Documentation of Sites and Artefacts- (Practical Training) Recording/Documentation of Structural Remains: Measurement, Measured
Drawing and Photography- (Practical Training) Recording/Documentation of Artefacts: Measured Drawing and Photography- (Study Tour) Site Management/Maintenance and its Utilisation in Japan

6. Participants
MUNKHUU Bayarsaikhan (Mr)Head of Research Group, Department of Paleoanthropology/Paleozooology, Institute of Archaeology,
Mongolian Academy of Sciences
Date of Birth: 15 December 1972 (Age 37)

RINCHINKHOROL Munkhtulga (Mr)Researcher, Department of Middle Age Archaeology, Institute of Archaeology, Mongolian Academy of
Sciences
Date of Birth: 18 October 1980 (Age 29)

DAVAAKHUU Odsuren (Mr)Researcher, Department of Stone Age Archaeology, Institute of Archaeology, Mongolian Academy of
Sciences
Date of Birth: 15 February 1983 (Age 27)

7. Process of Invitation
Mr Altangerel Enkhtur, Head of Middle Age Period, Institute of Archaeology, Mongolian Academyof Sciences recommended three applicants suitable for the above mentioned invitation programme asparticipants. Then ACCU Nara Office has determined to invite three applicants as participants throughclose examination.

8. Others (Past achievement to accept participants)
Since 2000 when the above-mentioned invitation programme started, thirty-eight participants fromfourteen countries have been accepted.

9. Certificate
Each participant will be awarded a certificate upon the completion of the course.

10. Language
Mongolian is the main working language of the course.

411. Expenses
Expenses for the training course will be borne by ACCU and comprise the following:(1) Travel expenses:
Each participant will be provided an economy-class return air ticket between the international airport
nearest to their residence and Kansai International Airport, and domestic transportation costs to andfrom the airports and between the training venues in Japan.
(2) Living expenses:
Participants will be provided daily subsistence allowances during the training course, beginning from16 November (Tue.) to 16 December (Thur.) 2010. Arrangements for accommodations will be madeby ACCU Nara.

12. Secretariat
Cultural Heritage Protection Cooperation Office,Asia-Pacific Cultural Centre for UNESCO (ACCU Nara)
Nara Prefectural Government Horen Office757 Horen-cho, Nara 630-8113 JAPAN
Tel: +81-742-20-5001

Fax: +81-742-20-5701

e-mail: nara@accu.or.jp

5

2. Programme Schedule
Date

Schedule

Lecturer (Venue)

November

16

Tue. Opening Ceremony

Orientation to the Programme

ACCU Nara

17

Wed. Introduction to NNRICP: Facility Tour

Site Management and Utilisation: Heijo
Palace Site

NNRICP

18

Thur. On-site Lecture: Site Management and Utilisation / Museum Visit

19

Fri.

20

Sat.

Introduction to Recording/Documentation
Forum: GIS for Site Prospectionof SiteNNRICP
NNRICP

21

Sun.

22

Mon. Organisation of Artefact in Practice23

Tue. On-site Lecture: The World Heritage site in Nara

Nara Pref.

24

Wed. Research Facility and Site Management in PracticeNara Pref.

25

Thur. Storage & Management of Artefacts

Site Management in Practice

NNRICP

26

Fri.

Introduction to Enviromnental
Archaeology

NNRICP

Introduction to Dendrechronology

Information System of Site

NNRICP

December

27

Sat.

28

Sun. ACCU International Seminar 2010

29

Mon.

30

Tue. Recording/Documentation of Roof Tiles

1

Wed. Recording/Documentation of Earthenware

2

Thur. Recording/Documentation of Earthenware

3

Fri.

4

Sat.

5

Sun.

6

Mon. On-site Lecture: Historic Monuments of Ancient Kyoto

7Tue. Research Method for Artefact

Facility Tour of Nara University

Nara University

8

Wed. [Transfer from Nara to Fukuoka]

Study Tour: Site Management andUtilisation in Practice

Yoshinogari
Historical Park, Saga
Pref.

9

Thur. Study Tour: Site Management and Utilisation in Practice / Museum Visti

10

Fri.

11

Sat. [Transfer from Fukuoka to Nara]

12
13
14

Mon.
Recording/Documentation of Site and Artefact: Photography
Tue.

15

Wed. Writing Final Reports

ACCU Nara

16

Thur. Submission of Final Reports / Closing Ceremony

ACCU Nara

Introduction to Recording /Documentation of Artefact

Recording/Documentation ofEarthenware

Nara University
Recording/Documentation of Stone
Objects
NNRICP
Conservation Science for Sites andArtefacts

Study Tour: Site Management and Utilisation in Practice

Kyoto Pref.

Kyushu National
Museum / Dazaifu
Site, Fukuoka Pref.
Itazuke Site/ Fukuoka
City Archaeology
CenterSun.

NNRICP

ACCU Nara: Cultural Heritage Protection Cooperation Office, Asia/Pacific Cultural Centre for UNESCONNRICP: Nara National Research Institute for Cultural Properties				6

7

Summary of
LecturesII. Summary of Lectures

Summary of Lectures
16 Nov. (Tue.)■ Opening Ceremony

The opening ceremony began with a welcome message by Mr Takahashi, Deputy Director of ACCU
Nara. The three participants (Mr Bayarsaikhan, Mr Munkhtulga and Mr Odsuren) from the Institute ofArcheology of the Mongolian Academy of Sciences expressed their determination to study hard andintroduced themselves.
- At the orientation, the training schedule was explained, study materials
were passed out and precautions were conveyed.
- Participants visited Gokurakubo Hall of Gango-ji Temple, which is oneof the structures of the World Heritage “Historic Monuments of AncientNara.” After hearing an outline of the temple, they saw the Mandalado(Gokurakudo) Hall and Zen Room, which are both national treasures.
The Zen Room was opened to the public as part of a special unveilingof hidden treasures and rarely-seen Buddhist statues of Nara, which wasdone for the 1300th anniversary of the Heijo-kyo Capital. They also

Mr Takahashi, Deputy Director

viewed structural members, roof tiles and other items from the Asuka of ACCU Nara
period that were on display in the Zen Room. All of the participants
showed interest in the structural members from 1,400 years ago thatwere still in existence today.

17 Nov. (Wed.)■ Introduction to National Research Institute for Cultural Properties (NNRICP): Facility

Tour <INOUE Kazuto and SHIBA Kojiro / NNRICP>Mr Inoue, Deputy Director, outlined the organisation and operations of NNRICP in which the training
will be taken place.
- Though it has been reorganized, since its inception NNRICP has been an “organisation forresearching the administrative protection of buried cultural properties” and consists today ofadministrative staff and researchers in the various fields of archeology, documentation, architecture,archaeological science, site management, cultural landscape and so on.
- Research includes excavations, technical training in cultural properties, basic research into culturalproperties protection, international cooperation and joint research, and more.
Next, the participants toured the NNRICP facilities under the guidance of Mr. Shiba. Besides observing

9the laboratories and the library, they heard explanations of the aerial photograph search system anddocument search engine used with the housed collection of documents. After that, they walked about
the Nara Palace Site Museum on their own.
■ Site Management and Utilisation: Nara Palace Site <SHIBA Kojiro / NNRICP>The participants were shown the restoration progress in the Nara Palace Site. At the reconstructedFirst Audience Hall (dai-ichiji daigokuden), they observed the base isolating structure beneath thefoundation. They next walked to the Second Daigokuden Audience Hall site →Imperial Domicile (dairi)→ Excavation Site Exhibition Hall → Suzaku Gate, seeing for themselves the various development
methods including plan views, layouts demarcated by vegetation, restoration of foundations only, fullreconstruction of structures, etc. Also, at the Excavation Site Exhibition Hall, an explanation was givenof the pros and cons of exposing and displaying structural remains.

Facility tour

Lecture by Mr Shiba

18 Nov. (Thur.)■ On-site Lecture: Site Management and Utilisation / Museum Visit <KATO Shinji and

NARITA Satoshi / NNRICP>- The participants visited the Yanagimoto Tombs to see theenormity of them up-close, then met with instructors at the Asuka
Historical Museum, from where they went to the Ishibutai Tomb
built in the sixth century. At the site, an explanation was given of
the sideways tunneled stone burial chamber and particularly theconstruction method of using mammoth stones.

The Ishibutai Tomb

- The explanation of the permanent exhibits at the Asuka HistoricalMuseum. The participants were particularly interested in the
Takamatsuzuka Tomb and the wall paintings of the Kitora Tomb.
- The special autumn exhibit “Early Wooden Tablet – The
Beginning of Written Records in Japan” and the replicas of the
Asuka stones on display in the garden of the museum.

Lecture by Mr Narita on site

- After an explanation of the temple layout discovered in excavation
at Asuka-dera Temple, they also learned on many stones (Kameishi and Sakafune-ishi stones) from the Saimei era (665-667).
- The permanent exhibit and special autumn exhibit “Craftsmenof Ancient Nara – The Archeology of the Great Buddha” at
the Museum of the Archeological Institute of Kashihara, Nara
Prefecture.

Lecture by Mr Kato on site10

- Mr Matsuda, Director of the Museum, introduced examples of overseas research by theArcheological Institute of Kashihara, especially on joint research projects in Mongolia.
19 Nov. (Fri.)■Introduction to Recording/Documentation of Site <OBAYASHI Jun and OZAWA

Tsuyoshi / NNRICP>The participants had lectures on survey and zoning methods used in site excavations.
- To record a site, a grid pattern is created and the positions of artefacts are plotted on the grid. The
participants learned how to create grid patterns by looking at the Heijo Palace Site and corresponding
grid.
- How to make record cards for cataloging artefacts unearthed from excavation sites. Water-resistantpaper was used at the Nara Palace Site because of the high water content of the ground. Records
are kept on a daily basis in a log and detail what was unearthed, where and have space for adding
comments later.
- How excavation sites of the Nara Palace Site were divided
into administrative zones. Excavations were managed by four
administrations: Nara Prefecture, Nara City, NNRICP and
Yamato-Koriyama City.
- NNRICP divides its seventeen researchers into four researchgroups assigned for about three months to a specific site. They
then rotate to other sites over the course of the year. In addition,
they receive many requests for surveys that Nara City requires
prior to new constructions. The participants were surprised toknow that there were many sites excavation here and there acrossthe city.
- Practical training on GPS: it usage and necessary equipment.
- Practical training on plane-table surveying: the basics of setting

Lecture by Ms Obayashi

a reference point and then making measurements by moving
to a second point, third point and so forth. Participants mademeasurements by themselves, but the results were not as good
as expected, perhaps because there was not enough distance
between points.
■ Forum: GIS for Site Prospection

The participants took part in GIS workshop organized by the
Data & Information Section of the Department of Planning &Coordination of NNRICP. Despite all presentations were in
Japanese, the participants showed keen interest in 3D survey maps.
It was apparently difficult for them to grasp everything throughsequential interpretation.
1. “Practice and Examples of Measurements and 3D Surveying at

11

Lecture by Mr Ozawa

Osaka City University” by Mr KISHIMOTO Naofumi, Osaka City University.
2. “Integration of Detailed Geographical Survey and Underground Prospection Data” by Mr
TSUMURA Hiroomi, Doshisha University: Tsumura
3. “FOSS4G in Archeology” by Mr SEINO Yoich, Kyoto University
4. “Structures of Site Survey Maps” by Mr MORIMOTO Susumu, NNRICP
22 Nov. (Mon.)■

Organisation of Artefacts in Practice <KUWATA Kuniya, KUNITAKE Sadakatsu,

MORIKAWA Minoru and SEINO Takayuki / NNRICP>● Preparatory Section- The participants visited Preparatory Section of NNRICP where does temporary work before
conservation treatment and storage.
- Wooden tablets: The work flow of rinsing, cataloging and temporarily storing was explained.
- Wooden artefacts: The work flow up to primary conservation treatment and its management
procedures were lectured besides chemicals and equipment used for treatment. Also, themanagement system for artefact with computer was shown.
- Earthenware: The flow of rinsing, marking (on the earthenware), gluing, measuring andrestoration done was explained.
- Roof tiles: The work flow for tiles is basically the same asthat for other artefacts, therefore the history of roof tiles
was outlined and then explanations were given of points
that researchers should observe in roof tiles, using eave tiles
as examples.
■ Information System of Site <MORIMOTO Susumu /NNRICP>

Lecture by Mr Kunitake- An explanation was given of the cultural properties databases
created (including revised and updated) and used by the
NNRICP.
- There are two databases: one that is online and open to the
public, and the other is only for inside use. The latter is fordaily research operations and contains raw data and uncertain
information.
- The open database was introduced to the participants.

Lecture by Mr Seino- Examples were shown of managing cultural properties
databases on computer. Huge excavation data can be integrated
by GIS. This has to do with computer capacity being limited bylarge amounts of data. An example from Bamyan was shown toillustrate site mapping using GIS and satellite photographs.

Lecture by Mr Morimoto12

23 Nov. (Tue.)■ On-site Lecture: The World Heritage Site in Nara

- After learning about “reconstruction controversy” of Horyu-ji Temple, Wakakusa-Garan (templesite) and transitions of Sai-in (the western precinct) since its original construction, participants
visited the middle gate → five-tiered pagoda → lecture hall → main hall.
- They heard an explanation of how the clay statues were made at the five-tier pagoda and noticed thedifferences between Shaka Triad (three statues of Buddha) from the Asuka period and the images of
Buddha in wall painting from the Hakuho period at the main hall.
- At the Gallery of Temple Treasures (built 12 years ago), they observed National Treasures andImportant Cultural Properties such as Yumechigai Kannon, Tamamushi Miniature Shrine, Kudara
Kannon and handmade three-tiered miniature pagoda.
- Beyond the east gate in the eastern precinct of Prince Shotoku’s Ikaruga Palace, the participants
viewed the Hall of Visions and Guze Kannon.
- At the Ikaruga Bunkazai Center, the participants were guided through artefacts unearthed from the
Fujinoki Tomb and nearby areas in the “Tombs of Ikaruga” special autumn exhibit by local staff Mr
ODA Yoshihiro. After that, they visited the Fujinoki Tomb that had been developed as a historicalsite.
- At Yakushi-ji Temple, an overview was lectured on the layout of the twin tower precinct and thesanctuaries relationship with Honyakushi-ji Temple in Kashihara
City. They then went around the grounds viewing the south gate →middle gate → towers and main hall → lecture hall → north gate.
They saw the east tower as it was before restoration and felt the
distance from the center to the south and north gates on foot.

At precincts of Horyu-ji Temple

At Ikaruga Bunkazai Center

Five-tiered pagoda at Horyu-ji
Temple24 Nov. (Wed.)■ Research Facility and Site Management in Practice <MORISHITA Keisuke and

NAKAJIMA Kazuhiko / Nara City>- Center for Archaeological Operations is responsible for excavating buried properties in Nara City.
The director explained the highlights of the Nara Palace site that Nara City is currently excavating.
The participants were particularly interested in the fact that the palace did not have any fortifications
and asked questions about defenses in the Nara Period. In response, the instructor explained about
guards, garrisoned soldiers, mountain-top fortifications, moats and so forth.
- A guided tour of the special autumn exhibit of “Earthen Roof Tiles of the Nara Palace Site” that13

opened in 2010 at the institute. They learned about the transition in roof tiles of the Nara Period,
how they were made and so forth.
- Practical training at Daian-ji Temple began with an explanation of how the remnants of the southgate were displayed. After viewing important Buddhist statues, the participants saw the east towersite where excavation had been completed but development not started. Next, they saw the northside priests’ quarters where the foundation ground and stones were visible, and the second kiln forfiring the roof tiles. The kiln was one of several that was used for the Sugiyama Tomb found in
one part of the complex, but because of the close proximity of residential homes, it could not bereconstructed on the exact spot, therefore a replica was made in a nearby location and opened to the
public.
- The Rajo-mon Gate straddles two administrative areas, and each prepares and erect the information
board for visitors.
- The participants were also shown the drafting room, archives, the photolab and work studio where brief explanations were given of measuring
tools and ink rubbings.

Lecture by Mr Morishita

Lecture by Mr Nakajima

The kiln for roof tiles

25 Nov. (Thur.)■ Storage and Management of Artefacts <ISHIMURA Tomo / NNRICP>- The participants were guided through the repositories rooms: a treasure room→ an artefact storage→
a wooden tablet room → a wooden object room → an aerial photographs storage→ library in thegiven order and observed the systems used to automatically monitor
and control the temperature and humidity.
- The wooden boxes, used to store earthenware and tiles, had been
replaced with plastic containers because of the lighter weight, but staff
is reconsidering the wooden boxes because the plastics would melt in a
fire.
- The separate rooms are used to store wooden artefacts in water prior toconservation treatment and those already conserved, and the computer
system is used to record the locations of artefacts.
- In the wooden tablet repository, the treated tablets are stored indrawers made of paulownia wood, and temperature and humidity are
kept constant by air-conditioning same as in the aerial photographs
repository.

Lecture by Mr Ishimura

14

- In the library, survey maps, drawings and original reports are stored apart from books, andphotographic negatives are kept in air-conditioned archives.
■ Site Management in Practice <UNNO Satoshi and ISHIMURA Tomo / NNRICP>

Before visiting sites, a lecture was given on the importance of making and appropriately managing
records of sites after research.
● The 447th Nara excavation site of the Kasuga East Pagoda in the grounds of Nara National Museum- An outline of the excavation site and remains was explained by Mr Unno. Also, Mr. Ishimura
explained how to draw grids, and manage and catalog unearthed artefacts at the excavationsite. Questions were raised on the genre and age of remains, excavation period and scale, staff(experts and workers) involved in excavations, etc. Visit to Uwanabe Tomb (Yet to be excavated,preserved or developed).
● Uwanabe Tomb (Not yet being excavated, researched and preserved)- Mr. Ishimura gave an overview of the tomb and explained that excavation was not permitted
because it is under the jurisdiction of the Imperial Household Agency, hence appearing in its
present state.
● Ishi-no-Karato Tomb (Already excavated, preserved and developed)- An outline of the site of the eighth century tomb: the background to excavations, preservation anddevelopment work.
- The explanation focused on the need of consideration in site management in relation to urban
development, development policy and costs, and management method.
- This site was designated as National Historic Site after restoration and development, and thenturned into a park because of its location in a residential area.
● Onjogatani Kiln sites (Which produced the tiles for the Nara Palace.)- An outline was given of the site and development: Mounds and stones on the site showed locationof the reconstructed kiln.
- The participants spoke of kiln sites in Mongolia and their plans to excavate them, and asked if
there were sites in Japan where the remains of kilns could be seen.
- They also asked its positional relationship to the Nara Palace and changes in production sites in
the areas. Harima district was specialized in the firing of roof tiles in Middle Ages in Japan.
● Utahime-nishi Kiln
- Only stones were laid out to identify the location of the kiln.
- An outline was given of the site and its management.
26 Nov. (Fri.)

Lecture by Mr Unno and Mr Ishimura on excavation sites

15

26 Nov. (Fri.)■ Introduction to Dendrochronology <OKOCHI Takayuki / NNRICP>- An explanation of how tree rings form every year by using a Japanese cedar as an example.
- Relations between dendrochronology and archeology, climatology, ecology, geomorphology andother related fields. The lecture also covered the origin and history of dendrochronologic studies.
- Skeleton plotting as a method for plotting the width of tree rings; the narrower the ring, the longer
the mark in a bar graph.
- Measurement methods used by the NNRICP were introduced, which were initially done withmicroscopes, but methodologies were improved recently by using computers and digital photos toautomatically match ring patterns.
- Introduction of case studies● Well framing excavated at Saidai-ji Temple: The tree’s age when it was lumbered was pinpointed
from bark and sapwood, and matched to documented records.
● Architectural members of the five-tiered pagoda, main hall and middle gate of Horyu-ji Temple inWest precinct: It was revealed that the current Horyu-ji Temple (West Precinct) was rebuilt after
the fire of 670 in records.
■ Introduction to Environmental Archaeology <YAMAZAKI Takeshi / NNRICP>- Various analytical techniques used in Environmental Archeology were presented.
- Introduction of sites that contained fauna and flora remains and those remains. What kinds of faunaand flora remains have been uncovered in shell mounds, wetlands and caves, and how they wereexcavated.
- Precautions in site excavations were noted to observe and record the buried state, bring in experts
when necessary, and examine ways to extract buried remains.
- Introduction was sampling methods such as sifting with a sieve, transporting entire blocks of earth
back to the lab, provisional reinforcement on-site in the event of fragile state, etc.
- It is preferable to crosscheck as many analyses results as possible.
- The importance of animal skeleton specimens: identifying the samples against reference specimens
is indispensable and a large number of samples is necessary in conducting research.
- The participants observed the sample digitizing process using 3D laser measuring equipment so as
to post skeletal samples online in the future and also visited the preparation studio and the specimen
storage.

Lecture by Mr Okochi

Lecture by Mr Yamazaki

16

Observation of bones

28 Nov. (Sun.)■ ACCU International Seminar 2010

The participants attended the international seminar, “Archaeology in Mongolia: The Latest Reporton Site Investigation” co-organised by ACCU Nara and Nara University. Mr Munkhtulga, one ofparticipants, gave a presentation under the title of “Present Situation and Needs for the Preservation of
the Turkic Period Stone Monuments in Mongolia.”

29 Nov. (Mon.)■ Introduction to Recording/Documentation of Artefacts <SHIBA Kojiro / NNRICP>- An explanation of measured drawing methods used in Japan although each country has their own
methods; Introduction of tools for measured drawing and their usage.
- Differences in principles and methods between (1) earthenware and wood containers that are drawn
as rotating bodies, and (2) stone and metal objects that are drawn from the front, back and sides by
third angle orthographic projection.
- A point to note was explained when observing and measuring the various artefacts.
■ Recording/Documentation of Stone Objects <SHIBA Kojiro / NNRICP>-An explanation of what to observe before measuring stone artefacts and measurement methods.

- Using a chipped stone tool as an example, participants observed the context of flake detachments.
- Practical training with instruction of observation points and measurement methods for each step:
drawing the contours, adding ridgelines, notations such as surface finishing, measurement of side
profiles, making of inverted drawings using tracing paper, etc.

17

30 Nov. (Tue.)■ Recording / Documentation of Roof Tiles <SEINO Takayuki / NNRICP>- Outline of Japanese roof tiles: Unearthed tiles often tell whether a site was a temple, a palace, agovernment office, or a castle. Moreover, because they are mass-produced, tiles make it easier tofollow the transitions in technologies and thus serve as a means for identifying the age of a site. As
an example, the historical transition of tiles from the Nara Palace of the Nara Period was presented.
Especially, eave tiles are useful for pinpointing the age of a site.
- Research of roof tiles: There was two areas of study in roof tiles, which were that of production
technique and that of esthetics (quality) seen in design patterns. With regards to this former field,
an explanation was given of producing areas, technological transition and product transport,
while, for this latter field, research was developed on age and moulds. Using eave tiles unearthedfrom the Fujiwara Palace and Heijo-kyo Palace sites as examples, explanations were given of theclassificatory criteria and cataloging rules used by NNRICP.
- An explanation of the transition in tile fabrication methods. Moreover, it was explained that, when atile made from the same mould is unearthed in another geographic location, it lends thought to the (1)transport of products, (2) transport of moulds and (3) movement of moulds and mould artisans. It
was also explained that (1) and (2) were determined from the clay paste, and (3) from the fabrication
method. Furthermore, traces of mould flaws are important towards identifying the distinctive
differences in age.
- Methods for cataloging and managing roof tiles: After making annotations on the tiles, ink rubbingsare made of eave tiles and other tiles, attached to cards for cataloging, and input into a database formanagement purposes. This database is equipped with a search engine, which they were shown inaction. Ordinary round and flat tiles are weighed zone-by-zone. This is done because the presenceof a roofed structure and the type of roof, whether using alternatively overlapping round and flattiles or a hip-and-gable roof on separate planes, can be surmised from the distribution of tiles.
Basically, tile records are made and managed as a combination of rubbings, measured drawings andphotographs.
- The basics of measured drawings were explained. Whereas measured drawings are expressed inthree dimensions, ink rubbings are planar, but they are easy methods to do once used to it.
- Each participant practiced ink rubbings and compared their rubbings against cataloged tiles.

Ink rubbings of roof tiles

18

1 Dec. (Wed.)■ Recording/Documentation of Earthenware <NAKAMURA Akiko / NNRICP>- Introduction to earthenware of Japan: earthenware types and transitions in chronological order, i.e.,from origin of earthenware, appearance of kilns in the tumulus period, standardization under the
Ritsuyo legal code, to appearance of glazed pottery and porcelain.
- Since most earthenware was for daily use and was not used for long periods of time, and changes inearthenware came often, it is used in archeology as a measure for determining age. Some potteries
bear finger-tip impressions from when they were being made.
- Introduction of measuring tools: Usage and precautions.
- The forms obtained with mako play a supplementary role at best while points measured with acaliper are important.
- Scales and calipers affect the accuracy of measurements depending on whether they are horizontallyused in measurements or perpendicular to a cross-section.
- To be careful in making measurements so that the characteristics of the earthenware are not lostwhen images are scaled down.
After hearing an explanation how important is observations prior to measuring earthenware, eachparticipant started taking measurements. First, they worked with integral artefacts. Work proceededwith the instructor providing explanations at each step of the measurement process. Guided by the
instructor, they obtained the maximum diameter (mouth of Sue pottery work A) and set the pottery formeasuring, then drew its contour using a set square, a divider, a scale and a caliper. Today’s work went
only as far as drawing the outer shape of the earthenware.
2 Dec. (Thur.)19

2 Dec. (Thur.)■ Recording/Documentation of Earthenware <NAKAMURA Akiko / NNRICP>The today’s goal was to complete a measured drawing of the earthenware. As with yesterday,
Ms Nakamura explained the step-by-step observation points and measurement methods, then theparticipants took to measuring and completed their cross-sections.
- Adding indications of corrections and final touches on the surface: stroking, scraping, brushing andpaddling. The instructor also explained marks in the bottom made by the wire when cutting a pottery
from the wheel. Each of the participants completed a measured drawing.
- Hands-on session of measured drawings of earthenware with a pedestal (Sue pottery B) under
the guidance of the instructor. They mastered usage of measuring tools and accurately identified
measurement points, but they did not adequately understand the external, cross-sectional andinternal views, therefore the instructor explained the points in detail.
- During lunch break, they toured the winter exhibit, “Survey, Find and Report: Nara Palace andCultural Properties” (where the history of surveying and transitions in survey equipment weredisplayed on panels and real equipment) at the Nara Palace Site Museum.

3 Dec. (Fri.)■ Recording/Documentation of Earthenware <NAKAMURA Akiko / NNRICP>

Measurement continued in accordance with explanations from the instructor given on the days before.
- How to make measured drawings from shards (how to obtain the radius of an arched shard from theintersection of perpendicular bisectors with compasses).
- What part of a shard is measured to get the cross-section? The basic rule is to closely examine theshard and identify the point where the cross-section is the longest, but consideration must be shownto map as much of the external and internal views as possible.
- An explanation on how to make inverted drawings using tracing paper.
- How to measure asymmetric earthenware such as Sue ware flat jugs, by showing measured
drawings.
■ Conservation Science for Sites and Artefacts <WAKIYA Soichiro / NNRICP>● The fundamental concept on the deterioration and conservation of cultural properties was explained.
All cultural properties deteriorate although there are varying degrees. Conservation treatment cannot
stop the deterioration but can slow its process. Accordingly, artefacts must be monitored carefully
after undergoing treatment.
● Conservation treatments for metal artefacts- In regards to archaeology, conservation sciences started with temporary measures taken at20excavation sites. That is to say, when unearthing brittle artefacts such as metal objects, it should
be first temporary reinforced with acrylic resin before removing from the ground.
- It is necessary to know the internal state of artefacts: X-ray radiography and X-ray computed
tomography were introduced.
- Cleaning is divided into two steps: physical cleaning and chemical cleaning.
● Conservation treatments for wooden artefacts- Good environment for preserving wood are wet (water-logged), extremely dry (desert) and frozen(tundra, frozen ground)- Most wooden artefacts in good condition in Japan are excavated in water-logged, therefore
explanations focused on conservation treatments for wood uncovered from wet environments.
- The basic procedures are to replace contained water with PEG (artefact is placed in a tank where
PEG content is gradually raised), or vacuum freeze-dry method.
● Conservation treatment for stone objects- The Moai statues (made of tuff) of Easter Island were given as an example.
- The hardness of the stone was examined and then the stone was reinforced by injecting the same
silicic acid found as a primary component in the stone. Also, water repelling treatment was done
to prevent erosion by rain.
- To piece together broken stone monuments, epoxy resin is used, but in some cases, stainless steelrods are embedded to hold pieces together.
● Transcription of stratigraphy- How to transfer soil strata using urethane resin: surface clearing → resin coating → backing forreinforcement → resin coating → drying and stripping● A question was asked on how to preserve bones; the most critical point is how bone are unearthed.
As long as temporary reinforcement with resin is done at the site, the bones can be removed andlater treated at the laboratory. In general, resin may affect analytical results, so careful attention isneeded.

21

6 Dec. (Mon.)■ On-site Lecture: Historic Monuments of Ancient Kyoto● Kiyomizu-dera Temple
Prior to visiting Kiyomizu-dera Temple, an explanation was given of how the layouts of the temples
and sanctuaries that the participants had seen in Nara completely differ from Kiyomizu-dera Temple,
which was built into the hillside. That was followed by an overview of the Nio-mon Gate (Important
Cultural Property, built in the Muromachi Period with a hipped and gabled roof in cypress bark) andthe guardian warrior statues of the late Kamakura Period on the left and right of the façade. After
that, they were told about the overhang architecture of the west gate (Important Cultural Property),
three-tier pagoda and main hall (National Treasure) and stage architecture, which they then viewed.
After viewing the inner sanctuary (Important Cultural Property), they observed the actual overhangarchitecture of the main hall.
● Kinkaku-ji Temple
An explanation about the Kitayama culture (from late 14th century to early 15th century) and theHigashiyama culture (mid 15th century) of the Muromachi Period: the positional relationship ofKitayama and Higashiyama, as well as the Muromachi Period, and a comparison between Kinkakuji (Rokuon-ji) Temple and Ginkaku-ji (Jisho-ji) Temple. Kinkaku-ji Temple was designed as a garden
with walking paths around a pond, but visitors could only go halfway around the pond.
● Ryoan-ji Temple
The courtyard in front of the priests’ chambers (Historical Site and Scenic Landscape) is famous for
Zen dry landscape garden. It contrasts strongly with the gold leaf temple and is one of World Heritage
sites. There is otherwise a garden around Kyoyochi Pond, which is designed for strolling, which they
did.

Kinkaku-ji Temple

Kiyomizu-dera Temple

7 Dec. (Wed.)■ Research Method for Artefact / Facility Tour of Nara University <NISHIYAMA Yoichi /Nara University>- An outline of Nara University was given. The university was founded in 1969 and the Departmentof Study of Cultural Properties, for which the university is known, was created in 1979 as thefirst department focused on cultural properties of any university in Japan. It is organized withdepartments in the fields of Archeology, Art History, Conservation Science, World Heritages Studies,
Cultural Properties and Museum Studies, and Historical Records. Cultural properties studies areinterdisciplinary so that preservation sciences are looked at from the perspective of archeology, art,
folklore, historical records, etc. An example of site restoration in Lebanon was presented to describe
activities.

22

- The instructor asked them if cultural properties in Mongolia have been
affected by air pollution, to which they responded that investigations had
not addressed air pollution but the affects of climate.
- Visiting a class of practical training in conservation sciences: rust being
removed from ironware and pieces being rejoined.
- Visiting the archeology lab: earthenware used for practicing
measurements, electronic microscope, fluorescent X-ray analyzer, X-ray
diffraction analyzer and other equipment.
- Visiting the library: A guided tour of the “Understanding Differing
Cultures in the Age of Great Navigation – Central Focus on the Archivesof the Hakluyt Society” exhibit that was currently ongoing.
After that, they toured the library by themselves and asked whether anyone
could use the library, as well as about future plans to purchase literatures,
the number of books in the collection, and check-out period. Then, they
individually read literature of cultural properties and took notes.
At Nara University

8 Dec. (Wed.)■ Study Tour: Site Management and Utilisation in Practice <NAGASAKI Hiroshi / Saga

Pref.>- An explanation about zoning for park development especially on main
historical settlements at the Yoshinogari Historical Park.
- An outline was given of the Yoshinogari Historical Park project,promoted by both the state and Saga Prefecture, the basic policy is torestore the original landscape and to reconstruct structures on the moundof 0.5 to 2.0 meters as a means for preserving the site.
- At the museum, while viewing artefacts and panels, the participantslearned the background to excavations of the Yoshinogari site, thepark development project after being designated as a historic site, andtransitions of the site and burial jars peculiar to the northern end of
Kyushu.
- They walked to the Southern Inner Enclosure and climbed thewatchtower there to view the entire site; the ceremonial hall in the
Northern Inner Enclosure; and the dioramas on the second and third
floors for a gathering and rituals.
- It was explained that the rows of burial jars in the northern end of theNorthern Inner Enclosure were a practice that started in the mid Yayoi
Period about the same time as the burial mounds also found in thenorthern end of the site.
- In the Northern Burial Mounds area, the layout and jars are original, butthey have been covered to keep temperature and humidity constant.
At Yoshinogari Historical Park23

- An explanation on the group of burial jars seen earlier and the hierarchical differentiation of the jars
and grave goods found in the burial mounds.
- They also toured the excavation site of the burial jars and observed the rows of burial jars arrayed in
the north-south direction, the row of jars diagonal to that, how they were buried and the clay seals of
the jars.
9 Dec. (Thur.)■ Study Tour: Site Management and Utilisation in Practice / Museum Visit <AKASHI

Yoshihiko and IMAZU Setsuo / Fukuoka Pref.>● An overview of Kyushu National Museum- Different from other museums, it offers a guided backyard tour around conservation laboratories,
restoration studios and repository to visitors based on the theme of “it is not a museum if it does not
attract your interest.”- Exhibits are arranged as a comparison and study of cultures in Japan and other parts of Asia.
However, the museum’s own collection is small and many of the displayed works are on loan fromshrines and temples.
- Special exhibitions are held four times a year and the permanent exhibition on cultural exchange intheir main galleries is regularly updated. As of this year, they are running special exhibitions underjoint themes with the Bangkok National Museum in Thailand from January 2011.
● Backyard tour
- The building was built to protect exhibits against changes in the weather. It has a dual structure offramework and jacket, and double-pane windows. The passages are located around the repository,
and the laboratories are located outside from there. A nitrogen gas injection system is provided as afire prevention measure.
- An explanation of how data obtained with the 3D digitizer in the restoration studio is used (measured
drawings, making replicas, making stands to stabilize artefacts by inverting data, etc.).
- The functions and features of the CT scanner used to see inside of artefacts were explained at thestudio. Participants observed restoration of Japanese paintings and insect-damaged documents andthe traditional paper-making procedures used for that.
● Cultural Exchange Exhibition- The main exhibition consists of five era-centric exhibits, the fourth of which starts from theMongolian Empire. On display are mooring stones from the Mongolian Invasion and earthenware
retrieved from the sea floor.
- There are eleven exhibitions with themes around the gallery, which are changed out from time totime. After getting an outline of the exhibition related to Mongolia, they observed the exhibitions on
their own.
During lunch, Mr Kobayashi, Head of Data Management Section, asked about Mongolia. He took partin a workshop in Mongolia in October in preparation for the opening of the Kharakhorum Museum. He
was worried that there were not enough artefacts to exhibit. The participants responded that a request

24

for exhibits had been made to the Institute of Archeology of the Mongolian Academy of Sciences andarrangements were underway to loan artefacts to the museum.
● Dazaifu Government Site
- An outline of the Dazaifu government and the history of site preservation.
- Participants learned positional relationships of the governmental compound, moats, Ono Castle, Kii
Castle and other landmarks while looking at a topographical model of the local area, and also learned
about the utilisation of geographic advantage in their defenses.
● The Kuranotsukasa area where foundation stones marked where storehouses once stood.
- The layout of the foundation stones were used as evidence of a storehouse once stood on this site.
● Mizuki (moat) Site
- The size and structure of the moat; the origin of a term “mizuki” (literally meaning “water castle”
but meant to describe a moat) and the role of moats back in the day.
● Ono-jo Castle- The castle sits inside a bowl atop a hill and the castle walls were built on the tall ridge around it.
- The participants walked around the long stone rampart → Obana area → Dazaifuguchi-jomon Gate.
● Dazaifu Tenman-gu Shrine- A story on the origin of Tenman-gu Shrine and benefits of the shrine that worshipers seek here.
- After that, they toured the precincts on their own.

10 Dec. (Fri.)■

Study Tour: Site Management and Utilisation in Practice <IKEZAKI Joji, TAGAMI

Yuichiro and RIKITAKE Takuji / Fukuoka Pref.>● Fukuoka City Archeology Center- The features of the Archeology Center were explained. Unlike similar organisations in othermunicipalities, the municipal Cultural Properties Department of Fukuoka City conducts excavations
and, once a report has been published, the unearthed artefacts are registered, managed and stored at
the Archeology Center. Preservation treatment is done as necessary, and artefacts are exhibited to
the general public and otherwise used. Currently, they have about 100,000 boxes of artefacts and theamount is increasing by about 5,000 to 6,000 boxes a year. The columns of the repository are thickso that additional stories can be added to the building.
- The exhibits are not in chronological order but instead introduce the work of the Archeology Center,so the displays follow the work flow of excavation, preservation treatment, restoration, storage andmanagement.
- Exhibits focus a spotlight on the local country of Nakoku (from the first to third century) that25

highlighted the Fukuoka area the Yayoi Period and the Hakata capital of the middle ages.
- The library is open to the general public and anyone can use it.
- The repository is divided into sections for earthenware, stone artefacts, roof tiles, wooden artefacts
that require temperature and humidity control, and metal artefacts.
- In the radiographic room, the participants received an explanation about the types of analyses thatare possible with the equipment (radiographic opacity system, fluorescent X-ray analyzer, X-ray
diffraction analyzer, etc.) used for preliminary studies prior to conservation treatment.
- Visiting on the metal artefact conservation studio, wooden artefacts storage room and conservation
treatment with PEG solution.
- A special repository where temperature and humidity are controlled. A window is provided forbackyard tours and some artefacts that had already been preserved were on display.
- The records repository houses photographs, artefact ledgers, and drawings; digitizing all of these
paper media are currently proceeded.
- Answering the request of the participants, bones (without conservation treatment) taken from aburial jar were shown to them at the special repository.
● Site Management and Utilisation- At the Kanenokuma Site, unearthed burial jars are on display. Both the jars and the bones are theoriginals. It was explained that the site has greatly helped to date the jars because the jars have been
piled in layers over a long period of time, and the bones are in good condition.
- At the Itazuke Site, the participants received an explanation of the site in front of a reconstructed
model on display at the Itazuke Yayoi Museum. The museum is designed for hands-on learning,where visitors can experience what it was like to work in the Yayoi period using replicas of farmtools, etc. All three participants tried the tools. After that, they went to the developed site and saw
what a village looked like in the early Yayoi Period.
● Genko Defenses
Of the few defenses remaining in Genko (the Mongolian invasions of Japan in 1274 and 1281), theparticipants visited the ones restored in Ikinomatsubara area.

13 Dec. (Mon.)■ Photography of Site and Artefact <SUGIMOTO Kazuki / NNRICP>The session began with questions by Mr Sugimoto on the photographs in Mongolia: whether picturesin archaeological reports were taken by a digital or film camera and how that data was managed. All
pictures are taken with digital cameras in Mongolia.

26

- Explanations of the fundamentals of photograph (mechanisms and principles) were given using afilm camera (4 x 5 view camera), and the participants were to apply that to digital cameras.
- What is aimed for photographs of cultural properties and what needs to be done.
- After explanations of film sizes, negatives and positives, participants verified the amount of
information by film size using 35 mm and 8 x 10 cameras as examples.
- The principles of a camera were explained by using a 4 x 5 view camera.
- Explanations were given on the types of lenses (telephoto, standard and wide-angle), focal distanceand lens aberrations; the relationship of film ISO was explained alongside metering adjustments
via the aperture and shutter speed; the relationship of aperture to depth of field, that is to say, theprinciple of stopping down the aperture to deepen the field of view.
- Using a view camera, they saw for themselves the differences in the depth of field when looking at a
jar and changing the aperture. When actually taking pictures, the aperture was determined from thedepth of field and the shutter speed was set using an exposure meter. In short, it was explained thataperture was prioritized in shooting cultural properties.
- The color temperature of the light source affects the reproducibility of the film. For example, using
daylight film under a tungsten lamp renders a yellowish finish, whereas, under clear skies, images
are bluish.

14 Dec. (Tue.)■ Photography of Site and Artefact <SUGIMOTO Kazuki / NNRICP>- The purpose of photographing cultural properties is to faithfully record those that are in danger ofbeing lost. For that reason, photographs must contain as much information as possible.
- Review of the key points: relationships of ISO, aperture and shutter speed.
- Photographing artefacts: Setting and lighting● Platform: Usually a height of 1 to 1.2 m, excluding bird’s eye view shots.
● Background paper: White is the basic color and convenient because it does not affect the object
when shooting or printing. However, other colors are used for posters, pictorial records, etc. The
object is set so as not to cast background shadows and the background paper is not folded because27

of the differing reflections that can result.
● Lighting: The lighting position and reflector board should be positioned to bring out the maximum
information from the object. Shadows can be reduced by diffusing light with a diffuser.
- The instructor demonstrated how to set up an object using two light sources, diffuser and reflector
board. A gray scale was added to the shot and used to adjust color. The participants asked manyquestions specifically on practical techniques.
- An explanation on the principle (shadow-less) of bird’s eye view shots. The background is whiteand lighting is provided by one main source and auxiliary source using deflector boards (indirect
lighting reduces unevenness in the background).
- Practical training in bird’s eye view shots was done with a 4 x 5 view camera and flash. Eachparticipant focused on the object and confirmed the depth of field via the aperture, and the instructor
measured the amount of light with an exposure meter, adjusted the strength of the flash and set theaperture and shutter speed. Each participant took Polaroid shots of earthenware shards and stone
artefacts.
- Outdoor photography was practiced with a 4 x 5 field camera. Everyone took pictures of each otherwith a Polaroid.

15 Dec. (Wed.)■ Writing Final Report

The participants prepared their reports of the training programme.
16 Dec. (Thur.)■ Closing Ceremony

The participants submitted their reports anda closing ceremony was held. Mr Nishimura,
Director of ACCU Nara, awarded a certificate ofcompletion with a word of appreciation for their
hard work and wished they would impart theirknowledge and experience to their colleagues
and friends in Mongolia. Then Mr Bayarsaikhan
addressed a short speech and expressed his
gratitude toward lecturers and ACCU Nara on
behalf of the participants.

The closing ceremony

28

Participants'
Country Reports

III. Participants’ Country Reports

MUNKHUU Bayarsaikhan
Head of Research Group
Department of Paleoanthropology and Paleozoology
Institute of Archaeology, Mongolian Academy of Sciences

Preservation and Protection of Cave Paintings
in Mongolian Altai Mountain Range

Introduction
Aral Tolgoi, Shiveet Khairkhan in Tsengel sum of Bayan-Ulgii aimag and Tsagaan Salaa, Baga Oigor
cover the most of Mongolian Altai mountain range and they are very rich of cave paintings remains.
Aral Tolgoi cave painting site is situated in Khoton and Khurgan lake valley, between Khar Salaa andRashaan rivers. This place is one of the beautiful natural places in Mongolia. Most of the Aral Tolgoi
cave paintings, which are 90 percent of the paintings, are about wild animals and hunting and only 7
percent of them is about farming. It is obvious that Aral Tolgoi cave paintings are remains made byhunters. The most ancient cave paintings of the place are composition with big ostrich and horse,
paintings of deer, ox etc and some paintings are left unfinished. The main part of Aral Tolgoi cave
paintings is wonderful remains of the middle, the late Stone Ages and the Bronze Age.

Aral Tolgoi cave painting

Shiveet Khairkhan cave painting site is situated not far from meeting of Khar Salaa and Tsagaan Salaa
rivers where begins running Tsagaan Gol which is left branch of the biggest river in Mongolian Altai –Khovd river. Shiveet Khairkhan complex consists of thousands of cave paintings and while situatedbetween Khar Salaa and Tsagaan Salaa rivers it is officially considered one of the biggest centers of31

cave painting arts in Central Asia. Shiveet Khairkhan cave paintings were made by ancient hunters andherders. Paintings of the complex were drawn by Mongolian Altai habitants between the early Bronze
Age and the time of ancient Turkish period. Most of the paintings are made in the Bronze Age and theearly Iron Age. Most of the paintings show the hunters chasing after wild goats and deer; people
fighting in a war; several legendary animals; deer, ox, beast body, horn, various seals and carts.

Shiveet Khairkhan cave painting

Tsagaan Salaa and Baga Oigor cave painting site contains not only cave paintings, but also it has otherarcheological remains such as mounds, graves, stone monuments, sacrifice facilities which are remains
between the late Stone Age and late Middle Age. Cave painting are carved on the surface of 2000
rocks sticking out of the ground. Each boulder has about 1-180 cave paintings carved on it and basedon calculation the complex is supposed to have 75,000 – 100,000 paintings. Tsagaan Salaa cave
paintings are the most ancient and unique remains and they were drawn in the late Stone Age (6000 –3000 BC) and in the Bronze Age (3000 – 1000 BC) by habitants of Mongolia who changed theirlifestyle from ancient hunting to farming and started their classic nomadic farming.

Research
Tsagaan Salaa, Baga Oigor cave painting singularities were discovered first in 1979 by archeologist D.
Tseveendorj and in 1994 in the framework of Mongolian-Russian-American joint project Altai there
were research which concluded that Tsagaan Salaa, Baga Oigor cave painting complex place is themost biggest remain in Mongolia by territorial coverings. There were two new cave painting remains
newly discovered that time: Aral Tolgoi, Shiveet Khairkhan. There were published 6 volumes of 4
monographs in France, Russian Federation, Mongolia written by doctor, professor D. Tseveendorj, V.
D. Kubarev, E. Jacobson using the results of many years’ research in Mongolian Altai.

32

Present status of cave painting protection
Some of Aral Tolgoi, Shiveet Khairkhan, Tsagaan Salaa, Baga Oigor cave paintings were damaged
due to aging and severe climate conditions and rather faded. Except natural effects there are humanelements which have negatively influences to integrity of the remains. Till now no one has paid
attention to these paintings on rocks. Religion and tradition positively influenced to people nearby.
Recent impact of regional habitants, pads of sheep, goats, ox and horses make cave paintings
disappear and some ancient paintings of animals such as mammoth, buffalo and hind are fading. Also
we need to stop using old techniques of scientific research which includes cleaning the rock surface
and draw or scratch various things on the surface to round out the paintings. Cleaning scabs on thesurface of rocks make process of determining the painting ages more difficult. Many herders arebuilding winter and spring camps which increase environmental pollution in the area. They also raise aamount of stocks beyond the grassland capacity and botanical coverings deteriorate more and more.

Scratches on Shiveet Khairkhan cave paintings

Cave paintings on a roadside

There are many remains of several archeological time periods discovered in Aral Tolgoi, Shiveet
Khairkhan, Tsagaan Salaa, Baga-Oigor river valley except cave painting remains. Currently the
research was concerned only on cave paintings and other remains were researched less, however there
were no conservation works done.
Urgent works to do to preserve and protect cave paintings
There are no annotators, guides, special road markings in Aral Tolgoi, Shiveet khairkhan, Tsagaan
Salaa, Baga Oigor site. There is a strong need to set up a site introduction, notations, markings toshow tourists.
There are many cases when information given to tourists by museum or other organizations was not
updated and skipped the main part.

33

Urgent issues which need solutions are shown below:
 Create a museum for public on the cave painting site.
 Preserve pristine nature, conserve current conditions, and don’t make any changes to its
original state.
 Don’t scratch and write anything on rock paintings in the caves.
 Don’t allow people stepping on and cattle pacing near a place of some fading cave
paintings.
 Some cave painting areas need fences around them before they completely disappear.

34

RINCHINKHOROL Munkhtulga
Researcher
Department of Middle Age Archaeology
Institute of Archaeology, Mongolian Academy of Sciences

Monuments and Remains Erected at the Time of Turkish State in Mongolian
Territory: Problems of Their Conservation, Protection and Actual Problems
When Mongolian archeologists divide periods of archeological artifacts before mid of last century,
they usually use the name of dynasty which was established and collapsed on given territory as basis.
The divisions of periods are shown below as follows:
Ancient period
Huns (3rd BC - 2nd century AD)
Xianbei (2nd - 3rd century AD)
Nirun (5th - 6th century AD)
Middle Age period
Early Middle Age period
Turkic Kaganate (6th - 8th century AD)
Uyghur (8th - 9th century AD)
Khitan (9th - 12th century AD)
Late Middle Age period
Mongol (13th - 15th century AD)
Manchu Qing (17th - beginning of 20th century AD)
The author works in Middle Age archeology department of Archeology Institute of the Mongolian
Academy of Sciences and the research is concerned with Middle Age archeological artifacts. In thisreport, I will briefly introduce various monuments and remains erected at the time of Turkish period
in Mongolian territory using materials collected by myself since 2003 during field research projects.
Also I will explain about causes of artifact damage, conservation and protection status of artifacts with
examples and give my proposals to improve current status.
The best conserved and the most numerous human cultural remains from early Middle Age (6th - 12th
centuries) in Mongolian territory are monuments erected at the time of Turkish period.
Kinds of monuments erected at the time of Turkish period are:- stone monument in human shape- stone fence35

- Balbal- shining monument- shining monument base- construction column base- rectangle stone with a hole
- stone monument in animal shape etc.
These comprise Turk’s Khan and royal family monument complex. The most of the khan and royalfamily’s monument complexes are situated in Mongolian territory and they usually found in big rivers
embankments or nearby plateau.
If the complex’s owner’s social status was low, there were few kinds and number of remains. For
example, Bilge Khan’s monument complex, which was built in 735 and currently the best researchedamong monuments of Turk’s khans and royal members, has all the monument kinds listed above but
other royal members with social status lower than khan has smaller monument complex containing
much lesser kinds, in size and number of monuments.
The smallest complexes have only stone fence and Balbal. We have determined that the bigger
complex is for Khan spirit but we don’t know yet for whom was built the smaller complex, for a royalmember with lower social status or for a Rag-rag. Chinese historical scripts say that Turk’s government
men can have one of 28 levels. Nevertheless Turk’s royal member’s places show the social status
differences between government officials at that time.
In the monument site, there are owner and his surrounding made from stone; their age, gender,social status are clearly shown by their clothes, weapons and tools, decoration, sitting, hands andfoot location. Therefore stone monuments in human shape are used as sources for comparing written
information sources with other materials discovered in archeological excavations. Stone monuments inhuman shape are usually built on the left side of stone fence and its face directed to sunrise. Dependingon owner’s social status there can be from two to several dozen stone monuments in human shape in asite.
On the right side of stone monument in human shape or Balbal there is a box-shaped construction
built with four plain stones and filled with small stones in it. Plain stones are polished and decorated
with engraved wall pattern, patterns with animal and plant. Some plain stones have on its edges
ancient Turkish (Runic) writings and seals. Also there are some plain stones in the center of its surface
engraved human figure.
There were found many long stones placed one after another in one row beginning from stonemonument in human shape and directed to south east and they are named in Turkish writings as“Balbal”. Balbals seem to be usual stones but their amount, size and design show the owner’s social
status, power and blood.

36

First stone in Balbal row of influential royal members can be considered as stone monument in
human shape. Some Balbal has on its surface ancient Turkish writings and seal engraved. By Turkish
customs, the khan’s or prince’s grave site must have a place of worship which has on its east side ashining monument with writings about decedent’s blood, business, ideology, feats in Turkish, Chinese,
Indian, Uighur language on stone base engraved on its surface turtle figure. In some situation shiningmonument stone base with turtle engravings have also writings and seals.
Shining monuments, monument base, plain stones, and writings on Balbal stone of Turkish state time
are nomadic writing culture heritage. Most of the historic materials of Central Asian nomadic people
around 6th to 8th centuries are written in Chinese, Uighur, Arabian, Greece languages and remains
written on Turkish khan, royal family monument site in Mongolian territory are unique materials
which are written by their own hands with their customs, skills and valuable historical information.
Central Asian ancient nomads made their monuments with strong and elegant stones which can resist
for long periods in spite of severe natural conditions. Most of the monuments are made of granite,sometimes marble, sand-rock, shale and trap. There are steady granitic monuments which are broken
but also there are soft marble monuments which are still unbroken.
Let me show damages occurred to monuments of Turkish period with some examples.
1. Khar Uzuur sacrifice place is going to become
dump
Regional habitants threw garbages near one of thetwo places of Turkish Khan in Zuunbayan-Ulaan sumof Uvurkhangai aimag [Picture 1].
2. Scattered monuments of Shiveet Ulaan
There are stone piles, stone monuments in humanface, and stone monuments in animal figure, shiningmonument bases within Shiveet Ulaan monument P i c t u r e 1 : K h a r U z u u r m o n u m e n t s i t ecomplex on the north coast of Khanui river which which became dump (Mongolian-Japaneseis between Khairkhan sum of Arkhangai aimag and “Bichees-2” joint project’s field research group)

Bayan-Agt sum of Bulgan aimag. Some of the stone monuments in animal figure, stone monuments
in human face are now “situated” outside of the Orkhon Aimag Museum. Also a stone monument
in human face, one stone lion, one stone sheep, one stone monument like a vase are “situated” at
Kharikhan sum cultural center, and a monument with a seal is “situated” in Khaikhan sum’s temple
yard. Someone broke by dropping the stone lion on a bottom floor at sum cultural center several years
ago while moving it [Picture 2]. The monument with seal at sum’s temple yard used to socket intostone base at Shiveet Ulaan. That is a shining monument of Turkish state with many of its clan’s tribe
royal seals. There’s no other artifact of this kind discovered in our country and in other countries.

37

The monument is placed its face upside as a pray
podium and this great artifact is polished by prayers’
body everyday that seals made 1,300 years ago are
to be erased soon [Picture 3]. Only one of the stonemonuments in human face at Shiveet Ulaan had headbut several years ago its head was cut and stolen by
Kazakhstan researcher S. Kharjaubai and placed incity Astana.
3. Ongi river artifact

Picture 2: Stone lion with broken head “situated”
outside of Khairkhan Sum cultural center (2007. There is a Turkish khan’s site with shining
Mongolian-Japanese “Bichees-2” joint project’s monument, stone turtle base, plain stone withfield research group)

ornament, five stone monuments in human face,stone monuments in animal figure, Balbal stone, earthen dam and a canal at a place named Maanitiin
Burd in Uyanga sum of Uvurkhangai Aimag [Picture 9]. When it was discovered in 1891, itsmonuments were broken but the shining monument was in a good condition [Picture 4]. However
it was almost unbroken at that time during documentation by photos and moulds now the shiningmonument was broken, some pieces of it lost. Now there are three pieces at Uvurkhangai Aimag
museum [Picture 5]. A mountain goat figure in tribal seal which was on the head of the shiningmonument was broken and pieces were at that place [Picture 6, 7] .
There are several Balbal stones with seals and it is clear that at least one of them has Turkish writingsand seal engraved on from 1891 documentation [Picture 8]. When we came during MongolianJapanese “Bichees-2” joint project 2007 the Balbal stone with writing and seal was disappeared.

Picture 4: Ongi river shining monument in 1891
(Russian Empire Geographical Society fieldresearch group)

Picture 3: Shining monument which became
prayer’s podium (2007)

38

Picture 5: Ongi river shining monument in 2008
(Mongolian-Japanese “Bichees-2” joint project
field research group)

Picture 6: Head of the shining monument in 1996
(Mongolian-Japanese “Bichees-1” joint project
field research group)

Picture 7: Head of the shining monument in 2007
(Mongolian-Japanese “Bichees-2” joint project
field research group)

Picture 8: Disappeared Balbal stone with writingsand seal (1891. Russian Empire GeographicalSociety field research group)

Picture 9: Ongi river artifacts in 2007
(Mongolian-Japanese “Bichees-2” joint project
field research group)39

4. Robbed sacrifice place at Olonnuur Valley
There is a Turkish royal member monument complex with plain stone with ornaments and writings,
stone fence cover, stone monument in human face, Balbal stone in Multiple Lake Valley in Galuut sumof Bayankhongor Aimag [Picture 10].
Mongols were nomadic herders therefore we prohibit excavation till recent time. Since in 1994 “Gold”
project put into effect in Mongolia, till now several hundreds of foreign investing companies aremining gold. Besides, unemployed regional habitants started to illegally dig the ground for gold. They
always carry their green pot used for washing earth with gold on their back which caused people tocall them “Ninja” because they look like heroes of famous “Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles” cartoon.
Because of several years of dry and heavy snowfall, thousands of herders became “ninjas”. Especiallymost of the habitants near gold mine made their living by digging ground. In the beginning “ninjas”
were only digging for gold but after several years they started to dig and rob ancient tombs, sacrificeplaces, temples and ruins.

Picture 10: Olonnuur monument place’s fence(2008)

Picture 11: Tunnel door dug-out by “ninja-style”
around the fence (2008)

Picture 12: In 2005, robbers burned horse dung to
defrost soil and make this burn marks on the facestone. (2008)

Picture 13: South east stone of fence (2008)40

In 2005, people searching for profit dug at the center of Multiple Lake Valley sacrifice place plainstone, and made a well and a cavity around the fence [Picture 11]. While digging they burned horsedung to defrost soil which made burn marks on a plain stone [Picture 12]. That kind of digging whichmakes well is one of the usual methods of “ninjas”.
In June 2008, a research group of Middle Age Department of Archeological Institute of MAS firstworked at that place.
In the end of July 2010, when author came to the place someone broke a plain stone which was in goodcondition while trying to move it with some engine [Picture 13, 14]. Also a plain stone with writings
has disappeared [Picture 15]. There is no other artifact discovered yet, its granitic monuments becamefragile and it needs immediate preservation in dedicated place, restoration.

Picture 15: Stone cover of fence (2008)

Picture 14: South east stone of fence (2010)

5. “Snowman” of Tsenkhermandal
Someone primitively drew with gray oil paint eyes, eyebrows,
mouth, nose on face, buttons on chest of a stone monument in
human face in center of Tsenkhermandal sum of Khentii aimag near
Governor’s Office [Picture 16].
6. “Script” turtle of Tsetsuukhei
There is a sacrifice place of a Turkish khan on the west of
Tsetsuukhei river in Ikh-Uul sum of Zavkhan Aimag. The sacrificeplace has many Balbal stones, sacrifice temple remain, canal and astone base which shows there were a shining monument. In 2004
students of historical department of a university scratched somewords on the stone base with turtle. Words “2004 ТҮҮХ I АНГИ”
P i c t u r e 1 6 : “ S n o w m a n ” o f carved deeply in capital letters by something very sharp, metal
Tsenkhermandal (2008)

object [Picture 17].

41

7. Kul-Tegin monument with unclear
scripts
Kul-Tegin monument was built in 732
for the Turkish prince Kul-Tegin and it
is biggest and relatively complete withinscriptions in ancient Turkish (runic)
language. Till 2000, the inscription was
readable from several foot distances, but in
2000, Turkish specialists, Sait Basharan and
Juksel Dede, did “restoration” treatment
Picture 17: “Script” turtle of Tsetsuukhei (2006.
Mongolian-Japanese joint “Bichees-2” project‘s fielddamaged. They polished the monument research group)on it and the inscription was severely

surface too much for several days and thescript was almost destroyed.
Restoration work for about 1,000 ancient temples started in the 1990s in Mongolia, but only a few
of them were done by conservation specialists with international standards. In most cases, they
immediately built a new construction on an old temple’s base. Also there were many robbers searchingfor altars and treasures who dug and destroyed old buildings basements. Researchers discovered that
temples’ walls, forts and column base built between end of 16th century and beginning of 20th century
recycled fence stone parts built at the time of ancient Turkish (Mongolian Empire) in their constructionof shining monument,. For example Mongolian Japanese joint “Bichees-2” projects’ research group
discovered in 2007 a fence stone of 7th to 8th century sacrifice place in a temple basement built in 18th
century.
Therefore, before beginning a temple restoration work, one should do excavation research anddocumentation works in an old basement. Placing an information board of the site will be usefulfor regional habitants, tourists and passengers
to understand the history and importance of themonument and it also calls for them to protect
and care about it. Boards placed near monuments
are getting deteriorated through time due to harshclimate condition in Mongolia. It is observedthat stone board of Ungut complex in Altanbulag
sum of Tuv Aimag and stone column showingthat Tonyukuk sacrifice complex is historical andcultural artifact in Erdene sum of Tuv Aimag
had less deterioration in spite of a long time

Picture 18: Bulgan, Mogod, Khul Asgat’s rtifact

period. One of the effective methods protecting (2008. Mongolian-Japanese joint “Bichees-2”
monuments and artifacts from human and animal project’s field research group)42iimpact is building an iron fences around them [Picture 18].
One of the Turkish monument complex is a Balbal stone row and its length was from several meters
to several kilometers, so sometimes a new road construction work intersects with it and its stones
are moved; dropped to another place; used in building fences; or scratched by animals. Therefore,
even if it is not applicable to whole Balbal stone row, the part which contains seals and inscriptions
should be protected by fences and a new road planning should detour around the site. Because of lastyears’ desertification, some Balbal stones fell from its place and got buried in the sand. Also, regional
habitants tended to use fallen Balbal stones for their household purposes.
We should collect and preserve monuments and artifacts in one place. Legal environment for cultural
heritage preservation, protection and restoration in Mongolia is not perfect; its provisions and articles
are not clear and poorly described; and to brief the law needs to be improved. We need to adopt andapply a new restoration standard on monument and artifact. To use inappropriate methods and tools;
to apply nonstandard restoration work by using glue, purifier, stabilizers and other chemicals not
introduced and checked in our practice, mean destroying our important cultural heritage irrecoverably.
It is clear that the Mongol follows their ancient traditional way of thinking and customs, which include
honoring their history, ancestors, nature and earth, and preserving the monuments and artifacts in
Mongolian territory.
In the past, Mongolian people usually get off horses and walk to honor the monuments and artifacts
when they approached them. However, their sense of ethics and values has changed and they declaredthat natural resources mining is the only gateway to successful development for the country, soestablishment of legal systems for preservation and protection of cultural heritage from the scratch isurgent social problem. In one word, monuments and artifacts are being destroyed in every minute andthey need to be rescued immediately.

43

DAVAAKHUU Odsuren
Researcher
Department of Stone Age Archaeology
Institute of Archaeology, Mongolian Academy of Sciences

Preservation and Protection of Mongolian Remains
from the Stone Age
The territory of Mongolia is very rich and full of remains of prehistoric people from the Stone Age. It
is said that the research of the Stone Age remains in Mongolia started between the end of the 19th
century and the beginning of the 20th century. However, the scientific research of remains of the Stone
Age in the territory of Mongolia started around the end of World War II, mainly in 1949. Since thattime, a Mongolian-Russian joint expedition of historians and ethnographers researched and exploredthrough the Mongolian territory for many years to study the Stone Age remains. From last 60 years of
research, they found around 1,000 sites and published a lot of reports on the Stone Age remains.

The site types of the Stone Age period
The sites of the Stone Age period are divided into three types, namely, the plain settlement, thecivilized layer remains and the civilized layer of cave remains.

Plain settlement
Almost all the remains found in Mongolian territory are included in this group. The reason for theearth stratum remaining as such was due to the severe climate of the mainland, with strong winds andstorms all over the country all the time and the very low amount of the annual precipitation. Those
factors made the shift of the earth stratum below average. Therefore almost every remain from theStone Age period lies on the plains. The peculiar side of the Mongolian Stone age research is that theplain settlement strata encompass various kinds of remains that represent various ages. To date theplain settlement remains, researchers utilized methods based on the times, preservation conditions andsimilarities in comparison with remains which were found in other places.

Civilized layer site
Remains from a Stone Age period are called civilized layer remains when covered by soil over acertain margin. In the Mongolian territory, civilized layer remains are very rare. However, recent
researches points out that there are some probabilities of the discovery of a new site.

Cave site
Prehistoric people used their caves as their dwellings for many years. The cave site where people
lived for a long time has also indications of short stays as well. In the Mongolian territory, Tsagaan

44agui (White Cave) and Chihen agui (Ear cave) were investigated as a cave site as prehistoric people
lived there for a long time.

Preservation and protection
The Stone Age period sites in the
Mongolian territory are getting destroyed
because of the impact of people and theenvironment. Because of the climatechang, the desert is growing in the area
and a lot of plain settlement with theStone Age remains are buried under sand(the southern remains of the Stone Ageperiod in the Mongolian Territory).
Also recently some people are gathering
remains from the soil (ground) and they
are selling them to foreign tourists assouvenirs in Bayanza, Bulgan sum and

The site of the New Stone Age in Bayanza

Omnogovi aimag, for example. Currently on the site there are almost ten tourist companies, withpeople and entities working there, and they are planning to expand their activities.
Also, people are destroying the sites by launching big projects
such as mining and construction of new roads near Tsagaan agui
(White cave) in Bayanlig sum and Bayanhongor aimag. Whenpeople discovered this site buries gold, they start digging to getgold. Now, a Chinese company tries to mine the area for gold
and has bought a license for it. If we don’t protect it, they will
destroy the earth’s soil with important remains.
Other site that is threatened by a same kind of situation is theTulbur riverside in Hutag-Undur sum, Bulgan aimag, which ismulti-layered civilized site. This place was discovered by the
Mongolian-Russian joint researcher team going through the
Bulgan, and Huvsgul aimags and it was named as the expedition

Tsagaan agui (White cave)of “Mongolian Stone Age Period” in 2002, which has excavatedthe site since 2004 to be researched. From the site of the Tulbur riverside, they found nineteen
settlements and three of them were multi-layered remains of the Stone Ages that can represent thedevelopment in the period. During excavation research, they found a necklace made from an ostrich
egg, bone beads etc. These remains are special artefacts showing traditional knowledge and culture ofprehistoric people.

45

But the soil of this place was used in the road
constructionofTulbur-15,

theroadway

between Ulaanbaatar and Murun. The site of
Tulbur riverside was threatened to be destroyedby the road construction work. The place of theStone Age remains did not easily catch thepeople’s eye and to preserve and to protect it
we had the following special ways:
 To place a sign containing information on
the applicable penal regulations and also theSite called as Tulbur riverside

sentences in case they are not followed.
Moreover, the sign should contain the reason
why it is protected.
 To insert the Aimag in the list of officially
protected places of the nation, in the region
where it is located and to appoint an official
to be responsible for the place To preserve and to protect the lines on thewalls, by making a museum for domestic andinternational tourists under the protection of
the government
 To introduce the history, culture andacculturation, which establish the idea of

Tulbur-15 the current place whose soil was

loving and caring for the country amongused to construct the road

teenagers. Also, make good use of books andmass media to introduce the laws and regulations for protection and preservation toward
Mongolian people.
 To increase the coherence and liability between the organizations that look after the historical andthe social heritage information, protection, preservation and researches in all levels
The mining industry is rapidly developing, so an archeological research should be made on the
territory to obtain a professional opinion if a mining company gets a license to mine the territory. We
have to establish the regulations and legislation to protect and preserve the findings in the mining
territory in Mongolian by laws on mining, land and buried properties.
We need to develop legal systems that cut off the route of illegal smuggling; make us easier to obtain
information from the people; and inspire local people to protect their historical assets and cultural
heritages.

46

Lecturer Paper

IV. Lecturer Papers

Introduction to Environmental Archaeology
Takeshi Yamazaki
Environmental Archaeology Section
Nara National Research Institute for Cultural Properties
This text was prepared for the "Introduction to Environmental Archaeology" given in the "Asia-PacificRegion Cultural Heritage Preservation Training Course 2010 (Group Training): Study and Preservationof Archaeological Sites" conducted by the Asia-Pacific Cultural Centre for UNESCO (ACCU). In
order to systematically understand environmental archaeology and put it into practice, the people whowork at excavation sites have put together a list of points requiring special attention in the process
of excavating sites, organizing archaeological materials, preparing excavation reports and storing
analytical samples. This text shows what is to be done at excavating site and organizing archaeologicalmaterials when conducting environmental archaeological operations. We hope this text will be ofassistance when you practice environmental archaeology in your country.
1. What is environmental archaeology?
2. Archaeological sites and features in which organic materials still exist
3. Things to remember concerning excavation sites
4. Things to remember concerning organization and documentation

1. What is environmental archaeology?
Environmental archaeology is a field of archaeology that studies the mutual effect of man andenvironment by reproducing the paleoenvironment around the site. The objective of environmentalarchaeology is not to merely learn about changes in the paleoenvironment, but to find out how peopleof the past adapted to the surrounding natural environment, how they obtained various resources fromthe natural environment and how they altered the natural environment.
Environmental archaeology can be roughly divided into geoarchaeology and bioarchaeology.
"Environment" in geoarchaeology refers to the geographical environment. It borrows the concepts
and research methods of topography, geology, pedology, geography and so on. "Environment" inbioarchaeology refers to the natural environment. It borrows the concepts and research methods ofbotany, zoology, anthropology and so on.
The type of research employed in environmental archaeology is generically referred to as "naturalscientific analysis." As the fields of research used in environmental archaeology become morediversified, archaeologists must conduct joint research together with experts in various types of naturalscientific analysis. It also demands that the respective results research be generalized. It is important
for those involved in archaeological excavation to have a clear sense of purpose, and they need tohave the necessary knowledge and must be prepared in order to employ environmental archaeology
properly. Vague introduction of environmental archaeology without a clear objective must be avoided.

49

Because natural scientific analysis may however require special apparatus, preparations or chemicals,
analysis is often outsourced to other institutions. In such cases, the person or persons responsible
for study conducted at the excavation site and organization of archaeological materials and those
responsible for analysis must share a clear sense of purpose. A system of cooperation that ensuresverifiable records is kept while maintaining objectivity is required. The persons who outsource analysis
must not merely leave all results, including interpretation of results, up to those responsible foranalysis, but must rather assess and summarize the results of analysis while referring to the results ofstudy conducted at the excavation site and organization of archaeological materials. Consequentially,
one must have a certain degree of understanding of the principles of and techniques used for naturalscientific analysis, even if one does not directly conduct analysis himself.
Because the method of extracting information from features and/or artifacts is a natural scientifictechnique, interpreting results obtained by it, i.e., reconstructing human activities that took place at or
around the point in time in question by means of studies conducted at the excavation site, for naturalscientific analysis is no different than that of archaeology. The results of natural scientific analysis
contribute to the results of other archaeological research and the overall understanding of the dig.
Just as is the case with archaeology, natural scientific analysis has methodological premises andlimits. The results obtained from natural scientific analysis, therefore, are recognized as speculative
theory (hypothesis) about the past. It requires combining results of analysis with other archaeologicalresults and coming up with highly probable interpretation of the results taking into accountcharacteristics of analysis sample and problems of analysis method, rather than blindly taking an
absolute view of analytical results.

2. Sites and features in which organic materials may still exist
Artifacts unearthed from archaeological sites can be divided into inorganic materials and organic
materials. Inorganic materials include stone tools, pottery and metal artifacts. Organic materials
include plant remains, animal remains and human skeletal remains. Inorganic materials are generally
better preserved in the earth than organic materials.
Preservation of organic materials is significantly affected by climatic conditions and sedimentary soil.
Japan has a humid temperate climate, and the majority of the Japanese archipelago is covered acidic
soil of volcanic ash. Most organic materials decompose and decay in such an environment. Organic
materials however surely remain in some sites and features.
It is necessary to check the possibility of organic materials remaining in any and all sites. It is
important to always be aware of the possibility that organic materials may remain, and to excavate asite using the proper methods while taking the sedimentary environment into account.

Shell midden / shell stratum: Acidic soil is neutralized by calcium contained in shells to produce
weak alkaline soil which acts to preserve human bones and animal remains. If the site is not so-calledshell midden, a small shell stratum such as a shell stratum in a pit or shell stratum within a dwellingsite may be unearthed, and proper sampling must be conducted.

50

Cave / rock shelter: Limestone caves have an alkaline sedimentary environment produced bydecomposed calcium from limestone, which tends to preserve human bones and animal remains well.

Wetland site: Wetland sites don't have enough oxygen due to the presence of underground water ina saturated state. This suppresses activity of microorganisms so organic materials are well preserved.
Animal remains also tend to be well preserved if the underground water is weak alkaline or neutral.

Dune sites: Decomposition of microorganisms is suppressed in an extremely dry sedimentary
environment due to lack of moisture, and may sometimes preserve organic materials.

Open site: Organic materials may remain in ordinary open sites, as well as in special sedimentary
environments such as shell middens and caves. These include (1) water-infiltrated sedimentary
environment, (2) burnt soil, carbide layer and ash layer.
Because decomposition is suppressed by insufficient oxygen, plant remains and animal remains tend
to be preserved in a (1) water-infiltrated sedimentary environment, just as in wetland sites. Features
such as rivers, ponds, wells, gutters and water places may become channels for underground water after
burial and may become a water-infiltrated sedimentary environment. However, because sedimentarymaterials of rivers are generally formed by interaction of erosion and sedimentation, artifacts ofdifferent ages may become mixed together making it hard to judge the age of the sedimentary layer.
In the case of (2) burnt soil, carbide layer and ash layer, organic materials are burned tend to remain
because they become mineralized. If proper sampling and flotation are conducted for features such as
dwelling remains, fireplace remains, stoves and rubbish pits, carbonized plant remains and burnt bones
may be detected. This broadens the applicable range of analysis more than the previously mentioned
sites and features and is valid for all sorts of sites and features.

3. Things to remember concerning excavation sites
In recent years, natural scientific analysis employed for archaeology has become increasingly diverse,
and in many cases those responsible for excavation rely on outside institutions for individual naturalscientific analyses. In this case, it is important for the person responsible for the study to record thesedimentation state and excavated state of the site. It is preferable for those responsible for excavation
to cooperate with those responsible for analysis from the stage where excavation is carried out at thesite if possible, rather than when the excavation is complete.
Those responsible for the excavation at the site should also be responsible for natural scientificanalysis rather than relying on experts. The reason for this is because analytical data such as layer
position and excavated state will be lost if not properly recorded at the excavation site.
The objectives of natural scientific analysis employed for archaeology are also wide-ranging. Here wewill describe the things that generally require special attention at the excavation site when conducting
natural scientific analysis.

Analysis plan: When conducting natural scientific analysis, it is important to establish a plan as early51

on as possible, rather than waiting until the excavation is complete. If a sedimentation layer, features
or archaeological materials that are valid for environmental archaeology are confirmed by an adjacentsite or trial excavation, it is necessary to properly take into account natural scientific analysis study,
analysis and report into account from the planning stage of the study. When features for which naturalscientific analysis is applicable are confirmed during the excavation, the study process needs to bereviewed, and the proper measures taken without delay for data sampling and analysis outsourcing.

State of site preservation: Archaeological materials that are applicable for natural scientific analysis
are significantly affected by sedimentation state and state of preservation of the site. Consequently, it
is necessary to consider what method or methods of analysis can be conducted, taking into account the
sedimentation state and state of preservation of the site.

Clarification of objectives of analysis: When conducting natural scientific analysis, it is necessary
for those responsible for excavation and those responsible for analysis to share a clear sense of
purpose. If the person or persons responsible for excavation request natural scientific analysis without
any clear objective, the overall view of the site could be lost and analysis could wind up impossible toassess or summarize for the excavation report of the site. It is necessary to consider specimen sampling
and analysis method according to clear analysis objective and problem awareness while taking state ofpreservation of the site into account.

Importance of multifaceted analysis: Natural scientific analysis includes various characteristics
of analysis. Thus, it is preferable to conduct a multifaceted comparison of research results combining
more than one method of analysis, rather than a single method according to objective.
When conducting paleovegetational reconstruction of a site, for example, multiple analyses suchas pollen analysis, plant opal or seeds should be combined, rather than conducting a certain naturalscientific analysis alone. The reason for this is that cross-checking various results of analysis enables
you to obtain complementary, consistent research results that cannot be obtained by a single naturalscientific analysis .
Plant remains such as pollen, nuts and seeds and wood differ in terms of ability to remain, distribution
and productivity of part or organ. Pollen tends to remain more than nuts and seeds and wood, so you
can get a continuous understanding of vegetation for each stratification. Analysis of pollen, however,mostly involves anemophilous flower plants that produce massive quantities of pollen that is scatteredover a wide area, so the composition of the pollen may not accurately represent the plant populationof the immediate area. Entomophilous flower plants, on the other hand, produce less than 1/10,000 of
the pollen that anemophilous flower plants produce, so the pollen does not scatter over a wide area.
Materials such as nuts and seeds and wood do not tend to remain as much as pollen, and because they
have more mass, then tend not to be removed from their source, and tend to represent vegetation of asmaller range of distance.
So, it is necessary to comprehensively conduct paleovegetational reconstruction of a site taking
characteristics of each sample into account because they are significantly affected by the process52

(taphonomy) from the stage where the material existed as a plant until it became deposited at the site

Understanding of sampling stratification: The most important thing when collecting samples
for natural scientific analysis is stratification. Because organic materials are not applicable to typologythat helps in the formations of chronology, there may be a problem with contamination. An accurate
understanding of stratification is a prerequisite to conducting a comparative study of archaeologicalresearch results and research results of natural scientific analysis.
The excavated state of the organic materials for analysis also provides information for interpreting theresults of natural scientific analysis. The samples for analysis applicable to environmental archaeology
are treated the same as pottery, stone tools, etc. Before they are retrieved the stratification andexcavated state are recorded. If the person or persons responsible for analysis cannot collect samples atthe site, the person or persons responsible for excavation must record the stratification and excavatedstate of the collecting samples take responsibility for conveying the information to the analyzer. Whencollecting samples, care must always be taken to not allow contamination to occur.

Sampling: Sampling method and amount of soil required differ according to the research objective(s)and method of analysis. The soil required for sampling may also differ according to research
objective(s) and sedimentary environment. Consequently, those responsible for collecting samples
must discuss requirements and conditions for analysis samples before having them analyzed. Sampling
may also sometimes be required while the excavation study is being conducted.
Even if they cannot be confirmed by the naked eye, buried pit structures, floors, fireplace remains,soil burnt by stoves, ash layer or packing soil in pottery may contain minute burnt bone fragments orcarbonized plant remains. When those responsible for excavation recognize the possibility of minuteremains being contained, they should take a small quantity of soil samples during the excavation study,
put through a 1 - 2 mm sieve while dissolving with water and check the remaining material for minuteremains. If minute remains are observed, you should sample a certain quantity of soil and sort by anorganized wet sieving.
It is indispensable for those responsible for the excavation to take soil samples that are suitable forthe objective(s) of analysis with the clear vision of "what kind of analysis to conduct to reveal what
about the site." Soil samples must be taken in an organized manner taking into account subsequent
processing and time, budget and place required for storage. If sorting soil samples by wet sieving,
the issues of securing a source of water and treating wastewater/soil produced by the process must be
taken into account.

Contamination: "Contamination" refers to "other things being mixed in." This term is widely usedin many fields such as biology and geology. Even if samples that could possibly be contaminated are
analyzed, the results of analysis would be unreliable. It is therefore necessary to make sure samples foranalysis do not get contaminated when collecting them.
If collecting samples of pollen or diatoms for analysis, for example, in order to prevent present day
pollen or diatoms from getting mixed in with the samples, you must be careful that no other soil is

53

allowed to contaminate the tools used for soil sampling. You must also scrape against the surface ofwalls to expose a fresh surface for taking samples. When analyzing DNA of human bones, in order toprevent contamination with the human DNA of people involved in the excavation, be sure not to touchsamples with your bare hands. Be careful not to allow saliva or perspiration to come in contact withthe samples.
Measures must be taken not only to prevent contamination during excavation, but during storage and/or organization prior to analysis. The problem of contamination not only involves those responsible foranalysis, but those responsible for excavation and organization of archaeological materials, samples,etc. There are various possible contributing factors to contamination in the process of site formation
processes, burial process, excavation, organization and laboratory work, and it is extremely difficult tocompletely eliminate the danger of contamination. It is therefore effective to take as many samples as
possible or have some of the samples been used for the age determination such as radiocarbon dating,
It is especially important to record this in the excavation report so a third party may be able to referto the history of the samples later on. You should also get a good understanding of the stratification,
sedimentary environment and excavated state in which the sampling was conducted during excavationand properly record the locations from where the samples were taken and the sampling method
used. The method by which soil samples are treated should also be properly recorded. If the person
responsible for excavation does not directly conduct the natural scientific analysis, he should sharean awareness of the problem of contamination with the person or persons responsible for analysis.
The results of natural scientific analysis should be cross-checked with the findings at the site finding
obtained from other artifacts; the results should also be interpreted and discussed.

Temporary storage prior to analysis: Even if samples are collected properly, if not handledproperly during the stage before they are passed on to the person or persons responsible for analysis(temporary storage), the results of analysis could be affected. Temporary storage of and method oftransportation of samples for analysis differ according to the type of natural scientific analysis. It isalso necessary to take factors such as sedimentary environment into account, so those responsible
for analysis should be consulted about what sort of storage is required. As a rule, transformation ofproperties and decomposition must be suppressed and contamination must be prevented while instorage.
The impact of chemicals used for conservation must also be taken into consideration, depending on
the sample. The person or persons responsible for preserving samples should therefore be consulted inadvance. For example, it has been pointed out that if resin or organic solvents in a binder, etc., get on
or in a sample, it could affect carbon 14 dating. If conducting further analysis (dating, stable isotope
analysis, DNA analysis, etc.) after analyzing human skeletal or animal remains, it is necessary toestablish a plan quickly to provide the proper treatment.
Wooden materials such as wooden artifacts or wooden architectural members require measures tosuppress decay while preventing drying are required. One method is to store in a tank of water orcontainer to which an antifungal agent has been added. The condition of artifacts must be observed
periodically with special attention on the danger of drying due to evaporation of moisture. Wooden

54remains left immersed in water will become contraction-distorted due to drying, and will not revert tothe former shape even if returned to the water. Once dried, the wood texture is lost, rendering wood
identification impossible. Soil sampled for pollen analysis or to collect insects must be placed in ahermetically sealed container and placed in a cool, dark place to prevent the soil from oxidation or
drying and to discourage fungus and microorganism from growing. Nuts and seeds should also beplaced in a hermetically sealed container and placed in a cool, dark place. Animal remains and humanskeletal remains should also be naturally dried in a dark place. Because it may affect analyses suchas stable isotope analysis or radiocarbon dating, use of absorbent cotton should be avoided during
temporary storage or transportation.
Temporary storage is no more than an emergency means up to analysis or conservation treatment.
Artifacts should not be left neglected in temporary storage. They should be recorded and analyzed
without delay and managed/stored properly.

4. Things to remember concerning organization and documentation
There are points to be remembered not only at the excavation site, but during organization such as
washing sampled soil (soil sorting). Contamination of samples must be prevented prior to analysis.
Storage of samples after analysis is also important for assuring and re-verifying results.

(1) Soil sieving methods
Objective: If archaeological materials that have been observed by the naked eye only during
excavation are collected, it is highly likely that many smallest items could be overlooked. These
smallest items include chips, beads, animal remains such as fish bones, carbides, and plant remains
such as nuts and seeds. Collecting such smallest items requires not only materials dug up by handat the site, but soil sediment collected by sieving. It is therefore important to collect smallest items
by sieving the soil during excavation. Along with a clear objective, soil sieving must be conductedefficiently in an organized manner while taking into account labor required for subsequent sorting andplace for storage.

Sieving: The size of the sieve mesh differs according to the objective of analysis. Even in the caseof soil sieving methods for the same objective, the volume of dirt to be sifted may differ according tosedimentary environment, state of preservation of materials or inclusion density. When outsourcing
analysis of materials that have been sifted with a sieve, it is therefore necessary to consult with those
responsible for analysis beforehand concerning method of sorting the sampled soil. Concerning whatsize mesh the sieve should have, try sifting with several sieves of different mesh size such as 5 mm, 2
mm, 1 mm or 0.5 mm to find out beforehand what each size yields and how much work is involved.
If the sieve mesh is fine, minute remains can be detected at a high percentage, but the amount ofmaterial that cannot pass through increases, and requires more time for sorting afterwards. To ensureassessment of analysis results and comparison with other sites, sieves of clear mesh size are used forsorting soil. The size of the mesh of sieves actually used for sifting soil must be clearly indicated in the
documentation.

55

Types of soil sieving methods: Soil sieving methods are divided into dry sieving, wet sieving
and flotation method according to sedimentary environment and objective. Minute remains can bedetected depending on the type of sieving. It is therefore effective to combine the soil sieving methods.
The block division method and wash flotation method are used in combination for detection of insect
remains.

(a) Dry sieving: Effective for shell midden and cave remains, or sandy soil remains. The sampled
soil is placed in the sieve, the fine sand grains are sifted through and archaeological materials arecollected from residue remaining in the sieve. The effective mesh size is generally about 10 mm or
5 mm.

(b) Wet sieving: Effective for sites viscous soil such as wetland sites or silt. The sampled soil isplaced in the sieve, water is poured on the soil, and fine sand grains are strained through. Minuteremains such as plant or animal relicts are very fragile, so soil should be unraveled with a brush.
Viscous soil should be immersed in water as a pretreatment to wet sieving. You can use a sieve withfiner mesh than that of dry sieving to separate artifacts from soil using water. Mesh sizes of 10 mm,
5 mm, 2 mm, 1 mm or 0.5 mm are often used for wet sieving.

(c) Flotation: Method whereby soil is dissolved with water and stirred so archaeological materials
with low specific gravity such as seeds or carbides float to the top of the water where they can becollected. Smallest items float to the top when dry sandy soil is dissolved with water alone, but
viscous soil is stirred to make artifacts with low specific gravity float up. This method required asieve with fine mesh such as 0.5 mm or 0.25 mm. Actual soil sieving often combines wet sieving;artifacts that float to the top are recovered by flotation and those that remain in the sieve with wetsieving are recovered.

Drying: Contamination must be prevented if artifacts from a wet sieve are placed in a containerand dried. Collected seeds and so on shrink when dried, which can result in cracking. Such artifacts
are very fragile and should be stored in a hermetically sealed container in their wet condition until
identified. Floating carbides that remain in the sieve using the flotation method can be protected fromdamage by drying by wrapping in a cloth instead of rapid drying. Cloths used for drying should bemade of finely woven cotton or blended textile. Minute remains can get caught in the course texture ofgauze, thereby destroying them or making them hard to recover. Gauze should therefore be avoided.

Weighing: In order to calculate the inclusion rate of various materials, the weight and volume of soil
should be measured before sieving. Weigh each type of sorted artifact and calculate the inclusion rateof the contents of each succession of strata.

Sorting: In many cases, extraction and classification of smallest items from soil samples are notcarried out directly by experts such those responsible for analysis. For actual analysis, non-expert

56

staff may bring only materials recognized as bone fragments or seeds to the person or persons
responsible for analysis. In other words, even if smallest items are collected by sifting through asieve, materials not recognized as bone fragments or seeds may not be analyzed. In order to prevent
such problems, non-experts can effectively extract and classify artifacts from soil samples on a sieve
if those responsible for analysis conduct a preliminary extraction and classification. When extracting
and sorting smallest items from residue of a sieve, experts should provide an easy-to-understanddescription of the color, size and morphological features of artifacts that need to be extracted to prevent
them from being overlooked at the sorting stage.

Registration: Materials used for natural scientific analysis also contain smallest items and are
therefore seldom annotated. Materials to be analyzed must be stored together with the excavation
record label; care must be taken to make sure that records are not scattered and/or lost. It is also
effective to annotate representative materials for analysis used for exhibitions, etc.

(2) Contents of archaeological excavation reports
The results of natural scientific analysis contribute to the results of other archaeological research andthe overall understanding of the dig. The results of natural scientific analysis should therefore not betreated differently from other results such as being placed in an appendix at the end of archaeologicalexcavation reports or as a natural scientific analysis edition, but rather should be provided before
the general overview. Natural scientific analysis includes a wide assortment of methods that differ
according to objective, and the reports contents therefore differ. Here we shall focus on the parts thatare common to all natural scientific analysis reports.
The important thing when reporting natural scientific analysis is to state the information in suchas way that a third party may verify or assess it. Also, in the case where analysis is outsourced, it
is important to record necessary items such as "objective" and stratification and excavated state of"materials", soil sieving at excavating site and organizing archaeological materials in "method",and "discussion" not just for those responsible for analysis, but for those responsible for study andorganization of archaeological materials as well. If conservation treatment is provided, the method oftreatment should also be recorded.

Objective: Record the objective of natural scientific analysis when conducting excavation.
Materials: Provide a record of samples used for analysis. When doing so, also record the excavatedstate, stratification and preservation state of the samples for analysis. If chemicals are used for removal
or conservation, you should record the names of the chemicals used. Record the location where
samples for analysis are stored to ensure analysis results and verification by a third party.

Method: To ensure results of analysis as well, it is necessary to verify whether or not the method ofanalysis was proper. For this reason, clearly record the methods of sampling and analysis. If sampled soil
is to be sieved, record the capacity of the sampled soil, the soil sieving method and size of the sieve mesh.

57

Results: Present fundamental data of analysis results so it can be verified by a third party. With
radiocarbon dating, for example, in preparation of a new offset method or revision, clearly record not
only the carbon 14 year, but the data used for offset or calibration. For analysis conducted to identify
plant or animal remains, report photographs and descriptions that indicate basis of identification alongwith the identification list.
Use figures to facilitate understanding if the results of analysis include complicated data or massive
quantities of data. The results of pollen analysis should be represented by pollen diagrams consistingof histograms, frequency of pollen/spore appearance, and pollen zone. If quantifying and presenting
massive quantities of data, clearly indicate the method of quantification. There are several methods ofcalculation for reports of animal remains, such as minimum number of individuals (MNI) or number ofidentified materials (NISP), which can be selected according to condition of materials.
In the case of providing measurement values for analysis samples, provide graphic indication of themeasurement points and method of measurement. If estimating stature from reports of human skeletal
remains, clearly indicate the regression equation used for the estimate.

Discussion: Discuss the results of analysis based on the data provided and give the findings of the
discussion. In some cases a clear, concise abstract such as given in the general overview may beprovided. It would also be significant to discuss future themes in preparation for future excavations
or organization of archaeological materials and to recommend proper methods of excavation andorganization for implementing natural scientific analysis.

(3) Generalization of analysis results
The results of natural scientific analysis should therefore not be treated differently from other results
such as being placed in an appendix at the end of the text of archaeological excavation reports or as anatural scientific analysis edition, but rather should contribute to the general understanding of the site.
To summarize the results of analysis, it is important to have a clear objective of analysis and anawareness of problems. The analysis method should be selected according to the objective while
taking sedimentary environment and state of preservation into account. When doing so, using multiple
analysis methods together while getting a clear understanding of the characteristics of each respective
sample and analysis method enables you to obtain an interpretation with a higher probability of being
correct.
Natural scientific analysis conducted for environmental archaeology often requires expert knowledge
and special equipment, so it is sometimes outsourced to another institution. In such cases, the persons
responsible for study conducted at the excavation site and those responsible for analysis must share aclear sense of purpose. A system of cooperation that ensures verifiable records is kept while maintaining
objectivity is required. Results including interpretation of results must not merely be left up to those
responsible for analysis, but must rather be assessed while referring to the results of study conductedat the excavation site and organization of archaeological materials. Even if you don't conduct analysis
yourself, you must have a certain understanding the principles and techniques involved so you candiscuss them with those responsible for analysis in order to have a general understanding of the site.

58

*If outsourcing natural scientific analysis to another institution, be sure that there is no lack of
information that needs to be shared among those responsible for excavation, organization and analysis.
*Those responsible for excavation and organization should be aware that they bear responsibility asarchaeologists and as the ones who outsourced the analysis.
*Provide the person or persons responsible for analysis with archaeological results obtained by
excavation and organization and other results of natural scientific analysis in easy-to-understand terms.
Also ask questions about the results of natural scientific analysis obtained until you understand.
*When doing so, keep in mind that meanings of terminology may vary slightly if there are differencesin research background or fields of expertise.
*The results of respective natural scientific analyses should be compared before the deadline forturning in manuscripts in order to narrow the possibility of other interpretations of analysis. It is also
effective to include a symposium-style debate.

(4) Storage of samples following analysis
Samples used for natural scientific analysis not only ensure research results but also make it possible
for the results to be confirmed (re-verified) by a third party. If analysis is outsourced to anotherinstitution, storage and use of samples must be considered as well as the analysis results data.
Form of samples and method of storage differ for each type of analysis. Nuts and seed samples areplaced in a small bottle and preserved in 70% ethanol solution to prevent drying and/or fungus. Leaves
are placed in pouch film together with polyethylene glycol (PEG) and sealed with sealer. Pollen
specimens should be provided together with the target sediment sample itself, the aggregate specimensthat were analyzed, simple specimens of representative and typical pollen from the spot and strata, andprepared specimens that have been identified and counted as a set. For wood identification, preparedspecimens are stored and administrated as voucher specimens. Because they ensure research results,
samples for analysis must be clearly labeled with a specimen number, properly stored and disclosed.

59

Checklist for environmental archaeology (Nasu 2003)
1. Is the study sufficiently based on an objective? What is to be excavated and for what purpose?
2. How should theme be set when starting excavation?
How should theme be deepened/expanded as excavation proceeds?
3. Has an effort been made to enhance the basic strength required for study and research?
4. When outsourcing analysis, etc., to another field (particularly the field of natural scientificanalysis):(1) What do you want to know?
(2) Is field correctly selected?
What sort of analysis or study will be outsourced to which field?
(3) Has the institution to which analysis is to be outsourced been correctly selected?
Who should analysis be outsourced to in order to obtain reliable results that match theobjective?
(4) Have the objective and intention been sufficiently conveyed to the institution to whichanalysis is to be outsourced?
5. To what extent have problems at the site been pursued prior to outsourcing analysis?
6. Have the contents of reports of analysis results obtained by outsourced study been thoroughly
understood and digested?
(The party requesting analysis is the archaeologist responsible for the excavation.)
7. Are efforts constantly made to generalize?

60Байгаль орчны эртний судлалын товч тоймНара мужийн соёлын өв судлалын хүрээлэн
Газрын хэвлийн өв соёлын төвБайгаль орчны эртний судлалын судалгааны тэнхим
Ямазаки Такэши

1. Улсын соёлын өв сангийн байгууллагын харьяа Нара мужийн соёлын өв сансудлалын хүрээлэн Байгаль орчны эртний судлалын судалгааны тэнхимийн үйлажиллагаа
1. Байгаль орчны эртний судлал ба амьтны эртний судлалын судалгаа
Балгас туурьт үлдэж хоцорсон амьтан ургамлын үлдэгдлээс тухайн үеийн ахуй орчныг дахин
сэргээн үзэж, мөн тэр орчиндоо хэрхэн зохицож байсан, цаг хугацааны туршид хэрхэн хувирч
ирсэн бэ гэдэг талаар судална.
2. Улс болон орон нутгийн олон нийтийн байгууллагын хүсэлтээр малталт судалгаа хийх,эмхэлж цэгцлэх ажил болон тайлан бичих ажилд хамтрах эсвэл зөвлөгөө өгөхТуурийн шороон дотроос гарч ирэх амьтан ургамалын үлдэгдлээс эртний амьтан судлал,амьтан судлал зэрэг байгалийн шинжлэх ухаантай холбоотой салбарыг хамруулан,хүмүүнлэгийн ухааны салбар болох орчин цагийн газрын хэвлийн соёлын өвийн байгууллагад
судлаачид туйлын дутагдалтай байна. Иймд улсын хэмжээнд зохих газруудын малталт судалгааг
объект болгон авч, мэргэжлийн хэмжээний мэдлэг олгох, мөн холбогдох шинжилгээг явуулах
судлаачийг танилцуулж өгнө.
3. Амьтны эртний судлалын үндсэн материал болох орчин үеийн амьтны араг яс, дээжийг
цуглуулах болон нийтэд үзүүлэх
Амьтны эртний судлалын нэгдмэл дүрэм гэдэг бол балгас туурийн малталтаар гарсан
шороон доторхи амьтны биеийн үлдэгдэл (хясаа, амьтны яс, шүд, эвэр зэрэг)-ийг дээр үеийн
ямар амьтны төрөл зүйлийн ямар хэсэгт таарах вэ гэдгийг тогтоох явдал юм. Энэ нэгдмэл
дүрэм бол амьтны эртний судлалын хамгийн үндсэн суурь ажил бөгөөд одоо байгаа амьтны
дээжтэй хэлбэрийн онцлогийг харьцуулах явдал юм. Энэ нэгдмэл дүрмийн нарийвчлалыг уламсайжруулахад одоо байгаа амьтны иж бүрэн араг яс, үзмэр дээж хэрэгтэй юм.
4. Газрын хэвлийн соёлын өв хариуцсан ажилтны чадварыг сайжруулах зорилгоор байгаль
орчны эртний судлалын дадлага (газрын хэвлийн өв соёл хариуцсан ажилтны дадлага)Малталт судалгааг хийх хүн нь байгаль орчны эртний судлалыг системтэйгээр ойлгож, биеэдаан хийж чадах явдлыг зорилгоо болгож, малталт судалгаа хийх тухайн газар болон эмхэлж
цэгцлэх ажил, мөн тайлан бичих ажлын тухайд байгаль орчны эртний судлалын ажлыг бие даанхийхэд шаардагдах мэргэжлийн мэдлэг чадвар арга текнологийг эзэмшиж авахыг зорих дадлага
ажлыг явуулж байна.

61

2. Байгаль орчны эртний судлал гэж юу болох талаар
Байгаль орчны эртний судлал гэдэг нь балгас туурь түүний эргэн тойрон дох тухайн үеийн
орчныг сэргээн үзэж, хүн болон байгалийн харилцааны түүхийг судалдаг эртний судлалын нэгсалбар юм. Гагцхүү эртний байгаль орчны өөрчлөлт хувьсалыг тодруулаад зогсохгүй, эртний
хүмүүс эргэн тойрныхоо байгаль орчинтой хэрхэн зохицож, хүрээлэн байгаа орчноосоо төрөл
бүрийн байгалийн баялагийг олзворлож байсан эсэх, хүрээлэн байгаа орчиндоо өөрчлөлт хийсэн
эсэх зэргийг тодруулах зорилготой болно.
Байгаль орчны эртний судлалд хэрэглэдэг судалал бол ерөнхийдөө байгалийн шинжлэх
ухааны анализ гэж ерөнхийлэн нэрлэж болно. Тус судлалын судалгааны салбар нь уламтөрөлжин хөгжиж, судлаачид маань байгалийн шинжлэх ухааны олон төрлийн анализ хийдэг
мэргэжилтнүүдтэй хамтарч судалгаа хийх шаардлага гардаг. Цаашлаад тэдгээр судалгааныүр дүнг нэгтгэх ажил ч гарч ирдэг. Малталт хийх хүний хувьд маш чухал зүйл бол тодорхой
зорилготой ухамсартай байж, байгаль орчны эртний судлалыг зохистой явуулах бэлтгэл болон
мэдлэгтэй байх явдал юм. Тодорхой зорилгогүй, зүгээр л хааш яашханаар байгаль орчны эртний
судлалыг явуулахаас зайлсхийх хэрэгтэй.
Гэвч байгалийн шинжлэх ухааны анализын ажилд тусгай техник тоног төхөөрөмж болон
хөгжмийн зэмсгийн зүйл хэрэг болох тохиолдол гардаг тул гаднын байгууллагаар анализ
хийлгэх нь олонтоо байдаг. Тэгсэн тохиолдолд малталт судалгаа болон эмхэлж цэгцлэх ажлыг
хариуцагч болон анализ хийх ажлыг хариуцагч нар тодорхой нэг зорилго ухамсартай байж,бодит чанарыг алдагдуулалгүй шалган магадлах боломж бүхий тэмдэглэл хийж үлдээхийн тулдхамтран ажиллах тогтолцоо чухал байдаг. Гэвч анализ хийлгэгч тал, анализ хариуцагч талдтайлбарыг хамруулан задлан шинжилгээний бүх үр дүнг бүрэн даатгах биш, малталт судалгаа
болон эмхэлж цэгцлэх ажлын ололтод тулгуурласны үндсэн дээр, шинжилгээнээс гарсанүр дүнг дүгнэх, мөн ерөнхийлөн дүгнэх хэрэгцээ гардаг. Улмаар өөрөө тус анализыг гардаж
хийгээгүй тохиолдолд ч, түүний зүй тогтол арга текнологийг их бага хэмжээгээр мэдсэн байхшаардлагатай.
Байгалийн шинжлэх ухааны задлан шинжилгээ нь хот балгасын туурь, эд өлгийн зүйл зэргээсянз бүрийн мэдээлэл цуглуулдаг арга бөгөөд байгаль шинжлэлийн ухааны арга технологи гэхтөдийгүй, олж цуглуулсан мэдээлэлдээ тайлбар хийх, өөрөөр хэлбэл малталт судалгаагаар
дамжуулан тухайн үеийн хүмүүсийн үйл ажиллагааг сэргээж үзэх явдал нь өөрөө “ эртний
судлал”тай адил юм. Байгалийн шинжлэх ухааны анализын үр дүн бол бусад эртний судлалын
судалгааны үр дүнтэй хамт балгас туурийн талаарх нэгдсэн ойлголтод хувь нэмрээ оруулдаг
зүйл юм. Байгалийн шинжлэх ухааны анализид ч эртний судлалын нэгэн адил аргын хувьд
урьдчилсан нөхцөл байдал, хязгаар гэдэг зүйл байна. Иймд байгалийн шинжлэх ухааны
анализаас олж авсан үр дүн бол ямарч гэсэн өнгөрсөн үеэс таамаглах “таамаг дүгнэлт” гэдгийг
ойлгох нь зүйтэй. Зөвхөн анализын үр дүнг л мухар сохроор туйлын зөв гэж дүгнэх биш, анализ
хийх материалын онцлог болон анализ хийх арга технологийн асуудлыг харгалзан үзэж, эртний
судлалаас гаргасан бусад үр дүнтэй нэгтгэн үзэж магадлал өндөртэй тайлбарыг хайх хандлага
гарч ирдэг.

62

3. Органик чанартай эд өлгийн зүйл үлдсэн байх боломжтой балгас туурь болон
байгууламж
Органик чанартай эд өлгийн зүйлийг хадгалалтад цаг агаарын нөхцөл болон хөрсний давхарга
ихээхэн нөлөөл үзүүлдэг. Гэвч ямархуу балгас байсан ч органик шинжтэй эд өлгийн зүйл байхболомжтой гэдгийг мартаж болохгүй. Гол нь органик шинжтэй эд өлгийн зүйл байх боломжийг
байнга санаж, хөрсний давхаргын орчныг бодолцон, малталт судалгаа явуулж байгаа тухайн
газарт тохирсон судалгааны аргыг хэрэглэх явдал юм.
Эртний ювуугийн үе давхарга болон агуй зэрэг онцлогтой хөрсний давхаргын орчинд төдийгүй,ердийн атар газарт үлдсэн балгасанд ч амьтны биеийн үлдэгдэл байх нь бий. Энэ нь 1. нойтон
хөрсний үе давхаргын орчин болон 2. шатсан шороон үе давхарга, нүүрсжсэн үе давхарга,үнсэн үе давхарга зэрэг юм.
1. Нойтон хөрсний үе давхаргын орчинг амьд биет амьтны биеийн задрал нь хязгаарлаж байдаг
учраас нам доор чийглэг газар дах балгас туурийн нэгэн адил ургамал амьтны бие тэр чигээрээ
үлдэж хоцрох нь нэлээд бий. Гол мөрөн, цөөрөм, худаг, суваг шуудуу, зэрэг усны байгууламж
булагдсаны хойно ч хөрсөн доорх усны урсах зам болж, усархаг хөрсний давхаргын орчин үүсэх
бий. Гэхдээ ерөнхийдөө голын хөрсний давхарга нь ус бороонд элэгдэж, хөрсний давхаргын
харилцан үйлчлэлээс болж үүсдэг учраас өөр өөр он цагийн эд өлгийн зүйл нь амархан
холиолдох, мөн хөрсний давхаргын цаг үеийг тогтооход хүндрэл учрах нь олонтоо байдаг.
2. Шатсан шороон үе давхарга, нүүрсжсэн үе давхарга, үнсэн үе давхаргад бол органик
чанартай эд өлгийн зүйл нь шатаж, үхэждэг учир амархан үлдэж хоцордог байна. Ялангуяа, оронбайрны туурь, тулга, зуух, хэрэглэглэхээ больсон ухсан нүх зэрэг байгууламжаас хэрэгцээтэй
дээжийг цуглуулж, хөвүүлж ялгах арга хэрэглэвэл, нүүрсжсэн ургамлын үлдэгдэл ба шатсан ясзэргийг түүн авах боломжтой. Энэ нь дээр дурьдсан туурь болон байгууламжийг бодвол задлан
шинжилгээний судлагдахуун болсон том хэмжээний, төрөл бүрийн туурь балгас байгууламжид
илүү үр дүнтэй.

4. Малталт судалгааг явуулж байгаа талбар дээр анхаарах зүйлОйрын жилүүдэд эртний судлалд байгалийн шинжлэх ухааны анализын арга нь улам бүртөрөлжин хөгжиж, малталт хариуцагч тал хувиараа байгалийн шинжлэх ухааны анализ
хийлгэхээр гадны байгууллагаас хүсэх нь олширсон. Тийм тохиолдолд малталт судалгаа явуулж
байгаа талбар дээр хөрсний давхаргын нөхцөл байдал болон малталтаар гарах шорооны
байдлыг судалгаа хариуцагч тал нь маш сайн баримтжуулах нь чухал. Мөн малталт судалгаа
дууссаны дараа биш, өөрөөр хэлбэл боломжийнхоо хэрээр малталт судалгаа явуулж байгаа
судалгааны талбайгаасаа эхлэн малталт хариуцагч болон анализ хариуцагч нар хамтарч ажлаа
явуулах нь зүйтэй.
Байгалийн шинжлэх ухааны анализын шинжилгээг мэргэжилтнээр хийлгэх тохиолдолд чтухайн балгас туурийн малталт судалгааг хариуцагчийн хариуцах ёстой хэсэг гэж байдаг. Тэрбол анализ хийх туршилтын материалын хөрсний үе давхарга болон малталтаар гарах шорооны

63нөхцөл байдал зэргийг малталт явуулж байгаа талбай дээр маш сайн баримтжуулахгүй бол“мэдээлэл алдагдал” болдог. Эртний судлалд хэрэглэж байгаа байгалийн шинжлэх ухааны
анализын арга нь олон салаалж, тэдгээрийн зорилго нь ч өөр өөр байдаг. Энд байгалийн
шинжлэх ухааны анализын аргыг хэрэглэх тухайд бол малталт хийж байгаа талбар дээранхаарвал зохих ерөнхий зүйлийг дурдъя.

Үлдэгдэл балгасын хадгалалтын нөхцөл байдал: Байгалийн шинжлэн ухааны
анализын судлагдахуун болох материалд балгас туурийн хөрсний давхаргын нөхцөл байдал
болон хадгалалтын нөхцөл нь ихээхэн нөлөөлдөг. Үүний улмаас тэр балгас туурийн хөрсний
давхаргын нөхцөл байдал болон хадгалалтын нөхцөл байдлыг харгалзан үзэж, ямаршуу
анализын аргыг хэрэглэвэл зохистой вэ гэдгийг нягталж үзэх хэрэгтэй.

Анализ хийх зорилго тодорхой байх: Байгалийн шинжлэх ухааны анализыг хийхэд
малталт хариуцагч болон анализ хариуцагч нар нь анализыг хийх ажлын талаар тодорхой
нэгдмэл зорилго ухамсартай байх нь чухал. Малталт хариуцагч нь тодорхой зорилгогүйгээр
байгалийн шинжлэх ухааны анализын ажлын хүсэлт гаргачих юм бол, тухайн балгас туурийг
бүхэлд нь хамарсан бодлого алдагдаж, балгас туурийн судалгааны тайлан болох үнэлэлт болон
ерөнхий дүгнэлтийг ч гаргаж чадахааргүй анализын үр дүнгээр төгсч магадгүй. Балгас туурийн
хадгалалтын нөхцөл байдлыг харгалзан үзэж, анализын тодорхой зорилго болон асуудал болгож
байгаа үзлээс шалтгаалан түүнд тохирох анализын арга болон туршилтын материал сонголт
зэргийг нягталж үзэх хэрэгтэй.

Олон төрлийн анализын чухал болох нь: Байгалийн шинжлэх ухааны анализын аргань тэдгээр анализын онцлогийг агуулсан байдаг. Иймд зорилгодоо нийцсэн анализын аргыг
дангаар нь хэрэглэх биш, анализын олон аргыг хамтруулан хэрэглэж, тэдгээр судалгааны ололт
амжилт үр дүнг олон талаас нь харьцуулан нягталж байх нь зүйтэй.
Жишээлбэл: балгас тууриас олдсон ургамлуудыг сэргээхдээ байгалийн шинжлэх ухааны ямарнэг анализын аргыг дангаар нь хэрэглэх биш, цэцгийн тоосны анализ, (plant opal) иж бүрэн
текник-уурагт чулуу, үр жимсний төрөл зэргийг олон төрлийн анализыг хослуулан хэрэглэх
шаардлагатай. Учир нь анализүүдийн үр дүнг давхар баталснаар, дан ганц байгалийн шинжлэх
ухааны анализын аргаар олж авч чадаагүй зүйл буюу харилцан нөхсөн, зөрчилгүй судалгааныүр дүнг гаргах боломжтой.

Сонгож авах газрын үе давхаргыг зөв ойлгож мэдэх: Байгалийн шинжлэх ухааны
анализыг хийхийн тулд туршилтын материалын сонголтын үед хамгийн чухал зүйл болтуршилтын материалыгсонгож авах газрын үе давхаргын асуудал юм. Байгаль орчны эртний
судлалын судлагдахуун болох материал нь тухайн цаг үеийг тогтоох баталгаатай “загвар”гүйматериал байдаг тул, будлиантай асуудал үүсгэдэг. Эртний судлалын судалгааны үр дүнгбайгалийн шинжлэх ухааны олон янзын судалгааны үр дүнтэй харьцуулан нягтлахын тулдшаардлагатай хөрсний үе давхаргын зөв оношлогоо нь урьдал нөхцөл болно. Анализ хийхтуршилтын материалын малталтаар гарсан шорооны нөхцөл байдал нь байгалийн шинжлэх
ухааны анализын үр дүнг тайлбарлахад үндсэн мэдээлэл нь болж өгдөг.

Дээж цуглуулах тухай: Судалгааны зорилго болон анализ хийх аргаас шалтгаалан дээжцуглуулах арга болон хэрэглэх хэмжээ нь ялгаатай. Бас судалгааны зорилго болон хөрсний

64давхаргын орчноос болж дээж цуглуулахад хэрэглэх шорооны хэмжээ нь өөр өөр байх нь байна.
Малталт хариуцагч нь “Тийм балгас туурийн тухайд юуг тодруулахын тулд ямархуу анализыг
хийх вэ” гэсэн тодорхой чиглэлийг барьж, анализын зорилгод тохирсон хөрсний шинжилгээний
дээжийг цуглуулах нь маш чухал. Хөрсний дээжийг цуглуулах ажлыг хийхдээ, хожим
зохицуулах ажил болон хадгалалттай холбогдсон цаг хугацаа, төсөв, байршлыг харгалзан үзэж,төлөвлөгөөтэйгээр явуулах нь чухал. Мөн хөрсний дээжийг угааж ялгах тохиолдолд хэрэглэх
усны баталгаа болон бохир ус, газар шорооны ажлыг зохицуулах асуудлыг сайн бодолцох ёстой.

5. Эмхэлж цэгцлэх ажил болон малталт судалгааны тайлан бичихэд анхаарах зүйл1. Хөрс шороог ялгах аргаЗорилго: Малталт судалгааны явцад өөрийн нүдээр ажигласан зөвхөн эд өлгийн зүйлийг лцуглуулаад, маш олон бичил зүйлийн үлдэгдлийг анзааралгүй өнгөрөх бололцоо их байдаг.
Эдгээр бичил зүйлүүдэд модны хэлтэрхий, эрдэнийн чулууны төрөл, загасны яс зэрэг амьтны
биеийн ясны үлдэгдэл, нүүрсжсэн зүйл болон үр жимсний төрөл зэрэг ургамалын үлдэгдэл
зэргийг хамруулж байна.
Ингээд бичил зүйлийг цуглуулахын тулд судалгааны талбар дээр гараараа ухаж цуглуулсан
материал төдийгүй, хөрсний давхаргад байгаа зүйлийг шигшүүрээр шигшиж цуглуулсан
материал ч бас хэрэгтэй. Үүний тулд малталт судалгаанд хөрс шороог шигшүүрээр шигшиж
бичил зүйлийгцуглуулах нь маш чухал. Хөрс шороог ялгах ажил нь тодорхой зорилготой
байхын зэрэгцээ, цаашдын сортлох ажилтай холбоотой хөдөлмөрлөх хүч болон хадгалалтын
байр зэргийг харгалзан үзэж төлөвлөгөөтэй, үр дүнтэйгээр явуулах шаардлагатай.

Шигшүүр: Хэрэглэх шигшүүрийн нүд нь анализын зорилгоос болж өөр өөр байна. Бас ижилзорилгоор хөрс шорооноос ялгах арга хэрэглэх үед ч хөрсний давхаргын орчин, материал
хадгалалтын нөхцөл байдал болон агуулахын багтаамжаас шалтгаалан шигшин ялгах шорооны
хэмжээг тааруулна. Улмаар шигшүүрт шигшсэн материалын анализыг хийлгэх тохиолдолд,дээж болгож авсан хөрс шороог ялгах аргын тухайд анализ хариуцагчтай урьдчилан ярилцаж
тохиролцох хэрэгтэй. Мөн ямар хэмжээний нүдтэй шигшүүр хэрэглэх талаар бол сорилтын
маягаар 5mm, 2mm, 1mm, 0,5mm зэрэг хэд хэдэн шигшүүрээр шигшсэнээр, шигшүүрийн нүдний
хэмжээнээс болж шигшигдэлтээс үлдэх зүйл болон ажлын хэмжээ зэргийг урьдчилан мэдэж
байвал зохистой. Нарийн шигшүүр байх тусмаа бичил эд зүйлийг харьцангуй ихээр олж чадах
боловч, шигшүүр дээр үлдэх юм олшрох тул цаашдын ялгах ажилд нэлээн цаг хүч зарцуулах
болно. Хөрс шороог ялгахад хэрэглэх шигшүүр гэдэг бол, анализаас гарсан үр дүнгийн
үнэлэлт болон бусад балгас туурийнхтай харьцуулсан харьцуулалыг баталгаажуулахын тулдшигшүүрийн нүдний хэмжээ нь маш тодорхой шигшүүрийг хэрэглэнэ. Хөрс шорооноос ялгах
ажилд жинхэнэ хэрэглэсэн шигшүүрийн нүдний хэмжээг тайланд тусгах хэрэгтэй.

Хөрс шорооноос ялгах аргын төрөл зүйл: Шигшүүрээр хөрс шорооноос ялгах аргыг
дотор нь хөрсний давхаргын орчин болон зорилгоос шалтгаалж, хатааж шигшиж ялгах арга,угааж шигших арга, ялгаруулах түүж авах арга (эд өлгийн зүйлийг хөвүүлж ялгах арга) гэхмэтээр хувааж болно. Хөрс шорооноос ялгаснаар олон төрлийн бичил эд зүйлийг олж авч чадах

65

учир, эдгээр хөрс шорооноос ялгах аргыг хослуулах хэрэглэх нь үр дүнтэй. Үүнээс гадна хорхой
шавьжийн үлдэгдлийг илрүүлэхэд хэсэглэн хуваах арга болон усаар угааж хөвүүлэх аргыг
хослуулан хэрэглэдэг.

1. Хатааж шигшиж ялгах арга: Ювуугийн үе давхарга, агуйн үлдэгдэл болон элсэрхэг
хөрсөн дөх балгас туурийн судалгаанд илүү үр дүнтэй. Цуглуулж авсан дээж хөрс шороог
шигшүүр дээр асган, нарийн ширхэгт зүйлийг доош унагааж, шигшүүр дээр үлдсэн шаардотроос эд өлгийн зүйлийг түүж цуглуулж авна. Ерөнхийдөө хатааж шигшихэд тохиромжтой
шигшүүрийн нүхний хэмжээ нь 10mm, 5mm орчим байна.

2. Усаар угааж шигшин ялгах арга: Нам доор чийглэг газар дах балгас туурь болон
тунасан шавар зэрэг наалданг чанартай хөрсөн дөх балгас туурийн судалгаанд энэ арга нь илүүтохиромжтой. Цуглуулж авсан хөрс шорооны дээжийг шигшүүр дээр асган дээрээс нь ус асгаж
жижиг ширхэгтэй зүйлийг тунгаан шүүнэ. Амьтан ургамлын үлдэгдэл зэргийн бичил эд зүйлийн
үлдэгдэл нь эвдэрч хэмхрэхдээ амархан тул сойзоор наалдсан шороог арилгана. Наалданг чанар
ихтэй хөрс шорооны хувьд урьдчилсан арга хэмжээ болгож усаар угааж ялгалт хийхийн өмнөусанд дэвтээж орхих нь зүйтэй. Усаар эд өлгийн зүйлийг шорооноос нь салгаж цэвэрлэхдээ,хатааж шигшихийг бодвол нарийн шигшүүр хэрэглэх нь тохиромжтой. Шигшүүрийн нүдний
хэмжээ нь 10mm, 5mm, 2mm, 1mm, 0,5mm -ийн шигшүүрийг хамгийн их хэрэглэдэг.

3. Хөвүүлэн ялгах арга: Шороог усанд уусган хольж, үр жимс болон нүүрсжсэн зүйлзэрэг хувийн жин хөнгөн эд өлгийн зүйлийг хөвүүлж түүж авах арга юм. Хатсан элсэрхэг
хөрс шорооны хувьд бол шороог усанд уусгахад л бичил зүйлүүд нь хөвөөд гараад ирдэг бол,наалданг чанартай хөрс шорооны хувьд бол эргэлдүүлэн хутгаж урсгаснаар жингээр багазүйлийг хөвүүлэн гаргадаг. Ингэхэд 0,5mm болон 0,25mm-ийн нарийн шигшүүр хэрэгтэй.
Шорооноос ялгах бодит ажил дээр бол усаар угааж шигших аргыг хослуулж, хөвүүлэн ялгах
аргаар эд өлгийн зүйлийг хөвүүлэн цуглуулж авах болон усаар угааж ялгах арга хэрэглэн
шигшүүр дээр үлдсэн эд өлгийн зүйлийг түүж цуглуулах нь их байдаг.

2. Задлан шинжлэх аргаар гарсан үр дүнг нэгтгэх
Анализаар гарсан үр дүнг нэгтгэхэд юуны өмнө нарийвчлан задлан шинжлэх зорилго болон
асуудлын талаарх зөв ойлгоцтой байх нь чухал. Тэгээд хөрсний давхаргын орчин болон
хадгалалтын нөхцөл байдлыг харгалзан үзэж, зорилгодоо нийцсэн анализын аргыг сонгоно.
Тэгэхдээ анализ хийх материалууд болон анализын аргын онцлогийн талаар ойлгоцтой байхтөдийгүй, олон тооны анализын аргыг хослуулан хэрэглэвэл улам магадлал өндөртэй тайлбар
гарах болно.
Мөн байгаль орчны эртний судлалд хэрэглэж байгаа байгалийн шинжлэх ухааны анализын
аргыг хэрэглэхэд мэргэжлийн мэдлэг чадвар болон тоног төхөөрөмж зэрэг нь шаардагдах учраас,анализыг гаднын байгууллагаар хийлгэх нь бий. Тэр үед малталт судалгаа хариуцагч болон
анализ хариуцагч нар нь тодорхой нэг зорилго ухамсартай байж, бодит чанарыг алдагдуулалгүй
шалган магадлах боломж бүхий баримтжуулж үлдээхийн тулд хамтран ажиллах тогтолцоо
чухал байдаг. Тэгээд анализ хариуцагч талд задлан шинжилгээний тайлбарыг хамруулан бүх үрдүнг бүрэн даалгах биш, малталт судалгаа болон эмхэлж цэгцлэх ажлын үр дүнд тулгуурлан,анализаас гарсан үр дүнд дүгнэлт өгөх хэрэгтэй. Үүний тулд анализыг гардан хийгээгүй ч66түүний зарчим болон арга технологийг их бага хэмжээгээр мэдэж байж, балгас туурийн талаар
ерөнхий ойлголттой байхын тулд анализ хариуцагчтай ярилцаж хэлэлцэж байх хэрэгтэй.

Байгаль орчны эртний судлалыг хэрэгжүүлэхэд
шаардагдах шалгах хуудас (Насү 2003)
1. Малталтын зорилгоо бүрэн тодорхойлсон эсэх. Юуны тулд хаана малталт хийх вэгэдгийг.
2. Малталт хийж эхлэх ажлын тухайд ямар нэр ус оноосон болох.
Малталт хийх үйл явц нь малталтын ажлын нэртэй хэр зэрэг гүнзгий хамааралтай
болох, мөн дэвшилт гарсан эсэх.
3. Сорилт∙судалгаанд шаардагдах үндсэн мэдлэг чадвараа
дээшлүүлэхэд мэрийж байгаа эсэх4. Өөр салбар (ялангуяа байгалийн шинжлэх ухааны салбар)аас анализ хийлгэх хүсэлт
тавих тохиолдолд,1. Юу мэдэхийг хүсч байгаа талаар
2. Салбар сонголт зөв эсэх талаар
Ямар салбараас ямархуу анализ∙судалгааг хүсэх вэ гэдгийг
3. Анализ хийлгэх газар (хувь хүн эсвэл байгууллага) сонголт зөв эсэхХэнд хандвал зорилгодоо хүрсэн, бас хамгийн итгэлтэй үр дүнг гаргуулж чадах вэгэдэг талаар
4. Анализ хийлгэх газрынханд анализ хийлгэх зорилго зорилтоо бүрэн ойлгуулсан эсэх5. Хүсэлт гаргахын өмнөх шатанд судалгааны жинхэнэ газар дээр асуудлыг чухам альхүртэл судалсан талаар
6. Итгэл найдвартай судалгаагаар олдсон анализын судалгаатай холбогдсон үр дүнгийн
тайлангийн агуулгыг бүрэн дүүрэн ойлгож авсан эсэх(Хүсэлт гаргасан эзэн нь угаасаа эртний судлаач буюу малталт хариуцагч байх)7. Үр дүнг нэгтгэхэд байнга санаа тавьж байгаа эсэх67

Basic Knowledge of Cultural Properties Photographs
Photography Dept., Nara National Research Institute for Cultural Properties
1. Introduction
Photographs are indispensable for study of cultural properties and must therefore be understood byanyone engaged in the study. If however cultural properties are photographed without understanding
the objective and framework for taking photographs, the photographs will not yield an abundanceof information. The fundamental principle of photography of cultural properties is to enable storageof materials that record an exhaustive amount of information in place of the cultural properties
themselves for an extended period of time.
2. Role and types of photographs of cultural properties
Photographs of cultural properties include photos used for work and documentary photographs
obtained by research and restoration as shown in Fig. 1. There are many types of photography
including the most common type of photography used on a routine basis and so-called "optical survey"
such as X-ray photography and infrared (IR) photography as shown in Fig. 2.

Ledger registration
Photographs used as the basic ledger for museum
materials.

Catalogs and panels

Utility

Photographs for edification

Lend
Publications and research photographs to be lent.

Photographs

Research materials
Photographs for academic research.

Records
Restration records
Photographs of before and after restraion.

Material storage
Saved as photographic record of state ofmaterials.

Fig. 1: Role of photographs

68Ordinary Photographs
Full view of materials, processes, etc.

Oblique ray photographs

Ordinary

Slanted light rays highlight details.

Detailed photographs
Provide view of fine details of materials.

Photographs
IR / UV
Photographs of these wavelengths.

Miscroscope photographs

OpticalBlown up or detailed transmissive photographs

X-ray photographs
Provide view of internal structure, etc.
Fig. 2: Types of photographs

3. Types of cameras
There are various types of cameras, which differ according to film size. The larger the film size, thelarger the camera tends to be. Larger film size also offers better picture quality. Consequently, larger
cameras are used if better picture quality is desired. The size of the camera does not only affect picture
quality. Single-lens reflex cameras take photographs in 24 x 36 mm rectangular format; there are also
cameras that take 60 x 60 mm square photographs. The difference between rectangular and squaresignificantly affects the photograph itself. Digital cameras also have a surface called CCD or CMOS
that records images (photo-sensitive element). Just as with film size, the larger the surface, the betterthe picture quality generally is.
(1) 35 mm single-lens reflex camera
The most commonly used camera can flexibly adjust to various photographing conditions such as
automatic focus, manual focus, macro photography, lens change, etc.
(2) Medium size cameras
Sixty millimeter roll film is referred to as "Brownie film." This type of film is used by medium sizedcameras that take 60 x 45 mm or 60 x 90 mm photos. Medium size cameras are often equippedwith separate film holders. Some conventional cameras can be converted to digital cameras byexchanging the film holder for a picture element such as a CCD picture element.

69

(3) Large cameras
Sheet film is changed for each photograph for large cameras. Film sizes include 4 x 5 inch (postcardsize) and 8 x 10 inch (A4 size). Such film offers superior quality photographs. The photographer
must however make all adjustments manually, including focusing and setting the diaphragm andshutter speed. The lens and film holders are connected by bellows, and therefor offer the advantageof tilt-shift photography to correct distortion that can be caused by the lens. Digital photographs canbe taken by replacing the film holder with a picture element such as a CCD picture element.
4. Digital single-lens reflex camera
Digital cameras also come in many types that vary according to size, type and effective sensor
resolution (hereinafter referred to as "pixels"). Here we have used a digital single-lens reflex camera
equipped with a 35 mm picture element as a model. Let's take a look at its features.
*Pixel countIf we enlarge the picture you can see a mosaic like image consisting of rows of squares. Eachof these squares is called a "pixel." The number of pixels is the pixel count. For example, if
the image consists of 4000 pixels vertically and 6000 pixels horizontally; it therefore consistsof 4000 x 6000 pixels, or 24 million pixels. This is an index in addition to determining qualityof a photographic record. It does not however mean the larger the pixel count, the better the
picture quality is, but rather determines the total performance such as the lens precision and
CCD recording format.
*Gradation
Gradation expresses rich coloring for the factors that decide picture quality. Gradation refers
to picture representation performance. Rich gradation enables expression with smooth color.
There are shades of gray between white and black; some shades of gray are closer to white,while others are closer to black. If gradation is rich, color changes smoothly from white toblack. If gradation is poor, smoothness is lost.
*Picture element
Picture elements come in various sizes. Recently, many single-lens reflex cameras use 24
x 36 mm picture elements called "full size." 1/1.8 picture elements often used by compact
cameras are only 1/16 the size of a 35 mm picture element. If the pixel count is the same forthese picture elements. that is, 10 million pixels, the per pixel area of the 35 mm size would
be larger. The larger per pixel area is able to receive more optical information, so gradation isricher (See Fig. 3).

70

Same picture element

Lager

SmallerFig. 3: Correlation of picture elements and gradation; The large area is capable of receiving more light.

*High sensitivity / noise prevention
The larger the picture element, the larger per pixel area is and the more optical information it
can contain. Improving efficiency of converting light to electronic information makes noiseless likely to be produced. Also, because conversion is efficient, low intensity light can also berecorded efficiently, and better photographs can be taken because sensitivity is higher.
*Resolution
Resolution indicates concentration of pixels per unit area for output. The number of pixels
required depends on output method and size, but if the pixel count is too low, resolution will below (see Fig. 4) and the image will not be clear. The number of pixels required for output sizemust be met (see Fig. 5).

Fig. 4: Unclear output
Low resolution(Ex. 50 dpi 2 x 3 inch output)

Fig. 5: Clear output
Sufficient resolution(Ex. 96dpi 2 x 3 inch output)

71

5. Digital photograph image saving format
Images photographed with a digital camera are first recorded as raw image files. With digital cameras
such as single-lens reflex type, you can choose to save as raw image files or JPEG format. Compact
digital cameras may only be capable of saving in JPEG format. JPEG format enables you to view thephotos is all sorts of digital environments. Raw image files, on the other hand, can only be handled asthey are, and must be processed on a computer. Image processing refers to converting digital data to aformat that can be viewed such as JPEG or TIFF (See Fig. 6).

Processing

Photography

Recording raw data

JPEG
image

Image file containing
all data

Color, etc., automaticallyadjusted by camera

Large file iscompressed.

Operations performed automatically by the camera

mage processedby userusing image
processing
Saved as is

Photography

Image file containing

Recording raw data

TIFF
image

all data
Color determined by the user

Compressed
before saving

JPEG
image

Fig. 6: JPEG format*Raw image files
Raw image files are the optical data obtained by photographing itself; raw image files are raw
data prior to processing. Raw data (all data pertaining to the image) cannot be viewed as animage until it is processed. Raw data is the origin from which JPEG images are produced. The
camera just automatically processes and compresses the raw data. As long as you have theraw data, you can avoid having the camera process it and decide the picture quality for you.
Cultural properties must be saved as raw image files.

72

*JPEG format
Image data obtained by a digital camera and saved in JPEG format is raw data that is
automatically processed by the camera. Automatically processed image files are compressed
to a degree where image quality is not affected. The degree of compression can usually
be selected. If you want to preserve quality by maintaining a large file, you select a lower
compression ratio, and if you prefer a smaller file with lower quality, you select a higher
compression ratio. JPEG format maintains comparatively high quality even if the compression
ratio is altered.
The drawback of JPEG format is that compression ratio is left up to the camera. The
information of compressed files is inferior to the raw image data before being automaticallyprocessed by the digital camera; once data is lost it cannot be recovered. Because the data is
automatically processed by the camera, aspects such color are determined by the processing;the images can only be processed within the parameters of the camera itself. Consequently,
because photographs of cultural properties may have to be used in various sizes and subsequent
processing may be required later on, processing by the camera is not really suited to suchphotography.
*TIFF format
TIFF format allows photographic image data to be saved without compression, thereby
maintaining the size of the file. Bitmap data, which simply consists of a mapped array ofbits of optical data, is a basic format, and is therefore suited to a wide range of applications.
TIFF format is a stable format with a high potential for being reproduced in the future.
Uncompressed files can be quite large, but it the most suitable format for saving photographic
image data of cultural properties that may have to be used in various sizes or subsequent
processing may be required later on.
In the case of digital photography, no matter what format an image file may be saved or by what
procedure it is saved, you must record the proper tone and light status by photographing a gray card orcolor target, and save the image data processed based on it, and then make use of the saved image data.
In the case of photographing using a gray card, light source by which the image was photographedand neutral tone are reproduced by computer based on gray without being affected by color bias, so it
is necessary to save the digital image reproduced based on it when photographing cultural properties
requiring precise recording. Details concerning the methods of photography and preproduction
processing are provided in the attached document. Theses can be viewed by accessing the website at
the following URL (Japanese only). http://maishaken.cool.ne.jp/cgi-bin/diarypro/data/upfile/5-1.pdf

73

6. Mechanism by which a photograph is taken
Up to this point, we have talked primarily about cameras. Now we will talk about the mechanism bywhich photographs are taken to produce the desired results.
*Photograph and exposure
For our purposes, the object of taking a photograph is to record the subject exactly as it is. To
do this, the image of the subject is reflected by adjusting the focus and shutter speed. The lightthat enters the camera through the lens must be properly recorded on the surface of the film or
picture element. Adjusting the proper amount of light is called "exposure." As long as the lightis adjusted to the proper amount, the subject will be photographed at the correct exposure. The
diaphragm adjusts the size of the aperture through which the light enters. If the diaphragm isopened, more light enters, and if it is closed, only a small amount can enter. Shutter speed is theamount of time the shutter the covers the aperture through which light passes is open. If the film
or picture element continues to be exposed to light longer than is needed, the photograph will
eventually appear white. "Overexposure" occurs when there is too much light. Inversely, if there
is not enough light, the photograph will be dark. This is referred to as "underexposure."*Function of the diaphragm
We learned that the amount of light can be adjusted by how much the aperture of the diaphragmis opened. Now let’s take a look at how this works. Under ordinary circumstances, the lens aremarked with FX. X, FY and FZZ. These units are diaphragm numbers called "f numbers." Thelarger the diaphragm number, the smaller the aperture is, and the smaller the number, the large theaperture becomes.
*Function of shutter speed
Shutter speed is the amount of time between when the camera shutter is pressed, the shutter
opens, light comes in through the aperture in the diaphragm, and the shutter closes, thereby
ending exposure. Cameras are equipped with a shutter speed adjustment function.
*Correlation of the diaphragm and shutter speed
How do the diaphragm and shutter speed affect the photograph? Here is a photograph taken withthe f number set to F8 and correct exposure of 1/125 of a second. If we consider the diaphragmand shutter speed, several patterns of correct exposure can be prepared. If for example wethink we can get correct exposure by changing the setting of the diaphragm from F8 to F16, thediaphragm aperture becomes smaller and the amount of light that passes through the diaphragm
aperture is reduced. In order to secure the amount of light necessary for correct exposure, wemust therefore reduce the shutter speed. Oppositely, if we change the setting from F8 to F4, theamount of light that passes through the aperture increases, so shutter speed must be increased.
74

*Correct exposure and exposure compensation
If the built-in automatic exposure function of the camera is used, the diaphragm aperture andshutter speed are automatically adjusted according to the amount of light that the camera
determines to be correct exposure. Both may however exist simultaneously if the subject is toolight or dark, or is photographed against a white backdrop, and the exposure may consequently
not be correct for the subject. The light distribution of the entire screen is calculated according
to the characteristics of the camera to determine correct exposure, and the camera is incapableof determining what the subject is. If photographing a dark subject against a bright backdrop,
the camera determines the amount of light for the entire screen and darkens the exposure;correct exposure can however be obtained if the photographer takes the initiative to brighten
the exposure. If photographing a bright subject against a dark backdrop such as black or gray,correct exposure can be obtained if the photographer takes the initiative to darken exposure.
This is called "exposure compensation." Positive compensation is provided for a bright subject
and negative compensation for a dark subject in order to archive correct exposure. The methodby which exposure compensation is achieved differs according to the camera. It is important toread the camera’s instruction manual carefully and get empirical knowledge of the procedures.
*Focus range = field depth and focus depth (Fig. 7)
One function of the diaphragm is to adjust the amount of light, but it has another importantrole, i.e., to adjust focus range. Increasing the f number widens the focus range, and decreasing
it shrinks the range. The focus range is referred to as "field depth." Field depth varies according
to the type of lens as well as the diaphragm setting.
Position where focus is adjusted

Diaphragm setting F2.8

F8

F22

Fig. 7: Field depth and focus depth

The photograph taken with F22 appears sharper than the one taken with F2.8. This tells us that therange(field depth) of F22 is wider. The focus is behind the silver general in the photograph taken with
the F2.8 setting. This tells us that focus depth is the rear surface.

75

*ISO sensitivity
The mechanism by which photographs are taken contains another important factor. The factor
is "sensitivity." "ISO sensitivity" is the sensitivity for the films reaction with light. In otherwords, the reaction differs according to the sensitivity with which the film receives the sameamount of light.
Low

High

1600

800

400

200

100

High sensitivity

50

25

Low sensitivity
Fig. 8: ISO sensitivity

As shown in Fig. 8, The higher the number, the higher sensitivity is, and the lower the number,the lower the sensitivity is. This means that the higher sensitivity is, the less light is needed to takephotographs, and the lower the sensitivity is, the more light it takes to achieve correct exposure.
There are several combinations of diaphragm and shutter speed settings that realize correct exposure.
The same goes for ISO sensitivity. Changing from ISO100 to ISO200 is the same as changing thediaphragm and shutter speed settings by one increment. The higher ISO sensitivity is, however, themore gradation and sharpness deteriorate, regardless of whether film or digital medium is used. ISO
sensitivity must be carefully set (see Fig. 9). Cultural properties may generally be photographed withsensitivity set between ISO100 - 200.

Easy

Diaphragm

Difficult

Fast

Shutter Speed

Slow

Rough

Image Quality

Fine

1600

800

400

200

High sensitivity

100

50

Low sensitivity

Fig. 9: Correlation of ISO sensitivity and diaphragm setting

7625

7. Light orientation = Lighting
It would not be an exaggeration to say lighting and composition are everything to photographing point
when photographing cultural properties. Light orientation -- the angle at which light strikes the subject-- is an element that has a decisive effect on the quality of the photographs. With the exception of
special circumstances, the fundamentals of lighting refer to making it reflect off the walls, or flexible"indirect light" such as light dispersed through tracing paper or white cloth. With direct light, strong
shading or halation are caused by the angle of the light, resulting in a photograph that does not convey
enough information. Lighting includes types with various functions. The light beams that affectexpression and atmosphere are called "main light,"and the light beams that adjust brightness of thesubject are called "sub light." Key light, which is used to express fine parts of the subject or top light /sky light, which adjust brightness of the background are sometimes used.
Quite a significant amount of heat is produced by lighting equipment. Organic substances, in particular,
may be damaged by rapid drying. It is consequently necessary to device a way to minimize irradiation
time.
*Main light irradiation direction and effect*Forward light (light from front)
State where the subject receives light from the front; in this state, the photograph provides
a planar impression. This type of lighting produces a dark vertical shadow according to theirregularities of the subject. This type is not generally used because shading of the subject
cannot be expressed.
*Oblique light (oblique light from the side)
Forward oblique light from the side. Part where light is angled and shading is pronounced.
Produces a more 3-dimensional photograph than forward light. Most basic type of light.
*Side light (light completely from the side)
Light directly from the side of the subject. Irregularities on the surface of the subject can beclearly recognized.
*Top light (light from directly above)
State where the subject receives light from directly above. Does not tend to produce a shadow,
so there is no need to worry about the direction in which the shadow will be produced.
*Back lightLight that strikes the subject from directly behind.

77*Semi back lightLight that strikes the subject obliquely from behind.
*Transmission lightLight that clearly shows the contour, etc., of the subject. Used in combination with forward
light and oblique light. Subjects are photographed using combinations of these types of light so
the subject can be recognized well.
*Photographing pottery shards and stone tools from above
In order to avoid the shadow of the subject from falling into the background thereby making
the contour unclear, the subject is placed on a sheet of transparent glass that if raised from thebackground. If the background is not bright enough, brightness is adjusted by shining auxiliary
light on the background. The subject and background are both basically illuminated by main
light. It is necessary to come up devise measures to avoid producing halation for shiny subjects
such as stone tools made of obsidian, such as using reflected light or creating indirect lightusing tracing paper.
*Photographing planar subjects such as ancient texts from above
Subjects such as ancient texts are placed on a copier and photographed from above. A levelis first however placed on the camera and the subject is set parallel to the camera. The entire
subject is uniformly illuminated. The light source is aimed at the copier with lamps set at 45
degree angles to the left and right.
*Photographing using paper backdrop
Color of the paper backdrop is selected according to the color of the subject. A neutral color
such as gray or white is generally used to avoid color transfer to the subject. Illumination
varies according to the size and 3-dimensional structure of the subject, but basically consists ofa combination of top light and main light.
8. Structural outline
Photography is the act of forcing the subject to fit in a limited frame. The appearance of the photographvaries according to the way it is fit into the frame, in other words, the structural outline.
*1/3 structural outline
This is the method of arranging the subject by separating the screen into 1/3 horizontally andvertically.

78

*Structural outline with subject in center:
Structural outline with the subject positioned in the center of the screen. The information you
want to convey about the object to be photographed is directly expressed. Lots of museum
materials are photographed using this structural outline. Since it is used for publications and soon as well, a proper margin is left around the subject.
*Camera angle
When considering the structural outline, it is important to think about what is to be placed
where. It is also important to consider from where the subject is to be photographed, inother words, the camera angle. The impression varies according to whether the subject isphotographed from a high or low angle, or from a frontal angle. The appearance of the subject
also varies if the left and right angles are changed.
9. Lens
Lens are classified by millimeter units. This is referred
to as "focal length." If the focal length is small, it iscapable of photographing a wide angle (wide anglelens), and if it is large, it can zoom in on a limited
range (telephoto lens). In addition to these, there
are standard lens that can photograph from close up
without restriction.

Telephoto lens				Standard lensWide Angle lens79

10. Image processing
In the case of film, color tone and contrast are adjusted when developing. In the case of digital
photographs, images are processed using image processing software such as Photoshop after
photographing. These processes are classified as "adjustment" or "processing." Operation differs
according to the type of image processing software used. The user must therefore read the software
manual well familiarize himself with operation.
*Adjustment
Adjustment refers to precise adjustment of color tome reproduction or contrast, trimming,
etc. This task is always required when processing digital images. In an ideal situation, digital
images should basically not be processed any more than necessary for saving. It is therefore
important to sufficiently consider photographing conditions before taking pictures.
*Processing
Processing basically includes getting rid off unwanted images, converting color tones oraltering color of the subject; it also refers to adding effects, etc., to images. There are many
problems with processing photographs of cultural properties which play an important role as arecord. Photographs are not processed under ordinary circumstances.

80

Participants'
Final Reports

V. Participants’ Final Reports

MUNKHUU Bayarsaikhan
First of all I want to thank Mr. NISHIMURA Yasushi, Director of Cultural Heritage Protection
Cooperation Office, Asia-Pacific Cultural Center for UNESCO (ACCU). By his invitation I haveparticipated 31 days training programme from 16 November to 16th December 2010 with otherworkers from Institute of Archaeology, Mongolian Academy of Sciences to take basic and professional
training in archaeology.
Participating in the training, we have learned new knowledge and information on archeologicalexcavation and research methods; making conservation treatment for artifacts and objects in alaboratory; documentation by taking photos; how to do research works; preservation and protection of
excavated artifacts for later utilization as exhibition at a public museum.
During our stay in Japan, we visited many historical and cultural sightseeing places: Horyui-ji temple,
Yakushi-ji temple, Todai-ji temple, Heijo Palace Site, Rokuon-ji temple, Kiyomizu-dera temple,
Kyushu National Museum, Dazaifu, Yoshinogari site, in cities of Nara, Kyoto, and Fukuoka. When
we visited Kiyomizu temple in Kyoto built on high mountain area among beautiful nature, I wasmuch impressed and wondered how one can build such a great building. There were also many otherwonderful historical and cultural artifacts.
We also visited Kyushu National Museum and Fukuoka City Archeological Centre on the field study
and learned at first hand how people with various professions were cooperating to preserve andrestore artifacts newly found by archeologists in the laboratory; how people were working to preserveand protect their cultural heritage. Another thing we have found very wonderful in Japan is not only
historians and archeologists are preserving and protecting their cultural heritage also all citizens areconcerned about it.
We want to thank Mr. KOBAYASHI Kenchi, interpreter Ms. Dagola, Ms. SHIMIZU Natsuki and otherstaff for being always with us and very helpful all the time throughout the training session.
I wish ACCU Nara the best of further success in their activities on cultural heritage protection.

83

RINCHINKHOROL Munkhtulga
It is impossible to write all the knowledge, information and impressions gathered during this training.
So I would like to list the most instructive topics for us and issues which I must indicate. However I’ve
seen many examples for each item listed below, I will not include any examples due to limited time.
- It was obvious that the policy of Japanese cultural heritage protection is a policy that concerned to the
future.
- Highly specialized experts are collectively researching in all aspects of ancient cultural heritage.
- We have a chance to learn a great deal in the intensive and organized training schedule.
- Lecturers introduced us modern methods, techniques, tools, and research products, which made thetraining more fruitful.
- During the class session, lecturers introduced us the most appropriate methods for Mongoliansituation and we practiced them.
- We had a chance to get useful information and knowledge in a short time.
- Research in Japan was made in a high quality level; technology and research methodology seemed
modern and the best.
- We were also introduced to working ethics and research ethics in cultural heritage protection; and to
everyday regime, practical procedure for cultural heritage protection.
- Communication skill of workers in NNRICP was great, and we were given latest information.
- Training environment was good and we were provided with enough supplies.
- We had an impression that Japanese legal systems on cultural heritage preservation, protection,
research are perfect in all aspects in comparison with Mongolia.
- We were introduced to modern techniques and technology of cultural heritage preservation,
protection, artifact documentation.
- It was clear that every personnel working in the field of cultural heritage protection must understandhis/her responsibilities and must follow the regulations and laws.
- For raising public awareness, education, advertisement, media tools are very useful.
- I liked not only conserved artifacts, but also its comfortable environment constructions, which is open
to the public as a whole complex.
- Site protection systems, especially government regulation for its protection, seemed to me very
important.
- While building a museum, they avoid to damage cultural heritage site.
- The laboratories in NNRICP are well appointed.
- Several internal organizations support personnel’s working condition. - We have been introduced tolaboratories in the institute in order.
- It was clear that every personnel treat their ancient artifacts with a sense of responsibility andprecisely follow documentation, preservation and restoration processes.
- We learned how to create cultural heritage information system and general information system.

84

- Travelling to various historic sites and observing archaeological artifacts helped us to understand an
outline of ancient Japanese culture.
- We visited World Heritage sites in Kyoto and Nara which we have dreamed of and got firsthandknowledge on how they were preserved and protected.
- Museum staff explained us about exhibition in detail such as development, technology etc.
- Restoration of site should be based on accurate research.
- We have been introduced to not only museum exhibits, but also newly discovered artifacts.
- We learned the important points in preserving and protecting remains and artifacts.
- Training condition in the organization was very good, so we were in comfortable environment.
In conclusion, I can say that I have learned many things from the training session in short time.

85

DAVAAKHUU Odsuren
ACCU Nara works in the city of Nara in Japan and invites archeologists and cultural heritage
specialists to their training programmes so as to teach them to protect Asian-Pacific culture heritages
and sites. I had a chance to participate in one of their programmes when they organized the programme
for the Mongolian Academy of Sciences from 16 November to 16 December 2010.
In this program, the main objectives of the training was to get familiar with the Japanese archaeologicalremains and to acquire the Japanese way of research and restoration of remains in practice, and to be
used to the tools and equipment to excavate and restore the remains and sites.
During this training programme, they introduced many sites and prehistoric remains in Nara, Kyoto
and Fukuoka located in the island of Kyushu: Heijo Palace sites, Gango-ji temple, Asuka-dera temple,
Museum of Archaeological Institute of Kashihara, Horyu-ji temple, Yakushi-ji temple, graves withhistorical contents from the 3rd to 4th century BC, remains of some kind of burned vases; Kiyomizudera temple, Kinkaku-ji temple, Ryoan-ji temple; Yoshinagari Historical Park, Kyushu National
Museum, Daifazhu site, Mazuki site, Ono-jo citadel, Daifazhu Tenmangu shrine, remains of Keneno
Kuma site, Itazuke remains, etc. One of the significant features of Japanese researchers is that they do
not just excavate the site, but they pay a lot attention to restore it to its original state and to show it to
the public. Therefore during our visit, we observed how the remains were restored to its original statein good condition.
We saw that the palace and temple remains were reconstructed with high technological tools as theresult of the research in the areas under the government protection. I’m happy to say that the sites that
we visited during the programme were inscribed on UNESCO World Heritage and they were underJapanese government protection.
Those sites and remains were shown to the public to foster the thoughts of people to protect and tolove the cultural heritages. We need to borrow the Japanese way to raise awareness in teenagers mind
to protect the cultural heritage, but the problem is we have a very small population in a large expansionof land, and also we have few people studying and working in research and protection for cultural
heritage.
During the training programme, we learned the Japanese research methodology and the way they werecompiling the documentation of the remains. This practical training was taught under the guidance of
researchers of Nara National Research Institute for Cultural Properties and we got familiar with theway of drawing the survey maps of the area, drawing the surface map, conserving roof tiles by using
unique keys, getting ink-rubbing of the roof tiles, measured drawing of a vase and some weapons fromthe Stone Age, and taking photographs of artefacts in the training.

86Mongolian researchers don’t have their own way to draw Stone Age weapons, and they usually use theRussian method to draw them. I have learned the Japanese method to draw weapons, so I can use it in
my further researches.
For Prehistoric researches, it is very important to have the original picture of the unearthed artifacts for
documentation. During this training session, we had a chance to work in the photographing section in
NNRICP. I learned how to take good pictures from the sides and right above the artifacts, therefore I
can use this technique for my further studies.
During this training, we also observed the process in conservation of artifacts: chemicals, methods
and technical tools. Researchers on the institute were working efficiently with cutting-edge technicalequipment and modern tools for excavation and conservation.
It was very interesting to see the displayed strata that researchers at NNRICP took off from the crosssection with chemicals. We can use this method for our research and especially for the research of themulti-layered site. Mongolia has a lot of remains but because of weather conditions and the location of
the land, there remain not a lot of multi-layered sites. Therefore, we need to duplicate the landscape ofmulti-layered site to show it to the public and to get their attention, so as to disseminate the informationof Stone Age period to people of Mongolia. Also we need to use this method to document the sites thatare threatened by road construction and mining.
I have seen many artifacts preserved and conserved at NNRICP and Nara Municipal ArchaeologicalResearch Center. These organizations have compiled very good documentation on all artifacts, which
they classified and organized according to each storage method.
Finally, I figure this training gave us new ideas, new methods for our future research work, and new
information to be used in our further researches. I am very thankful to ACCU Nara which gave us thisspecial opportunity and helped us throughout the training session.

87

88

VI. Appendix
1. List of Participants
2. List of Lecturers and Interpreters

Appendix

3. Staff Members, ACCU Nara1. List of Participants
MUNKHUU Bayarsaikhan

Head of Research Group
Department of Paleoanthropology paleozoology
Institute of Archaeology, Mongolian Academy of Sciences
Ulaanbaatar, Bayanzurkh District, Jukov Street-77, Mongolia
Tel: (+976) 11 452894 Fax: (+976) 11 452899
mbayarkhan@yahoo.com

RINCHINKHOROL Munkhtulga

Researcher
Department of Middle Age Archaeology
Institute of Archaeology, Mongolian Academy of Sciences
Ulaanbaatar, Bayanzurkh District, Jukov Street-77, Mongolia
Tel: (+976) 11 452894 Fax: (+976) 11 452899
mongkari@gmail.com

DAVAAKHUU Odsuren

Researcher
Department of Stone Age Archaeology
Institute of Archaeology, Mongolian Academy of Sciences
Ulaanbaatar, Bayanzurkh District, Jukov Street-77, Mongolia
Tel: (+976) 11 452894 Fax: (+976) 11 452899
odsuren_23@yahoo.com

91

2. Lecturers and Interpreters■ Nara National Research Institute for Cultural Properties
2-9-1 Nijo-cho, Nara 630-8577 Japan
http://www.nabunken.go.jp/<Department of Imperial Palace Site Investigations>Tel: (+81) 742 30 6832 Fax: (+81) 742 30 6830
INOUE Kazuto, Deputy Director
inoue@nabunken.go.jp
SHIBA Kojiro, Researcher, Archaeology Section 1
shibak@nabunken.go.jp
KUNITAKE Sadakatsu, Researcher, Archaeology Section 1
kunitake@nabunken.go.jp
MORIKAWA Minoru, Researcher, Archaeology Section 2
minorum@nabunken.go.jp
NAKAMURA Akiko, Researcher, Archaeology Section 2
nakamura@nabunken.go.jp
SEINO Takayuki, Researcher, Archaeology Section 3
seinot@nabunken.go.jp
OBAYASHI Jun, Researcher, Architectural Feature Section
juno@nabunken.go.jp
UNNO Satoshi, Researcher, Architectural Feature Section
unno@nabunken.go.jp
KUWATA Kuniya, Researcher, History Section
kuwata@nabunken.go.jp<Department of Planning and Coordination >Tel: (+81) 742 30 6833 Fax: (+81) 742 30 6841
NAMBA Yozo, Section Headnanba@nabunken.go.jp
MORIMOTO Susumu, Head, Data and Information Section
susumu@nabunken.go.jp
ISHIMURA Tomo, Researcher, International Cooperation Section
tomoishi@nabunken.go.jp<Center for Archaeological Operations>Tel: (+81) 742 30 6833 Fax: (+81) 742 30 6841
MATSUI Akira, Section Headherald@nabunken.go.jp
OZAWA Tsuyoshi, Head, Archaeological Research Methodology Section
ozawat@nabunken.go.jp
OKOCHI Takayuki, Head, Dating Section
okochi@nabunken.go.jp
YAMAZAKI Takeshi, Researcher, Environmental Archaeology Section
ytakeshi@nabunken.go.jp
WAKIYA Soichiro, Researcher, Conservation Sciences Section
wackies@nabunken.go.jp
SUGIMOTO Kazuki, Expert Staff, Photography Section
higeji@nabunken.go.jp

92

<Asuka Historical Museum>

601 Takaichigun Asukamura, Nara 634-0102 Japan
Tel: (+81) 744 54 3561 Fax: (+81) 744 54 3563
KATO Shinji, Head, Curatorial Section
NARITA Satoshi, Researcher■ Nara Municipal Archaeological Research Center

Cultural Properties Division, Nara Board of Education
2-281 Daianji-nishi, Nara 630-8135 Japan
Tel: (+81) 744 24 1101 Fax: (+81) 744 24 6747
MORISHITA Keisuke, Director
NAKAJIMA Kazuhiko, Researcher■ Nara University

1500 Misasagi-cho, Nara 631-8502 Japan
Tel: (+81) 742 41 9548
NISHIYAMA Yoichi, Professor, Conservation Science and Restoration, Department of Studyof Cultural Properties, Faculty of Lettersnishiyama@daibutsu.nara-u.ac.jp■ Saga Prefectural Board of Education

1-1-59 Jonai, Saga 840-8570 Japan
Tel: (+81) 952 25 7223 Fax: (+81) 952 25 7281
NAGASAKI Hiroshi, Chief, Department of Social Education and Cultural Property
nagasaki-hiroshi@pref.saga.lg.jp■ Kyushu National Museum

4-7-2 Ishizaka, Dazaifu City, Fukuoka 818-0118 Japan
Tel: (+81) 92 918 2807 Fax: (+81) 92 918 2810
AKASHI Yoshihiko, Head, Display Section
akashi@kyuhaku.jp
IMAZU Setsuo, Head / Curator (Conservation), Environment Preservation Section
imazu@kyuhaku.jp■ Fukuoka City Archaeological Center

2-1-94 Isoda, Hakata-ku, Fukuoka 812-0881 Japan
Tel: (+81) 92 571 2921 Fax: (+81) 92 571 2825
IKEZAKI Joji, Director
TAGAMI Yuichiro, Manager, Cultural Property Division
RIKITAKE Takuji, Expert Staff, Cultural Property Extension and Education Division■ Interpreters
DAGORA, Graduate Student, Doctoral Course in School of Comparative Culture, Graduate
School of Humanities and Sciences, Nara Women’s University
SHIMIZU Natsuki, Part-time Lecturer, Nara University
YAMAAKHUU Badamkhand

93

3. Staff Members, ACCU NaraNISHIMURA Yasushi, Director
nishimura@accu.or.jp
TAKAHASHI Wataru, Deputy Director
takahashi@accu.or.jp
KOBAYASHI Ken-ichi, Director, Programme Operation Department
kobayashi@accu.or.jp
KATO Naoko, Director, International Cooperation Divisionn-kato@accu.pr.jp
HORIKAWA Kazuko, Chief, Planning & Coordination Divisionhorikawa@accu.or.jp
NISHIDA Michiko, Staff, Planning & Coordination Divisionnishida@accu.or.jp
OTANI Yasuko, Staff, International Cooperation Divisionotani@accu.or.jp
SHIDA Sayuri, Staff, International Cooperation Divisionshida@accu.or.jp

Cultural Heritage Protection Cooperation Office,Asia-Pacific Cultural Centre for UNESCO (ACCU)
757 Horen-cho, Nara 630-8113 Japan
Tel: (+81) 742 20 5001 Fax: (+81) 742 20 5701
e-mail: nara@accu.or.jp
http: //www.nara.accu.or.jp/94