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Conference Programme Committee
Lynette Swee Hian Goh
Singapore Management University (SMU), Singapore
Dr Joseph Haldane
The International Academic Forum (IAFOR), JapanDr Farish Noor
Nanyang Technological University (NTU), Singapore
Dr Justin Sanders
Minerva Project
Professor Haruko SatohOsaka University, Japan
Professor Melanie Tolentino
Central Luzon State University, Philippines
Professor Anusorn Unno
Thammasat University, Thailand

The Southeast Asian Conference on Education 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

ISSN: 2435-5240© The International Academic Forum 2023
The International Academic Forum (IAFOR)
Sakae 1-16-26-201
Naka Ward, Nagoya, Aichi
Japan 460-0008
www.iafor.org

Table of Contents
COIL, COILer, COILing: English Language Learners Participating in
Collaborative Online International Learning
Damaris D. E. Carlisle
Judith Luna Sáenz, M. M.

pp. 1 - 13

The Elements of a Conducive Online Distance Learning Environment for
Deaf Students
Jean Mari D. Atinaja
Exequiel Francisco

pp. 15 - 36

Effects of Reflection-Oriented Inquiry Instruction on Grade 9 Students’
Understanding on the Nature of Science
Asnaifa B. Pangandaman
Bartolome L. Cagas

pp. 37 - 47

Gains and Losses: A Phenomenographic Study on Adolescents’
Understanding of Isolation Due to COVID-19
Leann Jester D. Rosali
Princess Joy F. Dicto
Kreen N. Erojo

pp. 49 - 59

Quarterlife Crisis Among Emerging Adults: A Phenomenological Study
Samantha P. Santos
Christoper F. Sasot

pp. 61 - 71

Grit and Hope as Sequential Mediators in the Association Between
Mindfulness and Flourishing
Kelly Ka Lai Lam

pp. 73 - 82

Picture Perfect: Competencies of Educational Leaders From Fifteen
Selected Colleges and Universities in the Philippines: Towards a
Proposed Leadership Model
Jorge L. Mayordomo

pp. 83 - 91

A Conceptual Framework to Elicit Student Engagement via Developmentof Extended Reality (XR) Applications Using Project-Based Experiential
Learning
Khadija Hamidani
Tse-Kian Neo
Vimala Perumal

pp. 93 - 101

Acceptance Study of Power Plant Main Control Simulator as an Operator
Learning Media in Indonesia
Ahmad Faishol Amin
Khoirul Aziz Rifai
Putu Agus Suginantra

pp. 103 - 112

Developing a Framework for Using Online Feedback on Teaching
Effectiveness to Improve Student Learning
Gavin Lee
Ahmad Al-Mahir Abu Bakar

pp. 113 - 122

Replacing Video Cameras With Mobile Phones Using the Multi-Phone
Livestreaming (MultPLS) Method
Alhadi Bujang
Nurul Izzah Nasir
Mohammad Khairuddin Ahmad
Siti Hajar Abu Bakar
Mohamad Hishamuddin Wang
Ernisa Marzuki

pp. 123 - 133

Transformation Management at a University-Based Business School
Hassan Ahmed Hassan Ahmed
Siti Nabiha Abdul Khalid
Mellissa Ng Abdullah

pp. 135 - 157

Common Pronunciation Mistakes in English for Students From South-East
Asia Influenced by Their First Foreign Language
Victoria A. Potemkina

pp. 159 - 169

EFL Teachers’ Experiences and Attitudes to Emergency Remote Teachingat Japanese Universities
Kym Jolley
Frances Shiobara
Mark Donnellan

pp. 171 - 180

Island of Individuation: Teaching With a New, Dynamic Approach to theDevelopment of the Human Psyche in the Singapore Context
Kevin Martens Wong

pp. 181 - 187

Application of Project Based Learning Methods in Distance Learning
During the Pandemic
Soeryanto
Rachmad Syarifudin Hidayatullah
Suparji
I Wayan Susila
Bambang Suprianto
I Gusti Putu Asto Buditjahjanto

pp. 189 - 205

The Influence of Communication Skills on the Work Readiness ofVocational School Students in Building Engineering Expertise
Wahyu Dwi Mulyono
Suparji
Arie Wardhono
Bambang Suprianto
I Gusti Putu Asto Buditjahjanto

pp. 207 - 220

A Study on Students' Attitudes Towards Text Crowding on Multilingual
Educational Slides
Laksmira K. Adhani
Gerard B. Remijn

pp. 221 - 228

The Effect of Spatial Intelligence and Learning Management on the
Learning Outcomes of Mechanical Engineering Students in the
Mechanical Drawing Course
Ali Hasbi Ramadani
Ekohariadi
Lilik Anifah
Bambang Suprianto
I Gusti Putu Asto Buditjahjanto
Heru Arizal

pp. 229 - 239

Student Satisfaction With the Internship Experience in the Graphic Design
Industry
Nova Kristiana
Ekohariadi
Mochamad Cholik
Bambang Suprianto
I Gusti Putu Asto Buditjahjanto

pp. 241 - 254

From Novice to Pro: A Modified Scaffolding Research Guide for
Elementary Students
Lovely Rollaine B. Cruz

pp. 255 - 269

Improving Kindergarten Readiness by Upskilling Parents Through a
Webinar Series Entitled “Ready, Steady, Zoom” During the New Normal
Catherine Jane A. Bassig

pp. 271 -279

Integration of Contents of Local Wisdom in Curriculum for Cosmetology
Vocational Schools: An Analysis
Octaverina Kecvara Pritasari
Suparji
Maspiyah
I Gusti Putu Asto BuditjahjantoBambang Supriantopp. 281 -289

Pagtimakas: Modular Learning Experiences of CAPSU MSC Students
Maria Aurora G. Victoriano
Lalaine E. RicardoFreden S. Delgado
Felyn Mae G. Yap

pp. 291 - 301

Preparing Undergraduate Designers Using the Results of a DE&I Surveyof the Local Design Industry
Kristin Lee
Malini Karani

pp. 303 -317

Augmented Reality and Metaverse in Aesthetic Education Discourse inIndonesia for Future
Joni Agung Sudarmanto
Adzrool Idzwan Bin Ismail

pp. 319 - 334

The Comparative Study of Ethical Procedures in Education for Law
Amendments in Thailand
Phattharamanat Sritrakul

pp. 335 - 347

L1 Use in the L2 Classroom: A University Instructor’s Perceptions of His
Language Choices
Miki Harwood

pp. 349 - 359

Reforming English Curriculum for Students With a Low Level of English
Proficiency
Minako Inouepp. 361 - 378

Mother Tongue Based Multilingual Education Implementation: A Basis for
Policy on Culture Preservation
Cheryl C. Mendoza
pp. 379 - 392
Fostering Social Communication Skills Through Small Talk Practice in
Post-pandemic Japan
Tomoko Sugihashi

pp. 393 - 403

Development and Evaluation of Frankards: A Manipulative for Teaching
Probability
Frankie A. Fran
Catherine P. Vistro-Yu

pp. 405 - 412

Design and Evaluation of an Online Interactive Story Game for Learning
the Theory of Love Attachment Style
Zi-Ying Li
Yu-Chi Chen
Huei-Tse Hou

pp. 413 - 417

The Identity of People With Disabilities: Advancing Through a Study on
Self-Determination and Self-Knowledge
Blas González-Alba
Moisés Mañas-Olmo
Jeanette Landin

pp. 419 - 437

Comparative Policy Design Analysis: An Integrated Approach for
Unpacking the Education Policies of Finland, Singapore, and Australia
Phuntsho Wangdi
Piyapong Boossabong

pp. 439 - 450

A Comparative Analysis of the Self-Perceived and Actual Grammatical
Competence in English of Filipino Grade 12 Students in Metro Manila
Maria Rhodora S. Salazar

pp. 451 - 461

Design and Evaluation of an Online Workplace Promotion Decision
Analysis Training Game With Provided Simulation Context
Chih-Chung Chien
Huei-Tse Hou

pp. 463 - 468

Design and Evaluation of an Online Educational Game for theDevelopment of Communication and Response Skills in the Service
Industry
Yen-Ting Ho
Huei-Tse Hou

pp. 469 - 474

Design an Online Escape Game on Gather Town to Foster Electrical
Troubleshooting Skills
Chou-Pai Yeoh
Huei-Tse Hou

pp. 475 - 481

The Faceless Learners, the Perplexed Instructors, and the Dilemma of
Webcams: A Survey of Instructors at Two Bahraini Universities
Lama Al Mahadin
Lilian Issa Hallakpp. 483 - 498

Learners’ Perceptions of Difficulties in Orally Producing English
Sentences
Harumi Kashiwagi
Min Kang
Kazuhiro Ohtsuki

pp. 499 - 513

Surviving Distance Learning Calculus: Students’ Perspective, Practices,
Experience and Performance on a Modular Instruction Class
Lea Marissa S. Domingo

pp. 515 - 526

Promoting Learner Autonomy Through Extensive Reading
Asami Nakayama
Paul Dickinson

pp. 527 - 536

Investigating Pre-service Secondary Mathematics Teachers’ Mathematics
Proficiency and Critical Citizenship in the Design of Social-Issue-Themed
Mathematics Online Lessons
Art Walden A. Dejoras
Catherine P. Vistro-Yu

pp. 537 - 550

Development of Multimedia for Improving English Listening
Comprehension Skill for Grade-2 Students
Vipin Kumar Sheoran
Metee Pigultong

pp. 551 - 566

Subject Site Usability to Student Well-Being and Burnout–Understanding
the Pathway
Jagdeep Kaur Sabharwal
Emmeline Mei Yi See
Rui Min Lim
Shailey Chawla
Adrian Norman

pp. 567 - 588

Learning From the Ground: How Mathematics Teachers View
Collaboration Through the Learning Action Cell Program
Amiel Paulo G. CardenasAngela Fatima H. Guzon
Catherine P. Vistro-Yu

pp. 589 - 597

Role of Study Abroad in the Path to Teaching English in English AmongJapanese Teachers
Mitsuyo Toya

pp. 599 - 610

Coaching and Mentoring Teachers to Accommodate Students With
Learning Disabilities in Elementary Inclusive Classrooms
Ratchaneekorn Tongsookdee
Pikul Leosiripong
Veeraya Khamruangrith
Soisuda Vittayakorn
Nutjira Busadee
Sira Somnam

pp. 611 - 623

Qualitative Study on the Problems of Successor Education in General
Graduate Schools in Rural Area of Japan - A Perception Gap Between
Parents and Children of Family BusinessNobuo Murakami
Rihyei Kang

pp. 625 - 633

Effects of Involvement Load of the Task on Japanese EFL Learners’
Lexical Network Changes
Noriko Aotani
Shin’ya Takahashi

pp. 635 - 641

The Design of a Pedagogical Seminar Course to Prepare Senior HighSchool Students for Science and Technology Project
Chitphon Yachulawetkunakorn
Rut Manotum
Arnon Thongsaw
Chanakan Grosseau

pp. 643 - 649

Webinar Integration Within the Flipped Classroom Instructional
Strategies From Learners’ Perspectives
Yufan Zhang
Nurul Nadwa Binti Zulkifli

pp. 651 - 659

A Comparison of Student Self-Assessment in Online and Face-to-Face
Learning Environments
Catherine LeBlanc

pp. 661 - 675

What Use a Qualifications Framework? The Impact of Qualifications
Frameworks on Innovation for Online Learning in Australia and Malaysia
Stephen Abblitt
Siti Mariam Muhammad Abdul Basar

pp. 677 - 687

Designing a Couse for Building Effective Pre-writing Skills of Academic
ThesisSatomi Yoshimuta

pp. 689 - 696

English Language and Literature Education as a Tool for Opinion
Formation and Influence
Rashmi Tomar

pp. 697 - 710

Educational Services for Students With Disabilities From Moving-In to
Moving-Out of Chiang Mai University
Songklod Jarunondrakul
Ratchaneekorn Tongsookdee
Soisuda Vittayakorn
Pikul Leosiripong

pp. 711 - 722

How the Community Participative Courses Are Carried Out –From anInterdisciplinary Perspective
Ting-Yu Chen

pp. 723 - 728

Rethinking Technology Literacy for Effective Technology Integration ofSecondary Teachers
Rachel Ann H. Santos

pp. 729 - 741

Teaching and Learning in COVID-19 Situation: The Design of an Online
Pedagogical Seminar Course
Chanakan Grosseau
Rut Manotum
Arnon Thongsaw

pp. 743 - 757

The Southeast Asian Conference on Education 2023

Official Conference Proceedings

COIL, COILer, COILing: English Language Learners Participating in
Collaborative Online International Learning

Damaris D. E. Carlisle, LASALLE College of the Arts, Singapore
Judith Luna Sáenz, M. M., Universidad De la Salle Bajío, MéxicoThe Southeast Asian Conference on Education 2023
Official Conference Proceedings

Abstract
This practitioner research in education paper is based on the experiences of two English
language educators taking part in a collaborative online international learning project,otherwise known as COIL. Synchronous and asynchronous teaching methods were used forEnglish language learners to meet and work with students from other countries. The
collaboration took place virtually between two institutions of higher education, located on
different sides of the globe, namely Mexico and Singapore. Students met to work in groups
on a project, in an authentic situation to practice the target language. The experience provided
students with intercultural and transnational learning through interaction, collaboration andtaking ownership of their learning. With little or no experience of taking part in COIL
projects, the practitioners investigated three key questions: 1. What are the benefits tostudents of taking part in international collaboration? 2. What are the challenges of such a
project? 3. How do students cope with misunderstandings resulting from cultural and ethnic
differences? Data was collected through the analysis of written online learning logs using
thematic coding to create a survey given to participating students at the end of the project.
The benefits, as well as the challenges, are considered followed by recommendations basedon first-hand experiences and reflections to offer a practical reference for colleagues andeducators who may wish to explore the feasibility of taking part in such a project.

Keywords: Collaborative Online International Learning (COIL), English Language Learning,
Institutions of Higher Education, Intercultural, Transnational

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Introduction
In many institutions of higher education (IHE) around the world, the English language
department remains an important fixture. It is estimated that by 2050 half the world’s
population will be proficient in English as it continues to be the dominant language of global
communication and increasingly, the language of instruction (Xue & Zuo, 2013). For the
English language learner, the classroom is often monolingual, meaning students share thesame first language (L1) and are learning English as a second or target one (L2). The
motivation to use the target language in the classroom may be diminished due to various
reasons including, but not limited to, lack of confidence, feeling artificial, and difficulty
expressing ideas. Therefore, in such situations, creating authentic settings to practice L2 canbe challenging.
As technology has developed, distance learning, digital learning and e-learning are reshaping
education so that initiatives such as collaborative online international learning (COIL) havebecome increasingly possible. One of the first examples of COIL was instigated by the State
University of New York (SUNY) when in 2010 the SUNY COIL Center won a grant to run athree-year project (SUNY COIL Center, 2013). Other notable institutions adopting COIL
principles include University Mobility in Asia and the Pacific (UMAP, n.d.), the Institute forInnovative Global Education (IIGE, n.d.) and The Ontario School of Art and Design
University (OCAD U, n.d.).
This paper provides a definition of COIL, before describing the methodology employed forthis practitioner research in education. Preparation and curriculum development areconsidered before discussing findings aimed at addressing the following questions: 1. What
are the benefits to students of taking part in international collaboration? 2. What are thechallenges of implementing such a project? 3. How do students cope with misunderstandings
resulting from cultural and ethnic differences? Finally, the paper concludes by reflecting on
the benefits of such projects, pre-course preparation, course pedagogy, successes, challenges
and recommendations for future collaborative online instruction.
What is COIL?
Not to be confused with technology, COIL is an approach to teaching that brings together
instructors and students who are distanced geographically, culturally and linguistically tocommunicate and collaborate using online tools (Rubin, 2015). Collaborative learning refers
to a strategy where learners work in small groups towards a common goal. Through IHEs
creating mutual partnerships with equal contribution, courses and assignments can nurture
multicultural dialogue and experiential learning through blended and often student-led
learning projects. Fundamental to COIL methodology is the balanced co-creation of projects,
with each partner considering the other’s perspective (Gray, Asojo, Lindgreen, Nolan, &Nowak, 2021; OCAD U, n.d.).
Increasingly, global competencies are considered essential skills for students to be able tocritically reflect on local, global and intercultural issues, and to understand different
perspectives so as to enhance collective well-being and sustainable development (OECD,2018). Therefore, COIL may be deemed intrinsically inclusive, allowing students access tostudy abroad experiences without having to leave home, and unlocking opportunities forstudents who may face accessibility challenges due to disability (de Klerk & Palmer, 2022),
marginalisation, or lack of funds to study overseas (Marcillo-Gómez & Desilus, 2016). COIL

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projects can also be used as a precursor to successful physical international exchanges by
preparing students and reducing the impact of culture shock (Matus-Mendoza, 2020).
The global pandemic caused by the Coronavirus, accelerated the adoption of COIL as IHEs
grappled with restrictions on movement both locally and internationally, and were forced tomove to online teaching and learning. Although connecting classes from different parts of the
globe is not without technical and administrative challenges, students can benefit fromintercultural and transnational learning through working in partnership with students fromother cultures and countries on self-directed learning projects (Naicker, Singh, & van
Genugten, 2021). At the same time, such projects create affordances to strengthen ties
between institutions and educators (Asojo, Kartoshkina, Amole, & Jaiyeoba, 2019).
The funded pilot project coordinated by SUNY COIL Center included 21 US institutions and25 participating international partners. In their report, the most commonly cited positive
student feedback was access to different points of view which allowed participants to see
their own culture from a different perspective. Other benefits were skills learned that included
language, communicative competence and overcoming technophobia. There was recognitionof the challenge of working within such projects, but this was counteracted by the experienceof deep learning which was also described as fun (2013).
Research conducted by Naicker and colleagues (2021) investigated the preparedness ofstudents to participate in transcultural projects. They concluded that working collaboratively
helps students to become more open to learning about the traditions and religions of othercultures whilst becoming the drivers and creators of new knowledge through research,
sharing and adapting. In the context of a design course, Asojo and colleagues (2019) notedthat participants became more human-centred in their design approaches by realising the needto conduct culturally sensitive research and avoid stereotyping potential clients. RamírezMarín and colleagues explored the impact of COIL on cross-cultural competence in thecontext of foreign language learning. They found that through self-reflection students
demonstrated “positive attitudes, respect, openness, curiosity, self-awareness, sociolinguistic
awareness, perspective-taking, empathy, relationship building and interconnectedness” (2020,
p. 115) all of which assisted interactions between learners from different cultural andlinguistic settings.
However, research also highlights a number of considerations to setting up successful COIL
projects. At an institutional level, support needs to be offered to provide time and resources toplan and implement international virtual projects (SUNY COIL Center, 2013). Peer educatorsneed to carefully prepare the course structure and content as well as plan what they arewilling to try, the technology they wish to use, and anticipate any problems (Asojo et al.,2019).
Student feedback from the SUNY COIL Center (2013) pilot highlighted problems with theworkload, unclear guidelines for assignments, time differences between participating
institutions and lack of time for students to work collaboratively on tasks. Naicker andcolleagues (2021) stress the importance of continued involvement of educators to assist
student participants with their ongoing development of digital literacy skills, and the need tofollow up with students who have low rates of participation. They also suggest regularsynchronous meetings with all students as a checking-in mechanism to encourage debate andaddress queries and challenges.

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Therefore, well-orchestrated COIL projects may provide many advantages for learning whilst
removing barriers to participation. Students benefit from international exposure, gain a global
perspective, as well as strengthen their digital, teamworking and problem-solving skills.
Methodology
The collaborating educators were both drawn to the invitation to participate due to increased
confidence in using online instruction methods as a result of the global pandemic. Having
little or no experience with COIL projects, we were intrigued to experiment with newpedagogies and hence wanted to find out whether the experience of such projects would be
beneficial and viable in the longer term.
The sample of students was purposively selected to meet the criteria of young adults aged
between 17 to early twenties, studying English language before continuing their studies inhigher education. Two classes of students were matched and selected to take part in the
project that was embedded into the syllabus in each institution.
There were two stages to the data collection. The first was the analysis of the online learning
logs that the participating students wrote after each synchronous meeting. Learners wereencouraged to complete reflections based on three questions: A) What did you do during thesession? B) What did you learn? C) How would you use this learning when you meet again?
Analysis of the learning logs allowed us to extract themes that were used to create a survey
given to the participants at the end of the project. The survey offered a variety of question
types using a mix of 10-point Likert-scale questions to find out the perceived level ofenjoyment, language practice and challenge of working with students from another country;
check box options where students chose the top three benefits and top three challenges out ofsix choices for each category; open-ended questions to allow for verbatim feedback.
Preparation
Answering a call to participate in training and developing a COIL project in the third quarterof 2021, the application form collected details such as location, the course taught, and thedemographic of students. An important part of the initial process, this allowed the organisers
to match participating peer educators based on the subject area they taught. Once matching
was complete, academics were invited to make contact with their paired collaborators andattend an initial synchronous induction session over Microsoft Teams to meet the trainer, be
introduced to the concept and history of COIL and discuss recommendations for joint work.
This was followed by five weeks of asynchronous learning and tasks, using the learning
management system (LMS) Moodle to access theoretical content and upload weekly
assignments. We were advised that being in an interdependent relationship with our academic
peers, meant that we should work with each other without sacrificing or compromising ourvalues, inferring we needed to be mutually respectful of each other’s perspectives. The
success of the course, therefore, depended on the two educators working together.
Additionally, we were given assurances that if we encountered any problems, we could
contact our trainer.
Each week we were given theoretical content to read or watch via the LMS followed by atask the peer educators completed together but needed to upload separately along with a

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screenshot of our virtual meeting. The course was not onerous in terms of time commitment,
where the biggest challenge was finding a mutually agreeable time to meet online due to the
14-hour time difference. The scaffolded approach of the course and weekly content andactivities posted on the LMS allowed us to get to know each other by exploring oursimilarities and differences. We then moved on to gathering information for the partnershipbased on pre-set questions that covered student demographics, goals and technology. As we
progressed through the weeks, we started to develop the learning outcomes (see Table 1) andsyllabus (see Table 2). The chosen topic was fairy tales on the premise that story-telling isfound in all cultures and, therefore, all the student participants would have experiences andknowledge to share.
Name Teacher 1

Name Teacher 2

Damaris Carlisle

Judith Luna Sáenz

Subject Teacher 1

Subject Teacher 2English for Academic Purposes / Creative Arts

English as a Second Language level 8

Topic COIL course
Arts Focus: Students will be introduced to a variety of subjects, materials and projects related to thearts
Objectives of the topic
1. Arts appreciation
2. Cultural exchange
3. Reflective critical thinking
Learning Outcomes Teacher 1

Learning Outcomes Teacher 2

1. Students will become familiar with a range ofarts-based vocabulary
2. Students will develop cultural awareness and beable to reflect on similarities and differences
3. Students will develop their critical reflective
writing skills as part of the cycle of improvement

1. Students will be introduced to arts-based topics
2. Students will develop cultural awareness and beable to reflect on similarities and differences
3. Students will develop their critical reflective
writing skills as part of the cycle of improvement

Table 1: Objectives and learning outcomes developed during the online meetings
between the academic peers.
Course Creation
The academic peers were both English language teachers; one was based in Mexico and theother in Singapore. The course in Mexico was part of a high school programme in English asa second language. The fifteen participant students were Spanish speakers, aged 17 to 18
years old and were in their final year before starting university. The course in Singapore wasa pre-sessional English language course for students preparing to join diploma or bachelor’s
degree courses in the arts. Twenty Chinese and Korean students aged between 16 and 22,
were living away from home.

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As collaborators, we agreed to use a project that was already embedded in the syllabus forone of the courses. The project design included synchronous and asynchronous components
to allow students to collaborate on their projects. The synchronous meetings took place across
six sessions, from January to March 2022, over an eight-week period, taking into accountschool breaks, public holidays and exams. The final outcome involved students working
together in groups to present a fairy tale. This could be a story they created or adapted froman existing fairy tale but were instructed to give the story a contemporary twist. The groups
could choose how they would present their narrative, for example, by creating an animation,using slides with a voice-over or acting out the story.
We used the format suggested during the COIL training course, following a sequence ofsessions that included ice breakers, comparison and analysis and collaboration. The ice
breakers, designed to be light-hearted, focussed on pair or group activities playing namegames and exploring cultural similarities and differences. In preparation for the final
presentation, students compared and analysed fairy tales from their own culture before
exploring the elements that are commonly found in myths and legends, such as a hero, avillain, a kingdom and a problem. The last two sessions were used to guide students throughtheir collaborations and work on their brief to create or adapt a chosen fairy tale. To ensure
the groups were meeting to develop their ideas they had to present storyboards that outlined
the development of the plot before they made their final presentations.
The academic peers discussed a number of choices for technologies and platforms to use. The
final choice of software was pragmatic, dependent on what was available within the two
institutions and which would be the easiest to set up; the choice of LMS was between Moodle
and Google drive for posting and uploading materials, and Google Meets or Zoom for thevideo conferencing platform. Google Drive was selected as outsiders of the institution could
be invited to access shared drives without having to enlist the help of the ICT team. The
additional benefit was the availability of collaborative tools such as Google slides, docs andJamboard. Zoom was preferred as the teleconferencing platform because of access tobreakout rooms which allowed students to work in groups during synchronous sessions.
Student participants could choose how they would collaborate to complete asynchronous
activities after each session. Most groups opted to communicate using Instagram or
WhatsApp.
As we developed the syllabus (see Table 2) we anticipated possible problems which included
the likely impact of the 14-hour time difference on attendance, especially since synchronous
meetings had to take place outside the mandated classes. This challenge could have further
impacted the students’ ability to work collaboratively and manage their time whencommunicating asynchronously. A further anticipated issue, was one institution used theGoogle suite, which meant some students at the other IHE would possibly have to create a
Gmail account to be able to access the Google drive used for posting materials and uploadingwork. Additionally, we could not assume that all learners knew how to use the collaborative
features of the Google suite.

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Stage

Week

1.

1: Ice Breaker

Official Conference Proceedings

Learning Outcomes

Task/Activity
Name chain game. Think of an adjective that begins withthe same letter as the first letter of your name. Split thestudents into groups of 8 students.
What’s in a name? Students in groups of 5. They speakStudents will get to know
and answer the following questions:each other and break the ice● who gave you the name?
in order to develop rapport● a nickname?
and confidence working● what does it mean?
with each other.
● Why were you given it?
● do you have any other names?
Homework
Learning log (template)2.

Cultural Norms
1. Animal Noises. What is the noise attributed toStudents will get to know
different animals in different cultures: cat, dog, frog,each other through culturalwolf, pigs
exchange.
2. Home drawing. Students draw a plan of their home to
The activities will help toshare with each other.
raise awareness ofHomeworksimilarities and differences. ● Find a childhood fairy tale or fable to share in thenext meeting.
● Learning log (template)

3.

Students will reflect on the Parallel Documents
similarities and differences 1. In their group, the students tell their chosen story toeach other. Discuss similarities & differences.
between their cultural
As an entire group summarise similarities & differences.
backgrounds through the
Homework
medium of fairy tales
Learning log (template)

2: Comparison& Analysis

4.

5.

3: Collaboration
6.

1. Group discussion. What elements make a fairy tale?
2. Ways of telling a story.
Students will analyse the 3. Groupwork: Brainstorm ideas for their own fairy tale:components of a fairy tale
adapt or invent.
and work collaboratively to Homework
create or adapt a fairy tale. ● Create a storyboard using e.g. Google slides, jamboard…
● Learning log (template)
1. Present storyboards
Students will communicate Students continue to work on their projects. Teachers are
ideas using a variety ofavailable for advice.
visual mediums
Homework
Learning log (template)Students will reflect on theprocess of working across Fairy Tale Presentations
cultures and the challenges 1. Describe the processof group work using virtual 2. Story presentations. This could be a video, comic
mediums.
book etc.
Students will develop
Homework
tolerance, empathy andLearning log (template)cultural awareness.

Table 2: The syllabus developed during the preparation stage
To encourage student engagement, learners also completed a learning log each week, where
they reflected on their experiences by answering the following questions: What did you do

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during the session? What did you learn? How would you use this learning when you meetagain? The learning log provided the peer educators insights into the successes andfrustrations of working on the intercultural collaborative project.
In addition, at the end of the project students were sent a survey using Google forms to reflect
on their experiences. Three questions were designed using a Likert scale to ask how muchthey enjoyed working with students from another country, how much they felt they practisedusing English and how challenging it was to work with students from another country. The
following two questions asked learners to choose three benefits and three challenges of taking
part in the COIL project from a list of suggestions which were generated based on comments
written by students in their weekly learning logs. The final two questions were open-ended,asking students what they thought the educators could do to help them more and what theywould do differently if they were involved in a similar project in the future.
Findings and Reflections
From the educators’ perspective, although there were a number of challenges, the experience
was positive. It was fun to do something different which helps maintain motivation forteaching. Providing a genuine multicultural experience, where not only the use of L2 wasneeded but also a better understanding of different approaches towards work andcollaboration was satisfying. The experience stretched our technological abilities as educators
as we learned to use and manage the software more confidently. Rarely having theopportunity to co-teach, the experience also provided opportunities to learn from each otheras co-collaborators, providing food for thought about approaches and teaching methods.
Survey Feedback
Survey results were collected from 18 of the 35 participating students. Most of the responses
were from students based in Singapore, in part due to mistakenly restricting access tostudents outside the College at first. Thirteen students enjoyed the experience, four selected
the middle option, whilst one student did not like the experience at all. All the respondents
felt they had practised using their English to differing degrees. Responses to the question
about how challenging it was to work with students from another country were very mixed.
Responding to the benefits and challenges of involvement in the project, students could
choose three out of six possibilities for each category. In figure 1, the top three benefits oftaking part in the project were using English to communicate (15 responses), having a
different experience (13 responses) and finding out about different cultures (12 responses). In
figure 2, the top three challenges of being involved in the project were the time difference
between Mexico and Singapore (13 responses), using English to communicate (11responses), problems with technology (9 responses), closely followed by teammates notcompleting their tasks (8 responses).

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Figure 1: The perceived benefits of participation in the COIL project

Figure 2: The perceived challenges of participation in the COIL project
Verbatim feedback regarding what the teachers could have done to help students more
encompassed the desire to have clearer instructions, provide more support to help students
participate and check that the groups were collaborating with each other. Student selfreflection included the realisation that they needed to communicate more, do more research tocomplete the project and manage their time better; all vital study skills habits at IHE.

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Successes
On reflection, the students saw the experience as positive even if it was somewhat
uncomfortable at times. All but one group managed to create a presentation of their adapted
fairy tale for the last session where we met synchronously. Adaptations included a sci-fi
version of Sleeping Beauty, Rapunzel who rescues herself without the help of a man, and thethree pigs who collaborate to outwit the wolf in the story of the Three Little Pigs. The
software used to create presentations was varied and included the use of Microsoft
PowerPoint, Google slides, PowToon and Zoom to create videos. The exposure to different
cultural contexts helped some to practise and build their confidence using the English
language.
Challenges
Flexibility is a necessity (SUNY COIL Center, 2013). For example, time differences were
one of the biggest hurdles with a 14-hour difference between Singapore and Mexico. For
synchronous sessions, we agreed to meet for one hour at 7 pm on Thursdays, Mexico timeand at 9 am on Fridays, Singapore time. In addition, we had to extend the duration of the
project due to unforeseen commitments at one or the other IHE. Since times for synchronous
meetings were outside the usual college timetable, they may have impacted attendance which
was sporadic for some students. Other learners may have lacked commitment to the project as
an unassessed component, whilst a few students were working to support their studies and did
not have the time for extra activities outside of college obligations and assessments.
Connectivity was a further issue for some if they did not have access to stable Wi-Fi
connections off-campus.
On a cultural level, differences in background and expectations led to some challenges withgroup dynamics. The Asian students were linguistically weaker, which may have impacted
their confidence in communicating with their North American peers. During synchronous
sessions, shyness was exhibited by not turning on video cameras and remaining muted duringgroup activities in the breakout rooms. Peer academics needed to enter each breakout room tocoax some students to make themselves visible and speak to each other as well as facilitate
the initiation of conversations and responses. In some instances, frustrations led to a cultureof blame; in one group members reprimanded each other for not completing tasks instead oflooking for solutions to resolve such issues.
Recommendations
There are a number of considerations that may improve the experience for students. Peeracademics who may not have the technical skills needed to work collaboratively using virtual
mediums or who have little experience in acting as a facilitator to groups using project-basedlearning need to be given time to develop these skills. Tapping into existing technology usedby institutions may help educators to become more familiar and confident in the use ofsoftware providing a reason to explore and extend technical skills. At the planning stage
avoid being over-ambitious and attempt to use existing curricula as much as possible to avoid
increased workload for educators.
From the student viewpoint, it is important to ensure everyone is aware of how to use thetechnology and its capabilities, a conclusion reached in a study by Marcillo-Gomez and
Desilus (2016). Sourcing or creating instructional videos that can be viewed before or during

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the early stages of the project might be of help. It is often assumed that Generation Z is
intrinsically tech-savvy. Even though they may be confident in using technology, that does
not necessarily mean students are prepared for online learning experiences (Akcil & Bastas,2021) and know how to maximise the use of the tools used for a COIL project. One student
lost work due to a computer crash so, for example, reminding students to back up their workor ensuring it is stored remotely on a cloud is vital.
It may be prudent to identify a common understanding of teamwork and establish guidelines
for student interaction (SUNY COIL Center, 2013); what it is and useful strategies to work
effectively in groups. This may address student feedback that instructions were not always
clear and the desire for greater support. Team members could be assigned roles, such as
scribe, coordinator, or presenter. Assigning group roles has been attributed to encouraging
accountability and holding each other to account for incomplete work or tasks. In their study,
Hirshfield and Chachra (2015) concluded that assigning group roles helped to disrupt
stereotypical and gendered biases by asking students to rotate roles throughout the semester.
This may help students who are less confident to strengthen their communication skills aswell as overcome preconceptions about cultural traits.
Conclusion
COIL projects provide opportunities for students to work across cultures and gainintercultural awareness. Students can gain study abroad experiences from their own homes,
opening prospects to learners who may otherwise be excluded. Peer educators should take thetime to get to know each other so they can collaborate with mutual respect. To promotemeaningful experiences, learning outcomes need to be considered before developing thecurriculum to ensure activities set out to achieve objectives. Spend time with the student
groups, firstly to provide training in the technologies that will be used and secondly, to help
them develop rapport and a mutual understanding of the aims and expectations of group workand the project. Defining roles may help learners to be accountable and understand their
responsibilities to the group so that when they encounter issues, they can work to resolve
them rather than adopt a culture of blame. Ultimately, students should come away having anenriched intercultural and, hopefully, fun experience.

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References
Akcil, U., & Bastas, M. (2021). Examination of university students’ attitudes towards elearning during the COVID-19 pandemic process and the relationship of digitalcitizenship. Contemporary Educational Technology, 13(1), 1–13.
https://doi.org/10.30935/CEDTECH/9341
Asojo, A. O., Kartoshkina, Y., Amole, D., & Jaiyeoba, B. (2019). Multicultural learning andexperiences in design through the Collaborative Online International Learning (COIL)
framework. Journal of Teaching and Learning with Technology, 8(Special Issue), 5–
16. https://doi.org/10.14434/jotlt.v8i1.26748
de Klerk, E. D., & Palmer, J. M. (2022). Technology inclusion for students living withdisabilities through collaborative online learning during and beyond COVID-19.
Perspectives in Education, 40(1), 80–95.
https://doi.org/10.18820/2519593X/pie.v40.i1.5
Gray, M. I., Asojo, A., Lindgreen, J., Nolan, D., & Nowak, A. V. (2021). COIL - A Global
Experience for Everyone. Journal of Higher Education Theory & Practice, 21(4), 64–
79.
Hirshfield, L., & Chachra, D. (2015). Task choice, group dynamics and learning goals:
Understanding student activities in teams. Proceedings - Frontiers in Education
Conference, FIE, 2015. https://doi.org/10.1109/FIE.2015.7344043
IIGE. (n.d.). Institute for Innovative Global Education. Retrieved February 28, 2022, from
About COIL website: https://www.kansai-u.ac.jp/Kokusai/IIGE/COIL/
Marcillo-Gómez, M., & Desilus, B. (2016). Collaborative online international learning
experience in practice: Opportunities and challenges. In J. Technol. Manag. Innov(Vol. 11). Retrieved from http://jotmi.org
Matus-Mendoza, M. (2020). The intersection of muralist movements and two L2 Classes.
American Association of Teachers of Spanish and Portuguese, 103(1), 15–20.
https://doi.org/10.2307/27025488
Naicker, A., Singh, E., & van Genugten, T. (2021). Collaborative Online International
Learning (COIL): Preparedness and experiences of South African students.
Innovations in Education and Teaching International.
https://doi.org/10.1080/14703297.2021.1895867
OCAD U. (n.d.). Internationalization: How faculty can get involved. Retrieved May 24,
2022, from https://www.ocadu.ca/about/international/get-involved
OECD. (2018). Preparing our youth for an inclusive and sustainable world. Retrieved fromhttps://www.oecd.org/education/Global-competency-for-an-inclusive-world.pdf

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Ramírez-Marín, F., Núñez-Figueroa, L. del C., & Blair, N. (2020). Collaborative Online
International Learning: Language and cross-cultural experiences of university
students. Matices En Lenguas Extranjeras, 14(1), 118–162.
https://doi.org/10.15446/male.v14n1.92144
Rubin, J. (2015). Faculty Guide for Collaborative Online International Learning: Course
Development.
SUNY COIL Center. (2013). The COIL Institute for Globally Networked Learning in the
Humanities: Final Report.
UMAP. (n.d.). University Mobility in Asia and the Pacific. Retrieved February 28, 2022,
from Home website: https://umap.org/
Xue, J., & Zuo, W. (2013). English dominance and its influence on international
communication. Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 3(12), 2262–2266.
https://doi.org/10.4304/tpls.3.12.2262-2266

Contact email: damaris.carlisle@lasalle.edu.sg

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The Elements of a Conducive Online Distance Learning Environment for Deaf Students
Jean Mari D. Atinaja, Eclaro Academy, Philippines
Exequiel Francisco, Miriam College, Philippines
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Abstract
A Conducive Online Distance Learning Environment poses a significant element in the
education structure of Deaf students during this health emergency. It comprises several
components that fulfill its role in creating an environment that enriches the learning of Deaf
students. This study aims to identify the elements that promote learning in an online distancelearning environment for deaf students. This pursuit is also anchored in discovering thelearning profiles, learning experiences and challenges of Deaf students in the Online Distance
Learning Environment. The study took place in a Deaf school which shifted to an Online
Distance Learning set-up during the health emergency. Deaf students and their teachers wereinterviewed. Class observations were conducted to mirror the insights from respondents.
Interestingly, the process of selecting significant statements, coming up with data categories
and identifying the meaning behind the statements, the gathered data of this inquiry raised the“Four Scaffolds of a Conducive Distance Learning Environment.” This framework allows
educators and other significant education stakeholders to create a Conducive Online Distance
Learning Environment suitable for Deaf students, allowing them to consider its potentials andoutcomes in the learning of Deaf students. The results of this displayed varied interestingelements shared by the Deaf students and teachers.
Keywords: Deaf Students, Learning Environment, Conducive Online Distance Learning
Environment, Online Distance Learning

iafor
The International Academic Forumwww.iafor.org

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Introduction
In a bigger perspective, Learning Environment is a right of the child. As mentioned in theChild Friendly Schools Manual, UNICEF, May 2009, the concept of Child friendly schools
and safe and healthy environment is grounded from the Universal Convention on the Rightsof the Child. An environment that provides safety and protection allows effective learningand better outcomes for the child’s holistic well-being. This right is an obligation for thegovernment to reduce the challenges related to physical, environmental, and even sexual
threats happen to schools worldwide. Cheng in 2020 as cited by Alshammari & El Zaraigat in2020 says that aside from schools continuing distance education during pandemic, providing
learning resources and awareness of the pandemic and educating learners on public safety,
this learning environment provides more important resources for learners such as “mental
health of students, and guiding students to practice activities and maintain a healthy life
during the pandemic.” (p.7). Schools help learners to overcome the challenges of becoming
isolated physically.
There were some challenges discovered on learning environment in the Philippines, Toqueroin 2020 discovered that Philippines do not have any provisions with persons with disabilities.
The Philippines laid the provisions of “Bayanihan Act 2020” to allocate funds to help
marginalized Filipinos during the pandemic. At the same time, the shift of distance learning
was pushed through to support the general population of the students. This menial response
for the continuity of education amidst the pandemic in the Philippines, gave rise to concerns
and challenges on distance and online learning education, especially to deaf and hard-ofhearing students. Various studies shared the struggles throughout the distance or online
learning set-up Hamilton et. al, in 2020 as cited by Smith in 2020 shares, “Teachers reported
that almost 86% of their students had difficulties with internet access while 64% of students
did not have appropriate technology devices needed for an online learning environment.”(p.168). Krishnan in 2020 finds that one of the challenges faced by hearing impairment
students, was being emotionally affected – how a disabled student would cope in an online
set-up and financial challenge with regards to the devices needed. Alsadoon and Turkestani in2020 discovered that to adjust teaching approaches, teachers had difficulty with students’social presence because deaf students would tend to turn off their cameras. This would leave
teachers clueless towards how to approach or adjust themselves in teaching. Students turning
their videos off may be rooted to possible reasons such as poor internet bandwidth.
Findings
Varied responses revealed a variety of concepts in the aspect of a Conducive Online Distance
Learning Environment through a framework called Four Scaffolds of a Conducive Online
Distance Learning Environment.

Figure 1: Four Scaffolds of a Conducive Online Distance Learning Environment

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Intrinsic Domain: Learning Profiles of Students
The first research question unravels the different learning profiles, characteristics, behaviors
and attitudes of Deaf students in an Online Distance Learning Environment. Several
occasions were revealed in the study saying how students were able to deal with the demands.
These may either be predictable instances where most of the student – teacher engagement
occurs or can be unpredictable when certain changes in the Online Distance Learning
Environment transpires. These events brought the idea of a Deaf Student as Self – Regulated
and Involve in microexpressions. Zhao and Chen in 2016 mention “In e-learning
environment, students are responsible for their own studies and have to actively take part in
the management of learning process. They have to set learning objectives, monitor andintrospect their own learning processes, and evaluate learning outcomes” (p.1). Sulisworo
et. al., in 2020 suggests SRL positively supports students in Online distance learning. Theysuggest, “In online or virtual learning, students who have a fabulous SRL will be able tobargain with the advancement of a learning environment that is diverse from their natural
world. With a high SRL, the students can discover, select, utilize any data from the internet”(p.205).
Being motivated is one of the dominant attitudes of students in online distance learning.
Ergul in 2004 cited by Baturay and Yukselturk in 2015 says, “high motivation, maturity andself-discipline are general characteristics of successful learners in distance education
programs and self-efficacy of distance education was found significantly correlated to
students’ academic achievement” (p.4). A study by Wettergren in 2012 revealed that
Motivation could translate to deadlines and goals for students he mentions, “The feeling ofmoving forward, accomplishing goals along the way is central and has great impact on
motivation” (p.6). Wettergren in 2012 also states, “The need for timely and qualitative
feedback for teachers is also important in order to have motivated students” (p.6).
Independence and Dependence Independence was highly described when Deaf students are
situated in learning and accomplishing tasks. Students shared personal ways of handling tasks
to be done including the use resources like the internet and other materials to make things
possible for them. Dependence enters when things are out of control such as interconnectivity
problems or any problem with platforms or learning materials use. Parents would come in totroubleshoot challenges or educate their children in navigation; buying materials in school
wherein students were not allowed to go out because of health restrictions and others such as
waking up. Teachers were also mentioned when students seek other people for their tasks.
Queries would involve lessons or even technology-related sometimes. Gibbons in 2002 as
cited by Sumbawati et. al. in 2020, mentioned the following characteristics for independence,“1) independent in learning, namely being able to take full responsibility in analyzing,planning, implementing, and evaluating their own learning activities independently, 2) selfmanagement, namely being able to identify what they need during the learning process , set
individual learning goals, control their own time and efforts to learn, and organize feedback
for their work, 3) have a desire to learn for the purpose of acquiring knowledge, motivationof independent learners to learn is very strong, and 4) problem solving to achieve learning
outcomes best independent learners make use of existing learning resources and appropriate
learning strategies to overcome difficulties that occur in the learning process” (p.196).
Garbe, et. al. in 2020 defines the experiences of parents with children during the pandemic.
Parents mention in terms of this experience like dealing with learner special needs. Parents
know that special support is needed for them. Another significant result was the decrease of

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parental involvement from primary to middle and more in secondary schools. Lepp et. al. in
2021 explains the presence of teachers during Online Distance Learning, revealing that someteachers upon the start of online distance learning tried to be at their best to be always there
for the students, including giving them individual feedback and communicating with themfrom morning until late at night. Belgica et. al. in 2020 revealed, “Almost all of the
respondents sought the help from their parents, grandparents, siblings, or other family
members during online classes, especially in manipulating their gadgets and in answering
their activities. If a family member is not available to help, the activity is postponed or set
aside until someone is available to help. This is a real and authentic scenario in
accomplishing given homework and activities” (p.107).
Perseverance and Flexible students found ways to overcome their challenges ininterconnectivity problems, distractions from the environment and learning their lessons on
their own. Based on Burkle and Innes in 2013, one respondent mentioned how technology
helped in making possible for work and studying to happen. It was also mentioned thatthrough materials given online it has driven one respondent to develop new strategies to beefficient with time. That an online learner experiences dynamic adjustment to fulfill its role inonline distance learning. Students persevered in the online learning set – up. Cahapay andRotay in 2021, these authors mentioned, “Since a stable internet connection is highly needed
but a challenge in remote learning, the students, especially those from marginalized families,
cope by looking for good space and time” (p.32). Emmanuel in 2011 as cited by Matswetu et.
al. in 2020 implies, “open distance learning success requires being a self-directed learnerand the ability to study independently with a focus on specific learning goals” (p. 3). In thisstudy, participants were students from the marginalized areas of Zimbabwe expose tofinancial challenges and faces poor provisions in electricity, sanitation, food, and internet
connections.
Students become inquisitive. Gilbert in 2015, “Communication in terms of supportivecomments, constructive criticism, and prompt feedback from instructors to students is a key
component of online courses” (p.27). Feedback was mentioned in several studies and shared
how it exactly happens. Mupinga et. al. in 2006 discovered that Instructor feedback was oneof the highest expectations of students in online learning wherein students felt the need of
putting students at ease without missing anything and not feeling alone online. Smith et. al. in
2016, coined the term “learning coach” for parents, parents are much more involved to
manage several responsibilities assigned to teachers. Parents have increased involvementwith instructions for students with disabilities. Cahapay in 2020 mentioned the word “handson” for parents in online distance learning. Dettermers et. al. in 2019 as cited by Ribeiro et.
al. in 2021 detailed parental involvement such as, “can be seen as a form of quantitative help
(e.g., doing homework, helping with questions) or qualitative help (e.g., organizing the tasks,
helping with the creation of a no-distraction environment, supporting the search foranswers)” (p.17).
Mindful of Time and Being Organized revealed how learners made use of time to manage
their engagements. Ahmad et. al., in 2019 mentions, “Student’s academics are influenced bytime managing skills. Both variables are strongly interrelated positively. If a student manage
time effectively then his/her educational achievements are improved successfully” (p.199).
Alyami et. al. in 2021 revealed that nursing students who claimed to manage time and meetdeadlines had high academic grades. In their study, students with high GPA would agree on
making a to do list or having a calendar for their tasks at hand. In this study, some students
discussed schedules they follow in handling their online distance learning. Teachers

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mentioned how platforms such as Edmodo made students organized in such a way students
visualize the tasks needs to be done.
Visually Reliant and Multifocal recounts how the Deaf students would entertain learning, or
the resources use to learn in an Online Distance Learning Environment. Elevera et. al. in
2021, described the different circumstances under visual learning method such as, “using
images, pictures, colors, computers, and any other visual media to help them learn,…Examples of visual learning methods are watching videos, a study by looking over things,
using diagrams and charts to understand ideas and concepts, and many more” (p.125). This
study confirms how Deaf students learn in an Online Distance Learning Environment.
Mention in the same study it is the highest learning method used by students. However,multifocal or paying attention to more than one visual resource poses risks. Alshawabkeh et.
al., in 2021 discussed, “When courses moved to the online distance learning format, students
felt overwhelmed. The content that was on the screen was the same. The interpreter was on
the screen but in a small box. The difference for the deaf students was that without being able
to see the instructor the course content quickly appeared overwhelming and disjointed. Theysaw only the interpreter.” (p.6). Thakur, et. al. in 2021 discussed the possible underlying
reason for this reaction towards these materials. Based on their study using Symbol Digit
Modality Test, hearing impaired children were much slower than normal schoolgoingchildren in terms of processing, slower in response time and prone to making errors in thistest.
Deaf students were identified distracted. The experience of distraction has occurred inseveral instances. Some are direct distractions where students are directly involved in thesituation or can be indirect distraction wherein students witness certain changes happeningaround as online distance learning continuous. Belgica, et. al. in 2020 in their findings
discovered about Physical or digital distractions, and challenges in privacy wherein mostfamilies are crammed in a small house leaving no room intended for online class. Amadora in2020 as cited by Belgica, et. al., in 2020 mentioned that devices get the attention of students
than the ongoing online class. Cahapay and Rotas in 2020, showed that the home is one of thesources of distraction in Online Distance Learning. Baticulon, et. al. in 2020 adds, “home is
not conducive for studying because of small space and noise background” it has been
considered as domestic barrier.
Impulsivity
Hallowell in 2005 as cited by Garg in 2021 mentions that deviations from use of mobile
phones and social media allowing students to switch interests and do activities concurrently
may impact students focus and lead to increased impulsiveness. Maity and Mandal in 2017
shares regarding the Deaf and Dumb wherein, “creativity and impulsivity are inversely
correlated. If creativity increases, impulsivity decreases and vice versa” (p.17). Fernandez
and Chess in 1980 found that between multi-handicapped deaf and sole handicapped deaf,
Impulsivity was one of the typical personalities of Deaf Children however it was strongly
evident to multi-handicapped deaf children.
Limited body movements
The pandemic has already created a huge blow in the physical activity of Deaf students which
can contribute to sedentary behavior. Petersen, et. al. in 2021 discussed that schools werelargely affected by the health restrictions of COVID-19. One of their findings was the

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Changes in Physical Activity, sedentary behavior increased due to lack of activities like goingto school or meeting classes. This was then replaced with more sedentary activities likewatching TV. Added to this, risk in social interaction was also mentioned as part ofincreasing sedentary behavior.
Instrumental Scaffolds: Supports that impacts the Deaf Students
Media Used
Participants narrated how Learning Materials, Learning Space, Parents and Teachers havebeen part of their Online Distance Learning Environment and provided benefits orchallenges. Learning materials were the primary resource mentioned in the Online Distance
Learning, the different responses from participants built the idea of media multitasking,defined by Wallis in 2010 as, “engaging in more than one media activity at a time.”
Participants narrated on how this incidence would occur during online learning such as using
two devices at a time, attending class using laptop and using phone to communicate; asclasses transpire, they are often engaging to two materials simultaneously: teachers would
often sign in class and open their videos and present PowerPoints at the same time. It also
occurs when students are doing tasks, they use their phones to research while answering tasks
on the laptop. Soldatova et. al., in 2020 proves the media multitasking among 14–17-yearold. They found that students were mostly engaged in medial multitasking in average of 5.43
hours an average time online on weekdays and weekends which was suggesting great
consumption of media for adolescence. They added that high media multitasking is genuinely
evident in youth. “On the one hand, adolescents choosing media multitasking as a strategy indigital environment appeared to be more productive, including in the context of random task
performance, though not faster than less media multitaskers. On the other hand, greater
impulsivity, and lower indices of executive functions, working memory, information
processing is typical for media multitaskers.” (p.368). This proves that media multitasking
reflects a natural occurrence to adolescents although it poses risks in engaging to such.
Martín-Perpiñá et. al., in 2019 enumerated the media multitasking done when adolescents dotheir homework, it is usually accompanied with the use of mobile phones which wasobserved having the highest means. This was a common behavior during Online Distance
Learning wherein majority of the students’ mentioned phones as a secondary device whenlearning.
Participants raised thoughts on the different kinds of instances they engage in media such ascommunicating, learning, answering homework, copying notes, and attending class. These
insights were similar results from the study by Kumalawati et. al., in 2021 which they
discussed, “During the Covid-19 pandemic, all lecturers and students used E-Learning tosupport the existing teaching and learning process. E-learning is a learning model thatutilizes information technology facilities in distance learning / online. Online learning isdone using information technology using electronic devices, namely laptops, computers, andgadgets with internet media. Distance learning or online is an alternative to modern learning
methods” (p.5). Similarly, a case study of teenagers enumerated the various activities thatteenagers are involved as they utilize technology. Yan in 2020 shares, “classroom learning,group projects, dance tutorials, environmental club, affinity group, home-work assignments,
online test preparation, virtual workouts, listening to music, pick-ing up hobbies, andinteracting with peers.”

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Learning Space
Participants gave a picture on how their learning space is in the absence of the physicalclassroom. Personal spaces were described as spaces situated on personal rooms or study
rooms allotted at home while shared spaces describe that online distance learning weresituated in spaces that the student was not alone. Rotas and Cahapay in 2020 mention thatmost students were challenged in learning at home, students were having difficulty with theirlearning spaces because they failed to recognize home as a conducive place to study. Belgica
in 2020 categorized home as source of physical distraction. Primary students admit
distractions and cannot focus on their learning spaces because of things happening aroundthem and things they see from other classmate’s learning space. Barrot et. al. in 2021 shared,“More specifically, the greatest challenge that students experienced was related to thelearning environment, particularly on distractions at home, limitations in completing therequirements for certain subjects, and difficulties in selecting the learning areas and studyschedule” (p.9). Day in 2021 notes, “.... On the other hand, many students did not have aquiet home space. They did not have a desk, their environment was noisy, there weredomestic chores and childcare responsibilities, and there were distractions on the Internet
when students were online all day” (p.6). In personal spaces, Aristovnik et. al. in 2020
discussed, “When studying isolated at home, students may face a lack of self-discipline orinappropriate learning environments which evoke a feeling of work overload andconsequently a higher level of stress ” (p.9). To conclude this, Fabito in 2020 said, “Unlike ina school setting, where learning is more conducive, students were not adequately prepared to
go online learning at home. The abrupt decision to go online due to the ECQ brought about
by the COVID-19 pandemic has become an eye-opener in terms of the lack of preparednessof students and faculty members to go online” (p. 453).
Roles of Parents and Teachers
Aside from performing traditional responsibilities, they extended way beyond especially inthe advent of accepting that technology will be a huge part of their learning journey. Ribeiro
et. al. in 2021 defined the forms parental involvement and the time parents spent.
Involvement would take into forms like Monitoring child attention in the classes and schooltasks realization, supporting task realization and ensuring that deadlines are accomplished.
Aside from school – related responsibility, Cahapay’s finding in 2021 adds Connecting withthe child physically and emotionally was one emerging experience of parents with theirchildren during COVID-19 crisis. Tus in 2021 also mentioned about the responsibilities ofparents such as “supporting and reinforcing the school's discipline plan, supporting child'slearning by providing nutritious meals and adequate time for sleep, discussing theimportance of a good education in their child, and identifying a regular time and place intheir home for child's homework, monitoring their child's television viewing habits,
monitoring child's homework, and ensuring their child's excellent attendance at school,
monitoring and encouraging children to read, attending special programs in schools andparent supports group.” He adds parent involvement had a significant relationship withacademic performance.
There were more roles discovered and played during this shift in learning by teachers.
Mayasari and Kemal in 2020 defined “teachers are also required to be able to design as theyshould teach students even with distance learning,” “role of the teacher as a demonstrator
here is that the teacher still uses strategies or methods to deliver distance learning even in
the Covid-19 outbreak. Learning media is a tool for teachers in implementing learning. With

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the media, it makes it easier for teachers to deliver material to students so that it is easier tounderstand the material, especially in subjects,” “teacher motivates students,” “teachers
manage learning when teacher classifies students and group students” and “teachers
evaluate level of success that has been achieved.” These points were similarly mentioned by
the Deaf students. These roles were also present even with face-to-face class and were put inhigher rate in online learning especially in technology.
Communication between teachers and parents was highly vital during the pandemic. Stelitano
et. al., in 2020 mentioned, “strategies as regular text messages to parents or students withreminders about things to do, daily emails, or weekly phone calls with individual students
would likely be more helpful than sending weekly packets without reminders.” Hodgman et.
al. in 2021 adds, “teachers were expected to “meet with their students,” “be available atscheduled times to respond to student questions,” and “communicate with families about
expectations for students or distance learning resources” (p.2). It reflects that teachers are far
more than part of academics, they also provided support to families especially parents incontinuing Online Distance Learning at home.
Insights Scaffold: Experiences of Deaf students
Experiences may either positive or negative experiences of Deaf students during Online
Distance Learning. Social Advantages explains how Deaf students find this environment as asource of support, enjoyment and where they can meet companions. Most responses center ontalking with friends, classmates and teachers and the experience of meeting and seeing them.
These interactions were similarly mentioned by Su et. al., in 2005 enumerating interactions
such as, “Content-related instructional activities (such as summarizing key points,
asking/responding to questions, giving feedback, and instructor participation in classdiscussions) were widely used in most of the courses” (p.8). Minocha in 2009 emphasized,“use of social media in distance education is important as they ease student-student
interaction and increases motivation of the learners” (p.2740). This would also represent the
responses in the study wherein aside from zoom, messenger was frequently used in asking
questions between student-teacher and even talking with their classmates. The idea of“social” in the study was also the experiences of students as they ask questions or clarifying
lessons to their teachers.
In a study by Alodwan in 2021 for higher education students the researcher coined elearning’s advantage as a prime mover of “education for all” making it possible tocontinue education. Gherges in 2021 defined advantages of e-learning compared to face-toface learning. He mentioned three advantages such as convenience, time efficient andaccessibility. Kurniawati and Priyanto in 2017 stresses the idea that mobile learning allowed
stimulate students to complete task together, motivation and high interest in learning istantamount to increase in learning outcomes and it allowed students who are afraid and silent
to be bold in the learning process using technology. Paudel in 2021 added that online
education gauged towards independence, flexibility and has been a source of knowledge andauthentic information at their home. Neuhauser in 2002 as cited by Slower and Mandernach
in 2018 implies, “online and traditional classroom settings are equally effective.”
Several challenging experiences dawned. Learning space challenges, interconnectivity
challenges, personal challenges, learning material challenges, learning challenges.
Belgica et. al. in 2020 mentioned the similar challenges. Fabito et. al in 2020 discovered
challenges mostly on technology, internet reliability and accessibility. It is a concerning

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barrier of students in the online learning that aside from students, teachers also experience achallenging course. Dianito et. al. in 2020 defined adversity in communication wherestudents found difficulty in communicating with instructors and classmates, students also felt
they could not participate to some activities in their online distance learning leading to social
exclusion, and adjustment wherein students failed to anticipate changes in this kind of set –up.
Interest Scaffolds: Elements promoting learning in an Online Distance Learning
Environment
Interests’ domain pertains to ideas of desirable and undesirable preferences. The elements
mentioned build a Conducive Online Distance Learning Environment. Pertaining to things
that encourage, engage, and motivate learning. Responses were classified as Academic andEmotional/Social support; Things that make learning better. Responses were grouped
accordingtoLearning
Access/Supports,
Learning
Spaces,Classroom
Routines/Schedules, learning topics, breather/breaks; Activities they like during Online
Distance Learning, these were classified as either Subject-Related or Task-Related; Needs
in Online Distance Learning were grouped according to Social Needs, Material Needs andLearning Needs. As Deaf students and Teachers identified these things comprising the
Conducive Online Distance Learning Environment, Respondents were driven through aperception of people having strong inclinations is based on the principles of William
Glasser’s Choice Theory (1998). Choice Theory was defined as, “I believe we are geneticallyprogrammed to try to satisfy four psychological needs: love and belonging, power, freedom,and fun. All our behavior is always our best choice, at the time we make the choice, to satisfy
one or more of these needs.” Choices were rooted from how we behave towards things we
encounter around us. Glasser adds that certain behaviors are anchored through our memories.
Our memories perform in a very complicated way which Glasser describes, “We struggle tofeel as good as we can and as much as we are able, try to avoid feeling bad”.
Applying Choice theory in education centered on classroom management. Praveen and Alexin 2018 adapted the Choice Theory wherein varied concepts were taken into considerationsuch as Teachers are believed to understand that the feeling of survival can be satisfied only
when a safe and sound environment is arranged to be conducive to online learning. Glasser in2001 as cited by Manoj and Anoop in 2018 believes, “For managing the class better, ateacher must arrange lighting, seats, air circulation, etc. which in turn will be conducive toclassroom learning” (p.8095).
Chan – Anteza in 2020 made a Quadratic Element of a Conducive Classroom Environmentthat comprises of Structured Course Curriculum or the organized instructional content,
Empowered students – students who are motivated, engaged, increased responsibility and canidentify own interests, passion, and strengths, Flexible Classroom Setting or the idea thatlearners have the choice to find a “learning space” and Enabled Teachers who are competentin areas needed for students. The vision of Chan – Anteza was not far from the elements
identified in the study.
Conclusion
This important information allows us to recognize our learners and to have an intensive eye
to evaluate these things and build an environment that nurtures the learning profiles andsupports that were mentioned as beneficial to build a Conducive Online Distance Learning

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Environment. Teachers can be provided with an opportunity to create activities and events in
the Online Distance Learning Environment that will make students Independent, SelfRegulated, Persevering, and Inquisitive and consciously eradicate things that can make Deaf
students Dependent, Distracted, Impulsive and restricted in body movements.
The experiences in the study are representations of the lived experiences of Deaf students.
The study unraveled that a Deaf student is not only affected “during class.” Deaf students andteachers shared that home, personal feelings, and encounters towards learning now, learning
profiles, and family dynamics influences student’s learning. Experiences allowed the students
to be changed through these and changes yield positive or negative outcomes. In these times,
let us strive to acknowledge these experiences and let us also help Deaf children to embraceand understand the idea that positive and negative learning experiences do not dictate successor failure in learning. People around these children must continue to empower them to dotheir best. The institution, government, and education sector must resolve challenges andrespond to the growing needs of this novelty in education.
The preferences are expressions of active participation of Deaf students. Deaf students arecapable of identifying, distinguishing and expressing their preferences. The study opens
opportunities to directly respond on how to improve the current Online Distance Learning
Environment. It represents Deaf learners are fully aware of learning, and recognize thingsbound to success. Preferences reflect materials, activities, or events. Significantly, in-person
learning is primarily conducive for them. Participants mentioned that Online Distance
Learning has been a solution to this health emergency restriction. This study calls education
advocates and stakeholders to set this as a reminder to honor learning environment.
Advocates and stakeholders must listen to these responses to be true to their responsibility inguaranteeing the Deaf learners of quality education.

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Effects of Reflection-Oriented Inquiry Instruction on Grade 9 Students’ Understanding on
the Nature of Science
Asnaifa B. Pangandaman, Mindanao State University, Philippines
Bartolome L. Cagas, Mindanao State University, Philippines
The Southeast Asian Conference on Education 2023
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Abstract
This study aimed to investigate the effects of reflection-oriented inquiry instruction on Grade
9 students’ understanding on the Nature of Science (NOS) specifically on the aspects ofobservation and inference, and imagination and creativity. The study employedquasi-experimental research design with pretest-posttest control group design. The
participants of the study involved two intact sections of Grade 9 junior high school studentsof Balindong National High School. An adopted instrument-Students’ Understanding on
Science and Scientific Inquiry Questionnaire (SUSSI-Q) was used. The findings of the study
revealed that the control group of students demonstrated transitionary and informed levels
and none in the naive level with more than half of the students demonstrated informed level
while all the students in the experimental group demonstrated informed level in the two
Nature of Science (NOS) aspects. Another is that, there is a significant difference between thecontrol and experimental group at .05 level of significance in favor of the experimental groupin the two Nature of Science (NOS) aspects. Apparently, on the average, theReflection-Oriented Inquiry Approach was found to be beneficial in promoting students’
understanding on the Nature of Science (NOS).
Keywords: Reflection-Oriented Instruction Approach, Inquiry Approach, Nature of Science(NOS), Observation and Inference, Imagination and Creativity

iafor
The International Academic Forumwww.iafor.org

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Introduction
In the context of scientific literacy, it has been a long standing goal in science education topromote a deeper understanding on the Nature of Science. The Trends International
Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS report, 2019), Philippines ranked last lowest among
the 58 participating countries and ranked second lowest in the Programme for International
Student Assessment (PISA report, 2018).
Most of the Filipino students had a very poor performance in the national and international
science and mathematics assessment studies because their factual knowledge, NOS
understanding, conceptual understanding and their skills in reasoning and analysis are very
poor. According to the National Educational Testing and Research Center (NETRC) Reports
2015-2017, there is a poor quality of education in the Autonomous Region in Muslim
Mindanao (ARMM) which was ranked 3rd from the bottom. There was also a poor
performance in the National Achievement Test (NAT) in science in the schools division of
Lanao del Sur I with a mean percentage score of below 75%.
The poor performance of the Philippines in national and international examinations may havebeen brought about by a host of factors such as: large class size, inadequate laboratory
facilities, mismatch between intended or desired curriculum and implemented is actual
curriculum carried out by schools (Ivowi, 2001). In addition, adherence of many scienceteachers to ask questions that require low order thinking skills rather than questioning that
require high order thinking skills in classroom interactions and assessments may contribute tothis dismal performance. Moreover, the teachers’ resistance to adapt to more innovative andconstructivist teaching approaches may also add to such result.
Scientific literacy has become one of the critical issues in our country. To increase thecondition of lifelong literacy, reading and writing skills are no longer enough. Helping
students to develop into scientifically literate citizens who are constructivist and reflective
thinkers and have analytical and problem solving skills is a long-term objective and greatchallenges in science education. Hence, teaching the nature of science, through inquiry intandem with scientific knowledge promotes students to develop scientific habits of mind thatwill enable them to be effective decision-makers beyond the classroom.
Thus, the teachers need to learn ways of guiding and supporting children in considering
alternative views, innovative teaching methods, and constructing meanings of Nature of
Science. They need to practice reflective teaching strategy in their classrooms. Reflective
teaching can evaluate the level of intellectual processing and interaction in the classroom, andcan make learning more relevant and meaningful to students’ lives. This promotes inductive,
critical thinking and problem solving. Because of this reason, the purpose of this study was tohelp students to develop understanding in the Nature of Science through thereflection-oriented inquiry instruction, in the hope that the solutions may be suggested to theschool administrators and science teachers of Balindong National High School to improvestudents’ understanding on Nature of Science.
Generally, this study investigated the effects of reflection-oriented inquiry instruction on thestudents’ understanding of the nature of science among the grade 9 junior high school
students of Balindong National High School on the school year 2017-2018. Specifically, thisstudy sought answers to the following questions:

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1. What are the control and experimental groups of Grade 9 students’ understanding
levels on the nature of science before and after intervention?
2. Is there a significant difference in the nature of science understanding test mean score
between the control and experimental group of students before and after theintervention?
Conceptual Framework
This study was conceptualized that the reflection-oriented inquiry instruction has an effect on
students’ understanding on the nature of science. To guide in the implementation of the study,
the research paradigm is shown in the Figure 1. The left box represented the independent
variable–the method of instruction in the form of reflection–oriented inquiry instruction
compared with the conventional lecture–discussion instruction. The dependent variable in theright box was the Nature of Science (NOS) understanding. The arrow coming fromindependent variable box represented the idea that the independent variable was hypothesized
to affect or influence the dependent variable. This means that the grade 9 junior high school
students’ understanding on NOS was affected by instructional approaches used by the
researcher.
Independent Variable

Dependent Variable

Methods of Instruction:l Reflection-oriented
Inquiry Instructionl Conventional-lecture
Discussion Instruction

Nature of Science (NOS)
Understanding

Figure 1. Research Paradigm
Scope and Delimitation of the Study
This study was limited to the investigation of the effects of reflection-oriented inquiry
instruction on grade 9 junior high school students’ understanding on the nature of science atBalindong National High School for the school year 2017-2018. The investigations of thestudents’ NOS understanding were limited only on observation and inference aspect, andimagination and creativity aspect. Other variables which may affected the experimental groupand control group which were beyond the control of the researcher were acknowledged aslimitations of the study.
Research Design
This study used both quantitative and qualitative methods to investigate the effects ofreflection-oriented inquiry instruction on the students’ understanding on the nature of science.
The quantitative aspect utilized quasi-experimental design using two intact groups.
Specifically, the matching-only pretest-posttest control group design was used.
Experimental Group
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M

O1
O1

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X
C

O2
O2

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The symbol M refers to the match samples in terms of their average grades in Grade 8 in theexperimental and control groups. The symbol O1 represents the first administration of theresearch instruments including pretest to the experimental and control groups before theintervention. X stands for the instructional intervention (treatment) which was thereflection-oriented inquiry instruction given to the experimental group. C refers to the control
group being exposed to the conventional lecture-discussion instruction. O2 represents thesecond administration of the research instruments including posttest to the control group andexperimental group after the intervention.
The quantitative aspect focused on the determining the number of students falling in each
NOS understanding category and their scores in the NOS understanding test in both thecontrol and experimental groups. In addition, statistical analysis was used in the numerical
data to compare the NOS understanding levels. The qualitative aspect focused on the
categorization of students’ NOS understandings. Students’ written responses in thequestionnaire was categorized as naïve, transitionary, and informed using the adopted rubric
guide of Liang et al (2008). Students’ written responses were probed through semi–structured
interviews.
To assess further the students’ NOS understanding under the experimental group, the student
participants were required to write a journal about what they have learned, the insights andreflection they have gained as they performed activities on the NOS aspects. Reflective
questions were given after the activities underlining the NOS aspects. Moreover, observations(field notes) and uninformed interviews were done during the intervention.
Locale of the Study
This study was conducted in Balindong National High School, Balindong, Lanao del Sur,
Philippines during the school year 2017–2018. The school is located specifically in Barangay
Salipongan at the Municipality of Balindong, Lanao del Sur, Philippines. It is a public school
under the Schools Division of Lanao del Sur-I and one of the top performing public schools
in the province.
Subject Participants of the Study
The study involved two sections of intact classes namely, Section Masayahin with 64
students and Section Makadiyos with 69 students of grade 9 junior high school students in
Balindong National High School. The 20 paired match students in the two sections of intact
classes were assigned to the control and experimental groups by tossing a coin. Matching wasunannounced to the subject participants. The experimental group was exposed toreflection-oriented inquiry instruction and the control group was taught under theconventional lecture-discussion method of teaching. Those students who were not matchedwere still part of the class discussions and activities but they were excluded in the data
analysis.
Results and Discussions
The order of the data presentation, the data analyses and interpretations follows the sequenceorder of the presentation of the statement of the problem.

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Control and Experimental Groups of Students’ Levels of Understanding on the Natureof Science before and after Intervention
Table 1. Numbers and percentage distributions of control and experimental groups ofstudents in the three levels of NOS understanding before and after intervention
BeforeAfter
Levels ofControl Experimental
Control
Experiment
NOS Aspects Understanding
Group
Group
Group
al Group(n=20)(n=20)(n=20)(n=20)
1. Observation
Informed
3 (15.0%)
4 (20.0%)12(60.0%) 20(100.0%)
andTransitionary 14(70.0%)
16 (80.0%)
8 (40.0%)0(0.0%)
InferenceNaïve
3 (15.0%)0 (0.0%)0 (0.0%)0(0.0%)
2. Imagination
Informed
0 (0.0%)1 (5.0%)17(85.0%)
20 (100%)
andTransitionary 10(50.0%)
10 (50.0%)
3 (15.0%)0 (0.0%)CreativityNaïve
10(50.0%)9 (45.0%)0 (0.0%)0 (0.0%)Note: Legend: Raw score: 4–5–Informed; 3–Transitionary; 1–2–Naïve
To categorize the control and experimental groups of students’ responses in the Likert–
prompt items in the questionnaire (SUSSI–Q), the following rubric for level ofunderstandings was used: raw score of 4–5 is informed, 3 is transitionary and 1–2 is naïve,and the students’ written responses in the open–ended questions of the instrument (SUSSI–
Q), a rubric developed by Liang, et al. (2008) was adopted.
Observation and inference. As shown in Table 1, before the intervention, more than half ofthe students in the experimental (80.0 %) and control (70.0 %) demonstrated transitionary
level of NOS understanding. Very few (control group = 15.0%, experimental group = 20.0%)
demonstrated informed level of understanding. For naïve level, there were few (15.0%)
students on the control group demonstrated such level while none (0.0 %) in the experimentalgroup.
The findings were supported by the study of Küçük and Cepný (2015) where the results
gathered indicated that most students' nature of science understanding were weak or varying(78%) and only 22% of the students had adequate understanding.
This variation of numbers of students in each understanding level can be explained by thestudy of Abd–El–Khalick (2002) which that naïve or inadequate understandings of NOS areevident in participants who reflect an “absolutist view of scientific knowledge” meaning thatscientific knowledge is certain and true, and does not change. Those ideas stem from theunderstanding that you have to see it to be true. Students with naïve understandings also
believe that theories can be proven and eventually become scientific laws, and that scientificknowledge can only be obtained through precise experiments (Lederman et al., 2002).
On the other hand, students with informed or adequate understandings of NOS believe thatscientific knowledge can change with new evidence and that scientists use inferences todetermine things, such as atomic structure and knowledge about dinosaurs because neither
can be directly observed by students in a classroom (Khishfe & Abd-El-Khalick, 2002).
After the intervention, below half of the control group (40.0%) demonstrated transitionary
level of understanding while none (0.0%) in the experimental group. All the students in theexperimental group (100.0%) demonstrated informed level of understanding while more than

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half in the control group (60.0%). None among the two groups demonstrated naïve level ofunderstanding.
The results were supported by the contention of Küçük and Cepný (2015) that thedirect-reflective methods should be used instead of indirect ones for students to understandthe real nature of science. Furthermore, Abd-El-Khalick (2004) and Lederman, et. al (2012)
declared that student gathered informed view on NOS aspect when exposed to reflective
teaching method.
Imagination and creativity. As shown in Table 1, before the intervention, half of thestudents in both experimental (50.0%) and control (50.0%) group have transitionary level of
NOS understanding. Very few demonstrated an informed level in the experimental group(5.0%) and none (0.0%) in the control group. For the naïve level, below half of the students(45.0%) in the experimental group demonstrated such level while half (50.0%) of the students
in the control group.
This result was consistent with what Sangsa-ard, et. al.(2013) found out in their study
investigating the role of creativity and imagination in the conduct of experiments whichshowed that majority of students held transitionary views to informed views in which they
explain scientists used imaginative in some of step when they developed scientific knowledge
and did experiments. Accordingly, these results indicated that grade 9 students’
understanding of imagination and creativity NOS aspect is adequate in some ways andinadequate in the other ways.
After the intervention, all the students (100.0%) in the experimental group demonstrated
informed level while more than half (85.0%) in the control group had a such level ofunderstanding. None (0.0%) demonstrated a transitionary level in the experimental groupwhile very few (15.0%) in the control group have such level. For the naïve level, none (0.0%)
in both groups have such level.
Clearly, the results suggested that the activities and the lectures had a big impact on thestudents’ levels of understanding on their imagination and creativity NOS aspect especiallywith the use of the reflection–oriented inquiry instruction. This was related to the study ofAbd–El–Khalick, et. al. (2002) which had shown evidence that implicit NOS instruction was
ineffective. From this study, the authors recommended that the teacher use explicit andreflective NOS instruction to improve students’ understanding of NOS. Furthermore, teachers
have to know their students’ ideas about NOS because they can plan instruction to improvetheir students’ understanding of NOS.
Comparison of Control and Experimental Groups of Students’ NOS Understanding
Test Mean Score before and after Intervention
To determine if there is a significant difference in the nature of science understanding test
mean score between the control and experimental groups of students before and after theintervention, the t-test for independent samples was used. However, ANCOVA was used in
explaining the posttest mean score on Observation and Inference aspect NOS understanding
posttest mean score by using the pretest as covariate.
Observation and Inference. As shown in Table 3, before the intervention, the experimentalgroup posted a higher mean score (3.12 vs 2.85) than the control group with a t–test value of

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2.03 and p–value of .50 which is significant at .05 level. This implied that the two groups
differed significantly in their NOS understanding test mean score at .05 level in favor of theexperimental group. This further suggested that on the average, the students in theexperimental group have better understandings than the control group as revealed in their test
mean score.
To justify the initial incomparability of the two groups in their observation and inference
NOS aspect mean score, Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) was additionally used using
pretest as covariate in the posttest mean score comparison. It is utilized to see if the lead ofthe experimental group over the control group pretest mean score has an effect or influenceon the posttest mean score result with the pretest mean score as a covariate. Table 2 showed
the ANCOVA test results of observation and inference NOS aspect posttest mean score using
the pretest mean score as covariate.
Table 2. ANCOVA test results of NOS understanding posttest on the Observation andInference aspect for both experimental and control groups
Type III Sum
Mean
Partial eta
Sourcedf
Fp-valueof Squares
SquareSquaredaCorrected
5.420
22.710 12.409 0.000
0.401
Model
1
8.971 41.079 0.000
0.526
8.971
Intercept
1
0.163
0.749
0.393
0.020
0.163
OI_pre1
4.209 19.271 0.000
0.342
4.209
Group
37
0.281
8.080
Error
40
614.125
Total
39
13.500
Corrected Total
Note: R Squared = 0.401 (Adjusted R squared = 0.369)
As shown in Table 2, the F–test has a value of 19.271 and a p–value equivalent to 0.000
which is less than .05 level of significance (p< .05). This implied that the lead ofexperimental group over the control group pretest mean score has no effect or influence on
the lead of the experimental group over the control group posttest mean score. This meansthat the posttest results were statistically significant after controlling the effect of pretest as
covariate.
This further suggested that the lead of the experimental group over the control group meanscore before the intervention can be due to chances which are caused by some influential
factors such as that most of the students in the experimental group were influenced by theirreadings in science textbooks and information they got form social media, an influence ofeasy–access to the internet through their electronic gadgets such as laptops, smart phones andtablets, and also, most of their parents have a strong parental support system in theireducational process.

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Table 3. T-test values and p–values on the comparison of the control and experimentalgroups of students’ NOS understanding mean score before and after intervention
NOS Aspect

PeriodBeforeIntervention

Group

Mean
Score

Standard
Deviation

Control (n=20)

2.85

0.476

Experimental
3.12
0.376
(n=20)
Control (n=20)
3.51
0.489
After
Experimental
Intervention
4.24
0.440
(n=20)
Control (n=20)
3.43
0.398
BeforeExperimental
Intervention
3.30
0.541
(n=20)
2.Imagination
and Creativity
Control (n=20)
3.97
0.512
After
Experimental
Intervention
4.36
0.348
(n=20)
Note: s = significant at .05 level; ns = not significant at .05 level
1.Observation
andInferencet-testvalue

p-value

2.03.050(s)4.90.000 (s)-0.83.411(ns)2.80.008(s)However, after the intervention as shown in the Table 3, the observation and inference NOS
understanding mean score of the two groups had a p–value of 0.000. This implied that thetwo groups were significantly different at .05 level of significance (p < .05). This further
suggested that the exposure of the students in the experimental group to the reflection–oriented inquiry approach was found to be favorable in helping the improvement of their
NOS understanding in observation and inference aspect. The students understood theconcepts much deeper and the similarities and differences in the observation and inference
aspect of NOS in which they may apply them not only in science classrooms but also in their
daily lives.
Moreover, the reflection–oriented inquiry instruction given to the experimental group was
found to be helpful in increasing the level of students’ NOS understanding in observation andinference aspect. The students understood the concepts and the similarities and differences in
the observation and inference aspect of NOS in which they may apply them not only inscience classrooms but also in their daily lives. The students comprehended the meanings oftheir observations and distinguished on how they would give implications as they inferred.
Imagination and Creativity. As shown in Table 3, before intervention, the experimentalgroup posted a lower mean score (3.30 vs. 3.43) than the control group with a t–test value of–0.83 and p–value of 0.411 which is not significant at .50 level (p >.05). This implied that thetwo groups of students were initially comparable in their NOS understanding in imaginationand creativity aspect prior to the intervention. This suggested that the students from the twogroups had the same level of understanding on the imagination and creativity NOS aspect.
Generally, it is natural to expect this result because these two groups of students werehandled by the same teacher, and were exposed to the same learning environment.
After intervention, the experimental group posted a higher mean score (4.36 vs. 3.97) than thecontrol group with a t–test value of 2.80 and p–value of 0.008 which is significant at .05 level(p< .05). This implies that the two groups were significantly different in their NOS

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understanding test mean score at .05 level in favor of the experimental group. This suggested
that the experimental group of students’ exposure to the reflection–oriented inquiry
instruction was found to be beneficial in facilitating the improvement of their NOS
understanding in imagination and creativity aspect. As supported by experimental group of
students’ reflection written in their journal writing, their confusions and difficulties regarding
the terminology usage on the said aspect were corrected, reconciled, clarified and wellunderstood.
Conclusion
Based from the findings of the study, the following conclusions were drawn such as (1)students who were not exposed to reflection-oriented inquiry instruction of the Nature of
Science (NOS) were capable of understanding the aspects of NOS at their own expense.
Their understanding existed in naïve–transitionary–informed levels. However, most of thestudents were in the transitionary level of their NOS understanding. After exposure toreflection-oriented inquiry instruction, students’ NOS understanding level was raised to
informed level higher in the number of students exposed to reflection-oriented inquiry
instruction than those exposed to conventional–lecture instruction. (2) In the Observation andInference NOS aspect, there was a significant difference (t=4.90, p=0.00<.05) in favor of theexperimental group. While, in the Imagination and Creativity NOS aspect, there was also asignificant difference (t=2.80, p=0.008<.05) in favor of the experimental group. Therefore,
the reflection–oriented inquiry instruction was found to be beneficial in promoting students’
understanding on the nature of science (NOS).
Acknowledgement
The authors would like to thank the good people of Department of Science andTechnology-Science Education Institute (DOST-SEI), Philippines for funding this research,especially to the DOST-SEI Director Dr. Josette T. Biyo and to the panel members namely,
Dr. Salamah. B. Indad, Prof. Inoray G. Latip and Prof. Sonny M. Magno.

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References
Abd-El-Khalick, F., & Khishfe, R. (2002). Influence of explicit and reflective versus implicit
inquiry-oriented instruction on sixth graders’ views of nature of science. Journal of
Research in Science Teaching 39 (7), 551–578.
Abd-El-Khalick, F., Lederman, N. G. (2000). The influence of history of science courses on
students’ views of nature of science. Journal Of Research In Science Teaching 37(10), 1057-1095.
Abd-El-Khalick, F., Lederman, N. G., Bell, R. L., & Schwartz, R. S. (2001). Views of natureof science questionnaire: toward valid and meaningful assessment oflearners’conceptions of nature of science. Paper Presented At the Annual
International Conference Of the Association For the Education Of Teachers In
Science, Costa Mesa, California.
Akindehin, F. (1988). Effect of an instructional package on pre-service science teachers’
understanding of the nature of science-related attitudes. Research in Science
Education 72(1), 73-82.
Griffiths, A. K. & Berry, M. M. (1991). Secondary school student’s understanding of thenature of science. Memorial University, Canada. Research in Science Education.
21(2), 141-150.
Ivowi, U. (2001). Role of teachers in motivating students’ interest in science andmathematics. IICBA–Newsletter. Vol. 3, No. 1.
Küçük, M. & Cepni, S. Measurement and Assessment for science education in the Turkish
educational context: Problems and reflection. Asia-Pacific Forum on Science
Learning and Teaching, vol 5, no 3, article 1. December 2004.
Lederman, N. G. et al. (2002). Developing views of nature of science in an authentic context:
An explicit approach to bridging the gap between nature of science and scientificinquiry. Research in Science Education. 88 (4), 610-645.
Lederman, N.G. (2012). Science teachers’ conceptions of the nature of science: do they reallyinfluence teacher behavior. Research in Science Education (71) 721-734.
Liang, et. al. (2008). Assessing pre-service elementary teachers’ views on the nature ofscientific knowledge: A dual response instrument. Asia Pacific Forum on Science
Learning and Teaching 9 (1), 1.
Moss, H. & Tyler, L. (2001). Toward a distributed account of conceptual knowledge. Trends
in cognitive sciences 5 (6):244-252.1
National Research Council. (1996). National science education standards. Washington, D.
C.: National Academy Press.

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Sangsa-ard, R., Thathong,K., and Chapoo, S. (2014). Examining grade 9 student’s
conceptions on thenature of science. Procedia-social and behavioral sciences
116. DOI:10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.01.226.
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TIMSS 2019 International Reports. https://timss2019.org
Contact email: asnaifapangandaman@gmail.com
bcagas2000@yahoo.com

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Gains and Losses: A Phenomenographic Study on Adolescents’ Understanding of
Isolation Due to COVID-19
Leann Jester D. Rosali, Notre Dame of Marbel University, Philippines
Princess Joy F. Dicto, Notre Dame of Marbel University, Philippines
Kreen N. Erojo, Notre Dame of Marbel University, Philippines
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Abstract
The global health emergency posed by the COVID-19 outbreak has affected millions ofpeople. In the Philippines, among the establishments closed were schools which resulted inchildren and adolescents staying at home for more than two years under quarantine. Many
studies were conducted focusing on the impact of isolation due to quarantine on people's
physical and emotional well-being, most notably the children and adolescents who are
considered vulnerable individuals. However, limited studies investigated how these young
people understand their experiences while in quarantine. Hence, this phenomenographic
study aims to explore the different ways Filipino adolescents understand their isolation
experiences. Seventeen adolescents in quarantine were interviewed, and qualitative analysis
revealed an outcome space where isolation is seen in the light of gains and losses as
described through a hierarchy of expanding awareness of the different dimensions ofisolation. The descriptions reveal understandings that isolation is (1) a restraint, (2) anecessity, and (3) an opportunity that has an impact on the physical, emotional, and social
dimensions of adolescents' lives. Implications and recommendations presented may serve as abasis for designing programs and interventions to help adolescents deal with possible
negative feelings while in isolation and post-quarantine.
Keywords: Isolation, Adolescents, Phenomenography, COVID-19, Pandemic

iafor
The International Academic Forumwww.iafor.org

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Introduction
The worldwide health crisis due to the outbreak of COVID-19 has disrupted the lives of
millions of people. Without the available cure and before the development of a vaccine, mostcountries see lockdowns, quarantines, and extreme forms of physical distancing as means ofcontaining the transmission of the contagion (Leung, 2020). In the Philippines, among theestablishments closed are schools which resulted in children and adolescents staying at home
for more than two years (De Guzman, 2021; Lopez, 2022). The government mandated that
Filipinos whose ages are below 21 years were not allowed to leave their residences being
considered part of the at-risk group and have continued their education through distancelearning (UNICEF, 2021; Dela Cruz et al., 2021; Republic of the Philippines Inter-Agency
Task Force, 2020). The pandemic-induced lockdowns which are also referred to asquarantine in this paper have resulted in the social isolation of Filipino adolescents.
Isolation poses an enormous challenge to people's physical and emotional well-being, mostnotably children and adolescents who are considered vulnerable individuals ("Adolescentmental health", 2022; Singh et al., 2020; UNICEF, 2021). The inability to stay active andfeeling anxious about the uncertainties brought about by the infectious disease outbreak areamong the identified adverse results of the confinement. Mental health conditions such as
anxiety and depressive symptoms are expected to be elevated due to prolonged social
isolation. Even isolation that may even be less than ten days may result in long-term effects
on mental health (Brooks, et al, 2020, as cited in Pietrabissa & Simpson, 2020). These mental
health issues are commonly associated with exhibited emotional patterns and coping ability
with problematic situations.
On the other end, lockdowns due to COVID-19 have presented opportunities in different
systems such as the positive environmental impact due to limited fuel consumption due totravel restrictions and reinventing education by prioritizing authentic learning (Arora et al.,2022; "Education and COVID-19: challenges and opportunities", 2022). On a personal level,
being in quarantine has allowed individuals to reflect and rethink the practices of doing
things in areas of personality development and schooling.
Hence, this study aimed to explore the different ways in which Filipino adolescents
understand their isolation experience. As the quarantine measures were ongoing, it was
crucial to probe their understandings of their situation to know how to help them deal withpossible negative feelings while in isolation and after being quarantined. Although thisstudy's findings could not be generalized, they may serve as a basis for designing programs
and interventions promoting adolescents’ mental health concerns. More so, this will give an
insight into the general mindset and attitude of Filipino adolescents towards social isolation.
Methods
This study investigated the various understandings of adolescents about isolation due to the
COVID-19 pandemic. Hence, a phenomenographic study was adopted as an approach thataims to describe the different ways in which people understand, view, perceive, or experiencea phenomenon. Its focus is not just on the understanding of the meaning of the phenomenon
but on the variation of the understanding of the phenomenon (Larsson & Holmstrom, 2007).
It focuses on the collective experiences, and not on the individual experiences of theparticipants. It is interpretivist which adheres to the notion that there are several acceptableinterpretations of realities (Akerlind et al., 2005).

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This phenomenographic study utilized purposive sampling to investigate the understandingsof a specific group of people, specifically, Filipino adolescents who were under quarantine
due to the COVID-19 pandemic. There were seventeen adolescents enrolled in an online
class in a private senior high school in the Philippines who participated in the study. They
were selected as participants based on the following selection criteria: (1) age range is
between 16 to 19 years old; (2) bonafide students at the selected school locale; and (3) whoseparents provided consent for their participation in the study. The participants have an 11:6
female-to-male ratio. The participants' demographic profiles maintain sufficient diversity as
required by phenomenographic studies (Trigwell, 2000, as cited in Khan et.al, 2019). The
goal of diversity in the sample is to increase the chances of finding variation in the meaningor understanding of the participants.
The data collection approach used in this study involved the conduct of written and oral semistructured interviews. The open-ended questions asked were intended to draw out views anddescriptions of the experiences of the adolescents while in quarantine. The data werecollected from March to December 2021 when the participants were still restricted fromgoing to public places and only allowed to attend school in an online environment.
Participants’ responses were collected through an online survey form with open-ended
questions and virtual interviews which lasted for more or less 30 minutes per participant via
Zoom, an online videoconferencing platform. The oral interviews were recorded with due
consent.
The phenomenographic analysis of this study centers on the “what” and “how” of theparticipant’s isolation experience. However, it is important to note that the analysis consistsof searching the transcripts for similarities and differences in the participants’ responses(Akerlind et al., 2005). The data is analyzed collectively and not the individual transcripts to
extract the pool of meanings, the related expressions of the youth about their understandingof isolation which are distinct from other expressions, that were the bases for identifying
categories and outcome space (Holmqvist & Selin, 2019; Stolz, 2020).
The analysis of the obtained data followed the protocol of Sjöström and Dahlgren (2002, as
cited in Khan, 2014) which began with the iterative dialogue between the text and theresearchers through the structured reading and rereading of transcripts for familiarization.
The next step involves the compilation of responses based on their similarities anddifferences. Relevant and meaningful statements are then extracted from the compilation
which is called the condensation stage. This is followed by the initial grouping of meanings
from responses into categories of qualitatively different ways of understanding thephenomenon. These categories are compared to each other to refine their boundaries before
naming them based on their key characteristics. Lastly, an outcome space is drawn out basedon the internal relationships between the categories in the form of a hierarchy. In this study,
the hierarchy of expanding awareness of the different dimensions of isolation is presented.
Ethical Considerations
Prior to the onset of the study, the researchers sent an electronic Parents’ Consent Form to
explain to parents the purpose, nature, and potential risk of the study and sought theirpermission to allow their children’s participation in the research. As soon as parental consent
was secured, target participants were sent the electronic form of Child Assent, e-survey
forms, and the Zoom login credentials and interview schedule. In both electronic instruments
and interviews, the following were emphasized: the aim of the study, voluntary participation

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Official Conference Proceedingsin the study, privacy considerations, and the right to withdraw from the research at any time.
Confidentiality, anonymity, and careful handling of data were given utmost priority incarrying out this study from data collection, processing, storage, and publication.
Results
The analysis of the transcript identified three different ways in which adolescents understandisolation. These ways of understanding reveal that adolescents view isolation as (1) arestraint, (2) a necessity, and (3) an opportunity.
Isolation as a restraint
Some Filipino adolescents perceive isolation as a restraint. This sense of restraint is observed
to impact the physical, emotional, and social dimensions of the adolescents’ lives in different
forms such as limitation of physical movement, social disconnection, regression in wellbeing, and deprivation of opportunities. These cited descriptions are all ways in which
restraint is experienced.
For example, with the face-to-face classes being suspended because of the lockdowns andadolescents were not allowed to leave their residences as part of the measures of thegovernment-imposed community quarantine, some participants expressed how isolation has
restricted their physical mobility and development. When asked to describe their experiences,some pointed out that:“ara lang kami sa limited space na makahulag… Daw ara ka sa dome… di ka pwede
mag gwa…ang amon condition sa lawas like nadula na… kay wala gid kami
gahampang… just pungko, tubang sa laptop sa online class.”(There is limited space for movement… It is as if you are inside a dome and you can’t
get out…Our physical condition has regressed because of inactivity… I just sit aroundand face the laptop to attend online class.)“Since student athlete po ako, bigla din po nagstop and training ko. Nagbag-o gid sya
tanan, ma’am.”(I used to train as a student athlete, but my training suddenly ceased [because ofisolation]. It changed everything, ma’am.)“It was very uncomfortable… di kami maka kuha sang food… indi kami
makagrocery… To be honest ma’am, I feel caged because I feel like I am limited tothe house only. I cannot go back to the way things were na free ka to go outside andwant to do the things na pwedeng gawin outside your house.”(It was very uncomfortable… we cannot get food nor go to the grocery. I cannot goback to the way things were. I cannot do the things that I want to do outside thehouse.)In addition, isolation is seen to have a limiting impact on the social and emotional well-beingof adolescents. The disappointment over this form of restriction is articulated as:“I think this pandemic affected my mental and emotional health because of isolationand less physical interaction with my friends.”

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Official Conference Proceedings“Basically, since the start of the isolation, I have felt na it affected my social life,
mostly. I am a very outgoing person na I prefer going out with people… andcommunicating with them. Since nagka-pandemic, I was not able to meet new people,
interact with other people… [it’s] suffocating.”(Basically, since the start of the isolation, I have felt na it affected my social life,
mostly. I am a very outgoing person and I prefer going out with people… andcommunicating with them. When pandemic happened, I was not able to meet new
people, interact with them and it is suffocating.)“Medyo restricted na ang pag meet sang friends so daw maka ano sya ma’am, makasad kay technically diri lang gid sa balay… sa mga meet ups, sa mga gatherings withfamily and friends, may impact man sya kay di ka maka meet up sa family and friends
as often as you’d like.”(There are restrictions when it comes to meeting friends which saddens me. I juststayed home. It has affected how frequent I meet family and friends since gatherings
are not allowed as you’d like.)
Restraint is also experienced by some adolescents through deprivation of opportunities. Someadolescents vented that:“Super disappointing po since that time po maglalast year na po kami sa high school.
Then all the experience na dapat maexperience namin as a high school student di ponangyari such as yong mga balls po indi namin naranasan… at yong graduation
namin indi din po namin naranasan since bigla lang po talagang naglockdown. It all
happened sa age na when I am supposed to live as a youth outside the world, but it all
happened inside my house for almost three years… three years pa lang damu-damo
na nadula.”([It was] super disappointing because [COVID-19 isolation] happened on the last yearof our high school. We missed all the things that we should have experienced as ahigh school student such as the balls... and we also missed the graduation because of
the abrupt lockdown. It happened when I am supposed to be living my youth with theworld, but it seemed to pass while staying at home for three years… for the past three
years, a lot of things were lost.)“Sa part ko na di natuloy ang ball at moving up ceremony, parang nakaka devastatepo… Tapos knowing na hindi na kami makabalik ng school, parang di po natapos ng
maayos yong experience ng high school life. Parang ganyan ang feeling. During thattime po ako ang alumni president so ako ang nag spearhead ng preparation, knowing
na hindi na matuloy yong events, na shock din ako na hindi sya fulfilling sa part kopo.”(Missing the moving-up ceremony is devastating for me… and being unable to go
back to school makes my high school experience incomplete. I was the alumni
president then and we were preparing for the event [graduation ball]. I was shockedthat it was cancelled, and it was not fulfilling on my end.)
Evident from the statements is the general feeling of loss that resulted from the sense ofrestraint from being isolated. The constraints due to physical mobility, social connections,and prospects have resulted in an adverse feeling of loss that needs to be addressed for it may
harm the adolescents’ mental health and well-being.

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Isolation as a necessity
Some Filipino adolescents view isolation as a necessity. Despite perceiving isolation as a
restriction that affects their mobility, socialization, and chances of experiencing things, some
Filipino adolescents also understand isolation as essential in ensuring one’s safety and a
crucial means of curbing the spread of the infection.
“I do find it hard to assess my emotions. I sometimes want to think about the situation
as a rational individual and not as someone who is openly feeling this way or that way
because I do find myself having a deep connection with those thoughts that I have.
And sometimes I will not get into a good decision or a good point if I let it get intome. So as much as it’s not really good to block out your feelings, I do try to be morerational when it comes to thinking. Picking an alternative that would be how I
describe my isolation experience… I do understand it now. For me, isolation is moreof like the definition given by COVID - separating yourself from people for safety…”“I have anxiety while on quarantine. When I feel the need to encourage myself, I
often say that, “It’s okay” or “Everything’s gonna be alright”. I remind myself thatstaying at home is for my own good. These thoughts are enough to lift my mood andhelp me get through the day.”
Despite the experienced restraint, some adolescents acknowledge that being isolated is anecessity. This understanding emerges as adolescents attach meaning to their experience –that is putting into perspective that the isolation experience is a necessary step to ensure one's
safety.
Isolation as an opportunity
Some Filipino adolescents perceive isolation as an opportunity which is an awareness thatstems from the understanding that while isolation leads to restraints, it is necessary. For
example,“[Being on quarantine] did not go that well from the start. So yes it was really hardfor me to adjust. I was able to adjust po in the sense that it was really necessary forme to understand that this is how things are going to be starting from this point… I
had really modified my ways and eventually, I did cope with it… I am really proud of
myself because I really had that emotional understanding of myself… I tell myself I
am really proud of you because you made the most out of the situation… And
understanding yourself and some things that are lacking around you for you to grow.”
Being isolated paved the way for self-reflection and self-discovery, personal development,
and improving family relations. When isolation is seen through the lens of its meaning,
restraints are viewed vis-à-vis the opportunities that arise from it. Implicitly expressed, theconsciousness of the adolescents that isolation is the logical course of action for safety leads
to the recognition of the opportunities emerging from the situation. For example,“This pandemic has affected me in a way that I was able to make some realizations
out of it, out of me and out of the people around me. With the time I spent at home, I
was able to self-reflect with the actions I have committed in the past or to simply put,my life as a whole really. I was also able to make up for the lost time I never got to

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spend with my family. Even though we’re just at home, we try to look at the positiveside of things or just being optimistic. All in all, in a time of darkness and despair still
being overshadowed by the gleaming light of faith and hope, we should believe thatout of all this, we certainly have more to gain than to lose.”“I think that isolation as a COVID-19 response is an effective move. Aside from it
helped us minimize the spread of the virus, it also opened us to a new things which I
believe are useful in today's time. I would like to stress out the fact that isolation
brought us an in-depth knowledge with the different online tools and gadgetssomething that we might not have learned about if isolation never happened. It alsotaught us to build resiliency. Being under the influence of a global disaster, it can't behelped that we worry or grieve upon the losses, but with isolation, we learned to seek
comfort within ourselves; thus, a strong solitude is also built during these days.”“If I were to think back on my experience during the quarantine brought on by the
COVID-19 pandemic, I would find it to be advantageous in some way. I characterizethat worthwhile experience as miserable but rewarding. I have accomplished a lot athome throughout the pandemic, particularly in terms of developing my creativity
abilities through the creation of digital artworks, paintings, and drawings. I used towork on portrait commissions back then, which increased my productivity. By
employing my skills in developing digital publication materials, it further expanded
my opportunities to be a leader and a campus journalist at school. In addition, I haveeven learned some fundamental exercise techniques, and I follow workout routines.
Nevertheless, even with all that productivity. I can't help but admit that it was adreadful experience as well. There have been days when I have had severe insomnia
and cannot fall asleep, staying up for over 24 hours. Interacting to friends were not thesame as before. I made some new friends and lost some others. Additionally, it wasdifficult to go entire days or even weeks without speaking to anyone. With both goodand bad times interspersed with those experiences, I get the conclusion that it wasboth rewarding and miserable.”“I think this experience has brought new changes po especially tulad before may mga
bagay po ako na hindi magawa pero nung nagquarantine na ganito na po ang set up
parang mas nahanap ko po ang time na gawin yong mga hobbies na hindi ko
nagagawa usually… hindi po ibig sabihin na natigil yong usual na ginagawa natin,
natigil din yong progress natin. Kung baga new opportunity lang po sya for growthpo.”(This experience has brought new changes which gave me a break to do my hobbies.
It does not mean that because some of the things we do are halted, our progress has
been discontinued as well. This has been an opportunity for growth.)
Viewed as an opportunity to rest, reflect, learn about oneself, and rebuild relationships,
isolation is being seen on a positive note. This understanding arises from the awareness that
despite the constraints, isolation is needed for safety.
The Outcome SpaceThis study aims to explore the different understandings of Filipino adolescents regarding
their experience of being isolated during the COVID-19 pandemic. The result of this research

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reveals the internal relations of the three emerging categories – isolation as a restraint, anecessity, and an opportunity.
Isolation as a restraint is the basic understanding Filipino adolescents attach to thephenomenon of isolation. The experienced various forms of restraint are the immediate
observable consequences of prolonged social isolation.
However, the awareness that isolation poses restrictions can lead to an understanding that it isalso a necessity. It is through the consciousness of the negative consequences of restraint thatsome Filipino adolescents can also see it as necessary as they make sense of the phenomenon.
Isolation is seen as an important course of action to ensure safety. This view about isolation
emerges as one copes with the challenges of being isolated.
Recognizing that isolation is restricting but is key to safety, a new level of awareness of
isolation comes to light – as an opportunity. The ability to see the realities of being in
isolation provides clarity in thinking and mindset which allows one to be optimistic about it
regardless of the circumstance.
These three ways of understanding can be organized in a hierarchy of expanding awarenessof different dimensions of isolation as shown in the figure below.

Figure 1. The outcome space for the research
Implications
The hierarchy of expanding awareness of different dimensions of isolation as seen throughthe lens of Filipino adolescents presents a crucial point of reflection. For some Filipino
adolescents, the isolation experience may simply be viewed as a restraint that leads to a senseof loss. This feeling of loss may lead to worsened mental health unless interventions were
given to help them undergo the coping process (O'Keefe, 2021). These interventions aresuggested to be meaning-centered or focusing on meaning-making for they were cited as
helpful in coping and adjustment for someone who is dealing with loss (Lichtenthal et al.,2010). According to Nadeau (2008, as cited in Walsh, 2020), the meaning-making process or
putting in perspective the sense of loss makes it endurable.

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Thus, Filipino adolescents whose view of isolation is simply a restraint must undergo aprocess of meaning-making as an intervention to allow them to expand their view fromrestraint to opportunity by acknowledging that their isolation experience is a necessity. It iswhen adolescents attach their isolation experience to a meaning – isolation is necessary – thatthey can accept their loss, make it bearable, and allows them to deal with the difficultchanges in life (Rimiru & Mokua, 2020). It when adolescents see their isolation experience asa necessity that they are also able to expand their awareness that isolation may also lead toopportunities.
On the other hand, the findings of this research also revealed that Filipino adolescents'
perception of isolation is seen in terms of its consequences on the life of young people.
Isolation as a restraint is seen as a loss while isolation as an opportunity is seen as a gain. But
noteworthy is the view that isolation is a necessity that allows adolescents to see positive
impacts not just the negative effects of isolation on their lives. The understanding thatisolation does not only result in losses but leads to gains exposes how Filipino adolescents
respond to difficult situations such as quarantines. This study's findings provide insight into
Filipino adolescents' mindset and attitude when confronted with challenging situations suchas isolation during a pandemic. Filipino adolescents, while acknowledging the problematic
situation, can remain optimistic about being in isolation when they attach meaning to theirexperience. The view that isolation is seen as an opportunity, or a gain is a manifestation ofadaptability and resilience among Filipino adolescents. The observed optimistic thinking ofFilipino adolescents may be attributed to their ability to reflect on their experiences andattach meaning to them. From the studies of Trivate, Dennis, Sholl and Wilkinson (2019) andFalon, Hoare, Kangas and Crane (2022), the ability to self-reflect is seen as an effective
mechanism for an individual to cope with difficult and stressful situations like dealing withlosses.
Nonetheless, it is important to identify measures and strategies on how to process the feelingof loss that these young people harbor to avoid long-term adverse impacts on their overall
well-being. Thus, professional support must be given in schools to address the said concern.
Acknowledgment
The researchers wish to extend their most sincere gratitude to Dr. Gerlese Åkerlind, forproviding feedback on this paper. The generosity of her time and expertise is muchappreciated.

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Lichtenthal, W. G., Currier, J. M., Neimeyer, R. A., & Keesee, N. J. (2010, July). Sense andsignificance: A mixed methods examination of meaning making after the loss of one's
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Contact email: ljcdrosali@gmail.com
pjfdicto@gmail.com

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Quarterlife Crisis Among Emerging Adults: A Phenomenological Study
Samantha P. Santos, Polytechnic University of the Philippines, Philippines
Christoper F. Sasot, Polytechnic University of the Philippines, Philippines
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Abstract
This study focused on the experience of Quarterlife Crisis among Filipino emerging adults. It
aims to examine the quarterlife experiences of emerging adults as they transition fromadolescence into adulthood. Several factors were taken into consideration in this investigationsuch as attainment of bachelor’s degree, pursuing a higher degree of education, age, andsingle as a civil status. Qualitative method was used to capture the experiences of theparticipants. To analyze the life stories, Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA) wasused. An interview via Zoom meeting platform was utilized. To start each interview, consent
was asked from the participants via Google forms. A semi-structured interview guide helpedin drawing out stories, later clustered into superordinate themes. The participants were
purposively selected, consisting of 5 voluntary respondents. The interview guide was set tofocus on the respondent’s experience during the transition to adulthood. The findings of thestudy were obtained from creating superordinate themes, analyzing through the hours ofinterview. Themes are as follows: (1) Unpleasant experiences during first year at work, (2)financial difficulties, (3) pressure from internal and expectations, (4) lack of clear career
direction, and (5) not being ready for work. From the sample population interviewed, it isconcluded that these emerging adults were indeed under distress as they enter a new world of
adulthood. They voluntarily shared their experience to have more open talks about theexistence of Quarterlife Crisis. It is highly encouraged to have more open talks about major
life transition inside homes, schools, and community.
Keywords: Quarterlife Crisis, Emerging Adults, Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis,
Filipino Quarterlife, Young Adulthoodiafor
The International Academic Forumwww.iafor.org

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Introduction
In the Philippine setting, there are limited resources regarding the study of life crises andmental health issues in general. This can be attributed to the Filipino behavior in which they
are not comfortable seeking professional help from government or private mental healthinstitutions. There are several barriers attributed to this limitation, such as financial
constraints, self-stigma associated with fear of negative judgment, and social stigma whichputs the family reputation at stake. It is known that Filipino culture is family-oriented likemost of its Asian neighbors.
Among the total population of Filipinos with depressive symptoms, young adults werereported to have high prevalence of depression and its consequences. A study published by
Puyat et al. in 2021 found that these young adults belonged to the age group of 15-24. The
most frequently reported depressive symptoms were related to loneliness and somatic
problems. This is consistent with studies by Patel et al. which indicated that persons withdepression in low resource countries like the Philippines experience somatic symptoms.
Among the factors which can contribute to extreme mental health issue is the occurrence of alife crisis.
Despite the many issues faced by today’s emerging adults, they still made a mark with their
distinct working attitude. Cited by Pramod et al., emerging adults of today are known forbeing independent in the presence of clearly defined goals. They are ready to be mentored
and seek managers who can enhance their professional careers. Emerging adults are confident
while being highly ambitious – due to their trust and optimism in their own capabilities. They
are on the lookout for a meaningful and purposeful life, which is why work-life balance is of
top importance for them. Instead of “live-to-work” attitude, they are known to have the“work-to-live” perspective in life. As a result, they are looking for work with more flexible
schedules to find equilibrium with their hobbies. The emerging adults of today are innovativeand creative; a working environment that is traditionally too bureaucratic will not be
attractive to them.
Young adults inside Filipino families are therefore likely to prioritize their education inschool - leaving little room for exploration of other interests outside the academe. Filipinos
acknowledge that education is the best tool to secure a better future for their families andthemselves. A study by Puyat et al. stressed that given the importance of educational
achievement in the Philippine culture, it is very likely that the socioeconomic gradientusually associated with moderate to severe depressive symptoms can more strongly beobserved across different levels of educational achievement.
Among ASEAN countries, the Philippines was the last to adopt additional two years ofeducation in the system. Most Filipino young adults in the workforce today lacked the twoyear mastery offered by the K-12 education model. Their basic competencies had to becongested into a 10-year basic education curriculum. In the old curriculum, graduates of basic
education are younger than 18 years old and are not legally ready to start a job or business. In
2013, the Enhanced Basic Education Act was slowly introduced through the K-12
curriculum. The additional two years in basic education was the implementation of SeniorHigh School–in which students will have to choose among four tracks.
Before the reform in the basic education, a typical Filipino student will graduate from college
by the age of 21. In the old curriculum, a young adult Filipino who graduated from college is

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expected to quickly join the workforce. Not yet a full adult but certainly not a child anymore,they are yet to emerge as an adult. Emerging adulthood as proposed by Arnett designates
ages 18-25 as neither adolescence nor young adulthood. These years are more typically aperiod of frequent change and exploration. Unfortunately, due to his roles and duties to thefamily, a Filipino emerging adult struggle to achieve spontaneity and examination of his lifeat this level. A child transitioning into an adult must be ready to drop his weakness andsmallness to be adapt himself to become strong, large, all-powerful, omniscient, and godlike(Maslow, 1968). This is a cause of distress which could affect his mental and emotional
health.
In relation to this, many Filipino emerging adults tend to marry later in life. As reported byPhilippine Statistics Authority, there was a decrease in marriages in a span of 10 years from
14.4 percent for 2007 to 2016 to 10.6 percent for 2008 to 2017. Unlike their parents, younger
generations of Filipinos purposely put aside the need for starting a family early to focus on
careers and pursue higher education (Lobregat, 2015). Still, the root for this rationale is to
give financial support to their parents and siblings. In the absence of a partner, Filipino
emerging adults lack the experience of intimacy which can lead to feelings of isolation basedon Erikson’s psychosocial stages (Feist, et. al. 2018).
The process of antagonization and self-doubt in the emerging adulthood stage defines
quarterlife crisis. This is experienced upon graduation from college where the once clear-cut
path becomes blurred and many twentysomethings begin to feel lost in a sea of a million
possibilities (Thorspecken, 2005). Robbins & Wilner (2001) added that quarterlife crisis is, in
effect, a response to overwhelming instability, constant change, countless choices, and apanicked sense of vulnerability. Those experiencing quarterlife crisis begin to question
themselves incessantly, lose their sense of identity, or question their career choice. Some may
respond to these issues by quitting jobs or stalling career decisions, or encounter distress indaily life and anxiety-related problems.
The aim of this study is to examine the phenomenon of quarterlife crisis among Filipinos
belonging to the emerging adulthood.
Specifically, it sought to answer the following questions:
1. What are the quarterlife experiences of emerging adults?
2. What can be understood from the quarterlife experiences of these emerging adults?
Experimental Method/s
In terms of research design, phenomenological research design was utilized to better discuss
quarterlife crisis. Through phenomenology, this research focused on the individual
respondent’s meaning-making as the quintessential element of the human experience (Patton,2002). Moustakas (1994) transcendental or psychological phenomenology – in which“everything is perceived freshly, as if for the first time” – focus less on the interpretations of
the researcher and highlights the description of the experiences of participants.
Tradition of Inquiry and Data Generation Method
The data gathering procedure was conducted via interview method. The researcher prepared
forms of consent which were read and accepted by the participants. Interviews wereconducted via online call/video meetings. The interviews lasted for sixty to ninety minutes

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and recorded with consent from the participant. A follow-up interview was not necessary.
Usually, a qualitative interview makes use of few unstructured and generally open-ended
questions with the intention of eliciting views and opinions from the research participants(Creswell, 2003). In this study, the interview used a protocol or guide which aided thesmooth flow of conversation.
Sources of Data
This research was conducted via purposive sampling. Purposive sampling refers to a type of
non-probability sampling where participants are selected or judged by the researcher to best
fit in the study (Sharma, 2017). Creswell (2013) elaborated that a purposeful sample
intentionally samples a group of people that can best inform the researcher about the research
problem under examination.
In this study, respondents were purposefully selected according to their age, employment
status and civil status. The targeted sample of this study are Filipinos in the age of 22-26
years old and currently employed with no spouses and children yet. Participants who are
pursuing a master’s degree were selected to participate in this study.
Instrumentation
Data analysis was done using Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA) specifically.
IPA is an approach that interprets and amplifies the ‘lived experience’ stories of research
participants; however, for those stories to make-sense interpretively, the researcher of thestories must have a true and deeper understanding of the participants’ ‘lived experiences.’
This approach puts emphasis for the researcher to put themselves in the shoes of theparticipants (Alase, 2017).
In using IPA, one must set aside one’s belief, feelings, and perceptions to be more open or
faithful to the phenomenon (also called bracketing) as cited in a sample study by Creswell(Colaizzi, 1978). In starting an IPA interview, the researcher uses funneling as a technique
wherein it attempts to elicit both the respondents’ general views and their response to more
specific concerns (Smith, 2009). Funneling allows the researcher to narrow questions down
into more specific data.
Interview Protocol. The participants were asked with general open-ended questions. This
helped lay down the foundation for the research topic. Follow-up questions examined how
participants viewed themselves as a Filipino adult. Some follow-up questions differed fromtheir responses to further probe out their concept of a quarterlife crisis among Filipinos. A
semi-structured interview guide was prepared to assist in the interview flow. At the end of thequestionnaire, respondents were given the chance to share how they felt about the study.
These are presented as follows:
Getting to know the respondents. The respondents were asked information about age, current
occupation – whether this is the same occupation since college graduation and highest
educational attainment. This helped establish rapport and provide demographic information
about the respondents.

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Official Conference ProceedingsLife after college. These are open-ended questions to establish background of theparticipants. Questions were asked such as “Maari mo bang isalarawan ang iyong karanasan
matapos ang kolehiyo? Ano ang iyong saloobin at isipan noong panahong ito?” Respondents
shared their experiences after college graduation and their personal struggles during this big
life transition.
Reflections about life after college. Respondents were asked about the positive and negative
experiences they had after graduation from college. In relation, the researcher probed out if
there were people or persons who helped influence them either in a positive or negative way.
Reflections about quarterlife crisis. Questions were asked relative to the respondents’reflection about their experiences as emerging adults. Sample question was “Kung bibigyan
ka ng pagkakataong baguhin ang nakaraan, sa paanong paraan mo ito babaguhin?”
Goals in the future. Lastly, the respondents were asked about their hopes and dreams in the
future “Ano ang iyong mga pangarap at mithiin para sa iyong sarili limang taon mula sa
ngayon?” This question aimed to gauge each participant’s hopefulness for the future.
Ethical Considerations
This study complies with the ethical guidelines set out by the Polytechnic University of thePhilippines. As cited by Creswell, a researcher gains the participants’ trust by conveying to
the participants that they are participating in a study, explaining the purpose of the study anddoes not engage in deception about the nature of the study. By securing the ethicalconsiderations, both participant and researcher are protected with each information shared
during the interview. Thus, this research is subject to the approval of University Research
Ethics Board to ensure date collected will be handled with confidentiality.
At the beginning of the interview, participants were given an online consent form with option
to receive a copy via their personal e-mail. The consent form shall contain information such
as: introduction to briefly introduce the research proponent, purpose of the research,
confidentiality, sharing of results, and right to refuse or withdraw. Through the consent form,
respondents had knowledge of what they were “letting themselves in for before they makethe decision to cooperate” (Gomm, 2004). Participants were given a chance to ask questions
and to discuss proper handling of personal information for data privacy. Data collected
throughout the interview will be treated with utmost confidentiality. Personal information
will not be used outside of research purposes. Names of person, institution were altered andhidden upon request of interviewee for additional data protection. Information shared during
interview can be withdrawn upon request after the interview has been completed.
Participation to this study was voluntary. Researcher consulted with the interviewees afterthemes of the results were obtained as part of the validation process.
Data Validation
Upon completion of the data analysis, the results were compiled and sent to the participants
via email. They are asked to review the results for accuracy, data privacy and completeness.
The participants were requested to provide feedback or suggestions based on the results.

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Results and Discussion
Participant demographics
All participants obtained their bachelor’s degree from different universities in Metro Manila.
They belong to the age group of 22 to 26 years old (M=21), working for at least 2 years. The
participants are pursuing a master’s degree while working full time jobs.

Table 1: Participant demographics.
ThemesThe participants were interviewed about their experience upon their graduation form college
and how they faced the Quarterlife Crisis. The respondents’ accounts were clustered aroundthe following themes: pressure brought by internal and external factors, financial difficulties,
lack of clear career direction, not being work ready, and unpleasant experiences during firstyear at work.

Table 2: Summary of Themes per respondent.
From the interviews gathered, statements were examined carefully to identify themes. A
summary table is used to visualize the emerging master theme along with the subordinating
themes.

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Table 3: Summary of Master and Subordinate Themes
Discussion
The study focused on the lived experiences of emerging adults as they experience Quarterlife
Crisis during their transition from school to workplace.
The participants’ responses were clustered into themes. Interview method was the main
tradition of inquiry used in the study. This encapsulates both the respondents’ lived
experiences and the factors which contributed to Quarterlife Crisis among the emerging
adults. The following are the main themes found from data gathered:
1. Unpleasant experiences during first year at work. The results showed that theparticipants had a rough start on the onset of their career. For the first time in theirlives, the participants felt unfair treatment form superiors and colleagues. They
expected support from these people as they have received in the past, but that was not
the case. The respondents also felt that there were moral conflicts in their workplace.
This led them to lose interest in the job they were currently at.
2. Financial difficulties. Most of the participants had financial difficulties when they
started out in their careers. Given that they were newbies in the field, majority
received low salary. Since majority are supporting their families aside from their own
needs, this caused a friction on their financial priorities. Some of the participants
reported that they had to postpone a passion or goal to deliver their financial duty
towards their families. Meanwhile, other participants shared that they had difficulties
in establishing financial discipline. This resulted to unhealthy spending habits that had
negative impact to the way they handled money during the start of their career.
3. Pressure from internal and external expectations. From the responses received, it wasobserved that the respondents brought pressure to themselves by setting highexpectations for self as an achiever in the past. Unfortunately, they felt disappointed
when they did not meet a certain achievement at a given age. They were disappointed
when they were not able to perform exceedingly at work as compared to when they
were still students.
4. Lack of clear career direction. Consequently, they felt loss amidst the vast career
opportunities in relation to their degree they obtained in college. The lack of aguaranteed path led some of the respondents to pursue alternative careers. At the same

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time, there were limited job opportunities presented which restricted the chances toland their dream job. This should have helped them avoid quitting jobs in multiple
occasions before realizing the right work environment for them.
5. Not being ready for work. This theme explained that the emerging adults were notimmediately ready when they started out in the workplace. The respondents reported
that they do not have the confidence needed for their job which made it difficult toperform certain tasks at first. Results also revealed that they hoped for more hands-on
training and immersion activities during college. Respondents were also mostly
working on industries which were different from the usual career path that they were
expecting upon graduation.
Conclusion
In conclusion, the findings of the study agreed with the previous literature on the emergenceof Quarterlife Crisis. The respondents were truly under a sense of overwhelming instability,
constant change, countless choices, and a panicked sense of vulnerability as they transitioned
from school to workplace. Prior studies were consistent with the results of this research thatthe crisis can be a product of current issues entailing financial and societal pressures. The
results also reflect that most of the Filipino emerging adults are still on the trend of delayed
marriage and family building consistent with the studies among Asian countries.
It is cited from Erikson that a crisis forms when the “wholeness” of a person is compromised.
Therefore, this study hopes to stress the importance of attending to early life crisis to help
mitigate serious mental health problems. Although it is considered that research about the
Quarterlife Crisis had roots on western concepts, the data shows it exists among participants
belonging to the emerging adulthood. It has also shown that participants are open toconversations concerning this issue. They are happy to contribute to the improvement of thisarea of life.
Form the data gathering process, it is commendable as to how the participants were able tosurvive their transition from adolescence to young adults. They were able to muster thestrength to face various challenges in the different areas of their life. Quoting Maslow’s
description of adulthood “A child must be ready to drop his weakness and smallness to beable to adapt himself to the strong, large, all-powerful, omniscient and godlike adult”
Indeed, the participants handled the challenges headstrong.
On the other hand, this research is limited by the small number of respondents. It does not
generalize the experience of Quarterlife Crisis in the Philippines. However, the small
population can prove the existence of the crisis. Also, the study is limited by the demographic
factors such as having a bachelor’s degree, age group of 20-30 years old, single as a civil
status and pursuing a higher degree after college. It should also be noted that the life
experiences will be unique to every individual.
Recommendations
The study hopes that through data gathered, talks about major life transition will open amongfamilies, school, and communities. Unfortunately, seeking help for such issues are stillcreating stigma. Thus, it is unappealing for young professionals and emerging adults to reachout and talk about similar problems.

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It would be beneficial for the emerging adults to have access to counselling services withguaranteed anonymity, so they can have the freedom to unpack their emotional burdens. This
study can help open doors for clinicians to develop psychotherapeutic intervention tailored toFilipino emerging adults.
Counselling for career guidance in school settings may also use the data presented in thisstudy to create programs for students to help decide their future vocations. With theimplementation of K-12, students are given ample time to decide on the career path theywould take. Extensive immersion, additional technical skills and exposure to technology canhelp equip students in choosing the right career path.
This study provides an opportunity to private companies and local government to provide
affordable coaching/mentoring sessions to young adults. These can help them identify theearly signs of life crisis and take necessary steps to process and improve their well-being.
Last is the recommendation for encouraging the formation of support groups among
emerging adults to provide emotional support to those with similar struggles.
This study also opens prospects to investigate the future of data gathering via online
platforms. Due to the pandemic, data gathering procedure using Zoom and other meeting
applications became convenient for researchers. Future researchers may take advantage ofthis method, however, be wary of losing human connection. Interviews via the web may not
feel personal and sincere for the participants. It would be helpful if researchers will develop
emphatic listening and attentive interview structure to draw out quality in results.
Acknowledgments
The researcher would like to acknowledge the persons who are instrumental to the paper’s
completion. She is grateful to the participants for their willingness to contribute theirexperience and knowledge to the study. This study would not be possible without theguidance of her adviser, members of the panel, and the institution itself.

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http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.127.9000&rep=reAlex&typ
e=pdf#page=199
Robbins, A. & Wilner, A. (2001). Quarterlife crisis: The unique challenges of life in yourtwenties. New York, NY: Jeremy P. Tarcher/Putnam.
Sharma, G. (2017). Pros and cons of different sampling techniques. International journal of
applied research.
Smith, J. (2009). Interpretative phenomenological analysis: A practical guide to method andapplication. Los Angeles: SAGE.
Smith, T.J. & Nichols, T. (2015). Understanding the millennial generation. Journal ofBusiness Diversity, 15(1).
Thorspecken, J. (2005). Quarterlife Crisis: The Unaddressed Phenomenon. Proceedings of
the Annual Conference of the New Jersey Counseling Association.
http://www.angelfire.com/nj/counseling/NJCA2005ProceedingsPapers.pdf
Contact email: smnthsantos@gmail.com

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Grit and Hope as Sequential Mediators in the Association Between
Mindfulness and Flourishing
Kelly Ka Lai Lam, University of Macau, Macau SAR
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Abstract
Flourishing was defined as living within an optimal range for positive psychological andsocial functioning (Fredrickson & Losada, 2005). Recently, it is believed that fostering
flourishing can effectively prevent mental disorders. Empirical studies have also confirmedthat individual mindfulness is related to flourishing. However, the internal mechanism of thislink is relatively underexplored. This pilot study examined the association between
mindfulness and flourishing using a serial mediation model that tested grit and hope as
hypothesized mediators. A Chinese university student sample (N = 163, 68.10% female,
Mean age = 20.52) responded to an online survey package containing Chinese-validated
scales measuring mindfulness, grit, hope, flourishing, and demographic items. Hayes’ (2013)
SPSS macro PROCESS (Model 6) with 5,000 bias-corrected bootstraps with 95% confidence
intervals was used to confirm the serial mediating effect. After controlling for demographic
covariates, the results revealed that: (a) mindfulness, grit, hope, and flourishing weresignificantly and positively associated with each other; (b) grit and hope mediated themindfulness-flourishing link in a sequential fashion; and (c) the indirect effect of serial
manner (β = .12) was significantly greater than the indirect effect through grit (β = .06), andhope (β = -.02). The current findings may provide some guidance for the intervention topromote flourishing among Chinese university students. In order to maximize the effect of
mindfulness on flourishing, researchers and educators can integrate grit- and hope-relatedteaching plans into mindfulness intervention and further test this model with longitudinal
designs.
Keywords: Mindfulness, Grit, Hope, Flourishing, Mediation

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Introduction
One intense interest in the positive psychology field is to understand and promote humanflourishing (Seligman & Czikszentmihalyi, 2000). VanderWeele (2017) defined flourishingin terms of complete human well-being, capturing an individual living within an optimal
range of generativity, growth, and positive psychological and social functioning (Fredrickson& Losada, 2005). Several empirical studies have supported that flourishing individuals
tended to have excellent mental and physical health, better resilience in the face of adversity,and more chances of having a successful career in the future than non-flourishers (Kobau etal., 2011; Seligman, 2011). Despite the desirable effect of flourishing on various
psychological, social, and developmental outcomes at the individual level, recently, more andmore studies have attempted to examine some personal factors that contribute to it, such as
personality traits (i.e., Schotanus-Dijkstra et al., 2016). One of the distinct indicators offlourishing development is mindfulness (Galovan et al., 2022). However, the underlying
mechanism explaining through what pathways mindfulness is related to flourishing isrelatively underexplored. This study aims to fill in this gap.
Mindfulness and Flourishing
The concept of mindfulness is first originated by Kabat-Zinn (1994), which refers toindividual awareness that emerges through conscious attention to the present moment, andnon-judgmental attention to the unfolding of experience. Mindfulness has been found to
improve a variety of desirable psychological outcomes in students, such as better subjective
well-being and executive functioning, and a reduction of psychological distress andmaladaptive behavior (Dunning et al., 2018). Further, several empirical studies havesupported that mindfulness could lead to higher flourishing (i.e., Akin & Akin, 2015). For
example, people with better mindfulness tended to have better gratitude, which further
promoted their sense of flourishing (Rahe et al., 2022). In line with previous findings, I,
therefore, proposed that mindfulness is positively associated with flourishing (Hypothesis 1).
Grit as a Mediator
The concept of grit is first originated by Duckworth and her colleagues (2007) andoperationalized into two distinct facets: Consistency of interest refers to individual
maintenance of commitment towards long-term goals without getting distracted by new goals,
while perseverance of effort refers to individuals consistently work hard towards long-termgoals over a period of time despite obstacles and failure (Duckworth et al., 2007). A
longitudinal study by Raphiphatthana and others (2018) showed that university students’
mindfulness (non-judging and acting with awareness) predicted an increase in grit, 4.5
months later. Additionally, Padhy and others (2021) found that grit was a significant
predictor of flourishing. Therefore, I reasoned that individuals’ mindfulness can foster moregrit and further facilitate more flourishing (Hypothesis 2).
Hope as a Mediator
According to hope theory (Snyder et al., 1991), the concept of hope is defined as “a cognitive
set that is based on a reciprocally-derived sense of successful agency (goal-directed
determination) and pathways (planning to meet goals)” (p. 571). Accordingly, hope captured
two distinct facets: Agency thinking refers to individuals’ determination to initiate and sustain
the goal-directed movement, while pathway thinking refers to an individual’s perceived

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ability to identify barriers and develop alternative pathways in order to circumvent obstacles.
Recently, researchers identified that individuals’ cognitive factors (i.e., awareness and belief)
can be a significant mediator in the relationship between mindfulness and psychologicalwell-being (i.e., Yousefi Afrashteh & Hasani, 2022). For example, Arslan and Asıcı (2022)
found that university students’ mindfulness influenced their psychological well-being
indirectly through their beliefs in solving problems when they faced difficulties. Regarding
the empirical support of the intercorrelations between mindfulness, hope, and flourishing, alongitudinal study by Satici and Satici (2022) showed that the predictive role of mindfulness
on dispositional hope 3 months later in university students has been determined, while Belenand others (2020) found that students’ dispositional hope significantly predicted theirflourishing experience. Here, I proposed that hope can mediate the association between
mindfulness and flourishing (Hypothesis 3).
The Serial Mediating Roles of Grit and Hope
Recent studies have confirmed the predictive role of grit on hope (i.e., Yang & Wu, 2021).
For example, in a university student sample, participants with greater grit tended to reporthigher hope (Ekinci & Koç, 2022). Thus, I proposed that individuals’ grit level is positively
connected to hope, and these two mediators serially mediate the association between
mindfulness and flourishing (Hypothesis 4).
The Present Study
To my knowledge, no research has investigated the proposed relationships. This study cancontribute to the literature by elucidating the mechanism of the association between
mindfulness and flourishing.
MethodParticipants and Procedure
Qualtrics was used to collect survey responses from students of a public university in Macau.
All participants were informed explicitly of the research purpose, nature, and procedure. A
total of 163 university students (Mean age = 20.52, SD = 2.92, 68.10% female) completed theonline survey.
Materials
The Chinese version of all the measurements was adopted and all of them have been appliedin the Chinese context with good reliability and validity.
Mindfulness was assessed with the Mindful Attention Awareness Scale (MAAS; Brown &Ryan, 2003), covering 15 items to assess individual differences in the frequency of mindfulstates over time. A sample item was “I could be experiencing some emotion and not be
conscious of it until sometime later”. Each item was rated on a 6-point Likert scale (1 =almost never and 6 = almost always); higher average scores indicated higher levels ofdispositional mindfulness. In the current sample, this scale showed good reliability(Cronbach’s alpha = .89).

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Grit was assessed with the Short Grit Scale (Grit-S; Duckworth & Quinn, 2009), covering 8
items to assess individuals’ passion and sustaining effort toward long-term goals. Fournegatively worded statements described one’s consistency of interest (e.g., “I often set a goal
but later choose to pursue a different one”), and four positively worded statements described
one’s perseverance of effort (e.g., “I am a hard worker”). Each item was rated on a 5-point
Likert scale (1 = not like me at all and 5 = very much like me); higher average scoresindicated higher levels of grit. This scale showed acceptable reliability (Cronbach’s alpha= .71).
Hope was assessed with the Hope Scale (Snyder et al., 1991), covering 8 items to assess the
respondent's level of hope. Four statements described agency thinking (e.g., “My pastexperiences have prepared me well for my future”) and four statements described one’s
pathway thinking (e.g., “I can think of many ways to get out of a jam”). Each item was rated
on a 5-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree and 5 = strongly agree); higher average scoresindicated more hope. This scale showed good reliability (Cronbach’s alpha = .85).
Flourishing was assessed with the Flourishing Scale (Diener et al., 2009), covering 8 items toassess individuals’ self-perceived success in important areas such as relationships,
self-esteem, purpose, and optimism. A sample item was “I actively contribute to thehappiness and well-being of others”. Each item was rated on a 7-point Likert scale (1 =strongly disagree and 7 = strongly agree); higher average scores indicated a person with many
psychological resources and strengths. In the current sample, this scale showed good
reliability (Cronbach’s alpha = .89).
Statistical Analyses
IBM SPSS Statistics 24 was used to calculate the descriptive statistics and correlations oftested variables. Amos 24.0.0 was used to analyze the hypothesized path model. Further, weused Hayes’ (2013) SPSS macro PROCESS (Model 6) with 5,000 bias-corrected bootstraps
to examine the indirect effect of life satisfaction and perceived distress individually andsequentially.
Results
Preliminary Analyses
As shown in Table 1, the main variables were significantly and positively correlated with one
another. Age was significantly associated with mindfulness and hope, while gender was
non-significantly associated with the main variables.

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1. Mindfulness

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2

3

4

-

Gender

Age

.06

.20*

-.03

.10

-.03

.20*

2. Grit.36***-

3. Hope.20*.54***-

4. Flourishing.23**.50***.69***

-

.04

.08

Mean

3.78

3.01

3.34

4.89

.68

20.52

Standard Deviation

.82

.52

.57

1.01

.47

2.92

Table 1: Mean, Standard Deviations, and Bivariate Correlations among Variables (N = 163)
Note: *p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.
Test of the Mediation ModelAs shown in Figure 2, mindfulness had a significantly positive effect on grit, grit had asignificantly positive effect on hope, and both grit and hope had significant effects onflourishing. Mindfulness had a significant total effect on flourishing (β = .36, p < .05). Whencontrolling for the effect of grit and hope, the direct effect of mindfulness on flourishingremained non-significant (β = .06, p = n.s.). The association between mindfulness andflourishing is fully mediated by higher levels of grit and hope.

Figure 1: The Hypothesized Mediation Model
Note. The effects were reported in standardized values. Controlling for age and gender.
Solid lines indicated significant paths. The total effect of mindfulness on flourishing wasshown in parenthesis. *p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001
Based on the results of bootstrapping (see Table 2), grit significantly mediated the association
between mindfulness and flourishing (β = .06, 95% CI [-.104, .088]), while hope showed anon-significant mediating effect (β = -.02, 95% CI [.104, .257]). The results also supported
the serial mediating effect (β = .12, 95% CI [.061, .177]). We then conducted comparisonsamong the indirect effects to test whether they exerted equal impacts on the association
between mindfulness and flourishing. The results indicated that the indirect effect of serial
manner was significantly greater than the indirect effect through grit or hope (z = 1.29, p< .10; a 90% confidence interval was used in small sample size).

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Standardized Standard
Beta
Error
β
SE

Bootstrapping
ConfidenceIntervals
Lower Upper

Total Effect

.27

.10

.074

.456

Total Indirect Effect

.16

.06

.035

.273

Mindfulness è Grit è Flourishing

.06

.03

.003

.124

Mindfulness è Hope è Flourishing

-.02

.05

-.104

.088

Mindfulness è Grit è Hope è Flourishing

.12

.03

.061

.177

1

Table 2: Results of the Mediating Effects(5,000 bias-corrected bootstraps 95% confidence intervals)
Note: Controlling for age and gender.
Discussion
Empirical studies have consistently shown significant associations between mindfulness andflourishing; however, little is known about the mechanism. Taking a convenience Chinese
student sample, the current study extended the literature by demonstrating the role of grit andhope in mediating the mindfulness-flourishing link both, respectively, and through asequential mediating pathway.
Unexpectedly, we found that mindfulness was non-significantly associated with flourishing(not support of H1). Although previous studies have suggested that mindfulness acts as animportant predictor of flourishing (i.e., Rahe et al., 2022), we found that the association
between mindfulness and flourishing is not always straightforward and can even be linked
indirectly through grit and hope.
In support of H2, we found that grit significantly mediated the mindfulness-flourishing link.
This aligned with previous findings that grit was a significant mediator between dispositional
factors (i.e., gratitude) and subjective well-being (Oriol et al., 2020).
Unexpectedly, we found a non-significant specific indirect effect of mindfulness onflourishing only through hope (not support of H3). This finding implied that increased
mindfulness does not necessarily create better hope, unless it is achieved through increased
grit.
In support of H4, we found evidence in favor of hypothesized indirect effect: mindfulness →grit → hope → flourishing. This indirect effect of serial manner (grit→hope) was
significantly greater than the indirect effect through grit or hope. However, more studies are
warranted to replicate this finding and to further investigate how and why grit and hopeinfluence the mindfulness-flourishing link in a serial manner.

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Limitations and Future Work
This study has three limitations. First, this pilot study used a cross-sectional design with asmall sample size, and the findings failed to suggest causality among the tested variables.
Further experimental research is recommended to examine possible causal relationships.
Second, the data were self-reported, which may include social desirability bias. Future studies
may need to include multiple data sources (i.e., parental reports) in order to control theabove-mentioned bias. Third, the current findings were drawn from a Chinese university
student sample, which cannot be generalized to other non-Chinese populations or religions.
More cross-cultural research on this topic in large non-Chinese populations is recommended.
Conclusion
This study identified the association between mindfulness and flourishing was fully mediatedby grit and hope in a serial manner. That is, mindfulness influenced flourishing through firstgrit, and then hope. Importantly, a growing body of evidence suggests that both grit and hopeare learnable and malleable and they can be developed through practice (Alan et al., 2019). In
order to maximize the effect of mindfulness on students’ flourishing, researchers andeducators can integrate grit- and hope-related teaching plans into mindfulness intervention.
For example, educators can implement the Mindfulness-Based Flourishing Program (MBFP)
in schools by teaching students to set and achieve their long-term goals, and strengthening
positive goal-directed thoughts and personal capacities for attaining long-term goals. Further
experimental and longitudinal research on this trend is also recommended.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by the Science and Technology Development Fund [Grant number:
0023/APD/2021]. I hereby express my gratitude.

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Human Flourishing. American Psychologist, 60(7), 678–
686. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.60.7.678

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Galovan, A. M., Zuluaga Osorio, J., Crapo, J. S., Schramm, D. G., & Drebit, E. (2022). A
strong relationality view of mindfulness and flourishing I–Thou relations: A dyadic
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Snyder, C. R., Harris, C., Anderson, J. R., Holleran, S. A., Irving, L. M., Sigmon, S. T.,
Yoshinobu, L., Gibb, J., Langelle, C., & Harney, P. (1991). The will and the ways:
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Contact email: KaLaiLam@um.edu.mo

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Picture Perfect: Competencies of Educational Leaders From Fifteen Selected Colleges andUniversities in the Philippines: Towards a Proposed Leadership Model
Jorge L. Mayordomo, National University-Manila, Philippines
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Abstract
This descriptive study used frequency distribution to rank the data from highest to lowest to
determine the level of importance of the competency skills seen on the Leadership Inventory
Tool. This Leadership Inventory Tool is a 360-degree assessment tool by Rom Parlakian andBarry Nilbert Seibel (2001). Based on The Practices of Exemplary Leadership Model, the360-degree assessment illuminates leaders' effectiveness and the level of dedication,
engagement, and fulfillment based on its 3 clusters. Data collected from the Leadership
Inventory Tool (LIT) was verified through interviews with the selected respondents. It wasobserved that the competencies with a considerable level of importance are evident in theskills of Having a Great Sense of Urgency and Creating and Leading a Culture of Innovation.
Likewise, school leaders shape the culture of their institution to drive innovation. The
respondents shared that culture, values, norms, unconscious messages, and subtle behaviorsof school leaders and employees often limit performance. The respondents put much
importance on the competency skill, Meeting the Staff Regularly. It brings the staff or faculty
together. It reminds employees that there is more going on than their issues and deadlines andmay see possibilities for mutual support and collaboration. Delegating Tasks becomes thesecond skill needed in the organization. It saves time for work, develops staff, grooms asuccessor, and motivates. Celebrating as a Team was emphasized for it builds momentum andboosts the morale of the staff. Thus, a diamond leadership model will be proposed based on
the result of the study.
Keywords: Competency Skills, Leading the Organization, Leading the Self, Leading Others

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Introduction
Men make history and not the other way around. In periods where there is no leadership,society stands still. Progress occurs when courageous, skillful leaders seize the opportunity tochange things for the better (Truman, 2016).
A leader motivates a group of people toward the achievement of their goal. People say"leadership is a position of office or authority and the ability" in the sense that leaders know
how to lead. Everybody may know or hear of people who are in a position of leadership but
do not provide leadership at all. A position of office is not an assurance of leadership, but it
helps leaders somehow in the sense that a management post usually requires a listening ear
from its people and that is a right offset point for one who aspires to become a leader.
A leader by this meaning goes first and leads by example so that others are motivated tofollow him. That is a fundamental necessity. To be a leader, somebody must have a deeprooted dedication to the goal that he will aim to achieve even if nobody follows him.
Excellent leaders are those who have probity beyond compare. Vulnerability and modesty aresymbols of the right leader and create positive, attractive energy. Customers, employees, andthe media all want to help a worthy person succeed. There used to be a boundary between
one’s public self and private self, but social media has fainted that line. Tomorrow's leaders
are honest about who they are online, consolidating their personal and professional lives
together (YukI, 2006).
The best leaders are sensitive to their clients, workers, investors, and prospects. Every
stakeholder today is a possible viral spark plug, for better or for worse, and the successful
leader understands this and insists upon a culture of responsiveness. Whether thecommunication is email, voice mail, a note, or a tweet, responding shows you care and givecustomers and colleagues a say, allowing them to make a positive impact on the organization.
It is important to understand that just because someone is in a leadership position, doesn’tnecessarily mean they should be. Place another way; not all leaders are created equal. The
problem many organizations are suffering from is a recognition problem – they can’t seem torecognize good leaders from bad ones Zacarro (2010).
The bottom line is leaders need, to be fair, have an established track record of success, begreat communicators, place importance on serving those they lead, be fluid in approach, andhave laser focus, and a bias toward action. If these traits do not possess by the current leadersor the future leaders, then the organization will be in for a rocky road ahead. Because of thesepremises, the researcher would like to seek the real image of a leader in an educationalsetting. The researcher needs to search for leaders who can think, act, and model like genuine
leaders. Alongside these gifts, the researcher searches for strategic thinkers, go organizers,
and action planners who are very necessary for the delivery of a leader’s vision, strategy, andmanagement.
This study focused on the assessment of leadership competency skills of the deans,
department heads, and coordinators of the selected Universities and Colleges in Negros
Occidental leading to the true image of an educational leader and the development of the
proposed leadership development plan.

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Competency Skills
Competency-based-assessment is a process where an assessor works with a novice to collectevidence of competence, using the benchmarks provided by the unit standards that comprisethe national qualifications (Biggs, J 1996).
It is not about passing or failing a candidate and evidence collection. It is more than justsetting a test. It is the sum of all these assessments that deem a trainee to be competent (ornot). The unit of progression in a competency-based training system is mastery of knowledge
and skills and its focus. The process should be considered to be part of the learning process
identifying gaps as learning opportunities to develop skills, not failures. It is a collaborative
process to be negotiated with the trainee and not a one-off event that is imposed.
The researcher used this theory to identify the competencies of a leader and through thesecompetencies; the researcher will gather the strong and weak competencies that would give atrue picture of an educational leader and to design the best leadership enhancement program.

Figure 1: Research Paradigm

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The figure showed that in order to determine the true image of educational leaders, one mustposses competencies and skills of a true leader in terms of leading the self, leading theorganization, and leading others. Leaders can only be considered real leaders once these skills
have been authenticated through the use Leadership inventory Tools and through the otherleaders who describe the true image of an educational leaders.
Leading the Self
COMPETENCY SKILLSMEA INTERPRETATIO
N
N
Leading by Example
4.68 Extremely Important
Valuing Humor in Workplace
4.63 Extremely Important
Seeking for Answers
4.46
ImportantHandling Pressures on the Position
4.49
ImportantGathering Input from others & Decision making
4.56 Extremely Important
Staying Current on Issues
4.47
ImportantThinking before he acts
4.70 Extremely Important
Soliciting Feedback
4.09
Important
Accepting Ownership from Team Decisions
4.28
Important
Table 1: Thinking before Acting

RAN
K
2
3
8
5
4
7
1
10
9

The table showed that Thinking before Acting has dominated. It only illustrates that the
respondents gave much importance to this competence, think before you act since leaders do
not want to go through life regretting every decision they make. When leaders makespontaneous decisions, they often look back at the consequences and regret the decisions.
Secondly, Leading by Example has a noticeable response among other competency skills forthe respondents emphasized the need to communicate and act by modeling that they have thesmarts to handle the job.
Leading the Organization
Bowling, A., (2011) further said “being able to motivate and direct others, a true leader
should take responsibility for the direction & actions of a team through setting objectives,
organizing and motivating others. Taking the initiative to decide what is best for the team andhaving a deep understanding of their needs. He has to consider and reconsider options
through critical thinking before implementing and showing off the best possible traits that
may affect the team members.
Lastly, Humor in the Workplace is placed third on the table for humor can be an ideal way torelieve stress, improve morale, and build stronger relationships and team camaraderie
between co-workers. It also proves a leader’s ability to maintain professionalism in schools
no matter what the situation.

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COMPETENCY SKILLSMEAN INTERPRETATION RANK
Seeing Areas of Agreement
4.57
Extremely Important
10
Envisioning for the Organization
4.68
Extremely Important
4.5
Focusing on Work
4.67
Extremely Important
6
Involving in Strategic Planning
4.68
Extremely Important
4.5
Managing by Walking Around
4.60
Extremely Important
7
Maintaining the Organization
4.59
Extremely Important
8
Exercising a great Degree in Planning
4.74
Extremely Important3
Having Great Sense of Urgency
4.75
Extremely Important
1.5
Talking about Future Trends
4.52
Extremely Important
12
Searching Outside the Formal Boundaries
4.58
Extremely Important
9
Thinking on Several Changes
4.53
Extremely Important
11
Creating and Leading a Culture of Innovation
4.75
Extremely Important
1.5
Table 2: Creating and Leading a Culture of Innovation
The table showed that competencies with prodigious levels of importance were evident on theskills in Having a Great Sense of Urgency and Creating and Leading a Culture of Innovation.
It only proved that urgency can help breed success. Likewise, school leaders shaped theculture of their company to drive innovation. The respondents shared that it is the culture thevalues, the norms, the unconscious messages, and the subtle behaviors of school leaders andemployees that often limit performance.
Leading Others
Burns, N., & Grove, S. K (2007) supported these findings by stating that motivation and theabilities of leaders to lead with urgency will affect the decisions in a given situation. They
also found that these kinds of leaders simply want something to be done which made thefollowers act with an immediate response; however, people will experience negative effects
to this in terms of time constraints.
Finally, the best leadership concept was somewhat leading in creating situations and methodsof leader identification were so diverse as to overwhelm the followers in leading them tocreate innovations that would best describe the organization's directions. This leadership style
creates an impact in developing creativity on the part of the followers by simply embracing
innovations brought by leaders. Harry S. Truman, (2016) supported these findings by statingthat motivation and the abilities of leaders to lead with urgency will affect the decisions in agiven situation. They also found that these kinds of leaders simply want something to.
In addition, competencies that were given ample importance are Envisioning for theOrganization and Involving Strategic Planning for foreseeing the future showing a desire to
do something that would challenge a school leader to attain a sense of excellence for hisorganization. Likewise, the respondents stressed that effective strategic planning articulates
where an organization is going and the actions need to make progress (Torki, Parisa et. al.
2014).
Some relationships between an individual’s personality and his leadership status in groups
appeared to be well established. The positive relationships of intelligence, adjustment, andextroversion to leadership were highly significant. In addition, visioning and planning were
dominant in all leaders which contributed a lot to the success of the organization. Good

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Leaders foresee the future of the organization so they prepare ahead of time. Masculinity andinterpersonal sensitivity follow and are found to be positively related to the ultimate
function’s leaders (Anatasi, 2010).
COMPETENCY SKILLSMEAN INTERPRETATION
Giving Staff Positive Feedback
4.70
Extremely Important
Developing Approaches for his Staff
4.75
Extremely Important
Celebrating as a Team
4.77
Extremely Important
Creating a Safe Opinionated Environment
4.67
Extremely Important
Encouraging Staff to express their Need
4.60
Extremely Important
Meeting Staff Regularly
4.81
Extremely ImportantCounseling Employees
4.53
Extremely Important
Delegating Tasks
4.79
Extremely Important
Political only when needed
3.86
Important
Dealing on Performance
4.63
Extremely Important
Responding to Grievances
4.00
Important
Giving needed information about the job
4.28
Important
Ensuring Professional Growth
4.63
Extremely Important
Table 3: Importance to the Competency Skill

RANK
5
4
3
6
9
1
10
2
14
7.5
13
12
7.5

The table showed that the respondents gave much importance to the competency skill,
Meeting the Staff Regularly, for it brings the staff or faculty together. It can serve to remind
employees that there is more going on than their issues and deadlines and may see
opportunities for mutual support and collaboration. Delegating Tasks becomes the second
skill needed in the organization for it saves time for work, develops staff, grooms a successor,
and motivates. Thirdly, celebrating as a Team was emphasized by the respondents for itbuilds momentum and boosts the morale of the staff.
According to https://mce.eu/about-mce/our-philosophy/leading-others/(2022), In today's
world, in addition to being a great manager and leader, you need to be able to lead otherpeople. In addition to possessing the necessary abilities, this necessitates knowing how tomanage, engage, and inspire others. Knowing how to be a good leader is necessary. You mustalso be able to articulate a vision, devise a strategy, and motivate others to work toward thesame business and organizational goals.
Conclusion
The question of the true image of a leader was one of the oldest questions in psychology, yet
it remained a source of disagreement and controversy in the leadership domain. A consensus
remains elusive regarding the magnitude of leader trait effects on leadership, and, if a large
magnitude is conceded, what specific and critical attributes contribute to such effects.
In this study, the researchers provided a new model of leadership that gave organizations andindividuals access to new power. The model revealed a new leadership context that wasshaped by leaders’ sense of purpose through the Leadership Inventory Tool (LIT), which canbe described in three ways: leading oneself - the emotional capacity of leaders (values,
courage, self-awareness, authenticity); leading the organization - their intellectual andcognitive development in maneuvering the organization and leading others - the extent anddepth of their social relationships and networks. In this model, the perfect leader consists of

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eleven competency skills which are essential for him to be considered as having a perfectpicture of a true leader. These are: Valuing Humor, leading by example, Envisioning,
Strategic Plan, Giving Feedback, thinking before Acting, Sense of Urgency, Culture of
Innovation, Positive Feedback, celebrating as a Team, delegating tasks, and Meeting Staff
regularly.
It is recommended that educational leaders may develop and strengthen the competencies inhaving great sense of urgency and creating and leading a culture of innovation further for theorganization to realize its objectives. Educational leaders may give high regards to thinking
before he acts, leading by example, valuing humor in work place, and gathering inputs fromothers and decision making for him to able to balance himself being a leader and a follower
as well as for him to make a sound decision in leading the organization. They may give focus
and develop the competencies such as Soliciting Feedback, Accepting Ownership from team
Decisions, and Seeking for Answers in leading the self by making himself aware of the mostsignificant characteristics of a true leader through attending leadership seminars, trainings
and symposia.
It is likewise best for educational leaders to further strengthen the competencies in Meeting
Staff Regularly, delegating task, celebrating as a Team, and developing approaches for his
staff in leading others for him to guide others in realizing the goals of the organization. With
these competency skills, the researchers would like to propose a leadership program that will
strengthen the skills of educational leaders as one of the objectives of this study.

Figure 2: Picture Perfect Leadership Diamond Model

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Varinthorn Boonying, (2012) mentioned that leaders are just like diamond. Diamond requires
three characteristics for its disposition: carbon, heat, and pressure. Successful leaders require
the interaction of three properties: character, knowledge, and application. Like carbon to thediamond, quality is the primary foundation of a leader. But as carbon alone does not produce
a diamond, neither can character alone create a leader. The diamond requires heat. Man
requires education, knowledge, and preparation. The third property, force acting in
conjunction with carbon and heat forms the diamond. Similarly, one’s character attended byknowledge blooms through application to build a leader.
There’s no one ﬁxed view of what is the true image of an educational leader. The researcher
has learned a great deal about leadership. Some common determinants stand out: theapproach (task versus people) you select; your followers’ ability, capability, and willingness;the situational claims; and your skills, abilities, and values. Still, no one has discovered asecret formula for creating a true image of a leader. To be an effective leader, you will need
to work hard on all aspects of leadership not just one. You should commit to modeling highvalues, creating trust, focusing on results, and stimulating and inﬂuencing others as learns
how to be a true leader.
This recommended Leader Diamond Model may be used in the development of a Leadership
Development Plan. It contains Eleven (11) most important leadership skills which were given
importance by the respondents. These skills may help enhance the leadership skills of deans,
department heads, and coordinators allowing them to perform their duties and responsibilities
as recommended by the informants.
Acknowledgement
After an intensive period of searching and researching, the final chapter of this paper hascome to reality. It has been years of great learning for me as I venture into this paper. I would
like to reflect on people who have supported and helped me so much throughout this period.
Special thanks to my family for being there all the time and for their undying financial
support to make this paper possible.
To the panel of evaluators for guiding me in the improvement and enrichment of this study.
To the Deans, program chairs and program coordinators from the selected Colleges andUniversities in Negros Occidental for your tremendous help and cooperation. Your precious
and valuable time was a real help for the accomplishment of this study.
Finally, I would like to convey my special thanks to our creator for giving me the strength,
wisdom, and for making everything possible.

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References
Anastasi, A. (2010) Fields of applied psychology in Education. New York. McGraw-Hill
Book Company.
Bowling, A. (2011). Research methods in health. Buckingham: Open University Press.
Delores, M, Christopher A, and Ebbers, L. (2011) If i knew then what i know now: using theleadership competencies developed by the American Association of Community
Colleges to Prepare Community College Presidents. Community College Review,
USA.
Field Manual (2006), Army leadership: confident, competent, and agile. 12 October 2006.
Harry S. Truman (2016). Leadership practices; www.leadership.html.com
Özdemir, S et.al. (2015) School administrators' leadership competencies according to theviews of school administrators and teachers. Educational and Science Tedmem,
Turkey.
Parlakian, R., & Seibel, N. L. (2001). Being in charge: Reflective leadership in infant/family
programs. Washington, DC.
Parlakian R. and Seibel, B.N. Leadership Self-Assessment Tool. https://mce.eu/aboutmce/our-philosophy/leading-others/
Torki, P et al. (2014) The study of leadership competencies of iran tejart banks presidents andintroducing a proper model, Kuwait Chapter of Arabian Journal of Business andManagement Review Vol. 3, No.10, Kuwait.
Varinthorn B. (2012). Training needs policies based on the development of leadershipcompetencies for heads of public sectors in thailand. International Journal of Arts &Sciences, Naresuan University, Thailand.
Yukl, G. (2006). Leadership in organizations. 6th Edition. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson
Prentice Hall.
Zacarro, A. (2010) Behavior: Leading human resources. Eighth Edition. Upper Saddle River,
NJ: Prentice Hall, Inc.
Contact email: jorgemayordomo22@gmail.com

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A Conceptual Framework to Elicit Student Engagement via Development ofExtended Reality (XR) Applications Using Project-Based Experiential Learning

Khadija Hamidani, Multimedia University, Malaysia
Tse-Kian Neo, Multimedia University, Malaysia
Vimala Perumal, Multimedia University, Malaysia

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Abstract
Student Engagement is recognized as a covariate of learner outcomes within both online andface to face learning environments. Withal, due to extensive implementation of passive
teaching approaches, there is finite guidance about utilization of proactive student-centeredteaching strategies to ameliorate engagement among learners like employing Project BasedExperiential Learning (PBEL). This paper describes ongoing research to improve
multifaceted Student Engagement (Cognitive, Behavior & Emotional Engagement) of
learners enrolled in Creative Multimedia Bachelor's degree course, working on their final
year projects to develop Extended Reality (XR) applications. To explore how project based
experiential learning strategy can be used effectively to engage learners and acknowledging
the immanent role emerging XR technologies can play in higher education with a potential toengage learners, this conceptual paper provides a framework for eliciting student engagement
via PBEL including XR Technology as an influential factor. As a contribution to teachingpractices the framework illustrates student focused approach of experiential learning via
project-based learning which can be effectively integrated as a pedagogy in higher education
classrooms to increase student engagement, empower learners with 21st Century Skill Set
and influence both short and long term academic and social outcomes.

Keywords: Project Based Learning, Experiential Learning, XR Technology, Conceptual
Framework

iafor
The International Academic Forumwww.iafor.org

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Introduction
Emerging Cross Reality Technology, also known as Extended Reality (XR) immersive
Technology is being integrated across different academic fields. XR is a hypernym used for
Mixed Reality (MR) technology, Virtual Reality (VR) technology and Augmented Reality(AR) technology (Alnagrat et al., 2022). As the growth, demand and development of the XR
is escalating so is the demand for competent immersive technologies designers increasing(Chemerys, Vynogradova, Briantseva & Sharov 2021). Universities across different
continents are incorporating interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary courses to empower
students with the vital skills to develop and design immersive experiences to attain job
opportunities in this growing industry (Chemerys et al., 2021).
To train professional designers the pedagogical component plays an instrumental part as theprime requirement for immersive technologies designers is to garner extensive 21 st Century
Skill Set. Due to passive teaching approaches and debilitating arduous process of designingand development of immersive technology applications, learners tend to have a low level ofengagement (Chemerys et al., 2021). Student Engagement is an indispensable component inacademic success for undergraduate students to fulfill the required learning goals and achieve
multifarious 21st Century Skill set to be successful in their professional life (Lei, Cui & Zhou,2018). As a pedagogical solution to the problem of student engagement, this study’s
conceptual framework proposes the solution of integrating Project Based Experiential
learning (PBEL) an amalgam of Kolb's Experiential Learning Cycle (Kolb & Kolb, 2018)
and its method of Project Based Learning. Experiential Learning’s main goal is to enrich thelearning experience and with incorporating the elements of project-based learning (Larmer,
Mergendoller & Boss, 2015) students are able to attain the required 21 st Century Skill Set
mandatory for immersive technology designers to acquire for professional careers in the fieldof immersive technology.
This paper presents a conceptual framework on how XR technology interacts withconstructivist pedagogy of Project Based Experiential Learning (PBEL) and effects student
engagement in a higher education context of learners who are involved in exclusive designingof XR experiences as part of their final year project.
Literature Review
Project Based Experiential Learning
Experiential learning theory stems from constructivist learning theory which instigates thatthe learners develop their own knowledge and skills through active learning processes (Kolb& Kolb, 2018). It commemorates the notion that learning is based upon experience and thatthe grasping and transformation of that experience lead to knowledge construction andassimilation of new information (Kolb & Kolb, 2018). Related studies show that Experiential
Learning provides more opportunities in and out of class participation as well as an increase
in interaction among learners which impacts their emotional, cognitive and behavioral
engagement (Yusof et al., 2020). To rejuvenate curriculum and enable learners to facechallenges, utilization and adoption of Experiential Education by Higher Education
Institutions (HEIs) is an ongoing process (Sharma & Naidu, 2020).
Project based learning is one of the many approaches of experiential learning. A typicalproject management lifecycle is also divided into four main stages, much like an experiential

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learning cycle. The four phase Project Management lifecycle is applicable and adaptable inproject-based learning assignments, projects and environments (Pérez et al., 2020; Spikol etal., 2018). The main elements of the Project Based Learning method namely the challenging
problem/question, sustained inquiry, authenticity, student voice and choice, reflection,
critique and revision and public product have usually shown to impact SE in a positive way(Larmer, Mergendoller & Boss, 2015). When aligned together, Experiential Learning andProject-Based Learning combine to form Project Based Experiential Learning. Project Based
Learning enables learners to become problem solvers, creative thinkers, risk takers andempathetic by cognitively and emotionally engaging them in the learning process (Boss &Krauss, 2022). According to Li, Öchsner & Hall (2019), Project based learning particularly
provides educational benefits to improve learning outcomes by allowing design students toeffectively design solutions related to real world problems, provides them a meaningfullearning experience, motivates them and enables them to attain learner agency as wellinterpersonal and intrapersonal skill set.
In the context of developing XR immersive technology projects, students go through theExperiential Learning process. In the initial phase of the project students' learning cycle
begins with a concrete experience in the form of a theme or a question, which allows them toreflect upon their past experiences and connect their past knowledge with the current problem
to solve. During the planning phase of the project which reflects the similar process of the
Kolb's learning cycle’s phases of reflective observation and abstract conceptualization
students get cognitively engaged in curating solutions (Li, Öchsner, & Hall, 2019). Amid thephases of abstract conceptualization and active experimentation, students sort out and start
bringing their ideas to life by developing prototypes to test in the active experimentation
phase (Li, Öchsner, & Hall, 2019). This is reflected in project-based learning as part of theexecution phase during which students develop and manage their project. This elicits their
behavioral engagement as well as cognitive and affective engagement as they interact witheach other and tools to create content (Li, Öchsner, & Hall, 2019). During the final stage ofactive experimentation, students test out their developed solutions and through PBL elementsof feedback and critique and revision they make final changes before publicly presenting andshowcasing their innovation or solution. This marks the closing phase of project development(Li, Öchsner, & Hall, 2019).
XR Technology
XR Technology is revolutionizing higher education by providing learners with interactive
learning experiences through virtual interactive simulations and engaging them to be active
knowledge seekers. XR Technology implementation in higher education has shown potential
transformation in the educational sector (Alam, 2021) particularly in the domains of STEM
education (Wang, Ryoo & Winkelmann, 2020), health related faculties, engineering (Ziker,
Truman & Dodds, 2021), Bioscience (Harris & Franceschini, 2022) and Design Education(Lee & Hu-Au, 2021). Many universities are leveraging XR Technology availability andgetting involved in research allowing design students who are involved in the designing
process to create and develop XR Technology experiences (Lee & Hu-Au, 2021). Yet, there
is a debate around the effectiveness of XR educational applications as designing immersive
technologies for educational context is still an emerging field (Idrees, Morton & Dabrowski,2022). While XR technology focuses on providing an individual experience, it is now
evolving to provide a more social collaborative experience to allow interaction of multiple
users in a virtual environment (Marques, Silva, Dias & Santos, 2022).

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Human centered design philosophy is the fundamental requirement for designing with XR
since it focuses on developing experiences which fulfill human needs, enhance capabilities
and allows interactivity and exploration within the virtual environment (Wang et al., 2022).
Students who are involved in developing XR experiences readily test their applications
during the execution phase of the project which allows them to experience the user
experience (UX) factors of XR such as spatial presence and embodiment to get a better senseof what requires to be changed or altered during the development of XR experiences (Shin,2022). The UX factors of XR engage learners affectively, cognitively and physically as they
enable the designers to experience, feel, think and interact with the 3D or virtual environmentthat they have created providing them comprehensive experience (Crompton, Bernacki &Greene, 2020).
According to Saredakis et al., (2020), Virtual Reality via head mounted display headsets(HMDs) enables users to experience an immersive feeling in a virtual world throughinteraction with objects designed and displayed in the 3D virtual environments (Wiederhold,2020). This makes VR Technology to be suitable for teaching and learning purposes as itallows learners to visualize abstract concepts and carry out experiments such as molecularbiology or electromagnetics, practice high risk activities or access tasks or experiences which
are logistically expensive (Wiederhold, 2020). Research also shows that VR improves design
process and spatial perception and allows within the design process, the integration of humanexperience. Another study conducted by (Kharvari & Höhl, 2019) showed that with VR,
architecture students were able to remember the spatial configuration of the building better
than studying it through 2D images and drawings. Similarly, study by Özgen, Afacan & Sürer(2021), showed that integrating VR enhanced problem-solving activities among architecture
students and enhances learners' engagement levels. AR meanwhile integrates digital
information in real time with the user's environment. It enables users to experience over-laid
generated information in a real-world environment (Sungkur et al., 2016). Whereas MR
amalgamates elements of both VR and AR creating a blended connection between the realworld and virtual digital objects (Plecher, Wandinger & Klinker, 2019). Both AR & MR havealso shown a positive impact on enhancing student engagement of the learners (Plecher et al.,2019).
Student Engagement
The three-dimensional multifarious model of student engagement shows overlapping acrossdomains of behavioral, cognitive and emotional engagement (Schindler et al., 2017). Each ofthese three engagements has its own indicators. Positive inclination in those indicators ensues
a higher level of engagement among learners. The three main indicators of cognitive
engagement include persistence, motivation and deep processing of information (Schindler etal., 2017). Whereas the two main indicators of emotional engagement include a sense of
belonging and attitudes, interests and values. While behavioral engagement indicators include
interaction and participation in classroom activities and discussions. Cognitive engagement
impacts behavioral and emotional engagement, while behavioral and emotional engagement
impact each other and cognitive engagement as well (Schindler et al., 2017).
A well-motivated learner feels a sense of belonging, interacts and participates more in theclassroom which shows that cognitive engagement impacts both emotional and behavioral
engagement (Schindler et al., 2017). Similarly, students who are emotionally engaged in thelearning process tend to show higher levels of motivation, persistence and opts for deep
processing of information as well as interact and participate more in and out of the classroom

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Official Conference Proceedings(Gillen-O’Neel, 2021). This shows that emotional engagement has an impact on bothcognitive and behavioral engagement. Likewise, the high level of behavioral engagement
through active participation in classroom activities and interaction allows students to achieve
higher levels of motivation and allows them to share their values, attitudes, and ideas byenabling them to feel a sense of belonging. According to Lerdpornkulrat et al., (2018),
motivation and persistence help learners to move forward in the learning process and enables
them to face and overcome challenges and obstacles they might come across during learning.
Cognitively engaged learners opt for deep learning practices instead of surface learningtechniques which help them to acquire new knowledge, explore and broaden theirperspectives.
Student engagement is attained when student centered pedagogy interacts with technology,
which in this case is XR Technology. Student Engagement is considered a very necessarycomponent in academic achievement as well as enabling immersive technology designer
students to develop skills for future professional projects.
Conceptual Framework

Figure 1: A conceptual Framework to Elicit Student Engagement via Development ofExtended Reality XR Applications Using Project-Based Experiential Learning.
The conceptual framework (Figure 1) presented in this paper shows the consolidation of theExperiential Learning Cycle and Project Management Life Cycle with integration of XR
technology within its core to elicit student engagement. The four stages of the Kolbs
Experiential Learning cycle show the experience learners go through each of the four stagesof the project development cycle to develop XR experiences for end users to solve a realworld problem. Student engagement is divided into three domains of emotional, cognitiveand behavioral engagement with specific indicators for each engagement (Schindler et al.,2017).
During the initial phase of the project, learners encounter the main problem and begin
connecting their prior knowledge to understand and reflect upon the real-world problem. This
cognitively engages them to connect their prior knowledge and think about the new problem.
During this phase objectives and goals are set for the project (Beneroso & Robinson, 2022).
Next, during the planning phase learners establish sustained inquiry practices to find viable
solutions to the given problem. They search, gather and classify information, develop a plan,

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distribute tasks among themselves, engage in open discussion and create initial design
blueprints and 3D assets (Beneroso & Robinson, 2022). This phase impacts all three domainsof students' engagement. During the implementation phase, learners start developing andtesting XR prototypes and make changes through feedback and revision. Throughout the
project lifecycle learners actively engage in open discussion with their peers, facilitators, andsubject matter experts and stakeholders to work on developing their prototypes (Cha &Maytorena-Sanchez, 2019). Positive feedback and persistence to complete the task motivates
learners hence this phase also has a strong potential to increase student engagement and keep
learners engaged in the learning and designing process. During the execution phase, final
testing and evaluation of the product is completed before presenting the product to the public(Cha & Maytorena-Sanchez, 2019). Learners feel a sense of accomplishment and pride incompleting their projects.
Each of the phases of Project Based Experiential Learning Cycle enable learners to develop
the required 21st Century Skills Set for the professional immersive technology designer jobs
in the future. These skills include technical skills such as 3D Modelling, Animation and
Programming Skills. They also develop interpersonal and intrapersonal skills throughfeedback and revision, communication skills, leadership skills, teamwork skills, language
skills, project management and time management skills and research skills (Hennessey &Mueller, 2020).
Conclusion
The conceptual framework presented in this paper is part of an ongoing PhD research whichis meant to extrapolate positive impact on student engagement of design students developing
XR Technology applications via Project Based Experiential Learning approach. There is a
critical need of this research as XR Technology is an emerging technology and new
simulations and applications are required for its growth, hence it is important that students
who are being trained in their universities attain the required skill sets necessary for
professional immersive technology designers to develop innovate and creative experiences
for different fields.

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References
Alam, A. (2021, December). Designing XR into Higher Education using Immersive Learning
Environments (ILEs) and Hybrid Education for Innovation in HEIs to attract UN’s
Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) Initiative. In 2021 International
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Alnagrat, A., Ismail, R. C., Idrus, S. Z. S., & Alfaqi, R. M. A. (2022). A Review of Extended
Reality (XR) Technologies in the Future of Human Education: Current Trend andFuture Opportunity. Journal of Human Centered Technology, 1(2), 81-96.
Beneroso, D., & Robinson, J. (2022). Online project-based learning in engineering design:
Supporting the acquisition of design skills. Education for Chemical Engineers, 38,
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Cha, J., & Maytorena-Sanchez, E. (2019). Prioritising project management competences
across the software project life cycle. International Journal of Managing Projects in
Business, 12(4), 961-978.
Chemerys, H., Vynogradova, A., Briantseva, H., & Sharov, S. (2021, June). Strategy for
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Acceptance Study of Power Plant Main Control Simulator as
an Operator Learning Media in Indonesia
Ahmad Faishol Amin, PT PJB Services, Indonesia
Khoirul Aziz Rifai, PT PJB Services, Indonesia
Putu Agus Suginantra, PT PJB Services, Indonesia
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Abstract
The power plant control room simulator is a learning device that resembles the control system
in a real power plant. There are not many power plant simulator training providers inIndonesia due to high investment, where complexity and efficacy are exchanged for cost.
This research aims to determine the acceptance of the power plant main control simulator as
an operator learning media in Indonesia using the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM).
This research is explanatory research with perceived ease of use variable, perceptions ofusefulness, attitude toward using, and actual usage. The research was performed byconducting a survey to 113 respondents (operators) from 17 power plants in Indonesia whohave been trained using power plant main control simulators. The obtained data from thequestionnaires are analyzed through the smartPLS. The results of this quantitative study
indicate that the perceived usefulness variable has positive and strong effect on the attitude
toward simulator usage, besides that it also has a moderate effect on actual usage variable.
While the perceived ease of use has a positive and moderate influence on the attitude toward
simulator usage. Thus, the intended use of the power plant main control simulator is
influenced by the usefulness of the simulator itself.
Keywords: Simulator, Operator, Power Plant, Learning Media, Technology Acceptance
Model

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Introduction
Companies must prepare their human resources through skills development to remaincompetitive (Namada, 2018). Possible new knowledge the only remaining and one of themost critical sources of competitive advantage available to a firm organization. Companies
improve their employee’s skills through training, and many companies formulate strategies
and set up training development center to manage employee's knowledge. However, training
is a very expensive investment. As a result, research and development of training to optimize
its effectiveness and efficiency becomes very important (Sheeba & Christopher, 2020).
Methods practices in companies in terms of developing employees are vary, but PJB Services
owns Training Development Centre (TDC), which will have full dedication in developing
employees. To each of training participants, TDC will adjust in according to business needs,
one of many ways is to introduce training through simulation. Simulations are well suited fortraining that would be very dangerous or expensive to do in a real-life environment. Thismethod provides training opportunities that are safe, structured, interesting, and sufficient(Raynolds, 2023). The power plant control room simulator is a learning device that resembles
the control system in a real power plant. There are not many power plant simulator training
providers in Indonesia due to high investment, where complexity and efficacy are exchanged
for cost. The effect of simulation to increase training participants will be interesting to
explore. The presence of simulator is expected to bring benefits to employee training which isfacilitated by Training Development Centre.
The Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) is a model of acceptance of information
technology used by users of system or technology (Jogiyanto, 2007). This model is anapproach used to see the ease of a technology that is used by users. The purpose ofdeveloping a Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) is to explain the factors that determine
public acceptance of a technology in general and to explain why a particular system oftechnology can affect public acceptance (Davis, 1993). TAM offers a powerful and simple
explanation for the acceptance of technology and the behavior of its users (Venkatesh &Davis, 2000). Technology that is easy to use and useful for users will create a feeling of
comfort. Users want to use the technology rather than use other technologies. Userfriendliness and benefits are the main concepts as measured by the TAM model (Susanto etal., 2021). TAM was developed by Davis (1989) by using variables perceived ease of use,
perceived usefulness, attitude toward using, behavioral intention, and actual usage. Previous
research conducted by Gunawan (2014) and Hendra & Iskandar (2016) resulted thatperceived usefulness does not have a direct positive effect on behavioral intention. So, thisstudy only used variables perceived ease of use, perceived usefulness, attitude toward using,and actual usage. The behavioral intention variable was not used.
This study aims to determine the acceptability of the power plant main control simulator as
an operator learning media in Indonesia using the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM).
The results of this study can be used by management to evaluate the use of the power plant
main control simulator. Subsequent changes and developments can, of course, be evaluatedfrom the results of this study.
Materials and Methods
The study was performed by conducting a survey among 17 power plants in Indonesia.
Questionnaires were submitted to 113 respondents (operators) who have been trained using
power plant main control simulators. The variables for the study were measured by

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quantifying the responses of the respondents to the survey questions using Likert scale. The
questionnaire data were analyzed using the smartPLS application and the Structural Equation
Modeling (SEM) method. SEM is a powerful statistical technique that combines ameasurement model or confirmatory factor analysis with a structural model into asimultaneous statistical test (Hoe, 2008).
The outer model testing was used to see the validity and reliability of the research data.
Validity is an indicator to measure what indicators should be measured. Reliability is used tomeasure whether a dataset will show the same results from retesting the same object(Abdillah & Jogiyanto, 2009). Inner model testing was used to predict causal relationships
between latent variables or variables that cannot be measured directly. To test the relationshipbetween variables, it is done by testing the value of R2 and the predictive value of relevance(Q2) (Chin, 1998).
After getting valid and reliable data from the outer model test and knowing the quality of therelationship between variables from the inner model test, the next step is to determine thehypothesis. Thus, the following Maximo acceptance hypothesis conceptual model is proposedor according to Figure 1.

Figure 1: The Proposed of Structural Model
Simulator acceptance hypothesis are:Hypothesis 1: Perceived Ease of Used (EU) has a significant positive effect on Actual Usage(AU)
Hypothesis 2: Perceived Ease of Used (EU) has a significant positive effect on Attitude
Toward Using (AT)Hypothesis 3: Perceived Usefulness (PU) has a significant positive effect on Attitude Toward
Using (AT)Hypothesis 4: Perceived Usefulness (PU) has a significant positive effect on Actual Usage(AU)
Hypothesis 5: Attitude Toward Using (AT) has a significant positive effect on Actual Usage(AU)
Hypothesis 6: Attitude Toward Using (AT) will mediate Ease of Used (EU) on Actual Usage(AU)ISSN: 2435-5240

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Hypothesis 7: Attitude Toward Using (AT) will mediate Perceived Usefulness (PU) on Actual
Usage (AU)Results and Discussion
1. Outer Model Testing
The first step that must be done in testing the outer model is the factor loading test. Minimum
factor loading value that each indicator must have is ≥ 0.7. The expected Composite
Reliability value and Cronbach's Alpha is > 0.7 and value 0.6 is still accepted (Hair et al.,2014). Average Variances Extracted (AVE) is a more conservative assessment of reliability.
For adequate reliability, a given construct must reach at least a value of 0.5 (Fornell &Larcker, 1981). The results of the factor loading test from this study data are as Figure 2.

Figure 2. Convergent Validity Test Result
The results of the factor loading analysis on Figure 2 or Table 1 that all values (EU1, EU2, EU3,
EU4, AT1, AT2, AT3, AT4, PU1, PU2, PU3, PU4, AU1, AU2, AU3) are greater than 0.7, thenthe indicator is valid to measure the construct.
Outer loading test results can be seen in the following table.

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Table 1. Outer Loading Test Result

The table above shows that all Composite reliability values exceeds 0.7, Cronbach's alphaexceeds 0.7 and AVE values exceed 0.5, so the results of the outer model test show that all data
are valid and reliable.
2. Inner Model Testing
The value of R2 is the coefficient of determination on the endogenous construct. R2 values are
0.67 (strong), 0.33 (moderate) and 0.19 (weak) (Chin, 1998). Predictive relevance is usefulfor validating models. The values obtained are 0.02 (small), 0.15 (medium) and 0.35 (large)(Ghozali, 2016). The test results of this study can be seen in the following table:
Table 2. R2 and Q2 Test Result

The results of the R2 test in the table above show a value of 0.758 for Attitude Toward Using(AT) and 0.663 for Actual Usage (AU). These data indicate that the model for eachexogenous variable in this study is strong for explaining the intended endogenous variable.
The value of 0.758 for Attitude Toward Using (AT) variable also shows that 75.8 % of
Attitude Toward Using (AT) have been explained by the independent variables of Perceived
Ease of Use and Perceived Usefulness, and 24.2% is influenced by other factors not
explained in the research. The results of R2 for Actual Usage (AU) of 0.663 show that thefactors that influence user intentions have been explained by the factors studied by 66%.
A good predictive relevance model can be seen from the Q2 value exceeding 0. The results of
the Q2 calculation in this study were 0.554 for Attitude Toward Using (AT) and 0.487 forActual Usage (AU), this indicates that the variables in this study have a very good predictive
relevance.

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3. Hypothesis Testing
Table 3. Results of the Path Coefficient and P-Value on the Direct Effect

The direct effect can be known by the path coefficient value and P-value. The value of pathcoefficients is the value of the coefficient to see the significance and strength of therelationship to test the hypothesis. The value of path coefficients is between -1 to +1. If thevalue is close to +1, the relationship between the two constructs is getting stronger. A
relationship that is closer to -1 indicates that the relationship is negative (Sarstedt et al, 2017).
The variable is declared to have a significant effect if the P-value is less than 0.05 or the 95%
confidence interval (based on the percentile method) does not include zero (Hair et al, 2019).
The effect of Perceived Ease of Use (EU) on Actual Usage (AU) and Attitude Toward Using(AT) on Actual Usage (AU), from Tabel 3 above, have a coefficient value close to +1 (H1 =0.228 and H5 = 0.148) which indicates a positive relation. The P-value of both hypotheses isgreater than 0.05 (H1 = 0.055 and H5 = 0.335) that shows not significant result. The resultsof H1 are not in line with research conducted by Bugembe (2010), Santoso (2010), andSudaryati et al (2017) which found that perceived ease of use and actual usage have a positiveand significant relationship. However, this result (H1) confirmed and extended the research
conducted by (Amin et al, 2022) stated that the perceived ease of use had no direct effect on
the actual usage. The results of the fifth hypothesis (H5) are not in line with research
conducted by Amin et al (2022), Davis (1993), Gunawan (2014), and Hendra & Iskandar(2016), that attitude has a positive effect on the actual usage of a technology. However, thisresearch (H1) confirmed and extended the research conducted by Davis (1989), Karahanna &Straub (1999), and Chairina (2021) stated that the perceived ease of use had no direct effecton the actual usage.
The results of the coefficients and P-values for H2, H3, and H4 according to Table 3 arepositive and significant. They have a coefficient value close to +1 (H2 = 0.344, H3 = 0.572,
and H4 = 0.491) which indicates a positive relation, and the P-value is smaller than 0.05 (H2= 0.001, H3 = 0.000, and H4 = 0.000) that shows significant result. However, H1 confirmedthat a person's intention to use a technology is formed from a person's perception of atechnology that is easy (Nguyen, et al., 2019). If someone feels that the information system iseasy to use then he will use it (Jogiyanto, 2007). The perception of ease of use have an
influence on behavioral attitudes (Umamah & Pribadi, 2017). These results indicate that aperson's attitude to continue using simulator is highly dependent on the ease of using theapplication, so users feel that the simulator application makes it easier for them to carry out
their daily activities. The results of H3 is in accordance with research conducted by Hartono(2008), Umamah & Pribadi (2017), and Latief & Nur (2019) that the perception of usefulness

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have an influence on behavioral attitudes. This condition indicates that respondents(simulator users) believe that using the simulator application can provide benefits oradvantages in supporting their daily activities at work. The results of H4 are in line withresearch conducted by Rigopoulos & Askounis (2007), Priyono (2017), and Chairina (2021)
which found that perceived usefulness had a positive effect on actual usage.
Table 4. Results of the Path Coefficient and P-Value on the Indirect Effect

The test results of H6 and H7 according to table 4 above find that there is not an indirect
effect of perceived ease of use on actual usage through attitude and there is not an indirect
effect of perceived usefulness on actual usage through attitude. This information is obtained
from the path coefficient value of H6 (0.085) and H7 (0.051) which indicates a positive
relationship. While the P-value of H6 (0.336) and H7 (0.381) > 0.05 indicates not asignificant result. This is different from the results of previous research conducted by Amin etal (2022), Bugembe (2010), Santoso (2010), and Sudaryati et al (2017), that perceived ease ofuse and actual usage have a positive relationship and attitude also has a positive correlation
with actual usage.
Conclusion
The results of hypothesis testing indicate that perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use
have a positive influence on attitude, while the results of the test for the effect of perceived
usefulness on simulator's actual usage directly show positive and significant effect. Thus, theactual usage of the power plant main control simulator is influenced by the usefulness of thesimulator itself. Simulator as one of the tools in the competency development program for
operators. Agile and Adaptation are the main keys in this research where operators besides
having qualified capabilities, are also able to adapt to new systems or technologies to help
develop their competencies.

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References
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Hoe, S. (2008). Issues and Procedures in Adopting Structural Equation Modeling Technique.
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Susanto, R. D., Tjandinegara, R., Iskandar, V., & Kartika, E. W. (2021). Technology
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Contact email: fais@pjbservices.com

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Developing a Framework for Using Online Feedback on Teaching Effectiveness to
Improve Student Learning
Gavin Lee, Singapore Polytechnic, Singapore
Ahmad Al-Mahir Abu Bakar, Singapore Polytechnic, Singapore
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Abstract
Student feedback on teaching is typically received from formal end-of-course evaluations
with the purpose of giving insights into the effectiveness of a lecturer’s teaching. However,such evaluations are usually summative, and the timing of their administration restricts any
teaching adjustments that could have been done earlier in the course. This study investigatedthe development of an effective framework to obtain student feedback on lecturers’ teachingeffectiveness for formative purposes at suggested intervals over the duration of the course.
The participating lecturers set up and conducted online student surveys via the institution’s
learning management system and performed data analysis to gain formative insights. The
lecturers were from different subject specialisations and a mixed-method study was
employed, with a quantitative and qualitative survey and semi-structured group interviews to
get their perceptions. A focus group discussion was also held with a random sample ofstudents to obtain their views on giving student feedback to their lecturers with this approach.
From the descriptive analysis and content analysis of the data, we were able to propose aframework for obtaining student feedback that may inform lecturers on the efficacy of theirteaching practices and enable them to enhance student learning. The findings also revealed
several challenges to scaling-up the use of the framework, such as time-consuming data
analysis and students doing too many surveys.
Keywords: Student Feedback, Formative Feedback, Teaching Evaluation, Teaching
Practices, Learning Management System

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Introduction
Higher education institutions have traditionally and typically obtained student feedback
through end-of-course evaluations at the end of teaching semesters. These are typicallysummative in nature and Cashin (1995) notes six common elements of the evaluations:course content, instructor communication skills, student-teacher interaction, course difficulty
and workload, assessment practices and student self-assessment. Scholars have also argued acase for qualitative measures in such evaluations. Harper and Kuh (2007) surmise that doing
so can often reveal issues that cannot emerge through conventional quantitative means.
The main limitation for a single end-of-course evaluation is the timing of the implementationand the receiving of analysed results, which can be weeks or months after the conclusion of
the teaching semester. The timing automatically excludes any opportunity for faculty to makeany teaching or curriculum adjustments during the teaching semester. Lewis (2001) makes acase for mid-course evaluations similar in character to end-of-course evaluations as this will
afford faculty the time to modify any course material, introduce new pedagogies or provide
additional scaffolding should the need arise from the evaluation.
In order to improve the timing and quality of obtaining student feedback (SFB) to measureteaching effectiveness, Singapore Polytechnic (SP) started to review the practiceand recommend enhancements to the end-of-course, or using the institution’s terminology,
end-of-module evaluations in 2018. However, this review was interrupted due to the COVID19 pandemic, and it was coincidentally during this time that the institution made thetransition to a new online Brightspace Learning Management System (LMS) by D2L. As theinstitution started to exit the pandemic, the SFB review resumed as an exploratory study
which investigated how lecturers could gather student formative feedback on their teachingeffectiveness through online means by using the new Brightspace LMS. The study adopted amixed method approach and was carried out over one teaching semester with lecturer
surveys, lecturer interviews and student interviews.
Student Feedback as Formative Assessment for Teachers
A widely accepted definition of formative assessment is that by the State Collaborative on
Assessment and Student Standards, USA which state it to be “a process used by teachers andstudents during instruction that provides feedback to adjust ongoing teaching and learning to
improve students’ achievement of intended instructional outcomes” (Popham, 2008). The
feedback can report student performance, identify gaps in understanding, and help tailor
instruction to meet individual students' needs. Formative assessment is also a key componentof many instructional models, such as the Assessment for Learning (AfL) model developedby the Assessment Reform Group in the UK (Black et al., 2003). The AfL model emphasises
the importance of ongoing formative assessment and provides teachers with strategies forincorporating formative assessment into their instructional practices. There has been muchresearch done over the years which suggest that formative assessment positively impacts
student learning outcomes. For example, a meta-analysis of over 250 studies by Black andWiliam (1998) found that formative assessment improved student achievement across various
subjects and grade levels.
However, most formative assessment studies focus on formative assessment on learning forstudents and there is comparatively much less on formative assessment on teaching forteachers. Nicol and Macfarlane-Dick (2006) make the case that good feedback practice is not

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only about providing useful information to students about their own learning, but it is also
about providing valuable information to teachers on where to focus their teaching. Formative
assessment of teachers is an approach that involves providing teachers with feedback andsupport on their instructional practices to improve their teaching effectiveness.
Research has shown that formative assessment of teachers can be an effective tool for
improving teaching quality and student learning outcomes. This improvement was evident ina meta-analysis of over 70 studies which found that teacher formative assessment was
associated with improved student learning outcomes (Kraft et al., 2018). In a study on theeffects of formative assessment feedback given to teachers (Scherer et al., 2016), it was foundthat formative assessment of teachers can help to increase teacher self-efficacy andmotivation to improve their instructional practices.
A multiple case study approach (n=10) with interviews and document investigation was
carried out to gather faculty’s perceptions of student feedback on teaching for formative
purposes (Yao and Grady, 2005). Findings indicated that faculty are likely to improve theirteaching practice based on the feedback from student evaluations, since they have themotivation for improving their teaching. However, faculty also experienced anxiety andtensions from the mandated summative end-of-course assessment. The findings from thisstudy highlighted the potential of student feedback for improving teaching but conversely, asummative assessment might have negative implications.
A shift away from summative assessment of teaching and towards formative assessment forteaching requires investigating into how this shift can be done in an evidence-backed mannerthat can also be viewed positively by faculty. In their qualitative study involving focus groupinterviews with students, Chan et al. (2017) uncovered some important findings on how
student feedback can be improved. Students reported that the timing of collecting feedback
should be during the middle of the subject and they would like to know that their opinions
matter, especially when a teacher has made changes in the ongoing subject based on their
feedback. This finding is in line with the recommendation from Black and Wiliam (2009)
who emphasised the importance of providing feedback that is specific, timely, and actionable.
Another interesting finding from the study was that electronic respondents tended to give
about 50% more and longer comments than their counterparts responding on paper, showingthat students might potentially give more qualitative feedback through online means.
Research Questions
Due to the comparative lack of studies in the area, this exploratory study sought to investigate
lecturers’ and students’ perceptions on formative assessment of teaching through flexible
online means.
The two research questions in the study are as follows:
Research Question 1
What are lecturers’ perceptions of flexible online student feedback on their teachingeffectiveness for formative purposes?
Research Question 2
What are students’ perceptions of providing feedback to lecturers on their teachingeffectiveness via a flexible online approach?

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The Flexible Student Feedback (SFB) Model

Figure 1: Flexible SFB Model
The flexible SFB model adopted in the study is shown in Figure 1. The study was conductedin Academic Year 2022 Semester 1 (AY22S1), spanning eighteen weeks over two terms.
Before the start of semester, the institution’s Department of Educational Development (EDU)
developed an SFB guide which listed instructions on how to set up and execute the SFB
survey in the Brightspace LMS for lecturer participants to go through before the semester
began. To ensure standardised SFB questions were used by all lecturers during the study,
EDU prepared a set of three questions for the survey. Two of the questions were quantitative,
addressing facilitation skill and concern for student learning, while the third was a qualitative
question on how the lecturer can help improve student learning. Each lecturer was to set up
the SFB for their own module and class by the start of the semester.
During Term 1, SFB1 could be carried out at any time at the lecturers’ discretion. While thesurvey window was open, the Brightspace LMS had a feature for lecturers to view theirstudents’ responses live and track students’ participation. At the end of the survey period, theBrightspace LMS generated a basic report for lecturers to analyse the results. Lecturers could
then use the formative feedback received from students to modify their teaching approaches
to address any issues raised. In Term 2, lecturers were asked to repeat this process as asecond survey, SFB2. Depending on the time it was carried out, SFB2 results could either
similarly encourage modified teaching during the remainder of the semester or be used tomake improvements planning for the next run of the module in the subsequent semester.
EDU approached all 10 academic schools in SP for lecturer volunteers to participate in the
study. In total, there were 27 lecturers who conducted the study in 30 modules across 90
classes, with an average of 20 students per class.
Methodology
The study was conducted using an exploratory sequential approach (Fetters et al., 2013) withthe lecturers. Qualitative data was collected through semi-structured focused groupinterviews and analysed followed by a phase which developed quantitative items based on
the qualitative data. The rationale for choosing this mixed-methods design is to explore aphenomenon before deciding which variables are needed to measure or test quantitatively(De Vos et al., 2005). The lecturers were split into two focus groups and a set of semistructured questions developed from literature scans were prepared for each interviewer.
The decision to employ focused group interviews was based on Morgan’s (1997) rationalethat observations can be made on a large number of interactions between participants on a
topic within a given period. After the focus group interviews, the interviewers converged toperform thematic coding with the help of notes taken during the interviews.

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The themes identified from the qualitative interviews would then be used to form thevariables of the quantitative survey which was used to capture ratings of the lecturers’
perceptions of receiving online student feedback in a timely manner through the Brightspace
LMS. The survey also included open-ended questions to gather qualitative responses. Thissurvey was then followed up with another round of lecturer focus group interviews totriangulate with the survey’s quantitative and qualitative results. Concurrently, a semistructured interview with a student focus group was carried out to provide further
triangulation of results. The benefit of applying triangulation is that it enhances thequantitative research strategy through more than one way of measuring a concept (Bryman,2016) which in this study are lecturer and student semi-structured interviews.
Results and Findings
Four themes were identified during the first lecturers’ interview after SFB1 was successfully
conducted and analysed.
Theme one: Flexible SFB is timely and actionable
Theme two: Lecturers have ownership of the process
Theme three: Flexible SFB is an improvement over current student feedback process,
Theme four: Implementation in Brightspace LMS.
The themes were then used to develop statements for lecturers to rate quantitatively in asurvey. Figure 2 below shows the statements and results of the quantitative items of thesurvey and Table 1 summarises the findings from the data analysis.

Figure 2: Results of Lecturers’ Survey

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Theme
1. Timely andActionable
2. Ownership
3. Improvement
Over Current
SFB Process
4. Implementation

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Finding
Most lecturers (88%) found that both SFBs provided timely and actionable
feedback to make changes to address students’ learning needs.
Most lecturers (72%) preferred to own the SFB process vis-à-vis theflexibility of timing and questions (i.e., to set their own questions, decide
when to conduct, and whether to conduct at module or class level).
Lecturers and students found value in both the new approach to SFB and theexisting campus-wide SFB for distinct reasons (e.g., formative vs summative
feedback, shorter vs longer survey, customisable vs standardised questions).
Most lecturers (60%) found implementing SFB in the Brightspace Learning
Management System manageable.

Table 1: Themes and Findings
Selected quotations from lecturers from the qualitative section of the survey and the nextstage of the lecturer focus group interview were triangulated with themes one to three.
Theme one - On the flexible SFB being timely and actionable:“We can quickly make adjustment to our teaching practices from the student feedback
and come out with the most appropriate intervention to address learner's need.”“It allows me to quickly fill in the learning gaps faced by my students.”
Theme two - On the value of lecturers having ownership over the process:“The value is firstly the tailoring the questions. You want to ask something else you
can do it yourself and craft the question yourself… The tailoring also comes in thetiming...”
Theme three - On the flexible SFB being an improvement over the current process:“Perhaps there may need to be two separate exercises… to ensure that one avenue
provides direct feedback to the staff so that it can be seen as a formative assessment
to make improvements and the other a more objective campus wide SFB to get asummative evaluation at the end of the semester…”
Triangulation of the qualitative responses in the survey and the focus group interviews
identified lecturers’ concerns over potential issues when looking to scale up the
implementation of the flexible SFB, such as the effort in having to set up numerous surveys
for a module with many classes and survey fatigue in students when expected to participate in
the SFB for every module they are enrolled in that semester. It was also highlighted that amore detailed data analysis of student responses may take some time given the basic formatof the report generated in the Brightspace LMS, especially if lecturers want to conduct moredetailed trend analyses or make comparisons across classes. It was suggested that the timeand effort to do this data analysis might not be worthwhile and may be better utilised
elsewhere.
Students interviewed in the focus group emphasised that flexible formative student feedback
has value only if students can see actions taken by their lecturers after feedback is given. In
the event they do not see any lecturer outcomes, they would be less keen to participate in the

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SFB nor take it seriously. A relevant student comment from the focus group interview is
extracted:“But the issue is if they don’t see a… change. Then they might not feel like it’s very
useful…”“...it’s only useful when the lecturers or the tutors actually address the issues.”
The findings from this exploratory research study are similar to the ones put forward by
Scherer et al. (2016) as the results show that lecturers do recognise the value and advantagesof introducing flexible student formative feedback into their teaching practice. Lecturers
appreciate that such an approach affords them the opportunity to provide timely andactionable feedback to improve student learning, empowers them with the ability to decide
when and in what format to collect online feedback, as well as set up and execute a feedback
survey in the Brightspace LMS without much difficulty.
However, some concerns were raised regarding the implications of implementing flexible
student feedback in the Brightspace LMS on a larger scale for both lecturers and students,
which we believe may benefit from further exploration. It is interesting to note that lecturers
appreciated having both a flexible and end-of-semester online student feedback system forvaried reasons and applications, and students reported that their attitude and commitment
towards giving feedback is influenced by whether they see their feedback being actively
addressed. This perception identified from the student focus group interview is consistent
with the students interviewed in the study on feedback from students to teachers by Chan etal. (2017).
Recommendations
In light of the study’s results and findings, the researchers recommend continuing
encouraging lecturers to include more student feedback for formative purposes in theircurriculum to provide insights into their teaching effectiveness, and for them to use thefeedback gathered to make teaching improvements to enhance student learning. An importantvalue proposition in doing so is that it provides more freedom and flexibility for lecturers togather timely feedback without significantly affecting their current teaching and learning
practices. This type of feedback can also provide lecturers with information about theirteaching beyond just subject content, such as their student-teacher interactions, classroom
management strategies and pedagogical approaches.
The researchers also recommend that the existing student feedback exercise conducted at theend of the semester be retained, as an institutionalised and centralised SFB exercise stillcontains several benefits. Course designers, school administrators and lecturers can receive
valuable overall feedback on teaching, use the data received to expand their analyses acrosscohorts and levels, as well as retain longitudinal data to identify and address performancetrends.
Conclusion
This study is significant for several reasons. Firstly, many studies have reported theimportance and practices of formative feedback that teachers give to their students but there
is much less research on feedback from students to teachers. This study adds to the limited

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body of research on student feedback to teachers for formative teaching purposes. Secondly,
this study explores the feasibility and efficacy of collecting flexible online feedback apartfrom the traditional end-of-semester feedback exercises. The timing of gathering student
feedback was decided by lecturers, giving them ownership and responsibility to effectively
modify their teaching practices as follow-up actions. Finally, the results show the overall
positive perception that lecturers have towards conducting and receiving student feedback
during the teaching semester for formative teaching purposes. This study did reveal somescaling-up concerns such as student survey fatigue and data analysis efforts, but there ispotential in undertaking further research on how online student feedback on teachingeffectiveness can be carried out on a larger scale, and its impact on teaching and learning
approaches.

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References
Black, P., Harrison, C., Lee, C., Marshall, B., & Wiliam, D. (2003). Assessment for learning:
Putting it into practice. Open University Press.
Black, P., & Wiliam, D. (1998). Inside the black box: Raising standards through classroom
assessment. Phi Delta Kappan, 80(2), 139-148.
Black, P., & Wiliam, D. (2009). Developing the theory of formative assessment. Educational
Assessment, Evaluation and Accountability (formerly: Journal of personnel
evaluation in education), 21, 5-31.
Bryman, A. (2016). Social research methods. Oxford University Press.
Cashin, W. E. (1995). Student Ratings of Teaching: The Research Revisited. IDEA Paper No.
32.
Chan, Z. C., Stanley, D. J., Meadus, R. J., & Chien, W. T. (2017). A qualitative study on
feedback provided by students in nurse education. Nurse Education Today, 55, 128133.
De Vos, A.S., Strydom, H., Fouché, C.B. & Delport, C.S.L. 2005. Research at Grassroots for
the Social Sciences and Human Services Professionals (3rd ed.). Cape Town: Van
Schaik Publishers.
Fetters, M. D., Curry, L. A., & Creswell, J. W. (2013). Achieving integration in mixed
methods designs – principles and practices. Health Services Research, 48(6pt2),
2134–2156.
Harper, S. R., & Kuh, G. D. (2007). Myths and misconceptions about using qualitative
methods in assessment. New Directions for Institutional Research, 2007(136), 5-14.
Knight, J. (2007). Instructional coaching: A partnership approach to improving instruction.
Corwin Press.
Kraft, M. A., Blazar, D., & Hogan, D. (2018). The effect of teacher coaching on instruction
and achievement: A meta-analysis of the causal evidence. Review of Educational
Research, 88(4), 547-588.
Lewis, K.G. (2001). Using midsemester student feedback and responding to it. In K.G. Lewis(Ed.), Techniques and strategies for interpreting student evaluations [Special issue].
New Directions for Teaching and Learning, 87, 33-44.
Morgan, D. L. (1997). Focus Groups as Qualitative Research: Qualitative Research Methods
Series (Vol. 6) (2nd Edn). London: Sage.
Nicol, D. J., & Macfarlane Dick, D. (2006). Formative assessment and self regulated
learning: A model and seven principles of good feedback practice. Studies in higher
education, 31(2), 199-218.

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Popham, W. J. (2008). Transformative assessment. ASCD.
Scherer, M., Niederhauser, D. S., & Paar, M. (2016). Formative assessment of teachers'
diagnostic competences through classroom observations: A study on the effectivenessof different feedback interventions. Teaching and Teacher Education, 60, 12-23.
Yao, Y., & Grady, M. L. (2005). How do faculty make formative use of student evaluation
feedback?: A multiple case study. Journal of Personnel Evaluation in Education, 18,
107-126.

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Replacing Video Cameras With Mobile Phones Using the Multi-Phone Livestreaming(MultPLS) Method
Alhadi Bujang, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak, Malaysia
Nurul Izzah Nasir, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak, Malaysia
Mohammad Khairuddin Ahmad, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak, Malaysia
Siti Hajar Abu Bakar, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak, Malaysia
Mohamad Hishamuddin Wang, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak, Malaysia
Ernisa Marzuki, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak, Malaysia
The Southeast Asian Conference on Education 2023
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Abstract
Livestreaming has become the new normal for universities. It is common nowadays foracademic events such as webinars and conferences to be streamed live to a global
audience. A conventional livestreaming session typically utilises multicamera production(MCP) to achieve varied and dynamic video angles. This kind of footage is crucial for theaudience to fully appreciate the event; however, it requires video production cameras, which
presents constraints due to the cameras’ lack of flexibility, high costs, and necessary usage
training. Our study aims to overcome these challenges by 1) emulating the MCP livestream
quality using a simple, flexible, and sustainable approach; and 2) optimising the use ofexisting equipment to minimise financial needs. We devised the Multi-Phone Livestreaming(MultPLS) method, an innovation that uses mobile phones in place of video production
cameras, with its own plug-and-play Wi-Fi access point to produce an isolated network forthe mobile phones. MultPLS was repeatedly tested and evaluated in various academic events
over 21 months. We discovered that MultPLS held advantages over the conventional method.
In terms of footage quality, MultPLS is equal to or better than the conventional MCP.
MultPLS is more flexible when it comes to physical and location movements. It is also more
economically sustainable. Finally, this method can be utilised for livestreams from any
locations with internet connection, thus cancelling the need for outdoor broadcastingvehicles. We are therefore confident that MultPLS possesses great potential for applicationsin the academic domain and beyond.
Keywords: Multi-Camera Production, Mobile Phones, Livestreaming, Internet

iafor
The International Academic Forumwww.iafor.org

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Background
The COVID-19 pandemic in 2020 triggered an avalanche of impacts that resonates aroundthe world. In the tertiary education domain, this culminates in a forced leverage of existing
technology to continue academic activities. One approach is to go hybrid, that is, to combine
both virtual and face-to-face settings in one event. To allow participation from a bigger poolof audience, hybrid events are also livestreamed.
Livestreaming is the simultaneous real-time recording and broadcasting of media to online
viewers (Netnography unlimited, n.d.), typically including a two-way instantaneouscommunication between the broadcaster and the audience or amongst the audience
themselves through the engagement mechanisms of the platform. Catalysed by the pandemic,
livestreaming has grown in popularity and has been used for a variety of purposes, including
branding (Haushalter et al., 2022), teaching and learning (Jin, 2020; Mill et al., 2021), andconferences (Overbay, Bigand, & Springer, 2021).
The use of livestreaming as part of a branding exercise has been shown to increase positive
viewer engagement, with a persisting effect even after the campaign has been completed(Haushalter et al., 2022). In terms of teaching and learning activities, livestreaming is viewed
as an alternative and viable approach (Chen, Chen, Wang, & Huang, 2022; Nurain Adila
Abdul Samat et al., 2019). It has been proposed as a more interactive method compared to
pre-recorded videos (Faiz, Marar, Kamel, & Vance, 2021). In medical education,
livestreamed remote ward rounds received favourable responses from the students,
instructors, and patients (Mill et al., 2021). Even if conventional teaching and learning
approach may return, livestream provides a promising alternative in contexts such as global
education and teaching in remote areas or as an add-on method for educational purposes (Faizet al., 2021).
In academic conferences, livestreaming is also viewed positively. Feedback from a medical
research conference showed that the participants perceived livestreaming favourably due tothree main benefits: cost saving, self-care and safety, and user-friendliness (Overbay, Bigand,& Springer, 2021). Despite the lack of face-to-face interactions, conferences that utilise
livestreaming from multiple locations around the world possess striking advantages, i.e.,
increased inclusivity and equity (participants from all around the world have the opportunity
to join) and reduction of climate-damaging emissions (due to travels) (Parncutt, MeyerKahlen, & Sattmann, 2019).
The challenges of event livestreaming
Livestream broadcasters share one primary goal: audience engagement. To get and maintainaudience engagement, livestreams need to be done in a way that keeps audience entertained(Fraser, Kim, Thornsberry, Klemmer, & Dontcheva, 2019). A livestream that can show how
an event unfolds in real-time may be able to capture audience attention better. Real-time
interactions such as chats and comments between the broadcaster and the viewers alsoheightens the sense of virtual community of the livestreaming audience (He, Yao, Tang, &Ma, 2022).
To achieve these, especially for event or programme livestreaming that involves a lot of
movements or different locations, a single camera would not be sufficient to capture different
moments. This is where livestreams are conventionally conducted using a few video

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production cameras. More than one video production camera is typically required for events
such as a graduation ceremony, launching of a programme, or even an interactive seminar.
The footage from each video production camera will be fed into a video switcher, usually via
cables. The video switcher will allow the person in charge to select which videos to be
streamed online. Some video switchers can stream video directly, whilst some would need tobe connected to a computer. Shown in Figure 1 is the configuration for a conventional
multicamera production (MCP).

Figure 1: A conventional MCP livestreaming setup with video production cameras
To achieve this, however, some challenges have to be addressed.
First is the limited quantity of video production cameras owned by the institution. Video
production cameras are expensive. To form an MCP setup, more than one video production
cameras are needed, which means that multiple purchases are required.
Second is the limited expertise regarding the use and maintenance of video production
cameras. Training is needed to optimise the usage of the cameras. This requires time andmanpower. In addition to this, we would also need the appropriate technical skillset for theproper maintenance of the cameras. Failure to do so would be a waste of purchase in that theusage is not optimised.
Third, even if the first two obstacles have been overcome, there is still the challenge oflimited flexibility. Video production cameras are connected to cables unless a wireless HDMI
device is readily available. In addition, this type of camera is quite heavy to be lugged
around, especially when covering dynamic events. One possible solution is to use motorised
conference cameras, but motorised conference cameras also need to be connected to a USB
and power cables. Moreover, despite having a motor to rotate the camera view, the speed of a
motorised camera is slow, thus restricting it to a limited number of event activities. Overusing
the camera rotation would result in a low-quality video footage.
Finally, events or programmes in remote areas (e.g., community service in rural villages,
research expeditions) cannot be livestreamed without the technical equipment to support the

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video feeds from the video production camera. This necessitates extra luggage, or for major
events, the rent of an outdoor broadcasting vehicle (OBV).
We therefore faced the options of purchasing new video production cameras and then to getexperts to train our team to use and maintain these, or to let university events be livestreamedusing the current limited setup, i.e., using a single video production camera or paired with amotorised conference camera, or paying external teams to livestream events, with the hopesthat things will return to normal. But we chose a third option – innovate so that there is noneed for acquisition of expensive equipment and at the same time, achieve high-quality
livestreaming. This paper will compare the viability of mobile (smart) phones as part of MCP
against video production cameras only as MCP in terms of video quality, video angles,
multiple filming locations, and financial sustainability.
Methodology
The investigation for this study took place in the form of an action research. The study started
with research on the existing issue and challenges, illustrated in Figure 2.

Figure 2: The Ishikawa Method used to encapsulate issues and challenges
We conducted action research throughout 2021-2022. We repeated the action, evaluation, andcritical analysis of practices based on the data that we collected during the exercise. Each of
our “tests” took place during specific events in the university. Following Byrne (2005), theposition of researcher and practitioner should be a contextual rather than a fixed concept,
which means that in this study, we played both the parts of the researcher and the practitioner.
We started with one mobile phone to complement one video production camera. In thefollowing setups, we increased the number of mobile phones and added components such as
gimbal to stabilise the recording.
The configuration of MultPLS is as follows:
1. Events are filmed by mobile phones (therefore taking over the video production
camera’s role).
2. Videos from mobile phones are transmitted to a host computer or laptop that acts as avideo switcher. This is done via a specially set up local area network (LAN).
3. As mobile phones and computers can be equipped with open-source software forlivestreaming and video recording (i.e., OBS), the video feeds can be sent directly

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from the mobile phones to the computer/laptop without the need for a video switcher
as an added equipment.
4. The person in charge (Stream Director) views all videos before selecting and tailoringthem for the live broadcast to selected platform(s) (e.g., Facebook, YouTube, Zoom,etc.)
To ensure smooth and uninterrupted data transfer over the LAN, the team created an
exclusive plug-and-play wi-fi access point (AP) for all devices involved. This exclusive
access means that the bandwidth will not be affected by other users in the same compoundand has the added value of security.
MultPLS was first used in January 2021. As of December 2022, we have utilised MultPLS in
88 university events. Table 1 shows selected events, dates, and the progression of MultPLS
over approximately two years.
Date

Event

Items

12 Jan 2021

Borneo Leadership
Talk Series 1/2021

1 mobile phone
1 production camera

18 Feb 2021

Amanat Naib Canselor

1 mobile phone
1 production camera
1 gimbal

17 Mar 2021

Majlis Anugerah
Gemilang UNIMAS

22 Jan 2022

Majlis Lafaz
PengisytiharanPentauliahan dan
Pemakaian Pangkat
PALAPES

20 Aug 2022

4 Nov 2022

2 mobile phones
1 production video
camera1 gimbal
3 mobile phones
1 production video
camera1 gimbal
Cross live broadcast –VVIPs arrival, 1kmfrom the main event

Notes
One camera angle forspeaker, one foraudience. Video frommobile phone was
shaky at times
Gimbal adds to mobile
phone stability indynamic shots
3 angles, with 1 phoneroaming around4 angles with one froma satellite location,
capturing the arrival of
guestsJelajah Puisi Keluarga
Malaysia 2022

3 mobile phones,
1 production video
camera,Gigabit router

Smoother video, due tofaster transmission ofvideos over the local
network

UNIMAS Business
School Graduation
Ceremony

3 mobile phones,
1 production video
camera,Gigabit router

Offers variation fromthe usual graduation
ceremony because one
roaming mobile phone
was used to film the
VIP procession

Table 1: The progression of MultPLS over two years

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Findings
In this paper, we present our findings from the comparison on the use of MultPLS as opposed
to conventional MCP for livestreaming university events.
Comparable quality of video
Based on our comparison, we found that videos from mobile phones versus videos fromvideo production cameras were comparable in terms of their sharpness, colour composition,and lighting. These were true for both indoor and outdoor events. As most mobile phones
nowadays can capture videos of at least 720p, the pixel quality from mobile phones is alsosimilar to the pixel quality from video production cameras. More expensive range of mobile
phones that encompass the latest technological advances also offer wide angle and opticalzoom options, which means potentially better video quality.
The following images show snapshots taken from a video production camera and a mobile
phone. Figure 3 is a comparison for an indoor event and Figure 4 is a comparison for an
outdoor event.

Still from a VPC (Panasonic AJ-PX270EJ,
Still from a mobile phone (iPhone X, 720p
720p @30fps)@30fps)Figure 3: Comparison of stills from a VPC and a mobile phone (indoor event)

Still from a VPC (Panasonic AJ-PX270EJ,
Still from a mobile phone (iPhone X, 720p
720p @30fps)@30fps)Figure 4. Comparison of stills from a VPC and a mobile phone (outdoor event)
Easy addition of video angles and add-on livestreaming features
Due to the lighter weight of mobile phones compared to video production cameras, it is moreconvenient to bring more mobile phones to any particular event’s setting. The team can pack

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extra “video cameras” to prepare for the eventuality that an event needs extra viewing angles.
The absence of cables also reduces the possibility of risks involving people tripping, tangled
wires, or unattached cables.
Similar to the conventional MCP, MultPLS can add livestreaming features such as live chats,
scrolling credits/title, and picture-in-picture format. The use of OBS in MultPLS makes thisprocess more straightforward as all the sources (e.g., images, text, audio-video input) aregrouped in one location. For instance, for a talk show that we livestreamed to Facebook in
2022, questions to the speakers were not only read out loud but shown on screen for theaudience to see (Figure 5).

Figure 5: Add-on livestreaming feature that can be done using MultPLS
MultPLS in multiple locations
The weight and size of mobile phones also play an important part in multiple location or
remote location streaming, as it is more practical to transport several mobile phones thanseveral video production cameras, especially with limited luggage space. In addition, using
mobile phones means that events in satellite locations can be livestreamed without additional
technical equipment. This is feasible because mobile phones are telecommunication devices
that do not require extra features to be connected to the internet.
In the period of time when MultPLS was utilised, only one event with a satellite location wasorganised. Figure 6 shows Location 1 on the left, shot here with a roaming mobile phone, andLocation 2 on the right, shot with a mobile phone on a stand.

Still from a mobile phone (iPhone 12 Pro
Still from a mobile phone (Vivo Y17, 720p
Max, 720p @30fps)@30fps)Figure 6: Location 1 (main gate of the University) and Location 2 (University hall)

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To check whether a farther satellite location can be livestreamed, we performed a livestream
test from Betong, a district in Sri Aman, which is about 280 km away from Kuching, thecapital of Sarawak. The result showed that this is viable, as long as the satellite venue has
adequate internet connection, that is, a minimum of 10Mbps for upload speed. No additional
equipment was used for this livestream test.

Figure 7. A snapshot of the livestream from Betong
Financially viable solution
As there is no need to purchase new video production cameras, the costs of acquiring MCPlike results are drastically reduced. Given is the calculation for financial impact for an eventthat requires two different camera angles (one wireless for roaming and one static), with theassumption that the organiser has to make new purchases:
Setup

Item

Quantity

Total (USD)

Video production
2
2,785
cameraWireless HDMI
1480
Mobile phone2
112
Table 2: Cost comparison between MCP and MultPLS for an event

Conventional
MCP
MultPLS

Estimated cost
per item (USD)

6,080
224

We can calculate the financial savings that can be achieved from Table 1, which isapproximately 96%. Costs can also be reduced should there be a need to livestream from alocation that needs OBV as mobile phones are telecommunication devices, as opposed tovideo production cameras that would require network cabling.
Discussion
Whilst event livestreaming typically uses conventional MCP, there are limitations related tothe usage of video production cameras in the MCP setup. Our team proposed a solution –augmenting video production camera with mobile (smart) phones – and experimented withthe setup for roughly two years. The results have been highly promising in terms ofoperational and financial sustainability.

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The following are the main advantages of MultPLS when compared to the conventional
MCP:
1. The video quality from mobile phones is similar to video production cameras’ video
quality. Video quality is one of the important elements to retain audience interest(Fraser et al., 2019). As mobile phones continue to adopt cutting edge technology,
their video capabilities would rise steadily, making them even more viable for video
shooting purposes.
2. Mobile phones allow flexibility of movements due to their size and weight. It is easier
to operate and more feasible to be carried around and set up, especially if an event has
multiple locations. Consequently, this allows for more variety of angles when needed.
3. Considering the current need for digital content, this approach can be utilised forlivestreams from locations with no wi-fi as the team can connect the bespoke AP toany available internet line. In addition, the AP secures the connection between thevideo feeds and the host computer, addressing security issues that may arise.
4. Very minimal costs are needed for MultPLS to operate as there are no need topurchase production video cameras or other equipment needed in the conventional
MCP setup. The possibility of getting used mobile phones that are still in excellent
condition for video shooting and streaming is very high. For this study, we have beenusing existing mobile phones, which meant that we did not spend on purchase of new
mobile phones.
We posit that the use of mobile phones to support video production cameras is therefore asustainable method for livestreaming university events. Experts in the field of MCP agreed
that when it comes to audience engagement, it is not the quality of the camera per se, but the
number of camera angles, which is far more important for an effective livestream(FilmmakerIQ, 2021). Expensive cameras also do not necessarily translate into a bigger
audience. In many cases, using many smaller, cheaper video cameras will go a lot further inraising the production quality rather than using one or two high-end cameras as the various
angles would be more effective in showing how the event unfolds. This is exactly what
MultPLS offers.
Conclusion
Our project contributes to the blooming literature on livestreaming in the educational context
and offers a practical and sustainable solution for quality livestreaming. We highlight thepotential of our innovation, MultPLS, as a livestreaming technique that is achieved byinnovating existing technology and does not require expensive equipment in turning every
livestream into a story. MultPLS can especially benefit organisations and communities thatwould like to livestream their events or programmes but neither possess expensive video
camera equipment nor the expertise of handling conventional MCP configurations. We
foresee the potential of MultPLS to be utilised in other contexts, such as concerts and sports
events.

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References
Byrne, E. (2006). Using action research in information systems design to address change: A
South African Health Information Systems case study: Reviewed article. South
African Computer Journal, 2006(37), 19-29.
Chen, X., Chen, S., Wang, X., & Huang, Y. (2021). " I was afraid, but now I enjoy being a
streamer!" Understanding the Challenges and Prospects of Using Live Streaming forOnline Education. Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction,
4(CSCW3), 1-32.
Faiz, T., Marar, O., Kamel, M. K., & Vance, S. (2021). Teaching operative surgery to
medical students using live streaming during COVID-19 pandemic. SurgicalInnovation, 28(2), 253-254. https://doi.org/10.1177/1553350620967242
FilmmakerIQ (2021). The basics of multi-cam production. Available athttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7FXEUDBS9R0
Haushalter, K., Pritschet, S. J., Long, J., Edwards, C. G., Boyland, E. J., Evans, R. K., &Masterson, T. D. User Engagement with a Popular Food Brand Before, During, andAfter a Multiday Interactive Marketing Campaign on a Popular Livestreaming
Platform. Public Health Nutrition, 1-24.
He, D., Yao, Z., Tang, P., & Ma, Y. (2022). Impacts of different interactions on viewers’
sense of virtual community: An empirical study of live streaming platform. Behaviour& Information Technology, DOI: 10.1080/0144929X.2022.2053884
Jin, R. (2020, December). How does live streaming improve educational efficiency inmuseum education? In 2020 6th International Conference on Social Science andHigher Education (ICSSHE 2020) (pp. 856-860). Atlantis Press.
Mill, T., Parikh, S., Allen, A., Dart, G., Lee, D., Richardson, C., ... & Lewington, A. (2021).
Live streaming ward rounds using wearable technology to teach medical students: A
pilot study. BMJ Simulation & Technology Enhanced Learning, 7(6), 494.
Netnography unlimited: Understanding technoculture using qualitative social media
research. On the research of live video streaming. (n.d.) Retrieved fromebrary.net/216830/business_finance/live_video_streaming
Nurain Adila Abdul Samat,Harwati Hashim, & Melor Md. Yunus. (2019). Live Streaming: A
New Platform for ESL Learning. Creative Education, 10(12), 2899-2906. doi:
10.4236/ce.2019.1012215
Overbay, D., Bigand, T., & Gale, S. (2021). Perceptions of live streaming compared with anin-person nursing conference. A quality improvement project. The Journal of Nursing
Administration, 51(12), 645-650.
Parncutt, R., Meyer-Kahlen, N., & Sattmann, S. (2019). Live-streaming at international
academic conferences: Technical and organizational options for single-and multiplelocation formats. Elementa: Science of the Anthropocene, 7.

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Contact email: balhadi@unimas.my

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Transformation Management at a University-Based Business School
Hassan Ahmed Hassan Ahmed, Ahmed Bin Mohammed Military College, Qatar
Siti Nabiha Abdul Khalid, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Malaysia
Mellissa Ng Abdullah, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Malaysia
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This study focuses on the process of institutionalisation of a new management andeducational system (MTBS) in a Malaysian top university-based business school, disguised
as AGSB. Specifically, the study looks at the changes brought by MTBS transformation
programme introduced by government. An explanatory case study method is used whereby
data are collected through semi-structured interviews, document reviews, informal
conversation and observations. Using Neo Institutional Theory and Institutional Theory of
Educational Organizations, the data from this study reveal that MTBS created a legitimacy
dilemma for AGSB and subsequently led to mere incremental changes in the management
and educational practices. The main reason is that the MBTS holds a complex set of
conflicting value propositions to be provided by AGSB. Regarding management, the MTBS
proposes profit maximisation as the main value proposition for the management. As foreducation, the MTBS proposes multiple value propositions, including career-enhancementsalary-increasing, practice-based education, and scholarly- based education for developing
intellectuals. This is from the normative policy making perspective. In real life situation,
however, MTBS proved that it is not more than wishful thinking. Compared to the drastic
nature of the change required, the apparent incremental changes made in the management andeducational practices in AGSB are more or less negligible or even negative. This study has
shown that the intention to institutionalise new management and educational practices may
not materialise if there is no normative match between the assumptions, norms, and beliefs
brought by the new system and the identity of educational organisations.
Keywords: MTBS, Value Proposition, Incremental Change

iafor
The International Academic Forumwww.iafor.org

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Introduction

In Malaysia, the development of business and management education is very much related tothe socio-economic development. Considering the importance of university-based businessschools in spearheading the efforts to instil commercialisation culture in public universities, atransformation programme, which was launched in 2008, was seen as necessary. The
programme was named the Malaysian Top Business Schools (hereafter MTBS) andspecifically written up to intensify the commercial orientation culture among the universitybased business schools. The focus of the programme was to level the performance of businessschools in public universities at par of their regional and global counterparts and thereby beglobal centres of excellence in business and management education. The programme wasonly targeted at business schools in public universities. At the initial stage of thetransformation programme, the government conferred two business schools, disguised as
AGSB and AGSM, the status of MTBS as starting point of the transformation programme.
The then MOHE announced that the selection of the MTBS was based on the criteria of theWorld Top Business Schools and Asian Top Business School with eight domains namely,
quantity and quality of academic staff, quantity and quality of research and teaching, quantityof postgraduate students, quality of postgraduate students, innovation, professional services
and gifts, networking and linkages and support facilities. Furthermore, the government
recognized that the new direction of business and management education requires different
management and leadership style from the mainstream university administration. Therefore,
the government promised to revamp the administration of business schools to ensurecomplete autonomy, transparency and accountability of the top business schools(www.bernama.com).
However, after granting the two schools the status of MTBS in 2008 concerns have beenraised regarding how to evaluate the performance of the TBSs. The eight domains announced
by the government when the TBSs were selected were merely guidelines for thetransformation of the TBSs into world-class institutions. Therefore, the specific benchmarks
for the transformation programme to be used in evaluating the performance of the TBSs werethen considered by the government. In some way, the government is using the TBS
instrument as a tool for transformation and expecting the business schools to become global
centres of excellence in business and management education given the successful
implementation of the programme. In this paper, TBSC, TBS instrument, and MTBS
transformation programme are used interchangeably. In the literature of organisationalchange in higher education, the process of actually transforming AGSB into global centre of
excellence means changing not only its structure and management practices, but also thethinking and the quality of interaction among the academic staff (Clanon, 2013). Thus, thefocus of this study is to understand how the TBSC is used as a tool for organisationaltransformation and also how this transformation, if any, took place.
2.

Explanatory case study method

An explanatory case study was used in this research as there were no prescribed answers to
the research questions because the meanings attached to the TBSC are expected to vary
between various actors within and outside AGSB and, therefore, multiple realities are
expected to emerge from the research. Consequently, understanding the process of businessschool’s transformation, such the routinisation of TBSC is much deeper than the one obtained
through the use of other research methods such survey or experiment. Furthermore, because
there is no single reality in interpretive research, case study is the best method to unravel the

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complexity associated with remarkable change, such the one related to the institutionalisationof TBSC. This type of study will also provide a rich and comprehensive description of thecurrent situation as well as historical aspects such as the administrative and organisational
context.
Semi-structured interviews were used in this research. The main contribution of semistructured interview lies in the “richness of the data they provide, a strength that is sacrificed
when data are reduced to numerical values” (Sankar & Jones, 2007). Therefore, as theobjective of this research was to provide a holistic and in-depth understanding of thetransformation process in the case business school, a complete set of data from prescription to
implementation of TBSC was required. Hence, interviews were conducted at two levels of
responsibility, specifically the ministry level and the School level. At the ministry level, theformer Chairman of the TBS was interviewed twice. At the School level, 9 people from the
management team, 6 academic staff, and 9 MBA students were interviewed. Collectively 25
people were interviewed some of them for more than one time and each interview took
between 1 to 2 hours except for MBA students it took between 30 to 45 minutes.
The evidence from the interviews was further enhanced by other sources of data included
documents review, informal conversations, personal observations, news about the School,and not to forget the personal experience the researcher was able to gain from being part of
the School’s community throughout the data collection period.
3.

Analysing the dynamics of MTBS transformation programme

In order to explore the reasons for the dynamics of the transformation process, it is necessary
to reconstruct the accounts given and the sense making by the alternative actors involved in
the MTBS programme. This will be achieved following the tradition in the sociology ofknowledge followed in previous organisational research in general (Slack & Hinings, 1994)
and in educational organisations in particular (for example, Georg Krucken 2007). In thespirit of the neo-institutional theory articulated by DiMaggio and Powel is the process ofinstitutional isomorphism through which organisations in an organisational field tend to
become more similar over time.
The concept of institutional isomorphism refers both to the direct, power-based influencewhich may leave an organisation in a few-choices or even no-choice situation, and the softer,
non-power-based influence which in informal ways transfers the characteristics of one
organisation to the other, or operate from within the organisation itself (Bager, 1994).
Towards this end, DiMaggio and Powel further suggested that there are three basic forms of
institutional isomorphism. Firstly coercive isomorphism resulting from both formal andinformal pressures exerted on organisation by other organisations upon which they are
dependent and by cultural expectations in the society within which organisations function.
Such pressure may felt as force, as persuasion, or as invitation to join in collusion. Secondly,
mimetic isomorphism resulting from standard responses to uncertainty in such situation asorganisational technology is poorly understood, goals are ambiguous or when theenvironment creates symbolic uncertainty. In such case, organisations may model themselves
on other organisation being indirectly through employee transfer or explicitly throughconsulting firms or industry trade association. Thirdly, normative isomorphism associatedwith professionalization as reflected by the collective struggle of members of occupations todefine the conditions and methods of their work, to control “the production of producers”(DiMaggio & Powell, 1983).

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When applying this general conceptual scheme to the specific case of TBS transformation
programme in Malaysia, a restriction and an extension to the various types of isomorphism
seemed to be justified. The restriction is twofold: the first relates to way in which the concept
of institutional isomorphism is used. Isomorphic tendencies presented here are strictly limited
to the question whether and why AGSB formally institutionalised the TBSC in its
management and educational practices. No claims are made with regard to isomorphic
tendencies as regard to the contents of the syllabus for example. In other words, whether the
TBSC had led to changes in courses description or not is outside the scope of this study. The
second restriction relates to the differential characteristics of the identity of university
departments, such as AGSB, when adopting new programmes as the one presented by the
TBSC. The latter is analysed from the lens of institutional theory of educational organisationand the premise of loose coupling (Meyer, 1980; Weick, 1976). The extension is also
twofold. The first relates to the level at which mimetic and normative pressures has been felt.
In this study, while coercive pressure is felt at the organisational level, i.e. the School, bothmimetic and normative pressures are felt at the state level. The second extension relates to thecarriers of the normative pressure. In this study, accreditation and industry are the main
carriers of the normative pressure both of which are neither part of the state, and therefore
exercise coercive pressure, nor led by AGSB, and therefore exercise mimetic pressure. This isunlike DiMaggio and Powel theory where the focus is on profession and professionalorganisations as the main sources of normative pressure.
The three types of institutional isomorphism, i.e. coercive, mimetic, and normative,
intermingle in empirical setting, even though they tend to drive from different conditions andmay lead to different outcomes (DiMaggio & Powell, 1983). From the analytical point ofview, this is by no means what happened in the case of MTBS. Previous research inorganisational transformation in higher education documented that organisationaltransformation will only be considered when the three sources of isomorphism are presented(W. Bealing Jr, Riordan, & Riordan, 2011; Krücken, 2007; Papadimitriou & Westerheijden,
2010).
To discuss the coercive isomorphism, two important facts were seen as prerequisite in thisresearch. The first is that the coercive pressure is particularly for AGSB and the adoption of
the MTBS programme is voluntary for other business schools, as explained by the thenChairman of the TBS committee:
If you want to be a TBS, it is unclear what kind of incentives the government is giving;
but actually if you asked me, even without the financial incentives, the branding value
is very high. For this reason, the TBS is not mandatory for other business schools
The second fact is that even though the penalty was not clear if AGSB violates the TBSC,AGSB has been selected to set the example for other business schools and therefore founditself in a position that it has to conform to the criteria that have been set by the regulator, as
explained by the Marketing Executive at AGSB:
The government wants us to be an example on how to continue, we have given aminimum fund by the Government and we have to serve our own funds and they want
us as a TBS to show that we can survive without government funding.
Furthermore, having the profile of world-class institution is defined according to how the
MOHE views world-class business schools. For these reasons AGSB concentrates so much

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on building its reputation through various industrial linkages and being part of the regionaland global networks of business schools. On yearly basis, AGSB is required to report to theministry showing the scores it made in each area of the TBSC. Moreover, TBSC was felt as,
according to the responses of interviewees, “something that imposed by the government” and“the whole programme of MTBS was, in fact, a top down process”. Thus, in some way or
another AGSB is being coerced to focus on new set of educational and non-educational
measures rather than purely academic measures, while, on the other hand, it is also supposedto generate sufficient income to run the School independently. In short, the coercive pressures
have shaped the management and educational practices in AGSB subsequent to its selection
as MTBS.
Interestingly, the role of the leadership of the parent university is also of particularimportance in the case being analysed. However, the pressure on AGSB by the parent
university is a function of economic and academic factors. Economic-wise, because theparent university is also under pressure of being autonomous, cash flow and capital
investment became an economic necessity for university administrators. In this sense AGSB,
with its managerial expertise and marketable programmes, is very important for contributing
to the financial bottom line of the whole university. Furthermore, AGSB was expected to set
the example for other faculties within the university as well as to how to generate revenues
out of their academic programmes. For this reason the Vice Chancellor of the parent
university, who also used to be the ex-dean for the School, and his deputies fully support
AGSB. As indicated by the Dean of AGSB:
Even our VC is also interested in what happening in AGSB because to the University,
AGSB should be an example for other faculties, because ultimately other faculties
also have to be autonomous as part of the corporatization policy of public universities
at the Ministry level. As such, other faculties are also supportive because they want tosee and learn from the experience of AGSB to be an independent unit.
Academic-wise, the parent university is also concern about the quality of education andresearch by academic measures. For this purpose, AGSB must conform to the university
requirements in terms of teaching and research. This scenario of economic-academic
dichotomy makes it difficult for AGSB to choose between the economic and academic
objectives. Ultimately, this scenario also explains why the TBSC led to an institutional
identity crisis for AGSB, as explained by the Deputy Dean of AGSB:
The top business schools programme is conflicting because this is a research
university, so we have publication criteria and so on, but you see these TBSC is moreindustry driven and it is not really pure academic KPI, so actually it is quite
conflicting, so we are in the process in order to say ok: who want to follow the KPI of
the TBS and who want to follow the research university KPI. So we have not decided
yet on which part we are going.
Thus, the coercive pressure by the government was also reinforced by the Vice Chancellor of
the parent university which, in turn, have also shaped the management and educational
practices in AGSB.
Regarding the mimetic and normative pressures, both of them took place at the ministry level.
As for the mimetic pressure, the government objective of making business schools in public
universities as centres of excellence by the year 2020 is ambiguous and as such it tried to

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adopt the model of other regional and global top business schools. Therefore, in its essence,
the MTBS instrument is nothing but an attempt to copy the best practices in business andmanagement education at the regional and global levels. As indicated by the then Chairman
of TBS “the discussion of the TBS was mostly based on brainstorming but guided by what
happen in the global scenario”. In this sense, the mimetic processes here took place in ahighly institutionalised setting. This is unlike the proposition made by DiMaggio and Powel
that observation and imitation took place between organisations without communication withother similar organisations in the field.
As for the normative pressure, accreditation agencies seem to be the central carrier. Getting
accreditation by MTBS is supposed to be the vehicle for internationalisation of businessprogrammes and networking development. This scenario explains why AGSB embarks in theaccreditation from the AACSB and hires one senior consultant especially for this exercise.
The manifestation of the pressure exercised by accreditation agencies, basically from the
AACSB, on AGSB’s behaviour is, according to the Senior Consultant for Branding andMarketing, justified by:Mainly increasing the visibility of the AGSB o the various stakeholder and thereby beable to commercialise its academic programmes and research outputs to the relevant
users.
3.1 Breaking the rule of the game at case AGSB: According to the institutional theory, there
could be some coercive, mimetic, and normative isomorphism, which could lead to theinstitutionalisation of new educational and management techniques in AGSB. In its essence,
the MTBS programme proposes an alternative model of business education that focuses oninternationalisation and industry collaboration. On one hand, this model may make thebusiness schools more akin to medical schools, where teaching, research, and practice areclosely interrelated. On the other hand, the MTBS model may make the business schools‘businesses’ in their own right whose purpose include generate revenue-for shareholders, for
graduates, and for staff. Thus, this new model requires fundamental change in the educationaland management techniques which, in turn, require a change in the way academic staff do
and view things because it holds a different paradigm. How can an educational organisationsuch as AGSB, which has been so long adopting academic orientation, change to professionaland economic orientations? How is the change done? In what ways do the culture andinstitutions enable or constrain the processes of organisational transformation?
According to Gornitzka and Maassen (2001), answers to such questions depend on whether
there is congruence between the underlying norms and beliefs of the MTBS and the identity
and traditions of AGSB as educational organisation. Therefore, the following two sections
explore how the assumptions of the MTBS as policy instrument depart radically from the way
things are done at AGSB and how this discrepancy shaped the management and educational
practices at AGSB and eventually led to merely incremental changes in the management andeducational practices.
3.2 The institutional identity of AGSB: AGSB could be described as academic unit operates
within a leading research university with approximately 32 academic staff who constitute its
major distinctive feature. In educational organisations such as AGSB, the focus of thedeanery is on the educational processes rather than outputs or outcomes and as such there is alack of feedback linkage from outcome back to inputs. The work processes are structured
around various disciplines with relative or lack of coordination between them. Decisions

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making authority is delegated to professors who possess the relevant expertise in specificareas. Lectures took place in unregulated environment where instructional activities are left
for the individual lecturer. Research activities are made in silo with main focus on theoreticalcontribution to business and management knowledge. For academic staff, publications in peer
reviewed journals are almost the main criteria of promotion. Weik (1976), John Meyer,
Richard Scott, and Terrence Deal (1980) also found almost similar characteristics of
educational organisations in their studies. These characteristics are by no means mostly
governed by the conventional university and university departments with academicorientation and AGSB is no exception. The rules and regulations that exist in AGSB are theresult of academic traditions, which basically focused heavily on the process conformity
rather than output delivery or outcomes’ respectability by different stakeholders. From theinstitutional theory of educational organisation perspective, these characteristics arise fromstructural strength rather than weakness. This is basically because the structures of
educational organisations such as AGSB reflect environmentally created institutional rules
concerning education and that these structures are decoupled from the technical work ofeducation. In other words, the dean and the management team of AGSB has minimal control
over instructional activities, design of instructional material, research practices by individual
faculty members, evaluation of students’ performance, and assessing the performance ofindividual faculty members all of which are the core functions of AGSB. Thus, theimplication of the loose coupling on the management and educational practices in AGSB isthat adopting new patterns of work, such as MTBS, the management team do not control the
responses of the academic staff.
3.3 The underlying norms and beliefs of MTBS programme: According to Gornitzka andMaassen (1999), the analysis of organisational change in the context of government policies
and programmes, such as MTBS, should delineate the background and nature of policies.
This could be achieved by considering the national modes of policy making as part of thenational state model and its influence on the policy formation process (Gornitzka, 1999).
Thus, the analysis of the MTBS could be better carried out by relating the MTBS programme
to the wider policy framework in higher education in Malaysia.
In responding to the growing demand for territory education coupled with the tight budgetary
regulations since early 1990, academic orientation and its bureaucratic way of doing things inpublic universities had been criticised for being inefficient and ineffective. As response tothis criticism, managerialism was promoted as new paradigm in higher education (Ka Ho
Mok, 2007). The concept promotes the idea that public universities should adopt private
sector management techniques in order to improve performance. In its essence,
managerialism is a tool for shifting from a bureaucratic preoccupation with processes to afocus on results. This is exactly what is being promoted by the MTBS programme wherebusiness schools are judged based on the outcomes to the various stakeholders. Furthermore,among the three central values of managerialism, i.e. rationality, merit, and excellence, theconcept of “excellence” is the most popular dimension (Santiago & Carvalho, 2012), and assuch used as the edge of the MTBS. Therefore, coming from this macro analysis of public
policy, MTBS programme could be seen as simply a “managerialism formula” for university
department. Thus, MTBS carries new set of assumptions, beliefs, and norms about the
management and educational practices in AGSB, and ultimately about the legitimacy of
AGSB.
3.3.1 Norms, values, and assumptions about the management practices: From management
point of view, MTBS promotes AGSB as for-profit organisation where the focus is on

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efficient and effective allocation of available resources. Developing AGSB as autonomous
entity has been defined based on the cash-generating capacity of AGSB. For this reason, it isunderstandable to find that one of the reasons behind the selection of the School as TBS is the
expectation by government, and also by the parent university, that AGSB could set the‘example’ for how to become autonomous entity, the major question in higher education in
Malaysia (Sirat, 2010b). For the government, with the initial fund given to AGSB whenselected as a top business school, AGSB is expected to set the example for other businessschools on how they can be financially autonomous using self-generating income. This
expectation was clearly explained by the Marketing and Communications Manager for thewhole university and also The Marketing Executive and lecturer at AGSB:
The government want us to be an example on how to continue, we have given aminimum fund by the government and we have to serve our own funds and they want
us as a TBS to show that we can survive without government funding.
However, the government set the conditions for AGSB to become autonomous entity as being
able to cover all its costs. As indicated by then Chairman of the TBS:The best scenario will be the whole AGSB become a private body and if it iscompletely sustainable. In other words, it will be able to pay all the costs of facilities
and operations. So the parent university will spin-off a private graduate businessschool.
From the perspective of ITEO, the definition of AGSB as profit making organisation is basedon erroneous assumptions about how AGSB is managed. Such assumptions are related to theoverall focus of the management of AGSB, the governance structure, and the distribution ofdecision making authorities. As for the overall focus of the top management, MTBS requirechanging the focus of the deanery from educational processes to educational outcomes. Thisis a drastic change since it requires major change in the way the management team at AGSB
view things. Central to this change is the focus on inspection of outputs, that is, the impactsof educational practices. From ITEO perspective, however, efforts to actually coordinate
educational processes or inspect educational outputs would increase conflict with students,
cause dissatisfaction among lecturers, and greatly increase the burden to administrators(Meyer, 1980). This scenario explains why AGSB lack any formal policy or binding
instructions for academic staff to follow exactly the TBSC.
In terms of governance, the government promise to revamp the administration of the TBS
was not made as yet. Only limited attempts were made by AGSB such as organising ‘talks’sessions by industry peoples and having 20 peoples from the industry as advisory committee.
The contribution of the industry advisory committee is confined to soliciting inputs for MBA
curriculum without contributing to the performance of AGSB. This scenario may explain
why the meanings attached to the TBSC by AGSB’s academic staff are shaped by its‘academic’ dimension as university department.
Regarding the distribution of decision making authority, the assumptions of MBTS relate totask differentiation and the efficacy of command-and-control mechanisms. The government
expect that AGSB could be able to strategise for implementing the TBSC through allocationof tasks to academic staff based on their area of expertise. This expectation by no means
requires replacing the former ‘high trust’ relations characterizing previous collegial forms ofgovernance with ‘low trust’ relations. From the perspective of ITEO, however, this

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assumption is misplaced due to the fact that the command-and-control management style of
AGSB can only decrease the autonomy of academic staff, the most prominent feature of
AGSB as educational institution.
All these assumptions and scenarios explain why AGSB struggles so much to develop newincome-generating programmes such as executive development programmes andconsultancy. Eventually, these scenarios may also explain why and how AGSB define its new
strategic direction as business in its own right focusing mainly on profit. As indicated by the
Dean of the School:
It looks like a business now: generate revenue, pay the staff, our balance is profit assimple as that.
The danger was that, AGSB identified its own academic staff as the biggest single threat toits new strategic direction, as explained by the Dean of AGSB:Our strength lies in our academic staff, but the way I look at it that is also ourweakness because we are experienced, we are already research professors working
within comfortable zone, now you want to shift into a new paradigm of doing
business, now our weakness is to change the mindset and this is not easy.
This is by no means explains the negative consequences of MBTS because what has been solong seen as the most valuable resource of AGSB as university department is now being
downgraded.
3.3.2 Norms, values, and assumptions about the educational practices: From an educational
point of view, the MTBS proposes practice-based learning where all instructional materials,
instructional methods, research, and practice are intertwined. Relevant, respected, andreferred business programmes have been defined from industry perspective. The mandate for
AGSB has been set as, according to the then Chairman of the TBS “to solve industry
problems”. For this reason, collaboration between AGSB and the industry was seen as thecatalyst for developing and implementing the alternative business and management
programmes. Towards this end, MTBS expect AGSB to bring in industry people toparticipate in teaching, research as well as the management of the School. The assumption isthat business schools “must” not only change their mindset about what business andmanagement education is all about, but to convince the top management in their parent
universities that the MTBS is the “right” direction for them. This assumption iscounterintuitive because the selection of AGSB as a TBS was made based on, according to
the Dean, “its strong academic profile in terms of staff and academic programme”, a featurethat is widely celebrated by academic staff in AGSB. This scenario may explain why AGSB
has not decided as yet as to which strategic direction to choose between MTBS and theresearch university.
In terms of curriculum, the government expected AGSB to ensure that business programmes
are tailored to industry. This requires knowledge about industry needs which, in turn, requires
staff with sufficient industry background to design the curriculum. The real practices ofcurriculum design in AGSB proved that industry knowledge was confined to soliciting inputs
from the discussions with the industry advisory committee. Curriculum design committee
includes mainly senior professors in AGSB who are renowned for their rich academic
expertise. For this reason, it is understandable to find that the progress towards developing

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industry-related programmes was confined to introducing only loosely defined components in
the MBA. Other than that the programme menu at AGSB includes academic programmes
designed for what so called scholarly education for developing business intellectuals. Thisscholarly-based education is what actually being embraced and practiced by AGSB as themain value proposition. This scenario explains how the research university traditions shaped
the curriculum development and constrain the progress towards industry-related programmes.
Regarding the pedagogical approach, the government expected the use of case study method
as a platform where teaching, research, and practice are connected. From instructional pointof view, the use of case method is supposed to inculcate not only the relevant businessknowledge to the students, but also to inculcate other job-related skills such ascommunication, decision making, team work, and leadership. Furthermore, because thegovernment also concern about the respectability of graduates by industry, the use of casestudy also expected to enhance the employability of business graduates, being in the form ofcareer enhancement or salary increasing aspect of employability. This last expectation
focuses on the value proposition that emphasis the career-enhancing-salary-increasing aspectsof business education.
Concerning the research practices, academic staffs are encouraged to actively engage in casestudy research that focuses on solving real industry problems. The real research practices in
AGSB showed that research practices are still focus on academic research where the focus ison theoretical contribution rather than practical contributions to real industrial problems.
According to the ITEO, the discrepancy between what was expected and what is actually
being practiced, as far as curriculum design, instructional methods, and research activities areconcerned, is due to erroneous assumptions about how teaching and research are done at
AGSB. In educational organisation such as AGSB, any attempt to standardise instructional
methods or research activities is beyond the control of the top management of AGSB.
Ultimately, this scenario may explain why only incremental changes were made in the
educational practices in AGSB.
4.

Conclusion

The data from the case business school showed that the new transformation formula set by
the MOHE was very much practically oriented to which business schools, as academic units,were not prepared for. This created uncertainty of the implementation of the new benchmark
and in consequences academic staffs at AGSB try to resist the introduction of the new
formula. At the end, the case university-based business school initiated some actions in
response to this external pressure but the changes were merely incremental which was not
helpful for the improvement of the quality of business and management education at theuniversity level.

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Common Pronunciation Mistakes in English for Students From South-East Asia
Influenced by Their First Foreign Language
Victoria A. Potemkina, St. Petersburg State Pedagogical University, Russia
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Abstract
The opportunity to study English language in the country of its origin is a privilege notavailable to everyone. Thus many students choose to learn English in a non-nativeenvironment alongside another foreign language. This article is a part of a big research
dedicated to the process of adaptation of the students from the countries of South-East Asia toa new educational environment and different cultures. The article represents the preliminary
results of the study on major difficulties in mastering the pronunciation of English sounds
due to the process of interference from mother’s tongue and the first foreign language, in ourcase – Russian. By conducting our research for more than 3 years and being able to interview
356 students from theSouth-Eastern countries, we have come to several conclusions, which
are represented in our article. According to our observation we suggest some practical advice
that can help overcoming interference in teaching English as a second language to these kindsof students.
Keywords: TESOL, Pronunciation, Interference, Foreign Students, Teaching Methods

iafor
The International Academic Forumwww.iafor.org

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1. Introduction
Intelligible pronunciation plays a huge role in successful communication. As a global
language, English has evolved into a few native varieties and many other nonnative ones,
across the globe. The nonnative English speaking people use English as a Lingua Franca, forinternational business, education and communication, so the English language has very manycross-cultural varieties where the non-native speaker varieties penetrate in all aspects of thelanguage. However, nonnative English pronunciations are more widespread and mostly
considered as incorrect in comparison to Standard English or pronunciations of native
English speakers. Nonnative English pronunciation errors can be found in all of the major
elements of English phonology, i.e. phonemes, syllables, word stress, rhythm and intonation.
The purpose of the paper is to represent the major difficulties in mastering the pronunciationof English sounds due to the processes of positive transference and interference frommother’s tongue (L1) combining with the same processes of the first foreign language (L2)and their joint influence on the second foreign language (L3). The paper illustrates segmental(consonants and vowels) errors in English pronunciation of Chinese, Vietnamese, andRussian students at the time of studying English language, and the pronunciational errors ofChinese, Vietnamese students in the process of acquiring Russian language, in order tocompare and contrast the results and find the pattern of the influence of the combination L1 +L2 on L3.
The research demonstrates that the prevailing influential element of the pronunciational
errors is hidden in the combination of L1+L2 interaction, and not just L2: which leads us to
the different methods of teaching.
2. Review Literature«English pronunciation has various components such as sounds, stress, and variation in pitch,and the learner needs to understand the function of these as well as their form. Once learners
are aware that English words have a stress pattern, that words can be pronounced in slightly
different ways, that the pitch of the voice can be used to convey meaning, then they willknow what to pay attention to and can build upon this basic awareness. Learners also need todevelop a concern for pronunciation. They must recognize that poor, unintelligible speech
will make their attempts at conversing frustrating and unpleasant both for themselves and fortheir listeners.» by Joanne Kenworthy.
The theoretical basis of the research was made up the works by: G. Kelly, P. Roach, M.
Hewings, D.D. Crystal, J. Goodwin, P. Ashby, T. Jones, J.D. O’Conner and M. Celce-Murcia.
In the work “English Phonetics and Phonology,” P. Roach argues that the improvement of thephonetic side of speech is not possible only through a mechanical work, in case to achieve theperfect sound of the vowels and consonants but it is also an understandable to the others
pronunciation is needed. At the same side M. Hewings gives a number of the most common
mistakes that should be paid attention to. Our research took into account the errors in thecomponents of the phonetic system listed blow that can lead to misunderstanding anddisruption of the act of oral communication, as listed below:
1. The pronunciation of consonants, as they are significant in the semantic definition of theword.

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2. The pronunciation of the consonant clusters, as the students of different mother tongues
tend either to add an additional sound or miss existing one.
3. The right pronunciation of vowels longitude, as long vowel is meaningful for the phonetic
system of the English language, and therefore requires special attention.
4. The verbal stress, as according to M. Hewings is often wrongly chosen stressed syllable
that causes difficulties in understanding the meaning of the statement.
5. The phrasal stress, as it is also can lead to misunderstanding between communication.
All the authors, mentioned above, are concerned about the role of pronunciation in
educational process. Furthermore, they consider it necessary to pay as much attention to thephonetic aspect of language learning as possible, using communicative approach as a goodbasis for working out and an effective way to deal with the correction of pronunciational
mistakes.
The researchers agree that some of the main difficulties in learning English as s foreign
language are the discrepancy between the written and sound design of the words, the variety
of sound variations that one letter can convey. In addition, the authors note the need to take
into account the influence of the native language, the ability of students to adapt and theability of the teacher to be flexible.
It should also be noted that among Russian scientists and researchers, the most popular pointof view is that L3 is totally influenced by L2, and the role of L1 in this process is completelydenied (Bagramova N.V., Lapidus B.A.). They insist that positive transfer learning skills of
the first foreign language (L2) effectively impacts building on skills and capabilities whenteaching L3. Point of reference of theoretical and practical researches of intensification ofbilingual teaching is a relatively comparative method. With a deep analysis and adequate
comprehension of bilingual teaching process one can speak of solving a complex of tasks
connected with learning two foreign languages and of forming speech pattern and linguacultural content.
In this article, we do not want to argue with any of the foregoing ideas, we just feel the needto introduce the possibility of the combinational influence of L1 and L2 on the second foreign
language.
3. The context and settings of the study
The uniqueness of the research lies in its background. The research was conducted in one of
the leading pedagogical universities of St. Petersburg (Russia), on two different departments:
Department of Russian as a Foreign Language and Department of Foreign Languages. This
led to the peculiar composition of the educational groups our research was carried on. During
a three-year period, every year, 13 groups of the students were examined, where 11 groups
were from RFL faculty and consisted only of the students from the South-East Asia and 2groups from FL faculty where all the students were Russian. All in all, it allowed us to study
356 people, which gave a plausible representative sample.
It is important to mention that the educational process's language at the University is Russianand for the students from RFL department, Russian is L2. All lectures, seminars, and

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conferences are conducted in Russian. English language is L2 for the students of Foreign
Language Department, while for the students from RFL department it is L3. The percentage
of English language in the whole process of education reaches a maximum of 40%.
It is not less important to mention that there are no Russian students among the students of
RFL department. The students in that department come from different countries of SouthEast and South Asia. The biggest group is Chinese.
Sample - table No.1 «The national component of the groups»
nationalities

Group 1

Group 2

Group 3

Group 4

Group 5ChineseVietnamese
Thais
Korean

45%
25%
15%
15%

60%
40%
-

75%
10%
7%
13%

50%
25%
25%
-

80%
20%

As seen from the table above, the classroom situation was aggravated by cultural
heterogeneity. It is also worth mentioning that the education system in Russia is different for
all the students who have come to study. We are not talking about the advantages or
disadvantages of one system of education over another; we are simply trying to state theconditions we had to deal with to get better results. From our side, we had theoretical andpractical knowledge of the cultural differences of our students and their different learning
styles.
In reference to this above context, we have formulated the research question as follows:
How significant is the influence of L1 and L2 combination in the area of pronunciationon L3 in a non-linguistic environment?
The design of this study was descriptive-qualitative. Also, a comparative-and-contrast data
analysis was used. The research population was 356 students from thirteen groups during
three subsequent years who were studying in the third year of the Bachelor’s program at theRussian as a Foreign Language department and department of Foreign Languages of St.
Petersburg State Pedagogical University, Russia. The data was collected through observation,individual questionnaires, video essays, and audio recordings. The video and audio
recordings were carried out as students practiced in-classroom English speaking exercises
and as homework. This data collection was taken over three years from September 2019 to
December 2022. The researcher observed, noted, and recorded precisely the common
pronunciational errors of the students and analyzed the changes depending on their L1 and L2.
The final results after comparison and contract allowed us to come to the conclusion on themain question of the research.
All the data is represented in the several tables further in the “Discussion & Results” sectionof this article.

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4. Discussion & Results
Table 1: influences on L2 (where L2 is English)
Main “difficult”
soundsvowels[æ]

Russian[ɒ]

doesn’t exist in Russian replaced with [e]pronounce as a single
Russian [o]Length of the vowel isn’t
important in Russian [i]Replaced with [ʌ]

[ou]

-

[əʊ] – [ʊ][i]/[i:] [uː]/[u]ChineseVietnamese

doesn’t exist in Chinese doesn’t exist in Vietnamese- replaced with [a]/[ei]- replaced with [e]Replaced with [u]no distinction between mispronounce long vowel
short and long vowels [i] sounds as short vowel [i]doesn’t occur in
Replaced with [ɔ:]Chinese, use an open but
Unrounded soundturn the short [ɔ] into along [ɔ:]Consonants/
consonant clusters[l]raise their tongue at the back difficult to produce the does not have the equivalentdifference between [l]of the mouthsounds for [l] and [r],and [r], omit or replaced commonly mistaken for [n]with the consonant
nearby[r]often trill the tongue
doesn’t exist in Chinese, does not have the equivalent
replaced with [n] or [l]sounds for [l] and [r],commonly mistaken for [z][w]doesn’t contain the clear
replaced with [v]/[f]replaced with [v]/[f]distinction between [w] –[v]– replaced with [v]/[f][θ]replaced with [s]replaced with [s]consonants probably do notexist in Vietnamese,
therefore people are notfamiliar with pronouncing
these sounds like [θ], [ð],[z], [f]; [θ] – replaced with[t][ð]
replaced with [z]replaced with [z]/[d] consonants probably do notexist in Vietnamese,
therefore people are notfamiliar with pronouncing
these sounds like [θ], [ð],[z], [f]; [ð]- replaced with[d][h]produce this sound in themouth as [x]-ngVery hard [g] at the end of[g] is heard at the end of thethe wordwords and in the middle of
the words
on/untend to add an extra g at
(in the middle ofthe end. So Monday
the word)
becomes “Mongday”
Weak syllables: pronounce the vowel as it’s
schwa [ə]written, making it too strong

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As it is seen from the table above, there are several common mistakes in pronunciation
among all three types of learners. Moreover, it is necessary to admit that within the table, we
did not present all possible options, since the main goal was to show the most difficult sounds
to pronounce among the speakers of these languages. Although, we would like to specify a
few more errors:
1. Muting voiced consonants at word ending. In Russian, consonants at the end of words are
typically voiceless and non-sonorous. In English, however, consonants at the end ofwords are voiced. This small difference can completely change the meaning of a word.
For example, “bad” (adjective) becomes “bat” (noun), “cab” - “cap”, “dog” - “dock”, andso on. Muting voiced consonants does not change the meaning of the word in all cases,
however, it is most common error for Russian native-speaking students.
2. Also Russian language can be relatively flat in tone with sudden inflections in pitch. It
can be easy for speakers to misplace the primary stress in words on the wrong syllable.
This can make spoken language harder to understand.
3. Chinese students tend to stress the last sound of a word and produce an extra syllable. For
example, “and” becomes “an-duh”.
4. Keeping in mind that in Chinese language there are a lot of different dialects, which are
typically classified into several groups (Mandarin, Wu, Min, Xiang, Gan, Hakka, and Yue)
there are a lot of sounds that do not exist in them. For example: “b” as in “bag”; “d” as in“dog”; “g” as in “go”; “v” as in “very”; “z” as in “bees”; “sh” as in “show”; “j” as in“badge”; soft “j” as in “usually”; “r” as in “row”; “ch” as in “chew”; “sh” as in “shine”;
voiced “th” as in “there”; voiceless “th” as in “both”.
5. Many Vietnamese students tend to speak English without stress at all, because many
Vietnamese words have 2 syllables and each syllable is written separately, though bothare needed to convey word meaning and each syllable is given the same stress for an
equal length of time.
The next step of our research included the studying of the common errors in pronunciation of
Russian as a foreign language.
Main “difficult”
soundsTable 2: influences on L2 (where L2 is Russian)ChineseVietnamese

vowels[a][ы] ([-])[и] ([i])ё ([jo])

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doesn’t exist in Chinese - replacedwith [ə]The sound doesn’t exist in
Chinese and often replaced with[e] or [ə]doesn’t exist in Chinese - replacedwith [o] or [e]164

Put it always under the stress
The sound doesn’t exist in
Vietnamese and often replacedwith [i] or [i:]Add the quantity of the soundmakes it [i:]doesn’t exist in Vietnamese replaced with [o:]The Southeast Asian Conference on Education 2023

Consonants[с], [с'], [з], [з']

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Omit soft sounds and use only
hard versions [с] & [з](close to [s] &[z])[ж] ([zh])[ц] ([ts])[щ] ([sh’a])[р] ([r])[л]([l])[в]([v])[б], [п] ([b], [p])Replace with Chinese sound fromthe word 人 [ren]([man])
Replaced with [dz]Replace with Chinese sound fromthe word 师 [shi] master
Replaced with [l], if [l] doesn’t
exist in the regional dialect it isreplaced with [n]If [l] doesn’t exist in the regional
dialect then it is omitted, or
replaced with [n]Very often is omitted in the
middle of the word
Often replaces one another (at the
beginning of the words [б]([b])
replaces with [п] ([p])

Do not understand the difference
between soft and hard
consonants, and use only [с’],[з’] – due to the melodiousnessof the language
doesn’t exist in Vietnamesereplaced with [dz]doesn’t exist in Vietnamesereplaced with [ts]doesn’t exist in Vietnamesereplaced with [sh’a]
Add vowel in front of the soundand get [or]doesn’t exist in Vietnamesereplaced with [n]-After analyzing the influence of students’ mother tongues on their pronunciation of Russianas L2. We have to admit that it is already some existing tendency in replacing Russian soundswith English-like ones and led us to the third step of our research.
Table 3: influences on L3 (where L3 is English)by the combination of L1 & L2 (where L2 is Russian)
Main “difficult” sounds
ChineseVietnamese
vowels[æ][e]/[a][e]/[a][əʊ] – [ʊ]
[ɔ:]
[ɔ:]
[i]/[i:] [uː]/[u][i]/[u][i]/[u]
[ɒ]
[a:]
[a:]
[ou]
[ou:]
[ou:]
Consonants/consonant clusters
[l]
[l’]
[l’]
[r]
[р] (Russian version) [р] (Russian version)
[w]
[v]
[v]
[θ]
[z]
[z]
[ð]
[s]
[s]
[h]
[h]
[h]
-ing
[ɪŋ]
[ɪŋ]
on/un (in the middle of the word)[ʌ][ʌ]
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Influence
L1+ L2
L1+ L2
L1
L1+ L2L1 +L2L1 +L2L2L1
L2
L2
L1+ L2L1 + L2
L1 + L2
L1 + L2

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Considering the results presented in the table above, we can see that despite the influence ofL2 (Russian), there are significant changes to the pronunciation of L3 (English) owing the
combination L1+L2.
The result of the investigation into non-native English speakers’ pronunciation indicates thatspeakers are confused about the qualitative difference between short vowels and long vowels
and the influence of L2 (Russian ) interferes with it. In many languages, the diphthong [əʊ] isgenerally pronounced as [o], and Russian as L2 only strengthens this erroneous option. Thisis a significant error in non-native English pronunciation. Many English consonants that do
not exist in L1 language lead to replacement or avoidance in their pronunciation; as a result,English pronunciation is negatively influenced. The combination of L1 and L2 gives false
hope to the students that they can rely on the sounds of L2 language to avoid the so-called“peculiar” English accent. (example-Chinglish). Also, it has been found that in most cases,
L2 negatively interferes or transfers its main problems in the acquisition of English sounds.
As a result, the influence of the Russian language as L2 changes common errors for L3(English), especially when the skills are not yet developed. Moreover, all non-existed sounds
in the native language (L1) transform into an absolutely new version of phonetic errors due tothe combination of L1 and L2 and lead to an absolutely incomprehensible accent.
5. Recommendations“Each language should be considered as something completely self-sufficient, and only then,for methodological purpose, to facilitate mutual learning, it is possible to compare two
language systems”[Sherba L.V.] According to many scientist: Arakin V.D., Ahmanova O.S.,
Gak V.G., Yartceva V.N., Barsuk R.Y., Barhudarov L.S., and others, the inclusion ofcomparative analysis in the process of teaching two or more foreign languages helps toaccelerate and deepen the process of understanding, memorizing and automating thelanguage and speech skills and abilities of the students.
The usage of comparative analysis for lingua-didactic purposes requires, first of all,identifying methodologically relevant similarities and differences between the comparedlanguages. Although it is necessary to determine the type of interlingua interference, andwhat difficulties may arise as a result of interlingua differences. At the final stage, it becomes
necessary to create a system of exercises based on interlingua comparison as a method ofteaching a non-native language.
The comparison of the studied languages for didactic purposes allows the teacher to identify
the difficulties associated with the peculiarities of languages of different systems, and to findways to overcome the difficulties. Moreover, a teaching aid is required that would be basedon the results of a comparative analysis, and take into account the differences and similaritiesof the languages being studied, which should be reflected in the system of exercises and thepresentation of the material.
At the beginning of the language educational course, it is necessary to include a separate
phonetic block for both L2 and L3. Also, it is essential to use a comparative method forteaching L3, in order to anticipate interference and use positive transfer to the maximum. Not
superfluous, in our opinion, is the use of authentic socio-marked materials, with a percentage
increase in video and audio content.

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6. Conclusion
The purpose of this article is to explore the process of teaching the phonetics of two foreign
languages, English and Russian, which, should be based, according to our opinion, on thecomparative analysis of the languages being studied. The results of this analysis help teachers
to coordinate their work and achieve positive results. The similarities and differences in thephonetic systems of the languages studied in parallel not only help students to better
understand and assimilate the studied linguistic phenomena and processes but also contributeto the development of linguistic conjecture, broadening their horizons and increasing
motivation.
The comparative study of two foreign languages is also useful for a deeper understanding of
linguistic phenomena and processes that take place in Russian (L2), English (L3) and thenative languages of students. Studying several foreign languages is not an isolated process,but an interdependent and interconnected simultaneous process, based on the results of thecomparative analysis of languages and on the linguistic experience of students.

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References
Bagramova, N. V. (1993) Linguistic and methodological bases for teaching the lexical side oforal speech in English as a second foreign language in a pedagogical university.
[Doctoral dissertation, Leningrad Pedagogical Institute, Russia].
Celce-Murcia, M., Brinton, D., & Goodwin, J. (1996). Teaching Pronunciation: A Reference
for Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages. Cambridge University Press.
Ellis, R. (1985). Understanding second language acquisition. Oxford University Press.
Gimson, A. C. (1980). An introduction to the pronunciation of English. London: Arnold.
Hatch, J.(1983a), Ellis, R. (1985b). Second language acquisition. Oxford University Press.
Kachru, Y., & Smith, L. E. (2008). Cultures, contexts and world Englishers’. London
Routledge.
Kenworthy, J. (1987). Teaching English Pronunciation., Longman Handbooks for Language
Teachers. On Building Awareness and Concern for Pronunciation, Longman
Publishing.
Korchik, L.S. (2010). Some typical persistent mistakes in the speech of Chinese students in
the Russian language classes. Bulletin of RUDN University, Series: Educational
Issues: Languages and Specialties, 4, 104-108.
Lapidus, B.A. (2003). Questions of methods of teaching a second foreign language (3d ed.).
Moscow Linguo-Press.
Mojsin, L., (2019). The most common problems students in Russia face when learning
English. Mastering the American accent. NY, Barron’s.
Navruzova, R.V. (2008). Mistakes in Russian speech if foreign anglophone students. The
News of DGP University, 2, 102-110.
Roach, P. (2009). English phonetics and phonology (4th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
Sherba L.V., (1974). About interrelations of a mother tongue and a foreign language book.
Language system and speech activity. Leningrad Education Press.
Syed, M.I., (2018). World Englishes: Variations or deviations. Journal of Education andSocial Sciences, 9(2), 23 – 37.
Syed, M.I. (2020). Segmental errors in English pronunciation of nonnative English speakers.
Journal of Education and Social Sciences, 16 (1), 24-32.
Tananaiko, S.O., Ignatevna, A.A. (2018). China-Russian phonetic interference based onerrors in pronunciation Russian consonants. Journal of Euro-Asian Scientific
Association, 40 (6), 91-94.

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Tugusova, G.I. (2016). On the problem of emphasis at the advanced stage of teaching theRussian Language to Mongolian students. TSPU Bulletin, 7 (172), 39-43.
Zhang, X., Sergeeva, N.N. (2005). Typical errors in the prepared oral speech of Chinese
students in the process of studying Russian language. Journal of Pedagogical
Education, 7, 120.
Zhao, Z. (2016). Sound interference in Russian language under the influence of the native
language in the conditions of Russian- Chinese language contacts. Journal of
Philological Sciences, Questions of theory and practice, 12 (66), 179-184.
Online resources
American English. (2020) Accent Modification & Communication Skills. USA, Portland.
https://packardcommunications.com/
Learning English. (2023) Explore the BBC. Great Britain, BBC.
https://www.bbc.co.uk/learningenglish/english/features/pro
Pronunciation Studio. (2023) Master English sounds and intonations. Great Britain, London.
https://pronunciationstudio.com/
Contact email: victoriapotemkina@yahoo.com

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EFL Teachers’ Experiences and Attitudes to Emergency Remote Teaching at
Japanese Universities
Kym Jolley, Baika Women’s University, Japan
Frances Shiobara, Kobe Shoin Women’s University, JapanMark Donnellan, Kindai University, JapanThe Southeast Asian Conference on Education 2023
Official Conference Proceedings
Abstract
In 2020 teachers worldwide faced an unprecedented situation in the form of the COVID-19
pandemic. In Japan, this forced educators to quickly adapt face-to-face programs to online
ones as the new academic year started in April 2020. Although Japan is a technology richsociety, the use of technology in education had been limited up until then. A small-scale pilot
study (N=31) was conducted to explore the experiences of Japanese university English as a
Foreign Language (EFL) teachers from spring 2020 until summer 2022 under emergency
remote teaching (ERT) conditions. The overall results of the study showed positive attitudes
towards continued use of digital tools once ERT ceases, but that training and support werelacking during this period. The focus of this paper will be on the themes that emerged
through the qualitative coding of the optional comments added by respondents (n=13) to thispilot study. Four important themes were identified: previous fears of technology, technicalproblems, student related problems and achievements, and skills learned. Comments underthese themes indicate that instructors developed or enhanced their skills with technology
whilst teaching during ERT, but that many faced difficulties using institutional learning
management systems (LMSs), particularly those in part-time positions who had to manage
teaching across multiple platforms, and those whose LMSs were unable to cope with theincreased traffic and usage. This indicates that if these new skills and enthusiasm fortechnologically-aided teaching are to be harnessed, improved resources and support will be
required moving forward.
Keywords: Emergency Remote Teaching (ERT), Digital Tools, Online Teachingiafor
The International Academic Forumwww.iafor.org

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Introduction
In spring 2020, like many educators worldwide, the COVID-19 pandemic forced teachers inJapan to reconfigure lessons planned for face-to-face classes to online ones. Effective online
programs usually require significant time to develop and plan. However, the pandemic did
not allow for this and also mandated that teachers, some of whom were inexperienced with
online teaching or computer assisted learning, had to suddenly teach utilizing technology. In
some cases, this may even have included using an institution’s learning management system(LMS) for the first time (Lavolette, 2022; Provenzano, 2022). Indeed, OECD data from 2019indicates that teachers throughout Japan felt unprepared for information and communication
technology (ICT) based teaching prior to the pandemic (OECD, 2019), exacerbated by the
low level of online learning programs offered by institutions or the utilization of digital tools
in classrooms (Apple & Mills, 2022; Aoki, 2010; Funamori, 2017). This despite a plethora ofresearch indicating the benefits that digital learning can provide for students, mostimportantly, the opportunity to create a more student-centered learning environment (Aoki,
2010; Caldwell, 2018; Stevens, Bienz, Wali, Condie & Schismenos, 2021).
With this as a backdrop, it is important to understand what teachers experienced with theabrupt shift to online teaching during emergency remote teaching (ERT) and how that canhelp inform new policies, support, and training moving forward. Though this area is still
under-researched, some limited evidence of new or heightened enthusiasm for the use ofdigital tools in teaching beyond ERT has been found (Donnellan, Shiobara, & Jolley, 2022;
Provenzano, 2022), and anecdotally institutions around Japan are looking to harness thepotential that new online class formats and digital tools can offer. With this in mind, free
optional responses (n=13) to a small-scale pilot study (N=31) (Donnellan et al., 2022) werecoded for themes. Four important themes emerged: previous fears of technology, technicalproblems, student related problems and achievements, and skills learned. These themes,salient comments from respondents under these themes, and their implications are discussed
in this paper.
Background
Online learning landscape in Japan prior to 2020
Prior to ERT commencing in April 2020, there had been official efforts to promote andexpand e-learning and ICT use in classrooms in Japan through governmental strategies andrecommendations. Aoki (2010) outlines the various policies that the Japanese Ministry of
Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT) has implemented since 2001,
starting with its e-Japan Initiative, to try and promote e-learning at tertiary institutions.
However, she posits that despite one of the goals of these initiatives being to increaseinteractiveness in classes, where ICT has been implemented it has not brought about any realpedagogical innovation, and merely replaced standard methods of classroom instruction, inthe case of Japan, often lectures containing information the students need to memorize, withrecorded versions (pp. 858). This mirrors what Magana (2017) identified as “translational
technology use” in his model for innovation in learning, where technology is used purely fora purpose that could also be achieved without technology. Magana (2017) further states thatthe next stage is “transformational technology use” which is when technology is used in waysthat engage the students in tasks that could not be done without technology, thus allowing
students to create new content and share digital representations of their knowledge. In fact, in
this current paper there is evidence that a number of teachers seemed to have moved to this

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stage with their students during ERT by using tools such as Google Docs and other online
platforms.
Funamori (2017) further discusses how Japanese institutions have been slow to adapt to thedigital age, and cites a lack of appropriate technological support and tools at institutions,compared with other countries leading the field, as hurdles to effective implementation ofwider e-learning and ICT use. In particular, they quote 2015 findings from a MEXT survey
investigating ICT usage that 95% of institutions responded they don’t have adequate staff or
funding to create and maintain new ICT content and resources (pp. 42). In regards to EFL
teachers, who are the focus of this current paper, Ferreira’s (2021) qualitative look into thebarriers faced by EFL teachers when trying to implement ICT in their classes found threemain obstacles: 1. lack of basic equipment such as projectors, computers, and Internet access,2. difficult to use software, 3. decisions about whether it was appropriate for class goals andobjectives.
With this as a backdrop, tertiary teachers across Japan were forced into ERT, most commonly
asynchronously or synchronously (Donnellan et al., 2022), in April 2020 due to the COVID19 pandemic. For some this may even have meant accessing an institutional LMS for the firsttime (Lavolette, 2022; Provenzano, 2022). Indeed, prior to ERT, Funamori (2017) outlined
how LMSs were overwhelmingly underutilized at institutions where they had been
implemented. However, initial findings have been positive in regards to instructors’ desires tocontinue using the digital tools they utilized during their ERT, regardless of whether they had
previous experience with them or not (Donnellan et al., 2022). To harness this enthusiasm
and the skills learned during the ERT enforced uptake of online learning and utilization ofdigital tools, just as MEXT has been advocating for, it is necessary to understand how we canmost effectively transition to the “new normal”. For this reason, the voluntarily added
additional comments (n=13) to a pilot study (N=31) (Donnellan et al., 2022) have been
qualitatively coded for themes in regards to the experiences of non-Japanese EFL university
teachers in Japan. It is hoped that their experiences will help to inform policy and training in
the future.
Methodology
Thirteen respondents added optional comments in response to Donnellen et al.’s (2022) pilot
study (N=31) investigating ERT conditions experienced by EFL teachers in Japan. All
respondents were non-Japanese university EFL teachers who had taught at the university
level prior to the pandemic and throughout ERT. Of the initial 31 respondents, 10 were fulltime tenured faculty members, 13 were in full-time contracted positions, and 8 were part-timeteachers. However, of the 13 to add optional comments, seven were part-time teachers, fivewere in full-time contracted positions, and only one was a full-time tenured faculty member.
Therefore, though a majority of the respondents for the initial survey were tenured or fulltime contracted faculty members, a majority that added optional comments were part-timeteachers. In fact, only one part-time respondent chose not to add a response to this section.
The 13 optional comments were qualitatively coded and explored for themes, initially by one
coder and then checked for inter-coder agreement with the other research team members.
Four important themes emerged: previous fears of technology, technical problems, student
related problems and achievements, and skills learned. Some of the responses containedcomments applicable to more than one theme. These themes, examples of pertinentcomments from respondents under these themes, and their implications are discussed below.

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All responses or partial use of responses are replicated authentically and have not beencorrected for any perceived mistakes or unusual wording.
Results and Discussion
Theme 1: Previous Fears of Technology
Although MEXT has been encouraging the use of technology in the classroom for years, five
responses under this theme identified teachers who had been resisting that change.
Reluctance to change and change aversion are very common in the workplace, especiallywithout adequate support (Snyder, 2017). In fact, two teachers commented that they were
“forced” to teach online at the start of the pandemic. This type of strong wording indicates aclear reluctance to do so. However, these responses often overlap with another identified
theme, “skills learned”, and both of them commented that by the end of the period of ERT
they were grateful that they had learned new skills (see Comments 1 and 2).
Comment 1: ERT forced me to face my fears about online educational tools and provided me
the impetus and time to learn how to implement various online tools in my teaching. The only
good to come see out of the COVID crisis was bringing my teaching skills into 21st century, if
only to a limited degree.
Comment 2: I believe the "force" to go online these past couple of years has made me
appreciate even more how beneficial it is for students to have technical/digital skills andconfidence. As a teacher I also need to improve my knowledge and skills to set a good
example.
Another teacher used similarly strong wording, stating that they were “terrified” at the start,
but also had a positive experience in the end (see Comment 3).
Comment 3: I was terrified about it but found it quite fun in the end.
Theme 2: Technical Problems
Six responses under this theme identified various technical problems teachers faced during
ERT. In particular, the different LMSs in different universities was identified as a serious
problem for a number of teachers. This is particularly pertinent when we consider that the
majority of these optional comments across all themes were made by part-time teachers.
Many university EFL teachers work part-time at various institutions and departments, often ata different site daily. They have to navigate differing policies not only at the institutional
level, but even between departments, as well as manage disparate levels of support, training
and understanding from their direct supervisors and universities. Therefore, faced with thesestruggles it is unsurprising that they most often felt compelled to add qualitative responses. It
is possible that this survey was the only place that these part-time teachers had a voice toexpress their attitudes to the period of ERT.
Comments further identified that the lack of an adequate LMS means that institutions are
missing opportunities to circumvent common non-ERT related problems, such as when
typhoons occur or there are troubles with public transport (see Comment 4). However,another comment posits that institutions may not understand how poorly their LMS performs
as they don’t have experience using any other LMS (see Comment 5). In this way part-time

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teachers’ experiences can be a valuable asset as they have insight into various platforms.
Unfortunately, part-time teachers’ input is rarely sought for such things.
Finally, the lack of training or the varying levels of it that were offered was also highlighted
in comments under this theme (see Comments 4 and 6). At the start of the period of ERT a
number of universities LMSs and WiFi systems crashed due to the sudden increase in usage(Franks, 2021). In response to these problems there have been reports that many universities
worked very hard to rectify this and now have much more stable systems. MEXT also
recognised the need for further support in this area and allocated $95 million (US$) in the
supplementary budget in 2020 to help higher education institutions build better IT
infrastructure for online classes and use of digital tools (MEXT, 2020). However, based on
the comments under this theme it seems that part-time instructors felt that the university
administration did not understand how difficult it was for teachers to suddenly master an
LMS or when an institution’s LMS did not perform satisfactorily.
Comment 4: I feel that institutions need to adopt an LMS/CMS that will not crash under use
in ERT (Typhoons,Earthquakes, Train strikes, etc) and offer proper training to all
instructors.
Comment 5: LMSs vary greatly in quality between institutions. I am using three different
LMSs (Manaba, Blackboard, and a proprietary system) at four different schools. It seems as
if administrators are not aware of the limitations (ie poor quality) of the LMS their institution
uses because they have not had to use other LMSs. FWIW, Manaba is by far and away theworst of the LMSs I use (Note: FWIW = For what it’s worth).
Comment 6: Also, as a part-timer, spring 2020 meant having to master each institution's
differing LMS system and differing methods of instruction tools. Training or "just get on withit" differed from place to place.
Theme 3: Student Related Problems and Achievements
Four comments under this theme were related to problems the teachers faced with students
online, as well as some of the advantages and disadvantages of students learning in online
classes. Unlike non-ERT online courses, students had not enrolled in their courses with the
expectation of learning online. Therefore, considerations about their privacy and anxiety
about being on camera often meant that instructors had to be mindful of student boundaries inonline synchronous classes (see Comment 7). However, this can also hinder the class andaffect teacher motivation, which can potentially affect class quality and levels of engagementwith the class (Apple & Mills, 2022). It is important to note that all of the teachers who
responded to this survey were living in a foreign country, unable to visit family and friends intheir home countries and possibly feeling very isolated. The period of ERT may have added
to their loneliness when they had little communication with colleagues, and students did not
engage actively in the class.
Comment 7: Unengaged students were also hugely demotivating. Felt very lonely teaching.
No feedback or interaction.
Furthermore, though some teachers reported they had come to enjoy the flexibility of online
teaching, they still felt that in order for students to improve their English, face-to-face classes
were more beneficial than online classes (see Comment 8).

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Comment 8: The first year of synchronous teaching was very difficult since I needed to adapt
and change all of my lessons for an online medium. Although it is now easier and moreconvenient for me to teach online, I think my students have more opportunities to improvetheir English with in-person classes.
Though these are important insights into the ERT teacher experience it should be
remembered that these problems occurred under ERT conditions, something that was
unprecedented, and for which neither teachers nor students were prepared. However, moving
forward, issues such as these can potentially be mitigated with clear and effective policies
and training. This will be important if institutions implement new class formats that are
already being discussed and utilised, such as hybrid classes, which allow certain students tojoin a face-to-face class online synchronously when they cannot attend campus. This training
and support should not be the sole responsibility of capable individuals who show initiative insharing their expertise. As ERT highlighted, despite MEXT advocating for more e-learningand utilisation of ICT in classrooms for years, it was a sudden, abrupt, and difficult transition
to online classes. Therefore, greater top-down support to assist in online based pedagogicalinnovation will be needed. This is important when we consider that one of the commenters
also noted how positively their students received online lessons and ICT usage in class (seeComment 9).
Comment 9: The students seem very receptive to online and other digital teaching methods
such as editing docs via Google Docs rather than a paper version, which they seem to often
lose or mishandle. Many students embraced having a laptop or using smartphones when I
offered online components and seem to prefer this to paper handouts. The online tools suchas Kahoot. Socrative, and others were received favorably according to surveys.
Theme 4: Skills Learned
As seen above, teachers expressed the problems they encountered during ERT, but four
responses also indicated that it had been a time of professional development. Comments
under this theme often corresponded with an initial fear of using technology in teaching.
However, COVID-19 became the catalyst to force change, which they seemed grateful for in
the end. One commenter even mentioned that they had become a “complete convert” andplans to continue using the digital tools utilized during ERT for regular classes (see Comment
10). This is particularly pertinent as Comment 10 came from the same teacher who described
themself as “terrified” at the start of the period of ERT in Comment 3.
Comment 10: I became a complete convert to Zoom, Google Classroom and Slack. Now I
feel at a disadvantage if I work somewhere where I can't use Google Classroom. I plan touse it as much as possible in the future!
In one case, ERT enforced an acceleration of a planned move away from paper and towards
the greater use of online platforms and tools. The respondent explained that this was a usefultime for learning and that their department plans to continue using the tools they needed
during ERT (see Comment 11).
Comment 11: Just before the pandemic we had put in a proposal to become a BYOD
department. Our intention had been to move slowly toward less paper and more digitalcontent. The pandemic forced our hand and we had to accelerate that process.We were
online in some way for 4 semesters and we learned a lot during that time. We have been

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using and will continue to use the university's LMS to deliver materials, conduct tests, post
discussion boards, etc. We also often use Kahoots, and other ed tech. We were limited in ouruse of this before the pandemic, but this has been a good addition to the program.
As these comments display, there have been benefits to the enforced ERT. Individuals havefound new effective methods to conduct their classes and one department that we know ofthrough this study had the chance to implement an already planned move away from paper
and increase their digital usage. However, one concern regarding this new enthusiasm
towards digital tools and online learning opportunities is how well-equipped regularclassrooms and teachers are for this desired utilisation of digital tools. As Ferreira (2021)
discovered, simple access to a projector or the Internet were hurdles teachers had to
overcome in order to implement ICT in their classes. Part-time teachers are particularly
vulnerable to this as they lack the same level of financial support that full-time contracted andtenured instructors have access to. Furthermore, it is likely that the expectations of what is
possible for classes has not only shifted for teachers, but for students alike. They are the socalled “digital natives” (Prensky, 2001) and ERT enforced greater use of digital tools inJapanese classes, something which had been lacking prior to ERT. Therefore, as findings
have shown a positive correlation between the use of digital tools and creating a studentcentered learning environment, improving learning outcomes, and increasing student
engagement (Aoki, 2010; Caldwell, 2018; Moeller & Reitzes, 2011; Stevens et al., 2021), it
would be prudent for institutions to review how well equipped they are for greater use ofdigital and online tools for learning and teaching in the future.
Conclusion
Thirteen out of 31 respondents chose to add optional comments on a survey into ERT in
Japan. Interestingly, whilst a majority of the respondents to the study were either tenured or
full-time contracted faculty members, the majority of the comments added were from parttime teachers. We propose that this is because they had the most difficult time during ERT,
lacking any full-time or centralized support and also having to navigate various platforms,
policies, and levels of training and support at different universities. As many programs anddepartments rely heavily on part-time teachers to conduct their classes, their comments are an
important insight into where improvements can be made, not only at the supervisory level,
but also institutionally and higher.
However, all the comments offer meaningful observations regarding the experiences of EFL
teachers during ERT and how that will potentially influence the academic landscape moving
forward. The qualitative coding of the optional comments in our study shows that teachers
gained skills that they hope to continue harnessing moving forward, but often found training
and support hit or miss. Therefore, effective training and resources in how to effectively
develop programs using digital tools and how to use said tools, as well as how to manage
students online, will be needed as things continue to evolve. Furthermore, others noted how
already available basic resources, such as institutional LMSs, were often found lacking.
Therefore, if the MEXT goals of increased online engagement and usage are to be met, ERT
has highlighted one basic area, that of the need for more reliable and robust LMSs, that cansignificantly help or hinder the online learning and teaching experience. Early anecdotalreports show that some institutions have already taken steps to rectify this situation, but as
our survey was conducted in summer 2022, and respondents were still expressing difficulties
with such things, it illustrates that work is still needed more broadly. Importantly, policies
based around sound pedagogy will also be required if institutions continue to allow some

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forms of asynchronous or synchronous learning for certain students or classes. For this tohappen, continued research will be important to help inform the currently developing anddiffering circumstances.
Finally, this study has important limitations to consider, namely the number of respondents
and the comment pool are small, and that it only looks at the experiences of non-Japanese
EFL teachers in Japan. Moving forward it will be important to gain insight to student andnon-EFL teacher experiences during ERT in Japan and how they may also inform the newlearning environment in higher education in Japan as ERT slowly draws to a close.

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Contact email: k-jolley@baika.ac.jp
fshiobara@shoin.ac.jp
donnellan@kindai.ac.jp

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Island of Individuation: Teaching With a New, Dynamic Approach to the Development of
the Human Psyche in the Singapore Context
Kevin Martens Wong, Merlionsman of the Republic of Singapore & Kabesa Kodrah
Kristang, Singapore
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Abstract
The fostering of not just better mental health outcomes, but a more creative, knowledgeable
and versatile workforce (Watermeyer, Chen & Ang 2021) has been at the forefront ofSingapore's development of her people since the seminal events of the late 2010s: the passingof Mr Lee Kuan Yew, the Singapore Bicentennial, the COVID-19 pandemic, and the 4G
leadership transition. Occurring in tandem with this have been the arrival of two of the mostdiverse and metacognitively-aware generations the planet has likely ever seen, Generation Z
and Generation Alpha, the possibilities, anxieties and dangers of a more technologicallyadvanced population and society, and the normalisation and sensitization of both to issues oftrauma, resilience and inequality (e.g. Ang Qing 2022, Neo et al. 2022). In relation to all ofthese, this presentation introduces a new theory of the human psyche known as Individuation
Theory, developed and applied during the COVID-19 pandemic in a H1 General Paperclassroom in a government junior college in Singapore by the author. This presentation willconsider how Individuation Theory offers a new and dynamic means of working withdiverse, intelligent and trauma- and abuse-aware young Singaporeans who are not simply
looking for the traditional 5Cs (Elangovan 2021), but for four new intangible qualities
Singaporeans have always struggled to appreciate: value, identity, vulnerability andauthenticity (VIVA). Alongside a consideration of the well-documented VUCA context ofSingapore, therefore, the presentation will outline these four new VIVA factors emerging
within the collective Singapore psyche, and how Individuation Theory supports both theirdevelopment in younger Singaporeans as well as larger outcomes related to community- andnation-building.
Keywords: Osura Pesuasang/Individuation Theory, Trauma, Teaching, COVID-19,
Singaporeiafor
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Introduction: A creole/indigenous sexual abuse and suicide survivor in Singapore
The silent pandemic of sexual abuse and trauma is nothing new, but both Singaporeans andpeople in general have become more comfortable talking about it and trying to break free ofit. Worldwide, the two major events that appear to have catalysed this change are the#MeToo movement, starting from 2017, and of course the COVID-19 pandemic, startingfrom late 2019. All students in K-12 classrooms worldwide born from 2000 onwards willthus have been affected by the first, and 2002 by the second; in other words, Generations Z
and Alpha are two of the most trauma-conscious generations to ever have existed on theplanet.
I am a gay, non-binary Kristang creole/indigenous millennial Singaporean (born 1 October1992); my status as a millennial and meant that I was hence arguably not as ‘naturally’
exposed to such new concepts when #MeToo first became prominent in the collective
psyche, having just completed my Bachelor’s degree in Linguistics from the National
University of Singapore at the time in October 2017. However, I was forced into a muchgreater appreciation of trauma and abuse when I was sexually and psychoemotionally abusedby a fellow Kodrah Kristang Core Team member from August 2018 to July 2019, prompting
me to enter therapy between August 2019 and April 2020 (33 sessions total) while I wasworking fulltime in a government junior college (JC), with the full knowledge (and support)of the college leadership at the time. It was during therapy that I also only first understoodthat I had been previously sexually and psycho-emotionally abused by another friend from2008 to 2013, prompting me to nearly commit suicide on 1 February 2013, as well as byfamily as a child in 1996 or 1997. I desperately wanted to understand not only why I was sosusceptible to abuse, especially psychoemotional abuse, despite being someone who had
otherwise served in multiple major leadership positions (and therefore had believed that I had
been able to manage my own psychoemotional boundaries and needs) in secondary school,
junior college, university and in the public sphere, but why people I had loved and trusted
would even think of doing something like this to me.
Cognitive function theory
My therapist introduced me to a number of extant systems for organising people’s psyches
and inner worlds, including the Enneagram and Spiral Dynamics Theory, but the only one
that really stuck was Jung (1921)’s theory of how every single person’s inner world can beunderstood as a combination of at first four and later eight separate cognitive functions(Beebe 2017), also known as function-attitudes and by other names and/or in other forms(e.g. Nardi 2005, Berens 2006). Cognitive function theory was the only theory that not only
allowed me to consistently recognise and account for my own behaviour and the behavioursof my abusers in the past, but to predict and anticipate the thoughts and feelings of mystudents to the extent that one student jokingly accused me of being a practitioner of someform of new Kristang magic, and another walked around college shouting, to anyone who
would listen, “Mr Wong fixed my brain!”
However, there is a great deal of fair criticism of cognitive function theory in Western
psychological approaches to the psyche (e.g. Bonds 2002 and as discussed in Roesler 2013),
especially for the following reasons:•

It is incomplete, only attempting to organise and structure a very preliminary part

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It is framed almost entirely within Jung’s Western and Christian paradigm, rarely evenattempting to include indigenous traditions and approaches to the psyche
It is overwhelmingly patriarchal and completely fails quite often to account for the innerexperiences of women, to say nothing of LGBTQ+ people and others

The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI), which is the most visible use of Jung’s original
theory, is also therefore fairly criticized for similar reasons:••

It is also incomplete by derivation, since the starting theory that it is based on is also
incomplete. In particular, it presents hyper-reductive stereotypes of each of the sixteen
ego-patterns that, when taken to their extremes, lock people into thinking that that is all
they will ever be (which for some ego-patterns includes suggesting that they are robots
or machines, or hypersexual or primitive)
All MBTI tests determining someone’s ego-pattern via impersonal means cannot accountfor the test taker’s intent and objectives in taking the test, which are two of the eightfunctions (introverted Intuition and extroverted Thinking). Any praxis as a teacher will
have usually helped one recognise that students’ results are often affected by theirmotives in succeeding at or failing the test.

Osura Pesuasang
The Osura Pesuasang / Individuation Theory is a radical new grassroots creole/indigenous
LGBTQ+ friendly and neurodiverse theory of the human psyche that was developed by theauthor starting in September 2020 to completely overhaul cognitive function theory whilestill recognising the observable phenomena Jung and subsequent Jungian analysts were able
to uncover: the first eight cognitive functions and sixteen ego-patterns (Wong, 2022a). The
four most major principles undergirding the Osura are:•••

The psyche is recognized to have both infinite potential and a certain way of evolving
that potential, and therefore there is no actual end state to human individuation (i.e. it is
impossible to ever say ‘I have integrated the 8th function and therefore my psyche iscomplete’). Where Jungian thought and MBTI seek mostly to describe and categorise,
the Osura seeks to transform and encourage diversity and agency by highlighting that thepsyche is instead an infinitely ever-expanding structure that is both fractal and consistent
to a degree, and mutable and particular to a degree.
Ego-pattern hypotheses are thus exclusively formed and refined through the building ofauthentic, real human relationships that invite dialogue, debate and co-construction
between teacher and student, or analyst and client. This is a far better way ofunderstanding the full breadth and depth of the structure of someone’s inner world withreasoned and humanizing accuracy, and to account for both conscious and unconscious
daily life.
Individuation Theory is designed with every single human being in mind as far as
possible, meaning that it is ground-up, creole / indigenous, postcolonial, LGBTQ+
friendly and neurodiverse, and places as a primary focus making mental health and wellbeing fully accessible to the layperson. As the Theory itself predicts, an analyst is
occasionally useful, especially at the earlier stages of individuation, but the ultimate goalof Individuation Theory is to develop individuals who can independently work with andcomprehend their own psyche, and thereby have as full ability as possible to exercise
agency over their mind and soul, as we do with body and heart.

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Individuation Theory always aspires to full internal structural coherence. Where Jungian
thought is still comfortable with leaving many major constructs unattached to the 8function structure (e.g. the Self, the Spirit of the Depths, the Unus Mundus), the Osura
strives to avoid this practice.

Methodology: Teaching with individuation
The Osura was first used implicitly with the author’s classes in a government junior college
cohort from September 2020 during consultations, and then explicitly also embedded into H1General Paper tutorials with the author’s classes in a second cohort destined to graduate in
November 2022 from the latter half of JC1 in August 2021 (Wong, 2022b). Both cohorts
showed stunning and very unexpected progress both quantitatively and qualitatively, with all
three of the author’s classes in the second cohort in particular staying in the top 10 out of 30
classes in the college at all subsequent summative examinations, despite very different
starting average L1R5 and English grades at point of college entry, and thereafter performing
near the top of the junior college’s cohort at the actual 2022 Singapore Cambridge General
Certificate of Education Advanced Level (A-Levels), with many students achieving perfectscores. The main reason for this seems be that the Osura provides very clear scaffolding fordeveloping one’s own creative ability and metacognition, which are two of the most criticalskills in the otherwise relatively unstructured H1 General Paper. The general process bywhich this was achieved is captured in reductive fashion below. In practice, each stage wasan ongoing effort with each student or within the author himself, rather than a strictly linear
sequence.
1.
2.
3.

4.

Teacher recognises and accepts own hypothesized ego-pattern and any trauma affecting
teacher’s own ability to teach effectively; the ego-pattern hypothesis is further constantly
subjected to query and deconstruction to ensure that the hypothesis is accurate.
Co-construction of hypotheses for student ego-patterns by teacher and students, either instudent-requested formal life coaching consultations or based on data from GP
consultations.
Dissemination of metacognitive reflection handouts and hypothesised articulated
structure of each individual student’s ego-pattern. Each student receives a personalised
individuation hypothesis chart for the particular hypothesised component of the psyche
as relevant to GP and that particular lesson. To maintain the principle of full internal
coherence and to provide a point of comparison for critique and self-analysis, theteacher’s own hypothesis for the structure of their own psyche as it stands at the time isalso provided.
Bite-sized 5-15 min classroom-level frontal teaching of Individuation Theory only as
directly relevant to creative writing in GP in tutorials; deliberate avoidance of ‘creating asecond subject.’

Results and Conclusion
Students in the cohort were asked to write a “Letter to a Younger Person Entering JC who
may share your Ego-Pattern” in August of JC2 as part of the lead-up to graduation. These
letters, collected across two cohorts of students from all 16 hypothesised ego-patterns from2020-2022, were consistently focused on four central goals that were very different from thetraditional 5Cs of previously understood Singaporean aspiration:•

Value: Living and developing a life of (unique) worth

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Identity: Accepting and cherishing all of oneself and one’s life
Vulnerability: Negotiating trauma and abuse
Authenticity: Moving beyond image and face

The VIVA aspirations also seem to connect to two cognitive functions not well understood in
Singapore, introverted Feeling (Fi) and introverted Intuition (Ni); these aspirations and thesuccess of the Osura in the classroom, together with the wider emerging interest acrossgenerations in negotiating trauma and abuse, and breaking free from cycles of toxic andunhealthy behaviour toward greater empathy and collective empowerment, all suggest that
future generations seek a more sustainable, healthy, balanced and nuanced relationship withnot just the world around them, but with themselves.
We often treat our inner world, our psyche, and our emotions and desires as terrifying,
uncontrollable and irrational dragons or monsters that cannot be tamed, negotiated with orunderstood. But it is also up to us to see that that, too, is an image and a story that we tellourselves, both individually and as a society. It is also our choice, both individually and as asociety, to tell a better one going forward for the benefit of us all.
Acknowledgements
I wish to thank my husband, Fuad Johari, my colleagues Lionel Lye, Renuka Satianathan, Ng
Huiqi, Kajal Kaur Khaira and Darren Chong, and my amazing students from the classes of
19-A2, 19-A5, 19-I5, 21-I4, 21-O2, 21-O4, ODAC, Press, Futures & Foresight
Methodologies and life coaching, whose support, strength, courage and respect provided somuch of the foundation of this research into the frontiers of who we all could be as
individuated, authentic, vulnerable and empathetic human beings.

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References
Ang Qing (2022). About 1 in 3 young people in Singapore has mental health symptoms:
Study. The Straits Times (May 20). Retrieved 4 March 2023 fromhttps://www.straitstimes.com/singapore/about-1-in-3-youths-in-singapore-has-mentalhealth-symptoms-study
Beebe, John (2017). Energies and Patterns in Psychological Type: The Reservoir ofConsciousness. London, United Kingdom: Routledge.
Berens, Linda (2006). Understanding yourself and others: An introduction to the four
temperaments. Huntington Beach, United States: Telos Publications.Jung, Carl
Gustav (1921). Psychological Types. Zurich, Switzerland: Rascher-Verlag.
Bonds, Christopher (2002). Synchronicity. In Michael Shermer & Pat Linse (eds.), The
Skeptic Encyclopedia of Pseudoscience (Volume 1) (pp. 240–242). Santa Barbara,
California: ABC-CLIO.
Elangovan, Navene (2021). Forget the 5Cs, young Singaporeans want to make a difference,create impact with their work. TODAY (December 4). Retrieved 4 March 2023 fromhttps://www.todayonline.com/singapore/forget-5cs-young-sporeans-want-makedifference-create-impact-their-work-today-webinar
Nardi, Dario (2005). 8 Keys to Self-Leadership From Awareness To Action. Huntington
Beach, United States: Unite Business Press.
Neo Chai Chin, Goh Chiew Tong, Christy Yip & Ryan Tan Bing Yong (2022). More youths
seeking help with mental health – but finding it isn’t always easy. Channel NewsAsia
Insider (May 1). Retrieved 4 March 2023 fromhttps://www.channelnewsasia.com/cna-insider/youth-mental-health-illness-singaporehelp-treatment-2649296
Roesler, Christian (2013). Evidence for the effectiveness of Jungian psychotherapy: A review
of empirical studies. Behavioural Science (Basel) 3(4), 562-575.
Watermeyer, Richard, Zan Chen & Bryan John Ang (2021). ‘Education without limits’: The
digital resettlement of post-secondary education and training in Singapore in the
COVID-19 era. Journal of Education Policy 37(6), 861-882. DOI
10.1080/02680939.2021.1933198
Wong, Kevin Martens (2022a). Transcending the transcendent function: Articulating theprinciples behind a new, extended individuation theory of the human psyche. In
Kevin Martens Wong (ed.), The Orange Book (pp. 22–51). Retrieved 4 March 2023
from https://www.merlionsman.com/the-orange-book
Wong, Kevin Martens (2022b). The dialogue within: Transforming metacognitive writing
instruction through individuation theory in a pre-tertiary Singaporean language andargumentation classroom. In Kevin Martens Wong (ed.), The Orange Book (pp. 52–
100). Retrieved 4 March 2023 from https://www.merlionsman.com/the-orange-book

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Contact email: merlionsman@gmail.com

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Application of Project Based Learning Methods in Distance Learning
During the Pandemic
Soeryanto, State University of Surabaya, Indonesia
Rachmad Syarifudin Hidayatullah, State University of Surabaya, Indonesia
Suparji, State University of Surabaya, Indonesia
I Wayan Susila, State University of Surabaya, Indonesia
Bambang Suprianto, State University of Surabaya, Indonesia
I Gusti Putu Asto Buditjahjanto, State University of Surabaya, Indonesia
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Abstract
To prevent the spread of Covid-19 in the university world, one of the methods is online
learning, which is carried out using a smartphone or laptop. However, in online learning,
lecturers must be innovative so that learning objectives are achieved, obstacles in online
learning include internet signal disturbances, sleepiness, boredom, and health problems suchas the senses of sight and hearing. To reduce these effects, researchers apply project-basedlearning models to learning models. on line. In its application, researchers use syntax, namelya) Determining issues, b) Communicating, c) Mentoring and discussion d) Dissemination.
The purpose of this study is to analyze the application of the Project Based Learning model toonline learning in the Mechanical Engineering Department. The results showed that 22 (69%)
students were very competent in measuring workpieces using calipers and micrometers, 10(31%) students were competent in measuring workpieces using measuring instruments andcalipers, and of the 32 students all had criteria according to learning objectives. In addition,
the positive impact of this learning model a) Makes students study independently, b)
Eliminates boredom, c) Reduces sleepiness, d) Reduces eye and ear pain due to too long
listening to smartphones and laptops e) Reducing the cost of consuming the internet, to carryout learning online using Project-based learning must be supported by learning facilities andstudent learning motivation.
Keywords: Project Based Learning, Online, Pandemic, Learning Outcomes, Motivation

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Introduction
In 2019 the Covid 19 pandemic spread throughout the world and changed patterns ofsocializing, studying, and working (Velavan & Meyer, 2020). Almost all life support sectors
were affected, such as socio-cultural, economic, and education (Orfan & Elmyar, 2020).
Covid 19 first spread in the city of Wuhan, China, this virus infects the human respiratory
system, the characteristics of infected people start from fever, dizziness, vomiting, and pain
all over the body, dry cough, and after a few days usually shortness of breath resulting in
reduced oxygen stupor and can eventually lead to death (Li et al., 2020). The Covid-19 virus
is very contagious, this virus can be transmitted through liquids, physical contact, and air if
you are in a closed room.
As a result of the COVID-19 Pandemic, it is recommended that a health protocol be issued by
WHO to limit people gathering in large numbers so that learning activities are carried out
using distance education or in Indonesia, it is called Distance Learning (PJJ)/online method.
PJJ learning is learning where students and lecturers cannot meet face-to-face in one actualroom. The pandemic in 2019 resulted in global education switching to online education (AlLily et al., 2020), in a pandemic condition it is necessary to have a different approach tolearning activities (Sujarwo et al., 2022), a sudden transition from offline learning on campus
or school to online learning has brought a significantly increased workload for lecturers,
students, and education stakeholders because they work not only to stream content andteaching materials into online areas but also have to be proficient enough to run the required
software programs (Allen et al., 2020). In this activity, lecturers and students meet face toface in a virtual space using internet devices and social media, such as WhatsApp groups(WAG), media meetings such as zoom, meet, google class, etc. This activity is also called
online learning (Herliandry et al., 2020).
Compliance problems in online implementation can be seen in human resources,
infrastructure availability, and implementation techniques to gain knowledge. According toSanjaya, learning facilities are everything that supports an easy learning system. Meanwhile,according to Daryanto, infrastructure can be interpreted as something that is not directly used
to achieve goals in education, for example, areas or places, college buildings, sports fields,
cash, and so on (Daryanto, 2011). Online learning is inseparable from the use of technology.
Technological facilities that assist the implementation of online learning are the use of
educational control information systems.
Changes in the implementation of learning from real face-to-face learning to virtual face-toface learning or online learning certainly have an impact on learning outcomes. students,
lecturer, and student psychology, learning approach methods (Handarini, 2020; Renfrew etal., 2021). In online learning, learning facilities such as specifications for smartphones,
laptops, and internet networks greatly affect the learning process, because some smartphones
and laptops do not support the software used in learning. The ability of lecturers and students
to use IT (Information) devices also plays an important role in online learning activities,
because almost all learning activities are carried out using IT devices including delivering
material by lecturers and assignments and exams that must be carried out by students.
Considering that facilities and infrastructure are the elements that influence the success of ateaching and learning system, the need for and use of learning facilities must be inaccordance with the learning objectives. Online learning is inseparable from elements that
support the learning process. Every element of higher education, including lecturers,

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technicians, and students, experiences unexpected adjustments that must adapt to the latest
conditions, so the readiness of the facilities and infrastructure used needs to be consideredwith the aim of supporting the learning process.
The condition of the learning environment also greatly influences online learning, online
learning allows lecturers and students to carry out activities anywhere and anytime as long as
there is support for learning facilities, and as long as these lecturers and students are in theirrespective homes. Besides that, motivational learning activities greatly affect learning
objectives, many researchers have conducted research on the influence of motivation in theworld of educational psychology by conducting lecturers and students, motivation is part ofthe psychology of lecturers and students, and many factors influence the psychology oflecturers and students in online learning One of them is the boredom experienced by students
while participating in learning.
Learning motivation is any effort from within that recognizes learning activities andestablishes certain continuity and offers a way for learning activities to achieve the desired
goals. Success motivation is a person's effort and belief to identify learning goals with certain
success requirements and have the ability to overcome all obstacles that limit goal marketing.
In addition, the definition of success motivation can also be expressed as motivation intended
to pursue achievement, namely to expand or reveal potential (Purwanto, 2014).
In fact, students feel bored when they have to listen to the teacher explaining material during
online learning, sometimes students turn off the video and do other activities besides listening
to the lecturer's explanation, such as washing, sleeping, traveling, helping parents, doingother course assignments, and other activities. other. So that students don't get bored,
lecturers need to innovate learning approaches, innovative learning media.
One of the innovations carried out is to develop a Project Based Learning learning model, aProject Based Learning learning model is a mastery method that gives freedom to students toplan learning activities, carry out tasks privately or collaboratively, and ultimately produce
work products that can be known by others (Mahendra, 2017). Currently, the government
recommends universities through IKU (university performance indicators) to implement
Project-Based Learning and Problem-Based Learning (Nizam, 2021). Problem Based
Learning or Problem Based Learning can grow students' thinking to be more active,
inspiring, and innovative (Barak & Yuan, 2021). The Project Based Learning model is anapproach that provides benefits for increasing student achievement in tertiary institutions(Guo et al., 2020), besides that Project Based Learning can foster a collaborative nature,develop individual knowledge among students and improve higher-order thinking skills, andabilities for collaboration (Abu Hussain et al., 2014), (Pan et al., 2021), apart from that
Project Based Learning also trains students to hone students' collaboration (collaboration)
skills in project work, (Chounta et al., 2017) Project Based Learning as learning that uses the
Project as a medium in the learning process to achieve attitude, knowledge and skill
competencies. The emphasis on learning lies in student activities that produce products withthe skills to learn, analyze, create, to present learning products based on real experiences. The
product in question is the result of a project in the form of goods or services in the form ofdesigns, schemes, writings, works of art, works of technology/crafts, and others. Through theimplementation of Project-Based Learning, students will practice planning, carrying out
activities according to plan, and displaying or reporting the results of activities (Logan et al.,2021).

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Project-based learning (PjBL) is a form of active student-focused teaching characterized by
student autonomy, constructive inquiry, goal setting, collaboration, verbal exchange, andreflection on real-world practice. it has been explored in different contexts and unique stagesof higher education, from elementary school to higher education (Kokotsaki et al., 2016)
PjBL has learning features that emphasize how students are able to develop critical thinking
skills. This allows them to be creative individuals and able to work collaboratively.
Syntax Project-Based Learning (Mulyasa, 2014), 1). Prepare project questions or
assignments, 2), Devise a project plan, 3). produce a schedule as a concrete step of a project,4). Monitoring project activities and progress, meanwhile (Soleh, 2021) Project-Based
Learning Syntax, namely 1) Fundamental questions, 2) Design a product plan, 3) Arrange
production schedule, 4) Monitor project activities and progress, 5) Test the results, and 6)
Evaluation of learning experiences.
While the syntax that we developed for the project-based learning model is 1) Defining
issues, 2) Communicating 3) Mentoring and discussion, and 4) dissemination. In Class
measuring tools are carried out online with the Project Based Learning model. Before
carrying out Project Based Learning the lecturer gives pretest questions to students, with theaim of knowing the initial competence of students before attending lectures, at the end oflearning the lecturer gives posttest questions. Project Based Learning is applied to measuring
tools for knowledge courses on the topic of measuring workpieces using calipers andmicrometers, material tracking was carried out 6 times face to face.
Products from Project Based Learning are videos on the use of calipers and micrometerswhich are collected on Google Drive. From the description above, researchers will conduct
research on the effectiveness of bold learning using the Project Based Learning model using a
4-step syntax. The purpose of this study was to obtain information about the effectiveness ofapplying the Project Based Learning model with the dare learning method in the measuring
instrument knowledge course in the Mechanical Engineering Department.
Methods
Research Design
The design of this research is a type of descriptive qualitative research, qualitative research isa type of research that explores and realizes the meaning of several individuals or groups ofthem originating from social problems (Creswell, 2016). Qualitative description or(descriptive study) is research that seeks to explore or clarify a symptom, phenomenon, or
social reality that is currently happening, this research seeks to explain a number of variables
associated with the problem and unit studied, this research additionally aims to find expertisein broad to the object of research in a certain period (Samsu, 2017). In this study the use of
project-based learning methods was applied to the knowledge measuring instrument course,
distance learning was used in this activity due to the Covid-19 pandemic. In distancelearning, Google Meet was used to carry out learning, between lecturers and students in theirown homes.
Sample and Population
Qualitative research no longer uses the term population but uses the term social situation,
especially social situation, social situation has 3 components, namely: location, people, and

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activities of three factors that interact synergistically. In this study, the object of research isonline learning activities using the Project Based Learning model in the 2021 A measuring
instrument knowledge class which is held every Tuesday from 10.20 WIB to 11.40 WIB.
In this type of qualitative research, purposive sampling and snowball sampling are often used.
Purposive sampling is a technique for selecting a sample of data sources using certain
considerations, purposive sampling will make it easier for researchers to explore the social
object/situation being studied, while snowball sampling is a sampling technique that starts
with a small number of samples. becomes more because the data obtained is deemed
unsatisfactory (Sugiyono, 2010). In this study, the sample chosen was class A 2021 who took
lectures on measuring instrument knowledge. Data collection techniques in Project Based
Learning research use tests (pretest and posttest), observation, and interviews. The research
instruments used were test sheets, observations, interview scripts, laptops, and internet
networks.
Analysys Data Techinques
The method approach of knowing the validity of the data requires technical checking. The
implementation of inspection techniques is based on certain standards. The process techniquebuilds the validity of the data required by the inspection technique. Implementation of
inspection techniques on a number of certain criteria. There are four criteria used, namely the
degree of trust (credibility), dependability, certainty (confirmability), and transferability(Prof. DR. Lexy J. Moleong, 2018).
This research is a qualitative research, data analysis techniques are applied using qualitative
data analysis which includes process and meaning. In addition, this study also uses
descriptive analysis techniques that function to describe research data. the process of data
analysis was carried out during and after data collection. The data analysis process adopted
and developed an interactive pattern developed by Milles and Hiberman (Sugiyono, 2009),
namely: data reduction, data presentation, conclusion drawing.
Result and Discussion
Phase
Determine
Issue

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Lecturer’s activity
1. The lecturer determines the issues that will bemade into topics for students to work on.
The lecturer determines the project to be worked
on by students, the determination of the project isreferred to from the learning objectives
2. The lecturer determines the purpose of selecting
issues.
Here the lecturer determines the purpose of
selecting projects to be worked on by students,
the project to be worked on by students is tomake a video recording of workpiecemeasurements using calipers and micrometers,
videos made by students must be clear and good
and able to display process activity measurementthat is easily understood by the reviewer

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1. The lecturer socializes the issues and objectivesof selecting these issues to students.
After the lecturer determines the issue, thelecturer socializes the project that students will
work on through a meeting using the Google
Meet application.
2. The lecturer explains the project targets to beachieved.
The lecturer explains the target that will beachieved if students do this assignment wellaccording to the soup set by the lecturer.
3. Together with the teacher students discuss the
project schedule.
When the lecturer meets with students in themeeting room the lecturer discusses how long it
will take students to complete the project that has
been determined by the lecturer.
4. The lecturer explains the project implementation
rules (report rules, etc.)
The lecturer explains the procedure for
implementing reports and assessments of the
projects that will be carried out by students.
Mentoring and 1. Lecturers provide guidance to students, andDiscussion
groups and conduct small and brief discussions
regarding the findings of difficulties experienced
by students, monitoring and discussion activities
are carried out in WhatsApp groups and in online
rooms using Google Meet.
Communication

Determination

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1. The lecturer assesses the products that have beendone.
2. The lecturer assesses the student's denomination.

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1. Students ask
questionsabout issues
that have been
determined by
the lecturer.
2. Students ask
about theschedule andtargets to beachieved
3. Students ask
aboutreportingmechanisms
and reportformats

1. Students carryout projectwork
2. Students
Compilereports
3. Students
consult thelecturer
1. Students report
the final
project resultsthat have been
carried out by
uploading the
project resultson the linkprovided
2. Students reportproject work
activities
throughpresentations

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Figure 1: Pre-Test and Post-Test Graph
The graph above shows the number of students who took the pre-test and post-test exams,
namely 32 students. From the table above, we can see that students with codes 3, 8, 10, 13,
14, and 30 experienced a decrease in the value of the post-test results, a decrease in value forcode 3 from 70 to 63, code 8 from 79 to 64, code 10 from 76 to 73, code 13 from 66 to 57,
code 14 from 68 to 59, code 30 from 73 to 71 if the percentage of the average post-test scoreis 6 students is 11%, while apart from the 6 students, 26 other students experienced anincrease in grades after completing the post-test scores, the average increase in grades inpercentage terms was 17 percent. After conducting in-depth interviews with 6 students who
experienced a decrease in grades, they experienced problems while carrying out the post-test,
the obstacles they experienced were internet signal disturbances and a less conducive
environment. From these two disorders, students are less focused and less concentrated.
Since the pandemic started, many human activities have been shifted online (Donthu &Gustafsson, 2020). Some research shows that students may perform differently in various
modalities, and some may even perform better in an online learning environment (Cole et al.,2017), students value active learning strategies more in an online learning environment,
students generally have a good perception of online learning even though they havereservations around technology proficiency (Koohang et al., 2016), the challenges identified
widely with e-learning are accessibility, affordability, flexibility, learning pedagogy and
Education policy (Pokhrel & Chhetri, 2021) online learning at basically is the use oftechnology for information dissemination (Tajik, Farnaz; Vahedi, 2021), online exams can
reduce the potential for cheating (Moralista & F. Oducado, 2020). Despite the fact that manystudies find students have positive attitudes towards online learning (Muflih et al., 2021),
students feel comfortable taking good exams online and face-to-face mode, that online exams
are stress-free and feel comfortable at home (Alghamdi & Ali, 2021).

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Figure 2: Number of Students Who Have Device to Support Learning
The pie chart above shows that out of 32 students 97% of students have support devices that
support online lectures while 3% of students do not have support devices that support them.
The definition of having support devices in this study is that students have smartphones andlaptops that have specifications: 1) can support online meetings, 2) support for downloading
office data quickly, 3) support for making videos quickly, 4) support for editing videos
quickly, 5) support for opening, uploading Google Drive data quickly, 6) being able to access
Google form and work on google form questions quickly. From the data 3% of students who
filled out the observation sheet did not support after in-depth interviews, on average they
defined their device doesn't support as their device could not operate quickly for the 6categories as above, but we can confirm that out of 32 students have smart devices phones,
laptops, and internet networks.
Technology in online learning will benefit all parties and support learning objectives andimprove the learning process pembelajaran (Haryana et al., 2022; Kustyarini et al., 2020).
One of the main challenges faced by tertiary institutions is to ensure the holistic developmentof students both in terms of achieving generic attributes and developing competencies,
namely, creativity, thinking, teamwork, communication and collaboration, and independence.
To address this challenge, new technological transformations in education have led to the useof additional instructional tools, such as project-based learning (Alt & Raichel, 2022), With
the development of modern technology, it is beneficial to create a smart learning environment
so that students can become smart learners by smart space tools and smart pedagogy(Budhrani et al., 2018), mobile devices and technologies help learners expand their learningspace and time, objects, and opportunities to enhance their cognition, engagement, andinteraction (Hwang & Fu, 2020).

Figure 3: Number of Students Have Measuring Tool

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The pie chart above shows that out of 32 students 100% have a caliper and micrometermeasuring instruments. A good learning process requires complete tools as media in theprocess (Fayez et al., 2021). The existence of media as a learning tool for students makes it
easier for them to explore so they can understand the material being taught (Kustyarini et al.,2020).

Figure 4: Students Motivation Chart
The pie chart above shows that 97% of the 32 students have the motivation to study, while
3% do not have the motivation to learn slides and micrometers, these students do not havemotivation because they don't really want to enter the Mechanical Engineering department,these students go to school only because they are forced by parents.
Mental health problems can significantly interfere with students' academic success and social
interactions (Wyatt et al., 2017), thereby affecting their future careers and personal lives.
Students who have good mental health can face learning barriers due to environmental factors(Cheng et al., 2023) (Katzman & Stanton, 2020). When students feel they can control theiremotions, positive results can encourage increased interest in further learning (Moors et al.,2013). The socially driven intention is a major factor to be considered in an online learning
environment (Chaker et al., 2022). Students with good mental health show significantly
greater perceived learning outcomes than their peers (Wei et al., 2023). Various researchers
warn of the negative impact of COVID-19 on mental health around the world, such as stress;
worry; depression, or post-traumatic stress disorder, which may result from long periods ofconfinement; uncertainty; fear of infection; moral pressure; solitude; grief; and economic
crises (Kim & Park, 2021).
Interview Result Data (Depth Interview)
The Depth interview was conducted on Friday, October 15th 2021, at 13:30 WIB using
Google Meet media, the number of respondents was 32 respondents with 4 categories, before
conducting the Depth interview the researcher asked students for permission to conduct the
Depth interview, and convey the purpose of conducting the Depth interview. In this activity,
the respondents were 2021 A students in the measuring instrument knowledge course.
The implementation of the dept interview went smoothly, the respondents were asked
questions according to the planned script left-hand grid. From the results of interviews withobservers, several data findings were obtained, including:a. Learning with the Project Based Learning Model is effective because it allows
students to develop themselves.
b. The application of the Project Based Learning model in online learning is influenced
by signals, internet quota, IT mastery skills, and devices owned by students.

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Official Conference Proceedingsc. The negative side of applying the Project Based Learning model is that students haveto provide measuring instruments independenutly through purchasing or borrowing.
d. Students feel bored, bored, and hurt their eyes and ears if they stare at the screen of
their smartphone or laptop for too long and listen to sounds through their hands-free.
e. The environment around students also determines learning activities.
The Influence of Project Based Learning Learning Model on Online Learning in
Measuring Instrument Knowledge CourseID
student 1
student 2
student 3
student 4
student 5
student 6
student 7
student 8
student 9
student 10
student 11
student 12
student 13
student 14
student 15
student 16
student 17
student 18
student 19
student 20
student 21
student 22
student 23
student 24
student 25
student 26
student 27
student 28
student 29
student 30
student 31
student 32
Average

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Table 1: Studens Score
Post- Project Detimination
Test
Score
Score
Score
100
94
80
87
86
70
63
88
79
71
80
78
90
85
80
87
90
90
81
88
80
64
98
75
80
87
80
73
80
85
86
87
80
56
88
75
57
78
75
59
80
75
79
88
80
100
100
85
90
97
84
93
98
76
83
90
89
53
87
87
90
89
80
97
88
80
100
90
80
85
80
86
73
85
80
86
85
86
65
80
80
90
86
80
100
80
80
71
80
76
93
80
75
81
80
80
80.72
86.63
80.19

198

Final
Score
91.33
81.00
76.67
76.33
85.00
89.00
83.00
79.00
82.33
79.33
84.33
73.00
70.00
71.33
82.33
95.00
90.33
89.00
87.33
75.67
86.33
88.33
90.00
83.67
79.33
85.67
75.00
85.33
86.67
75.67
82.67
80.33
82.51

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In the knowledge course, the learning achievement measurement tool that has been
determined is that students can measure work objects using calipers and micrometers, thelowest standard value determined is 60, and for students who get scores below 60 (D) the
student said to be incompetent, the following are the value criteria for student A: 80-100(very competent), B; 70-79 (competent), C 60-69 (quite competent), D 50-59 (notcompetent), from the data above 22 students enter at the very competent level, while 10
students enter at the competency level.
From observational data and in-depth interviews, it was obtained data that the facility factor
is very supportive in online learning activities with a project-based learning model, the dataobtained by students 97% who take part in this study are supported by devices, and 100%
have smartphone and laptop devices, besides that students, 100% of those who attend lectures
have vernier caliper and micrometer measuring media. The role of learning media is very
important in this lecture. Measuring instrument courses are courses that have credits
weighted, in this course even though they are theoretically written, to achieve the learning
objectives, namely students can measure workpieces using calipers and micrometers, students
apart from mastering theoretical competence students must be able to have practicalcompetence measurement. Therefore, in the Project Based Learning model, the facility factor
is very important because, if students have smartphones and laptops, students can attend
lectures well, students can attend online meetings, take online exams, make videos, and learn
the theory of using sliding calipers. Meanwhile, the facilities for measuring calipers andmicrometers are very important because if every student can provide a measuring instrument
for calipers and micrometers at their home, students can routinely learn and practice using
calipers and micrometers at home until they are very competent in using these measuring
instruments.
The use of the project-based learning model in online lectures has positive impacts such as:• Making students study independently• Eliminate boredom• Reducing sleepiness• Reducing eye pain caused by listening to smartphones and laptops for too long
• Reducing internet consumption costs
In addition to learning media factors, motivational factors are very important for achieving
learning objectives in this course, learning motivation comes from within themselves(Mustadi et al., 2022), which seems to be an important factor in determining success.
Material and personal needs (input dimension, out of 32 students 3% said they did not havemotivation while 97% claimed they had motivation, 3% admitted they did not havemotivation because the major they chose did not suit their wishes, they went to college
because their parents forced them. However, although he was not motivated that the finalscore of the student was included in the very competent criteria, this was because before hetook this course he had prior knowledge about the use of calipers and micrometers, so thislearning did not contribute to his competence. The role of motivation in achieving goals isvery important (Furnham et al., 1999) and Tang & Sampson (2017) said that motivation isvery important in learning.
Conclusion
The application of the Project Based Learning learning model to online learning is very
effective in achieving learning objectives, this is evidenced by 22 (69%) students who are

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very competent in measuring workpieces using calipers and micrometers, 10 (31) students
have the competence to measure workpieces using tools measuring and caliper, all of 32
students have criteria according to learning objectives. The syntax for the project-basedlearning model developed is a) Defining issues, b) Communicating, c) Mentoring anddiscussion d) Dissemination, which has positive impacts such as a) Making students study
independently, b) Eliminating boredom, c) Reducing sleepiness, d) Reducing eye pain due totoo long listening to smartphones and laptops e) Reducing the cost of consuming the internet,
to carry out online learning using Project-based learning with this syntax must be supported
by learning facilities and student learning motivation (Mathew et al., 2019).
Acknowledgement
Alhamdulillah, thanks to the presence of Allah SWT, because of the grace of Allah theresearcher can finish this article. On this occasion, the researcher would like to thank those
who have supported and assisted in the preparation of this research.

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Contact email: rachmadhidayatullah@unesa.ac.id

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The Influence of Communication Skills on the Work Readiness of Vocational SchoolStudents in Building Engineering Expertise

Wahyu Dwi Mulyono, Universitas Negeri Surabaya, Indonesia
Suparji, Universitas Negeri Surabaya, Indonesia
Arie Wardhono, Universitas Negeri Surabaya, Indonesia
Bambang Suprianto, Universitas Negeri Surabaya, Indonesia
I Gusti Putu Asto Buditjahjanto, Universitas Negeri Surabaya, Indonesia

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Abstract
Vocational high schools (SMK) have a goal to produce graduates who are ready to work. The
problem that occurs is the high level of open unemployment (TPT) for vocational school
graduates in Indonesia, especially in the city of Surabaya. An important aspect of producing
graduates who can compete and succeed in work in the world of work is job readiness. SMK
graduates are declared to have high work readiness if they already have the skills needed by
the world of work. One of the skills that must be possessed is communication skills. The aimsof this research are as follows. (1) To analyze the communication skills possessed by SMK
students; (2) To analyze the effect of communication skills on the job readiness of SMK
students. This is correlational research. The population of this research is all students of SMK
in the field of Building Engineering in the city of Surabaya. The sampling technique used is
purposive sampling, which is taken as a sample of class XII students of SMK Negeri 2
Surabaya, SMK Negeri 3 Surabaya, and SMK Negeri 7 Surabaya. Data collection techniques
using questionnaires and data analysis using linear regression. The expected results of thisstudy are as follows. (1) The communication skills that students have from the highest to thelowest consist of written communication skills, listening skills, visual communication skills,
dan oral communication skills; (2) Communication skills have a positive influence on the job
readiness of SMK students.

Keywords: Communication Skills, Work Readiness, Vocational Students, Building
Engineering

iafor
The International Academic Forumwww.iafor.org

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Introduction
Vocational high school (SMK) is a secondary-level education that provides knowledge andskills according to a particular field of work (Baitullah & Wagiran, 2019; Lawitta et al.,2017). Vocational High Schools must be able to produce graduates who are independent andhave expertise or competence in certain fields of work (Estriyanto et al., 2017). Graduates are
expected not only to find work but to create their jobs. The main goal of vocational education
is to create graduates who are ready to work (Lawitta et al., 2017). Vocational education
provides specific training that is produced with guidance from teachers to develop skills incertain industrial fields. Vocational education motivates students to improve their skills sothat after graduation they can work and generate profits in the economic field (Pavlova,
2009). Vocational education aims to identify the type of work that is suitable for individuals
and to help develop work capacity to make it more effective (Billet, 2011).
The challenge for Vocational Schools is the change in skills needed by industry, especiallywhat is happening in the 21st century (Ayaz & Karacan Özdemir, 2021). The 21st century isa century of change which is also known as the century of information technology,
globalization, industrial revolution 4.0, and so on. Changes in the 21st century occur very
quickly and are difficult to predict and occur in all aspects of life. Changes that take place
very quickly can provide opportunities if they can be utilized properly, but can also become
serious threats if they are not properly anticipated (Oviawe et al., 2017; Wibawa & Moses,
2018).
This change triggers changes in the areas of skills needed in the world of work. Predicting theskills needed will be very difficult because it depends on the field and sub-occupation that is
the focus of the skill (Kwon, 2019). The 21st century has created a need for new types ofskills that did not exist before, as well as eliminating skills that are no longer relevant(Oviawe et al., 2017).
Problem-solving, team working and communication are the skills most needed today in theworkplace. Communication and collaboration are critical to 21st-century skills because somany of the jobs of the future will require them. The survey results concluded that problemsolving (50%), teamwork (35%), and communication (32%) are the top three skills needed bycompanies (An Economist Intelegnce Unit, 2015). The Partnership for 21st Century Skills(P21) explains that the core of the P21 framework is called 4C namely communication,
collaboration, critical thinking and problem solving, and creativity and innovation (AnEconomist Intelegnce Unit, 2015).
Employability skills are skills, knowledge, and competencies that can improve the ability ofworkers to get or keep jobs (Brewer, 2013). Employability skills are a set of skills needed toenter the world of work, to survive and develop a career at work, or for career development at
a new workplace.
Employability skills for the 21st century consist of five major skills, namely team player,
self-motivation, verbal communication, problem-solving, and being proactive (McGunagle &Zizka, 2020). The skills needed in the industrial revolution 4.0 are self-management,
communication, team-working, interpersonal, working under pressure imagination, criticalthinking, willingness to learn, attention to detail planning, responsibility, insight,
professionalism maturity, and emotional intelligence (Teng et al., 2019).

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Vocational high schools (SMK) have the goal of producing graduates who are ready to work
(Lawitta et al., 2017). The problem that occurs is the high rate of open unemployment (TPT)for SMK graduates. Based on data from the national central statistics agency (BPS),
vocational graduates rank second in TPT after high school, namely 2,111,338 in August 2021
(Central Bureau of Statistics of the Republic of Indonesia, 2022). Central Bureau of Statistics
East Java Indonesia data TPT for vocational graduates in East Java Province occupies the top
position, namely 11.89% in 2020 (Central Bureau of Statistics of the Republic of Indonesia,2020). Judging from the district, the highest TPT in East Java is in Sidoarjo Regency with
10.97%, then Surabaya City at 9.79%, and Gresik Regency at 9.61% (Central Bureau of
Statistics of the Republic of Indonesia, 2020). These problems are exacerbated by the Covid19 Pandemic which is a challenge for graduates (Kamaruddin et al., 2021).
An important aspect in producing graduates who can compete and succeed in jobs in theworld of work later is by building work readiness for vocational students, by building work
readiness for students it is hoped that it will reduce unemployment among vocational highschool graduates (Maryanti et al., 2020).
Vocational High School graduates are declared to have high job readiness if they havemastered everything needed by the job requirements that must be possessed. Several thingsneed to be prepared to have high work readiness, namely work skills (Zainuddin, M., & Rijal,
2022).
Work Readiness
Readiness is the overall condition of a person that makes him ready to respond in a certain
way to a situation. Adjustment to conditions at one time will affect the tendency to respond.
So work readiness shows the condition of someone ready to do a job (Smith et al., 2014).
Readiness is a level or state that must be achieved in the process of individual development
before it can perform properly at various levels of mental, physical, social, and emotional
growth (Feriady, M., & Yanto, 2018). Job readiness is skills, knowledge, and attitudes thatwill enable new graduates to be able to contribute productively to achieve organizational
goals in the place where the individual works (Makki et al., 2015).
Job readiness is defined as the extent to which graduates are deemed to have attitudes andattributes that make them ready to work or ready to succeed in the work environment(Caballero et al., 2011). Job readiness shows a person's ability to complete work by theprovisions without experiencing difficulties and obstacles with maximum results and by the
specified targets (D et al., 2014).
Work readiness is the ability that must be possessed by individuals to be able to work directly
without requiring a time-consuming adjustment period in the framework of creating a productor adding value to a resource with maximum results by predetermined targets (Siddique et al.,2022).
Based on the description above, it can be concluded that work readiness is the condition ofsomeone who can carry out a job with good results. Job readiness shows a mental attitude andskills that are ready to work.

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Indicators of work readiness namely having responsibility, being able to adapt (flexibility),
having skills, being able to communicate, having self-views, and paying attention to theirhealth and safety (Brady, 2010),. Indicators of work readiness are personal resources, family
support, industrial work experience, job expectations and information, learning environment,
and career guidance (Suarta et al., 2021).
Job readiness is the extent to which graduates are considered to have the attitudes andattributes that make them ready to succeed in the work environment. There are four factors ofwork readiness, namely personal characteristics, organizational intelligence, work
competence, and social intelligence (Caballero et al., 2011). Based on the description above,it can be concluded that indicators of job readiness include personal characteristics,
organizational skills, work skills, and social skills.
Readiness is the overall condition of a person that makes him ready to respond in a certain
way to a situation. Adjustment to conditions at one time will affect the tendency to respond.
So work readiness shows the condition of someone ready to do a job (Smith et al., 2014).
Readiness is a level or state that must be achieved in the process of individual development
before it can perform properly at various levels of mental, physical, social, and emotional
growth (Feriady, M., & Yanto, 2018). Job readiness is skills, knowledge, and attitudes thatwill enable new graduates to be able to contribute productively to achieve organizational
goals in the place where the individual works (Makki et al., 2015).
Job readiness is defined as the extent to which graduates are deemed to have attitudes andattributes that make them ready to work or ready to succeed in the work environment(Caballero et al., 2011). Job readiness shows a person's ability to complete work by theprovisions without experiencing difficulties and obstacles with maximum results and by the
specified targets (D et al., 2014).
Work readiness is the ability that must be possessed by individuals to be able to work directly
without requiring a time-consuming adjustment period in the framework of creating a productor adding value to a resource with maximum results by predetermined targets (Siddique et al.,2022).
Based on the description above, it can be concluded that work readiness is the condition ofsomeone who can carry out a job with good results. Job readiness shows a mental attitude andskills that are ready to work.
Indicators of work readiness namely having responsibility, being able to adapt (flexibility),
having skills, being able to communicate, having self-views, and paying attention to theirhealth and safety (Brady, 2010). Indicators of work readiness are personal resources, family
support, industrial work experience, job expectations and information, learning environment,
and career guidance (Suarta et al., 2021).
Job readiness is the extent to which graduates are considered to have the attitudes andattributes that make them ready to succeed in the work environment. There are four factors ofwork readiness, namely personal characteristics, organizational intelligence, work
competence, and social intelligence (Caballero et al., 2011). Based on the description above,it can be concluded that indicators of job readiness include personal characteristics,
organizational skills, work skills, and social skills.

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Communication Skills
One of the top job skills students need to have is communication skills. Communication
comes from the Latin word communis which means making equal. Communication is thedelivery of messages that aim to create the same perception or meaning between thecommunicator and the communicant (Kurniadi, W., & Mahaputra, 2021).
Communication is a process in which a person or several people, groups, organizations, andcommunities create and use the information to connect with the environment and otherpeople (Brent D. et al., 2013). Communication that runs effectively in the organization will
make it easier for everyone to carry out the tasks for which they are responsible. Good
communication within an organization can make it easier to achieve organizational goals(Mahbob et al., 2019).
Communication is a process of transferring information, ideas, and understanding from one
person to another in the hope that the other person can interpret it according to the intended
purpose (Velentzas & Broni, 2014). Communication is the process of conveying informationfrom one party, whether an individual, group or organization as a sender to another party as areceiver to understand and open up opportunities to respond to the sender (Prabavathi &Nagasubramani, 2014). Communication is the process of transferring understanding in theform of ideas or information from one person to another (Savolainen, 2017).
Based on the description above, it can be concluded that communication skills are the ability
to convey information, ideas, or material to others. Good communication skills can support
the achievement of organizational goals.
There are five aspects of communication, namely: (1) representation, (2) listening, (3)reading, (4) discussion, and (5) writing (Baroody, 1993). Communication consists of oral andwritten communication (Prabavathi & Nagasubramani, 2014). The first scale ofcommunication skills is writing ability, the second is speaking ability, the third is nonverbal
communication ability and fourth is the listening ability (Richard, 2009).
One of the components of work readiness is communication, in a work situation a teacher isrequired to be able to communicate well during the teaching process in class, where teachers
who can deliver material well can be understood by their students (Brady, 2010). The
communication scale consists of openness, empathy, support, positive attitude, similarity,
confidence, and closeness (Schiau, 2016).
There is a positive and significant influence between communication on employee
performance (Hee, O. C. et al., 2019). The first element of communication skill is writing
ability, the second is speaking ability, the third is nonverbal communication ability and thefourth is the listening ability (Richard, 2009).
Communication skills consist of oral communication (presentations, discussions), written
communication (reporting, compiling materials), listening (verbal reception andunderstanding), visual communication (non-verbal, pictures, icons), interdisciplinary
communication, and intercultural communication. The comparison of each communication
skill is 10% writing, 15% reading, 30% talking, and 45% listening (Marc J. Riemer, 2007).

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Based on the description above, it can be concluded that the indicators of communication
skills are oral communication, written communication, listening skills, and visualcommunication.
Based on the description above, it is necessary to conduct research on the effect ofcommunication skills and teamwork skills on the work readiness of vocational students in thefield of building information design and modeling expertise (DPIB) in the city of Surabaya.
The purpose of this research is as follows. (1) To analyze the communication skills possessedby SMK students in the field of building engineering; (2) To analyze the effect ofcommunication skills on work readiness of SMK students in the field of building engineering.
Methodology
This research is a correlational study with an ex post facto research approach. The variablesof this study are communication skills (X) as the independent variable, and job readiness (Y)as the dependent variable. Details of variables and indicators can be seen in Table.1.

No
1

2

Table 1. Research variables and indicators
Variables
Indicators
Communication Skills (X)
1. Oral communication skills
2. Written communication skills
3. Listening skills
4. Visual communication skills
Work Readiness (Y)
1. Personal characteristics
2. Oganisational acumen
3. Work competence
4. Social intelligence

The research location is in the city of Surabaya, Indonesia. The research subjects were class
XII students of the State Vocational High School (SMKN) in the Field of Building Modelingand Information Design Expertise (DPIB). The Vocational Schools consist of SMKN 2
Surabaya, SMKN 3 Surabaya, and SMKN 7 Surabaya. The total population is 187 students.
The sample size is calculated based on the solving formula so that a total sample of 128
students is obtained. Details of the total population can be seen in Table 2.
Table 2. Details of the total research population
Number ofNo
Schoolstudents
1 SMKN 2 Surabaya
86
2 SMKN 3 Surabaya
67
3 SMKN 7 Surabaya
34
Total
187
The sample is part of the population that has the same characteristics. The sample size issearched using the Slovin formula, which is as follows.
n = N 2 ; …………………..(1)1 + Ne

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Information:
N = Total Populationn = Number of Samples
e = Percent leeway for inaccuracies = 5%
n=
=
=

187
1 + 187 x 0,0025
187
1,4925
128

Data collection using a questionnaire. The procedure of this research is through the
preparation stage, the implementation stage, and the research data analysis stage. The
Preparatory Stage consists of initial observations and preparation of research proposals andarranging research permits. The Implementation Phase consists of (1) Conducting a literature
study on work readiness, communication skills, and teamwork skills. (2) Developing
instruments on work readiness, communication skills, and teamwork skills. (3) Collect dataon work readiness, communication skills, and teamwork skills. (4) Tabulating data on work
readiness, communication skills, and teamwork skills. The Research Results Data Analysis
Phase was carried out by conducting a path analysis between work readiness, communication
skills, and teamwork skills using SmartPLS.
Result and Discussion
Communication Skills
Communication skills are the ability to convey information, ideas, or material to others. Good
communication skills can support the achievement of organizational goals. The ability tocommunicate in this study was measured by four indicators, namely oral communication
skills, written communication skills, listening skills, and visual communication skills. The
results of respondents' answers to the variable ability to communicate can be seen in Figure 1.
3.20
3.10

Rerata skor

3.00
2.90

2.80
2.70
2.60
2.50
2.40
2.30
CS1 CS2 CS3 CS4 CS5 CS6 CS7 CS8 CS9 CS10 CS11 CS12 CS13 CS14
Indikator

Figure 1. Average Indicator Score on Communication Skills Variable
Based on Figure 1, the average score data for each indicator on the communication variable isobtained. The highest average score is in CS 7 and CS 8, namely writing skills with good and

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correct grammar, and skills in using applications/programs used for writing. The lowest
average score is on CS2 and CS 3, namely skills in speaking well in public, and skills inmaking interesting presentations. Comparison of the scores of each communication skill canbe seen in Figure 2.
3.10
3.04

3.05
3.00

Score

2.95

2.90

2.88

2.88

Listening skills

Visual communication skills

2.84

2.85
2.80
2.75
2.70

Oral communication skills

Written communication
skillsIndicator

Figure 2. Comparison of the Average Scores of Communication Skills
Based on Figure 2 it is found that written communication gets the highest score.
Communication skills that get the second highest score are listening skills and visualcommunication skills. The lowest score is on oral skills.
Work ReadinessWork readiness is the condition of someone who has the readiness to carry out a job withgood results. Job readiness shows a mental attitude and skills that are ready to work.
Readiness for work in this study was measured by four indicators, namely personal
characteristics, organizational acumen, work competence, and social intelligence. The resultsof respondents' answers to the variable job readiness can be seen in Figure 3.
4.00
3.50
3.00
Score

2.50
2.00

1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00

Indicator

Figure 3. Average Score of Indicators on Work Readiness Variable

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Based on Figure 3, the average score data for each indicator on the work readiness variable isobtained. The highest average score is WR 11 and WR 13, namely being able to work
responsibly, and being able to accept differences of opinion from colleagues. The lowest
average scores are WR 1 and WR 2, namely being able to work under pressure, and being
able to work with short time limits. Comparison of the scores of each component of work
readiness can be seen in Figure 4.
3.50
3.39

3.40

3.30

3.20
3.13
3.10
Score

3.06

3.00

2.91
2.90

2.80

2.70

2.60
personal characteristics

organisational acumen

work competencesocial intelligence

Indicator

Figure 4. Comparison of the average score of the work readiness component
Based on Figure 4, it is found that the ability to organize gets the highest score. Then those
who get the second highest score are personal characteristics, after that social skills. The
lowest score is on work skills.
The influence of communication skills on the work readiness of vocational students
The results of data analysis showed that the influence of X on Y variables can be seen in
Table 3 and the R square value in Table 4.

X -> Y

Table 3. The value of direct influence between variables
Original
Standard
SampleT Statistics
P
SampleDeviation
Mean (M)(|O/STDEV|) Values(O)(STDEV)
0.579
0.587
0.078
7.426
0.000

Y

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Table 4. R Square
R Square
R Square Adjusted
0.336
0.324

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Based on Table 1, it is found that the ability to communicate (X) has a positive effect of
0.579 on work readiness (Y). P value of 0.000 <0.05 means significant. So it can beconcluded that there is a positive and significant influence of the ability to communicate on
the work readiness of vocational students in the field of Building Information Modeling and
Design (DPIB) expertise. The path coefficient image of communication skills on work
readiness can be seen in Figure 5.

Figure 5. Path coefficient X to Y
Communication skills have a positive influence on the work readiness of vocational students.
So, to increase the work readiness of vocational students, it is necessary to improve theircommunication skills.
Communication needs to get serious attention in job readiness in the present and the future.
Communication that develops with information technology will be an important factor inwork (Bowen & Pennaforte, 2017). Professional communication is a general skill needed byworkers (Smith et al., 2014).
The communication skills of building engineering vocational school students with the highest
scores are writing skills with good and correct grammar, and skills in using
applications/programs used for writing, while the communication skills with the lowest
scores are skills in speaking well in public, and skills make an interesting presentation. Thisshows that they have good skills in written communication, but are weak in oral
communication. So that skills in communication, especially oral communication of SMK
students in the field of building engineering need to be improved to be able to improve theirwork readiness.
Conclusion
Based on the results and discussion above, it can be concluded as follows. (1) The students'
communication skills from the highest to the lowest consist of written communication skills,

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listening skills, visual communication skills, and oral communication skills; (2)Communication skills have a positive influence on the work readiness of vocational students.
So, to increase the work readiness of vocational students, it is necessary to improve theircommunication skills.

Acknowledgements
Thank you to Universitas Negeri Surabaya for supporting the implementation of thisresearch.

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Contact email: wahyumulyono@unesa.ac.id

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A Study on Students' Attitudes Towards Text Crowding on Multilingual Educational Slides
Laksmira K. Adhani, Kyushu University, Japan
Gerard B. Remijn, Kyushu-University, JapanThe Southeast Asian Conference on Education 2023
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Abstract
The need for multilingual educational materials in higher education is growing rapidly. It is
still largely unclear, however, whether students consider extra-textual information, i.e., thesame information in two or more languages, as a distraction or an increase in cognitive loador not. Recent research on multilingual subtitles in videos has shown that viewers tend toallocate their visual attention towards subtitles in their native (L1) language, while subtitles intheir second language (L2) did not add any cognitive load. So far, however, it is still
unknown whether these findings also relate to multilingual educational slides. In the present
research we investigated students' attitudes towards this issue, particularly focusing on how
they evaluated slides with multiple languages. We asked 25 Japanese and 25 Indonesianstudents to provide their opinions about unilingual, bilingual, and trilingual educational slides,with the same content provided in Japanese, Bahasa Indonesia, and English. The amount ofcontent and the layout of the slides were systematically varied, and rating scales were used toobtain students' evaluations. The main findings showed that students had significantly moretrouble choosing important information, and were more distracted by the crowded layout anddifferent text fonts on multilingual slides as compared to unilingual slides. However, when
the layout of the multilingual slides was such that the information was separated according tolanguage, no such trend occurred. The same results were obtained for both student groups,
clearly implying that educators can use multilingual slides, provided they visually group
information separately for each language.
Keywords: Educational Slides, Multilingual, Text Crowding, Information Distraction,
Cognitive Load

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Introduction
There is an increasing demand to use more than one language on slide presentations (e.g.,PowerPoint slides) for higher education. Despite its popularity, the advantage of the use ofslides is not convincingly proven (Baker et al., 2018). For example, information overload(“cognitive overload”) can occur if the amount of information or text on a slide and thepresentation time are not managed well (Adamov, Olic & Segedinac, 2012). Related to this is
text crowding, which is naturally more likely to occur when educational material is presented
in two or more languages. Hence, several variables need to be taken into account when
designing a slide, in particular with multiple languages, such as the amount and the use of
text (e.g., fonts, size) and the slide layout (e.g., the use of bullet points, spacing) (Marchack,2002; Durso et al., 2011).
Outside the field of education, several studies have been performed on the perception ofmaterials in multiple languages. In research about cognitive load for video subtitles,
unilingual and bilingual subtitle conditions were compared, comprising of the viewe's native(L1) language (Chinese) and non-native (L2) language (English) (Liao, Kruger & Doherty,2020). First, compared with having no subtitles, bilingual subtitles were considered beneficial
for content comprehension. More importantly, the bilingual subtitle condition did not add any
cognitive load compared to the monolingual subtitle condition. One reason for this might bethat the subtitles were supporting the spoken text and the visual (motion) information in thevideos. It is thus unclear whether adding a language to an educational slide will give the same
result, i.e., will not lead to increased cognitive load.
Bilingual or multilingual texts have also been used for other specific communication
purposes, such as for road signs, advertisements, safety instructions, and even newspapers(Sebba, 2012). Comparative research has shown that the layout structure of bilingualmaterials is important. For example, bilingual newspaper articles can have a mixed layout for
two languages, in which information is presented in alternating lines for each language. The
organization of such a mixed text can make written information look more complex or
crowded, which ideally should be avoided. It is likely that the same applies to educationalslides.
So far, little is known about the perception of multilingual educational slides from theperspective of the most important recipients of the information on the slides: students. In thepresent research, we therefore used rating scales to investigate students' attitudes towards text
crowding and information distraction (e.g., cognitive overload) on multilingual educationalslides, consisting of the same information in Japanese, and/or Bahasa Indonesia, and/or
English. The students consisted of a group of native speakers of Japanese and a group ofnative speakers of Bahasa Indonesia. Both groups had English as their second language.
MethodParticipants: Fifty participants were employed, divided into 25 Indonesian students (L1:
Bahasa Indonesia) and 25 Japanese students (L1: Japanese). All of them were enrolled atuniversities in Japan. They were 7 undergraduate and 43 post-graduate students (22 Masterand 21 Doctoral students), 32 men and 18 women. Both groups had English as L2. All
students provided informed, written consent as to their participation in the study. The
procedures were pre-approved by the Ethics Committee of Kyushu University, Japan.

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Materials: The materials consisted of education slides, with information about “How to doapartment searching in Japan”. The slides were varied according to a factorial design,
dividing them into six sets. The first factor was language (3 levels): slides were unilingual,bilingual, or trilingual, providing the same information in Japanese, Bahasa Indonesia, andEnglish. The second factor was layout (2 levels): mixed and separated layouts. In the mixed
layout, information in multiple languages was given line-by-line, alternating for eachlanguage. In the separated layout, information in multiple languages was given in separate
sections, divided according to language. The slides were presented to the students using a
MacBook M1 Pro.
Procedure: The task of the participants was to read a set of the slides and answer a few
statements after each set (for details see below) using a five-point Likert scale. They had tochoose the answer from “Strongly disagree” to “Strongly agree”, as scored from 1 to 5 (1=“Strongly disagree”, 2= “Disagree”, 3=“Neutral”, 4=“Agree”, 5=“Strongly agree”). A total of
40 slides were given to the participants within an unspecified time and the order of the six
sets of slides was pseudo-randomized, in a counterbalanced way.
In more detail, this study was conducted with the following steps. First, the purpose and theprocedure of the survey were explained, and the participant was asked to provide written
informed consent. Following this, they were given instructions in English. The participants
were required to complete a questionnaire regarding personal information (name, age,nationality, study program, university, and language skills) by using online Google forms,
which could be accessed by scanning a QR-code on the instruction paper through theirsmartphone. To start the survey, they were then required to look at the laptop screen with aviewing distance of 60 cm. Then they pressed a button on the laptop keyboard and the first of
the six sets of slides was presented. For each slide that had been read, they were required tocontinue to the next slide by pressing the "next" button on the laptop keyboard. After they
had finished reading a set of slides, they evaluated the slides using statements. The statements
were as follows:
1) There is so much information available that I have trouble choosing what is important andwhat is not.
2) I get distracted by the crowded layout of the text.
3) I get distracted by the (different) text fonts used in the slides.
4) I get distracted by information in more than one language.
In the bilingual and trilingual sections, we asked the participant to answer another question:
5) “Which language do you prefer to read first on the presentation slides?”. They had tochoose the answer between “English”, “Bahasa Indonesia”, or “Japanese.”
When the participant was done with the task for the first set of slides, then they had to answer
the statements for the second set of slides that appeared on the screen by scanning another
QR-code. This continued until the sixth set was completed. Upon completion of theexperiment, each participant was given a gift-card of 2000 Japanese yen as honorarium.
Results
The results are illustrated in Figures 1 to 4. The figure captions show the statements to which
the participants responded. To begin with, we tested the normality and consistency of the

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participants' evaluations for the six sets of slides. The results indicated a good internalconsistency, in that the Cronbach α exceeded 0.8 (Cohen, 1988; Field, 2009), namely
Cronbach' α = 0.870. We subjected the data to the normality test for answers to eachstatement for the six sets of slides. Shapiro-Wilk tests showed that for each statement theevaluations were not normally distributed (p<.001), which could be expected with a 5-point
rating scale. Nevertheless, since data were obtained from a sufficient amount of participants(n=50), and in order to test the cause-and-effect relationship of students' evaluations whenreading the slides based on the factors (language and layout), a repeated-measures two-way
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was performed. The test was run over the participants'
responses for the four statements (1-4, see above), using SPSS Statistics software (SPSS,
version 23).
First, with regard to the first factor of language (3 levels; unilingual, bilingual, and trilingual),
the students' evaluation scores for statements 1, 2, and 4 were significantly higher for
multilingual slides (bi- and trilingual slides) than for unilingual slides [Figure 1:
F(2,96)=14.533, p<0.001***, 𝜂2=0.232; Figure 2: F (2,96)=26.667, p<0.001***, 𝜂2=0.357;
and Figure 4: F(2,96)=32.803, p<0.001***, 𝜂2=0.406]. Meanwhile, for statement 3 thestudents' evaluation scores were significantly higher for trilingual than for unilingual slides[Figure 3: F(2,96)=6.962, p<0.05*, 𝜂2=0.127]. Together, this main effect of language implies
that the students had more difficulty processing the bilingual and trilingual slides than theunilingual slides.
Second, regarding the second factor of layout (2 levels; mixed and separated), significantly
higher evaluations were given overall to mixed sections than to separate sections for all thestatements, implying more difficulty processing mixed layouts [Figure 1: F(1,48)=25.337,
p<0.001***, 𝜂2=0.345; Figure 2: F(1,48)=20.585, p<0.001***, 𝜂2=0.300; Figure 3:
F(1,48)=10.573, p<0.05*, 𝜂2=0.181; Figure 4: F(1,48)=41.149, p<0.001***, 𝜂2=0.462].
With the significant main effects of language and layout, there was also a significant
interaction effect. For multilingual slides in a mixed layout, as compared to unilingual slides,
students had significantly more trouble choosing the important information [Figure 1;
F(2,96)=15.440, p<0.001***, 𝜂2=0.243], were more distracted by the crowded layout [Figure2; F(2,96)=16.382, p<0.001***, 𝜂2=0.254], were more distracted by having more than one
text font [Figure 3; F(2,96)=6.065, p<0.05*, 𝜂2=0.112], and were more distracted byinformation in more than one language [Figure 4; F(2,96)=23.062, p<0.001***, 𝜂2=0.325].
However, when multilingual slides had a separated layout, this was not the case.
Finally, no significant difference was found between student groups for all four statements[Figure 1: F (1,48)=2.739, p=.104, 𝜂2=0.054; Figure 2: F(1,48)=0.303, p=0.584, 𝜂2=0.006;
Figure 3: F(1,48)=.037, p=0.849, 𝜂2=0.001; and Figure 4: F(1,48)=1.820, p=0.184, 𝜂2=0.037].
Both student groups (Indonesian and Japanese students) thus shared similar opinions about
the multilingual educational slides.

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Indonesian (n=25)
Japanese (n=25)
Strongly agree***

Evaluation

Agree

NeutralDisagreeStrongly disagree
Unilingual
Original

Unilingual
SpacedBilingual
Bilingual
Mixed
Separated
Type of slides

Trilingual
Mixed

Trilingual
Separated

Figure 1: “On the educational presentation slides, there is so much information available that
“On the educational presentation slides, there is so much information available that I
I Statement:
have trouble
choosing what is important and what is not” (n=50).
have trouble choosing what is important and what is not” (n=50).
Indonesian (n=25)
Japanese (n=25)
Strongly agree***

Evaluation

Agree
NeutralDisagreeStrongly disagree
Unilingual
Original

Unilingual
SpacedBilingual
Bilingual
Mixed
Separated
Type of slides

Trilingual
Mixed

Figure 2: “On the educational presentation slides, I get distracted by

Trilingual
Separated

Statement: “On thethe
educationalpresentation
I get distracted
crowdedlayout ofslides,
the text”(n=50).by the crowded layout of the text” (n=50).

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Indonesian (n=25)
Japanese (n=25)
Strongly agree*

Evaluation

Agree
NeutralDisagreeStrongly disagree
Unilingual
Original

Unilingual
SpacedBilingual
Bilingual
Mixed
Separated
Type of slides

Trilingual
Mixed

Trilingual
Separated

Figure 3: “On the educational presentation slides, I get distracted by the (different) text fontsStatement: “On the educational presentation slides, I get distracted by the (different)
usedin theslides”(n=50).
text fonts
usedin the slides”(n=50).

Figure 4: “On the educational presentation slides, I get distracted by the information in morethan one language” (n=50).
Regarding the last question “Which language do you prefer to read first on the presentation
slides?”, for the bilingual and trilingual slides, we found that the preferences varied between
both student groups. Quite a lot of Indonesian students (10-15 out of 25) read the information
in English first, followed by their native language of Bahasa Indonesia. However, the vast
majority of Japanese students (21-23 out of 25) would read the information first in theirnative language and read English as their second preference.
Conclusion
From this study, we can conclude that regardless of which language students preferred to readfirst, they “agree” that slides with multilingual mixed layouts caused difficulties in choosing
the important information and caused more distractions due to text crowding, different fonts,
and having multiple languages. Students do not have these difficulties with multilingual

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educational slides with a separated layout. If no visual information is given other than text,
educators thus can use multilingual slides, provided they visually group information
separately for each language. The information on the slides used here was deliberately heldvery general (apartment searching), so as not to have educational background or level
influence the results, but we suggest that future research needs to confirm whether the resultof this study applies to all subjects taught via educational slides.
We had several limitations in our study. First, referring to the question of which language
students tended to read first, we may assume that some read the language according to thefamiliarity and similarity of the characters (i.e., alphabetic). Japanese characters (including
kanji characters, hiragana, and katakana) are physically very different from the alphabet, sothey are easily distinguishable at first glance. Nevertheless, the participants preferred theseparated layout in multilingual slides. Second, the survey was self-paced, and we do notknow how much time they spent reading each slide, and where and how long they glanced ata particular line or word. Third, this study was not done in a well-controlled environment, inthat lighting conditions were different for the two student groups. Therefore, as a next step,
we would like to investigate student gaze behavior while reading the slides in an eye-tracking
experiment, in a well-controlled environment.
Acknowledgements
The authors want to say thanks for the help from Sumarni Adi (Ms), Dwi Kurnia Basuki (Mr),and Taufik Sugian Sumardi (Mr) for finding participants at Tokyo Metropolitan University(TMU) Hino and Minami-Osawa Campus. The authors also would like to thank all
Indonesian and Japanese students from TMU and Kyushu University who were willing toparticipate.
This research was supported by a grant from the Japan science and Technology Agency (JST)Next Generation Researcher Challenging Research Program JPJSP2136.

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References
Adamov, J., Olic, S., & Segedinac, M. (2012). Information Overload in Powerpoint
Presentations. Journal of Information Technology, Education Development andTeaching Methods of Technical and Natural Sciences, 2(1), 25-31.
Baker, J., Goodboy, A., Bowman N., & Wright, A. (2018). Does teaching with PowerPoint
increase students' learning? A Meta-analysis. Journal of Computers and Education,
126, 376-387.
Cohen, J. (1998) Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences. (2nd ed.). Hillsdale: L.
Erlbaum.
Durso, F., Pop, V., Burnett, J., & Stearman, E. (2011). Evidence-based human factors
guidelines for PowerPoint presentations. Journal of Ergonomics in Design, 19(3), 4-8.
Field, A. (2009). Discovering Statistics Using SPSS. (3rd ed.). London: Sage Publications Ltd.
Liao, S., Kruger, J., & Doherty, S. (2020). The impact of monolingual and bilingual subtitles
on visual attention, cognitive load, and comprehension. Journal of Specialised
Translation, 33, 70-98.
Marchack, C. B. (2002). Guidelines for digital scientific presentations. Journal of Prosthetic
Dentistry, 88(6), 649-653.
Sebba, M. (2012). Multilingualism in written discourse: An approach to the analysis ofmultilingual texts. Journal of Bilingualism, 17 (1), 97-118.
Contact email: adhani.laksmira.521@s.kyushu-u.ac.jp

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The Effect of Spatial Intelligence and Learning Management on the Learning Outcomesof Mechanical Engineering Students in the Mechanical Drawing Course
Ali Hasbi Ramadani, Universitas Negeri Surabaya, Indonesia
Ekohariadi, Universitas Negeri Surabaya, Indonesia
Lilik Anifah, Universitas Negeri Surabaya, Indonesia
Bambang Suprianto, Universitas Negeri Surabaya, Indonesia
I Gusti Putu Asto Buditjahjanto, Universitas Negeri Surabaya, Indonesia
Heru Arizal, Universitas Negeri Surabaya, Indonesia
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Abstract
The workforce needed in the industrial revolution era 4.0 is not only skilled at operatingmachines (machine operators), more than that it is required to have a better understanding ofAI (Artificial Intelligence) which includes the latest machines. backed by skills. design, theachievement of student design competence from the learning process must be supported byinnate intelligence and good learning implementation. This innate intelligence is related tospatial intelligence while the implementation of learning must be supported by good learning
management. So it is necessary to do research related to the factors that can support student
design learning outcomes. This study aims to analyze the effect of spatial intelligence andlearning management on the learning outcomes of students majoring in mechanicalengineering who program a machine drawing course, which consists of 2 independent
variables (Spatial Intelligence and Learning Management), and 1 dependent variable(Learning Outcomes). This study involved 61 students who programmed a machine drawing
course for the 2022 school year. Data analysis used multiple linear regression using the
SmartPLS application. The results showed that: 1) Student spatial intelligence has an
influence on changes in student drawing learning outcomes, while the contribution of spatialintelligence to image learning outcomes is 59%. 20 Good learning management by educators
has an influence on changes in student drawing learning outcomes, while the management
contribution learning on image learning outcomes by 26.8%. 3) Spatial intelligence andlearning management affect picture learning outcomes by 58.3% and 41.7% are influenced
by other variables.
Keywords: Spatial Intelligence, Learning Management, Learning Outcomes

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INTRODUCTION
Vocational school students have the goal of producing graduates who are ready to work. The
problem that occurs is the high rate of open unemployment (TPT) for vocational school(SMK) graduates. Based on data from the national statistical center (BPS) for vocational
graduates, TPT ranks second after SMA, namely 2,111,338 in August 2021. TPT for SMK
graduates in East Java Province occupies the top position, namely 11.89% in 2020. This isThis can happen because of the gap between school and industry in the 21st century (Fildzah
et al., 2021).
The 21st century is called the information century, the century of information technology,
globalization, industrial revolution 4.0, etc. This century will see changes that are very fastand difficult to predict in all areas of life, including education (Lövdén et al., 2020). Changes
that take place very quickly can provide opportunities if they can be put to good use, but they
can also be disastrous if they are not anticipated in a systematic, structured and measurable
manner.
This change triggers changes in the areas of skills needed by the world of work. To predict
the skills needed will be very difficult because it depends on the field and sub-occupation thatis the focus of the skill. The 21st century is the era of the industrial revolution 4.0 whichraises the need for new types of skills that did not exist before, as well as eliminating skills
that are no longer relevant (Wijaya et al., 2016).
The industrial revolution 4.0 no longer requires a workforce that is only skilled at operatingmachines (machine operators), more than that, of course, they are required to have a better
understanding of AI (Artificial Intelligence) which includes the latest machines. In addition,(1) Production processes no longer use pure mechanisms (2) Manual production machines
have been abandoned and are no longer produced, (3) All manufacturing technologies havebegun to use numerical control (4) Numerical control has been adopted from the design.
which is very closely related to this, especially the Mechanical Engineering (manufacturing)department, is students' design skills, this is because design is the initial stage of the
manufacturing process before the production process. So that this design skill must be owned
by everyone (labor) in the business world and the industrial world who concentrate in thefield of production (manufacturing).
Each workforce (person) has its own intelligence according to passion, (Gardner, 1983)
formulates eight types of intelligence, which humans possess, namely: (1) linguistic
intelligence, (2) logical-mathematical intelligence, (3) spatial intelligence, (4) musicalintelligence (5) kinesthetic intelligence (6) interpersonal intelligence (7) intrapersonal
intelligence (8 ) natural intelligence (Rahma Elvira Tanjung, 2019).
Based on several theories and initial observations that have been carried out, the intelligencethat most supports students in producing good drawing skills is: Spatial Intelligence. Spatialintelligence can be defined as the ability to recognize and describe objects or patterns
perceived by the brain (Xie et al., 2020). Yanuarita (Yanuarita, 2014), explained thatregarding the spatial visual ability test in general it aims to measure the power of visual logic,
spatial imagination, accuracy and thoroughness of a person presented in the form or abstract
symbols. There are three dimensional aspects in spatial intelligence, namely spatial relation,
spatial orientation, and spatial visualization (Harle & Towns, 2011). In addition, Lohman alsosuggested the dimensions of spatial intelligence with three aspects, namely spatial

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orientation, spatial relations, and spatial visualization (Lohman, 1993). An explanation of thedimensions of spatial intelligence, namely as follows. 1) Image Orientation (Spatial
Orientation), 2) Image Relationship (Spatial Relation), 3) Image Visualization (Spatial
Visualization).
In the learning process of drawing courses in certain situations students are required to beable to solve problems and complete assignments or projects, so that good learning
management support is needed. The essence of learning management is the effective andefficient management and implementation of learning tasks through the process of planning,organizing, implementing, assessing and evaluating to achieve the desired learning objectives(Gemnafle & Batlolona, 2021), and this opinion is supported by opinion (Austin & Rust,
2015; Lohman, 1993).
The goal of learning is to induce changes in the behavior or competence of students afterparticipating in learning activities, to achieve changes in the behavior or competence ofstudents after participating in learning activities, these goals are formulated in the form ofspecial statements. or descriptions. This means that every curriculum must be prepared inwriting (written plan) so that everything can be carried out properly with regard to theplanning, implementation and evaluation of learning which will result in student learning
outcomes as expected.
Learning management is very important to improve teaching and learning. Therefore, there isa need for a teacher's role in leading or directing learning, starting with planning, organizing,
implementing and evaluating (Saifulloh & Darwis, 2020). With good learning management
and adapted to the character of students who will take part in the learning process will
improve learning outcomes from students.
Learning outcomes are changes in people's behavior that can be observed and measured in
the form of knowledge, attitudes and skills. These changes can be interpreted as better growthand development than before, and the subconscious becomes conscious (Lian et al., 2018).
Understanding learning outcomes is the process of determining the value of student learning
through assessment activities or measuring learning outcomes. Based on the above
understanding, the learning outcomes can indicate that the main goal is to determine thesuccess of students after participating in learning activities, where the level of success isindicated by letters or words according to a scale or symbols, (Mashuri & Hasanah, 2021).
Learning outcomes in machine drawing courses are the level of students' changes obtained
both cognitively, affectively, and psychomotorically, which are grouped into a single unit indrawing skills. The drawing skills possessed by students in the machine drawing class vary,
this is due to the different potential and basic intelligence possessed by students.
Objects that need to be considered to support future development are Drawing Skills, so inthis case the researcher will describe how the Influence of Spatial Intelligence, Learning
Management, on the Drawing Skills of students of the Department of MechanicalEngineering Education, State University of Surabaya in machine drawing courses.

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METHOD
Types of Research
In this study, an ex post facto quantitative approach was used survey method (Kunrath et al.,2020). Furthermore, data and facts collected from the constructs of spatial intelligence,learning management, and learning outcome will be tested according to the design below.
SPATIALINTELLIGENCELEARNING
OUTCOMELEARNING
MANAGEMENT

Figure 1. Conceptual Framework
Participants
The population in this study were all mechanical engineering education students who
programmed production machine drawing courses, totaling 61. Because the population issmall, the sampling technique used in this study is a census type, so that the entire populationis the sample of this study.
Research Instrument
To obtain data regarding the constructs to be tested, data collection instruments wereprepared in the form of questionnaires and tests. For the efficiency of questionnaires and tests
distributed with the help of applications such as Google Forms. The test was used to measure
students' constructs of spatial intelligence and drawing skills while the questionnaire wasused to measure students' constructs of creativity, design interest, and spatial intelligence.
The instruments to be used will be prepared in advance according to the rules of instrument
preparation, namely: construct validity, content validity, face validity, and followed by item
validity to see the validity and reliability of the instruments to be compiled. For more details
regarding the description of the instrument in each construct, it can be seen in the following
table:
Table 1. Instrument grid
No
Variable
Indicator
Data Collection
1 Spatial Intelligence 1. Image classification.
Test
2. Object rotation
3. Relationship and logical consistency
4. Test arbitrary build
5. Symbolic reasoning
2 Learning
1. Learning Planning
Questionnaire
Management
2. Implementation of Learning
3. Learning Evaluation
3 Drawing learning 1. Psychomotor
Testoutcomes
2. Cognitive
3. Affective

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Data Analysis TechniquesThis study is a quantitative study, the analysis is SEM (Structural Equation Modeling), which
is suitable for multivariate statistical analysis. SEM data processing is built on measurement
models and structural models. SEM has three functions at the same time, namely to check thevalidity and reliability of the instrument (confirmatory factor analysis), to test the model ofthe relationship between variables (path analysis) and to obtain an appropriate model for
prediction (structural model analysis and regression analysis). A general model basicallyconsists of a measurement model and a structural or causal model. A measurement model isused to construct an estimate of validity and discriminant validity, while a structural model isa model that describes hypothesized relationships.
This analysis is used to determine the effect of spatial intelligence, Learning Management, on
student learning outcomes in the machining engineering expertise program. In testing the
hypothesis of the construct above, it will be analyzed how the influence of each construct isdirectly or indirectly influenced by each construct. The analysis test tool used uses SmartPLS
assistance.
RESULT
Measurement Model Analysis
The results of the descriptive data processing showed that all of the research respondents
were 100% male who were vocational school students. The instruments used in this study
were tested for validity first. Analysis of the test results was carried out using Aiken’(Aiken,
1980). The results of the analysis of each instrument are declared valid where the value of V
is above 0.4. All respondents were asked to fill out instruments that had been preparedpreviously. The results show data like the table below.
Table 2. Discriminant Validity Results Average Variance Extracted
Average Variance Extracted (AVE)
Spatial Intelligence
0,692
Learning Management
0,808
Learning Outcome
1,000
Based on the table above, the AVE of each construct/variable has a value above >0.5. These
results explain that the contract is able to explain more than half of the indicator variance foreach construct.

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S1
S2
S3
S4
S5
MP1
MP2
MP3
HB

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Table 3. Discriminant Validity Results Loading Factor
Spatial Intelligence
Adversity Intelligence Creativity
0,866
0,715
0,869
0,798
0,898
0,917
0,925
0,853
1

All indicators for each construct show a loading factor value above 0.7. These results statethat these indicators can represent each construct. From the two determinant validity, both
AVE and factor loading, it can be concluded that the data is valid.
After checking the validity, the next step is to check the data for reliability. The reliability
test in this study used Cronbach Alpha reliability. The data is said to be reliable if the
Cronbach Alpha value ≥ 0.5.
Table 4. Reliability Results Cronbach Alpha
Cronbach's Alpha
Spatial Intelligence
0,889
Learning Management
0,882
Learning Outcome
1,000
The value of each construct has a Cronbach Alpha value above 0.5. Spatial intelligence has avalue of 0.889, Learning Management of 0.882, and Learning Outcome of 1,000. This
indicates that the instruments in all research constructs are reliable. After the data has been
said to be valid and reliable, the data is analyzed to determine the effect of each research
construct, namely: spatial intelligence, Learning Management, and Learning Outcome. The
test results obtained data as shown in the following figure.

Figure 2. Model of the relationship between variables with each Loading Factor

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The results of data analysis obtained the influence of the variables of spatial intelligence andlearning management on learning outcome and the joint effect of the two independent
variables on the dependent variable. The results of the path analysis can be seen in Table 5
and the R square value in Table 6.

SpatialIntelligence ->Learning
OutcomeLearning
Management > Learning
OutcomeTable 5. Influence values between variables
Standard
Original
SampleDeviation
T Statistics
Sample (O) Mean (M)(|O/STDEV|)(STDEV)
0,590
0,588
0,096
6,130

Learning Outcome

0,268

0,276

0,108

Table 6. R Square Values
R Square
0,583

P Values
0,000

2,482

0,013

R Square Adjusted
0,569

Based on the table, the P value shows less than 0.05, so the influence between the variables issignificant. Each influence has a positive value. The following is an explanation of eachvariable.
Based on Table 6 it is found that spatial intelligence has a positive effect of 0.590 on learning
outcomes. P value of 0.000 <0.05 means significant. So it can be concluded that there is apositive and significant influence of spatial intelligence on the learning outcomes of students
majoring in mechanical engineering in machine drawing courses.
Based on Table 5 it is found that Learning Management has a positive influence of 0.268 on
learning outcomes. P value of 0.013 <0.05 means significant. So it can be concluded that
there is a positive and significant influence of learning management on the learning outcomesof students majoring in mechanical engineering in machine drawing courses.
Based on Table 6, the R Square value is 0.583 or 58.3%. So that Spatial Intelligence andLearning Management explain the learning outcomes of 58.3% and 41.7% are influenced byother variables. From these results indicate that the greatest influence is spatial intelligence.
So it can be concluded that good student image learning outcomes are owned by students
who have good spatial intelligence with the implementation of good learning management.
DISCUSSION
From the results of the research that has been carried out, the discussion will consist of 3
discussions, namely: 1) the relationship between spatial intelligence and learning outcomes,2) the relationship between learning management and learning outcomes, 3) spatialintelligence and learning management and learning outcomes.

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First, for the relationship between visual-spatial intelligence and student learning outcomes inmachine drawing courses. Based on Table 6 it is found that spatial intelligence has a positiveeffect of 0.590 on learning outcomes. P value of 0.000 <0.05 means significant. So it can beconcluded that there is a positive and significant influence of spatial intelligence on thelearning outcomes of students majoring in mechanical engineering in machine drawing
courses.
These results provide information that the higher the spatial intelligence possessed by
students, the higher the student learning outcomes in machine drawing courses. So it isexpected that students will have high spatial intelligence which will be marked by theincreased ability of students in drawing which supports their learning outcomes, especially inmachine drawing courses.
Research by (Wahyudi et al., 2018) shows that visual spatial intelligence can improve student
learning outcomes. Every aspect of integrated assessment complements each other so thatstudents can grow according to the skills they have. Activities undertaken to improve spatialintelligence can be selected according to the level of students. While analyzing the influenceof an object, it can be noted from the personal characteristics of students, their perceptions
come from individual differences and their tendencies (Yulfianti & Dewi, 2021). So it can beconcluded that spatial intelligence can be said to be well developed if students have thecapacity to manage images, shapes, and three-dimensional space with the main activity ofrecognizing shapes, colors, and spaces and creating images mentally and realistically so thatwith their spatial intelligence, students will exert ability and effort to achieve the maximum
expected machine drawing results. The relationship between spatial intelligence and student
learning outcomes in the machine drawing course has a positive and significant relationship,
as well as in the high category, so that spatial intelligence can be used as a determinant of thehigh achievement of student learning outcomes in the machine drawing course.
Second, Learning Management has a positive influence of 0.268 on learning outcomes. P
value of 0.013 <0.05 means significant. So it can be concluded that there is a positive andsignificant influence of learning management on the learning outcomes of students majoringin mechanical engineering in machine drawing courses. Education management experts argue
that every activity in a formal educational organization, of course, requires management
activities, including structuring, compiling and developing activities as well as
implementation of curriculum and learning in a school (Hardy et al., 2021). Therefore in
relation to learning management and learning programs, it includes activities that include
planning, implementation, and evaluation and follow-up (Al-Mamary, 2022) and teachers as
executors of learning management.
Different activities related to learning management that teachers do are planning learningmaterials, formulating learning objectives, organizing and developing learning materials,
creating harmonious communication with school leaders, directing lessons, presenting
learning materials, creating and maintaining constructive learning relationships andcommunicating with students, encourages and increases students' desire to learn and theevaluation and monitoring of students' learning outcomes. The aforementioned tasks andmanagement tasks must be performed by professional and experienced trainers. The successof the teacher in the optimal development of the cognitive, affective and psychomotor
development of students is also influenced by the quality and consistency of the performanceof learning management activities. It also requires trainers who are professional and have ahigh and consistent commitment to service. The relationship between learning management

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carried out by educators and student learning outcomes in the machine drawing course has apositive and significant relationship, as well as in the high category, so that learning
management can be used as a determinant of high student learning outcomes in the machinedrawing course.
Third, based on Table 7, the R Square value is 0.583. So that spatial intelligence and learning
management affect learning outcomes by 58.3% and 41.7% are influenced by other variables.
From these results indicate that the greatest influence is spatial intelligence. So it can beconcluded that good student image learning outcomes are owned by students who have good
spatial intelligence with the implementation of good learning management. This data
provides information that the higher the visual-spatial intelligence and the implementation oflearning with good management by educators, the higher the student learning outcomes inmachine drawing courses. However, table 6 shows that the student's spatial intelligencevariable has a higher contribution compared to the learning management variable.
CONCLUSION
From the results of the research that has been done regarding the hypotheses tested on eachconstruct, it can be concluded as follows:• Spatial Intelligence has a positive and significant direct effect on the learning outcomes ofimages. This shows that the level of students' spatial intelligence has an influence onchanges in student drawing learning outcomes, while the contribution of spatialintelligence to drawing learning outcomes is 59%.
• Learning Management has a direct positive and significant influence on student learning
outcomes. This shows that good learning management by educators has an influence onchanges in student image learning outcomes, while the contribution of learning
management to image learning outcomes is 26.8%.
• Spatial intelligence and learning management affect picture learning outcomes by 58.3%
and 41.7% are influenced by other variables, these other variables can be internal orexternal influences.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Alhamdulillah, praise be to Allah SWT, because thanks to the grace of Allah the researcher
was able to complete this article. On this occasion, the researcher would like to thank theparties who have supported and helped in the preparation of this research.

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Contact email: ali21007mhs@unesa.ac.id

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Student Satisfaction With the Internship Experience in the Graphic Design Industry
Nova Kristiana, Universitas Negeri Surabaya, Indonesia
Ekohariadi, Universitas Negeri Surabaya, Indonesia
Mochamad Cholik, Universitas Negeri Surabaya, Indonesia
Bambang Suprianto, Universitas Negeri Surabaya, Indonesia
I Gusti Putu Asto Buditjahjanto, Universitas Negeri Surabaya, Indonesia
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Abstract
The Merdeka Belajar Kampus Merdeka (MBKM) curriculum provides opportunities forstudents to study off-campus for 2 semesters. One of them is the internship program. The
Ministry of Education and Culture facilitates this internship program through an independent
campus. In addition to certified internships, the study program also provides regularinternship programs. The internship program was attended by students of the Class of 2019.
In this case, institutions and industries need to prepare maximum management to implement
industrial design internships. This research uses a quantitative descriptive method that aims toanalyze the extent of student satisfaction with internship programs in the Design Industry.
Data collection using questionnaires distributed online. The data were analyzed with the
SPSS 25 statistical program for validity tests and Alpha Cronbach for reliability. After
knowing, it is continued with the interpretation of the data. The respondents in this study
were Design students who had taken internships totaling 106 students. The student
satisfaction rate with the internship program is 17.9%. Students are satisfied with apercentage of 42.5%. The student is satisfied because he has gained valuable experience toimprove his competence so that he is ready to enter the world of work. Meanwhile, students
who were dissatisfied with the internship program got a score of 31.1% and those who weredissatisfied with the internship program got 8.5%. Students feel they are getting what theinternship is aiming for. The experience gained as well as the increase in soft skills and hardskills to improve their competence are used as a benchmark for student readiness to work.
Keywords: Graphic Design, Internship Experience, Student Satisfaction

iafor
The International Academic Forumwww.iafor.org

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Introduction
Merdeka Belajar Kampus Merdeka (MBKM) is one of the policies of the Ministry of
Education and Culture (Kemendikbud) which aims to prepare students to face social, cultural,
world of work changes and rapid technological developments, student competencies must be
prepared to be more in line with the needs of the times (Kemdikbud, 2020) . The Ministry of
Education and Culture issued a policy of Ministerial Regulation no. 3 of 2020, which gives
students the right to study 3 semesters outside their study program. Through this program,
there are opportunities for students to enrich and improve their insights and competencies in
the real world according to their interests and ideals. Internships facilitate the transition fromclass-based learning to the professional world, as well as increase discipline and selfconfidence (Shoenfelt et al., 2012) Internship itself is one of eight forms of learning, namely
learning exchanges, internships / work practices, teaching assistance in educational units,
research / research, humanitarian projects, entrepreneurial activities, independent projectstudies, village building (thematic real work lectures). Typically, successful internshipprograms depend on the efficiency and design of university internship programs, student
commitment to internships, and the industry's level of commitment to apprenticeshipprograms (Hardie et al., 2018). The three must coordinate and cooperate and communicate
with each other and commit.
MBKM aims to encourage the ability of students to master science in their field of expertise
which is useful for readiness to enter the world of work (Deni, et al, 2022). Internshipactivities for 1-2 semesters are activities that are enough to provide experience for students to
get direct learning in the world of work (experiential learning) for a certain period of time.
Students will get competencies in the form of hard skills (complex problem solving, skills,
analytical skills, etc.) and soft skills (communication, professional / work ethics, cooperationin groups, etc.) during the internship / work practice process. A successful internship from a
student's perspective means they are passionate, gain real work experience, align with theircareer choices, enhance their knowledge and experience, improve their communication skills
and build professional relationships (Hardie et al., 2018).
Abilities in the form of competencies, both soft skills and hard skills, must be possessed by
students. The MBKM program has a paradigm similar to the link and match policy (Kodrat,2021). Thus, the expected outcome of this program is the formation of student readiness(both soft skills and hard skills) that are relevant to the times, capable and skilled whenentering the world of work and can also act as new job creators. In addition, Kwan also
argues that by accepting students to do an internship program at his company, it can provide
opportunities for his company to recruit new employees so that the company can save moreon costs that should be incurred for recruiting (Kipreos & Dimitropoulos, 2016).
In the implementation of the internship, design students choose their own industry as theplace for their internship. Information on the student industry can be obtained from theinternet, independent campus platforms, recommendations from campuses, and networking
that has been established previously. The selection is based on the student's area of expertiseand portfolio, the distance between industry and residence, and work system information
obtained from previous students. However, in the implementation there are some industries
that do not understand the purpose of student internships. when students experience a greaterlevel of mentoring and receive better feedback from their supervisors, then they claim
internships are more successful (Hardie et al., 2018). Because this internship has a load of
20SKS, student involvement in the design industry is equivalent to the conversion of credits.

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The industry in which students intern is varied, ranging from design bureaus, design
consultants, to design agencies. The experience they get varies. Industry readiness in
accepting apprentices also varies. How are students satisfied with the design industry as aninternship? The purpose of this study is to describe student satisfaction with the internshipexperience in the design industry as an internship place.
MethodTypes of ResearchThis research uses quantitative descriptive method. The quantitative approach used is
descriptive statistical analysis to measure the degree of tendency of respondents' answers
through frequency distribution. This research is descriptive in nature which aims to analyze
the extent of student satisfaction with the MBKM internship program.
Participants
The respondents in this study were Design students of the Class of 2019 who programmed
internship courses in the city of Surabaya. The respondents were 106 students consisting of
59 men and 47 women.
Data Analysis Techniques
The data collection process in this study used questionnaires that were distributed to theresearch subjects online. The instrument in the form of a questionnaire consists of three typesof questions, namely first the respondent chose a likert scale of 1-4, the two respondents
concluded a satisfaction level between 0-10, and at the end the respondent gave input or
outlined the constraints on the MBKM internship program he was undergoing. The
instrument distributed to each student consists of 21 questions with groupings includinginternship motivation, atmosphere in the industry, and internship experience. The internship
Motivation Questionnaire consists of 3 indicators, namely the desire to succeed, theinternship drive and needs, hopes or aspirations for the future (Georgiou & Kyza, 2018). The
questions on the questionnaire represent each indicator. For example, I chose my own
internship program in the design industry. I hope to be recruited into an employee after theinternship is completed. The questionnaire on the atmosphere at the internship consists of 4
indicators, including industrial facilities, work atmosphere, cooperation between employees,
professionalism between superiors and subordinates (Lan, 2020). The question is for example
that the facilities in the industry are complete according to the design industry standards. In
the industry, I am free to ask anyone if they experience work problems. The internshipexperience questionnaire consists of 4 indicators, namely skills, solving various problems,
experience in the field of design and outside the field of design, self-confidence (Ocampo etal., 2020). The question type for example after taking an internship my ability did not
improve. After joining the internship program I am confident of being able to work in thedesign industry. Before the instrument is shared, validation is carried out first.
The validity of the content is the validity that questions the appropriateness between the itemsof the question and the description of the experience given. So a question is said to havecontent validity when measuring certain specific objectives that are parallel to the material orcontent of the lesson given (Arikunto, 2013). The validity of the content must include the

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entire content, meaning that the test domain must not only be comprehensive in its contents
but also contain relevant items for measurement purposes (Azwar, 2019).
The validity of the contents of an item can be proven using spss 25 statistical software. The
instrument assessment uses a likert scale with a scale of 1-4, then the validator gives anassessment. The results of the validation assessment of each instrument from the validator
were analyzed using spss 25 statistical software. According to ( SPSS (Statistical Package for
the Social Sciencen) has been introduced a long time ago from 1968 as one of the software
for statistical calculation banu tools by Norman H. Nie, C Hadlay, As well as Date Bent from
Stanford University.
The instrument's reliability test uses Cronbach's Alpha by calculating the reliability of thestudent's test. The reliability test of this research instrument uses an internal consistency
assessment method because respondents tried the test only once. Reliability is determined by
the value of the reliability coefficient (Azwar, 2019). This reliability test uses the spss 25
statisti k software program. Instrument reliability criteria when the reliability coefficient is atleast 0.6 (Bakar, 2018).
ResultValidity tests are useful for determining the validity or appropriateness of questionnaires usedby researchers in measuring and obtaining research data from respondents. The basis formaking pearson validity test decisions.
Comparator of rhitung values with rtabel:
1. If the value of rhitung > rtabel = valid
2. If the value of rhitung < rtabel = invalid
How to find the rtabel value with N=106 at 5% significance in the distribution of
statistical rtabel values, then a rtabel value of 0.195 is obtained.
View significance values (Sig.)
3. If the significance value < 0.05 = valid
4. If the significance value > 0.05 = invalid
No Item
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15

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0.510
0.308
0.456
0.393
0.222
0.359
0.278
0.386
0.391
0.510
0.340
0.318
0.456
0.386
0.308

Table 1. Validity Test Results
Rtabel (5%)
0.195
0.195
0.195
0.195
0.195
0.195
0.195
0.195
0.195
0.195
0.195
0.195
0.195
0.195
0.195

244

Information
VALID
VALID
VALID
VALID
VALID
VALID
VALID
VALID
VALID
VALID
VALID
VALID
VALID
VALID
VALID

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0.230
0.278
0.393
0.343
0.363

0.195
0.195
0.195
0.195
0.195

VALID
VALID
VALID
VALID
VALID

From the table of validity test results using spss 25 statistical software above, it can beconcluded that the questionnaire with 20 items has 100% validity.
The Reliability Test aims to see if the questionnaire has consistency if measurements madewith the questionnaire are performed repeatedly. The basis for making the Cronbach Alphareliability test decision according to questionnaire is said to be reliable if the cronbach alphavalue > 0.6.
Table 2. Reliability Test Results
Reliability Statistics
Cronbach's Alpha
N of Items
649
20
The results of the reliability test with 20 items and 106 respondents analyzed using the helpof spss 25 statistical software obtained an Alpha value of 0.649. Then the questionnaire canbe said to be reliable because the Cronbach Alpha value > 0.6.
Student motivation towards internship programs
The motivation to take part in the internship program is one of the factors that can makestudents able to make logical considerations, have the ability and willingness to choose theinternship field according to their competencies. The student tried to find out for himself thecompany he was going to as an internship. The higher the motivation to join the internshipprogram will cause the internship experience as a result of the internship to be high and viceversa, the lower the motivation to join the internship program will cause the experience to below. Internship motivation consists of 3 indicators, namely the desire to succeed, theinternship drive and needs, hopes or aspirations for the future (Georgiou & Kyza, 2018). The
motivation to take part in the internship program arises because of the interests and desires
from within the students. The questionnaire distributed to Design students by choosing thelocation of the internship, the results are as follows.

Internship area
Semarang
Solo
Sidoarjo
Kalimanta
JakartaSurabaya
0

10

20

30

40

Figure 1. internship location

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Apprentice students are scattered in various cities. From the data above, the percentage orderfrom the largest to the smallest is Surabaya at 5 3 students, Jakarta 24 students, Yogyakarta 6
students, Banyuwangi 5, Bandung and Sidoarjo 3, Mojokerto, Gresik and Solo 2,
Kalimantan, Bali and Semarang 1. The city of Surabaya is the biggest pill ihan for students
because in addition to the big city where there are many industries in the field of design,
student residences are close to the internship location, and most students already know theindustry.
In the implementation of technical internships in the post-pandemic, there are 3 types, namely
online internships with a remote system, offline coming to the office every working hour, andhybrid is a combination of online and offline.
Implementation of internships in the industry
Table 3. Student involvement in projects.
Valid
Frequency Percent Percent
Valid Not Satisfied
9
8.5
8.5
Less Satisfied
16
15.1
15.1
Satisfied
47
44.3
44.3
Very Satisfied
34
32.1
32.1
Total
106
100.0
100.0

Cumulative
Percent
8.5
23.6
67.9
100.0

In carrying out the internship program, students do not work alone. The ability tocommunicate as the basic capital in the ability to work together with the team. The data
above shows that 44.3% of students work together with the team in completing tasks/projects.
Usually the form of tasks / projects given cannot be completed independently, technicallyoffline or hybrid work. So there must be close coordination between members in the team.
This will hone students' soft skills in communicating, thinking critically, respecting theopinions of others, and adaptability in socializing. The independent campus policy
encourages the development of student entrepreneurial interests with appropriate learning
activity programs, reduces the problem of unemployment among intellectuals, and improves
the quality of graduates through mastery of academic knowledge, thinking skills,
management skills, and communication skills (Baharuddin, 2021). projects that are done
independently without having to cooperate, the type of independent project / task given is
instructional from the supervisor or supervisor. The technical work is usually online with aremote work system. So students deposit assignments with the supervisor and the supervisor
gives input on the tasks that have been done. Only a relationship is established between the
supervisor / supervisor and the student intern. With high motivation, smooth communication,
it will be easy to work as a team. Whether it's with a team of one major or from anothercampus. With cooperation, commitment, a sense of responsibility, respect for the opinions ofothers are automatically formed soft skills of student interns.

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Valid

Table 4. Students gain experience in the field of design.
Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent
Not Satisfied
3
2.8
2.8
2.8
Less Satisfied
17
16.0
16.0
18.9
Satisfied
51
48.1
48.1
67.0
Very Satisfied
35
33.0
33.0
100.0
Total
106
100.0
100.0

After participating in the implementation of the internship program, students gain experience
as an increase in competence in both soft skills and hard skills. This is in accordance with theconcept of an independent campus, namely internships can direct students to be more readyto work, work together, be creative and can benefit themselves and the community (Siregar,
et al, 2020). From the data above, student experience in the field of Design in accordancewith their competence has a percentage of satisfied 48.1% and very satisfied 33.0%.
Meanwhile, students who felt dissatisfied were found to be 16.0% and 2.8% dissatisfied. Thisshows that there is a lot of experience gained in the field of student design through thisinternship program. So it can be concluded that in the implementation of the internshipprogram, students get a lot of experience that is not obtained in lectures. The experience
gained can increase their competence and as capital to enter the world of work.
Table 5. Students gain experience outside the field of design.
Cumulative
Frequency Percent Valid Percent Percent
Valid Not Satisfied
12
11.3
11.3
11.3
Less Satisfied
16
15.1
15.1
26.4
Satisfied
47
44.3
44.3
70.8
Very Satisfied
31
29.2
29.2
100.0
Total
106
100.0
100.0
In table 6. Students gaining experience outside the design field had a satisfied percentage of
44.3% and very satisfied 29.2%. Meanwhile, students who felt dissatisfied were found to be
15.1% and 11.3% dissatisfied. This shows that there is a lot of experience outside the field of
Design gained by students through this internship program. So that students get new soft
skills and hard skills that vary by adapting to the industrial world. The experience gained can
improve their competence and as capital to enter the world of work.
Student satisfaction with the internship experience
Table 6. Students are satisfied with the internship program.
Valid
Cumulative
Frequency Percent Percent
Percent
Valid Not Satisfied
9
8.5
8.5
8.5
Less Satisfied
33
31.1
31.1
39.6
Satisfied
45
42.5
42.5
82.1
Very Satisfied
19
17.9
17.9
100.0
Total
106
100.0
100.0

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After implementing the internship program, students who feel very satisfied with theexistence of this internship program have a percentage of 17.9%. Students are satisfied with apercentage of 42.5%. The student is satisfied because he has gained valuable experience toimprove his competence so that he is ready to enter the world of work. Meanwhile, students
who were dissatisfied with the internship program got a score of 31.1% and those who weredissatisfied with the internship program got 8.5%.
Discussion
The MBKM curriculum provides opportunities for students to study off-campus for 1-2
semesters. One of them is the internship program. The Ministry of Education and Culture
facilitates this internship program through an independent campus. Where students choose
and take part in the internship selection through the kampusmerdeka.kemendikbud.go.id
page. Students who pass the selection are entitled to the form of facilities including theprovision of certificates for interns, providing incentives for interns and internship partners.
Student internships in the Graphic Design and Visual Communication Design study programs
are internship programs with Industry partners. To support the implementation of internships
in partnership with the business world or industry, support from various parties is needed, sothat this collaboration can provide benefits for all parties involved. Sharing knowledge andskills can occur through two directions, so that no one feels disadvantaged, but instead
mutually beneficial with various innovations that can arise as a result of this collaboration(Aswita, 2022). This is in line with what was conveyed by (Effrisanti, 2015) that internships
provide many benefits for students in improving their soft skills. Furthermore, (Baharuddin,2021) mentioned that business internships are an effort to improve the quality of graduates
who are ready to compete and open business opportunities in the digital era.
Internship motivation
Internship motivation consists of 3 indicators, namely the desire to succeed, the internshipdrive and needs, hopes or aspirations for the future (Georgiou & Kyza, 2018). An indicator ofthe desire to succeed against the opportunity to be achieved as a goal. It is explained that thegreater the motivation of students to take part in the internship program, one of which is toachieve the internship goal, the greater the chance for success in this goal. The greater the
influence of the desire to succeed, the greater the goal of the internship is achieved. The
desire to succeed in the internship program towards solving problems or projects, the stronger
the student's desire to succeed in participating in the internship, the greater the student's
ability to complete the project. Because in it there are challenges that must be solved by
students. The desire for success in design and outside of design experience.
Indicators of encouragement and need. The relationship between the drive and the need foropportunities to achieve goals is that the greater the student's encouragement and need forinternships, the greater the opportunity to achieve goals in meeting the needs of thesestudents. Indicators of students' encouragement and need for internships towards problem
solving or projects. In solving the problem of a project requires a strong encouragement fromboth oneself and the environment or team. So the greater the encouragement and need in theinternship, the easier it will be to solve the problems that occur in the completion of thedesign project. Indicators of students' encouragement and need for internships to experiencein the field of design and outside of design. The greater the encouragement and need forinternships, the easier it will be for students to achieve goals, find the right solutions in

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solving problems, so that experience in the field of design and outside the field of design will
also be obtained by students to the fullest.
Indicators of expectations or ideals. The greater the expectations or aspirations of student
internships, the greater the opportunity to achieve goals in meeting student needs. Indicatorsof student internships' expectations or aspirations towards problem solving or projects. The
greater the expectations or aspirations of the student internship, the easier it will be tocomplete the design project by solving problems. Indicators of student internshipexpectations or ideals for experience in the field of design and outside of design The greater
the expectations and ideals of the internship, students will easily achieve goals, find the rightsolution in solving problems, so that experience in the field of design and outside the field ofdesign will also be obtained by students to the maximum.
According to (Stephen P. Robbins; Timothy A. Judge, 2008) expectancy theory is the mostaccepted explanation of motivation everywhere. This theory derived from Victor Vroom
states that the strength of a tendency to act in a certain way depends on the strength of an
expectation that the action will be followed by the result that exists on the attraction of that
result to the individual. In a more practical form, the theory of expectations says that
employees will be motivated to expend a higher level of effort when they believe that theeffort will result in a good performance appraisal. Likewise, interns hope to get a good
assessment, an award from a supervisor in the industry.
The theory of expectations by Viktor Vroom focuses on three relationships: 1. The effortperformance relationship. The possibility felt by individuals who expend a certain amount ofeffort will result in performance. 2. Performance-reward relationship. The degree to which
the individual is confident that working at a certain level will result in the desiredachievement. 3. Personal reward-goal-goal relationship. The degree to which organizational
awards satisfy personal goals or needs of an individual and the attractiveness of potential
rewards for that individual.
Before the internship, students who take the internship program an internship course of 20
credits, and are approved by the Academic Supervisor (DPA). Students choose their own
internship place and type of internship. The types of internships provided are certified
internships organized by the Ministry of Education and Culture, and regular internships. Offcampus course programming of the MSIB program (Certified Internship and Independent
Study) begins with registration at MELISA with the approval of the head of study programand internship division. Then students register for the campus merdeka.kemdikbud.go.id thenstudents follow the flow on the page. Starting from uploading the requirements file,participating in the interview selection with partners, and announcement of the selection. In
addition to certified internships, the Study Program also provides regular internships. The
study program provides a place for industry internships that have been involved in previous
learning. So the industry knows the competence and interest in the field owned byprospective interns. In the implementation of internships, it is regulated and monitored
through simagang (internship information system).
Because most industries have partnered with study programs, and some are involved in
lectures in the classroom. So that students prefer internships at study program partners
because they have previously known the industry and are in accordance with the field ofexpertise owned by each student as well as partners who already know the competencies
possessed by students through learning in previous classes. with the largest percentage being

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regular internship students, and the location of study program partners as internship places isin Surabaya.
In carrying out internships, students have a very high motivation. Motivation is shown byseriousness in participating in internships, seriously working on internship tasks/projects, andcompleting tasks/projects on time. This shows that Design students are all motivated to takepart in self-selected internships according to their competencies. In addition to theseriousness of the next thing that is the timely completion of the task. This shows that Design
students can work with deadlines.
Internship Implementation
There is high motivation, seriousness at the internship site, the task or project given can becompleted on time. The technical implementation of the internship is mutually agreed upon
between the students of the intern and the industry. The implementation of the internshipoffline where technically students come to the office according to working days and hours. In
the company, students get more experience, especially soft skills. They meet fellow interns
from other campuses or from different majors, meet with superiors, work teams, employees
etc. There students really experience a real working atmosphere. Cooperation,communication, responsibility, collaboration are felt directly by students. In addition to
honed soft skills, students also have connections from various campuses. Students who internoffline are usually in the city and the distance is not too far.
The implementation of this technical online internship is carried out usually because theposition of students and internship places are far apart or even outside the city, the type of
project or task can be done from home. So that the implementation is online with a remote
work system. Students coordinate through zoom, WAG, and certain applications specificallyused by company employees. Students work on assignments and the ACC process online. But
working hours still apply.
The implementation of hybrid internships as many as students do internships online andoffline according to the needs of companies and students. Time and technical flexibility is felt
by students. Usually coordination is carried out offline, and project work is carried out onlinefrom their respective homes. And meet Back to present the progress of the project being
worked on. The implementation of this hybris trains students to be ready at all times andwork according to the timeline that has been agreed upon in advance.
Student satisfaction with the internship experience
In the implementation of internships, students are left entirely to the industry. The study
program through the internship supervisor only directs and monitors the implementation of
the internship. Policy regarding the technical implementation and types of tasks / projects
given is the authority of the industry according to the agreement with students. The internshipprogram not only provides benefits for students, but also provides benefits for companies thatprovide opportunities for students (Denny et al., 2022). Mutually beneficial relationships
between students, study program institutions, and industry are established with the existenceof internship programs. The type of assignment given is in the form of real or real projects
and students are included in certain divisions according to student competencies. In 1
internship location consisting of several student interns are usually included in different
divisions so that the tasks / projects carried out are also different.

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In the implementation of internships, students work on real or real projects. With thatengagement students who feel they are experiencing real work. Students are involved as
designers according to competencies placed in one of the divisions in the industry. The
design work produced by the student is actually used, reproduced and published in the
project. In addition to working on real projects, there are also interns who do assignmentsfrom superiors or supervisors. The type of task given is in accordance with the competence inthe field of Graphic Design / DKV but not in the form of a real project. Usually, student
design works are used by industry for assets or work documents for the next projectsubmission. Meanwhile, students who are dissatisfied with involvement in the project have apercentage of 15.1% and those who are dissatisfied with 8.5%. From the percentage
comparison, it shows that Graphic Design and DKV students have competencies according totheir respective fields in working on real projects, so it can be concluded that these students
have experience for work readiness.
Students feel that the experience gained needs to be improved to prepare for the world ofwork in the field of Graphic Design / DKV. Not only internships but there is still a need forspecial training, competency certification tests that can be used as capital to show theircompetence. A very significant comparison between satisfaction and unsatisfied with thisinternship program.
So it can be concluded that the internship program for students is in accordance with the
purpose of the internship, and in accordance with the wishes of students. However, in somecases there is a need for quality improvement in accordance with student input or commentson this internship program. These inputs or comments include preliminary planning as apreparation and overview of the student implementation of the internship completed from the
beginning of filing, management to reporting. Adjustments between the academic calendar
and the internship calendar. So that students have time to compile reports to the maximum.
Inputs from students will be considered by the Study Program as a form of improving thequality or quality of the next internship.
Conclusion
The MBKM curriculum provides opportunities for students to study off-campus for 1-2
semesters. One of them is the internship program. The Ministry of Education and Culture
facilitates this internship program through an independent campus. Where students choose
and take part in the internship selection through the kampusmerdeka.kemendikbud.go.id
page. Students who pass the selection are entitled to the form of facilities including theprovision of certificates for interns, providing incentives for interns and internship partners.
In addition to certified internships, the study program also provides regular internshipprograms. Each internship program weighs 20 credits which is converted into 8 courses. Theinternship program participated by students of the Class of 2019 is an internship program. In
this case, the study program needs to prepare maximum management to implement
internships for students. The systematics of the implementation of the internship has been
regulated in the internship guidelines and its implementation is monitored on the universitylevel simagang page. Coordinated management between the university and the study program
will support the achievement of internship goals. In addition to internal coordination, theInstitution also needs to coordinate with outside parties, namely the industry as an intern
partner.

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The freedom to choose an internship location is based on the competence of the field they
have, the affordability of the internship location with students, and the suitability of theindustrial field with the competence of students. Students at the joint consideration of thestudy program determine the location of the internship. Together with the industry, theyagreed on the technical implementation (online, offline, hybrid), and the length of theinternship time. Students choose locations in big cities such as Surabaya, Jakarta, Bandung
because in big cities there are many industries in the field of Graphic Design and Visual
Communication Design, besides that students also During the internship, students gain
experience both in the field of Design and outside the field of design as an effort to increase
competence in the field of Graphic Design and DKV to prepare themselves to enter the worldof work.
The level of student satisfaction with the internship program is very high, because students
feel that they are getting what is the purpose of their internship. One of them is the increase insoft skills and hard skills which are used as a benchmark for student readiness to work.
However, there are several things that need to be improved, for example, debriefing at the
beginning as a preparation and overview of students for the implementation of the internshipis completed from the beginning of filing, management to reporting. Adjustments between
the academic calendar and the internship calendar. So that students have time to compile
reports to the maximum. Inputs from students will be considered by the Study Program as aform of improving the quality or quality of the next internship.
Acknowledgement
Alhamdulillah, praise be to Allah swt, because thanks to the grace of Allah the researcher
was able to complete this article. On this occasion, the researcher would like to thank theparties who have supported and helped in the preparation of this research.

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References
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Pelaksanaan Magang Mahasiswa Fakultas Keguruan Dan Ilmu Pendidikan. Prosiding
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Contact email: novakristiana@unesa.ac.id

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From Novice to Pro: A Modified Scaffolding Research Guide for Elementary Students
Lovely Rollaine B. Cruz, Department of Education, Philippines
The Southeast Asian Conference on Education 2023
Official Conference Proceedings
Abstract
Research writing was viewed as an advanced skill that should only be taught after students
had mastered fundamental language processes like grammar, punctuation, syntax, andspelling. However, with the recognition of research as a crucial component of 21st-century
skills, there has been a shift towards introducing research writing earlier, even at theelementary level. The aim of this study was to improve Grade Five students' research writing
skills and attitudes towards writing using a process-genre approach. The study identified thatstudents in Grade Five lacked proficiency in writing, research skills, and often had anaversion to writing. A pre-assessment test revealed a neutral level of understanding among
students with a mean of 3.429 and a standard deviation of 0.172, emphasizing the need forresearch writing training and guidance. The study employed an experimental design, where
the experimental group was taught using process-genre writing, while the control group wastaught using traditional writing methods. The study was conducted for 8 weeks, resulting insignificant improvements in research writing skills and expertise in both groups. The study's
findings demonstrate the effectiveness of a process-genre approach in improving students'
research writing skills and attitudes towards writing.
Keywords: Process-Genre Approach, Research, Scaffolding

iafor
The International Academic Forumwww.iafor.org

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Introduction
Research writing was regarded to be an advanced skill that should be taught only after pupils
had mastered vocabulary, spelling, punctuation, grammar, syntax, and other mechanicallanguage processes supposed to give the necessary foundation. However, because of thechanging perception of learning and the fact that research is a component of the 21st- century
skills that need to be established, it was said that it should be taught as early as theelementary grade.
Hadani (2010) proved that developing research writing skills for an elementary student is an
opportunity to gain skills that will be useful in whatever future career plans they may have,especially now that the global context necessitates a productive research culture that cancollaborate with the most recent educational trends.
Almost all institutions in the Philippines are recognizing the importance of research. The
development of research culture is a top objective. However, in the Division of Pasig, only 4
or 14 % of public elementary schools and 7 or 44% of secondary schools participated in
National Science Fair. (Excluding 2020-2021 due to the pandemic).
Conformance to DepEd Memorandum No. 176 Series of 2016, mandating student
participation in the Science and Technology Fair and promoting Science and technology
consciousness among the youth, as well as identifying the best Science researchers
representing their schools and the country in international competitions, research programs,
and activities, is encouraged.
To continue research activities, such as conducting research and publishing scholarly works,
the science program must be strengthened by implementing Science Investigative projects inelementary and high school. Science investigative projects should be promoted in elementaryand secondary schools to inculcate the value of inquiry in students from a young age.
The Division of Pasig's poor participation in the National Science Fair at the primary level islinked to the division's poor Mean Percentage Score (MPS) in science during the last three
years. The Division intends to concentrate on the academic facet of the subject. According to
the data (Phil-IRI), the Division's learners' writing abilities and comprehension levels are also
below average.
Writing and comprehension are essential skills for elementary students to learn. Integrating
writing in research is exceptional. Students can communicate their ideas, feelings, andthoughts to the readers through research. Writing encourages students to arrange words by
word, phrases by phrases, and clauses by clauses while also considering structure, cohesion,organization, meaning, and so on. According to Yah (2010), writing well and having goodcomprehension effectively aim to provide opportunities for language learners to be eager tolearn the language and improve language skills, fluency, accuracy, and appropriateness incommunicating meaning and messages.
Research writing is critical for students to improve their knowledge and achievement. So,
introducing research writing to elementary students can be challenging, but developing anapproach in research writing from a different perspective can be extremely beneficial.

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Teaching students how to write a basic research paper in a manner that they can readily grasp
is the simplest strategy to spark students' interest in research-related activities in Science,such as SIP or Science Investigative Project.
Students must first comprehend the writing process to be persuaded to write research papers.
Developing writing skills at a young age, according to Baker, fosters a love of writing andeventually leads to exceptional writing ability (2015).
Writing skills may be taught in a variety of ways, including product-based approach, processbased approach, and genre-based approach. If an effective approach to teaching writing is
employed in conjunction with the right activities, students will be encouraged to explain theirconcepts in outstanding writing and may produce a great research paper (Badger, 2010).
This research will combine the process and genre approaches to write a mini-research paper.
According to Badger and White (2010), combining the two approaches in writing (processbased approach and genre-based approach) may be effective in enhancing students' writing
skills. This strategy is known as the process genre approach. It enables students to investigate
the relationship between purpose and form for a certain genre by using the prewriting,drafting, revision, and editing methods. In this approach, the researchers will utilize a
Modified – Scaffolding Research Guide to create a Mini-research paper, which will beanchored in the Process-genre approach in writing.
It takes time to learn research writing skills, and students must practice them regularly.
Regular writing practice promotes fluency. As a consequence, adequate time must be
provided for teaching research-related writing activities, and the development of an
appropriate writing approach is required.
This study will enhance skills in scientific and research-related writing activities such as the
SIP- Science Investigative Project. Since the researchers provide a basic technique for writinga research paper, the number of schools participating in regional and national contests related
to the research may increase. Teachers may also employ the MSRG-A process-genre
approach to prepare pupils for scientific research projects and writings.
I.

Innovation, Intervention, and Strategy

The Modified Scaffolding Research Guide (MSRG), a process-genre approach (PGA), is ateacher-made activity package that will be used by the researchers. In a nutshell, PGA is anapproach to improve a learner's writing skills. The activity combines two well-known writing
approaches. The researchers will serve as teachers, demonstrating a process-genre approach
using MSRG- an activity package. As a result of the activity, students will have a MiniResearch paper.
Badger and White (2010) experimented using the genre and process approaches together as
an alternative in a model called the process genre approach. Through this research, they
affirmed that this dual approach works well if the writing cycle begins with models, a
description of the key linguistic features, a discussion of the social situation in which it
happens, and an analysis of the recommended rhetorical patterns of each genre. Student
writing is then subjected to the sequence of drafts in the process approach.

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The researchers altered a task known as "Mini Research Paper" (MRP). This activity focuses
on writing a research paper appropriate for a Grade Five student. It is a guided activity using
a process-genre approach. The guided activity is composed of 5 stages: brainstorming,planning, researching, writing, revising. The researchers will provide supplemental materials(OFFLINE Version- APK File Activities), printed research guide materials, self-made videos,
and online interaction via google or Zoom platform for 6 weeks.
It is erroneous to presume that a Grade Five student cannot write a research paper. Today's
students have access to more information, making the role of the teacher a guide. This
activity Modified Scaffolding Research Guide (MSRG) will help students improve theirresearch skills over time. The ability to find and use information effectively is a necessary
skill for life and work and this underpins a solid research skill. Gilmore and Feldon (2010)
revealed that, on average, over an academic year, a poor writing approach has been found to
relegate research skills development, whereas engagement in research-related activities inbasic education may improve the research skills through time.
II.

Action Research Questions
1.

What are the pre- and post-assessment levels of Grade Five learners in writing a
research paper?
2. How does MSRG – a process-genre approach improve the research writing skills of
the Grade Five pupils based on the mini-research activity task?
3. Is there a significant difference between the two groups (control and experimental)
after the treatment (MSRG- a process- genre approach)?
4. What is the attitude of learners after learning the Modified Scaffolding Research
Guide?
III.

Action Research Methods
A. Research Design

Figure 1: Quasi-Experimental Design
B. Participants and/or other Sources of Data and Information
This study includes two elementary schools in Pasig (18 in Pinagbuhatan Elementary School& 18 in San Lorenzo Ruiz Elementary School). Participants will be selected based on their

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academic group or level, class size, and grade level. They were labeled as the Experimental
Group (MSRG-Process Genre Approach) and the Control Group (Traditional Approach).
Thirty-six (36) Grade Five students in both schools are included in the study and will takepart in the learning activities.
The researchers use stratified random sampling (usually referred to simply as stratified
sampling) is a type of probability sampling that allows researchers to improve precision(reduce error) relative to simple random sampling (SRS). The population is divided into nonoverlapping groups, or strata, along a relevant dimension such as gender, ethnicity, politicalaffiliation, and so on. The researcher collects a random sample of population members fromwithin each stratum. This technique ensures that observations from all relevant strata are
included in the sample.
The researchers facilitate triangulation using the data sources listed above for additionalverification and validation of the intervention's effectiveness.
The researcher conducts a pilot study to identify the most common writing errors made by
Grade Five students. The researcher gave the students a task: writing a paragraph. The topic
is all about his favorite animal.
After writing the paragraphs, the researcher corrected them and counted the sentences todetermine the most common errors, which were as follows: grammar, spelling, agreement,
and punctuation. After identifying the most common writing errors, they will complete theSelf-Assessment of Research Writing Skills to determine the learners' current level ofresearch- writing skills.
Research Writing Performance Test - Common Mistakes Identifier Rubrics - For thepilot study, the researchers will ask participants to write a paragraph (minimum of 3
paragraphs) on this topic: favorite animal. Following the pilot testing, it will be evaluatedusing writing rubrics adapted from the Curriculum of Research and Planning DivisionSingapore (2001).
Modified Scaffolding Research Guide- The researchers will use a teacher-made activity
package that demonstrates the process-genre approach. It is a modified activity designed tomeet the needs of the research. It will be shown in two modes: real-time teaching(synchronous) and video presentation (asynchronous).
Mini-Research Paper Rubrics for Research Writing - The researcher modified a multipurpose scoring guide to evaluate student research writing skills. If you master the miniresearch paper, you can score up to 90 points. It was divided into four categories (exemplary,
good, acceptable, unacceptable).
The rubric criteria are based on parts of the MSRG activity packet (introduction, content,
sentence structure, grammar, word choice, and references).
Total Score Description:
90-68 Expert Research Writer
67-45 Proficient Research Writer44-22 Apprentice Research Writer
21- 0
Novice Research Writer

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Teacher-made lesson plan – The researchers will develop a lesson plan explaining theprocess of how to make a mini-research paper using the process-genre approach. Experts
from the field will evaluate the lesson plan based on the DepEd LRMDS Development andValidation Guidelines.
Table 1: A descriptive evaluation will be given to assess the lesson plan
Descriptive
PointsExceeds Expectation
10-9
Meets Expectation
8-6
Needs Improvement
5-3
Does not meet Expectation
2-0
Self-Assessment of Research Writing Skills Questionnaire – The researchers will adapt
and modify the SARW from Marquette ESLP 25 Questionnaire (2012) for the pre and postassessment, with questions about research writing retained.
The assessment instrument will be interpreted using the 5-points scale. (5 is the highest and 1
is the lowest.)
5=never or seldom true of me
4=usually not true of me
3=neutral
2=usually true of me
1=always or almost always true of me
C. Data Gathering Methods
This study takes a mixed qualitative and quantitative approach, with one group designated as
the control group and the other as the experimental group. Before the treatment, both groups
will be pretested using the Common Mistakes Identifier Rubrics. The experimental group will
receive the treatment, while the control group will participate in the standard classroom
discussion. Pre-test assessment and post-test assessment will be used to verify if there is an
improvement in research writing after the treatment. Survey questionnaires will also be used
to determine students' involvement, satisfaction, learning, and impressions of using a processgenre approach in writing a research paper.
D. Data Analysis
SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences) - was used to analyze quantitative data
gathered from the pre-assessment and post-assessment. The following statistical tools for data
analysis are discussed:
Descriptive Statistics- To answer the qualitative profile of the subjects, descriptive statistics
such as arithmetic mean, percentage frequency distribution, standard deviation, andcoefficient variation will be used as well as for the FGD/ interview.
Inferential Statistics- Data will be gathered and analyzed using Independent Sample T-test.
The Independent Samples t-Test compares the means of two independent groups to determine
whether there is statistical evidence that the associated population means are significantly
different. Students in both the experimental and control groups will be pre-tested on theirwriting abilities and analyzed the pre and post-assessment skill test afterward.

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Conclusion
The Pilot Study
The researcher performed a pilot study to ascertain the most frequent errors made by Grade
Five students when writing. Students were asked to write a paragraph about their favorite
animal. Three paragraphs at a minimum.
Following the completion of the paragraphs, the researcher corrected them and numbered thesentences, at which point the researcher determined the frequent errors as follows:
Table 2: Frequent Errors in Writing
Mistakes
Number of Mistakes
Percentage
Mean

Grammar
325
24.8%
9.02

Spelling
245
18.7%
6.81

Agreement
542
41.4%
15.0

Punctuation
198
15.1%
5.5

A pilot study was carried out to assess students' performance in writing. A total of 36
students participated in the pilot study. The results are shown in Table (1). The results
showed that the sample's mean writing scores were lower than the average (9.02). This
demonstrates that the students had a relatively low level of achievement in writing. It was
clear that their writing ability was weak.
The most common mistake made by Grade Five students when writing a paragraph is subject
and verb agreement (41.4%), followed by grammar (24.8%), spelling (18.7%), andpunctuation (15.1%). It only reveals that students must learn a subject and verb agreement
and, as a result, it is recommended that a special session be held to discuss the basic rules ofsubject and verb agreement.
According to Brown (2019), teachers teach subject-verb agreement in two ways: deductively
and inductively. The rules for deductive and inductive teaching are not the same. As a result,the approach taken by the teacher is determined by several factors, including the nature of thelanguage being taught as well as the preferences of the teachers and students. A suitableapproach for an elementary student, on the other hand, maybe a combination of both
approaches.
Research Q1: What are the pre and post-assessment levels of Grade Five learners inwriting a research paper?
To ascertain control variables before implementing the process-genre approach, the results of
the research writing pre-assessment test were statistically analyzed to determine whether
there were statistically significant differences in overall research writing performance
between the two groups (control and experimental). As a result, the mean scores of the twogroups were compared using the t-test for independent homogenous groups, as shown in
Table (2).

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Table 3: T-test results of the Research Writing Pre-assessment comparing bothcontrol and experimental groups in overall writing performanceGroup
PreGroup
Assessment C
Group
Mean
T
Score

N

Mean

Std.
Deviation

Std. Error
Mean

18

3.57181.049310.24733

18

3.23941.082670.25519t-test for
Equality of
Means
0.935

df

Sig.
(2-tailed)

34

0.356

According to the results, there were no statistically significant differences in overall writing
performance between the control and experimental groups on the research writing pre-test;
the t value (0.935) is not statistically significant at the (.05) level. According to scores, thetwo groups are homogeneous at the start of the experiment.
Table 4: Pre-Assessment of Research Writing Skills
Code Research Writing Ability Test (Pre)

Mean

SK1
SK2
SK3
SK4

3.444
3.472
3.361
3.611

I can write a good paragraph.
I can write a topic sentence that identifies a paragraph's main idea.
I can compose a paragraph with clarity.
I can communicate with the reader using proper vocabulary and wordforms.
SK5 I can combine many sentence structures.
SK6 I can correctly spell, capitalize, and punctuate.
SK7 I can accurately summarize information I read in English.
SK8 I can accurately translate information I read into English.
SK9 I can research any topic.
SK10 I can select an academic research topic.
SK11 I can create a good research question.
SK12 I can make a draft before writing a paragraph.
SK13 I can organize my writing in many ways (e.g. process, comparison, cause,
effect, outlining).
SK14 I can support my argument with facts.
SK15 I can perform effective library research to support my thoughts.
SK16 I can use search engines ( e.g. Google, Internet Explorer, Mozilla) to findmaterial to support my ideas.
SK17 I can compose an essay conclusion in English.
SK18 I can write and format articles in English using a word processor.
SK19 I can efficiently brainstorm before writing.
SK20 I can read a lot of books before writing.
SK21 I can organize my thoughts before drafting an outline.
SK22 I can write quickly under pressure.
SK23 I can notice flaws in my writing and how to fix it
SK24 I can apply effective ways to improve my writing.
SK25 I can think on my own when writing.
MeanStandard Deviation
Margin of Error: 3.4289 ±0.0677 (±1.97%)

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3.167
3.806
3.444
3.556
3.528
3.194
3.194
3.444
3.556
3.333
3.444
3.639
3.444
3.250
3.500
3.278
3.500
2.028
3.556
3.556
3.417
3.429
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According to Table 3, the pre-assessment skills of Grade 5 students are neutral, indicatingthat the student has a general understanding of how to write a research paper, with a mean of
3.429 and a standard deviation of 0.172. The table depicts that skill code SK6 - I cancorrectly spell, capitalize, and punctuate. Get the highest mean of 3.806, which means
students in Grade 5 can recognize wrong spelling, wrong capitalization, and wrong
punctuation. Followed by, SK16 - I can use search engines ( e.g. Google, Internet Explorer,
Mozilla) to find material to support my ideas, with 3.639.
Corresponding to some studies, search engines have become ingrained in our information
environment. They are increasingly taking the place of libraries in terms of aiding
information discovery and access. The term "googling" has come to mean "research"(Mostafa, 2018). According to recent statistics, Google has surpassed the use of librarycatalogs and other online citation databases as the preferred search interface for many staff
and students when it comes to addressing their information needs (Griffiths and Brophy,2019).
Based on the data, the lowest mean score of skill is SK22- I can write quickly underpressure, 2.028, indicating that students require enough time to write a paragraph. As aresult, the researchers extended the number of weeks required to implement the process-genre
approach from two to six weeks. Allowing them more time to complete their mini-research
paper.
Table 5: T-test results of the Research Writing Post-assessment comparing bothcontrol and experimental groups in overall writing performance
Group
N
Mean
Std.
Std. Error t-test fordf
Sig.
Deviation
Mean Equality of(2-tailed)
Means
PostGroup
Assessment C
Mean Score Group

18

3.4216.720120.2473318

4.1767.131240.02625-17.348

24

0.353

T
According to the results, there were statistically significant differences in overall writing
performance between the control and experimental groups on the research writing post-test;
the t value (-17.34806) ) is statistically significant at the (.05) level.
Table 6: Research Writing Ability Test ( Post Assessment)
Research Writing Ability Test ( Post)

Code
SK1
SK2
SK3
SK4
SK5
SK6
SK7
SK8
SK9

I can write a good paragraph.
I can write a topic sentence that identifies a paragraph's main idea.
I can compose a paragraph with clarity.
I can communicate with the reader using proper vocabulary and wordforms.
I can combine many sentence structures.
I can correctly spell, capitalize, and punctuate.
I can accurately summarize information I read in English.
I can accurately translate information I read into English.
I can research any topic.

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Mean
4.139
4.139
4.194
4.389
4.028
4.472
4.222
4.361
4.250

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SK10 I can select an academic research topic.
SK11 I can create a good research question.
SK12 I can make a draft before writing a paragraph.
SK13 I can organize my writing in many ways (e.g., process, comparison,cause, effect, outlining).
SK14 I can support my argument with facts.
SK15 I can perform effective library research to support my thoughts.
SK16 I can use search engines (e.g., Google, Internet Explorer, Mozilla) to findmaterial to support my ideas.
SK17 I can compose an essay conclusion in English.
SK18 I can write and format articles in English using a word processor.
SK19 I can efficiently brainstorm before writing.
SK20 I can read a lot of books before writing.
SK21 I can organize my thoughts before drafting an outline.
SK22 I can write quickly under pressure.
SK23 I can notice flaws in my writing and how to fix it
SK24 I can apply effective ways to improve my writing.
SK25 I can think on my own when writing.
MeanStandard Deviation

4.083
4.056
4.278
4.650
4.111
4.250
4.139
4.139
4.083
4.250
4.083
4.194
3.806
4.167
4.194
4.139
4.1767(Usually
True)
0.131

According to Table 5, the post-assessment skills of Grade 5 students are usually true,indicating that the students in the experimental group improve their research writing ability
after the 6 weeks session, with a mean of 4.1767 and a standard deviation of 0.13124, while
the control group after doing the traditional way of teaching research writing gained a meanscore of 3.4216 and SD 0.72012, which fall under neutral level.
According to the data, the skill with the highest mean of 4.650 is SK13- I am capable oforganizing my writing in a variety of ways (e.g. process, comparison, cause, effect,outlining), which indicates that after the session using the Modified Scaffolding Research
Guide (Process-Genre approach), the students learned outlining and creating graphicorganizers which is a very important component of research writing.
Research Q2: How does MSRG – a process-genre approach improve the research writing
skills of the Grade Five pupils based on the mini-research activity task?
Table 7 shows that there were statistically significant differences between the mean scores of
the control and experimental groups on the research writing after the treatment; thecomponents of research writing performance (introduction, content, sentence structure, word
choice, grammar, and use of references) according to analytic scoring, t value is (-4.3333) for"Introduction", (-3.8889) for "Content", (-4.0556) for "Sentence Structure", (-3.8889) for"word choice", ( -3.2778 ) for “Grammar” and ( -5.0000) for “ Use of References” were
statistically significant at ( α≤ .05) level, which means that Modified Scaffolding Research
Guide ( Process-Genre Approach) is an effective intervention to improve Grade Five students
research writing skills.

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Table 7: Comparison of Two Means based on the Score - Research Writing Skills
Independent Test of SignificanceResearch
Writing
Skills

Group

N

Mean

Std.
Deviation

Std.
Error
Mean

Introduction Traditional
Group

18

6.7222

1.63799

0.38608 -4.3333

Experimental 18 11.0556
Group

1.731110.40803

Content

Traditional
Group

18

6

Mean Interpretation
Difference

1.878672873 0.44281 -3.8889

Significant

Significant

Experimental 18 9.88889 1.778594584 0.41922
Group
Sentence
Structure

TraditionalGroup

18 6.38889 1.576999716

0.3717 -4.0556

Significant

Experimental 18 10.4444 1.293523334 0.30489
Group
Word
ChoiceTraditionalGroup

18 5.94444 1.513555309 0.35675 -3.8889

Significant

Experimental 18 9.83333 1.098126747 0.25883
Group
GrammarTraditional
Group

18

4.5

1.504893977 0.35471 -3.2778

Significant

Experimental 18 7.77778 1.477500097 0.34825
Group
Use of
References

TraditionalGroup

18 5.38889

1.68519117

Experimental 18 10.3889 1.68519117
Group

0.3972 -5.0000

Significant

0.3972Hence, Table 7 reaffirms the fact that the two groups are homogenous at the beginning of theexperiment concerning analytic scores.
Research Q3: Significance difference between the two groups (control and experimental)
after the treatment (MSRG- a process- genre approach)?
Table 8 Test of Normality of Two Groups (Control and Experimental Group
Kolmogorov-Smirnovb

Shapiro-Wilk

Statistic

df

Sig.

Statistic

df

Sig.

Experimental
Group

Score

0.186

18

0.1

0.928

18

0.182

Control Group

Score

0.156

18

.200*

0.938

18

0.272

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The researcher used a normality test to see whether our data was normally distributed. This
test will determine whether or not the Independent T-test can be used in our study. We can
now assume that we can use the test because the p-value is greater than the. 0.05 level ofsignificance (0.182 and 0.272) with no outlier’s item.
Table 9: Mean Scores of the Two Group (Traditional and Experimental Group)Group Statistics

Score

Group

N

Mean

Std. Deviation

Std. Error Mean

Traditional Group

18

34.94442.81743.664072.93503.69179Experimental
1859.4444
Group* Based on the Mini-Research Paper Evaluation Results

The 18 students who undergo the Modified Scaffolding Research Guide Session (Processgenre approach) while writing a Mini-Research Paper have a greater mean ( M- 59.44, SD2.93) compared to the 18 students who write the Mini-Research Paper in Traditional Way (M- 34.94, SD- 2.81). The t-value is -25.54897. The p-value is < .00001. The result issignificant at p < .05. In other words, the Modified Scaffolding Research Guide (ProcessGenre Approach Activity) is an effective way to improve the research writing skills of Grade
Five Learners.
Table 9.1: Mean Scores of the Two Group (Traditional and Experimental Group)
Independent Samples Test
Levene's Test
Equality ofvarianceft-test for Equality of Means
t

df

Sig.
(2-tailed)

Mean
DifferenceStd. Error
Difference

Sig.

95% ConfidenceInterval of the
Difference
Lower

0.109 0.744 -25.549
34
0.000-24.50000
0.95894
Mean
Scores* Based on the Mini-Research Paper Evaluation Results with Levene’s Test

Upper

-26.44881 -22.55119

The findings revealed that the students completed the task (mini-research paper) within thetime limit. After the session was taught using the modified scaffolding research guide(process-genre approach), the students performed significantly better. Resulting in
proficiency to expert research writers ( 45-90 ). The findings corroborated previous researchon the beneficial effects of scaffolding in writing instruction (Dewi, 2017; Peters, 2019).
Research Q4: What is the attitude of learners after writing a mini-research paper?
(Traditional Approach and Process-Genre Approach)
Table 10 reveals that there were statistically significant differences in mean scores between
the control and experimental groups on the student writing attitude scale; the t value (6.421)
is statistically significant at (.05).

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Table 10: T-Test Attitude Scale of both Group (Control and Experimental)
after Research Writing
Group
N
Mean
Std.
Std. Error t-test for Equality ofMeans
DeviationMeant valuedf
Sig.
(2-tailed)
Control
18
21.3333
5.41251.4214
6.421
24
.000
Experimental
18
32.5405
5.41251.3165
These findings provide evidence in favor of the group who undergo the treatment process(process-genre approach). These significant differences between experimental and control
results can be attributed to the successful experimental group's session while doing the miniresearch paper.
As a result of the researcher's attitude scale survey, we can recommend that as teachers, weshould provide them with guidelines on how to write a research paper. Elementary students,on the other hand, are unable to write independently. They require a demonstration of how towrite one. That is the purpose of the modified scaffolding research guide, as they will require
an output throughout the session to assess their understanding with the teacher's guidance.
The following are some of the comments made by students while writing their mini-research
papers:Respondent 1: “Madali palang magsulat ng research.akala ko mahirap.Tinulungan lang
ako ni mama sap ag gamit ng canva.”
Respondent 2: “Gusto ko ulit magsulat ng research. Pero this time tungkol naman sa
mga plants. My favorite plants naman.”
Respondent 3: “It is now easy to write an introduction. As long as you have data andgoogle.”Respondent 4: “My most favorite part of writing a research paper is when I’m doing thegraphic organizer. It is colorful and I can easily understand. I can now
answer the guide questions easily because of my data.”
Respondent 5: “Most of my scale is 5 because I learned a lot! Kudos to my scienceteacher. She’s the best.”
Respondent 6: “Now I realized that writing research is not toxic as my ate said. It isreally easy peasy.”
Given that a change in attitude occurred as a result of the introduction and implementation of
the Process-Genre-approach in this study, it is critical to recognize that teaching research
writing as a process encouraged students to become writers. Students gained knowledge byparticipating actively rather than passively absorbing information.
The process-genre approach compelled students to take an active role in their education.
They were required to take control of their writing by choosing their topics, determining how
their topics would be developed, and determining the final product. Concentrating on PW
resulted in the natural evolution of written language. It sprinted attention to the process oflearning rather than the result.
It is concluded that all students are capable of writing and possess something worth writing
about. It facilitated the development of writing subskills because Process-Genre-approach

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activities occurred in a non-threatening environment in which students were not afraid to takerisks. Students developed their style and preferences within this environment (their home).
I assigned a very simple research paper to my students two years ago. There is no standard
procedure for writing one. I simply assign the task. I simply explain that it is similar towriting an essay. Just keep writing. The end result was a shambles.
Then I realized that asking them to write a research paper was a bad idea. The best part is thatas a teacher, I need to show them how to begin writing a good research paper. And to do so,
I'll need to conduct some independent research. I discover one of the two best writing
approaches, the process approach, and the genre approach. I conduct some readings andinterviews and realize that I can combine the two processes. The gist is to provide them withthe genre by teaching them the importance of data and graphic organizers, as well as toprovide them with the right process through scaffolding. I look for a group mate and voila!
That is the beginning of this paper.
Teaching research writing skills in elementary school is necessary because as early as
elementary grade their love for research will bloom. When they become senior high school,
research will just be an easy peasy.
We can guide our students through the "how-tos" of research. We've mastered the skills ofnavigating text features in nonfiction books, finding credible sources online, using google,
and taking notes, which we can pass on to our students. Giving them the basic guidelines on
how to start writing is the best first step.
As we go through this study, some ideas pop up like providing video clips on the steps on
writing so that during the asynchronous time they can browse and review the process, which
is a big help. We also give the student an APK file of the lesson. Meaning they can have areviewer that can be installed on their cellphone and can be used offline. All of this isprovided by the researcher.
We are all aware that conducting research during a pandemic is extremely difficult, but it is
one of the challenges that we have overcome. We obtain parental permission, wait for thematerials to be validated, run the session for 6 weeks, and check the paper for 1 month using
the validated rubrics.
As a recommendation, teachers require additional writing training, particularly in the process
genre approach. For those unfamiliar with the writing process, it is recommended that theyread books written by experts in the field. Teachers should speak with other teachers who
employ the process approach to gain a better understanding of current trends in the field ofwriting. They will have a more solid foundation for discussions about what writers do andhow they feel when they write. These types of discussions are critical for the development ofstudents' subskills in writing.
In the end, we were more than pleased with the outcome. We can now share this study withour colleagues, and we are proud to say that it is highly effective; if we implement thisapproach to other subjects, perhaps they will achieve the same results.

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References
Badger, R. 2010. A Framework for Task-Based Learning. Harlow: Longman.
Badger, R., & White, G. (2010). Product, process, and genre: Approaches to writing in EAP[Electronic version]. ELT Journal, 54(2), 153-160.
Baker, Jack. 2020. Process of Writing.
https://web.stanford.edu/~bakerjw/advice/Process_for_writing_a_paper.pdf
Curriculum Planning and Research Division. (2001). English Language Syllabus 2001. For
Primary and Secondary School. Singapore: Ministry of Education.
Dewi, T. M. & Iswandari, Y. A. (2017). The implementation of scaffolding in writing recounttexts in SMP Joannes Bosco Yogyakarta. LLT Journal: A Journal on Language andLanguage Teaching, 19(1), 34-45.
Hadini, Matthiessen, (2010). Construing Experience Through Meaning: A Process-Genre
based approach to cognition. London: Continuum.
J.R. Griffiths and P. Brophy, 2019. “Student searching behavior and the Web: Use ofacademic resources and Google,” Library Trends, volume 53, number 4, pp. 539–554.
J. Mostafa 2018. “Seeking better Web searches,” Scientific American, volume 292, number
2, pp. 67–73.http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/scientificamerican0205-66
Marquette Univeristy. (2008). ESLP82 Questionnaire. Retrieved from:http://marquette.edu/oie/documents/ESLP82QuestionnaireFa08.pdf
Peters, G. (2019). Advantages and disadvantages of scaffolding in the classroom. RetrievedApril 30, 2020, from https://www.theclassroom.com/advantagesdisadvantagesscaffolding-classroom-8008434.html
Vernon, Liza. 2010. Considerations: The Writing Process: A Scaffolding Approach 11
T/TAC W&M. Updated 2015.
White, G. and V. Arndt. 2000. Process Writing. Harlow: Longman.
White, M., & Bruning, R. (2005). Implicit writing beliefs and their relation to writing quality.
Contemporary Educational Psychology, 30(2), 166-189.
Yah. J. R. 2010. ‘A contextual theory of language’ in B. Cope and M. Kalantzis (eds.). The
Powers of Literacy: A Genre Approach to Teaching Writing. London: Falmer Press.
Contact email: loveborja23@gmail.com

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Improving Kindergarten Readiness by Upskilling Parents Through a Webinar Series
Entitled “Ready, Steady, Zoom” During the New Normal
Catherine Jane A. Bassig, Pinagbuhatan Elementary School–SDO Pasig, Philippines
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Abstract
The pandemic has forced the Philippines' education system to discontinue face-to-facesessions and adapt to new modes of instruction, but education must continue to advance, andteachers must adapt. Kindergarten preparation has always played a role in how well students
do throughout their first week of face-to-face sessions. Other studies indicate that parental
participation has an effect on children's learning results. As a result, a series of webinars andtraining sessions were organized for kindergarten parents and guardians to assist them inpreparing themselves and their incoming kindergarten students for online learning. By
establishing expectations for the learners, the researcher hopes to motivate them to participate
in online classrooms using conferencing platforms, resulting in a high rate of attendance. The
study included a total twenty-six persons who consented to participate. They included boththe pupil's parents and guardians. They were tasked with the responsibility of applying theirexperience and abilities to the youngsters in order to assist them in adjusting to the newnormal. During the first week of online classes, 56.33 percent of students attended. By weekeight, however, it had increased to 97.33 percent. Participants agreed in a Likert assessmentthat the webinars prepared them and their students for online learning. In general, theresearcher discovers that providing training and support to parents or guardians will aid themin preparing and encouraging their children for the new normal, resulting in a higher rate ofonline class participation.
Keywords: New Normal, Pandemic, Online Classes

iafor
The International Academic Forumwww.iafor.org

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Introduction
On the 20th of January 2020, the first case of Corona virus was reported in the Philippines.
World Health Organization (2020). Months later, classes were suspended, and the suspension
was extended until the end school year resulting in closing ceremonies held virtually. As thefollowing academic school year neared, questions on how will learning take place whenschools were closed and face to face classes were forbidden? Aside from the global
pandemic, Covid 19 also lead to the adoption of the Basic Education Learning Continuity
Plan (BE-LCP) which lead to the utilization of different learning modalities including online
distance learning.
In a recent study by Pe Dangle and Sumaoang (2020), regarding the implementation ofDistance Learning in Philippine Secondary Public Schools, one of the challenges thatemerged was the parent’s lack of capability in academically guiding the pupils. This poses athreat since the parents will be the one of the uniting elements between the pupils and theirlearning. This is applicable not only for secondary pupils but most especially with young
learners. According to Gohl and Thorson (2020), family engagement has an important role instudent engagement for positive outcomes in learning. Therefore, if the parents as well ashousehold members are supportive in terms of a pupil’s academic activities, there is a
probability that the child will succeed in school.
Trautner (2019) “Parents who attended classes and learned effective discipline and parenting
techniques, report having children with higher grades, fewer behavior problems, lesssubstance abuse issues, better mental health and greater social competence.”
The key purpose of this study is to establish the involvement of the parents to prepare theirchildren for online learning in the new normal. An 8 series webinar was prepared for parents
and guardians of kindergarten pupils in Pinagbuhatan Elementary School. Ready, Steady,Zoom is aims to help ready the pupils, have a steady communication with the parents, andconsequently zooming up the attendance rate and learning of the pupils. After the completionof the webinars, it is highly likely that the students will be prepared for the new normal
through the support of their parents, giving them the opportunity to head start on their lessons
and have a positive attitude on online classes. If this study succeeds, it may springboard
research and solutions for other challenges that is experienced for the online learningmodality in the new normal.
Ready, Steady, Zoom
Ready, Steady, Zoom is a series of webinars designed for the parents and guardians ofkindergarten pupils in Pinagbuhatan Elementary School which aims to upskill the parents forthem to be able to academically guide and encourage their children.
According to a study from the University of the Philippines, Filipino students are generally
capable in terms of navigating and using the technology e.g., computers and internet
connectivity but are not prepared in terms of learner control and other factors.
Reyes et. al (2020) stated in the conclusion of the study that external distractions may resultin loss of the learner’s productivity and recommended that the pupils sustain a healthy life
and work balance through planning and time management. Moreover, household members
ought to be informed of the following factors and there must be a conscious effort between

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the family to support and guide the learners. Therefore, the researcher devised research todetermine if enlisting the parents or guardians for online webinars with topics that would aid
them to prepare pupils for online learning.
During the start of classes, an orientation was provided for the parents to inform them of thestudy, the webinars, and its goal. The webinars took place during Saturdays from October toNovember. A total of 26 participants agreed to attend the webinars. The webinar topics
included Importance of Messenger in this time of Pandemic which highlights the use of
Facebook messenger as one of the key means of communication. The parents were taught
how to use the apps’ different features that could be maximized for learning delivery. The
next webinar was Adapting with the new Modes of Learning which gave simple backgrounds
on the different learning modalities that will be used; and providing pointers for the parents
on how to prepare for them. The next set of webinars were entitled Educational Webinars at
Home and Use of Indigenous Materials at Home for Learning. During face-to-face classes, it
is imperative for the teachers to provide different games, activities, and instructional
materials to promote learning for the children but then, since the parents will act as thefacilitators of learning at home, they should be able to come up with the same activities andresources that will help nurture their own children and those two webinars would help them.
While the episode Making Kids Ready for Remote Learning did not just provide tips for theparents, but since the online classes already started there was sharing of challenges that wereencountered as well as the other participants sharing plausible results that they did with theirchildren. After the series of webinars, the parents are expected to apply the knowledge thatthey acquired.
The actual dates of implementation are shown on table A.
Webinar Topics

Table A.
Date of Implementation

Importance of FB Messenger in This

October 10, 2020

Time of Pandemic
Adapting with the New Modes ofOctober 17, 2020

Learning
Educational Games at Home

October 24, 2020

Distant Learning: reading at Home

October 31, 2020

Use of Indigenous Materials at Home for November 7, 2020
Learning
Everyday Parenting: The ABC of Child

November 14, 2020

Rearing
Roles of Parents in Developing Children's November 21, 2020
Interest in Reading
Making Kids Ready for Remote Learning November 28, 2020

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According to Trautner (2019) Parenting programs that offer guidance and support to makeparenting easier, and enjoyable can reinforce the child’s abilities to succeed. Therefore, since
assistance was provided for parents and guardians early on, the anxiety of the learners wasaddressed, which resulted in progress of the number of days that they attended classes.
Conclusion
The improvement of the pupil’s readiness and attitude towards online classes would bedetermined should the pupils attendance rate increase. The data gathered through the SF-2
forms would be presented through utilization of visual graphical representation. According to
Verdinelli and Scagnoli (2013) the use of visual representation of data heightens the reader’sanalysis as well as comprehension of data and highlights a research’s data presentation andassessment.
The Likert Scale for the parents’ responses was designed in which 5 was strongly agree, 4agree, 3 is neutral, 2 is disagree while 1 represents strong disagreement. The first part of thequestionnaire is dedicated to the respondents demographics, age and gender while the second
part is regarding the parents’ evaluation of the webinars and if their expectations were met.
The Likert scale would determine if majority of the parents agree that the RSZ webinar series
helped them guide and prepare their children for online learning.
Kindergarten Readiness in the New Normal
The new normal way of schooling has posed a lot of challenges for young pupils. Youngchildren have to stay in front of computers or other available gadgets and navigate throughthe school’s chosen online platform to unmute and mute themselves during online classes
Reilly (2020).
During the first week, the pupils were struggling during classes. Their attendance rate was at
a low level, as seen on table 1 and 1.1, based on a 3-day online conference class for week 1,
only 5 out of 26 pupils were able to attend thrice which is only 19.230 % while, 9 were able
to join twice which is 34.615 % and 38.461% were only able to attend once.
Table 1

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Table 1.1

After the 1st webinar, there was an increase of the pupils weekly average attendance. From
1.63 out of 3 days which was 56.33% it had a 30.57% increase the following week. Out of 3days, they closed in on their average at 2.3 as seen in table 2.
Table 2

Looking closely on Kinder Bataw’s weekly average attendance from table 2, it had a steadyincrease in the span of 2 months. Comparing week 1 and week 8, Kinder Bataw’s weekly
average attendance went from 1.69 to 2.93. From 56.33% it has risen to 97.33%. Week 1 andWeek 8 had a 72.78% increase in their interval.

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Table 3

Parents Perception on the RSW Series of Webinars
From the results of the participants Likert scale survey questionnaire, it shows that forquestion number 1, 3, 4 and 5: The skills and information presented were timely and relevant;
The topics of the webinars increased my knowledge and skills to help me guide my child forthe new normal education.; The webinar helped me prepare my child for the incoming newnormal education; I am very satisfied with the webinars each had a mode of 5 which meansthat most of the participants strongly agree with the statements while question 2, The
webinars were properly presented and easily understood had a 4 as the most frequent answer
which means that most of them agree.
Table 4
3. The topicsof the1. The skills

2. Thewebinars

andwebinars were increased myinformation

properlyknowledge andpresented were presented and skills to help
timely andeasilyme guide my

relevant.

understood.

child for the

4. The webinar
helped me

5. I am very

prepare mysatisfied withchild for thethe webinars.

online classes.

new normal
education.

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5

5

5

5

5

5

5

5

5

5

5

5

5

5

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mode
mean

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5

5

5

5

5

5

5

5

5

5

5

5

5

5

5

5

5

5

5

5

5

5

5

5

5

5

5

5

5

5

5

5

5

5

5

5

5

5

5

5

5

4

5

5

5

5

4

5

5

5

5

4

5

5

5

4

4

4

5

5

4

4

4

4

4

4

4

4

4

4

4

4

4

4

4

4

4

4

4

4

4

4

4

4

4

4

4

4

4

4

4

4

4

4

4

3

4

4

4

4

3

3

3

4

3

3

3

3

3

3

3

3

3

3

3

5

4

5

5

5

4.38

4.30

4.42

4.5

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In conclusion, the attendance rate of the pupils increased from the first week of classes before
the parents and guardians attended any webinars and continued to improve successively after
each webinar series. The implication that the improvement was credited to the RSZ webinar
series were derived from the results of the parents Likert Survey questionnaire. Item no. 3
which asks if the topics of the webinars increased the parents’ knowledge and skills to help
them guide their child for the new normal education, had an average of 4.42 out of 5. Whilefor question 4, which asks if the webinars generally helped the parents prepare the pupils foronline classes scored 4.5 out of 5.
Moreover, the researcher suggests that in this time of the pandemic, teachers should take into
consideration in helping and training the parents to guide their children since the new normal
and different types of modalities are entirely a new territory for all stakeholders.
Acknowledgments
All praises are for the Lord, our creator. Which enlightened and guided me throughout thecompletion of this study. This would not be possible without the support and motivation that
I have received from the people around me.
I would like to express my gratitude to the City Government of Pasig and Schools Division
Office of Pasig City for, allowing me to showcase and present my paper at the Southeast
Asean Conference on Education and for funding my endeavor in pursuing truth andknowledge through research.
Many thanks to my Principal Ma’am Josephine Z. Macawile for being supportive andencouraging me toward the end.
To my genuine friends and colleagues, thank you for the inspiring discussions, andmotivations and for staying with me through the end.
To my loved ones, your unending moral and emotional support, your efforts, are duly noted,
and my accomplishments are dedicated to you.

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References
Bradshaw, C., Atkinson, S., & Doody, O (2017) Employing a Description Approach in
Health Care Research.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5703087/?tool=pmcentrez
Colorafi, K. J. & Evans B. (2020) Qualitative Descriptive Methods in Health Science
Research. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7586301/
Dulock, H. L. (1993) Research Design: Descriptive Research.
https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/104345429301000406?journalCode=jp
obFurey, E. Mean, Median, Mode Calculator.
https://www.calculatorsoup.com/calculators/statistics/mean-median-mode.php
Glen, S. (2021) T Test (Student’s T-Test): Definition and Examples.
https://www.statisticshowto.com/probability-and-statistics/t-test/
Gohl, E. & Thorson, K. (2020) Engaging Families During Distance Learning.
https://www.gettingsmart.com/2020/08/engaging-families-during-distance-learning/
Lambert, V. A., & Lambert, C. E. (2012) Qualitative Descriptive Research: An Acceptable
Designhttps://scholar.google.com.ph/scholar_url?url=https://he02.tcithaijo.org/index.php/PR
IJNR/article/download/5805/5064&hl=en&sa=X&ei=Aj5bYdvMKYLQyQTB27FY&scisig=AAGBfm2W4HZfFV69TRx6VGv44SymTpQvg&oi=scholar
Reilly, K. (2020) 'Where Are the Kids?' School Is Back in Session, but Many
Kindergarteners Are Missing https://time.com/5891855/school-coronaviruskindergarten/
Reyes, J. S., Grajo, J. DL., Comia, L. N., Talento, M. DP., Ebal, L. A., and Mendoza, J., O.
(2020) Assessment of Filipino Higher Education Students’ Readiness for e-Learning
During a Pandemic: A Rasch Technique Application.
https://philjournalsci.dost.gov.ph/images/pdf/pjs_pdf/vol150no3/assessment_of_Filipi
no_Higher_Education_students_.pdf
Trautner T. (2019) The importance of parent education. https://www.canr.msu.edu/news/theimportance-of-parent-education
Verdinelli, S. & Scagnoli, N. I. (2013) Data Display in Qualitative Researchhttps://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/160940691301200117
Williams, P. G. & Lerner, M. A. (2019) School Readiness. Aappublications.

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Integration of Contents of Local Wisdom in Curriculum for
Cosmetology Vocational Schools: An Analysis
Octaverina Kecvara Pritasari, Universitas Negeri Surabaya, Indonesia
Suparji, Universitas Negeri Surabaya, Indonesia
Maspiyah, Universitas Negeri Surabaya, Indonesia
I Gusti Putu Asto Buditjahjanto, Universitas Negeri Surabaya, Indonesia
Bambang Suprianto, Universitas Negeri Surabaya, Indonesia
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Abstract
This study aims to analyze the curriculum in beauty vocational schools in Ponorogo
Regency-East Java based on the values of local wisdom. This school's curriculum is based on
the character and resources that exist in the area, both natural and human resources. This typeof research is descriptive qualitative with data collection techniques through observation,interviews, and FGD (Forum Group Discussion). The results of the FGD with district staff
and local schools produced data that the local area had become one of the crowded areas
because of its proximity to the border between Central and East Java and the folding of
natural resources. Therefore, many locals work as farmers and some are employees. All thesedata are materials for developing the curriculum of the vocational school of beauty
management in the School. The results of this study explained that the curriculum
development of vocational schools in Ponorogo Regency-East Java is based on the values of
local wisdom, which includes the cultivation of natural resources and the empowerment of
human resources. The recommendation for further research is the development of vocational
schools for curriculum management based on local wisdom in other schools.
Keywords: Cosmetology Vocational School Curriculum, Local Wisdom, Natural Resources,
Human Resources

iafor
The International Academic Forumwww.iafor.org

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Introduction

Education in schools requires a curriculum that is relevant to industry needs. The curriculum
used in Vocational High Schools is said to be relevant to the needs of the business world andthe industrial world, because the curriculum is important in education and significantly
affects the quality of graduates. Curriculum should begin with a specification of student
needs. A question posed is why the target curriculum is designed based on the needs of thecommunity? The answer is because the community will be users of graduates (Ambiyar et al2018). The totality of experiences experienced by students in the educational process isreferred to as the curriculum. Clark (2015) says, “Curriculum is a collection of experiences
designed for students through their education, wherever they are educated. In particular, thecurriculum refers to what knowledge and skills will be learned by students, which contains
the expected learning objectives; teacher-taught units and lessons; assignments and projects
given to students; books, materials, videos, presentations, and readings used in the course;
and other methods used to evaluate student learning (Fitriyanti, et.al, 2021). The governmentis trying to overcome the stagnation in the quality of SMK graduates in the industrial andbusiness world by issuing Presidential Instruction Number 9 of 2016 concerning Vocational
Revitalization. It is a way of addressing the mismatch between skills taught in vocational
schools and the industrial and business world (Handel, 2014; Hersch, 2012). Policies related
to linking and matching with industry needs must exist revitalized (Sloane, 2013; Boudarbat
and Chernoff, 2015). Apart from these policies, the curriculum in vocational high schools
must also be able to present the integration of local wisdom, which can also be seen in thelearning process so that graduates meet expectations in the world of work. The world of workrequires not only qualified hard skills but also soft skills.
Local wisdom is an accumulation of knowledge and policies that grow and develop in asociety that includes theological, cosmological, and sociological perspectives (Afiqoh et al.,2018). Opinions from other sources state that local wisdom is a living concept that is trusted
and used by the local community. In society, beliefs and ways of life are passed down fromgeneration to generation. Local wisdom is also the result of community adaptation originatingfrom life experiences passed down from generation to generation. According to Fajarini(2014) local wisdom is the way local people address life's problems to solve their life
problems with knowledge, and all forms of life that are embodied in every activity. In linewith this opinion, local wisdom according to Hajrah, et.
The integration of local wisdom into the curriculum in schools is urgently needed,considering the local wisdom that has been implemented supports good character education.
Local wisdom-based education can also create a global-minded society or a society
commonly referred to as global citizenship. Local wisdom or culture of an area can be
introduced to the national and international scene. Currently, global citizenship education is a
topic of discussion for many people.
The self-learning curriculum used in Vocational High Schools is an implementation of thenoble life of the Indonesian nation which is contained in Pancasila and reflects the original
personality of the Indonesian nation (Nurgiansah, 2021; Sulianti et al., 2020). Indonesia is acountry consisting of thousands of ethnic groups and cultures. Indonesian culture will be
explored through local wisdom education, including variants with Indonesian culturalpotential that can be shown to the world as an effort to develop Indonesia from anenvironmental sustainability perspective. Through education, the effort to develop culture isthrough learning programs based on Pancasila ideology which can give birth to student

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profiles with Pancasila. Therefore, learning based on local wisdom is an effort that is being
carried out by the Indonesian government to create students with a Pancasila profile.
The cosmetology department at the 2nd vocational high school in Ponorogo, East Java,
especially in the Ponorogo district, adopted an independent curriculum. The curriculum used
there is the school's operational curriculum. In order to be meaningful, this Curriculum isdeveloped according to the context and needs of students and schools. In the preparation anddevelopment of the School Operational Curriculum, the Pancasila Student Profile becomes areference in developing the school's vision, mission and objectives. The Pancasila Student
Profile has six competencies. The six competencies are interrelated so that efforts to realize acomplete Pancasila Student Profile require these dimensions simultaneously. The six
dimensions are Faith, piety to God Almighty, and noble character, Global Diversity, Mutual
Cooperation, Independent, Critical and Creative Reasoning. The expected profile ofgraduates from the cosmetology major is to prepare students to become skilled mid-level
executives, trained according to the expertise program they choose and able to apply theirabilities to be self-employed/work independently both in beauty companies, salons and spas.
Based on observations and interviews with Beauty Therapy Teachers at Ponorogo vocational
high schools, it is known that from year to year the community's interest in studying at SMK
Negeri 2 Ponorogo is very large and continues to grow, although there are also many State
SMKs growing in every sub-district in the Ponorogo district. This is certainly a threat to
SMK Negeri 2 Ponorogo. For this reason, excellent service and good and correct
management of students must be given as a form of responsibility in educating the nation'schildren. The output produced must be truly competent and have good character and soft
skills. The resulting outcomes are also able to position alumni to be accepted to work in theWorld of Work both domestically and abroad such as Japan, Korea and Taiwan, capable andcourageous to become entrepreneurs and continue to a higher level of education.
Referring to the problems previously described, it is necessary to disclose the relevance of thecurriculum applied in schools whether it reflects the values of local wisdom. This study aims
to identify and analyze the contribution of local wisdom in the curriculum, and reformulate
the local wisdom-based curriculum development framework. The importance of this researchis to contribute local wisdom values in curriculum design for international benefits andinterests. This contribution can be interpreted as an effort to support national interests where
education based on local wisdom is expected to be an asset in developing education
management based on local goals, but oriented to national interests so that this contribution
can be beneficial for the progress of the nation. education.
II.

MethodThis type of research is descriptive qualitative with data collection techniques throughobservation, interviews, and FGD (Forum Group Discussion). In qualitative research there
are several types of data collection methods, but which ones are related must be adjusted towhat the researcher wants to achieve. The most common tools used for qualitative research
are focus group discussions, interviews, and participant observation (Vanderstoep &Johnston, 2009). In this study, qualitative focus group discussions on research methods havebeen highlighted. Social science investigators in general and qualitative investigators inparticular rely on focus groups to gather data from several people at once.

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Result And Discussion

Based on the results of observations made at the Department of Cosmetology at Vocational
High School 2 Ponorogo, it is known that: 1) the Beauty Department is one of the favorite
expertise programs that produces graduates with basic knowledge, attitudes, and skills thatare qualified, professional, competitive, and creative as Beautician, Hairstylist, Makeup
Artist, and Therapist. Graduates need these competencies if they want a career as abeautician. This is in line with Elley's opinion (2018), that a cosmetologist studies haircutting, styling, color, makeup application, manicures, and pedicure services, what styles andcolors will look good on different people, chemistry for mixing colors, and treatments. otherchemistry. 2) Availability of adequate and quite complete infrastructure facilities to support
student competency to learn and develop according to expectations in the world of work 3)
The curriculum used at the school uses the New Paradigm curriculum, where the curriculum
used is formulated together with stakeholders in a collaborative, meaningful, in-depth
manner, taking into account the latest technological developments. This is because thiscurriculum will become the school's internal guidelines in carrying out the learning process.
4) The curriculum at school gives students the freedom to develop skills in the field ofentrepreneurship through traditional cosmetic products, herbal drinks that are well acceptedby society. These products are made by utilizing local potential that is around Ponorogo. The
materials used for making products such as coffee beans, turmeric, ginger, pandan leaves arevery easy to find in the surrounding plantations, and even grow in the yards of residents'
houses. In addition, students are enthusiastic when practicing product making in existinglaboratories. 5) In practice, almost all subjects use project-based learning and the casemethod. The learning approach applied is competency-based learning.
In the FGD activities, where this activity involved several aspects, starting from industry
which is a stakeholder from schools, members of professional certification bodies, anduniversities, a curriculum was formulated that was in accordance with the needs andconditions of schools and the surrounding environment in Ponorogo Regency.

Figure 1. FGD activities with industry
In the FGD activities, which involved several aspects, starting from the industry which is a
stakeholder and partner of schools, members of professional certification bodies, anduniversities, a curriculum was formulated that was in accordance with the needs andconditions of the school and the surrounding environment. in Ponorogo Regency.
Based on the FGD activities, it is known that the curriculum used already uses a newparadigm curriculum that is guided by the Pancasila student profile. Pancasila is the basis of
the Indonesian state, so it is expected that student learning outcomes in each subject are maderationally but still contain Pancasila student profiles in it as the characteristics and identity of

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the Indonesian nation. In learning, the system developed at SMK Negeri 2 Ponorogo,especially in the Beauty program, is a block system. 9. The Beauty Department is included in
the Expertise Group: Tourism, Specialty Program: Spa and Beauty. Where there is aConcentration of Expertise (1) Concentration of Expertise in Beauty Therapists (2) Hair andBeauty. Concentration is a study specialization taken in an expertise program at the beginningof phase F (Grades XI and XII). Concentration on studying more specific competencies, inaccordance with the objectives and the World of Work or business opportunities that will beplaced by graduates. Based on this, students in all Skills Programs at SMK Negeri 2
Ponorogo are allowed to take one concentration, because this concentration is intended sothat students are truly focused and competent, so they are ready to enter the world of work or
entrepreneurship.
In the block learning system, subjects are divided into general subjects, vocational subjects,
and character development and work culture based on the profile of Pancasila students.
Where in general subjects contain religious and moral education. Moral education that isfostered in schools based on local wisdom which is the standard for the surrounding
community, as well as the work culture that is applied in the industry that is a stakeholder.
Where the majority of stakeholders from these schools are still in Ponorogo and its
surroundings. In addition, the subjects of Pancasila and citizenship education, Indonesianlanguage, history, arts, physical education, sports and health. Subjects for the Vocational
School group are divided into Mathematics, English, Informatics, Science and Social
Projects, Vocational Schools, Creative Products and Entrepreneurship (Based on local
potential around Ponorogo) and Field Work Practices.
Based on the results of interviews with school principals regarding learning carried out inschools it is known that: "Learning that builds student performance includes mastery ofknowledge, skills, and attitudes as an inseparable unit. in order to be able to master attitudes,
knowledge, and skills so that they can work according to their profession and what is no lessimportant is the mastery of soft skills to support the hard skills they already have.
Furthermore, to explore the completeness of student learning, through questions to the deputy
head of the curriculum, several strategies are known to achieve this, including: "develop
learning principles, namely learning by doing, individualized learning, teamwork learning".
That is one of the keys to why the quality of school graduates is valued. The absorption of
graduates into the world of work is very good, the majority of beauty salons and businesses in
Ponorogo district and its surroundings are beauty school graduates with this major.
Which translates to:
1. Learning by doing (learning through real, authentic, contextual activities or activities
that provide meaningful learning experiences), developed into project-based learning,production-based learning, problem-solving-based learning, work-based learning, andothers that are appropriate to apply at school.
2. Individual learning, namely learning by taking into account the uniqueness of eachindividual, and carried out with a modular system.
3. Teamwork learning is learning that develops the ability to work in teams bystrengthening self-competence, being responsible for tasks, and understanding theirposition and function in the team. Vocational learning is not enough to learn to mastercompetence individually but needs to learn in groups.

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From the results of the context analysis, the improvement of the Education Unit Operational
Curriculum is directed at improving the following:
1. The teacher's individual work procedures are changed to collaborative work
procedures;
2. Strengthening the positive character and soft skills of students by making the values
in the Pancasila Student Profile the main principles of development;
3. Strengthening facilities and infrastructure to improve services in the learning process;4. Strengthen cooperation with the World of Work through resource sharing;
5. Student-centered learning management. Learners must have a choice of the material
studied to have the same competence;
6. Interactive learning (interactive teacher-student-society/natural environment, othersources/media);
7. Network learning (students can gain knowledge from anyone and anywhere that canbe contacted and obtained through the internet);
8. Active-seeking learning (Learning of students who are actively seeking isstrengthened by the science approach learning model);9. Learning strengthens the development of the special potential that each student has sothat he develops according to his potential,
10. Multidisciplinary learning so that students are flexible in applying their competencies
in society.
Added by the head of the cosmetology department at the Vocational High School that "Allsubjects offered in the curriculum structure, how to achieve competence, are packaged in theform of Learning Outcomes prepared by the teaching teacher for each learning outcome
which is translated into a Flow of Learning Objectives using various models and learning
methods adapted to the characteristics of each subject. Evidence of learning outcomes in theform of portfolios of student work is well documented as a form of teacher accountability
when conducting assessments through various supporting instruments and reporting them toparents in the form of a report card.”
Then the deputy head of curriculum added that for the application of local content in the
curriculum, namely in the subject of creativity and entrepreneurship products, the results ofstudent projects were in the form of beauty products in the form of traditional herbal drinks(jamu) and traditional cosmetics. Where students make projects in groups and then sell theseproducts to the community. For drink formulas, traditional cosmetics and other products, they
get product formulas based on team research results and traditional family recipes and naturalingredients that are around them.”

Figure 2. One of the student's products

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Furthermore, regarding the responses of subject teachers who teach creative product andentrepreneurship subjects, they admit that they are very grateful to be able to teach andexplore the surrounding natural wealth for the younger generation to maintain ancestral
culture so that it remains sustainable. At first, the students had difficulty finding the formula,but the teacher guided them to gather information from the elders of the village where theirparents lived and the leader of the neighborhood where they lived. The information iscollected then they summarize and determine which formula they will embody in the form of
a creative product. Another teacher said that “the parents responded positively to the projectand in the end, some of them helped market the student's product.”
In a further interview with the head of the cosmetology section at the school, “it was foundthat the products made by students in the cosmetology section were superior school productsthat the school was very proud of. When participating in educational exhibitions in districts
or provinces, student products were selling well and received positive responses.”
Several students were also asked about their responses to creative and entrepreneurial
product-making projects using local materials. Their responses were very happy andinteresting. One student said “so far I haven't cared about the surrounding plants, the natural
wealth that exists. Everything is normal, but through this lesson, I realized that everythingcan be used and make money.” Another student also said “I have been taking care of my skinby buying beauty products in stores, but I am now thinking of making my own as they arecheaper, and safe to use on the skin.”IV.

Conclusion

That the school has implemented local wisdom values in its curriculum. The local wisdom inquestion is based on the profile of Pancasila students contained in the curriculum. The
curriculum at this SMK in Ponorogo has been jointly drafted and standardized by the Worldof Work. Strengthening aspects of soft skills and work character to complement hard skill
aspects according to the needs of the world of work. In addition, real-based learning from theWorld of Work (Project based learning) from the start and schools ensures that graduatesfrom these schools have hard skills accompanied by soft skills and a strong character of work
readiness. That the school has implemented local wisdom values in its curriculum. The local
wisdom in question is based on the profile of Pancasila students contained in the curriculum.

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Bibliography
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Contact email: octaverinakecvara@unesa.ac.id

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Pagtimakas: Modular Learning Experiences of CAPSU MSC Students

Maria Aurora G. Victoriano, Capiz State University, Philippines
Lalaine E. Ricardo, Capiz State University, Philippines
Freden S. Delgado, Capiz State University, Philippines
Felyn Mae G. Yap, Capiz State University, Philippines

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Abstract
Hiligaynon is a language used in Western Visayas, Philippines. Pagtimakás is a Hiligaynon
word meaning to exert oneself or make great efforts. In the Philippines, the Education sector
is among the most highly affected by the COVID-19 pandemic. Capiz State University,
Mambusao Satellite College (CAPSU MSC), is situated in a rural area with limited internet
connection. Thus, the institution implemented a modular learning approach with little or noface-to-face interaction between students and their instructors and is highly dependent on
printed modules to maintain the education of students. Understanding the plight andchallenges of these students can be a source of actions and plans that will help them cope andsucceed in their academic endeavors. Hence, this study was conducted. The study uses
phenomenology to answer the research questions. An in-depth interview using a semistructured questionnaire was the researcher's data-gathering instrument. Eight students
purposively chosen based on inclusivity criteria became participants of the study. Results
showed that lack of learning resources, time, and self-paced learning are the challenges the
CAPSU MSC students faced. However, students cope with these challenges by seeking help,
time management, and a proper mindset and determination. All of these attributes toBandura's (1997) Self-Efficacy Theory, which states that Self-efficacy refers to the person'sbelief in their capacity to execute behaviors necessary to produce specific performanceattainments. It is recommended that the institution must incorporate technologicalinnovations to improve modular learning, and awareness of students' knowledge of modular
learning is encouraged.

Keywords: Learning Experiences, Challenges, Phenomenology

iafor
The International Academic Forumwww.iafor.org

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Introduction
The education sector is one of the most highly affected by the COVID-19 pandemic. In thePhilippines, where there are still growing COVID-19 infections, this study presented some
new normal situations in the school setting. Academic institutions have been forced toentirely cancel face-to-face teaching, including laboratories and other learning experiences, asa mitigation step against the risk posed by the Coronavirus. Accordingly, various measuresby higher education providers have been initiated to implement social isolation strategies, andonline teaching is followed with rapid curriculum transformation.
To respond to the needs of learners, especially of the 3.5 million tertiary-level students
enrolled in approximately 2,400 HEIs, certain HEIs in the country have implemented
proactive policies for continuing education despite the closure. These policies include
modified forms of blended learning that aim to facilitate student learning activities. Despite
the calls for an academic freeze due to the coronavirus outbreak, the Department of
Education still believes education should not be compromised. The government implemented
a distance learning approach to maintain the education of millions of Filipino students.
Distance learning is also known as correspondence education or home study. It is a form of
instruction with little or no face-to-face interaction between students and their instructors.
This type of modality has three categories. One of the highly convenient for most typical
Filipino students is Modular Distance Learning. Students are expected to complete the task
and submit their outputs at the end of the week. Open communication between the teacher tostudents and/or teacher to parents/guardians is also part of the norm. This is to ensure andmonitor the progress of the students at home.
Learning is considered one of the essential features and characteristics that play a significant
role in a nation's progress. In contrast, it positively and comprehensively raises new
generations while relying on modern and advanced scientific foundations. This progress ismeasured by the extent of educators' knowledge of teaching methods, means, and theories
and their knowledge of contemporary teaching orientations. For varying reasons, however,different sectors have chastised the proactive, flexible learning measures by HEIs. They argue
that "adding more workload for the students increases their burden and contradicts the
purpose of the lockdown, which is to help their families prepare and adjust to the situation athand." Finally, there is an issue about the "lack of environments conducive to learning at
home and the effectiveness of the online lectures" (Bagayas, 2020).
This present phenomenon needs to be given attention before it becomes a social problem inthe future. Understanding the plight and challenges of these students can be a source ofactions and plans that will help them cope and succeed in their academic endeavors. Studies
on students' experiences under the modular learning approach in this university, particularlyon this campus, need to be explored, hence, this study.
Research Questions
This study sought to determine and understand the lived experiences of CAPSU MSC
students on the modular learning approach in the AY 2020-2021. Specifically, the study
sought to answer the following questions:
1. What challenges do CAPSU MSC students face with the modular learning approach?

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2. What are CAPSU MSC students' coping mechanisms for the challenges modular
learning brings?
3. What action or plan can be drawn from the study?
Literature Review
On December 31, 2019, the Wuhan health authority reported a group of 27 pneumonia cases
stemming from a mysterious etiology (Committee WCH, 2019). The infected cases werelinked to the closed Wuhan Huanan Seafood Wholesale Market. Later medical investigations
resolved the ambiguity and determined this pneumonia a novel Coronavirus (2019-nCoV) or(COVID-19). Then, World Health Organization (WHO) declared COVID-19 a "public healthemergency of international concern” through the Health Regulations Emergency Committee.
A month later, on January 30, 2020, WHO declared COVID-19 a pandemic (Liguori &Winkler, 2020).
The rapid outbreaks of the virus have shed light globally on the actual threat that the virus
possesses. While speculation and uncertainty still exist around the virus, there are no specificvaccines or treatments for COVID-19 (Sohrabi et al., 2020). Therefore, the entire
organization worldwide has begun exploring contingency preparedness plans and percussions
to confront the COVID-19 pandemic. Like the other industrial sectors, the global higher
education sector has been highly affected by the COVID-19 pandemic. Governments haveadopted abundant measures to restrain the extremely pathogen contagious of COVID-19, andthese measures beset the education systems worldwide. Quarantine, self-isolation, lockdown,
curfew, and the subsequent closure of academic universities and institutions have influenced
the normal progress of the educational process. On April 6, 2020, 188 countries enforced
interim closure for their educational institutions, as reported by UNESCO, while localized
closures have been implemented by several countries, consequently affecting 1,576,021,818
learners. Accordingly, as an emergency response to COVID-19, most educational authorities
have argued for sudden online transformations for classes at all levels. However, the issue ofthe affected groups is how to meet the essential, necessary conditions of remote learning(Eder, 2020).
COVID-19 has immensely influenced academic institutions that rely on the income of theseinternational student (Perrotta, 2020). However, the global trend has moved toward"suspending classes without stopping learning," a contiguous policy launched by the ministryof education in China (Zhang et al., 2020). As the spread of the disease evolved globally,
most academic institutions, universities, and schools responded with diverse approaches.
Accordingly, the educators converted the curriculums to an online environment and modular
approach.
School from Home during the COVID-19 Pandemic has impacted the educational systems of
all countries across the globe significantly. In response to this crisis, countries have applieddifferent rules and methods for dealing with changes in the learning system. Within a few
months, national educational systems turned to solutions like online methods (using online
applications, TV, radio, and offline methods, including printed books and modules. Alongwith these changes, alterations have been necessary for instructional strategies, technologicalreadiness to implement online learning, and supporting and motivating all concerned parties.
While the great hope is that the situation soon returns to normal, in the meantime, changes innational curricula must be made to increase flexibility, and technological readiness must be
accelerated.

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Due to the COVID-19 crisis, teachers and students both find themselves feeling compelled toembrace the digital academic experience as the summum bonum of the online teachinglearning process. Through digital intelligence (DQ Institute, 2019), teachers can cater tochildren's digital skills, which are on the brink of cyber risk, into educational opportunities toachieve success in future ventures, especially in this pandemic, where children are wholly
dependent on online learning. The Coronavirus is upending life (EdSource, 2020) that caused
an enduring threat to our educational institutions from kindergarten to tertiary level and, dayby day exacerbated the teaching-learning. Apart from philanthropic efforts, some people
hoped to parlay their enterprising skills into profit-making opportunities.
The theoretical perspective of this study focused on the constructivist worldview thatrecognizes reality as a product of human intelligence interacting with experience in the realworld (Denzin & Lincoln, 2005). It accepts reality as a construct of the human mind;
therefore, the reality is perceived as subjective (Corbin, 2007). The observer creates reality bygiving meaning to what is observed. In other words, the reality is constructed through aperson's operational experience. Therefore, reality needs to be interpreted. In this study, thereality students face is how to survive the daily struggles of modular learning. Students are ina real world of overflowing modules and lecture notes, and how will they be able to.
Methodology
The study is a qualitative design using phenomenology to answer the research questions on
the lived experiences of students in CAPSU on the modular learning approach.
The research study utilized the interpretivist phenomenological approach in its methodology.
In this approach, it is essential for the researcher as a social actor to appreciate the differences
between people (Hadzilias, 2011). The interpretive research assumed that access to reality is
only through social constructions such as language, consciousness, shared meanings, sharedexperiences, and instruments (Creswell, 2014). Moreover, Interpretivism usually focuses on
the meaning and may employ multiple methods to reflect different aspects of the issue(Clandinin & Connelly, 2000). The Interpretivist approach will be supported by other theories
that can best explain and understand the purpose of the study. In this study, students haveexperiences that can be understood based on the meanings ascribed to their stories.
Phenomenology as a methodological approach in this study is understood as the detailed
description of experiences in how the subject experiences them. All rely on experience as avalid form of knowledge. Knowledge stems from human experience (Collins, 2010), and,despite being embedded in networks of power, the experience can be helpful (Oksala, 2016).
Qualitative research is a design that looks into a deeper meaning and understanding of theparticipants' lived experiences (Creswell, 2014). Likewise, it gave many opportunities thatassume the value of context and setting. Its main feature is to provide meaningful and more
profound explanations of social activities. Creswell (2007) stated that qualitative research
was intended to explore, more importantly, the social phenomena by immersing in thesituations. Using a modular learning approach, this study understands and investigates
students' lived experiences at Capiz State University for the academic year 2020-2021. In
gathering evidence, qualitative research relies less on scales and scores. It focuses on in-depth
data that reflects the experiences, feelings, and judgments of the participants participating in
the investigations. Data was gathered from interviews and focus group discussions of theparticipants under study.

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The study participants were identified using a purposive sampling method based on thefollowing criteria: (a) currently enrolled in CAPSU MSC; (b) willing to participate in the
study. There were eight participants included in the study. The researcher asked for theirpermission before they were considered as participants. Moreover, their identities are notexposed.
The researcher used the semi-structured interview protocol as a tool for gathering data.
Computer data analysis was also utilized with the use of NVivo12. NNivo12 is a qualitative
data analysis (QDA) computer software package produced by QSR International. It has been
designed for qualitative researchers working with rich text-based and/or multimedia
information, where deep levels of analysis on small or large volumes of data are required.
Ethics and the safety of informants have an extraordinary emphasis in any research work.
Accordingly, utmost care was used to ensure the anonymity and safety of participants.
Participants in this study were informed through informed consent of the anonymity of theiridentity, about the research goals, and that they could skip questions or stop at any time.
Results and Discussion
Challenges faced by the CAPSU MSC students on the modular learning approach
According to Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (oecd.org), thecurrent COVID-19 crisis has obliged most education systems to adopt face-to-face teaching
and learning alternatives. Many education systems moved activities online to allow
instruction to continue despite school closures. Accordingly, the educators converted thecurriculums to an online environment and modular approach. This conversion and the shift inthe mode of instruction pose struggles to students who play an integral part in the new normal
education. Based on the result of this study, the students at CAPSU Mambusao Satellite
College encountered various challenges in modular learning modalities amid the COVID-19
pandemic.
It can be seen that the students' challenges are lack of learning resources, lack of time, andself-paced learning. As the study's locale, the institution opted to use printed modules.
However, some materials must be downloaded online to supplement the lessons. This resultsin need for more learning resources as one of the challenges the students encounter. Dayagbil,
Palompon, et al. (2021), in their study, pointed out that students reported that the majority ofthem were unable to accomplish the tasks assigned by the teachers due to their inability toaccess the learning resources uploaded on the internet.
Moreover, they need more suitable gadgets to finish the tasks. A study by Boca (2021)
confirms that there are also some inequalities regarding internet access (no telephone signal,
needing a laptop/computer/tablet/mobile phone, and a reasonably low level of digital skills).
Moreover, the locations of the participants prohibit them from having a clear and stableinternet connection. Thus, students unanimously reiterated that poor internet connectivity
hinders them from accessing other learning materials. Inequalities in internet connection andpersonal gadgets were prevalent issues among the participants. The Guidance and CounselingServices office reported in 2019 that most students enrolled in the institution werecategorized under the poverty threshold with a monthly income of 10,000 and below. Thus,
internet connections and personal gadgets are not readily available, resulting in limited accessto learning materials.

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As for the lack of time, students experienced more difficulties managing their time andregulating their attention and efforts and reported needing more motivation than before thepandemic (Wiradhanyz et al., 2021). Thus, the participants need help with how they will use
their time. Essel and Owusu (2017) found that having domestic responsibilities andresponsibilities related to a job while in school are among the sources of stress for most
students. It was also found that they are aware of the deadlines of their requirements, but theytend to forget it unless it is the day before the submission. This is observed when a participant
stated that the "deadline pressures me to finish all the activities." Essel and Owusu (2017)
also claimed that an increase in class workload stresses students because when students haveto do more than they can handle, they get frustrated and cannot focus and think straight.
Although Dunham (2020) stated that losing track of time during this pandemic is a common
occurrence, it is to be noted that the bulk of activities stipulated in the modules may
contribute to the pressure felt by the participants. Thus, in doing so, they need more time tofinish their modules.
Regarding self-paced learning, Sason and Kellerman's (2021) study found that teacherstudent interaction is one of the most significant contributors to students' motivation,satisfaction, and ability to cope with learning assignments. However, since the participants
use printed modules, learning must be self-paced, and interaction is limited. For example, aparticipant highlighted their difficulty in this self-paced learning by stating, "it is difficult toabsorb the lessons without another more knowledgeable person who can explain complicatedtopics appropriately."
Gray and DiLoreto (2016) postulated that increased learner interaction, student engagement,
and instructor presence positively affect student satisfaction and perceived learning. In theirstudy, Dela Cruz et al. (2022) recommended that colleges and universities generate new
instructional methodologies in the new normal that will enable feedback and interaction.
Teachers should continue communicating with their students, and institutions should consider
ways to reach out to students to address their educational needs.
Coping mechanisms of CAPSU MSC students on the challenges brought about by
modular learning
As students face different challenges in implementing modular learning, they strive toovercome them through different approaches. An interesting coping mechanism enforced by
the participants is "seeking help." A participant mentioned, "I usually ask for help from myprofessors and friends. I do not hesitate to ask them, especially my teachers, if there issomething unclear for me/ I do not understand about the topics or questions." Theparticipants' responses showed that they cope with their struggles by seeking support fromothers. This support is usually emotional or academic. Students get emotional support fromadvice, sympathy, and encouraging words from their friends, parents, or teachers. This result
is congruent with Guevarra and Cimanes's (2017) study, where students' primary coping
strategy is social support. Social support refers to getting advice from others, talking tosomeone with similar experiences, discussing feelings, getting sympathy, or telling someone
how you feel. Students feel that their feelings towards the uncomfortable situation or the
problem are valid when they think they are heard. Kwaah and Essilfie (2017) also claimed
that getting emotional support from friends and family is an effective way of coping withstudents' stress. Since students' life is stressful, students need the understanding and sympathyof their friends and family, especially when they are experiencing significant pressure fromtheir academic workload. Calo et al. (2021) recommended that schools help students cope

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effectively with stress. It should be more open and willing to extend social support for
students in the new normal by utilizing different social media platforms.
Proper time management was also found to be the most used coping mechanism of theparticipants. For example, a participant echoed this idea, "By giving specific time to study mymodules and attending webinars on how to manage stress in modular learning or related tomental health also help me to cope with it." Interestingly, another participant shared theirtime management technique, "What I have employed is giving at least 2-4 hours per day of
studying the modules. Taking a break from social media also helps me stay focused on mystudies." Based on the respondents' responses, managing one's time effectively copes with thestruggles of modular distance learning. Having time management has given students
satisfaction in finishing their modules on time. Hearon (2015) and Young (2017)
recommended that students develop time management skills to help reduce work stress.
These techniques and skills can help students manage their time more effectively and havemore control over their time. Guevarra (2017) further stated that managing one's timeineffectively can often be a source of stress. Establishing priorities and working to these is aneffective way of managing one's time.
Another coping mechanism that arose in the study is the proper mindset and determination.
Faced with uncertainties in the new normal, participants shared their thoughts on coping withthe difficulties they experienced in learning in the new normal. A participant mentioned,"When I feel like giving up, and there's much destruction in my surroundings, I always realize
why I started and how important it is to finish what I am doing." This was echoed in theanswer of another participant "Once you are dedicated to achieving your goals, you will
always find ways to make it possible even how hard you may take and no matter how many
obstacles you have faced along the way." Another participant highlighted their "willingness"to learn: "Although I prefer to learn in the face-to-face discussion but showing my willingness
to understand and to answer my modules and also with the help of our professors that arehands-on to respond with our concerns related to our modules, I can say that I can pass and I
can graduate with modular learning." Lastly, the determination was very evident in theanswer of a participant, "I do my best to understand all the topics written in the modules."Based on the responses of the participant, during this time of the pandemic, they could
perceive themselves as someone who could overcome everything, especially their academic
endeavors.
A plan of action can be drawn from the results of the study
Results of the study showed that the students wanted an actual discussion, especially on the
major subjects, and giving feedback on their performance in modular learning. The actual
discussion, primarily on the major subjects, is one of the themes evident in the participants'
answers. Unanimously, they advocated for honest or face-to-face discussions, especially on
significant subjects. This emphasized the need for the participants for social interaction andfeedback on the teacher's part. Leach and Walker (2000) argue that the instructor's feedback
is essential to students in distance education for their self-evaluation, task orientation,
instructor support, and flexibility. Also, they indicated that the degree level of students'
experience with technology directly correlates to whether or not the technology used in
distance education is a barrier. Technology concerns must be minimized for a successful
online education, and programs must be designed accordingly.

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Giving feedback is another theme revealed in the study. Three participants stated that a Lackof feedback from the course facilitator was observed in learning in the new normal. To quote
their statements, "I guess the instructor should exert some time to talk or meet their students
to discuss the topics in the modules and for them to know the feedback of the students,""Feedbacking is significant in times like this as we do not have any idea how was our
performance so far" and "There is little to no feedback regarding what we have learned andif our answers are correct." A participant stated that the course facilitator must "offer andallow the students to discuss any concerns that might have arisen in modular learning." Theparticipants believe in the importance of communication. Since participants generally
reported a need for more feedback and attention from their instructors, a strong feedback
mechanism must be appropriately integrated into the teaching strategies of the course
facilitators. Offir et al., 2003 state that In a distance environment, the student's ability anddisposition to self-monitor and accurately evaluate content comprehension and request help
may represent a crucial variable affecting learning and teaching processes. In a distancelearning environment, instructors need more direct access to verbal and nonverbal feedback
from their students. This feedback enables the teacher in a conventional learning environment
to use verbal and nonverbal signals to adjust the instructional process in real-time to meettheir student's needs. For example, effective instructors often re-organize and repeat content
in response to students' confused expressions and off-task behavior. However, unlike
instructors in a conventional learning environment, distance learning instructors cannot
monitor, decode simultaneously, and use student feedback to modify instruction "online." Ina synchronous distance learning environment, the instructor frequently stops teaching to ask
students whether they understood the presented content.
Recommendations
The university must produce modular learning coupled with technological innovations to help
students and teachers utilize their time and knowledge to achieve goals and make modular
teaching-learning easy. The school and other stakeholders may extend their help andassistance to students in coping with these challenges. Strong feedback mechanism needs tobe appropriately integrated into the teaching strategies of the course facilitator; In-service
training for faculty equipping them with the current trends of new normal education isimportant in modular learning. The University must think and plan for various activities tohelp the students reduce their stress and burden and keep themselves motivated, andawareness of students' knowledge of modular learning is encouraged.
Conclusion
The COVID-19 pandemic had a significant impact on the educational system, particularly on
students' learning experiences. The transition to modular learning has brought about several
concerns, including less engagement with teachers, a shortage of resources and appropriatetechnology, and issues with time management and attention regulation.

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COVID-19 pandemic in Saudi Arabia: a qualitative study exploring medical students’perspectives. BMC Medical Education volume 20, Article number: p. 285.
https://bmcmededuc.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12909-020-02312-0
Sason, H., Kellerman, A. (2021). Teacher-Student Interaction in Distance Learning in
Emergency Situations. Journal of Information Technology Education.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/356931209_TeacherStudent_Interaction_in_Distance_Learning_in_Emergency_Situations
Simonson, M., Smaildino, M., Zvacek, S. (2020). Teaching and Learning at a DistanceFoundations of Distance Education.
https://www.academia.edu/3265554/Teaching_and_Learning_at_a_Distance_Foundat
ions_of_Distance_Education_Michael_Simonson_Sharon_Smaldino_Michael_Albrig
ht_and_Susan_Zvacek_Eds
Sohrabi C et al. (2020). World Health Organization declares global emergency: a review ofthe 2019 novel Coronavirus (COVID-19). Int J Surg 76(5):71–76.

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Wiradhanyz, W., Biwer, F., Egbrink, M., Hospers, H., Wasenitz, S., Jansen, W., De Bruin,
A., Changes and Adaptations: How University Students Self-Regulate their online
learning during the CoVid-19 pandemic. Frontiers of Psychology retrieved fromhttps://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.642593/full
Zhang W et al. (2020). Suspending classes without stopping learning: China’s Education
Emergency Management Policy in the COVID-19 Outbreak. Multidisciplinary Digital
Publishing Institute.

Contact email: magvictoriano@capus.edu.ph

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Preparing Undergraduate Designers Using the Results of a DE&I Survey of
the Local Design Industry
Kristin Lee, American University in Dubai, United Arab Emirates
Malini Karani, Independent Researcher, United Arab Emirates
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Abstract
This paper presents and analyzes the hidden biases in the Dubai design industry and proposesa pedagogical framework to assist students in transitioning into the workforce by equippingthem with relevant tools to tackle their occurrences and engaging in reflection around theirown biases. Diversity of Dubai is heralded everywhere, yet many designers experience bias
from clients, colleagues, and employers. The framework of the survey was based on bias
studies conducted in the USA by AIA and in the UK by BIID, with questions modified toalign with cultural appropriations applicable to the UAE. Understanding that bias exists is thefirst element, then followed by bias interrupters. ‘Bias Interrupters for Architecture’ ispublished by AIA and it discusses various strategies that can help firms’ “diversity metrics,
foster a culture of belonging, and make progress toward eliminating bias” (AIA). Data wascollected from September until December, 2022. Findings from the survey and approaches
from the bias interrupters report will inform lectures, tasks, discussions and other tools in
professional practice class and any other classes which support students’ understanding ofdiversity, equity, and inclusion. Survey findings are expected to confirm that various biases
exist. By illuminating both what students may face as professionals and their own hidden
biases, they are better able to identify bias and to not engage in similar behaviors. It is
important to tackle this issue from various angles simultaneously. Therefore, teaching
students the significance of their role in this equation is also an important aspect ofeveryone’s success.
Keywords: Diversity, Equity, Inclusion, UAE Interior Design, UAE Architecture

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Introduction
The composition of UAE society is unique, in that roughly 88% of the population are notcitizens but expatriates. Dubai consistently has a far larger expatriate population than thelocal / Emirati population which is currently 11.48% of the total (fig.1). At the American
University in Dubai (AUD), the same holds true for the student body – the majority ofstudents in the Interior Design (ID) department are expatriates from GCC countries, largely
having grown up here. The makeup of the ID department reflects this as well – with five fulltime faculty: 3 female/2 male; 1 American, 1 Italian, 1 Canadian/Iranian, and 2 Lebanese.

Figure 1: Breakdown of UAE population
Diversity in terms of nationality and/or cultural background is the norm in the UAE. In
February 2018, the UAE government approved the National Strategy for Advanced
Innovation, this is part of the UAE’s goals to shift the economy from oil-based to knowledgebased. As listed on the UAE government website, “The innovation strategy aims to position
the UAE among the world’s top leaders of innovation and to develop a type of thinking thatencourages experimentation and taking well-thought-out risks to achieve the goals of UAE
Centennial 2071.” (Home - The Official Portal of the UAE Government, n.d). According toKemeny, one of the ways to drive organizational innovation is through a diverse workforce(“Immigrant Diversity and Economic Performance in Cities,” 2016). Additionally, in 2015,
the UAE government established the UAE’s Gender Balance Council, to “ensure that Emirati
women continue to play a leading role in the development of the UAE…which will support
the UAE’s vision to become one of the world’s top 25 countries for gender equality by 2021”(Home - the Official Portal of the UAE Government, n.d.). Likewise, the law in the UAE does
address discrimination. There is a law in the UAE which is known as the ‘Federal Decree –Law No. (22) of 2021’, enshrines equality and non-discrimination in article 4, stating equality
and non- discrimination in the workplace. Issues such as diversity, inclusion, and equality areprevalent in most sectors in the UAE economy as a result of the makeup of the society andgovernment led initiatives.
One reason Dubai is so attractive to expatriates is the economic growth, fueled in large partby the construction sector. According to a report by Mordor Intelligence, “The construction
sector is the essence of the UAE economy, and the industry is expecting rapid growth in the
coming years. The construction industry plays an important role in the economic upliftment

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and development of the country.” (UAE Construction Market Analysis - Industry Report Trends, Size & Share, n.d.). As reported in the Emirates News Agency WAM, the Arab
Monetary Fund estimates that in the UAE, the construction industry contributes $36.8 billion
to the GDP (2022). The relevance of the construction industry in the UAE is succinctly
summed up in Love That Design’s Interior Design Industry Insights for 2023, “What started
aa little over two decades ago in the form of an aggressive yet strategic push towards a nonoil powered economy has resulted in the creation of a budding, diversified businessecosystem. This ecosystem has generated a need for world-class global design and has
created an attractive force that has pulled in design firms and talent from across the world.”(LoveThatDesign, 2022).
The construction industry can be broken down into essential roles: those that commission
projects, those that design projects, and those that build projects. Design firms in the UAE
take many forms, from large international firms, to local fit-out companies offering design
services, and everything in between. Architects and Interior Designers (sometimes called
Interior Architects) work closely with one another, sometimes as consultants and sometimes
as colleagues within the same firm. Both interior designers and architects can be referred tosimply as ‘designers’, as roles are complementary and overlap. The diversity of the region isevident in the makeup of these firms. The professions related to the construction industry, andespecially Interior Design, are highly collaborative; it takes various roles and responsibilities
to move a project from conception to construction.
Around the world Interior Design is a predominantly female led profession; this is true ofboth the perception and the reality, perhaps owing to its origins in interior decoration, aprofession deemed “appropriate” for women (Tuchek, 2020). According to DataUSA, in
2020 83% of the US Interior Design workforce was female (Interior Designers | Data USA,n.d.). This is also true in the UAE.
In this paper we will investigate the makeup of the leadership roles in terms of gender,
ethnicity and highest qualifications. We will explore the readiness and enthusiasm of interior
design students to take on leadership roles in their careers. We will discuss bias interrupter
strategies including some key findings as well as steps that some firms are taking to
implement these interrupters. Lastly, we will discuss how we have incorporated this work
into the classroom.
DEI Existing Research
The global design industry has been engaging in self-reflection for several decades. WithinInterior Design, nearly 30 years ago, Interior Design educators were talking about cultural
diversity at the 1994 Futures Roundtable in Chicago, IL. At this roundtable, 16 participantsfrom both Interior Design education and practice determined that global cooperation,business values, cultural diversity, and technology were noted as important areas to theprofession (Jani et. al, 2007). As the Architecture profession has been established for agreater length of time than Interior Design, this discussion extends back 55 years at least(Travis, 2018). More recently, the American Institute of Architects (AIA), along with The
Center for WorkLife Law at the University of California Hastings College of Law conducted
a 2021 quantitative study of bias based on gender and race/ethnicity in the practice ofarchitecture (New Report: The Elephant in the (Well-Designed) Room: An Investigation into
Bias in the Architecture Profession - WorkLife Law, 2021). They received 1,346 architecturalprofessionals’ responses to their Workplace Experiences Survey. Key findings relate to open

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racism and sexism, with white men having a different experience than all other groups inarchitecture workplaces (Fig 2 & 3).

Figure 2: AIA survey

Figure 3: AIA survey

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In 2020, the British Institute of Interior Design (BIID) did its first ever survey of theprofession, citing a lack of demographic data on the make-up of the UK’s interior design
profession (Diversity in Interior Design Survey Results, 2021). They received 363 responses.
We refer to a quote from the survey to get a glimpse into challenges faced by women (fig. 4).

Figure 4: from BIID survey
Within the region, Construction Week Middle East magazine conducted a survey in 2019 for
women architects focused on gender discrimination at work. Respondents were asked about
sexual discrimination, unequal pay, and attitudes towards women. Their survey garnered 141
responses from more than 10 countries in the Middle East. More than 75% of the women who
completed the survey said they had experienced sexual discrimination in meetings withclients, contractors, engineers, planners and other architects (Alsammarae, 2019).
Methodology
Since the UAE is so diverse and the Interior Design industry is heavily female led, theresearch will explore real experiences within the design industry in the UAE. As educators,
our interest involves understanding how the findings help us best prepare our students to join
the professional world.
Our professional survey was distributed to Interior Design alumni from both AUD and Heriot
Watt (from the past 15 years), sent out to our professional networks and Advisory Board
members via email and on LinkedIn, and was shown as a link on both LoveThatDesign’s
newsletter and as part of a design-industry recruiter’s email signature for a month in the fallof 2022. The survey was available from September-December 2022.
The basic findings of the survey show the following.
We had 95 responses from which 67.4% were female, and 32.6% male. A closer look at the
breakdown of nationalities shows that Indians are the largest group, followed by Egyptians
and then Pakistani and Syrians, followed by Jordanians, Americans and British and lastly
Emiratis at only 1% which constitutes 70% of the answers. The remaining 30% are made upof many different nationalities each at 1 or 2% each (Table 1).

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Nationality
Percentage
Indian36.8%
Egyptians
9.4%
Pakistani
5.2%
Syrian5.2%
Jordanian
4.2%
American
4.2%
British4.2%
Emirati1%
Table 1: Breakdown of 70% of the nationalities of the survey
The data reveals that almost 35% of the respondents have more than 12 years of experience inthe field which is closely followed by 26% respondents who were relatively new to theprofession with up to 3 years of experience (fig. 5).
Largely similar to the above, the breakdown of the roles in the company shows 24% atpartner level and 24% at junior designer level (fig 6). However, it also raises the question of
the roles of the respondents who had more than 12 years of experience. Further investigationof the data reveals that their roles were mainly director, manager or partner.

Figure 5: DEI survey of Professionals in Dubai

Figure 6: DEI survey of Professionals in Dubai

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Yet when we looked deeper into more senior roles, there was a sharp contrast between whatmales and females were doing in the workplace. Not accounting for years of experience, we
can observe that 9 female respondents are Senior Designers, but only 4 are Creative Directors
and 3 are Project Managers out of 62 respondents. Whereas only 4 out of 30 male
respondents were Senior Designers and 5 were Creative Directors and 4 were ProjectManagers. Senior level management positions have a strong representation of men and an
equal or lower representation of women (fig. 7). On a similar tone 12 out of the 62 womenare partners as compared to 9 men in the role of partner or owner, which resonates with thecomment found in AIA survey (fig. 2) above that women are “forced out” or “denied careeradvancement opportunities”. More women are seen in more junior to mid- level roles,
whereas more men are seen in mid-level to senior management roles despite the fact that ahigher percentage of women have more experience in the profession with the exception of
respondents with more than 12 years’ experience (fig. 8).

Figure 7: DEI survey of Professionals in Dubai

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Figure 8: DEI survey of Professionals in Dubai
Similar numbers stated that their race/ethnicity has created barriers to their progression in thedesign industry. Our survey received responses from 30 different nationalities which isrepresentative of the diverse population of UAE, but it makes it difficult to analyze instancesof racism based on nationalities. Therefore, we have looked at incidents of racism based on
gender. The number of women who experienced racism is almost double or higher than thatof the men which is similar to the 2:1 women to men ratio of the respondents.
Higher number of women experience negative reactions to justified anger than men.
Similarly, women experience more pushback to assertive behavior than men, and higher
number of women are made to feel that their success is a result of luck rather than their own
hard work (fig. 9, 10, 11).

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Figure 9: DEI survey of Professionals in Dubai

Figure 10: DEI survey of Professionals in Dubai

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Figure 11: DEI survey of Professionals in Dubai

Figure 12: DEI survey of Professionals in Dubai
Students in UAE
In order to establish a baseline for our current students’ understandings related to DE&I, asecond survey was sent via email in early 2023 to students at various stages within theInterior Design program at AUD. Given that our student population is majority female and of
expatriate backgrounds, survey responses related to sexism and racism were of greater
relevance.
We had 27 responses (92.6% female, 7.4% male).

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Figure 13: DEI survey of Students in Dubai

Figure 14: DEI survey of Students in Dubai
Overall, students' experiences with racism and sexism were less than that of the professionals(fig. 13 & 14). Yet students demonstrated awareness of these issues, with 77.8% of students
responding that they think their future career may be negatively impacted by another person’sbias. Students also demonstrated a drive to achieve a leadership role; 85.2% of students
responded they wished to take on a leadership role (eventually), and 88.9% responded theywould start their own firm in order to achieve a senior leadership position.
Within the Classroom
These surveys have led to a change in AUD’s Professional Practice course (required for 3rdyear students). In spring 2023, we shared the surveys with students as an opening to a module
on bias, DE&I, and bias interrupters. We then approached bias as a biological brain function,
a way to organize information. To underscore this, we did an Implicit Association Test in
front of students from Project Implicit (put together by researchers at U of Washington, U of
Virginia, Harvard U and Yale U). We chose the test on genders and careers, and despite ourbest efforts, we showed slight bias towards linking males with careers and females withfamily. Students were encouraged to take additional tests on their own at home, with a goal ofunderstanding that bias can be hidden, but that when revealed, we can make a more conscious
effort to not act out of it.

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From biasinterrupters.org, we shared with students the idea of workplace bias interrupters:“For organizations who care about employees who are more committed, innovative and loyal,a three-step approach:
1. Use metrics – businesses use metrics to assess whether they have progressed towards
any strategic goal. Metrics can help you pinpoint where bias exists and assess theeffectiveness of the measures you’ve taken to prevent or combat bias.
2. Implement bias interrupters – bias interrupters are small adjustments to your existing
business systems. They should not require you to entirely abandon your current
system.
3. Repeat as needed – After implementing bias interrupters, return to your metrics. Ifthey have not interrupted, you will need to ratchet up to stronger bias interrupters.”(Bias Interrupters, n.d.)Discussions with students included potential interview questions when applying for jobs, how
to gauge a potential employer’s “culture”, and ways in which to address DE&I workplaceissues. Our hope in all this is that students are aware that this exists, that they are not alone,
and that they can bring pressure on their future organizations to better address DE&I, as it has
a profound impact on financial performance.
Alongside this work students are also participating in an inter-university design competition.
This competition is mentored by an international design firm (Dubai office) that is committed
to both reaching out to students and discussing DE&I. By placing students in groups
composed from different universities (both in the region and internationally), and with nonfaculty mentors, students are confronted with the need to communicate effectively; they arepushed out of their comfort zone. It is also a benefit for students to experience professionals
within their chosen field that work for an organization that values DE&I. This competition
first ran in 2022 and is currently running its second iteration. Feedback from 2022’s
reflection essays:
DE&I is very important, because it encourages us to recognize, respect and embraceothers regardless of their differences. I believe that this competition is about coming
together to share our different knowledge, experiences and ideas to have better
discussions and better decision making, which ultimately leads to better outcomes
DE&I has a very important role to play in each of our lives. Be it a small play groupor a large organization the aspect of being included and given the respect and equalitythat every human deserves is a necessity. Through this competition, having to workwith complete strangers with different backgrounds and outlooks to life and design,
was a very interesting process and it is essentially these difference that made us direct
our thought to achieve a single perspective
The fact that we all came from different backgrounds made communication a bit moredifficult, but we were able to reach a common point of understanding throughmultiple meetings
Conclusion
Our survey has shown that despite the high presence of women in the design industry, they
are not seen in management or senior roles in companies. We do see that there is a higher

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number of women who are partners or owners; this is also reflected in the surveys from othercountries - women start their own companies in order to achieve a leadership role.. Women
receive pushback for assertive behavior, negative reactions to justified anger, and theiraccomplishments are dismissed as luck more often than not. Even though women are capableof answering certain questions they find the questions being addressed to others. We are notable to discern why this is the case due to the limitations of the first survey. We would
continue to collect data through conducting focus groups or workshops on the topic so that
there can be a wider discussion around the subject. Students demonstrate an awareness ofoverall DE&I issues, and know that they may have to deal with these obstacles in theirprofessional lives. We would like to equip them with tools that can help them navigate
through their professional careers so that they can achieve senior management roles in design
firms if they choose to.

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References
Alsammarae, R. (2019, April 21). Middle East women architects on gender discrimination atwork - Construction Week Online. Construction Week Online. Retrieved October 11,
2022, from https://www.constructionweekonline.com/business/182015-sexualdiscrimination-at-work-in-the-middle-east-architecture-industry
Bias Interrupters. (n.d.). https://biasinterrupters.org/#toolkits
Diversity in Interior Design Survey Results. (2021). British Institute of Interior Design.
Retrieved December 15, 2021, from https://biid.org.uk/resources/diversity-interiordesign-survey-results
Gender balance - The Official Portal of the UAE Government. (n.d.).
https://u.ae/en/information-and-services/social-affairs/gender-equality/genderbalance#:~:text=The%20UAE%20Gender%20Balance%20Council,balance%20in%2
0decision%2Dmaking%20positions
Immigrant diversity and economic performance in cities. (2016). International Regional
Science Review, 40(2). https://doi.org/10.1177/01600176145416
Interior designers | Data USA. (n.d.). Data USA. Retrieved November 30, 2022, fromhttps://datausa.io/profile/soc/interior-designers
Love That Design. (2021, December 13). Design 2023 - The Region’s Latest A&D Industry
Research Paper - Love That Design. https://www.lovethatdesign.com/insights/design2023-the-regions-latest-ad-industry-research-paper/
National Strategy for Advanced Innovation - The Official Portal of the UAE Government.
(n.d.). https://u.ae/en/about-the-uae/strategies-initiatives-and-awards/strategies-plansand-visions/innovation-and-future-shaping/national-strategy-for-advancedinnovation#:~:text=The%20innovation%20strategy%20aims%20to,goals%20of%20U
AE%20Centennial%202071
New Report: The Elephant in the (Well-Designed) Room: An Investigation into Bias in theArchitecture Profession - WorkLife Law. (2021, December 7). WorkLife Law.
https://worklifelaw.org/news/new-report-the-elephant-in-the-well-designed-room-aninvestigation-into-bias-in-the-architecture-profession/
Travis, J. (2018). Perspectives: An Interior of Inclusion or the Illusion of Inclusion. Journalof Interior Design, 43(3), 3–7.
Tuchek, K. (2020). Perceptions of professional titles: A mixed methods study of interior
design vs. Interior architecture (Publication No. Tuchek_IAstate_0097M-18807)[Master of Fine Arts, Iowa State University].
https://dr.lib.iastate.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/bdb584d9-41ac-444c-bc21ddb517302b8b/content

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UAE Construction Market Analysis - Industry Report - Trends, Size & Share. (n.d.-a).
Mordor Intelligence. Retrieved January 12, 2023, fromhttps://www.mordorintelligence.com/industry-reports/uae-construction-market
UAE Construction Market Analysis - Industry Report - Trends, Size & Share. (n.d.-b).
https://www.mordorintelligence.com/industry-reports/uae-construction-market
W. (2022, December 28). Construction industry contributed "86.8 bn to Arab GDPs in 2021.
Wam.
http://wam.ae/en/details/1395303114942#:~:text=Emirates%20News%20Agency%20%2D%20Construction%20industry,to%20Arab%20GDPs%20in%202021
Contact email: kristinhelenlee@gmail.com
karanim@gmail.com

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Augmented Reality and Metaverse in Aesthetic Education Discourse
in Indonesia for Future
Joni Agung Sudarmanto, Universitas Negeri Malang, Indonesia
Adzrool Idzwan Bin Ismail, Universiti Utara Malaysia, Malaysia
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Abstract
This study aims to conduct a systematic literature review on the concept of Augmented
Reality (AR), which adds virtual objects into the real world and affects the computer vision
field, which is the starting point for the metaverse concept of aesthetic education inIndonesia. This content analysis study systematically analyzes how AR impacts aesthetic
education and how the metaverse concept has discoursed in education in the future. The
search was conducted on Springer Link, Science Directs, Taylor Francis, JSTOR, and Google
Scholar databases, with the keywords "augmented reality", "aesthetics education", "artseducation", and "metaverse" and their combinations. Based on the inclusion criteria
established, 50 articles were collected to be analyzed. The study results show that humanneeds increasingly vary according to the level of achievement of their culture, including in
the post-pandemic phenomenon that makes all entities in the phase of resilience the footing ofa new era. Furthermore, the collaboration between art and technology becomes significant in
the dynamics of this culture, especially in the design of digital and virtual-based products,
including in the field of aesthetic education in Indonesia. In this regard, AR has become aninteresting discussion, along with the concept of a parallel world in art education called"metaverse", which can support students' understanding beyond just reading texts. This isrelated to the condition of the low literacy level in Indonesia; while the trend of technologicaland information advancement in Indonesia is so rapid, the discourse on the application of AR
and the metaverse of aesthetic education in Indonesia can be an effort to increase theintellectual power of students in Indonesia.
Keywords: Augmented Reality, Indonesian Aesthetics Education, Metaverse

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Introduction
Learning media is needed as an intermediary to deliver messages to minimize failures during
the communication process in education. Furthermore, learning media is an essential aspectof the learning process. The learning process is the process of delivering messages ormaterials from the sender of the message (in this case, the teacher) to the recipient (students)(Paatela-Nieminen, 2012). In the process of delivering the message or material, sometimes it
succeeds, and sometimes it doesn't, where failure in the communication process is called
noise or barrier. The process of converting messages or materials into verbal and nonverbal
communication symbols is called encoding, and the interpretation of communication symbols
by students is called decoding (Dekker, 2015; Priyaadharshini et al., 2020).
Learning media is needed by teachers to help deliver material in a learning process. A goodlearning process must contain interactive, fun, challenging, and motivating aspects andprovide more space for students to develop creativity and independence according to students
talents and interests (King et al., 2019). Although the teacher is only a facilitator in a lesson,and students are required to be more active, the teacher must be able to create a pleasantlearning atmosphere to stimulate students to be more active in learning. Fun learning
activities are strongly influenced by various factors, one of which is the selection of learning
media used must be attractive for students to learn, interactive when used, but does not
reduce the essence of the material presented (Sampurno & Camelia, 2020).
The development of increasingly advanced technology, of course, affects various sectors ofhuman life. This development also plays a role in the development of learning media.
Learning media is becoming more exciting and concise even though it does not reduce theessence of the material. One of the developments of learning media that are currently still
new is learning media using Augmented Reality (AR). AR is an application of merging thereal world with the virtual world in the form of two-dimensional and three-dimensional
projection in a natural environment simultaneously (Lu & Liu, 2015; Pianfetti, 2001). AR isoften also referred to as tethered reality. This application is often applied in a game. Xbox
Development from Microsoft not only presents games in the form of Virtual Reality (VR) but
also presents games in the form of AR.
The use of AR in Indonesia is not too big (Andriana et al., 2022; Kasiyan, 2019; Kidi et al.,2017), which is still relatively new, has little use in Indonesia. The lack of public knowledge
about this technology is one of the causes. Using AR as an alternative learning media, it ishoped that a learning activity can be more interesting for students. Another benefit is a moreadvanced learning media utilizing current technological developments. Through AR, it can bea solution to overcome expensive modules or trainers that schools cannot buy. Students canstill do practicum by seeing the goods as they are in the original but virtual form (Huang etal., 2016; Hurrell & Baker, 2020).
In connection with the above, the emergence of AR is also "supported" by the developmentof society, where there is a post-pandemic trend that makes life today prioritizes technology.
Another exciting thing is that one of the tech moguls, Mark Zuckerberg, announced on
October 29, 2021, that Facebook would change its name to Meta and also made significant
investments in developing the Metaverse technology (Rahaman, 2022). The synergy between
AR, VR, and Metaverse technology provides a perspective on how aesthetic education can besynergized with technology. The problem focuses on the role of technology intertwined inaesthetic education that puts forward the question of taste. However, when it is felt that

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similar research has not been widely carried out, this study aims to determine whether the useof metaverse is appropriate for feeling-centered aesthetic learning, especially in the postpandemic era, and to provide broader insight into the concept of a metaverse in aesthetic
education in Indonesia.
Methods
This research approach uses multi-site qualitative methods, combining content analysis andliterature concepts (Denzin & Lincoln, 2013; Leavy, 2017; Shkedi, 2019; Tashakkori &Creswell, 2008). This approach is used to deepen the theoretical context of the research about
digital technology in education and its complexity with modern education perspectives.
Furthermore, the data were analyzed with technology education, contextualized to how
digital technology, modern technology, and contemporary technology that explores Internetof Thing (IoT) turned into augmented reality to metaverse aesthetics education (Dubowsky,
2016; Grossman, 2017; Keifer-Boyd, 2018; Kress, 2010; Kress & Leeuwen, 2012;
Moerdisuroso, 2014; Svasek, 2012).
This content analysis study systematically analyzes how AR impacts aesthetic education andhow the metaverse concept has discoursed in education in the future. The search was
conducted on Springer Link, Science Directs, Taylor Francis, JSTOR, and Google Scholar
databases, with the keywords "augmented reality", "aesthetics education", "arts education",and "metaverse" and their combinations. Based on the inclusion criteria established, 50
articles were collected to be analyzed (Figure 1).

Figure 1. PRISMA Flow Diagrams
This approach begins its critical review from the introduction of the presence of digital art
which is characterized by three things, namely; the presence of Virtual Reality (VR)-based art
treasures, the principles of digital art for everyone, and a future that will be marked bytechnological-enabled artistic creativity. All three will be discussed cross-sectionally in orderto achieve a more generic, multidimensional understanding, because this paper is notintended to lead us to a specific understanding of digital-based aesthetic education. Digitalbased aesthetic education is certainly related to Artificial Intelligence (AI) or intelligence

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engineering. So, this study is basically to observe the interconnectedness which explains thatevery aspect of learning or a particular intelligence in principle can be described precisely sothat a machine, technology, or cyber things can be made to simulate it. In short, technologicaldisruption (technological disruption) in the world of aesthetic education has occurred since
the development of the world of ICT (Information Communication Technology).
Educational Need for AR and VR
Increasing students' interest in learning by reconstructing abstract concepts into visual forms
will help educators deliver the material. During the past Covid-19 pandemic, technology
became an educational medium to help increase student interest in learning. Unlike Virtual
Reality (VR), which adds natural objects to virtual objects, Augmented Reality (AR) adds
virtual objects to natural objects at the same time (Almonacid-Fierro, 2021; AlNajdi et al.,2020; Hash, 2021; Marsudi et al., 2020; Sampurno et al., 2020; Turan & Atila, 2021). AR
was first used in 1957-1962 by a cinematographer named Norton Heilig named Sensorama(Koutromanos et al., 2015). Sensorama is a simulator that can simulate visuals, vibrations,and smells. In 1966, Sutherland claimed to have invented the head-mounted display, often
shortened to HMD (Koutromanos et al., 2015). HMD became the forerunner to AR, whichuses hardware and is installed in the user's head. An example of using HMD at this time is
Google Glass. In the 2000s, to be exact, in 2009, Sqoosha introduced FLARToolkit, which
was the result of the development of ARToolkit (Hwang et al., 2020; Samson & Karthiga,2020). FLARToolkit can be used to add AR to websites because the output produced by the
FLART toolkit is in the form of Flash. In 2010, Acrossair immersed AR technology in the
iPhone 3GS (Payne, 2017). AR can be used in various activities, such as presentations,estimating an object, performance stimulant equipment, simulating a tool's performance, andothers (Cai et al., 2020; Suparjoh et al., 2020).
AR is an application that can display small, large, fast, and slow objects seen with the naked
eye clearly without assistance (Capuano et al., 2016; Huang et al., 2016). In the context of
education, AR has a feature to convert information into visual form. So that by utilizing thistechnology, students will receive learning in a visual form that is easy to understand. Like
research on AR, which represents objects of tradition and cultural heritage, this technology
can display museum objects from small to large by reconstructing museum objects into 3Dimensional objects (Capuano et al., 2016; Harkema & Rosendaal, 2020). This technology
allows visitors to study history, see the museum's contents virtually, and interact with theobject.
Likewise, the AR Molymod application of hydrocarbon compounds is a learning medium for
Chemistry subjects (Kelly et al., 2018; Udeozor et al., 2021). This application contains alkane
derivative compounds such as alkyl, alcohol, and alkanol. Some 206 objects and 30 addition
reactions are displayed clearly and in detail in this application so that students do not
misunderstand differentiating the existing compounds. Next, is the AR application applied to
Biology learning, namely the digestive system AR application (Christopoulos et al., 2022).
This application can visualize the human digestive organs into 3-Dimensional objects. With
these advantages, of course, to study the digestive organs of teaching staff and students, they
do not have to practice it directly, just by depicting it virtually with AR applications (Farrell
et al., 2022).
AR technology can be defined as a platform combining virtual objects into the real world asthese two objects seem to blend. AR is not the same as Virtual Reality (VR) because, by

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definition, VR is a virtual world that is made to resemble the real world. AR has several
advantages when compared to VR. AR manipulates the real world on the device screen usinga smartphone's camera or other image capture device. In contrast, VR makes use of sensors
and other peripherals and makes the user feel in another world that is depicted virtually(Maas & Hughes, 2020; Mehrfard et al., 2021). On the one hand, AR was more popular at the
beginning than VR. Moreover, AR is now ready to use, and VR is still being developed withimprovements in programs and various hardware. They both have in common that AR and
VR produce virtual content that users can interact with in various ways and features. Bothhave the same development area, namely for the development of the world of education andeducation.
In the context of aesthetic education in Indonesia, the discourse on AR shows that it can
provide a live picture between the natural and virtual worlds. AR can also display a detailed
visualization of an art object that should not be seen with the eye but ultimately can be seenby the components or particles that make it because of AR. AR has the advantage of being anaesthetic education medium coupled with a positive response that this technology has aconsiderable influence where students who study art objects will more easily understandusing this technology than not using AR technology which can be seen from the results ofcomparison and analysis of learning (Baía Reis & Ashmore, 2022; Kumar, 2022; Szymański,2019; Thomas et al., 2010). AR is considered feasible if it is implemented in art learning
media which, from the highest total score of 100, got a score of 87 so that it can be classified
as adequate to be implemented as a learning medium (Patton et al., 2020).
Judging from the advantages of AR above, of course, this platform is very useful inincreasing student interest in aesthetic learning. Starting from illustrating invisible objects,
which in the art world, will undoubtedly lead to different conceptions of each student because
each person must have a different interpretation. Although face-to-face learning can indeed
be helped a little by 2-dimensional drawing examples on the blackboard, this will still make it
difficult for students because the level of teachers in representing an image is not always thesame, even for representing 3-dimensional objects on a 2-dimensional board. AR can be thebest solution in solving this problem. It can also be studied at school and home, especially inpost-pandemic conditions.
AR can also be a learning solution in art design, which is very difficult to imagine. For
example, in sculpture material or 3-dimensional primary forms, where AR can be a solution
and can realize all of these things in the form of 3D animation that will describe it in aninteractive educational media container that can be interacted with by zooming in on objects,
rotating and play animations (Harkema & Rosendaal, 2020). The advantages of AR are
directly proportional to the needs of learning media, making it easier for students to learn
various things from 3D visualization. The estuary of the advantages of AR as an educational
medium is to encourage students to think more creatively and critically to increase theexperience and insight of the students themselves so that there is an embodiment of learningmaterials.
Metaverse Concepts and A New Chapter of Aesthetic Education
AR has produced educational products with the appropriate methods for the reconstructed
field of science. This technology can attract the interest of potential users, which has beenstrengthened in recent studies. The application of AR into the world of education will be asolution for educators to help them impart knowledge to students (Kyza & Georgiou, 2019;

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O’Banion et al., 2022). AR products made for a specific field of science can be implemented
to be included in the Indonesian aesthetic education curriculum starting from elementary
schools, junior high schools, high schools, and universities (Özyalçın & Avcı, 2022; Turan &Atila, 2021). Aesthetic learning mechanisms that can be used for AR learning can be divided
into two: independent aesthetic learning at home and collective aesthetic learning in theclassroom.
There are essential things to consider in developing AR into learning in aesthetic education.
The issue of heterogeneity of education in Indonesia is the main starting point (Marsudi et al.,2020; Sampurno et al., 2020). This is related to the government's role in the collaborative
development of digitalization in the world of aesthetic education, especially for theapplication of learning using AR technology. The country of Indonesia, which is quite large,
certainly requires special attention, especially for areas that have not been touched by digitaltechnology supporting infrastructure as a medium that supports the use of AR technology.
Because AR, many people see "metaverse" as a new term. Nevertheless, the concept ofMetaverse is not a new term. The Metaverse first appeared in 1992 in the speculative fiction
Snow Crash by Neal Stephenson (Rahaman, 2022). In this novel, the Metaverse is a large
virtual environment. On the other hand, the Metaverse was also introduced in the novel andfilm Ready Player One, which ultimately led to the concept of Metaverse as a virtualenvironment, also known as MUVE (Multi-User Virtual Environments), which has a format
derived from MMORPG (Massive Multiplayer Online Role-playing) (Baía Reis & Ashmore,
2022; Dichev & Dicheva, 2017; S. Kim et al., 2018; Rahaman, 2022; Rospigliosi, 2022a).
Playing games, which allows everyone to meet avatars in 3D video games by combining
virtual reality, augmented reality (AR), virtual reality (VR), and the internet (P. W. Kim etal., 2017). So, the Metaverse and its supporting technology devices allow users to feel thesensation of being in an authentic virtual environment.
At first, even though it was just speculation, scholars did an in-depth study. Society enters thestage of true post-humanism life where there will be many cyborgs, and society will
ultimately depend on machines. This trend shows that the community's collective memory
immediately turned back to the existence of "cyborgs." Cyborg is short for Cybernetic
Organism, namely cybernetic creatures (human machines) that have a system of selfregulating abilities (Houston, 2004). So the effect is a kind of human-machine where machineparts can be replaced, integrated, or functioned as additional body parts to increase the body's
strength potential. Aesthetic education in the future also considers cyborgs living in acomplete dimension with no boundaries between inner and outer space (Baía Reis &Ashmore, 2022; Rospigliosi, 2022b; Taylor & Carpenter, 2016).
Space for movement or alternative space in aesthetic education is called cyberspace(cybernetic space). Cyberspace is an alternative space for aesthetic education where data is
depicted in such a way as to give the operator the illusion of control over movement andaccess to information (Baía Reis & Ashmore, 2022; Garrido-Iñigo & Rodríguez-Moreno,
2015; Rospigliosi, 2022b; Tasa & Görgülü, 2010). In this case, the cyborg is connected tovarious shadow-like simulations. For aesthetic education, such technologies are familiar tothe public (3D, and 4D games, for example). Some are still being developed ('real time'presentations, for example), and some are still fictional, all of which have the capability ofsimulating the space in which we interact.

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Synergy is seen when cyberspace is usually equipped with virtual reality (AR or VR), namely
the expansion of the cyberspace process in order to provide a 'pure' information space
through data construction that gives the effect of immersion into cybernetic space. AR isusually 3D/4D multimedia. So reality can provide artificial senses to our bodies in light,
sound, and touch that are not limited to space and time (2D) and provide an exciting
experience impact for aesthetic education.
Moreover, if in the 'normal' dimension, we cannot share space with other people precisely at
the same time, in alternative space, we can not only share but also from entirely different
places; we can share the same space with others. Moreover, because the 'movement' incyberspace is entirely different from 'normal' space conditions, we can fly and enter the wall
because the wall is not made of natural sand, brick, and cement but only visual manipulation(manipulate imagery) (Fook et al., 2021; Lungu et al., 2021; Sample et al., 2018; Waters,2016).
In the context of community culture for aesthetic education in the context of the Metaverse, it
is closely related to the community's readiness to face a new era. A small part of thecommunity, especially users, can explore this Metaverse by carrying out various digital
activities like in the real world. These people are usually already members of cyber andvirtual 3D communities that support each other from various parts of the world. They go toschool, work, and other activities in the virtual world (Blankenship, 2011; Weninger, 2017).
Of course, there must be knowledge or skills that must be prepared for the younger
generation, especially to prepare everything so that this metaverse era can later be helpful forthe progress of the Indonesian nation.
The education system in Indonesia often changes. One of them is curriculum changes fromyear to year. The transformation of learning from time to time continues to occur. Facing themetaverse era, which is currently being discussed, the government needs to facilitate allneeds in the field of technology-based education. The curriculum of the metaverse era must
be different from the previous curriculum to welcome changes that will occur in the future.
Even though it looks fun and exciting if society can do virtual activities like in the real world,but still this metaverse era has several challenges that need to be considered, including users
will be busy with all activities that occur in the virtual world, so that users become addicted
and choose to be engrossed in activities in the virtual world than in the real world (Ardoin etal., 2020; Sudarsana et al., 2019). The more sophisticated technology that develops, ofcourse, has an impact that can affect its users. In addition, the field of education certainly
experiences various challenges and obstacles because they have to make changes to thecurriculum according to technological developments. The presence of the metaverse era is
not only a challenge in education but also a challenge for society, especially in the economic
field. The two fields are closely related because the fulfillment of economic needs
accompanies the process of continuing education to facilitate education. For example, if
learning is done virtually, it will cost money to finance these digital activities. Electronic
devices such as gadgets and quotas will become the primary needs of people entering thismetaverse era (Behnamnia, Kamsin, & Ismail, 2020; Behnamnia, Kamsin, Ismail, et al.,2020).
Meanwhile, many Indonesians still find it challenging to meet their daily needs. If educationin Indonesia is directed to enter this metaverse era, there will be new problems consideringthat the online learning process still leaves many obstacles. The teaching and learning process
will reduce the interaction between teachers and students because they will spend more time

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Official Conference Proceedingsin the virtual world (Lehtomäki et al., 2016; Mercer et al., 2019). Even though we know thatstudents not only need various kinds of knowledge and skills but also need character
education and moral values to shape each student's personality. In addition, parental
supervision must be stricter so that children do not fall into negative things in the virtualworld. Another thing, of course, every parent would hope to send their children to the besteducational institutions and have adequate facilities. In this case, the best category is
undoubtedly very subjective. However, some things can be considered general agreement,such as the need for a clean, safe, and comfortable school environment.
Nowadays parents want their children to study in modern schools. The term modern school ismeant not only in terms of the availability of learning facilities considered sophisticated, suchas the presence of a computer laboratory, the internet, or using specific applications to
support online learning. However, modern schools can offer, even implement, educational
systems and teaching and learning methods that can help students become independent inlearning, have academic knowledge, be innovative, brave, critical, and ready to apply theirknowledge in various contexts (Cannon, 2018; Richardson, 2020; Zhu et al., 2018). The
concept of the modern school has become a reasonable discourse. Talking about modern
schools is undoubtedly related to educators or teachers. Educators or teachers must also beable to choose materials and learning media suitable for teaching in this metaverse era.
The use of technology-based learning media can expedite the learning process. Of course,
educators or teachers in this era must not be ignorant. They must be more proficient than theirstudents because it is in the hands of these educators or teachers that the younger generation
will be able to enter the metaverse era correctly so that they do not fall into a negative digitalspace. Even though we know the reality is that many teaching staff are still having trouble
doing online learning for various reasons. The era of the Metaverse is in sight with all thechanges that will occur there. Many preparations must be made, starting from the facilities
and infrastructure, intellectual abilities, and legal umbrella from the government in regulating
the metaverse era. Now the education system in Indonesia will face a metaverse era.
This is a big challenge because of the influence of metaverse technology on the world of
education. The use of metaverse technology will change the world. The two-dimensional
world we have known is starting to be replaced with a three-dimensional virtual world. Even
now, this technology is reaching the more modern world of education. However, theMetaverse generally visualizes the internet in a three-dimensional media format. Metaverse
technology must be used through mobile application tools, augmented reality glasses, virtual
reality, and others. Some devices currently use metaverse technology. Soon there will be asignificant change in schools and campuses' teaching and learning processes. In addition,
learning technology tools will use a more sophisticated online system, and there are moreinteractive technology tools.
Conclusion“The ‘earth’ without art is ‘eh’...this world without art people will only be ‘ehhh’.”Furthermore, when today's society says that art is on the side of the road, meaning that it is
not the same as other knowledge, it turns out that after being reconstructed in neuroscience,
art is very extraordinary. When the context of aesthetic education is put forward, there are
two kinds of meaning. Aesthetic education, in the sense of schools, we call education for lifeand education for earning a living. The second is aesthetic science. Aesthetic education as the

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estuary of art produces metacognitive thinking patterns expected by education's success ingeneral.
The world of telepresence (virtual existence) is a cyber world because the primary entity(object) is transported and transfigured into the cyber world. As another layer of reality,
cyberspace allows people to be present in other places and meet others even though theirbodies are physically in other places. Aesthetic education through digital technology canenable even more extraordinary telepresence than that. Moreover, all of this is possible
because of computers. Computers and aesthetic education are inseparable parts.
The concept of science in the conventional era shows that science develops partially anddisconnectedly, including by their respective methods. The picture in the Aufklarung period
provides an aesthetic deepening into dynamic and definite particles. Definite knowledge, very
limited where to go. If it has become A, it is not possible to solve B. It is different from thismetaverse era, where if art develops creativity, then technology develops for the benefit ofhumans. In other words, technology has developed with new technology, which increasingly
shows that aesthetic education has the nature of developing creativity so that it penetrates theboundaries of the arts branch with fractal patterns and integrated, solid, and natural art.
Therefore, aesthetic education is now integrated. Aesthetic education is undeniably integrated
with other arts. Thus, aesthetic education in the metaverse concept includes three things;
namely, it is presentational, non-representational, and deformative material at the same time.
The discourse on AR and the metaverse in aesthetic education in Indonesia are fascinating,mainly when he collaborates with pure art, which has given rise to Non-Fungible Token(NFT) Art which certainly has more stable management than aesthetic education in thecontext of the metaverse. Thus, when collaboration and interdisciplinary, the context of
Mixed-Reality (MR) can be discussed further.

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The Comparative Study of Ethical Procedures in Education for
Law Amendments in Thailand
Phattharamanat Sritrakul, Burapha University, Thailand
The Southeast Asian Conference on Education 2023
Official Conference Proceedings
Abstract
This study was aimed (1) to examine the condition and problems in ethical processes in
education in Thailand (2) to compare the ethical procedures in education from ten countries
or regions (3) to provide recommendations for improving legislation within Thailand. The
research methodology was based on documentary research that was divided into three phases.
The first part was analyzing three pieces related to educational personnel management lawsin Thailand and interviewing the experts to verify the finding data. The next step was finding
related ethical procedure regulations from ten countries or regions for comparing theprocedures outlined in the professional ethics of the Education Code of Conduct by applying
the Simultaneous Approach of Comparative method. The last step was consultation withvarious stakeholders and experts for approving the guidelines of law amendments related to
improving ethical procedures in Thailand by applying the policy recommendation method.
The finding from Thailand’s related laws was that there is an overlap from the personnel
management system and an inconsistency among the authorized organizations of schools in
Thailand. Moreover, in this comparative study from ten countries or regions, the following
points were suggested: The first point was de-centralizing the power of disciplinary andethical procedures to local educational units and institutes by appointing subcommittee
members in each province in advance, for cases of professional misconduct. The second point
was revising the subordinate legislation for the disciplinary and ethical procedures to be
combined, and having this legislation ultimately amended.
Keywords: Comparative Study, Ethical Procedures, Law Amendments, Thailand

iafor
The International Academic Forumwww.iafor.org

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Introduction
Education is the foundation of any country’s progress and development. Teachers are thepeople who are the core of education in the role of educating people by cultivatingknowledge and morals. So, teachers are role models and mentors for every student because
they influence the learner’s impressionable minds; as well as inculcate sound social andmoral values through their words and deeds. Moreover, teachers share their knowledge andhelp students develop their own characteristics, thereby making a positive impact on theirreadiness for their future; so that students have tools to solve problems by applying the facts
and concepts that they have learned. In addition, teachers have been playing an important rolefor inspiring and constructing the meaningful education for societies (OECD, 2011).
In order to manage teacher’s personal behavior; UNESCO has stated that the code of conduct
is a set of written guidelines produced by public authorities or professional organizations;which aims to enhance the commitments, dedication and efficacy of service. It has also
provided self-disciplinary guidelines by establishing norms of professional conduct.
Furthermore, in the education aspect, a code of conduct provides guidance to teachers withconcrete ethical procedures applicable to all kinds of activities (Muriel Poisson, 2009).
The Code of Ethics supports teachers’ self-improvements; it outlines teachers ‘primary
responsibilities to their students; and to interact positively with parents, community members,
and other stakeholders of the school. Moreover, the Code of Ethics provides the standards of
judging conduct that all teachers aspire to. As mandated in the Code of Ethics for Teachers,
Thailand has regulated the Code of Ethics for Teachers comprising of five areas: Personal
ethics, Teaching Profession ethics, Client centered ethics, Collegial ethics, and Societal ethics(Ethical Professional Standards Regulation, 2013). It is the main regulation for ethics of theteaching profession published by the Thailand Teachers Council, which is the organization ofsemi government sector acting as juristic person. This organization is authorized by the
Ministry of Education responsible for teacher certificates, including registration, suspension
and withdrawal of teacher’s certificates. Moreover, its function is to regulate teachingprofessional standards and ethical regulations; as well as professional conduct for theeducators to adhere to the teaching professional code of conduct and professional standards.
Its mission was aimed to preserve and enhance educators’ reputations together with dignity inthe profession for building the faith for society; to provide ethical procedures for related
complaints of educators; and giving sanctions authorized by the professional committee of
the Teachers Council (Teacher and Educational Personnel Council Act, 2003).
Thailand Code of Conducts Regulation
According to Regulation of Teachers Council of Thailand about Ethical Misconduct
Procedure Regulations 2010 and amendments, Thailand Teachers Council has regulated theethical disciplinary procedure as follows:

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Table 1: The procedures for consideration of misconduct in professional ethics,
2010 and amendments
ProceduresTime frame
Section 1: Accusation
The letter of accusations or any petition must be subjected to the Secretary
Notof Teachers Council of Thailand in accordance with each case whereas the
specifiedSecretary shall conduct initial investigation in prior. If the case has
exceeded one year of its process, starting from the date that the accused has
been proven innocent, such case shall be dismissed and shall not be put into
further investigation.
Section 3: Investigation
Item 11 – If the Secretary, as authorized by the professional standard
Wait for thecommittee, finds that the case is valid due to (1) prominent evidence, (2)committee’s
credible details or clues in anonymous letters, (3) public reports in the press approvaland media, and/or (4) any other reason that the committee agrees upon, theSecretary has the rights to make accusation in prior to submit the case to theBoard for consideration.
Section 4: Designating the Subcommittee for Investigation
Item 15 – The Secretary must suggest three to five candidates to be
Immediately
designated as the investigation subcommittee by the committee.
Item 17 – Immediately notify the accused about the designation of theinvestigation subcommittee. In the event of failure in giving notification or
the accused refuses to acknowledge, a hard copy of the notification letter
must be sent to the accused’s address as recorded on official documents oras specified by the accused via registered post with advice of receipt. After
15 days since the notification letter is posted, the accused therefore cannot
refuse the notification and the subcommittee must include a copy of thisnotification in the investigation file.
Section 6: Objection(1) The accused has the rights to object the designation of certain
7 dayssubcommittee members.
(2) The Professional Standards Committee must consider, investigate, andWithin 60
come to resolution regarding the objection of the designation ofdays
subcommittee members ever since the date that the objection letter isreceived.
Section 8 Investigation methods(1) The subcommittee is responsible to conduct and carry out the
90 daysinvestigation.
Up to 30
(2) The timeframe of the investigation process can be extended.
days(3) Experts may join the investigation process.
15 days(4) Item 33 – The subcommittee must notify the accused in advance if
15 days
explanation is needed. The notification letter is required to be signed
and returned via mail post. The accused will be assigned to give
explanation at proper time.
Item 42 – If the findings after investigation lead to other misconducts which
are not defined in the orders regarding the designation of the subcommittee, Immediately
the head of the subcommittee must report to the Professional Standards
Committee.
Item 45 – In the event that the fault has been pointed out or a disciplinary
action has already been taken by a government division or other authority,

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consideration without having to summon additional evidence.
Section 9: Forms of investigation reports
Cases under
Item 48 – The investigation committee must come to resolution whether the investigationaccused’s misconduct in professional ethics based on the following
isconditions. If the accused is proven innocent, the accusations are considered consideredfalse and the case must be dismissed. If the accused is proven wrong, it isclose onceneeded to be clearly specified which rules or regulations were violated,
reported towhich level of penalty to be given, and the investigation report must bethedocumented.
committee
Section 12:
Item 58 – The Secretary must document the judgement of the Professional
15 daysStandards Committee and submit it to the president of the Professional
Standards Committee. Once the document has been signed by thedesignated committee members, the accused must be informed of thejudgement as well.
Item 59 – Once the accused has learned the committee’s judgement to
15 dayssuspend or revoke the professional license, the accused must acknowledge
the judgement and return the professional license to the Teachers Council ofThailand.
Item 60 – The accused may appeal the judgement to the Board of Teachers 30 days
Council of Thailand.
Resource: Thailand Ethical Misconduct Procedure Regulations 2010, Teachers Council
From the table above, every complaint related to ethical procedures which are made to the
Teachers Council, should follow the order of the secretary of the council notifying theappointment of a Professional Committee to investigate and appoint the subcommittee to run
the hearing process. The Teachers Council is open for all government and private sectors tomake a complaint. Moreover, The Council also accepts the disciplinary cases from the school
authorized sectors, but they begin to re-investigate the procedure to judge the possible
withdrawal of the registration certificate. This process could be refined by accepting thereport from the authorized sectors instead of doing an additional investigation.
For the ethical procedure in Thailand, according to the report of the ethical procedure annual
report of 2022 (Teacher Council, 2022), the Teachers Council has a problem with dealingcases that received complaints due to the limited human resources and the inconsistency ofprocedure which was regulated by the Teacher and Educational Personnel Council Act, 2003
and related regulations such as Ethical Professional. These problems cause the procedures tobe weakened and the application of them to be time-consuming. As a result, ethicalpunishment is not effectively implemented to protect the professional dignity and faithfulnessof teachers in Thailand. Moreover, the Thailand Teachers Council is one of the governmentorganizations, but they have no authority to directly assign any procedures to teachers or
schools. This reflects the structural problem of the system of ethical procedures.
Therefore, the Thailand Teachers Council should improve the related ethical procedure’s
registration or laws to solve the problem of procedure for better service and provide related
ethical procedures in the teaching profession. Consequently, it is crucial to examine fromhigh competencies in education of other countries or regions for the appropriate method for
applying Thailand’s ethical procedure for teacher. This will lead to more efficient proceduresin order to be more effective solutions and this would be beneficial to education in Thailand.

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Aim of the Study
1. To examine the condition and problems in ethical procedure in Education of Thailand
2. To compare the international existing procedures when dealing with ethical matters
3. To provide recommendations for improving legislation within Thailand
Methodology
The research methodology was based on documentary research, divided into three phases, as
follows:
Phase I: The documents and related current practices and regulations were studied,concerning procedures in professional ethics of Thailand Teachers Council for analyzing theadministration system of ethical procedure and overlap amongst the different pieces of laws
(Bix,1999). Then, experts of personnel management in Education were interviewed andresponses were obtained from both Education offices and private sectors. The data collection
instruments were an opened- questionnaire, and outline sheet for discussion for identifying
the challenge concerning Ethical Procedure in Education of Thailand. The expertise
contained the representative experts from the Office of Professional Ethics of Education Codeof Conduct, the Secretariat Office of the Teachers Council of Thailand and Office ofProcedure and Laws affiliated to the Teachers Council.
Phase II: The similarity and differences of regulations applicable to the procedure outlined in
the professional ethics of the education code of conduct internationally were examined. In
this part, countries and regions were chosen according to the IMD 2022 (IMD, 2022)from 63
countries or regions and PISA2018 Result’s indicators from 75 countries or regions (OECD,2019) and the most developed areas from each continent were considered and then chosen.
The primary methodology at this stage was a comparative study employing the technique ofcontent analysis and presenting the results in a comparative table by presenting the data of thecodes of conduct and related laws.
From the indicator of IMD2022 and PISA2018 Results, ten countries and regions from fivecontinents were chosen as follows:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Asia: Singapore, China, Chinese-Taipei, and Japan
Europe: England, Ireland, and France
Africa: South Africa
America: Pennsylvania, the USA, which has the highest rate of teacher investment in
2022. (Department of Education, Pennsylvania, 2022)
5. Australia: Queensland, Australia, which is the first state in Australia regulatingteacher registration (Queensland College of Teacher, 2011)
The process of this step was conducted by searching the internet for the code of conduct andrelated ethical procedures from two parts of each country or region. Then, some academics
from experts of comparative laws were interviewed as the following step. After that, the table
for analyzing the comparative data was created by applying the Simultaneous Approach ofcomparative education theory (Khakpour,2012); to find the outstanding points in ethicalprocedures of education in each area. Therefore, in this part the summative content analysisof the data was applied for conducting the comparison. For the data analysis, the method was
divided into three steps: (1) concluding the problem and challenge of ethical procedures in

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Thailand, (2) designing the solution of the problems in Thailand by borrowing from othercountries (3) and analyzing the design of solution with Thailand context.
Phase III: Providing the recommendation for laws amendments was applied with policy
borrowing for Thailand’s Ethical Procedure of Teachers Council. After finishing thecomparative method, the borrowing policy theory was applied to design the solutions for
ethical procedures of Thailand (Phillips,2021). Moreover, the recommendations weredeveloped in consultation with various stakeholders and experts that could be implemented toassist in revising laws associated with procedures in the professional ethics of the education
code of conduct of the Teachers Council of Thailand. In this part, focus group interviews
were conducted with a group of experts which are from Thailand Teachers Council, Teaching
Professional Committee, and Division of Professional ethics and laws, to analyze the solutionof this research problem. The interviews were recorded and transcribed for analyzing the datato conclude the recommendations for improving ethical procedures in Education in Thailand.
Findings
According to the purpose of this study, the findings will be organized into three sections: theproblems of the system in personal management in Thailand, the comparative international
study, and recommendation for revision ethical procedure in Education in Thailand.
Current practices and Challenge of personal systems in Thailand
In this section, to begin with, the laws related to Personal management were examined,
including (1) Teacher and Educational Personal for Civil Service Act of 2004 published by
the office of the Teacher Civil Service and Educational Personnel Commission, (2) Teachersand Educational Personnel Council Act of 2003 published by Teachers Council of Thailand,(3) Administrative Procedure Act of 1996, published in the Royal Thai Government GazetteVol.1133. Part60a., and (4) Regulation of Teachers Council of Thailand about Ethical
Misconduct Procedure 2010 and amendments, for analyzing the problem of the system in
Ethical Procedure in Thailand.
According to the above laws and regulations, it can be concluded that for the misconduct
procedure of the personal management in Thailand for teachers, there are two distinct
channels of legislation, namely:(1) Disciplinary Procedure Channel for teachers in Civil Service, From the analysis of
Teacher and Educational Personal for Civil Service Act of 2004 section 82 -97, it has beenfound that the disciplinary procedure of civil service teachers in Thailand is the responsibilityof the Local Educational Area office in each province. The disciplinary committee is set upby the Director of Educational Area Office for investigating and hearing any cases ofteacher’s misconduct behavior. The highest possible sanction against a teacher is dismissal,
but the teacher registration is not withdrawn. Moreover, the complainers can also appeal tothe educational area office for any process that may be deemed to be unfair. In case ofwithdrawing the registration of teaching profession, the director should write the notice to the
Teachers Council for any further action which consumes time.
(2) Ethical Procedures for teachers in Thailand, This procedure covers all teachers both ingovernment and private sectors in Education all over Thailand. According to three pieces oflaws: Teachers and Educational Personnel Council Act of 2003, Administrative Procedure

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Act of 1996, and Regulation of Teachers Council of Thailand about Ethical Misconduct
Procedure 2010 and amendments; it was found that this procedure was run by a professional
standards committee; the decision is approved by the chairman of the committee which takes
time, all the ethical procedures are dependent on this committee; starting from consideration
on each cases of misconduct, investigation, hearing, sanctions, and appeal. In each process it
is necessary to wait for the chairman of the committee to approve and provide the notice; andthis hierarchy can cause unnecessary delays. After the approval, the decision is announced by
the secretary of the Teachers Council who has the highest authority. As a result, from thestatement in the laws to practice, the analysis shows that the power is centralized with the
Teachers Council for Ethical Procedures.
In this part, interviews of the experts also provided the information of the current practices
and challenges concerning procedures in the professional ethics of the education code of
conduct (according to the annual cases results reported in July 2022) as 1) the centralizationof power at the Secretariat Office of the Teachers' Council of Thailand; 2) the Professional
Standards Commission (PSC), which has the primary responsibility to administer theprocedures of the professional ethics of the education code of conduct, must also handle otherfunctions; 3) there is no preliminary review process of incoming cases before issuing a casenumber. This also covers even the accepted cases, which may not be relevant, yet the
Secretariat Office of the Teachers' Council of Thailand may be unable to resolve the issue; 4)
there is an absence of a procedure to assist in integrating the disciplinary process and theprofessional code of conduct; notwithstanding, they constitute the same offence.
In the analysis and interviews regarding these four pieces of legislation, it can be identified
that the code of conduct parts in these laws overlap; it provides a division between thedisciplinary and ethical procedures; and this creates challenges when trying to practically
apply these procedures. So, there is an inconsistency between local authority units in
Education and Teachers Council of Thailand because they don’t link with each other when
applying the laws in misconduct of teacher’s procedure. This weakens Thailand’s procedures
and makes the application of laws time-consuming, and this causes the low efficiency when
dealing with disciplinary and ethical issues. Moreover, it is found that Thailand does notdecentralize the authority to Educational Office Area and school’s despite in the section 24 in
the Ministry of Education Act 2003, it states that schools are the organization entity.
However, the Thai education administrative style is still Top-down from the center unit, andthis means that schools don’t have any autonomy in any decision of the code of conduct
aspect. Furthermore, the Thai Teachers Council has no authority to control any of theeducational units. From this phenomenon, it can be seen that there is an inconsistency in how
punishments are given in the code of conduct.
Comparative Study of International Ethical Procedures
Educational professions in ten various nations or regions were examined. It was discoveredthat most of them had legislation that integrates the professional ethics of the education codeof conduct with the professional teaching standards. This is distinct from the ones that arefound in Thailand. In Japan, regulations concerning professional ethics have been
incorporated into the local public service laws. These laws are referenced from the national
public service laws. The People's Republic of China, Singapore, and the Republic of Taiwan
all keep their professional ethics regulations and their professional teaching standards
completely apart from one another. The People's Republic of China, on the other hand, takes
a similar approach to that of Thailand and keeps its professional ethics and the procedures

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into consideration the interconnection between the procedures of professional educational
ethics in foreign countries, or the special administrative regions according to the issues
discovered in phase 1, this study reports the following results: 1) They decentralize power tolocal educational offices. There are educational institutes and organizations which areauthorized by the law to collaborate along with the professional regulating board of theoriginal affiliation. 2) There is a procedure that can be followed to deliberate on cases
involving the professional ethics outlined in the education code of conduct. This begins whenthe educational institutes report the incidents to their original affiliation and the central office.
This is determined by the level of offences committed by the professionals. Alternatively, if
the case is less serious, all of the action will take place within the educational institutions. On
the other hand, if the case is highly offensive, it will be reviewed by a screening committeethat decides whether or not to accept and pass on the case. 3) There is a system forinvestigating and a procedure for the punishment of offences of a professional code of
conduct. Each country details sentencing patterns for offensive incidents involving theprofessional code of conduct and discipline in the primary legislation. 4) A sentence is
imposed based on cases. Depending on the circumstances, different degrees of severity ofpunishment could be assigned to each offence. The most severe level of the sentence consistsof revoking the teaching license and prohibiting offenders from doing their teaching job. 5)
The procedure for appealing a decision made in an ethics case includes a criterion thatindicates the case cannot be judged by the committee or organizations that considered thecase before. These results were obtained from the various forms of legislation applicable toeach country or region as indicated below in table 2 which was divided into 3 groups.
Table 2: The Comparative of Ethical Procedure in ten countries or regions
Group

Separating codeof Ethics in
Education

Ethical procedure in Education is included in Local Service
Laws

China

SingaporeJapan

Code of Ethics
2018

Ethos of Teaching
Profession

Ethics for Civil
Service

Ministry of
Education
EthicalProcedure for
EthicalSecondary andProcedure Laws
Primary
Teachers 2018

Academy ofSingapore Teachers

Local Civic Service
Units

Public Service
Disciplinary
Proceedings
Regulations

Local PublicService Laws

Public Service for
Disciplinary
Procedure

Publishing
Units

Ministry of
Education

Singapore
Parliament

Local PublicService Authority
Units

France Parliament

School andUnits for Ethical District
Procedure
Educational
OfficeSchool, andMinistry of
Education

Local PublicService

Schools,
Education Area
Office, andProvince of
Education Office

DataCountry or
Regions
Code of Ethics
Publishing
Units

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FranceTeaching
Professional
Standard 2007
Ministry of
Education

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Table 2: The Comparative of Ethical Procedure in ten countries or regions (Continue)Group
Integrating Teaching Professional Standards and Disciplinary Procedure
Data
Country or
Regions

Pennsylvania,

Queensland,

USA

Australia

Code of
EthicsProfessional
Standards andConducts for
Educators

Code of
Ethics for
Teachers in
Queensland

Publishing
Units

Departmentof Education,
Pennsylvania

EthicalProcedure
Laws

Educator
Disciplinary
Act

EnglandSouth
AfricaTaiwanCode ofProfessional Conductfor
Teachers

Teacher’sStandards

Code ofProfessional
Ethics andDisciplinary
Procedures

TaiwanTeacher
Ethics
Code

Queensland
College of
TeacherThe
Teachers
Council

Departmentof
EducationSouth
AfricanCouncil for
Educators

Education(Queenslandof College
Teacher)
Act 2005

Teachers
Council Act
2015
Section42(1)Teachers’
Disciplinary(England)
Regulations
2012

Code ofProfessional
Ethics andDisciplinary
Procedures

Teacher’s
Act 2019

South
AfricanCouncil for
Educators

Ministryof
Education

Schools andSouth
AfricanCouncil for
Educators

SchoolsandAuthority
Units

IrelandPublishing
Units

Departmentof Education,
Pennsylvania

Queensland
College of
TeacherThe
Teachers
Council

Teaching
Regulation
Agency,Departmentof
Education

Units for
EthicalProcedure

School andDisciplinary
Committee ofDepartmentof Education
Pennsylvania

College of
Teacher
Queenslandandpartners

Schools andTeachers
CouncilSchools andTeaching
Regulation
AgencyTaiwanTeacher’s
Association

From the data shown on the table above, there are three categories: (1) China has separated
code of Ethics in education which was published by Ministry of education, (2) Singapore,
Japan and France’s ethical procedure in Education is included in Local Civil Service Laws, (3)The rest of the countries or regions have integrated teaching professional standards anddisciplinary procedures. Moreover, from the comparative study it was found out that China is
the only country amongst the ten examined that uses the ethical procedure regulations insteadof specific published acts of legislation. China has enacted the Code of Ethics of2018(Ministry of Education,2018) and the procedures of how to handle these incidents areadministered by the ethical procedure regulations which is run by local authorities. An
examination of all the educational professions shows that all of them had legislation that put
the code of ethics for educators and disciplinary and punishment procedures together, except
for China and Thailand. Moreover, every country, except for Thailand, decentralizes power tolocal educational offices, organizations, or educational institutes to operate procedures andconsider cases relating to the professional ethics of the education code of conduct.
Nevertheless, it is apparent that the authority of the divisions and the committee members
responsible for ethical and professional conduct is decentralized from the central office to

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educational institutions or committee members in each country. Therefore, if authority isproperly delegated to personnel in local or provincial educational institutions under theeducational service area and if there are sufficient legal personnel, it can lead to a faster
operation compared to work done by the central office alone. An interesting point of theresults of this study is the decentralization of authority to the operating unit or the parent unitof the local educational institutions, that they are delegated to proceed and report back to thecentral office in compliance to the Decentralization of Powers to Local Administrative
Organizations Act, 1999.
Recommendation for Law Amendments of Thailand
From the comparative study from ten countries or regions in five continents the following
two points are submitted for policy amendment recommendations:
1) De-centralize the power of disciplinary and ethical procedures to local educational units
and institutes by appointing subcommittee members in each province in advance, for cases ofprofessional misconduct that does not necessarily need to proceed to the level where theteacher's license needs to be suspended. These subcommittee members will be required tocollaborate with the educational institute committees in these procedures. If an offenderviolates the professional code of conduct and breaks the disciplinary laws but does not reachthe level where their license is revoked, the subcommittee can consider what the appropriate
sentence should be. The local subcommittees should report their findings to the central units
in serious cases which would require the teacher’s licence to be suspended by the Teachers
Council (Reyes, 2016).
2) Revising the subordinate legislation for the disciplinary and ethical procedures to be
combined and having this legislation ultimately amended. (Sudirman et al., 2019) Revising
the subordinate legislation to appoint the special units in each province to deal with the codeof conduct procedures so the Teachers Council should de-centralize the power to thesubcommittees.
Moreover, the final suggestion from the focus group interviews from the experts of Thai
Teachers Council has suggested that the recommendations for revising the legislation shouldemphasize putting short-term problem-solving solutions in place. This is because amending
subordinate legislation could be more straightforward and require less time. The suggestions
comprise 1) putting up an amendment to subordinate legislation that would appoint
subcommittee members with authority to investigate a matter before and after it has beenbrought to their attention, including in cases where evidence of professional misconduct has
been found. The subcommittee can only carry out its duties if there is a case involving
allegations of professional misconduct that does not necessarily need to proceed to the levelthat the teacher's license is not suspended. 2) Empowering the Professional Standards
Commission to exercise its authority under section 25(5) to appoint a subcommittee withdirect responsibility for the professional code of conduct. 3) introducing additional
subordinate legislation that enables the committee to decline to accept a complaint or issue acase number when it does not appear necessary to accept the complaint in the first place. In
the long run, it is recommended that the accepting procedure under section 52 of the Teachers
Council of Thailand Regulation and the Teachers and Educational Personnel Council Act,
2003 be amended to allow the Secretariat Office of the Teachers' Council of Thailand to havethe authority in considering rejecting the case and giving the authority to not accepting theallegation. 4) If an offender violates the professional code of conduct and breaks

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the discipline laws but does not reach the level where their license is revoked, and if thegovernment then agrees to appoint a committee to investigate this not-serious offence, thenthat should allow integration of the work, allowing the investigation committee to consider
what an appropriate sentence should be. Moreover, there should be no need to appoint a
new subcommittee team to investigate the case again. Despite this, it is still essential tomaintain the way the initial affiliation handles disciplinary actions separate from the way the
Teachers Council of Thailand handles disciplinary actions and professional ethics. This isbecause both procedures can be carried out parallelly. 5) to address the risk problems in theadministrative legislation, it is suggested that 5.1) enact subordinate legislation, especially forthe case that is requesting an appeal. This is a request to one position-based committee within
the Teachers' Council of Thailand not to give a vote to judge any wrongdoing in cases
involving professional misconduct. 5.2) amend the subordinate legislation does not conflictwith the Teachers and Educational Personnel Council Act, 2003. This can be done by altering
the term “serious offences of professional ethics” to “offence of professional ethics requiring
license revocation” and replacing the phrase “Not serious offences of professional ethics”
with the phrase “offence of professional ethics which does not exceed the suspended licenselevel” in all related legislation.
Conclusion
In summary, the main findings were that the laws related to personnel administration forteachers in Thailand are time-consuming and often duplicated and this is caused by theseparation of ethical and disciplinary procedures. Furthermore, the centralization power of
the Teachers Council of Thailand can also cause delays because of their limited resources. In
addition, when a complaint is made the Teachers Council could delegate this responsibility to
the local education office. In order to find the solution from a global perspective, thecomparison study was applied. Applying the data of Ethical Procedures from ten countries
and regions and using the borrowing policy theory; it is suggested that Thailand should
decentralise the power of ethical procedure to education authorities and then report the results
to the Teachers Council for withdrawal of the teaching registration certificate. (West et al.,2010) Moreover, combining ethical and disciplinary procedures together to reduce resources
such as time and people. The implications of applying the proposed amendments to thelegislation as detailed in this comparative study are that the procedures would be far more
effective, consistent, and clarified, to be more consistent with other international practices inthis regard. However, the limitations could be the resistance to cultural or system changes aswell as the time-consuming process required to conduct the necessary consultations andamend the applicable legislation. Furthermore, Thailand is a developed country, and thejustice process is run by government sectors as a main, which is still difficult if it will
decentralise to schools in the code of conduct aspect. It also takes time when the country
wants to combine the duplication of laws.
Acknowledgement
This study is the part of laws amendments research project which was funded by Thailand
Teachers Council under the Teacher Education Research Funding Programme, andadministered by the Faculty of Education, Burapha University, Thailand.

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References
Bix.B. (1999).Analyzing Law:New Essays in legal Theory.Minisota : Clarendon Press.
IMD. (2022).IMD World Competitiveness Booklet 2022.Lausanne : IMD Publishing.
Khakpour, A. Methodology of Comparative Studies in Education. Contemp. Educ. Res. 2012,
1, 20–26.
Muriel Poisson. (2009). Guidelines For the Design and Effective use of Teacher Codes ofConduct. Paris : UNESCO publishing.
OECD. (2019). PISA2018Result(Volume I): What Students Know and Can Do.Paris:OECD
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OECD. (2011). Teachers Matter: Attracting, Developing and Retaining Effective
Teachers.Paris: OECD Publishing.
Phillips, D. (2021). Policy Borrowing in Education: Frameworks for Analysis. In: Zajda, J.
(eds) Third International Handbook of Globalisation, Education and Policy Research.
Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-66003-1_8
Queensland.(2011).Australia Professional Standards for Teachers. Queensland: Queensland
College of Teachers.
Reyes.D.(2016). Issues and Problems in Decentralization and Local Autonomy in thePhilippines: A Preliminary Assesment of Impact and Challenges. Journal of Politics
and Governance, 6,166-184.
Sudirman, A., Lie, D., Sherly, S., & Dharma, E. (2019). The impact of work disciplineandwork ethic on the teacher performance of Sultan Agung PematangsiantarPrivate
Middle School Teachers TA 2018/2019. International Journal ofBusiness Studies,
3(3), 125–135. https://doi.org/10.32924/ijbs.v3i3.83
Thailand Teacher Council. (2022). Annual Report on Misconduct in Ethical Profeesional
Standards in Thailand. Bangkok: Teachers Council.
West, A., Allmendinger, J., Nikolai, R., & Barham, E. (2010). Decentralisation and
Educational Achievement in Germany and the UK. Environment and Planning C:
Government and Policy, 28(3), 450–468. https://doi.org/10.1068/c0992
Resources“Administrative Procedure Act of 1996” by the Royal Thai Government Gazette Vol.1133.
Part60a. https://www.krisdika.go.th/librarian/get?sysid=825513&ext=pdf“Ethical Professional Standards Regulation 2013” by Thailand Teachers Council.
https://etico.iiep.unesco.org/sites/default/files/201902/thailand_2005_professional_standard_of_ethics.pdf

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Official Conference Proceedings“The Foundation of our Economy, Pennsylvania Educator Workforce Strategy 2022-2025”
by Department of Education, Pennsylvania. (2022).
https://www.education.pa.gov/Documents/TeachersAdministrators/PA%20Educator%20Workforce%20Strategy.pdf“Teacher and Educational Personal for Civil Service Act of 2004” by the office of the
Teacher Civil Service and Educational Personnel Commission.
https://otepc.go.th/en/content_page/item/439-2012-07-13-13-13-13-0996.html“Teacher and Educational Personnel Council Act,2003” by Thailand Teachers Council.
https://ilo.org/dyn/natlex/natlex4.detail?p_lang=en&p_isn=66898&p_country=THA&
p_count=441“Thailand Ethical Misconduct Procedure Regulations 2010” by Thailand Teachers Council.
https://www.ksp.or.th/service/u/files/janyabun(1).pdf
Contact email : fewthaia380@yahoo.com

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L1 Use in the L2 Classroom: A University Instructor’s Perceptions of
His Language Choices

Miki Harwood, Sophia University, JapanThe Southeast Asian Conference on Education 2023
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Abstract
First language (L1) use in English as a foreign language (EFL) classrooms has been
researched for over three decades. Scholars have studied classroom L1 use from different
perspectives, for example, the functions of teachers’ L1 use (Sert, 2005; Forman, 2016) andits pedagogical effects (Lee & Macaro, 2013; Lee & Levine, 2020). Although English-only
policies have been questioned in many countries, in Japan the Ministry of Education
recommends that English should be taught through English. As Hawkins (2015) notes, thishas led to a belief in Japan that L1 use should be minimized or avoided in EFL classrooms.
Although research regarding the quantity and functions of classroom L1 use has gained more
attention, there are few studies that have investigated teachers’ perspectives on their own L1
use (e.g., Polio & Duff, 1994; Hobbs et al., 2009). This paper reports on the findings from aqualitative study which explores how and why a university instructor used students’ L1 in hisclassroom. Data from semi-structured interviews, stimulated recall interviews, and classroom
observations are analyzed using a phenomenological approach. The paper focuses on one
participant, an English-speaking EFL instructor in a Japanese university, and discusses his
use of the students’ L1 with his understanding of his language choices. The findings showthat the instructor’s L1 use is likely associated to sociopragmatics and that his language
choice is a multifaced and dynamic phenomenon as he responds to the communication needsof his students while managing his classes.

Keywords: L1 Use, Language Choice, Teacher Perception, EFL, Japanese

iafor
The International Academic Forumwww.iafor.org

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Introduction
There has been an ongoing debate regarding the L1 use in the second language (L2)classrooms for over three decades, and researchers such as Cook (2001) have argued forinclusion of L1 in teaching and learning L2 in language classroom settings. In recent years,
there has been a shift to L1 inclusion in teaching L2 in many countries and learning contexts;
however, a negative connotation about the L1 use in language teaching contexts remains(Hawkins, 2015) in Japan, and monolingual approach is preferred in English teachingcontexts. L1 use is often discussed with how much is used and in relation to avoidance or
minimization, and the discussions tend to be related to how much L1 is used by teachers.
However, as Borg and Sanchez (2020) note, teachers are “thoughtful, active decision-makers
who have a significant influence on what happens in the classroom” (p.16). Indeed, language
instructors are often required to make spur of the moment decisions as they respond toclassroom events and students’ reactions. Although what English as a foreign language
instructors believe and perceive about their language choices plays a large part in theirclassroom teaching practices, there is a dearth of research that investigates how and why they
use the student L1 in their classrooms in EFL contexts, especially at the tertiary level. This
paper reports on an instructor’s perceptions of his language use and choices in a Japanese
university EFL classroom. The data and participant presented in this paper is drawn from oneof the participants from a larger study that I conducted (Harwood, 2020). It considers theparticipant’s sociopragmatic aspects of language choice and use. The first language refers tostudents’ primary language, Japanese, and the instructor’s first language is English in thispaper.
Context and background
In Japan, English has been learned in the context where English language was not directly
linked with the periods of colonization but learned in a foreign language context especiallyfor cultural and economic growth. , The Japanese Ministry of Education, Sports, Science andTechnology (MEXT) developed the English education reform plan (MEXT, 2014) which areintended as a response to the globalized economy and society. The government anduniversities put considerable effort into English education from secondary to higher
education. MEXT recommends that, in principle, English should be taught through English(MEXT, 2014) in secondary and upper secondary schools; this is partly because Japan is an
EFL context where most students have limited exposure to English outside the classroom. At
the tertiary level, MEXT’s report shows that 99% of Japanese universities (730 out of 736
universities shown in the survey) offer English language classes, and approximately 40% of
the universities offer English classes in English (MEXT, 2019; 2021). Universities offer
various English programs to prepare Japanese students for the globalized world (Yonezawa& Shimmi, 2017), and the government and universities direct many resources to English
education in Japan.
Literature review
L1 use in foreign language classrooms has been extensively researched from various aspects
and contexts. Researchers have focused on quantity (Duff & Polio, 1990; Lo, 2014),
effectiveness of L1 use to teaching and learning the L2 (Lee & Levine, 2020; , Macaro et al.,2014; Rolin-Ianziti and Brownlie, 2002; Tian & Macaro, 2012; Viakinnou-Brinson et al.
2012; Zhang & Graham, 2020), and functional analysis of codeswitching (Sert, 2005;

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Cahyani et al., 2018; Forman, 2016). Studies have reported positive findings, and generally
there is consensus among the researchers that students benefit from their L1 use, andresearchers have sought judicious use of learner’s L1.
While many studies related to L1 use has focused on the frequency of L1 used in theclassrooms and its effects on or efficacy in teaching and learning the L2, other studies haveinvestigated instructors’ perceptions of the L1 use and how L1 and L2 were used (Polio &Duff, 1994); self-evaluated how the instructor actually used L1 and identified motivations
and reasons underlying her own L1 use (Edstrom, 2006); and explored the culture of learningin relation to codeswitching and instructor’s language use (Hobbs et al. 2009). Several studies
have explored instructors’ attitudes and motivation for codeswitching and language choices(Canh & Hamied, 2014; Humphries & Stroupe, 2014; Littlewood and Yu, 2010). Other
scholars have analyzed classroom discourse to better understand code choice (Levine, 2011)
and the L1 impact on social interactions (Sert, 2015) in the language classrooms. Thosestudies have reported on social, cultural, and pragmatic factors, and how contexts can also
influence and determine the instructors’ language choices (Gallagher, 2020).
Methodology
The current study employs a qualitative study approach to understand how an instructor
makes sense of his use of the student L1 and consider the influences on his language choices.
Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA). In IPA studies, the researcher’s analytic
attention is placed on the participants’ attempts to make sense of their experiences and theparticipants’ interpretations of the phenomenon in inquiry (Smith et al., 2009; 2022). The
focus of the study results is drawn from how the researcher makes sense of how theparticipant makes sense of that experience. Following the IPA principle, the current study iscommitted to understanding the participant’s point of view and interpretation of his meaningmaking.
Data collection
The data were collected from two 90-minute classroom observations and two one-hour semistructured interviews. A stimulated recall interview method was also incorporated to allow
the participant to provide interpretations of his own actions and enable me to elicit thethought processes in the instructor’s actions (see Friedman, 2012). The two classroom
observations and interviews were audio-recorded. I was present in the classroom throughout
each 90-minute class and kept field notes. The language used in the interviews was theparticipant’s L1, English. I transcribed the interview data and classroom discourse thatinvolved the participant’s use of Japanese and English, and the transcripts from the classroom
observations were used in a 50-minute stimulated recall interview with the participant. The
data were analyzed to understand the participant’s point of view by following IPA principles:
phenomenological; double hermeneutic; and idiographic.
Participant and Setting
The study was conducted in a private Japanese university. The study participant, George(pseudonym) is a fulltime faculty member at the university. He is an American citizen andEnglish speaker who has over 25 years of experience in teaching tertiary level English in
Japan as well as several years’ experience teaching in North and South America in English asa second language contexts. George is a highly proficient Japanese speaker and is competent

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in several other languages. He was selected for the study because he is an experienced
instructor who is highly proficient in Japanese (the student L1) and is not constrained in his
language use in L1 and L2 in the classroom.
The classes observed focus on speaking skills and are part of a compulsory English course forgeneral academic purposes for first year undergraduate students. At the university, English istaught as a required subject to all students regardless of their major at the university. The
English program is designed to support first-year undergraduate students as they transition
from the English that they learned at high-school to be able to use English for academic
purposes at university. The class comprised of 22 non-English major students, and their first
language is Japanese. Their English proficiency level is A1 to A2 on the Common European
Framework of Reference for Languages.
Findings and Discussion
George’s Aim in this Class
One of George’s concerns is that his students are freshmen and their major is not English. He
observes that most of his students are often reluctant to speak English and do not feel
comfortable using English because they did not have many opportunities to communicate
only in English at high school. In addition, he explained that he believes those students feel
frustrated or embarrassed as they are streamed by their English proficiency and assigned tothe class based on their TOEIC® scores. To mitigate the difficulties that his students may
face and to ease their frustration, George aims to create a comfortable classroom atmospherefor his students and facilitate their smooth transition to university. George explained that hedoes not see himself as a person who dispenses knowledge about the target language to thestudents, but he positions himself as a facilitator in the class.
George’s Attitudes Towards his Use of the Student L1
George stated that although he uses English to teach English, he is strictly against Englishonly classroom environment. He notes that he codeswitches with his family, friends, andcolleagues in order to better communicate and convey culturally more appropriate meanings
in the given contexts. He acknowledges that codeswitching is a normal behavior if a speaker
and a hearer share the same languages. He does not separate classroom settings fromeveryday settings in terms of his language use, and he takes a natural approach to his teachingin terms of his language use. He believes that it would make the class quieter and lessengaged if he kept his instructional language in English only.
In the first interview, which was conducted before the classroom observations, George
associated his use of the student L1 with the students’ proficiency level. George explainedthat he uses the student L1 to explain vocabulary and clarify task instructions. He noted thatsome tasks and activities are complicated for his students to understand, and that he provides
explanations in Japanese to support students when necessary. He noted that he thinks the useof the student L1 saves time, and that it also helps his students to follow him and the lesson if
their proficiency in the L2 is limited.
Subsequent interviews and classroom observations as well as the stimulated recall shedfurther light on George’s sense making regarding his language choices. His concerns about
cultural and social appropriateness or sociopragmatic aspects of language use emerged.

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Sociopragmatics connects pragmatic meaning with a degree of social distance between theinterlocutors, social rules in the language or speech community, and accepted behaviours anddiscourse practices (Thomas, 1985). Below, George’s perceptions of his language choice are
discussed using the excerpts from the classroom observation.
George’s Language Use and his Perceptions about his Language Choices
Three excerpts in the following section illustrate George’s language use and choices inrelation to sociopragmatics. His language choices are connected to: (a) to make lighter
atmosphere (make students laugh); (b) to lower student anxiety; (c) to help to build rapport;(d) to show a little more respect; and (e) to use words which are culturally more relevant (noequivalent words in English to fit in the Japanese context).
The incident shown in Excerpt 1 was when the class was working on a dictation activity
using the textbook. The class was about to work on dictation activities with the audio
recording. George gave instructions to his students, and they had to fill gaps in the textbook
as they listened to the two people talking. He was going to play the audio recording.
Excerpt 1: いきます (Ikimasu)
1. T:
2. S:
3. T:
4. T:

Are you ready (for the dictation exercise)?
[No response - Students talking to each other]
Please try to answer the questions. I will pause it (the audio recording) for you.
[Students still talking to each other]
いきます。Ready? [instructor starts playing the audio recording for the dictation
exercise]

In line 1, George asked students whether they were ready. His students were not attentive
because they were busy talking among themselves. In line 4 George uttered a Japanese word,
いきます (Ikimasu). Ikimasu is a statement that is generally used when one is ready to dosomething. People often use it to attract others’ attention to their action. The students stopped
talking and looked at their textbook as George uttered the word.
George explained that there is no equivalent word to Ikimasu in English which is useful in acontext such as this. He elaborated on his use of Japanese that one or a few words in Japanese
can help him capture students’ attention and reaction especially when they are not listening or
tired. George used the Japanese word which is linguistically and pragmatically more familiar
to his students as he wanted to capture their attention in an efficient way.
The observation data suggests that using a Japanese word, George managed to inform his
students that the audio recording was about to be played, stopped them from talking, and letthem focus on the listening activity. The data shows that, George’s codeswitching fromEnglish to Japanese functioned as a cue to gain students’ attention to the listening activity.
Such language switching between L1 and L2 can work efficiently and economically to help
instructors to attract students’ attention when the class shares the same L1, and the lesson isconducted though the L2 (Harwood, 2022).
Excerpt 2 below illustrates an incident when the students were about to practice theirspeeches in front of the class. The students were quietly waiting for George to nominate them

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to practice their speech. In this incident, George used a Japanese phrase in order to pay more
respect and be polite to the students.
Excerpt 2: お願いします (Onegaishimasu)
1. T:
2. S:
3. T:
4. S:
5. T:
6. T:

OK? Ready? Lucky person No.1 is…Kenji. じゃ、お願いします。
[Looking down. No response.]
Stand up, read your speech. Speech time.
Speech? [Responding to the teacher. Looking nervous]
Yes. お願いします。
How about Ayumi? お願いします。

In line 1, George nominated one student, Kenji and then said a Japanese word, “お願いします” (onegaishimasu). Kenji did not respond so George repeated his instructions for Kenji(line 3). In line 4 George managed to elicit Kenji’s response, and George responded to Kenjiand said “お願いします“ again. George nominated the other student, Ayumi, to work withKenji and said “お願いします” to her.
George explained that the word, onegaishimasu is literally translated in English as go ahead.
He further explained that nuance is slightly different between those two phrases because theEnglish phrase, go ahead, does not have exactly the same meaning. He perceives that go
ahead sounds top-down,and that onegaishimasu sounds more polite. More importantly,
George believes the Japanese phrase is an appropriate expression to convey a more suitable
meaning in the context.
Excerpt 2 is an example of when L2 instructors use the student L1 can provide affective
support. George reflected that he used the Japanese phrase to create a supportive environment
and to reduce the stress that students experience when presenting and giving speeches in frontof the class. As Forman (2016) notes, many students in language classrooms are reluctant tospeak the L2 in class, and instructor’s use of the student L1 can facilitate easy and naturalinteraction between teacher and students. In a potentially stressful and uncomfortable context
shown in Excerpt 2, George uses Japanese to attempt to ease the tense situation and lower
students’ anxiety.
Excerpt 3 below illustrates the incident when George was talking about the speaking test at
the end of the lesson. The news about the upcoming speaking test was important information
for George to relay to his students.
Excerpt 3: 楽しみ? (Tanoshimi)
Shush, shush! Let’s talk about the speaking test next week. Does everybody know wehave the speaking test next week?
2. Ss: Huff. [Several students sigh loudly]
3. T: 楽しみ？(Are you looking forward to it?)
4. Ss: No. No. No. [Several students respond at the same time]
5. T: But we had so much fun last time. You guys did a good job.
6. Ss: Good job! Good job! [A few students repeat what the instructor said]
7. T: Yah. This time, you will do a better job because it’s your second time.
1. T:

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Most of the students were not listening to George when he started talking about the test whilea few students reacted to the news. In line 3, George then said a Japanese word, 楽しみ(tanoshimi) as he continued to talk about the test. The word, tanoshimi, literally means
looking forward to something. He used the Japanese word using a question form (byemphasizing the last part of the word). In response to his Japanese, his students responded tohim in English.
George reflected on this incident and noted that his students seemed to have lost theirconcentration since it took place at the end of the 90-minute lesson. George explained that thenews about the speaking test was not exciting for his students and that he intended to elicit
students’ reactions and ease the tension related to the speaking test. He understands that
listening to English for the full lesson can be stressful for many students and perceives that a
few Japanese words or short phrases in between the constant English makes his students
laugh and can create a lighter atmosphere.
George reflected further. He thinks his language use and attitudes towards language choices
are often an attempt to make the atmosphere more comfortable for his students and thus
create a better learning environment. He believes that the use of the student L1 can work
positively, however, too much Japanese can be an insult to some students because they are in
the classrooms to learn English and may want to use English. Explaining further, George
noted that some students may think that their instructor uses Japanese because they
misunderstand their students’ proficiency level of English. In such a case, he thinks that somestudents may lose face as they can speak more English in the classroom. While George thinksthat use of the student L1 is not necessarily a negative practice when students need support
for linguistic and affective reasons, he is interested in understanding his students’ perceptions
about his use of their L1 in his classrooms.
Summary
In line with other research findings (see Sert, 2005; Littlewood and Yu, 2011; Forman, 2016;
Harwood, 2022) affective reasons and factors seem to influence George’s use ofcodeswitching. As with the findings of Edstrom (2006), George also feels a moral obligation
to his students, and that the use of the student L1 can help to create a comfortable classroom
environment for students. Furthermore, Georges shifts from the L2 to L1 seems to work as atool for classroom management in his EFL classroom when he needs to gain students’attention immediately and to convey information efficiently.
The observation data and George’s interpretation of his language use in the interviews
illustrate that he realizes his aim of creating a comfortable classroom atmosphere by making
use of the student L1 based on his sociopragmatic knowledge in Japanese and Japanese EFL
classroom contexts. As Tsui (2003) notes, experienced teachers are able to manage problems
as they respond to events and issues based on their experience and provide alternatives inorder to facilitate their teaching. Although instructors are often expected to plan how
effectively the student L1 is used and to be able to articulate their purposes for its use, it canbe difficult to “manipulate the teachers’ language choices” (Levine, 2011, p. 145) because
their use of the L1 is often embedded in their automated routines in the classroom (Sert,
2005). As discussed above, George’s use of the student L1 is more than simply a literaltranslation to support students’ limited proficiency in the L2. His L1 use conveys social,
cultural, and pragmatic meanings that underlie the words.

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Conclusion
Instructors use the student L1 for many reasons. L1 use can carry innumerable meanings andbring unanticipated effects to the classroom (Harwood, 2022) although such findings are very
difficult to quantify. This study has shed some light on L2 instructors’ L1 use from theirperspectives especially on sociopragmatic aspects.
In EFL contexts such as Japan, the use of the student L1 in language classroom settings isoften understood as a negative practice, and avoidance or minimization of the L1 tends to be
praised. However, each classroom is a social space where teachers interact with students asthey would with people in their real life. This study shows that the sociocultural context ofthe classroom can impact on the instructor’s language choice in the classroom. George’s
language use is a reflection of the social norms that he follows and sociopragmatics that heunderstands beyond the language classroom setting.
The findings in this paper are highly context-dependent analyzed from a single case,nonetheless, the current study indeed shows that teachers’ language choice is a complex andmultifaceted phenomenon. More studies that explore teachers’ perspectives of the student L1
use and codeswitching in EFL classrooms will help clarify our understanding of underlying
meaning and rationale about their L1 use. That will lay to rest the negative notion about L1
use as a hinderance to language learning that remains in EFL contexts such as Japan.

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Reforming English Curriculum for Students With a Low Level of English Proficiency
Minako Inoue, Health Science University, JapanThe Southeast Asian Conference on Education 2023
Official Conference Proceedings
Abstract
In Japan, the government has emphasized the importance of English skills and of working on
various improvement measures for the English curriculum. Even with such emphasis,
Japanese proficiency scores are not showing the desired results. According to Education First(EF), the Swiss international education company, Japan’s English proficiency Index ranking
has been dropping since they started the survey in 2011 and the most recent results show thatJapan ranks 78th among 112 non-English speaking countries. At the tertiary level, the decline
in students’ English proficiency, especially for universities with low academic standards,
have been of great concern. As a result, some universities provide remedial education forunder-prepared students. As one such university, the studied university has seen an increased
number of students whose placement test marks low. To provide appropriate English
instruction, a needs analysis of recent students is urgent. This study examines the results ofthe placement test, vocabulary size, final scores, the admission styles, and GPA of 61
first-year students. The analysis of this study involves numerical and correlation approaches.
High correlations are found between two finals as well as between finals and GPA. Moreover,strong to moderate correlations are found among students’ placement test scores, vocabulary
sizes, final scores. At the same time, the study concerns students’ low level of vocabularysize, which is compared to the standards found by previous studies. The results raise various
challenges for adapting the situation, finding innovative instructions for students.
Keywords: English Proficiency, Remedial Education, Universities

iafor
The International Academic Forumwww.iafor.org

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Introduction
According to the demographic data, Japan’s 18-year-old population has been decreasing.
After peaking at 2.05 million in 1992, the number of 18-year-olds has nearly halved and ispredicted to be less than 1 million in 2031. This decrease negatively impacts universities,
suffering from a shortage of applicants. It is reported that this is a severe condition that has
hit universities hard, especially small and regional private ones; they find it challenging to
attract students. As countermeasures, they must develop alternative admission routes toensure their enrollment rate.
At the same time, the percentage of students proceeding to university has steadily increased.
According to the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT)
the rate has reached its highest record in 2022 at 60.4%. With these situations overlapping,
another serious issue facing universities is the academic decline of students, especially in theprivate sector. Many universities are now dealing with underprepared students. Universities
must identify their problems and provide the necessary support through remedial education
before they can continue their university education.
Literature review
The literature review covers the following topics:− Definition of remedial education− Types of remedial education− Research on remedial education• English proficiency of university students• Approaches• Students’ motivation and attitudes
Definition of remedial education
Remedial education, sometimes called developmental education, describes any program,course, or activity designed for students with basic deficiencies in skills necessary to startcoursework at institutions. However, such definitions vary depending on institutions andcontexts. The Japan Association of Developmental Education (JADE) defined and recognized
remedial education at the plenary session in August 2019 as follows. 1. Remedial educationmeans support for learning and acquiring skills and knowledge. 2. Individualized orcoordinated support activities, including subjects, programs, and services in college work,
which institutions offer as an essential basis for all students and prospective students at thetertiary level.
Types of remedial education at Japan universities
Since the definitions of remedial education vary, the remedial education programs vary at
different institutions. Yamamoto argues there are four patterns of remedial education in Japan(2001). These are: 1) Additional courses provided by universities to review high school
subjects targeting underprepared students; 2) Introductory courses aimed at freshmen whichmainly prepare them for regular classes; 3) Preparatory courses to develop skills andknowledge for specialized or professional education; 4) Pre-admission education targeting
prospective students, doing reports, or attending intensive programs. According to Hoyashita
et al. (2011), 70% universities offer the first type. These supplemental courses and variations

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et al. (2011), 70% universities offer the first type. These supplemental courses and variations
are broadly divided into the following categories:
1) Intensive classes, implemented during breaks, or outside of regular classes.
2) Classes for underprepared students determined through proficiency level tests.
3) Classes for students who failed regular courses.
4) Formation of classes based on proficiency levels.
These classes vary in terms of required or non-required, credit or non-credit courses.
As can be seen, utilization of remedial education shows a large variety.
Research on remedial education
English proficiency and university students
It has been claimed that university students' English proficiency levels are declining. Nakajyo
and Nishigaki (2007) measured students’ English proficiency levels through the Eiken
Foundation of Japan’s tests. Among 50 participants, the results show that 8.7 % achieved
high school graduation level, 47.8% achieved junior high school graduation level, and the rest
performed below junior high school graduation level. According to the Ministry of Education,
Culture, Sports, Science, and Technology (MEXT) study in 2021, 46.1% of third-year seniors
among 3306 high school senior students meet the government goal of possessing GradePre-2-level Eiken certification or above. Ishihara, K. et al. (2010) compared English abilities
between the 1994 and 2008 cohorts, using C-tests and speed writing tests. The study reports
noteworthy declines in students’ English abilities. When these students are classified into
three groups, including lower, middle, and upper proficiency group, the difference between
1998 and 2008 become wider. Nakajo, K et al. (2012) examined English proficiency level,targeting 161 university students. The study reports a serious deficit of grammaticalproficiency among participants. Sakai et al. (2005) also reported the tendency of weakgrammatical knowledge in remedial course students.
Approaches
Many universities have introduced remedial courses (Otani university, Nishio, 2016; Fukuoka
University, Hayashi, and Ono, 2013). Approaches for each university vary.
The following two studies examined materials to determine their applicability in remedial
education: Kuniyoshi et al. (2005) developed e-learning material for English remedial
education, targeting freshmen with limited basic English skills. This program intends to help
students develop their fundamental English language abilities to actively participate in andenjoy English courses. The program is also helpful for instructors who provide guidance andexplain materials. Shigyo et al. (2019) focused on using digital materials for young children
and examined the possibility of using them as remedial education materials targeting
underprepared university students. The program used is the “Let’s Go” books 4 to 6 by
Oxford University Press. The study describes that the program teaches students a language by
converting text to speech while covering basic English at junior high school level. Moreover,there is a wide variety of topics that pique students’ interests. The study concludes that these
digital materials are suitable for remedial education.
Other studies implement strategies and exam their effectiveness. Kominato (2021) utilizes“word order” in grammar teaching for students with low English proficiency. The study
focuses on 43 students; 65% did not understand word order during their junior high and high

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school years. She also utilizes e-learning for extracurricular activities. In this e-learning,
instead of word order, a “connect two sentences” method is used. The survey result showsthat the word-order method promotes their understanding, which is easier to understand thanconnecting sentences methods. In other study, Kominato (2016) examined the impact ofhomework assignments on self-regulated learning, which consists of effortful regulation,
monitoring and planning strategies, and self-efficacy in education. The study, involving 33
first-year students in a remedial course, found that regular homework completion enhances
self-regulation and self-efficacy.
Chujo and Nishigaki (2007) examine the effectiveness of a CALL program geared to
EIKEN-type questions. The study involved 34 beginner-level freshmen who used CALL
exercises and quizzes tailored to their proficiency level. Students participate in the program attheir own pace with feedback from instructors. The study found an improvement in pre- andpost-tests while the program was more favorably perceived by the more proficientparticipants in the group. Chujo et al. (2013) examined the application of the Data-Driven
Learning approach, which uses authentic materials, promotes learner-centeredness throughexploratory tasks, and use corpus tools such as concordances. Since this DDL approach havebeen used for intermediate or advanced level, the author modified materials using suitablelevel of corpora. Moreover, the complexity of the materials is modified to be morestraightforward, easy, and intuitive. The study uses the AntPConc software and reports
significant improvement in grammatical knowledge for beginner-level EFL university
students. It is also reported students’ positive perceptions of the material.
Regarding the contents of such courses, Makino and Hirano (2014) reported 40% of grammar
instruction, followed by vocabulary instruction (28%) in their studies at 25 universities. The
following studies implemented some strategies in their remedial courses and reported
students’ perceptions or attitudes.
Some other studies feature involvement of e-learning in the remedial education. Ono andSakai (2005) examined the effectiveness of e-learning in remedial education, implemented atthree universities. Significant improvement was observed when students’ study hours and a
supportive environment were secured. It suggests good monitoring systems enhance students’study habits. Hayashi and Ono (2013) report their study on their two-week remedial English
intervention, which consists of one-week textbook learning and one-week e-learning. The
improvement in pre-and post-diagnosis tests was observed in 10 participants, while theremaining two did not show improvement. The study suggests the importance of repeatedpractice, revision, and teacher support in sustainable and autonomous learning.
Students’ motivation and attitudes
Gardner and Smythe (1975) argue that motivation is the major affective factor influencing L2
achievement. Dörnyei (2005) also claims that motivation is critical in second language
acquisition; reporting high motivation may compensate for deficiencies in both one’s
language aptitudes and learning conditions.
Some studies focus on motivation among Japanese students. Ogane and Sakamoto (1997)
performed a correlational study in which students’ motivation and English proficiency were
measured by the Certificate in English Language Teaching (CELT) test. The study foundstrong correlations between the two.
The subsequent studies focused on motivation among remedial students. Kiyota, Y.

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level is measured through the Society for Testing English Proficiency (STEP). The study
classified students into three groups based on their attainment level and found that the lowest
level group shows low motivation and serious difficulties in acquiring the necessary skills.
Nakai (2008) examined learners’ attitudes toward a remedial course through a survey
containing 17 questionnaires administered to 99 freshmen. The study found students with apositive attitude toward learning specific elements tend to have an affirmative attitude toward
other specific elements. In contrast, students with negative attitude toward learning specificelements tend to have negative attitudes toward other specific elements. The study
investigates effective strategies which motivate students in remedial courses. These strategies
include introducing listening and vocabulary learning, which will promote students’satisfaction with studying well. In turn, it improves their progress which may induce
motivation. Moreover, a grammar review should be included when reading materials are
introduced in class. Then students feel they can read and understand, which may enhancetheir interests. Makino (2017) studied 36 second-year students at the lowest level based on
TOEIC scores. All of them were anxious and showed negative attitudes toward English.
Makino planned and introduced several strategies based on the questionnaires administered intheir first year to determine needs analysis. The survey was administered after the course andthe students’ self-efficacy and positive attitudes were significantly improved.
Harvard and Minami introduced their basic English course for students who scored the lowest
in GTEC, namely 250th. The pre-and post-tests were administered, including 35 vocabulary,grammar, and reading multiple-type questions. The results showed that their grades improved
significantly. Furthermore, according to questionnaires, most students felt that the class level
was appropriate, as they were optimistic about reviewing basic grammar. Harvard andMinami suggest that their feeling of “I can do it” should be connected to their intrinsic
motivation. Yamaoka (2014) used authentic materials, such as songs, movies, comics, andemails, as they all communicate content between actual senders and actual receivers. The
study involved 83 medical students in remedial English classes and found that such authentic
materials promote learners’ autonomy and motivation. Yamamoto (2009) focuses on
scaffolding activities for students in remedial English classes. Yamamoto argues theimportance of creating a supportive environment where teachers recognize students’ needs,
facilitating appropriate scaffolding activities. The study found that students gradually acquire
grammar and listening skills and make sentences. Students feel comfortable communicatingin supportive environments. Yamamoto points out the critical role of the instructor inpromoting students’ intrinsic motivation.
Discussion (significance of the results of work)
MEXT has emphasized the importance of English education and has implemented major
reforms in its guidelines for the last three decades to cultivate students’ practical English
skills. However, so far, such attempts have failed to achieve the goals set by MEXT. To makematters worse, some pointed out that measures for achieving such educational goals
weakened students’ knowledge of grammar, reading, and writing skills. As stated above,
mainly due to a shortage of applicants, private universities continue accepting many
underprepared students in English. In such a situation, a better understanding is necessary forunderprepared students, including their proficiency levels, background, and difficulties.

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The studied university has been using English placement tests since 2007 to identify students
with low English proficiency and create special support classes for them. The year 2022 hit arecord low on the average score in which an increased number of students with low English
proficiency were observed. It is essential to continue needs analysis of the population’s
responses to identify problems and issues; design modified approaches to provide appropriate
support, and identify early failures among the new cohort.
The study
Aims
This is a pilot study, performing need analysis on underprepared students. It aims to examine
students’ characteristics through various measurements.
Based on information obtained through this study, support needed for these students will besought. This study aims to implement a well-planned support system for these underpreparedstudents.
Methods
The following data collection and analysis methods are used to achieve the above purposes.
For data, the following tests are used.
Placement test scores: This is our original test. The test consists of 35 questions, including
listening, word scrambles, grammar, and reading comprehension. This study uses records ofthe past 18 years of placement tests and the latest records involving the target populations’scores.
Vocabulary Size Test: Students’ vocabulary size is measured by the Vocabulary Size Test forJapanese students developed by Hamada et al. (2021), administered at the beginning of theschool year.
Final examination scores: There are spring and fall semesters’ final examination scores.
Admission styles: Individual admission styles are found through students’ records.
GPA: Students’ GPA end-of-year scores are collected.
For the analysis, IBM’s SPSS software is used for numerical and correlational analysis.
ParticipantsParticipants are 61 first-year students, which include special class students. Their majors are
physical therapy, occupational therapy, and human communications.
English instructions
English is a mandatory course for first- and second-year students. It uses the content-based
ESP approach. Originally developed ESP textbooks targeting rehabilitation majors are used.

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First-year students take the placement test, and those with the lowest scores will be assigned
to the special class. The classes consist of mixed majors: physical therapy, occupational
therapy, and human communications. In the second year, classes are divided into majors, andmore major specific textbooks are used.
The textbook for first-year students has five units featured as self-introduction, introducing
schools and majors, describing occupations, body, muscles, blood, health problems, andmedical histories.
The following is a summary of the lesson format:
1. Study goals are stated at the beginning of each lesson to ensure students know theunit’s goals.
2. Vocabulary: Vocabulary lists are presented as quizzes; students must match English
and Japanese words. Students practice pronunciation.
3. Expressions in topic-related conversations are listed. Students practice these
expressions orally.
4. Grammar rules: Grammar rules are explained using example sentences during
reading.
5. Listening: Scripts, listening comprehension quizzes such as [true/false quizzes], and[open-ended answer] questions are prepared.
6. Other activities include labeling (in which students label welfare devices, muscles,
and body parts), summarizing, fieldwork, such as research activities for muscles,
blood cells, and their functions, role plays, and presentations.
Besides such activities, the following feature in the English instructions.
There are quizzes for each unit, five to seven quizzes per semester, and final examinations at
the end of the semester. For these quizzes and final examinations, study guides are prepared.
Make-up tests are also implemented for those failing final exams or missing quizzes.
In class, PowerPoint presentations are frequently used for visual support (written forms oflanguage). Meanwhile, an originally developed online self-study site is prepared wherestudents practice vocabulary exercises. Teachers can monitor students’ website logs and theirscores for quizzes.
Grading
For students’ grading, all classes including the special class, use the same grading system andstandards. Their grades consist of quiz results, presentation, and final examinations.
Support for special class students
Although the grading system and standards are similar for all students, there are extra support
methods for the special class. Study guides are provided to all students, but extra time withstep-by-step explanation is provided for the review, and all answers are provided before tests.
Extra time is provided for the quiz period. L2 is more often used in the class. Moreover,grammar is explained slowly, simplifying and providing more example sentences andexercises. Another feature of this class is the extensive use of PowerPoint presentations.
Since these students do poorly with listening or spelling, written forms of English arenecessary. In addition, student translations are provided for all reading material. Besides such

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necessary. In addition, student translations are provided for all reading material. Besides such
instructions, students may have individual consulting or support upon request.
Findings
Admission style
There are various types of admission track in Japanese universities. The General Examination
or National Common Examination measures students’ academic performance through subject
tests. In addition, there is the recommendation-based integrated selection system (formerly
the AO) and the designated school system. The integrated selection system involves theprocess of self-recommendation wherein students present their motivations and strengths intheir applications. The designated school system is based on the contractual agreement
between high schools and universities to accept students without testing. The purpose of these
admissions is to understand students’ interests and unique abilities without them undergoing
subject tests. Instead, interviews, presentations, group discussions, and written essays are
assigned to students. It has been observed that the ratio for these types of admissions istransitioning.
The following two charts in Figure 1 indicate the ratio of students admitted through different
admission styles in the years 2000 and 2021.
Figure 1: Ratio of Admission styles in 2000 and 2021

As shown in Figure 1, the ratio of students who entered universities through generaladmission in 2000 was 65.8%; subsequently, this ratio dropped to 49.5% in 2021. Presently,
the number of students admitted via the integrated selection (recommendation) system is
growing and now they total over 50%. As such, this means that new students with noexperience of a written subject test have increased.
Figure 2 shows the types of admissions of all private universities in Japan as well as thesituation of the studied university. The chart on the left, which indicates private universities
in Japan, shows that about 44% of the students have entered their university through a generalexamination. By contrast, the ratio of students who have entered university through generaladmission at the studied university is only 19%. The remaining applicants have entered
university through avenues which do not require subject tests.

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Figure 2: Ratio of admission styles of the studied university

Next, Figure 3 shows the admission type of the special class.
Figure 3: Ratio of admission styles of special class students

For this special class, there are no students who entered their university through generaladmissions. All of them have been admitted by either the integrated selection or thedesignated school system.
Placement scores
The university conducts an English placement test before classes start. The placement test isdeveloped, implemented, and evaluated by the faculties responsible for English classes.
Accordingly, based on the test scores, the English course coordinators decide the “cut-offline” to form a special class consisting of students with the lowest scores.
The following graph (Figure 4) shows the results of a placement test over a period of 15
years.

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Figure 4: Placement test scores

As shown, when the data was collected for the first time, the average was 60.78; then, it
decreased and the record lowest score of 43.58 was established in 2022.
The next graph (Figure 5) shows the percentage of students whose scores were less than
one-third of the total score as well as those which were less than half the total score.
Figure 5: Placement test (lower level)

As indicated by figure 5, the percentage of students with lower scores has dramaticallyincreased over the past 15 years. In 2007, the percentage of students who did not score 50%
on the test was only 15.74%. Presently, 56% of them cannot obtain 50% and 19.6% cannot
even score 33%.
The next box plot (Figure 6) presents the placement test scores for 2022.

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Figure 6: Placement test (2022 fiscal year)

The average score is 44.13 with the highest being 86 and the lowest being 17. Theinterquartile range is between 29 and 51.
Figure 7 shows the comparison of the placement test score of the regular class and the specialclass.
Figure 7: Placement test and cutline

The cut-off line is at 30; notably, those whose scores were less than 30 are located in thespecial class. As shown, the regular class (right) had a wider range of scores compared to thespecial class.
Vocabulary size
Various studies have measured the vocabulary size of Japanese students. Although the target
populations and measurement tools are varied, the average score of the VST for Japanese
university students is between 2,370, which is the lowest, to 4,130, which is the highest.

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The following box plot (Figure 8) shows the score of the first-year students in this study.
Figure 8: Vocabulary Size

The interquartile range, which indicates the middle 50%, is from 1,072.5 to 1,627.5, thereby
indicating an average score of 1,379. In general, it is clear they have lower scores than
average.
Next, Figure 9 presents the comparison of vocabulary size between the regular class (left) andthe special class (right).
Figure 9: Comparison of VST

The average score of the regular class is 1,526 whereas that of the special class is 976.
Final test scores
The next two box plots (Figure 10) show the results of the two final tests which wereconducted in the spring and fall.

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Figure 10: Final examination score

For the spring finals, the average of the regular class (left) is 73, while it is 55 or 56 for the
special class (right). For the fall finals, the average of the regular class is 72, while it is 58 forthe special class. The interquartile range of the special class in fall finals is the widest. It
should be noted that the passing grade is 60 and above. Therefore, the average of scores forthe special class in both spring and fall are the below the passing score.
Grade Point Average (GPA)
Figure 11 shows the students’ GPAs collected at the end of their first year.
Figure 11: GPA

The average of the regular class is 2.95 whereas that of the special class is 2.53.
It should be noted that the described comparisons (Figure 7, 9, 10, and 11) were found tohave significant differences via a t-test.
Correlational analysis
A correlational analysis among variables was performed and the results are shown below.

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Table 1:The results of correlational analysis
VST
Spring
Fall
PT
**
**
VST Pearson’s correlation 1
.477
.367
.531**
Sig. (2-tailed)
.000
.004
.000
N
59
58
59
58
**
**
Spring Pearson’s correlation .4771
.608
.565**
Sig. (2-tailed)
.000
.000
.000
N
58
59
59
58
**
**
Fall Pearson’s correlation .367.608
1
.449**
Sig. (2-tailed)
.004
.000
.000
N
59
59
61
60
**
**
**
PT Pearson’s correlation .531
.565
.449
1
Sig. (2-tailed)
.000
.000
.000
N
58
58
60
60
**
**
**
GPA Pearson’s correlation .457
.694
.598
.429**
Sig. (2-tailed)
.000
.000
.000
.001
N
59
59
61
60
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed) 1% P<.001

GPA.457**.000
59.694**.000
59.598**.000
61.429**
.001
60
1
61

As shown in Table 1, a moderate to strong correlation has been found among various
measures. There is a strong correlation between the spring and fall finals, which is .608, as
well as between each final and a GPA of .694 for spring and .598 in fall. Moderatecorrelations with a placement test were found in each final, VST, and GPA.
Summary of findings
The vocabulary size of the sample was found to be much lower than the national average.
Correlational analysis established moderate to strong correlation among the variables; strong
correlations were evident between the spring and fall final scores. These final scores werealso strongly correlated with students’ GPAs. Placement test scores were also revealed to becorrelated with vocabulary size, both finals, and GPA.
The special class consisted of students who entered the university only through integrated
selection or designated school admission and none took subject tests for admissions.
Moreover, the averages of final tests are below 60, which is a “fail” grade. They also haveextremely small vocabulary size (average 976) as well as lower GPA (average 2.53),
significantly lower than those of regular classes. Results of GPA score suggest that thestudents in the special class have weaknesses not only in English but also other subject areas.
Conclusion, implications, and limitations of the study
It is clear that students in the special class need more support. Some possible strategies forproviding necessary support are outlined below.
One is to enhance the pre-admission education. Students in the special class are admitted byintegrated system or designated schools, and they gain admission by December. At this point,
they are likely to stop studying whereas other high school students usually study until

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February to March. Such condition may create disparity between the two groups in terms ofacademic performance as well as study habits. Pre-admission education, for example
assigning workbooks or even tests, could help them to continue their studies.
Second, since these students’ vocabulary size is extremely small, emphasis may be placed on
vocabulary learning. Use of the online self-learning site should be considered. Currently
participation on this site is voluntary, and only a limited number of students use it. Having
students log in at least once a week may be helpful for improving their vocabulary size aswell as nurturing good study habits. Additionally, introducing online sites for games, music,
video sharing websites such as YouTube, or movies could help exposure to English materials
and increase students’ vocabulary size.
Third, the use of a study guide should be re-considered. Although study guides are designed
to prepare for quizzes and finals, encouraging students to make good use of such guides isnecessary. It is important students recognize the importance of review. For these students,
opportunities for repetition, such as providing the same sheet twice, can be implemented.
Another possibility is related to students’ autonomy, self-regulation, and sense of
responsibility for their own learning. Creating a semester study log in which students set theirgoals, and record their learning or study hours outside the class may improve such aspects.
In addition to the above strategy, this study draws another implication. Moderate to strong
correlations were determined among various measures. Therefore, focus on the placement
test score could be considered. The placement test score can predict students’ later academic
performance or can identify at-risk students. Careful examination of the placement test scoresand utilizing such information could be necessary.
This study has some limitations. First, the study involves a limited number of subjects(N=66). Therefore, the study may not be particularly generalizable. Another concern relates
to the study method. The study only focuses on scores of various measurements. However, toachieve the triangulation of the study, students’ perspectives should be included. Analysis ofquiz or test results may also support the triangulation.
Since population or situations at the tertiary education level continue to change, on-goingneeds analysis with comprehensive approaches is necessary. There is an urgent need forwell-planned curriculum with specific goals, plans, and activities and goals among
stakeholders are necessary. The ultimate goal is to provide supportive learning environment
in which students become active learners, being motivated and focused without anxiety.

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Reference
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Chujo, K.,Yokota, K. Hasegawa, S. Nishigaki, C. (2012) Identifying the General English
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Dörnyei, Z. (2005). The psychology of the language learner: Individual differences in second
language acquisition. London: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.
Gardner, R. C., Tremblay, P. F., & Masgoret, A. (1997). Towards a full model of second
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Hayashi,Y., Ono, H. (2013). Remedial English Language Provision within the Developmentof Global English Language Competency. Research on Remedial Education 8(2),259-270.
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Hoyasmtaa, H. Onobe, H. Yoshinemitsu, K, Takeuchida, Y. (2011) The Execution and Resultof Questionnaire Targeted at All Japanese Universities. Challenges for support at
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Ishihara, K., Nishinoh, H., tokioka, Y., Yoshimura, T. (2019) Research on College Students’English Ability – A comparison between 1994 and 2008. Language and Culture,13(1), 55-56.
Kominato, A. (2009). The Impact of Homework on Self-Regulation and English
Self-Efficacy Among Japanese Underprepared College Students. Kantokoshinetsu
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Kiyota, Y. (2009). Motivation of Remedial EFL learners (A case study oof Japanese College
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Kominato, A. (2021). Effective Grammar Instruction for University Students with Low
English Proficiency: A Report on Utilizing “Word Order”. Journal of the Japan
Association for Developmental Education. 15. 83-90.
Kominato, A. (2016). The Impact of Homework on Self-Regulation and English
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Kuniyoshi, T. Jinnbo, N. Ishida, M. Kimuram M. Sakai, S., Sasajima, S. Ubuuchi Y.
Kawachiyama, A. Someya, Y. Sawazaki, AR. Lange, E, Nakahara, A. Ono, H.
(2005).The Development of e-Learning Remedial English Courseware for University
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University English Course. Nihon Daigaku Seisankogakubu kenkyu hokoku. B,
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Shigyo.T., Takuma, M., Oshima, S. Funata.M., Carreira, J. (2019). Possible Use of a Digital
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Contact email: minoue@kenkoudai.ac.jp

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Mother Tongue Based Multilingual Education Implementation:
A Basis for Policy on Culture Preservation
Cheryl C. Mendoza, Pangasinan State University-Bayambang Campus, Philippines
The Southeast Asian Conference on Education 2023
Official Conference Proceedings
Abstract
The study aimed at determining the elementary school teachers’ socio-demographic attributes
in terms of their sex, age, civil status, and language spoken at home. It likewise determined
the perception of the respondents on the Mother Tongue-Based Multilingual Education. The
subjects of the study came from the different elementary schools who are teaching under themother tongue-based multilingual education curriculums. It highlighted the teachers struggles
and experiences on the implementation of the mother tongued based multi-lingual educationand more importantly as to their perceptions whether such curriculum of instructions should
further be implemented adding on their recommendations to its continuance to help in thepreservation of culture and traditions emanating from language used. The respondents
believed on the following: that the use of mother tongue will make a better communication
between pupils and teachers; mother tongue-based education will develop the writing systemof the children; mother tongue-based education will be a big help in developing curriculum
and instructional materials; the teacher utilizes role play in the generalization of lesson using
mother tongue; and children who use their mother tongue will have easier way for them tolearn a second, third and fourth language. Thus, the respondents strongly believed that
MTBMLE should continue its implementation for it will guarantee the preservation of ourculture.
Keywords: Mother Tongue-Based Education, Culture, Language, Preservation

iafor
The International Academic Forumwww.iafor.org

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INTRODUCTION
Mother tongue education refers to any form of schooling that makes use of the language or
languages that children are most familiar with. This is usually the language that children
speak at home with their family. The ‘mother tongue’ does not have to be the language
spoken by the mother. Children can and often speak more than one or even two languages athome. For example, they may speak one language with their mother, another with their father
and a third with their grandparents.
When children are offered opportunities to learn in their mother tongue, they are more likely
to enroll and succeed in school, and their parents are more likely to communicate withteachers and participate in their children’s learning (UNESCO, 2007).[1]Mother Tongue-Based project is launched in the Philippines in S.Y. 1999-2000 as mandatedby DECS Memo no. 144s. 1999. The DepEd said, the use of Mother Tongue from pre-school
to grade three is called bridge program because the Mother Tongue or first language of thelearner is being used as a bridge to learn a second or third language, like Filipino or
English.[2]Order no. 74 is based explicitly on assumptions about the “superiority” of the use of mothertongues in education based on successful projects and empirical research who which include
the Lingua Franca Project of DepEd that begun in 1999, an immediate precursor of MLE; thelongitudinal study of the Lubuangan Experiment (Walter, et.al, 2008)[3] which showed thatthe educational performance of Primary Grades 1-3 pupils who were taught Mathematics inthe local language outperformed those taught in English; and the DepEd study whichaffirmed international studies showing pupils who were taught Mathematics in their mothertongues performed relatively well in International test.
Many developing countries are characterized by individual as well as societal
multilingualism, allow a single foreign language to dominate the education sector. Instruction
through a language that learners do not speak has been called “submersion” because it isanalogous to holding learners under water without teaching them how to swim. Compoundedby chronic difficulties such as low levels teacher education, poorly designed, inappropriate
curricula and lack of adequate school facilities, submersion makes both learning and teachingextremely difficult, particularly when the language of instruction is also foreign to theteacher. Mother tongue-based bilingual programs use the learner’s first language, known as
the L1, to teach beginning reading and writing skills along with academic content (Carole
Benson, 2004).[4]The choice of the language is a recurrent challenge in the development of quality education
speakers of mother tongue, which are not the same as the national language, are often at aconsiderable disadvantage in the educational system (UNESCO, 2007).[5] By the timechildren begin schooling, they gain confidence in their ability to communicate meaningfullyin their mother tongue. They have built a foundation of knowledge and experience throughobserving and interacting with peers and adults in their community. The language,
knowledge and experience that children bring to school form an important foundation for
their learning in the classroom.

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OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDYSecretary Andrew B. Gonzalez.[6] of Department of Education, the Regional Lingua Franca(RLF) Pilot Project was launched in 1999-2001. It began with 16 regions, but covered only
32 schools, with 16 belonging to the experimental class and another 16 to the control class.
The project utilized one of the largest LinguaFranca – Tagalog, Cebuano and Ilocano – asmedia of instruction in grades 1 and 2. The result of the project of the first implementationfor S.Y. 1999-2000 the experimental group obtained numerically higher scores than thecontrol groups in all learning areas – Mathematics, Science, Wika at Pagbasa and Sibika. For
the second year of implementation, it shows that for the experimental classes in both grades
performing better in all subject areas, except English where the Grade 2 pupils in the control
classes were exposed to English since Grade 1. Based on the results, Gonzales[7] pointed outthat languages grow and change in response to changes in the physical, social, political,
spiritual and economic environments in which they are used. As a language is used for
instruction, for example, it intrinsically evolves to adapt to the demands of its users. New
objects and concepts become part of the meanings that people used to communicate.
Languages are able to do this through the process of barrowing lexical items or idiomatic
expressions or coining words of expressions. This is the characteristic of human language.
Cummins (2000),[8] an educational researcher and writer suggests: 1) Children with a solid
foundation in their mother tongue develop stronger literacy abilities in the school language;2) The level of development of children’s mother tongue is a strong predictor of their second
language development; 3) Children’s knowledge and skills transfer across languages from themother tongue to the school language. A good bridge allows learning of a new language
before learning in a new language. Reading and writing skills only have to be learned once
and these skills, as well as understanding concepts, can be transferred from one language toanother (second language acquisition). Second language learning is more successful with agood L1 foundation. Learning a language should come before learning through a language.
The group study of Dekker, et. al (2012),[9] explained that MTB-MLE is a structured programof language learning and cognitive development providing a strong educational foundation in
the first language, with successful bridging to one or more additional language, and enabling
the use of both/all languages for life-long learning. The purpose of a multilingual educational
program is to develop appropriate cognitive and reasoning skills enabling children to operate
equally in their community language, the national language and English.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The descriptive-survey method of research was used in this study. According to Creswell,(2002),[10] a Descriptive-survey Research is a quantitative research with a process ofcollecting, analyzing, interpreting, and writing the results of a study, while qualitative
research is the approach to data collection, analysis, and report writing differing from thetraditional, quantitative approaches.
Subjects and Sampling Procedure
The subjects of this study focused on the groups of teachers belonging to District I ofLabrador, Pangasinan, Philippines. There are eleven (11) schools in the said District I
comprising of one hundred and twenty- one (121) teachers. The respondents of the study
should meet the following criteria or characteristics: a) They came from the schools

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belonging to District I of Labrador, Pangasinan; b) they are teaching in the elementary for the
S.Y. 2019-2020; c) They are willing to be a part of the study.
There is a large number of elementary school teachers in the province but only the
respondents who have met the criteria will be involved in this case study. Thus, the purposive
sampling techniques were utilized. According to Calderon (1993),[11] as cited in the study of
Mendoza (2015),[12] purposive sampling is determining the target population, those to be
involved in the study.
The respondents of this study were the One hundred and twenty-one (121) Elementary
School Teachers of Labrador District of Pangasinan, A.Y. 2019-2020.
Data Collection Procedure
In order to undertake successfully this study, the researcher had sought prospective
respondents through personal visits. Before the start of the actual interview, rapport isestablished with the subjects through scheduled visits hence, they were assured of theconfidentiality of their responses by not mentioning their real names in the case study report.
Administration of the questionnaire is done in their residence and likewise all other data
gathering procedures is conducted anytime they are available. Like, during weekends when
they are free from their jobs or during their most convenient time. Follow-up interview andobservation of the respondent’s activities is taken into account to establish other data in orderto clarify vague points and other statements which may not be clearly captured in thequestionnaire. Taped interview is likewise used during the data gathering procedure.
Instrumentation and Validation
To obtain the primary sources of information, the interview schedule is used. In gathering thedata, the researcher used the questionnaire-checklist as the main instrument. The said
questionnaire is constructed by the researcher. The questionnaire consists of two parts: Part 1
includes profile of the respondents in terms of sex, and language spoken at home. Part II,
includes 20 items that determined the perception on Mother Tongue-Based Multilingual
Education. Observation is also done to supplement the data gathered which was later
subjected to content validation with the help of some experts, prior to its finalization. The
draft of the questionnaire was presented to the researcher’s adviser, critique reader, and panel
members for their comments, and suggestions. After the necessary revisions were made, thedraft of questionnaire was tested to ten (10) citizens who are not actual respondents of thestudy in order to determine the areas that are confusing to the respondents. The questionnaire
was presented to a pool of experts for content-validation purposes. Their wise
recommendations were considered in finalizing the questionnaire.
In gathering the data, the researcher made use of the questionnaire checklist as the main
instrument in gathering the needed data relative to her study. Informal interviews to some
respondents to gather additional data was likewise conducted during the actual administrationof the questionnaire.

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Data-Gathering Procedure
Permission from the different offices was sought for by the researcher to conduct this study.
Before the needed data were gathered a communication was prepared by the researcher,addressed to proper authority for their approval of administering the questionnaire.
The researcher personally administered the survey questionnaire to the respondents to
identify their perception on Mother Tongue-Based Multilingual Education.
To enable the respondents to freely express their ideas on the items of the questionnaire, anassurance was made by the researcher that their responses will be treated with utmost
confidentiality.
Sources of Data
To answer the problems stated in the research, the following were used as sources of data.
To answer problem number 1, a questionnaire-checklist on the respondent’s sociodemographic profile in terms of their age, sex, civil status, highest educational qualificationand language spoken at home were used to describe the socio demographic profiles of the
respondents on the above stated information.
To answer number 2, a twenty (20) item each questionnaire checklist about the perceptions
by the elementary school teachers were administered to the respondents.
To answer problem no. 3, as to whether the respondents believe that MTBMLE continue its
implementation, a frequency count is used.
Moreover, the researcher kept in touched with the respondents through follow-up visits inorder to clarify vague answers and uncertain information to guarantee the reliability of thestudy.
Statistical Treatment of Data
To answer problem no. 1, frequency counts and percentage were used. Below is a formula ofpercentage rate.
P = f x 100
N
Where:
P=percentage rate
F=number of frequency
N=total member of respondents
100= constant factor
To answer problem no. 2 extent of Perception of Elementary School Teachers. Average
weighted point will be used. The formula is stated below:
AWP=Ʃ(fiXWi)
N

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Where:
AWP= average weighted point
f3 = Frequency of those who will answer Strongly Agreef2 = Frequency of those who will answer Agree
f1 = Frequency of those who will answer Disagree
N = Number of caseAWP
2.50-3.0
1.50-2.49
1.0-1.49

Interpretation
Strongly Agree
Agree
Disagree

(W)
3
2
1

To answer problem no. 3, as to whether the respondents believe that MTBMLE continue its
implementation, a frequency count is used. If there are more than half of the respondents who
answered Yes, it means that they still favor the continuation of the implementation of
MTBMLERESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The frequency and percentage distribution of the respondents across the variable categories
considered in this study.

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Table 1
Profile of Elementary School Teachers
Table 1. Profile of Elementary School Teachers
N = 121
N=121_________________________________________________
Variable_____f ____ %________AGE BRACKET
18 – 28 Years Old
5
4.13
29 – 39 Years Old
98
81.00
40 – 50 Years Old
15
12.40
51 – 61 Years Old
3
2.47
62 and above
TOTAL
121
100_____ _
Sex
Male
15
12.40
Female
106
87.60
TOTAL
121
100 ___CIVIL STATUS
Single9
7.44
Married
111
91.73
Widow
1
0. 83
TOTAL
121
100 ____HIGHEST EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT
Elementary undergraduate____
Elementary graduate____
High School level____
High School graduate____
College level____
College Graduate
5
4.13
Masteral level
99
81.82
Masteral Graduate
10
8.26
Doctoral level
5
4.13
Doctoral Graduate
2
1.66
TOTAL
121
100______
Language Spoken at Home
Pangasinan & Filipino
58
47.93
Pangasinan
22
18.18
Filipino18
14.87
Ilocano15
12.40
Ilocano and Filipino
43.31
Ilocano, Pangasinan & Filipino
4
3.31
TOTAL
121
100_________________________________________________________________

Age. Majority of the respondents belong to age bracket of 29-39 years with 98 members or
81.00%. Thus 15 respondents or 12.40% belong to the age bracket 40-50 years, 5 respondents
or 4.13% belong to the age bracket 18-21, and only 3 respondents or 2.47% belongs to age
bracket 51-61 years. It shows further that none of them belong to age bracket 62 and above. It
simply indicates that majority of the teaching force belongs to the young generation.

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Santrock (2002),[13] categorizes 30-60 years old as middle adulthood stage. The respondents
in this study are mid adults (30-60 years). Middle adulthood as discussed by Papalia, et al.
(2003),[14] has many markers, and they are not the same for everyone. The middle years are
the central years of the adult life span, but their content varies greatly. Cognitively speaking,middle-aged people are in their prime. They have the ability to apply mental powers to novel
problems that require little or no previous knowledge.
Sex. It can be seen on Table 1 that 106 or 87.60 percent of the Elementary School Teachers
are females, while 15 or 12.40 percent are males. The result shows that females outnumbered
the males. This may be attributed partly to the conservative notion that teaching is more forwomen while the men should be aggressively involved in the community leadership or othermanly endeavors.
Civil Status. With respect to the civil status of the respondents, it shows that 9 or 3.37 % ofthem are single, 111 or 91.73 % are married, and 1 or 0.83% are widow. It shows further thatmost of them are married.
Highest Educational Attainment. The highest educational attainments of 99 or 81.82% of
the respondents are Masteral level. 5 or 4.13% are College Graduate, 10 0r 8.26% of them iswith Masteral Units, 5 of them or 4.13 % are have Doctoral Units, and 2 or 1.66% of themare Doctoral Units. This simply connotes that majority are pursuing to finish Education andto be able to obtain the highest possible educational qualifications.
The data shows that all of the respondents were able to finish college and were able to pursue
higher level learning. This is indicative that finishing education guarantees a better
opportunity for a person to find a greener pasture. As stated in NSCB (2008), “Education is
the great equalizer that will give all Filipinos, rich or poor, the chance to uplift their lives andface a secure future. Nobody can deny the fact of education are the most important thing or
factor for some people to bring change in their lives. It has been recognized as the mostprevailing gearing-up the socio-economic development of our government or our nation.”
This supports the results conducted that 47% of those surveyed says not having a diploma
makes it hard to find a good job. Others say they would rather go back to school than to havea not stable job:
(http://www.careerconnectionsct.com/index.asp?Type=B_BASIC&SEC=%7BED52E35D26DB-4822-B7C7-74AB857D3BB5%7D).[15]Language Spoken at Home. It can be seen that 58 or 47.93% of the Elementary School
Teachers speak Pangasinan and Filipino at home, 22 or 18.18% speak Pangasinan, 18 or
14.87% speak Filipino, 15 or 12.40% speak Ilocano, 4 or 3.31% speak Ilokano and Filipino
and 4 or 3.31% speak Ilocano, Pangasinan and Filipino. The findings show that most of the
respondents speak Pangasinan and Filipino at home because these are the language spoken by
their parents since they were born. Pangasinan (Pangasinense) is an Austronesian language,
and one of the eight major languages of the Philippines. It is the primary and predominantlanguage of the entire province of Pangasinan and northern Tarlac, on the northern partof Luzon's central plains geographic region, most of whom belong to the Pangasinan ethnic
group. Pangasinan is also spoken in southwestern La Union, as well as in the municipalities
of Benguet, Nueva Vizcaya, Nueva Ecija, and Zambales that border Pangasinan. A
few Aeta groups in Central Luzon's northern part also understand and even speak Pangasinan
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Table 2PERCEPTIONTable
OF ELEMENTARYSCHOOLTEACHERSMOTHER
2: Perception of
Elementary
School ON
Teachers
on TONGUE-BASED

Mother Tongue-Based
Education
EDUCATIONPERCEPTION
1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

Mother tongue-based education from
grades 1-3 helps but it’s not
sufficient to sustain the learning
momentumThe use of mother tongue will makethe teacher easily explain to thepupils about the topics
Mother tongue education makes it
possible for the community to
produce its own culturally relevant
reading materials and teaching aids
Through the use of Mother Tongue
Education, the teacher can moreaccurately assess what has beenlearned and identify and identify
areas where students need further
assistanceChildren who use their mothertongue will be easier for them tolearn a second, third and fourth
language
Teaching all subjects except Filipino
and English should be done using themother tongue
The use of mother tongue will makethe pupils immediately construct andexplain their world, articulate theirthoughts and add new concepts towhat they already know.
English and Filipino are languages
foreign to most children andlegislating it as medium of
instruction will do more harm to an
already ailing system of education.
Shared reading using mother tongue
will increase the levels of
performance of pupils.
The use of mother tongue will
increase the levels of performance of
pupilsThe use of mother tongue will makea better communication between
pupils and student teachers.
The use of mother tongue is aninnovative approach in learning

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(SA)
89

2
(A)
25

1
(D)
7

AWM

Interpretation

2.47

Agree

87

29

5

2.58

Strongly
Agree

100

17

4

2.59

Strongly
Agree

75

38

8

2.55

Strongly
Agree

90

24

7

2.69

Strongly
Agree

5

35

81

1.37

Disagree

85

30

6

2.65

Strongly
Agree

15

45

61

1.61

Disagree

63

47

11

2.42

Agree

59

57

5

2.45

Agree

99

18

4

2.75

Strongly
Agree

77

41

3

2.61

Strongly
Agree

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13

14

15

16

17

18

19
20

We should use our regional
languages as official languages andmake use of them as the language of
instruction at least in grade school.
The use of mother tongue will makethe teacher easily explain to thepupils about the topics.
Mother tongue Education willdevelop the writing system of thechildrenMother Tongue Education will be a
big help in developing curriculum
and instructional materials.
The teacher utilizes role play in thegeneralization of lesson using
mother tongue
Use simple activities and work cards
to engage in reading using mothertongue to understand more by the
pupilsReading and writing should be firsttaught using mother tongue
Teachers who use mother tongue
incorporate oral literature, local
history, local arts, craft and music in
the curriculum as well as the learners

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70

49

2

2.51

Strongly
Agree

80

34

7

2.60

Strongly
Agree

97

17

7

2.74

Strongly
Agree

96

17

8

2.72

Strongly
Agree

96

17

8

2.72

Strongly
Agree

89

21

11

2.64

Strongly
Agree

79

21

21

2.47

Agree

70

31

20

2.42

Agree

AWP

2.47

Agree

It can be gleaned in Table 2 the indicators under perception of Elementary School Teachers
on Mother Tongue-Based Education were Agreeas evidence by the Average weighted Point
Table 3of 2.47. The five (5) indicators which got the highest point are the following: 1) The use of
mother tongue will make a better communication
between pupils and student teachers with
N+ 1212.75; 2) Mother tongue Education will develop the writing system of the children with 2.74;
3) Mother Tongue Education Respondents
will be a bigwho
help in developing curriculum and instructional
materials with 2.72; 4) The teacher
utilizes
believethat role play in the generalization of lesson usingfcontinuemother tongue with 2.72; andMTBMLE
5) Children
who use their mothertongue will be easier for them
its
implementation%
to learn a second, third and fourth language with 2.69.
Yes

103

85.12

Children with solid foundation
develop stronger literacy abilities in
No in their mother tongue
18[17] who
14.88
school language. This was stated by Cummins (2000),is an educational researcher
TOTAL
and writer. The level of development of children’s 121
mother tongue
100 is a strong predictor of
their second language development. Children’s knowledge and skills transfer acrosslanguages from the mother tongue to the school language. A good bridge allows learning of a
new language before learning in a new language. Reading and writing skills only have to belearned once and these skills, as well as understanding concepts, can be transferred from one
language to another.
The findings of the recent student coincide with the study conducted by Walter (2016),[18]where he states that language is an integral feature of educational practice in the classroom.

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Teachers communicate content and instructions via language. Learners listen and interact via
language in the process of learning.
Table 3: Respondents who believe that MTBMLE continues its implementation
N+121

It can be gleaned in Table 3 that 103 or 85.12% of the Elementary School Teachers believedthat MTBMLE should continue its implementation, while 18 or 14.88% does not believe thatit should be continued. Based on interview, those who say no for its continuation says that he
MTB MLE policy, therefore, can create a polarity of functions—that is, accelerate or delay
learning based on the context by which it is understood and implemented. When used as ameans to understand concepts, it can speed up comprehension. When it is taught as a subject
in isolation, it can take the shape of a second language effecting a sense of linearity because
learning is taught within the limits of time, human and material resources and activities. The
current milieu finds the newly-integrated archaic words irrelevant not just because they are
not used at home but because children find them too complex to use and phonetic structure
too complex to pronounce and use for conversations. They hope that this study also captured
realities confronting the students, teachers and parents who are directly affected by the policy
one of which is a weak prospect of promoting MTBMLE successfully in all contexts. The
results will serve as a solid empirical basis for the formulation of reform policies, innovations
and programs that will create a path for all learners to experience a smooth flow of thinking
and processing of information in any language, be it mother tongue or foreign language orboth.
Metila, et. al. (2017),[19] in their study states that Mother Tongue Based-Multilingual
Education (MTB-MLE) policy in the Philippines involves implementation of local mothertongues as the language of instruction in Kindergarten to year three (K -3), with the official
languages (Filipino and English) being introduced as the language of instruction after grade
three.
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Based on the findings of the study, the following conclusions are drawn:
1. The respondents belong to the age bracket of 29-39 years, are predominantly female
and mostly are married and have Masteral Units.
2. The respondents all “agree” that the use of mother tongue will make a better
communication between pupils and student teachers, will develop the writing systemof the children and it will be a big help in developing curriculum and instructional
materials.

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3. That majority of the respondents believed that MTBMLE should continue its
implementation.
Recommendations
The findings and conclusions made the researchers suggest that:
1. The use of Mother Tongue in teaching learning process should be strongly
implemented;
2. The parents and other stakeholders shall support the Mother Tongue-Based
Curriculum;
3. Find more avenues or activities that will encourage children to speak their MotherTongue;
4. There must be formulation of reform policies, innovations and programs that will
create a path for all learners to experience a smooth flow of the implementation of
the MTBMLE;
5. More studies related to the Mother Tongue-Based Curriculum should be conducted
to possibly improve its implementation.
Having a strong mother tongue foundation which is anchored on the implementation of themother tongue based multilingual education, children will be able to learn the best skills
needed, thus the language learned will allow them understand that the structure of language
they know will be and can be used to learn more other languages.
The conduct of multi lingual education is becoming more advantageous for the child will be
exposed to the mandates of globalization but not forgetting his roots and to be the agent topromote such language identity innately distinct and multi-faceted. It shall play a major rolein the child’s personal, social and cultural identity for they shall be the first who shall acquire
grassroot knowledge of who they are, based on the mother tongue they speak, that they can
use to make a stand in its promotion, propagation and preservation. That being the case, they
will have a deeper understanding of the role they have to play and what is their role in thesociety they belong to.

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REFERENCES[1] UNESCO. (2007). Mother Tongue-Based Literacy Programmes; Case Studies of Good
Practice in Asia. Published by the UNESCO Asia and Pacific Regional Bureau of
Education. Second Printing.
[2] DECS Memo No. 144 2. (1999). Lingua Franca Education. Project Launched in S.Y.
1999-2000. Department of Education, Philippines.
[3] Walter, Dekker, Daguiang. (2008). The Lubuagan Mother Tongue Education Experiment(FLC). Paper Presented at the Rascasio Lectures, Ateneo de Manila University.
[4] Benson, Carole, (2004). The Importance of Mother Tongue-Based Schooling for
Educational Quality. Paper Commissioned for the EFA Global Monitoring Report
2005, The Quality Imperative. http:/unesdoc.unesco.org/images/001466/146632.pdf[5] UNESCO. (2007). Mother Tongue-Based Literacy Programmes; Case Studies of Good
Practice in Asia. Published by the UNESCO Asia and Pacific Regional Bureau of
Education. Second Printing.
[6] Gonzales, A. (2001). The Social Sciences and Policy Making in Language. Philippine
Journal of Linguistics. ISSN:0048-3796 (Print, Online)© Linguistic Society of thePhilippines. www.lsphil.net[7] Gonzales, A. (2008). The Social Sciences a and Policy Making in Language. Philippine
Journal of Linguistics. ISSN:0048-3796 (Print, Online)© Linguistic Society of thePhilippines. www.lsphil.net[8] Cummins, J. (2000). Language, Power and Pedagogy. Bilingual Children in the Crossfire.
Clevedon. Multilingual Matters. ISBN-10 : 1853594733, ISBN-13 : 9781853594731[9] Dekker, Calsiw, Camacam, Gawon, Lumasoc, Sabian. (2012). Mother Tongue-BasedMultilingual Education and Classroom Strategies. Lubuagan Central Schools,
Pudpud, Lubuagan, Kalinga. Mountain Province, Philippines.
[10] Creswell. (2002). Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods
Approaches. Journal of Business Economic Research. Grand Canyon University.
SAGE Edge, Research Design, 5th Edition.
[11] Calderon, J. and Gonzales, E. (1993). Methods of Research and Thesis Writing. National
Book Store. Cacho Hermanos, Inc. Pines cor., Union Sts., Mandaluyong City. ISBN
971-08-5508-5[12] Mendoza, C. (2015). “Pangasinan Festivals: Indicators of People’s Culture, Arts andEmpowerment. PhD. Dissertation. Pangasinan State University Graduate School,
Urdaneta City, Pangasinan, Philippines.
[13] Santrock, J. (2002). Life-Span Development, 8th ed., New York: McGraw-Hill
Companies. ISBN10:1259922782/ISBN13:9781259922787

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Official Conference Proceedings[14] Papalia, D., et.al. (2002). “Human Development”. 8th Edition. Tata McGraw-HillHigher Education. International Edition. ISBN-10 : 0070586918[15] (http://www.careerconnectionsct.com/index.asp?Type=B_BASIC&SEC=%7BED52E
35D-26DB-4822-B7C7-74AB857D3BB5%7D)[16] https://www.revolvy.com/page/Administrative-divisions-of-Pangasinan. Retrieved
February 20, 2017[17] Cummins, J. (2000). Language, Power and Pedagogy. Bilingual Children in the
Crossfire. Clevedon. Multilingual Matters. ISBN-10 : 1853594733, ISBN-13 : 9781853594731[18] Walter, Dekker (2008). The Lubuagan Mother Tongue Education Experiment (FLC)A
Report of Comparative Test Results. Presented to Committee on Basic Education andCulture. Committee on Higher and Technical Education. House of Representatives.
Quezon City, Philippines. https://docplayer.net/35890308-The-lubuagan-mothertongue-education-experiment-flc-a-report-of-comparative-test-results.html[19] Metila, R., Pradilla, L. A., & Williams, A. (2017). Investigating best practice in MotherTongue-Based Multilingual Education (MTB-MLE) in the Philippines, Phase 3
progress report: Strategies of exemplar schools. Report prepared for Australian
Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade and Philippine Department of Education.
Melbourne and Manila: Assessment, Curriculum and Technology Research Centre(ACTRC).
Contact email: checalmendoza@gmail.com

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Fostering Social Communication Skills Through Small Talk Practice in
Post-pandemic Japan
Tomoko Sugihashi, Showa Women’s University, JapanThe Southeast Asian Conference on Education 2023
Official Conference Proceedings
Abstract
Small talk is often said to be like a lubricating oil in human relationships. However, theJapanese appear to be influenced by its high-context culture (Hall & Hall, 1987). People
often need help to decide on good topics to initiate conversation, even in business settings(Murao, 2021). 3rd-year college students who enrolled at the onset of the pandemic in 2020
and were exposed to its effects longer than other grades appear to have suffered more fromnot establishing good friendships or nurturing their communication skills. While face-to-faceteaching officially started in 2022, students came into the classroom quietly and sat without
interacting with their peers. In order to help develop their small talk competency, the author
prepared a short questionnaire to uncover students' daily social communication, such aswhether they greet the university's president and teachers in the same department. Further
questions include how successfully they think they can exchange small talk with "new"classmates and whether they can talk to strangers if necessary. Students are then given timeto practice small talk by selecting appropriate topics at the beginning of their classes. The
growth in their small talk competence is observed through their journals and thequestionnaire results. The small talk session is a simple activity. However, as students startsmiling when practicing in class and talking to the author in the corridor, the effect benefits
their future careers and can be used in versatile ways.
Keywords: Small Talk, Communication Skills, Pandemic, Japanese EFL Students, HighContext Culture

iafor
The International Academic Forumwww.iafor.org

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Introduction
The Covid-19 outbreak since 2020 has impacted the world. According to Japan’s Ministry of
Health, Labour and Welfare, its death toll exceeded 72,000 as of March 1st, 2023. This
unprecedented phenomenon cast a dark shadow naturally on the youth. Even after elementary
school children returned to school, they had to eat in silence with a plastic shield in front ofthem. After lunch, they are expected to spend time quietly without interacting with others.
The effects on children, both psychologically and in terms of social skills development, havebeen a major concern for educators. The Ministry also announced on February 28th, 2023 thatcases of youth suicide, from elementary to high school students, marked a record high 512 in
2022.
University students are not an exception. The Japan Association of Private Universities andColleges published a survey result on university students’ worries and anxieties in September
2022 regarding the effects of the pandemic on 50,000 college students. According to thesurvey, which was conducted online between December 2021 and April 2022, somewhat
over 55% worry about their future and nearly 34% worry about their health.
The following graph illustrates Dutch social psychologist Hofstede's Cultural survey of Japanand Singapore. Country Cultures were analysed into the following six dimensions, i.e., 1)
Power Distance, 2) Individualism Versus Collectivism, 3) Masculinity Versus Femininity, 4)
Uncertainty Avoidance, 5) Long-Term Versus Short-Term Orientation, and 6) Indulgence
Versus Restraint (Hofstede, Hofstede & Minkov, 2010). As the conference's host country, theresults for Singapore were included in the comparison sample. Japan ranks as one of thehighest countries in "Uncertainty Avoidance." Tourists to Japan, for example, are surprised tosee trains arriving on time at intervals of every three minutes, which is taken for granted inJapan. People can infer when the next train will come and whether they will reach theirdestination on time. As such, the rise in anxiety among young people amid the pandemic isunderstandable.

Figure 1: Hofstede Cultural Survey, Source: Hofstede Insight
When we looked at the 3rd-year students, who were robbed by Covid of their entrance
ceremony, school retreat trips, and various face-to-face events until April 2022, they were inneed of bonding in class. Most Japanese universities have two-term systems starting in April

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and October. Last October, students sat quietly in the first class, waiting for the author to start
the class. Normally, girls would be quite excited to meet up again with their friends after thesummer holiday. I felt that the situation needed to be addressed.
Yokota (2022), who teaches presentation skills at universities, also noticed this phenomenon.
He says that 3rd-year students’ communication skills have been affected by the absence of
face-to-face learning experiences. He noticed this when he taught the 3rd-year and 4th-year
students simultaneously. The difference is that 4th-year students had one year of face-to-faceclass experience before the pandemic emerged, whereas the 3rd-year students did not
physically interact in class for their first two years.
Online meetings also highlighted the lack of small talk skills of Japanese business people.
Murao (2021), who teaches MBA skills, often hears their concerns, such as “I don’t knowwhat and how I should talk to acquaintances or people I meet for the first time” or “I’mworried that the absence of small talk will create gaps of silence.”
There are more than a few sociologists who illustrate the differences of the “Public andPrivate Self” between Japanese and Americans. For example, Barnlund’s study (1989) foundthat Japanese are more guarded in disclosing their private feelings whereas Americans have anarrower area of the private self. Miyake (1994) illustrates the psychological barriers between
them through concentric circles. At the center is what she calls the mindset of self, which is
identified by the Chinese character “自” (Figure 2), and the next circle is the in-group such as
family (Uchi). The third circle, called “Soto,” includes groups such as one’s bosses. The
outermost circle is for psychological settings for strangers (Yoso). The left diagram showsthat the Japanese in-group mindset (Uchi) is smaller and has higher barriers (illustrated by thesolid line) compared with that of Brits & Americans (illustrated by the dotted line). Likewise,
the barrier between Soto and Yoso for Strangers is clearly defined, and the mindset for
strangers is noticeably larger.

Figure 2: Source: Patterns of Japanese Linguistic Behaviour: Miyake, 1994 p. 35
English translations are added by the author
Ting-Toomey (1999) also analyzed that collectivists like the Japanese have limited selfdisclosure. Further, Gao warns that “collectivistic, high-context individuals often are
reluctant to provide strangers with elaborate and explicit responses” (1991, p.113) for
researchers.

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Small Talk
The benefits of small talk are described by many researchers. For example, Endrass, Rehm,
and Andrè (2010) describe the following:
Small Talk can be used to influence social relations positively. (…) to develop trust
and rapport toward a virtual agent. In applications where the development of social
relations is intended, Small Talk can be a crucial part of the system’s social
intelligence. (p. 3)
Pullin’s (2010) study also concludes that “small talk functions in a number of ways inbuilding, maintaining, and reinforcing rapport and solidarity (…) small talk can help
reestablish more harmonious working relations and also set a favorable tone for ensuingbusiness talks” (p. 469).
Politeness is regarded as a universal attitude to maintain good relationships and enjoy
interaction. Lakoff (1973) clarifies the three rules of politeness with small talk as follows; i.e.,
1) Don’t impose, 2) Give options, and 3) Make the person you are talking to feel good (p.
298). Topics of small talk at work should naturally be non-controversial, such as the weather,(…) health, out-of-work social activities, sports, generalized complaints about the economy,
positive comments on appearance, and work (Holmes 2005, pp. 353-354).
Student Survey Results (Pre)
Figures 3 and 4 show the results of a small survey of students conducted last October at the
beginning of the second term. The students are majoring in English and Communication andstudying at a women’s university in central Tokyo.

Figure 3: How Confident Are Students Talking to Strangers (1st-year students)

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Figure 4: How Confident Are Students Talking to Strangers (3rd-year students)
These pie charts show how well they can talk to strangers. The top chart (Figure 3) represents
25 1st-year students and the bottom 15 3rd-year students. The colours indicate different sets of
strangers. The purple area, which accounts for almost half of both charts (11 students, or 44%,
and 7 students, or 46.7%, respectively), indicates they are comfortable conversing with all
generations. The green, yellow, and red areas distinguish their comfort levels according togender and/or age. Of the 1st-year students, 20% (5 students) feel capable of talking withfemale strangers of the same generation, whereas this shyness falls to 6.7% (1 student) in the
3rd-year group. The dark-blue area indicates the share of students that avoid eye contact (1213.3%, 3 and 2 students, respectively), and the light-blue area indicates the “indifferent”
share (8-6.7%, 2 and 1 students, respectively). These results suggest that the students
majoring in English language and Communication need to improve their small talk skills.
Figure 5 shows whether the students acknowledge the following groups of people and greet
them or give a slight bow; a) neighbours, b) teachers of the department, c) teachers they had
classes with, d) guards at the school gates, e) teachers of other departments, f) chancellor, andg) president.

Figure 5: Students’ Acknowledgement by Greeting or Giving a Slight Bow

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The 25 1st-year students’ results are shown in the top bar graph and the 15 3rd-year students’
results in the bottom graph. It should be noted that less than half of both 1st-year and 3rd-year
students greet their teachers (12 students, or 48%, and 5 students, or 33%, respectively),
whether past or present, and a much larger percentage greet the campus gate guards (20students, or 80%, and 11 students, or 73%, respectively) than they do the chancellor (40%) or
president (20-24%) of the university.
These issues raise the following research questions.
1.
2.

Can the small talk sessions improve students’ social attitudes?
Can students feel more comfortable with small talk in English after the small talksessions?

MethodClasses
In an attempt to answer these questions, small talk sessions were applied to two classes forthe 3rd-year students. Each class was held once a week.
Class A: 28 students
Main activities; learning marketing, Customer Relationship Management, Supply
Chain Management, and email writing.
Class B: 12 students
Main activity is learning different formalities of business email writing.
The small talk session was divided into the following categories:
1. Body Language
Students learned and came to realise that smiling was the first universal communicative“language” before starting a conversation. Moreover, they noticed that hand and arm
movements often demonstrated their feelings. They were warned not to talk or listen to theirpartner(s) with their arms crossed as it might suggest they were bored.
2. Find Good Topics
Some students were unsure what to talk about, so the class discussed possible topics for theday, such as recent news, train delays, and school events.
3. Diplomatic Questions
Students were introduced to some polite and indirect expressions, such as “Can I ask where
you are from?” instead of “Where are you from?” or “I understand what you mean, but.…”
instead of “I don’t think so” to express different ideas.
4. Ways to Respond and Acknowledge (e.g., Tag Responses and Giving positive adjectives)
Students often give non-verbal or one-word reactions such as “Ah-huh,” “Yes,” or “Really?”
without applying their grammar knowledge. So they were encouraged to use this knowledge,
such as tag responses. To emphasise the importance of exchanging some opinions or one’s
impressions rather than returning short one-word reactions, some examples of successful andunsuccessful dialogue patterns were shown. As an unsuccessful example, the failure of aJapanese speaker to establish rapport by not giving emphatic responses, described in Murata

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Official Conference Proceedings(2006), was used. In the example, the American partner says “It’s so funny, I sit here goingon and on and you just say, “uh huh,” it’s like I’m in an interview or something” in the end(p.151).
5. How to Start and End
Some students did not know how to start and end the conversation naturally.
This suggested that learning some small talk skills would be useful.
In 10 classes over 15 weeks, the students practiced small talk during the first 6 to 8 minutesof each class. Initially, they practiced in pairs, but eventually expanded to 4 or 5 people. On
two occasions, the students were asked to record their conversations and listen to how theytalked. The Learning Journal they kept might be the most revealing of their experience, as
their reactions were traced. Journal entries were assigned 10 times for 2 points each.

Figure 6: Class Photo Taken by the Author
Post Survey and Final Journal Entries
These pie charts (Figure 7) show their emotional changes after the course. The students were
not given time to answer this questionnaire in class, so only 7 students in class A and 9 inclass B responded. The blue areas (14.3% in class A and 11.1% in class B) indicate that one
student in both classes “feel much more comfortable with small talk compared with the
beginning of the term,” and the red areas (57.1%, 5 students in class A and 88.9%, 8 students
in class B) indicate “feel a little more comfortable with small talk than before.” The yellow
area (14.3%, one student) shows that the student was already good at small talk, so did not
feel any improvement. The green area (14.3%, one student) indicates “not yet very
confident.”

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Figure 7: Students’ Emotional Change After the Course
The following bar graphs illustrate whether the students feel confident in the following
situations and manage to talk with strangers (multiple answers).
a) I can talk with smiles and give short responses.
b) I can find common topics and ask questions.
c) I can find good questions while talking and enjoy interactions.
d) I can express my opinions even when they are different from the other person(s)’ andalso refuse their requests politely.
e) I can express complaints and make a fuss politely.
f) I do not feel confident in any of the above situations.

Figure 8: Students’ Confidence Levels in Small Talk with Strangers in Various Settings
The above blue graph shows Class A’s result and the bottom pink Class B’s. The results
show that 85.7% and 77.8% of the students, respectively, are confident with small talk whilesmiling, and over half can express their opinions and ask questions while enjoying the talk.
So although the number of respondents was small, it appears the small-talk sessions were
helpful.

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Lastly, some students’ final journal entries are introduced. They are reproduced verbatim.
A: Through this class, I think I have reduced my resistance when talking to new people.
Because I‘m not good at speaking on my own. However, I was able to learn what kind ofcontent I should talk about in the class. Thus, I was able to break down my own barriers andspeak on my own. In addition, I learned that content is very important when I talk with new
people. I learned that close Q&A is NG such as an address. So, I want to continue to use what
I have learned and do my best!
B: The Small Talk activity has improved my communication skills because I have had many
opportunities to talk to people I don't know very well. I used to be a shy person, but throughthis class, I am no longer afraid to talk to someone. Last week I was asked for directions by aforeigner in Harajuku, so I used the directions I learned in class.
C: Before taking this class, it was difficult to talk with unknown people for me. However,through this activity, I became able to talk with new people without hesitation. I can start theconversation and ask a question first now. I learned tag responses and how to ask questions
politely. I’ve never used those two expressions before. But not only during class but also in
daily English conversations with my friends I can use those expressions naturally. Also inthis class, it was the first time to record and listen to my conversation. I think it’s a good way
to improve my pronunciation.
D: I learned the difference between conversing in a group of four to five people and in a twoperson conversation. When it was just the two of us, it was either me talking or the otherperson talking. But when in a group, I thought it was important to pay attention to see ifanyone was silent the whole time. I tried to speak things up and make sure that the topic of
the talk was something that everyone could easily talk about.
E: Previously, after saying my name, “What are your hobbies?” I had asked. However, since I
have developed the habit of thinking about topics in small talks in class, the range of
conversation content has broadened. …Finally, I have overcome shyness in conversation. I
was able to do that in each class with an attitude of “Let’s converse better than last time.”
Since the coronavirus caused me to distance myself from people and avoid conversation, I
felt more uncomfortable conversing than before. In particular, I was shy in small talksituations where topics were not specified. However, after repeated practice, I am now able tospeak openly in person. In addition, my instructor made sure that everyone understood theclass, which made the lessons very easy to understand. I really enjoyed your class!
Based on these results, the previous research questions can be answered affirmatively.
Conclusion
The unprecedented pandemic robbed us of face-to-face learning opportunities. Young people
have suffered the most losing not only academic subjects but also social communication
skills. Small talk is a straightforward daily activity, so the benefits of small talk may be taken
for granted. We tend to be unaware of its significance in developing friendships andrelationships. University students in the high-context collective culture may have needed
opportunities to disclose the self and widen the in-group layer to grow their friendship. So
learning how to exchange simple communication benefitted them in their school life as wellas in their future careers.

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Cameron, D. (2001). Working with spoken discourse. London: SAGE.
Coates, J. (2007). Talk in a play frame: More on laughter and intimacy. Journal of
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Drew P., & Heritage J. (1992). Analysing talk at work: An introduction. In P. Drew, & J.
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Endrass, B., Rehm, M., & André, E. (2010). Planning small talk behavior with cultural
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Hall Edward, T., & Hall, M. R. (1987). Hidden Differences. Doing Business with theJapanese. New York: Anchor.
Hofstede, G., Hofstede, G. J., & Minkov, M. (2010). Cultures and Organizations Software of
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Holmes, J. (2005). When small talk is a big deal: Sociolinguistic challenges in theworkplace. Second language needs analysis (pp. 344-371). New York: Cambridge
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McConachy, T. (2021). Exploring intercultural dimensions of L2 pragmatics learning in a
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Murao, K. (2021, September 29). Globis Career Note. Kaiwaga tsuzukazu kimazui!
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politeness observed in high school oral textbooks]. English Education in Japan:
Politeness Perspective. Tokyo: Hitsuji Shobo.
Pullin, P. (2010). Small talk, rapport, and international communicative competence: Lessons
to learn from BELF. The Journal of Business Communication (1973), 47(4), 455-476.
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Takeda, R. (2013). Small talk: Pragmatics lessons for college English language learners. In N.
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Ting-Toomey, S. (1999). Communicating across cultures. New York: The Guilford Press.
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Development and Evaluation of Frankards: A Manipulative for Teaching Probability
Frankie A. Fran, Ateneo de Manila University and Romblon State University, Philippines
Catherine P. Vistro-Yu, Ateneo de Manila University, Philippines
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Abstract
This study focused on developing and evaluating an instructional material based on the needsof mathematics teachers and on the least mastered learning competencies in Grade 10
Mathematics. Baseline data gathered revealed that teachers faced difficulties incontextualizing and discussing the concepts of statistics and probability. They specificallycited the lack of instructional materials for the learning competencies under this content area.
This served as the basis for the development of Frankards, a manipulative designed to aid inteaching the concepts of probability. This study utilized a development research method andadopted the ADDIE Model in creating the manipulative. Subsequently, Frankards wasevaluated by teachers and instructional material developers using the standardized Evaluation
Rating Sheet for Manipulatives prescribed by the Philippines’ Department of Education.
Frankards passed all the criteria set for the three areas of evaluation, namely: Contents(Factor A), Other Findings (Factor B), and Additional Requirement for Manipulative (Factor
C). Revisions related to the visual aspects of the manipulative were suggested. The evaluators
have recommended that the developed manipulative be submitted for copyright. It was
further suggested that the effectiveness of the manipulative be subjected to an experimental
study. It was also proposed that a teacher training on its use be conducted to further validate
its benefits to both teachers and learners.
Keywords: Frankards, Instructional Material, Mathematics Education

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Introduction
In teaching and learning, how educators deliver and teach the content is crucial, especially inmathematics. Hence, teachers handling this subject should therefore be proficient in teaching
the subject and equipped with the essential skills and strategies. Moreover, it is vital that theirgoals be based on the current trends in education. Knowing the Department of Education’s
current curriculum framework enables the teacher to develop and adapt lessons that are suited
to the needs of the learners (Braza and Supapo, 2014). In the Philippine setting, mathematics
is viewed and perceived as the hardest subject not only by students but also by teachers. In
the study conducted by Gafoor and Kurukkan (2015), they have found that 75% of the
respondents believed that Mathematics is a difficult subject. With that, teachers tried toinnovate and use other approaches to make mathematics a more meaningful and engaging
subject, such as visual materials and manipulatives. Leinhardt (1991) emphasized that theutilization of various representations is an integral part of teachers’ knowledge ofmathematics, and they play a vital role in explaining mathematical concepts. In thisconnection, researchers and mathematics educators through the years develop and create
instructional materials and other aids to address issues in relation to low performance inmathematics. In the study conducted by Moyer (2001), he concluded that teachers play asignificant role in creating mathematical environments that help students in acquiringknowledge and improving their learning through visual representations. Vinson (2001) also
stated in his paper that the use of appropriate and concrete instructional material isindispensable to ensure that mathematical content is understood by the learners. Similarly,
Boaler et al. (2016) emphasized that educators should encourage students’ visual approaches
and replace the idea that excellent mathematics learners are those who memorize andcalculate well. Research has also emphasized that the use of visual representations inmathematics, both for teachers and students, is a necessity in their teaching and learning
process (Leinhardt, 1991).
Concrete manipulatives were defined by Bartolini and Martignone (2020, p. 365) as“physical artifacts that can be concretely handled by students and offer a large and deep set of
sensory experience”. When used in teaching abstract concepts, manipulatives helped inenhancing students’ achievement and attitude towards mathematics when used on a long-termbasis (Holmes, 2013; Larbi & Okyere, 2014; Sowell, 1989; Uribe-Flórez & Wilkins, 2017).
Furthermore, Ojose and Sexton (2019) pointed out that manipulatives’ use can deepen theunderstanding of abstract concepts if it was used along with other teaching methodologies.
Specifically, Golafshani (2013) pointed out that manipulatives had been significantly helpful
to struggling learners. Because of this, Holmes (2013) and Ramilo et al. (2022) suggested that
educational institutions should purchase manipulatives since it contributed to theenhancement of students’ learning. Research on the use of manipulatives in teachingmathematics was extended by utilizing it along with other methodologies such as problembased learning. Meke et al. (2018) argued that problem-based learning and the use ofmanipulatives were both effective in terms of enhancing students’ cognitive abilities inmathematics. Innovations were also made in the use of manipulatives from concrete to virtual
manipulatives. Despite these changes, manipulatives in concrete and virtual form both
exhibited positive results in terms of supporting students’ learning and encouraging relational
thinking and algebraic reasoning (Suh & Moyer-Packenham, 2007). These are the reasons
why the first author intended to develop an instructional manipulative that will assist teachers
in teaching probability. In this way, the learners will be assisted in learning the subject
meaningfully. This research concentrated on topics related to probability for Grade 10

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students since it was revealed in the baseline data gathering that teachers and students viewed
statistics and probability as the most difficult content area.
Theoretical Framework
This research is anchored on Johnson and Lakoff’s (2002) Experiential Realism. In thistheory, there is a reality "out there" and that our perceptual and cognitive processes serve torepresent this reality. This suggests that if we want to provide our students with a meaningfulcontext, we should place them in their own reality. To accomplish this, we must bring the"out there" world into the classroom. This study is also anchored on Realistic Mathematics
Education where the contexts and real-life experiences of learners are being utilized as
starting points prior to the learning of abstract and formal concepts of mathematics. It also
gives opportunities to learners to reinvent their own understanding of the mathematicalcontent and processes through horizontal and vertical mathematization (Barnes, 2005;
Gravemeijer, 1994; Van den Heuvel-Panhuizen & Drijvers, 2014).
Methods
In this study, development research method was utilized since it aimed to develop a new
instructional manipulative. It was implemented using the Development Research Design
anchored on the ADDIE Model (Branch, 2009). Based on the ADDIE Model, this study has
two major phases: the gathering and evaluating of the baseline data and the development andevaluation of the manipulative developed. In the first phase, the participants were 35 students
and 15 mathematics teachers. They were asked to answer the questions using the baseline
interview schedule by Fetalvero (2013) as cited by Malicse et al. (2019). On the other hand,Phase 2 focused on the development and evaluation of the manipulative developed. After thedevelopment of the manipulative, 26 Grade 10 Mathematics teachers were asked to evaluate
the manipulative using the Evaluation Rating Sheet for Manipulatives as prescribed by the
Department of Education (DepEd, 2009). The data collected from the structured interview
and questionnaire responses were analyzed using percentages. On the other hand, theevaluation ratings from the mathematics teachers were gathered and statistically analyzed
using mean.
Results and Discussion
Baseline Data Report
Based on the results of the survey conducted, the students and teachers have identified
statistics and probability as the most difficult content area in Mathematics 10 (students: 40%,
teachers: 80%). When asked about their perception on the use of module as the sole
instructional material in teaching, 77% of the students disagreed. This implies that students
wanted to be engaged in learning using other instructional materials other than their modules.
In terms of the mode of teaching the subject and the data gathered shows that 49% of thestudents preferred to learn mathematics with the aid of the manipulative while 31% and 21%of the students preferred lecture and group activities, respectively.
Frankards: The Developed Manipulative
As shown in Figure 1, here is the developed manipulative, the “Frankards”. It is a set of 56
cards specifically crafted to assist teachers in teaching probability concepts. Unlike the

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regular deck of cards, Frankards was uniquely designed to use polygons as the card suits
instead of the suits in a standard deck of playing card. The use of the standard deck of cards
has been banned in schools to prevent students from engaging in gambling-related activities.
Hence, an instructional material that is more mathematical than the standard deck of cards
was developed.

Figure 1: Deck of Frankards (Fran, 2021)
Evaluation of Frankards
Table 1 shows the expert’s evaluation of the manipulative in terms of Factor A (Content). It
generally shows that the manipulative is formatively evaluated as very satisfactory in termsof content. This implies that the manipulative passed the requirements prescribed for
manipulatives as to the content. Specifically, the evaluators have given the manipulative a
perfect rating of 4.00 to these indicators: Content reinforces, enriches, and/or leads to themastery of certain learning competencies for the level and subject it was intended; material
has the potential to arouse interest of the target users; and size of the material is appropriate
for use in school. Other indicators are also rated very satisfactory signifying that the
instructional manipulative is excellent as to content.
Table 1: Experts’ Evaluation in Terms of Factor A (Content)
Mean
Descriptive
Indicators
Rating Interpretation
1. Content reinforces, enriches, and/or leads to the mastery of
4.00 Very Satisfactory
certain learning competencies for the level and subject it was
intended.
2. Material has the potential to arouse interest of the target users. 4.00 Very Satisfactory
3.
4.
5.
6.

Facts are accurate.
Information provided is up-to-date.
Visuals are relevant to the text.
Visuals are suitable to the age level and interests of the target
user.
7. Visuals are clear and adequately convey the message of thesubject or topic.
8. Typographic layout/design facilitates understanding ofconcepts presented.
9. Size of the material is appropriate for use in school.

3.76
3.60
3.68
3.80

10. Material is easy to use and durable.
Total

3.96 Very Satisfactory
38.44

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Very Satisfactory
Very Satisfactory
Very Satisfactory
Very Satisfactory

3.76 Very Satisfactory
3.88 Very Satisfactory
4.00 Very Satisfactory

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Note. The indicators are adapted from the Evaluation Rating Sheet for Manipulatives asprescribed by the Department of Education (DepEd, 2009). The following are the equivalentdescriptive interpretations for the mean ratings: Very Satisfactory, 3.26 – 4.00; Satisfactory,
2.56 – 3.25; Poor, 1.76 – 2.50; and Not Satisfactory, 1.00 – 1.75.
Table 2 presents the evaluation of experts on the manipulative in terms of Other Findings(Factor B). It further shows that conceptual errors, factual errors, grammatical and/or
typographical errors, and other errors are not present as evaluated.
Table 2: Experts’ Evaluation in Terms of Factor B (Other Findings)
Mean Rating
Descriptive
Indicators
Interpretation
1. Conceptual errors.
4.00
Not Present
2. Factual errors.
4.00
Not Present
3. Grammatical and/or typographical errors.
4.00
Not Present
4. Other errors (i.e., computational errors,
4.00
Not Present
obsolete information, errors in the visuals, etc.)
Total
16.00
Note. The indicators are adapted from the Evaluation Rating Sheet for Manipulatives asprescribed by the Department of Education (DepEd, 2009). The following are the equivalentdescriptive interpretations for the mean ratings: Not Present, 3.26 – 4.00; Present but withvery minor and must be fixed, 2.56 – 3.25; Present and requires major redevelopment,
1.76 – 2.50; and Poor, 1.00 – 1.75.
Table 3 presents the evaluation of the validators as to instructional and technical design of themanipulative which is rated very satisfactory (3.89). Specifically, the evaluators formatively
assessed that the manipulative is safe to use, achieving a perfect rating of 4.00 from theevaluators. The validators also viewed that the size and composition of manipulative isappropriate for the intended audience (3.96). It can be noted that the evaluators formatively
assessed the manipulative and rated it very satisfactory across the given indicators for
instructional and technical design. This implies that as to the instructional and technicaldesign, the manipulative passed the given criteria.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Table 3: Experts’ Evaluation in Terms of Factor C(Additional Requirements for Manipulatives)
Mean
Indicators
RatingInstructional Design
Adequate support material is provided.
3.84
Activities are summarized; extension activities are
3.72
provided.
Suggested activities support innovative pedagogy.
3.92
Technical Design
Manipulative is safe to use.
4.00
Size and composition of manipulative is appropriate
3.96
for intended audience.
Suggested manual tasks within the activities are
3.92
compatible with the motor skills of the intended
users.
Total
23.36

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Descriptive
Interpretation
Very Satisfactory
Very Satisfactory
Very Satisfactory
Very Satisfactory
Very Satisfactory
Very Satisfactory

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Note. The indicators are adapted from the Evaluation Rating Sheet for Manipulatives asprescribed by the Department of Education (DepEd, 2009). The following are the equivalentdescriptive interpretations for the mean ratings: Very Satisfactory, 3.26 – 4.00; Satisfactory,
2.56 – 3.25; Poor, 1.76 – 2.50; and Not Satisfactory, 1.00 – 1.75.
Figure 2 shows the summary of ratings of the evaluators across the areas for evaluation. Itshows that the earned points for every factor are above the required minimum points reflected
as follows: Factor A (Content)=38.44; Factor B (Other Findings) = 16.00; and Factor C(Additional Requirement for Manipulatives) = 23.36. This implies that the manipulative
passed the requirements prescribed by the Department of Education for Manipulatives.

38.44

Factor A (Content)

30
16

Factor B (Other Findings)

16
23.36

Factor C (Additional Requirement for
Manipulative)

18
0

5

Earned Points (Mean)

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

Minimum Points Required

Figure 2: Summary of Ratings for the Areas of Evaluation
Conclusion
It can be inferred that the instructional material developed passed all the prescribed criteria
set by the Department of Education in the selection of the appropriate and quality
instructional material such as manipulatives. Consequently, the utilization of the instructional
material is highly recommended. This is suggested to be the next phase of the study. After
testing its effectiveness, it can be recommended for dissemination to teachers especially those
who are handling subjects that deal with probability and statistics. The research output can beutilized as an instructional material in teaching probability. Corollary to this, the instructional
material is recommended to be submitted to the Intellectual Property Office of the Philippines
for Copyright Application. Initial processes had been conducted by the researcher in relation
to the intellectual property rights of the owner and the university. In relation to its
dissemination and utilization, the effectiveness of this instructional material should be tested
first. Thus, it is recommended to conduct future research focusing on testing the effectivenessof this material.
Acknowledgements
The authors extend their heartfelt thanks to Romblon State University, Ateneo de Manila
University, and Department of Science and Technology-Science Education Institute.

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References
Bartolini, M. G., & Martignone, F. (2020). Manipulatives in mathematics
education. Encyclopedia of mathematics education, 487-494.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-15789-0_93
Barnes, H. (2005). The theory of Realistic Mathematics Education as a theoretical framework
for teaching low attainers in mathematics. Pythagoras, 2005(61), 42-57.
Branch, R. M. (2009). Instructional design: The ADDIE approach (Vol. 722). New York:
Springer.
Braza, M. T., & Supapo, S. S. (2014). Effective Solutions in the Implementation of the K
to12 Mathematics Curriculum. West Visayas State University. Iloilo City.
Boaler, J., Chen, L., Williams, C., & Cordero, M. (2016). Seeing as understanding: The
importance of visual mathematics for our brain and learning. Journal of Applied &Computational Mathematics, 5(5), 1-6.
Department of Education (2009). Guidelines and Processes for LRMDS Assessment and
Evaluation.
Fran, F. A. (2021, July). Analyzing students’ achievement and attitude through the Frankards
context in learning probability. In Journal of Physics: Conference Series (Vol. 1957,
No. 1, p. 012010). IOP Publishing.
Gafoor, K. A., & Kurukkan, A. (2015). Why High School Students Feel Mathematics
Difficult? An Exploration of Affective Beliefs.
Golafshani, N. (2013). Teachers' beliefs and teaching mathematics withmanipulatives. Canadian Journal of Education/Revue canadienne del'éducation, 36(3), 137-159. Retrieved fromhttps://www.jstor.org/stable/canajeducrevucan.36.3.137
Gravemeijer, K. P. E. (1994). Developing realistic mathematics education.
Holmes, A. B. (2013). Effects of Manipulative Use on PK-12 Mathematics Achievement: A
Meta-Analysis. Society for Research on Educational Effectiveness.
Johnson, M. & Lakoff, G. (2002). Why cognitive linguistics requires embodied realism,
13(3), 245-263. https://doi.org/10.1515/cogl.2002.016
Larbi, E., & Okyere, M. (2014). Algebra tiles manipulative and gender differences in learningand achievement in mathematics: A case of Sunyani West Municipality. Journal of
Education and Practice, 5(38).
Leinhardt, G. (1991). Where subject knowledge matters. Advances in Research on
Teaching, 2, 83-113.
Malicse et al. (2019). Development and Formative Evaluation of Biocomics in Genetics

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Meke, K. D. P., Wutsqa, D. U., & Alfi, H. D. (2018, September). The effectiveness ofproblem-based learning using manipulative materials approach on cognitive ability inmathematics learning. In Journal of Physics: Conference Series (Vol. 1097, No. 1, p.
012135). IOP Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/1097/1/012135
Moyer, P. S. (2001). Are we having fun yet? How teachers use manipulatives to teachmathematics. Educational Studies in mathematics, 47(2), 175-197.
Ojose, B., & Sexton, L. (2009). The effect of manipulative materials on mathematics
achievement of first grade students. The mathematics educator, 12(1), 3-14.
Ramilo, R., Cruz, M. P., Geanga, J. P. D., & Faustino, J. B. (2022). Teachers’ perspectives on
optimizing manipulatives in teaching 21st century skills in kindergarten. Journal ofChildhood, Education & Society, 3(1), 1-11.
https://doi.org/10.37291/2717638X.20223198
Sowell, E. J. (1989). Effects of manipulative materials in mathematics instruction. Journal
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Suh, J., & Moyer-Packenham, P. (2007). Developing students’ representational fluency using
virtual and physical algebra balances. Journal of Computers in Mathematics andScience Teaching, 26(2), 155-173. Retrieved fromhttps://www.learntechlib.org/primary/p/22799/
Uribe-Flórez, L. J., & Wilkins, J. L. (2017). Manipulative use and elementary school
students’ mathematics learning. International Journal of Science and Mathematics
Education, 15(8), 1541-1557. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10763-016-9757-3
Van den Heuvel-Panhuizen, M., & Drijvers, P. (2020). Realistic mathematics
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Contact email: frankie.fran@obf.ateneo.edu
cvistro-yu@ateneo.edu

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Design and Evaluation of an Online Interactive Story Game for Learning
the Theory of Love Attachment Style
Zi-Ying Li, National Taiwan University of Science and Technology, Taiwan
Yu-Chi Chen, National Taiwan University of Science and Technology, Taiwan
Huei-Tse Hou, National Taiwan University of Science and Technology, Taiwan

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Abstract
Love is one of the most important issues in life, and everyone may have different attachment
styles of love, including their behaviors and attitudes in relationships. Learning to identify
one's attachment style of love can help us understand our needs and build good relationships
with others. This study proposes a multi-path contextual interactive story game for distancelearning. The online Google form-based game "First Love" was designed with situatedlearning and the conceptual scaffolding to increase learners' knowledge of attachment styles
and to provide opportunities for self-awareness and reflection. Participants were 16 adults in
Taiwan, and the goal of learning activity is to continue the contextual script story in the game,in which students became the protagonist of the story, and depending on the options theychoose, the protagonist then showed different attachment styles. Students could learn about
attachment styles through the development of story situations. The game uses a four-quadrant
diagram to present different style dimensions as the conceptual scaffolding, combined withsituational examples, which allows students to understand the concepts of different
attachment styles of love in a simplified diagram. At the end, it enhanced students'
self-awareness and reflection on attachment theory. The results indicated that, the motivation
was significantly higher than the median of the scale (i.e., 3), and the post-test wassignificantly higher than the pre-test, indicating that the game design had a positive effect on
the motivation of students to learn attachment style knowledge and could be used to improvetheir learning performance.
Keywords: Love Educational Game, Situated Learning, Scaffolding

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Introduction
Attachment theory was designed to explore interactions with primary caregivers during
infancy and is now used to research romantic relationships between partners. Attachment has
a positive effect on the development of interpersonal skills because it helps people learn how
to maintain intimate relationships and develop a positive self-concept, which helps toenhance their sense of self-worth and thus their interpersonal skills (Honghao et al., 2021),
and attachment styles influence behaviors and feelings in relationships (Hazan & Shaver,1987). Therefore, understanding the attachment style of the self and how to deal with
attachment needs is important for establishing and maintaining good romantic relationships,
so knowing the attachment style of the self can help people understand themselves better andcan help build relationship and maintain good romantic relationships, emotional health, andinterpersonal relationships (Martin, 1988).
Situated Learning emphasizes the connection between knowledge and real-life situations(Brown et al., 1989), and situation gives "meaning" to the learning content.
In this study, an online romance script game was designed using an online form to allow
learners to learn about attachment styles through the relationship situation simulated in thegame and to help learners understand themselves through self-awareness. "First Love" is alove script game to understand attachment styles (Figure 1-a). Learners will make different
choices to express the attachment styles of the main characters and integrate them into thestory with the realistic story to learn about the attachment theory and the four types ofattachment styles (Figure 1-b) through the concept scaffolding and understand thecharacteristics of each attachment style. At the end of the game, additional information will
be provided to guide the learners in self-reflection and self-awareness, so that the learners canhave more knowledge about themselves after the game.
Figure 1. Love script game "First Love" game interface

Methods
A total of 16 participants (9 females and 7 males) were enrolled in the study. Students andcommunity members over 20 years old were recruited through the Internet. Each participant
used a personal computer and participated in the First Love in their own space.
In order to analyze the participants' flow status during the experience, the questionnaire usedin this study included of 22 questions Likert five-point scale flow scale translated andmodified from Kiili (2006) by Hou and Li (2014), which contains two dimensions: flow
antecedents and flow experience. The reliability of the flow scale is 0.897 (Cronbach's

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alpha=0.897). In order to understand the anxiety of the learners during the game, the activity
anxiety scale of the learning experience scale translated and adapted by Hong (2001) and Han(2002) were used, and a five-point Likert scale was used with a reliability of 0.703(Cronbach's alpha=0.703) for 8 questions. In order to understand the participants' motivationin the game, the motivation scale was adapted from Keller's (1987) ARCS motivation model
scale, and a five-point Likert scale was used. In order to understand the participants'
understanding of the conceptual content of the attachment theory before the activity, theparticipants were given a pre-test and a post-test before and after the game experience toanalyze the participants' learning effectiveness. The test has 20 multiple choice questions anda total score of 100. The questions were reviewed by experienced psychologists with 15 yearsof teaching experience. The flow of the learning activity phase of the study began with anactivity presentation and pre-test (15 minutes), followed by a game experience (20 minutes),
and finally a post-test and completion of the flow, anxiety, and motivation inventory
questionnaire (15 minutes).
Results and Discussions
Table 1 shows the results of the analysis. Based on the results, it was found that the overall
heart flow of the participants (M=4.50, SD=0.52) was significantly higher than the median
3of the scale (p=.000 < .001). Both dimensions of the flow scale, flow antecedents (M=4.38,
SD=0.45) and flow experience (M=4.48, SD=0.40), were also significantly higher than the
median 3 of the scale, indicating that the activity design and experience allowed participants
to clearly understand the goal of the game and that most participants were focused on theactivity. Based on the analysis of anxiety, it was found that participants' anxiety about theactivity (M=1.85, SD=0.55) was significantly lower than the median 3 of the scale (p< .05).
This suggests that the play mechanism of this activity does not cause excessive anxiety inparticipants, which is also consistent with previous studies (Hung et al., 2015; Lin & Hou,2022). In the descriptive statistics of motivation, the participants' motivation to learn (M=4.40,
SD=0.45) was significantly higher than the median 3 of the scale (p=.000<.001), indicatingthat the activity in this study encouraged students' learning motivation.
Table 2 shows the results of the learning achievement analysis. According to the results, The
post-test is significantly higher than the pre-test, indicating that the participants' learningachievement could be improved by the activity experience.
Table 1. Flow, Motivation, and Anxiety Analysis (Wilcoxon Signed-rank Test, median = 3)
DimensionMSDpOverall Flow
Flow antecedents
Flow experience
Motivation
Activity anxiety
*

4.50
4.38
4.48
1.85
4.40

0.52
0.45
0.40
0.55
0.45

p <0.05，**p <0.01，***p <0.001

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Table 2. Descriptive Statistics Analysis of Learning EffectivenessPre-test

Post-test

N

M

SD

M

SD

z-scorep27*
p <0.05

54.38

14.71

63.75

9.20

-1.985.047*

Conclusions and Limitations
This study developed an online romance script game "First Love" with the theme of learning
attachment styles. The game uses a realistic and multifaceted situation to allow learners toexperience the story generated by different attachment styles, and to learn attachment styleknowledge through story progression to achieve self-awareness and reflection. The above
statistical analysis shows that the learners' flow experience and motivation are significantly
higher than the median 3 of the scale, indicating that the design of the game enables thelearners to achieve a certain degree of flow experience and has a positive effect on
motivation. Learners' anxiety in the activity was significantly lower than the median 3 of thescale, indicating that the game mechanism did not cause excessive anxiety in the learners.
The learning effectiveness section also reached a significant level, indicating that learning
attachment style knowledge through "First Love" can improve learning performance. In the
future, we will increase the sample size, add the attachment style guide suggestions anddesign more scaffoldings to compare the effectiveness of the love script on learning
attachment style knowledge and scaffolding assistance with or without scaffolding assistancein a quasi-experimental design.

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References
Brown, J. S., Collins, A., & Duguid, P. (1989). Situated cognitive and the culture of learning.
Educational Researcher, 18, 32-42.
Han, C. L. (2002). The Impacts of Network Anonymous Competition on Students' Learning[Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. National Cheng Kung University.
Hazan, C., & Shaver, P. (1987). Romantic love conceptualized as an attachment process.
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52(3), 511-524.
Hong, M. H. (2001). The Effects of Captioned, Subtitled and Non-captioned Television
Videotapes on Foreign Language Learning [Unpublished doctoral dissertation].
National Cheng Kung University.
Honghao, J., Po, Y., & Tianyu, Y. (2021). The influence of adolescents’ romantic
relationship on individual development: Evidence from China. International Journalof Chinese Education, 10(3). https://doi.org/10.1177/22125868211070036
Hou, H. T. & Li, M. C. (2014). Evaluating Multiple Aspects of a Digital Educational
Problem-solving-based Adventure Game, Computers in Human Behavior, 30, 29-38.
Hung, C.-Y., Sun, J. C.-Y., & Yu, P.-T. (2015). The benefits of a challenge: student
motivation and flow experience in tablet-PC-game-based learning. Interactive
Learning Environments, 23(2), 172–190.
https://doi.org/10.1080/10494820.2014.997248
Johnson, E.B. (2002) Contextual Teaching and Learning: What It Is and Why It Is Here to
Stay. Corwin Press, Inc., Thousands Oaks.
Keller, J. M. (1987). Development and use of the ARCS model of instructional
design. Journal of Instructional Development, 10(3), 2–10.
https://doi.org/10.1007/bf02905780
Kiili, K. (2006). Evaluations of an Experiential Gaming Model. Human Technology: An
Interdisciplinary Journal on Humans in ICT Environments.
https://jyx.jyu.fi/handle/123456789/20195
Lin, Y.-C., & Hou, H.-T. (2022). The evaluation of a scaffolding-based augmented reality
educational board game with competition-oriented and collaboration-oriented
mechanisms: differences analysis of learning effectiveness, motivation, flow, andanxiety. Interactive Learning Environments, 1–20.
https://doi.org/10.1080/10494820.2022.2091606
Martin, F. (1988). Romantic love conceptualized as an attachment process. Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 54(6), 773-786.
Contact email: hthou@mail.ntust.edu.tw

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The Identity of People With Disabilities: Advancing Through a Study on
Self-Determination and Self-Knowledge
Blas González-Alba, University of Málaga, Spain
Moisés Mañas-Olmo, University of Málaga, Spain
Jeanette Landin, Landmark College, United States
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Abstract
The concept of identity has been a research topic for hundreds of years. Researchers haveconsidered the influences of culture, physical development, and interpersonal relationships todescribe how a person’s identity, or self-concept, develops. Another aspect of a person’s selfconcept involves physical, mental, or learning disabilities. A study was conducted insoutheastern Spain in 2021 to investigate the self-perception of identity among people ages
13-25 who self-identified as having a disability. The results of this study revealed acorrelation between the study participant’s identity as a person with a disability and their selfperception of belonging within their community. The perceived level of belonging within acommunity varied with the participant’s age. Self-knowledge and self-determination were
influencing factors that improved among older participants.
Keywords: Identity, People With Disabilities, Self-Perception, Self-Identity, SelfDetermination

iafor
The International Academic Forumwww.iafor.org

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Introduction
Identity can be defined as a personal and inherent construct of every human being (ForberPratt & Zape, 2017; González, 2021; Głodkowska & Pągowska, 2019) whose development
and construction is linked to the vital experiences (Fadjukoff, Pulkkinen & Kokko, 2016). As
a complex, multi-dimensional, constructive (Arfuch, 2002), social (Forber-Pratt & Zape,2017), and endless process (Leite, 2011), identity is socially constructed (Mañas, 2020;
Mijangos, 2015) and it is linked to experience (Gergen, 2007) and to the subjective, personal,social and evaluative perception that each individual makes as a result of their interactions
with their social, school and family context (González, Cortés & Rivas, 2018).
Morales, Páez, Deschamps, and Worchel (1996) state identity is constructed from theopinions, judgments, and attitudes that an individual manifests regarding himself and as aresult of internal and external dialogue (Lara-Subiabre, Henríquez & Villaroel, 2020) that
configures an identity that can be personal and social and expressed in a unitary, multiple,
discovered, constructed, stable or fluid way (Vignoles, Schwartz & Luyckx, 2011). An
orientation or attitude toward self-identification as disabled includes cognitive and affective
components (Darling & Heckert, 2010), meaning that the self-concept of disability in any
way influences the way a person interacts with society. According to Koch (2020), students
with disabilities question their placement among their peers according to their self-perceptionof belonging in society, and exercises involving items such as personality quizzes foster
understanding among group members. Therefore, the self-concept of a person withdisabilities affects their perception of belonging in society.
Erikson's Theory of Identity
Researchers have explored the concept of identity since the middle ages. The question ofidentity has revolved around how people develop psychologically from birth throughout theirlives. Erikson (1959) explored identity through the lens of self-concept and community
recognition, which Crain (2011) related to biological development. Crain (2011) noted thatlearning disabilities impeded biological development, specifically Autism Spectrum
Disorders (ASD). The hallmark of biological growth is an accomplishment ("I am what I canlearn to work," Erickson, 1968, p. 127), so the community in which a person was situatedwould notice the lack of achievement that is a hallmark of disability could lead to peer
shunning. Mooney (2013) commented on executive function challenges, often present in
ASD and Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), noting similar impacts oncommunity acceptance. The person with a disability questions their belonging within theirpeer group, which leads to identity confusion (Erickson, 1959).
Identity confusion interferes with the developmental stage of fidelity (Mooney, 2013).
Identity confusion occurs because the person becomes aware that they are somehow different
from their peers but may not understand why or how to resolve the issue. Kroger (2007)
noted that teenagers in the United States and New Zealand voiced intolerance for a peer that
did not belong using the terms "outcast," "threat," and "boring" (p. 39). A person with adisability would likely not choose such identity labels from their peers but may receive them
nonetheless. Lawler (2014) noted that social identity is highly linked to self-identity.

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Literature Review
A review of the existing literature pertaining to self-defined identity and sense of belonging
within a peer group was conducted. Literature was gathered from peer-reviewed academic
journals, published autobiographies of people with learning or physical disabilities, and otherpublished texts. The literature was gathered from global sources to identify common themes
and relations to Erikson's theory of identity regardless of geographical location.
Self-Identity among People with Learning or Physical Disabilities
As Forber-Pratt, Lyew, Mueller, and Samples (2017) remind us, identity development inpeople with disabilities is a little-researched phenomenon. Perhaps, this fact is because theidentity of people with disabilities has always been identified with a "restricted ormonophonic identity" (Baquero, 2015, p.171) as a consequence of imperialism of identity(Sen, 2001) and of social and cultural traditions that have denied that people with disabilities
can present multiple identities. Dunn and Burcaw (2013) define disability identity as a "senseof self that includes one's disability and feelings of connection to, or solidarity with, thedisability community" (p.148).
In this sense, Forber-Pratt, Merrin, Mueller, Price, and Kettrey (2020), remind us that identity
is constructed socially and historically. In the particular case of people with disabilities, theirstatus as a minority and marginalized group (1) has favored the construction of a culturalvision of disability linked to a conception of unitary identity and associated exclusively withthe group of people with disabilities (Mackelprang & Salsgiver, 1996); and (2) has
configured a group identity (Brown, 2003). This complex historical, cultural, and social
process has generated in people with disabilities feelings of denial, fear of being judged, orshame that contribute to the construction of a negative identity of disability (Mackelprang &Salsgiver, 1996) and favors the consolidation of a minority group model of disability inwhich people with disabilities are considered a minority group, subject to stigmatization(Eddey & Robey, 2005).
McNamer (2013) wrote in a first-person context about his personal experience with identityand belonging as a person diagnosed with an Autism Spectrum Disorder. The insights heshared lend credence to the concept of identity as a subjective function of culture and social
input. McNamer (2013) shared the following:[As] I grow, I become more invisible than I was before. When I was six years old in
elementary school, teachers would put me in the 'cloak of invisibility….' When I went
to school with my peers then, I felt rejected too. Not as rejected as in high school, but
I do feel like that 'cloak of invisibility' is working pretty well…I never wanted tochange, but I do want my classmates from elementary school to understand me. It
seems impossible since I'm a growing invisible…thing. I am not noticed and I will
become entirely invisible by the time school ends. (pp. 80-81)
According to Van Halen, Borsma, and van der Meulen (2018), adolescents encounter themost significant challenges to their self-identity, consistent with Erikson's (1959) theory ofidentity versus confusion during their teenage years. According to Erikson, the need to form astrong identity is critical; however, disabilities could impede the discovery of self-identity
because of disabilities lead to experiences of ostracism and exclusion.

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As different studies have reported, people with disabilities experience social discrimination(Baquero, 2015) and school exclusion (Jiménez & Huete, 2002; Mañas, González & Cortés,
2020; Mogensen & Mason, 2015; Savaria, Underwood & Sinclair, 2011) and limitations toparticipate fully in the social and educational contexts in which they are immersed (Gómez &Cardona, 2010), generating the construction of a disability identity. According to ForberPratt, Lyew, Mueller, and Samples (2017), the identity of the disability can be defined as theunique and particular capacity that a person with a disability has to perceive himself, hisbody, and his way of interacting with the world and is related to the experience and social
perception of the person with disabilities (Hopson, 2019).
Sense of Belonging Among Peers
Research has shown that a student's sense of belonging within a community affects theirlearning success (Pittman & Richmond, 2007). A Pew survey found 71% of students use
multiple ways to communicate with friends (U.S. Health & Human Services, 2019). Still,adolescents' loneliness impedes academic performance (Moeller & Seehuus, 2019). Sense of
belonging has been measured in multiple ways. Ingram (2012) notes three independentmeasures of belonging: Social belonging, academic belonging, and perceived institutional
belonging. Ingram (2012) indicated that the strongest predictors of student belonging are not
fixed student attributes but other variables that can be influenced to various extents byinstitutional policies and practices. In other words, the learning environment can beengineered to increase students' sense of belonging, particularly their academic belonging
within their peer group.
Considering these investigations and that the identity of the disability can be determined bypersonal feelings and by the sense of belonging to a community (Hahn & Belt, 2004), andthat it is a physical, biological, social categorization and creation of meaning (Forber-Pratt,
Lyew, Mueller & Samples, 2017), we find different contexts that implicitly and explicitly to
use to construct an identity of difference (González, 2018, 2021; Mañas, 2020) or disability.
In the social and family sphere, we can find, on the one hand, situations in which people withdisabilities interact and share activities and spaces with other individuals with disabilities,
these experiences allow them to build a positive disability identity and feelings of connection
and identification with other people with disabilities (Dunn & Burcaw, 2013). On the other
hand, interaction with people and family members who do not have disabilities encourages
them to perceive personal differences and particular traits (i.e., communicative, physical,
cognitive, etc.), which they do not share with any members of their social or family group,
contributing to strengthening the identity of the disability (Forber-Pratt, Lyew, Mueller &Samples, 2017).
Similarly, in school contexts, the diagnosis, school labeling (Gergen, 1996), experiences ofschool segregation (González, Mañas, and Cortés, 2017), and of bullying (González, Cortés& Mañas, 2019; Mañas, González & Cortés, 2020; MECD, 2017) are those that both
implicitly and explicitly contribute to the construction of a school identity linked to selfdoubt or difference. These school experiences appear in students with atypical educational
needs or disabilities as an identity of difference as a consequence of a cognitive (thinking),
affective (feelings), and attitudinal (acts and behaviors) process (González, 2018, 2021;
González, Cortés & Rivas, 2018) that leads them to show isolation behaviors and feelings ofinferiority and difference with the rest of their classmates in the school context.

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Summary of the Literature Review and Gaps Identified
The empirical literature shows research carried out with children (Phelan & Kinsella, 2014)
and people with learning differences (Zhang & Haller, 2013), visual limitations, and physicaldisabilities (Atkinson & Hutchinson, 2013; Kelly, 2005; Stalker & Connors, 2004),
adolescents with spina bifida (Kinavey, 2006), learning difficulties (Savaria, Underwood &Sinclair, 2011), students with autism spectrum disorders (Mogensen & Mason, 2015;
Shattuck, Steinberg, Yu, Wei, Cooper, Newman & Roux, 2017), university students withdisabilities (Forber-Pratt & Zape, 2017; Moriña, 2017; Riddell & Weedon, 2014), or
Asperger syndrome (González, 2018, 2021) in which, in some way, the fact of being people
with educational needs has had an impact on their respective identities. Aside from
McNamer's (2013) autobiographical publication, the literature review revealed a gap inknowledge about people's self-perception with physical or learning disabilities. Based on
Erikson's Theory of Identity, it is vital to understand people's self-perception with learning or
physical disabilities. Erikson (1959) commented that having an acknowledged disability
affected a person's identity, leading to potential identity confusion resulting from labeling andpossible exclusion by peers.
This type of exercise, personal and experiential, constitutes a double process of selfidentification linked, on the one hand, with the perception of common traits with a group ofpeople (Forber-Pratt & Zape, 2017) "heterorecognition" (Giménez, 1996) and, on the other
hand, with the ability to notice particular traits that are associated with a self-perception,individuality and difference concerning other people, "auto-recognition" (Giménez, 1996).
Individuals perceive similarities and differences in gender, social class, age, and sexual
orientation in this identification and recognition process.
Aim of the study
This research study was carried out in 2021 under a quantitative survey design andcorrelational descriptive logic. The main objective is to know if there is a relationshipbetween age, sex, and the level of self-knowledge and self-regulation with the construction of
an identity of the disability. We also intend to test the following hypotheses:
R0: The person with disabilities does not experience identity confusion and feels a senseof belonging among their colleagues with disabilities.
R1: The person with a disability experiences identity confusion and feels a decrease in thesense of belonging among their colleagues with disabilities.
R2: The person with a disability experiences identity confusion and feels a sense of
belonging among their disabled peers.
MethodParticipants
An intentional (non-probabilistic) or convenience sampling has been developed (Scharager &Armijo, 2001) in which people with disabilities living in the province of Malaga haveparticipated. In the selection of the sample, we have used the criteria of a) being people witha diagnosis of some disability, b) interest in participating in the research, c) being between 13
and 25 years old, and d) having good oral and written comprehension and expression skills.

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We contacted five associations of people with disabilities in the province of Malaga who
facilitated contact with the participants' families. In the same way, we have contacted otherpeople with disabilities through the snowball methodology. The total sample was comprisedof 78 participants, of which N = 28 women (35.89%) and N = 50 men (64.10%), aged
between 13 and 25 years, with a mean age of 18.9 years and an SD of 1.1 (Table 1) and ofwhich 18 (23.07%) claimed to have a close relative with a disability (siblings or parents).

Mean age
S.D.

Women
28
18.9
1.1
Table 1. Sample description

Men
50
18.5
1.2

More specifically, Table 2 presents the disability that most frequently appears in the study:
mild intellectual disability (N = 42), followed by autism spectrum disorder (N = 12).
Autism spectrum disorder
Asperger syndrome
ADHD- Hyperactivity
Mild intellectual disability
Learning difficulties (Dyslexia, Dyscalculia, etc.)
Visual disability
Hearing impairment
Others (Smith magenis, Cornelia de Lange)
Table 2. Sample division

12
4
2
42
2
2
8
10

Measures
Participants were administered a face-to-face survey using Google Forms, which included
questions about demographics, primary diagnosis, gender, age, and academic status. The
survey consisted of 30 questions grouped into sections, 1) about the identity perceived by thestudent as a person with diverse needs and questions about their perception of belonging
among their peers, 2) self-regulation and 3) self-knowledge.
In this sense, the identity scale used was that of Forber et al. (2020) Initial Factor Explorationof Disability Identity, more specifically, items related to internal beliefs (e.g., I identify withthe community of people with disabilities) and those related to anger and frustration withexperiences related to the disability (e.g., I wish I didn't have a disability). This Likert-type
scale (1-4) has been designed to analyze the degree of implication of certain factors in
identity development in people with disabilities. The Cronbach's Alpha coefficient for thisfactor is .91.
Regarding self-regulation and self-knowledge, the ARC-INICO scale was used to evaluate
self-determination (Verdugo et al., 2014). These factors have a Cronbach's Alpha coefficientof .84 and .80, respectively. This Likert-type scale (1-4) was developed to analyze how selfdetermination is formed in people with disabilities and how it is influenced by factors such as
self-regulation and self-knowledge, among others.

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Procedure
The study questions were initially tested on 35 participants not belonging to the final study tocheck the scale's reliability using Cronbach's alpha. In our initial survey, Cronbach's alphawas .65, which led us to revise the scale, remove items with less load, and include otherquestions to improve reliability and consistency, which led to a considerable increase in our
survey tool's consistency and reliability (.94). Later, the Kolmogorov-Smirnov normality test
was performed under a level of significance (p <0.05), in which it was obtained that the
distribution of the sample differs from the normal one.
As a step before the fieldwork, the heads of the five associations were contacted to arrange apersonal meeting in which (1) the objective and procedure of the investigation wereexplained to them; (2) the confidentiality and information treatment documents were signed;(3) the COVID prevention measures to be considered and the place chosen within theassociation to carry out the interviews were agreed; (4) the person in charge of each centerselected a person (i.e., Key Caregiver) who could be present during the fieldwork; (5) thedays and time slots in which to carry out the interviews with each association were agreed.
Subsequently, and considering a series of COVID protocols (use of masks andhydroalcoholic gel, interpersonal distance between attendees, and choice of an outdoor
location) over four weeks (initial study) and seven weeks (final study), the collection of
information was developed. During all the sessions, a Key Caregiver was present to solve
possible doubts for the people interviewed. In this regard, it is vital to consider that the initialstudy was carried out in April 2021. Some members of two of the associations thatparticipated in the study participated. Subsequently, and once some items had been modified,
the final study was carried out during May and June with the five associations thatparticipated in the research.
The first hypothesis was verified using a logistic regression in which the identity category
was binary:
1. No identification with the disability.
2. Identification with the disability.
Responses from survey participants (e.g., below mean, above mean) constituted thedependent variable (DV). The selective coding of the data made it possible to identify theparticipants' self-identity and sense of belonging. Furthermore, the constant comparison of
the participants' responses with Erikson's Identity Theory fostered the emergence of a theoryof self-identity and belonging specific to people with physical or learning disabilities. SPSS
version 26 was used to analyze the survey data.
Results
Regarding internal beliefs in items 7-12 (Table 3), significant correlations (p-value .01)
appear in all items that evaluate this aspect. This refers to how people who feel identified
with the disability give answers congruently in the questionnaire, which is evident in thepositive correlation between items 11 and 12 (ρ- .905 **).

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Spearman´s Rho
7 I identify with thecommunity of people
with disabilities
8 I adopt the fundamental
values of the disability
culture as my own
9 I identify myself as aperson with a disability
10 I have a strong senseof belonging to people
with disabilities
11 I am proud to be a
person with a disability
12 I consider mydisability to be afundamental part of me

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8.783**.783**

9.704**

10.744**

11.763**

12.736**.712**.630**.861**.836**.817**.805**.729**.667**.563**.704**.712**.744**.630**.817**.763**.861**.805**.667**.736**.836**.729**.563**.905**.905**

Table 3. Internal belief correlations
Within this same aspect, we denote how the average values of these items tend to personal
identification with the group of people with disabilities (Table 4), although they are not very
high for example, in this case, item 10 -- I have a strong sense of belonging to people withdisabilities-- shows the lowest value (M= 2.45).
8. I adopt
7. I identify the
10. I have a
12. Iwith thefundamental
strong sense 11. I am
consider mycommunity values of the 9. I identify of belonging proud to be disability toof people
disability
myself as a to people
a personbe awithculture as
person with with
with afundamental
disabilities my own
a disability disabilities disability
part of me
N.Valid
78
78
78
78
78
78
M
2.83
2.63
2.71
2.45
2.59
2.82
S.D.
1.263
1.239
1.250
1.180
1.232
1.225
Table 4. Mean values and standard deviation internal beliefs about disability
Regarding the anger and frustrations with the experiences of disability- we see results thatrefer to the fact that the mean of the items of this aspect is higher than 2 (Table 5).
13. If there were a "magic
15. There are somepill" that would take away 14. I wish I days when I wish I 16. I don't likemy disability without side wasn't
didn't have athinking about
effects, I would take it
disabled
disability
my disability
N. Valid
78
78
78
78
M.
2.78
2.63
2.87
2.54
S.D.
1.265
1.320
1.252
1.256
Table 5. Mean values and standard deviation internal beliefs about disability

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Once these first calculations had been developed, in an attempt to resolve the hypothesis thatwas raised, we decided to make the pertinent adjustments to find out how many people in thesample felt identified with the group of people with disabilities, following the formula of Summary positive identity (SPI) - Negative identity sum (NIS) - (Table 6).
SPI
M.
S.D.

NIS

16.1
10.82
7.37
5.08
Table 6. Positive and negative sums of disability

After calculating the SPI - NIS values, we found that 19 people (24.35%) are those who are
represented in disability (identity), having the following characteristics:
Age group
19-23 4 people
23-25 15 people

Gender17 MenAssociated disability
16 Mild intellectual
disability
2 Women
2 ASD
1 Asperger Syndrome
Table 7. Disability group characteristics

This means that 75.65% of the surveyed sample does not feel represented within the constructof disability, with values ranging between 10 and 12 below the mean that would correspondto identification as a person with a disability, giving as valid the alternative hypothesis R2.
Concerning the second of the objectives -- to know how self-determination and selfknowledge influence the conformation of the identity of people with disabilities-- we see, inthe first place, as being the maximum in the levels of Self-regulation out of 48 points, the ∑ is33.52; In the case of Self-knowledge, the maximum being 36, the ∑ is 27.5 (Table 8).
M.
S.D.

∑ Self-knowledge∑ Self-regulation
27.5
33.52
7.03
11.47
Table 8. Self-knowledge and self-regulation average scores and S.D.

At the same time, as reflected in table 9, the significant correlations (p-value = .01) between
these three aspects refer to how the three aspects influence each other.
Self-Awareness Self-Regulation Identity
Self-Awareness.683**.458**
Self-Regulation.683**.310**
Identity.458**.310**** The correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (bilateral).
Table 9. Self-Awareness, Self-Regulation, and Identity Correlations
In this regard, we wanted to know how certain variables such as gender, age, even the level ofself-knowledge and self-regulation could predict recognition as a person with a disability(objective 2). For this aim, we work with binary logistic regression. As indicated in table 10,
block 0 indicates a 75.6% probability of success in the result of the Dependent Variable (DV)when the positive identity is compared with the negative one (I + VS I -).

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I + VS I No disability identity
No disability Disability
Identity
Identity590190Disability Identity

Correct
percentage
100.0
.0

Global percentage
Table 10. I + VS I Later, with the tool of successive steps backward (Wald), we obtained significant values in
the Omnibus test of the model coefficient (Block 1). The statistical score of ROA indicatesthat there is a considerable improvement in the prediction of the probability of occurrence of
DV categories (p <.001) (Table 11).

Step 1

Step 2Chi-Square

df

Sig.

Step

86.608

4

.000

Block

86.608

4

.000

Model

86.608

4

.000

Step

-37.301a

1

.000

Block

49.307

3

.000

Model
49.3073.000
a. A negative chi-square value indicates that the chi-square value has decreased from theprevious step.
Table 11. Omnibus tests of model coefficients.
According to the Nagelkerke R squared value, we see how the first of the steps explains
100% of the changes in the variance of the dependent variable (DV). However, as we will see
later, they are not significant. According to the Wald model, they do not predict the changes
in the dependent variable. That is why the program itself records another step that indicatesthat the proposed model explains 69% of the variance of DV (.69) (Table 12). As we see inTable 13, it is significant in all the model variables.
Cox and Snell R
Step

2log likelihood

squaredNagelkerke R squared

1

.000a

.671

1.000

2
37.301b.469.699
a. The estimation has ended at iteration number 20 because the maximum number of
iterations has been reached. The final solution cannot be found.
b. The estimate has ended at iteration number 8 because the parameter estimates havechanged by less than .001.
Table 12. Model Summary

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Step 1 How do you define
yourself?
What is your age group?
∑ Self-regulation∑ Self-knowledge
Constant
Step 2 What is your age group?

Official Conference Proceedingsβ-365.800

Standarderror
Wald27753.888 .000

395.727 6605.931 .004
-25.555
425.262 .004
89.3661492.149 .004
-2876.134 55520.295 .003
4.016
1.428
7.907

df Sig.
1 .989Exp(β)
.000

1
1
1
1
1

7.277E+171.000
6.476E+38.000
55.495

.952
.952
.952
.959
.005

∑ Self-regulation
-.239
.098
5.997 1 .014 .788
∑ Self-knowledge
.641
.197
10.627 1 .001 1.898
Constant-26.937
7.975
11.408 1 .001 .000
a. Variables specified in step 1: How do you define yourself?, What is your age group?, Sum
Self-regulation, Sum Self-knowledge.
Table 13. Variables in the equation
Among the variables that most significantly predict (p-value = .05) identity development as aperson with a disability, age stands out, which shows that as age increases, there is 55.49
times more probability of identifying with the disability, followed by the sum of selfknowledge that increases by 1.89 times and the sum of self-regulation by 0.78 times, making
these in the case of the sample the three predictive variables of identity development. At thesame time, for the logistic regression proposed, classification table 14 indicates an 89.7%
probability of success in the DV result when we know these same variables that we havecome to call predictors.

Observed
I + VS I -No disability Identity
Disability Identity

Predicted
I + VS I No disability
Identity
59
0

Global percentage
I + VS I No disability Identity 55
Disability Identity
4
Global percentage
Table 14. Classification

Disability
Identity019
415

Correct
percentage
100.0
100.0
100.0
93.2
78.9
89.7

Discussion
As stated in the initial hypothesis, the results indicate that people with disabilities who haveparticipated in this research experience confusion regarding their identity, that is, on the one
hand, they identify with a group of people with specific disabilities; however, on the other
hand, we find 75.65% of the participants who do not identify as a person with a disability. In
this sense, we agree with the research by Chalk (2016) and Chalk, Barlett, and Barlett (2020),
in which respectively 96.5% (n = 1258) and 68.7% (n = 358) of people with disabilities do
not self-identify with the diagnosis.

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The identity of the disability, as a multi-dimensional construct, includes external and internal
factors in which the experience and personal thoughts about the disability shape the identityof the disability (Forber-Pratt et al., 2020). We find a public dimension -- social recognition-and a private dimension -- denial and frustration-- of the identity of the disability, since to alarge extent, the participants notice frustration when they think about their disability. They do
not identify personally with the group of people with disabilities. People will build theiridentity by "searching for an individual identity and searching for a collective identity"(Morales et al., 1996, p. 40). This complex and confusing process will produce a conflict
between self-recognition, and heterorecognition (Melucci, 1996), characterized in that
individuals perceive common traits with a group or collective with which they identify but at
the same time show a particular feeling of difference from them. The positive affirmation of
disability is associated with a sense of belonging and connection with a group of people withwhom spaces and experiences are shared (Hahn & Belt, 2004).
The analyses show us how identity, as a multi-faceted construct linked to personal, social,historical, and political dimensions (Forber-Pratt & Zape, 2017), should be approached under
the term identities since the participants have shown at least one identity public and otherprivate. In this sense, we agree with the results obtained by Forber-Pratt et al. (2020) when
they identify "internal beliefs about own disability and the disability community" and "anger
and frustration with disability experiences" as two of the critical factors in the construction of
the disability identity.
A positive correlation appears between identifying with people with disabilities and age, selfknowledge, and self-regulation concerning the second objective. In this regard, we must
consider that people with disabilities identify with a disability as a consequence of (1)perceiving that they have a disability, (2) experiencing externally imposed restrictions, and(3) self-identify as people with disabilities (Oliver, 2018). In this sense, and as some research
indicates (Caldwell, 2011; Darling & Heckert, 2010) for many people, self-identification as aperson with a disability is a positive fact related to high self-esteem and pride (NarioRedmond, Noel & Fern, 2013). In a particular way, and this is indicated by the work carriedout by Darling and Heckert (2010), there is a heightened feeling of pride among the
population between the ages of 18 and 35. This perception decreases as age increases.
Regarding the trinomial of age, self-knowledge, and self-regulation, it is vital to consider thatage as an inherent dimension of experience will increase self-knowledge, in the same way, assome studies indicate, a better capacity for self-regulation has a positive impact on thedevelopment of self-perception (Jones, 2012; Nader-Grosbois, 2014), and therefore willcontribute to increasing self-esteem. The inclusion of a self-description as a person withdisabilities will lead to diminished self-esteem (Moon & Kim, 2021) at younger ages.
Limitations
This study has limitations that should be considered. In the first place, the sample ofparticipants is not large enough, which means that the findings cannot be generalized; in thesame way, it is relevant to consider information provided by families for future research andconsider what dimensions contribute to generating the perception of difference. This study
was meant to be replicated in the northeastern United States, but could not proceed becauseof legal restrictions in the United States pertaining to human subjects research involving
participants under the age of 18. Attention to the social construction of identity in people withdisabilities is critical because as Forber-Pratt, Lyew, Mueller, and Samples (2017) state, amore complete and larger-scale study of the development of a disability identity is necessary.

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Conclusion
After all that has been indicated so far, it is revealing that many participants show a public
identity --of recognition -- and a private one -- of rejection -- towards identifying themselves
as a person with a disability. In this regard, we must consider that social, educational, andschool contexts contribute to the creation and maintenance of an identity of difference that isbuilt through a cognitive (thought), affective (feelings), and attitudinal (acts and behaviors)
process (González, 2018). In other words, the identity of the disability, as a construct linked
to the identity of difference, has been constructed and is maintained under discourses ofpower (Mañas, 2020) of a social, school, economic, educational, political nature, both
implicit and explicit, they configure at the macro-social – citizenship -- and micro-social -people diagnosed with disabilities -- a discourse of disability and a perception of it, andtherefore contribute to a multi-faceted and complex use of the concept of identity.

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Contact email: jeanettelandin@landmark.edu
blas@uma.es
moises@uma.es

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Comparative Policy Design Analysis: An Integrated Approach for Unpacking
the Education Policies of Finland, Singapore, and Australia
Phuntsho Wangdi, School of Public Policy– Chiang Mai University, Thailand
Piyapong Boossabong, School of Public Policy– Chiang Mai University, Thailand
The Southeast Asian Conference on Education 2023
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Abstract
In complementary to framing comparative policy analysis by policy cycle and policy subsystems approaches, this article aims to articulate the policy design perspectives tocomparative policy studies. We argue that comparing policy causations, policy instruments,
policy interventions, and evaluation strategies across countries from different comparative
angles helps to redefine the commonalities and differences that go beyond linear and multilayered perspectives. By using the cases of the education policies of Finland, Singapore, andAustralia, this article illustrates that different designs started from different
conceptualisations of causations concerning the perceptions of education problems andappropriate solutions. This entry point stimulates each country to design policy goals,
instruments, interventions, and evaluations. Finland has developed an equity-based education
policy, while Singapore’s education is merit-based, emphasising ranking systems andcompetition. Australia has embarked upon a market-based education policy to suit the neoliberal conditions of the market economy. These divergences from the implication of thecomparative policy design analysis framework can contribute to a better understanding of thepolicy domain by moving from ideation to action and learning within and across countries.
Keywords: Policy Design, Comparative Policy Analysis, Policy Instruments, Policy
Intervention

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Introduction
The policy design approaches commenced in the 1970s as a response to the bureaucratic
failures of policy implementation (Lowi, 1972). It is framed as developing solutions througha complex process of technical knowledge within the contextual realities by engaging
multidisciplinary and multi-layered approaches (Linders and Peters, 1984). The function ofpolicy design also goes beyond identifying and analysing problems to proposing solutions
and building institutions, shaping beliefs and behaviours, facilitating progressive coalitions
and improving social conditions. Welfare economics, public choices, governance machinery,
democratic approaches, and developmental philosophies are considered when proposing
policy alternatives since the dynamics of policy feasibility, legality, credibility, andsustainability depend on those factors (Stone, 2001). Hence, the policy design processestablishes the legitimacy and efficacy of interplay among the legislative, bureaucratic, anddemocratic dimensions (Ingraham, 1987).
However, the success of a policy design is hinged upon the universal acceptance of the
stakeholders in meeting the common policy goals. Therefore, the policy design approachneeds a holistic perspective on the causal relationships behind its successes and failures since
its formulation processes and the designs themselves significantly influence implementation
outcomes. Recognising the novelty of policy formulation and its design approaches, the studyof policy design has gained momentum in recent times. It is further explored to improve from
non-design and less design to more design (Peters, 2018). The work is now probing into an
integrated, democratic, and holistic approach to enable a systematic and comprehensive
policy, thereby gaining impetus as a pathway to the new era of policy studies (Howlett, 2014,
Peters, 2015).
This paper discusses the potential for a comprehensive policy design approach byunderpinning the theoretical framework of policy design and comparative policy analysis andproposing a Comparative Policy Design Analysis (CPDA) Framework. The proposed CPDA
framework is then used to unpack the education policies of Finland, Singapore and Australia
by primarily looking at the commonalities and differences.
Literature Review
The approaches of policy design and comparative policy analysis are usually adopted
separately to understand policy domains although it is promoted mainly by the same
epistemic communities. Peters and Fontaine's (2020, 2022) work attempt to advance bothfields of policy design and comparative policy analysis approach but still prefers to take themapart to shed their light. Along the same line, many studies focus on comparing policy
designs or the design process of comparative policy analysis. Still, the discussions of thepotential of their articulation in terms of theoretical advancements are limited (e.g.,
Fernández, Knill and Steinebach, 2021). Most works propose transferring policy tools acrosscountries, which is only one dimension of policy design and comparative policy analysis(e.g., Margetts and Hood, 2016). The attempt of Howlett and Mukherjee (2018) seems to be
progressive as they attempt to make a comprehensive and systematic review of comparative
policy analysis that contributes to policy design. However, they do not provide a conceptual
framework for the articulation within their scope of work.
The comparative policy analysis approach is considered a set of methods rather than atheoretical concept (Brans, Geva-May, and Howlett, 2017; Howlett and Mukherjee, 2019;

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Lodge, 2007). The focus is on the state-of-the-art knowledge about the science, art and craftof policy analysis in different countries, to varying levels of government and by all relevant
actors in and outside government who contribute to the analysis of problems and the searchfor policy solutions (Brans, Geva-May, and Howlett, 2017). Thus, the emphasis of thecomparative policy analysis approach is also on fostering policy change through anunderstanding of policy transfer, diffusion, and learning (Hadjiisky, Pal, and Christopher,
2017; Peters and Fontaine, 2020). It does not cover the structural and institutional analysis byconsidering time and place.
Therefore, there is a scope to bridge the policy design and comparative policy analysis lens toenable a comprehensive and systematic approach. Thus, this study aims to articulate policy
design to comparative policy analysis by attempting to propose the analytical framework
called ‘Comparative Policy Design Analysis’ (CPDA) and illustrate the benefit of its
implication by using the case of the education policy as this policy sector requires careful
policy design.
Among different conceptualisations of policy design, Guy Peters’ (2018) perspectives areused in the proposed CPDA framework since his lens comprehensively covers key focuses ofpolicy design. Attuned to his theoretical underpinning, the policy design framework adopted
here encompasses problem causation, instrumentation, intervention, and evaluation (Peters,
2018). Causation is when problems are identified, and their solutions are figured out.
Instrumentation and intervention are then about selecting policy instruments and placing
them in real-world practice. The evaluation strategy reflects on whether the design process ismoving in the right direction to address the problems (Peters, 2018).
On the other spectrum, the theoretical points, including the discussion on structure versus
agency, the role of context and the problem of time, and policy change, are adapted (Petersand Fontaine, 2020). The discussion on structure versus agency is related to enduring debates
between methodological individualism, favouring behavioural and rational choice theories,
and neo-institutionalism, arguing for structural determination (Lodge, 2007). The role ofcontext and the time problem are mainly related to the conflicts between and within-casecomparative studies.
Thus, the proposed comparative policy design analysis (CPDA) approach is combined withthe policy design approach since it would foster universal policy transfer and stimulatecontextual considerations of policy adoption.

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CPA/

Structure and agency

Policy design

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The role of context and the problem of time
Policy change(Critical times, specific places and governmental (Policy transfer, diffusion and learning)• Source:levels) Peters (2018) and Peters and Fontaine (2020)

Causations

Policy problems and solutions/ goals determined Policy problems and solutions/ goals
from structure and agency conditions
consideration of times and places/levels

Policyinstruments

Instruments aiming to address structure and Instruments
chosenagency conditions
considerations

fromchosencontextual Instrumentsinternational experiencesbyconsidering

Policyinterventions

Interventions aiming to address structure and Interventions
agency conditions
considerations

fromchosencontextual Interventions
international experiencesbyconsidering

Evaluation
strategies

Evaluation criteria and methods that are sensitive Evaluation criteria and methods that are Evaluation criteria and methods that are
to structural and institutional changes
sensitive totransferred from international standards
Pcontextual changes

chosenin Policy problems and solutions/ goals framed
by international experiences

Source: Peters (2018) and Peters and Fontaine (2020)

Table 1: CPDA Framework. Developed by authors.
Why the education policies of Finland, Singapore, and Australia?
The education policies of Finland, Singapore, and Australia are chosen for this study as they
have a clear way of policy design moving from problems to solutions. Although Finland,
Singapore and Australia differ in terms of their historical, geographical, cultural andeconomic characteristics, they have taken a similar approach to education reforms recently
which makes the cases relevant. Those nations are also assessed by the OECD through theProgramme for International Student Assessment (PISA) ranking systems which creates
similar policy platforms for more focused comparisons (Kauko and Diogo, 2011).
The education policies of Finland, Singapore and Australia are also known for their ability todeliver educational services that have earned a reputation for being dynamic in meeting theirlocal needs while performing well in the global educational rankings. While each country has
different policy approaches that are suited for their contexts, those systems do sharecommonalities that resonate as a progressive policy paradigm to benefit the respective
country’s socio-economic developments. With their progressive education development,
there is a scope to learn from and across them.
Methodology
A qualitative documentary analysis approach is primarily adopted as the main method for thisstudy. The literature comprising of the education policies, acts, rules and regulations andguidelines of Finland, Singapore and Australia spanning over six decades from 1961 to 2022
were gathered mostly from open sources. Predominantly, the documents are extracted from
Finland, Singapore and Australia’s Ministry of Education’s official websites.
The proposed Comparative Policy Design Analysis framework was used for analysis by
mapping out a matrix through the adaptation of Guy Peters’ policy design and Peters andFontaine’s comparative policy analysis approaches. The vertical considerations included

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causations, policy instruments, policy interventions, and evaluation strategies as criticalpolicy design angles. The horizontal considerations covered structure and agency, time andplace, policy transfer, diffusion and learning as key angles of comparative policy analysis(Gidden, 1984). The framework considered 12 boxes derived from the convergence of twolenses. In the causation angle, for example, the framework is guided to consider how
problems and solutions/ goals are determined from structure and agency conditions, how they
are considered in relation to time and place, and how international experiences frame them.
The proposed ‘Comparative Policy Design Analysis’ (CPDA) framework was thus, used to
identify the commonalities and differences in the education policies of Finland, Singapore
and Australia.
Findings and Discussions
Commonalities of policy approaches in Finland, Singapore and Australia
For the commonalities identified by the CPDA framework, the success of education from a
policy perspective involves a host of factors across the branches of policy actors,
stakeholders, and citizens from different policy design angles. Although Finland, Singapore
and Australia are different countries in their size, culture, and political and socio-economic
contexts, the education policies of those countries share certain commonalities.
The first one is the goal of education built on the design of sound education acts and policies.
A system built without a legal and credible stronghold is bound to fail in the planning andexecution of policies. Hence, the education policies and acts of Finland, Singapore andAustralia have not only guided to steer the educational landscape but also been adaptive toseveral reforms to suit the emerging national and global interests.
The second common characteristic of the Finnish, Singapore and Australian education
systems is an aspiration for the right to high-quality education for the citizens by creating
conditions for children to avail rigorous, relevant, and engaging learning programs that
address their cognitive, affective, and physical, social, and aesthetic needs, regardless of theirbackground or location.
The third common point between Finland, Singapore and Australia is a complementary
approach to supporting education through economy and spending as the main policy
instrument. The educational policies cost a significant amount of money on training,financing, and administration, and without some level of economic stability, implementing
these policies becomes unfeasible.
The fourth common point between them is the structural integrity of the education system. As
governments overhaul their economic strategies in the face of unprecedented challenges
which are further exacerbated by technological changes, maintaining a meaningful andrelevant education system is required to foster an inclusive and sustainable development ofall (OECD, 2019). Although the three countries have vastly different positions on basic
education, a large part of the reason these countries can succeed is the internal consistency of
their education policies. Finland’s education system is based mainly on self-learning and trustin the agents within the system while Singapore believes in a guided approach throughrigorous performance management systems. Australia is targeting on internationalisation of

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its education by making it one of the crucial components of the economy (Marks, McMillan
and Ainley, 2004).
The fifth area of comparison that Finland, Singapore, and Australia have in common is theintervention at the agency level, which is the investment in training their teachers. Aside fromhaving a stringent selection process, these countries engage their teachers in rigorous training
schemes and help their trainee teachers to develop classroom competencies through work
attachments as well. Aside from that, extensive lessons on pedagogy, which are notcommonplace worldwide, are mandatory for prospective teachers. This means that thesecountries treat teaching as a serious enough profession to have prospective teachers go
through courses that pertain specifically to teaching. The talent pool from which teachers are
drawn is also quite strong, with almost all teachers coming from the top quarter of academic
performers in their cohort. This means that the people supposed to guide students to academic
excellence have also achieved it themselves.
The sixth common denominator is the consideration of policy diffusion and learning from theinternational level, especially the participation in global ranking systems such as theProgramme for International Student Assessment (PISA) which projects them as one of the
top educational-performing countries globally (Ustun and Eryilmaz, 2018). The PISA data
threw light into the profile of the student’s achievements in a way that enabled directcomparison to other PISA participating nations. Disappointing student achievement data has
been used as an instigation for education reformations and transformations (ACER, 2016).
Similar to the previous point, the seventh common area where the education policies ofFinland, Singapore and Australia meet is a focus on the diffusion and learning of global
policy advocacy on the 21st century competency-based learning as an approach with emphasison the student’s demonstration of desired learning outcomes as central to the learning
process. It is concerned chiefly with a student’s progression through curriculum mastery andskills mastery.
The eighth area of commonalities is the influence of an inclusive policy design perspective,
as can be seen from the encouragement to support students from diverse linguistic andcultural backgrounds. In Australia, the regulatory policies include both language-specificcurricula and frameworks for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander languages and classicallanguages. Plurilingualism is a distinctive feature of the Finnish education system, regarded
as key to the personal and professional development of individuals and perceived as one of
the competitive advantages in students’ international performance. A summary of thecountry’s longstanding approach to curriculum design in this field concludes that the official
language policy aims at maintaining and cultivating as many foreign languages as possiblefor individual cultural richness and to increase national linguistic capital. In Singapore,
although English is the primary medium of instruction, some schools have programmes forteaching languages to migrant populations (Wong and Turner, 2014).
Differences in policy approaches in Finland, Singapore and Australia
The CPDA framework facilitated the identification of the unique characteristics of eachcountry depending on contextual issues and challenges faced by their education systems asfollows:

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Equity-based educational policy in Finland
The successes of Finnish education start from the causation angle of policy design that the
government makes a very clear educational philosophy that underlines education policy
goals.
Promoting equity, equality and the well-being of children is a crucial pillar of education here.
The country has one of the narrowest gaps in achievement between its highest and lowestperforming schools, and continuing efforts are being made to reduce differences andinequities between schools. Finnish education is grounded on all-around classroom
experience and the development of students into good humans with an equal focus on arts,
play and ethics. Finnish schools are founded on promoting the total well-being of children,
requiring by law that each school provide free food, access to health care, and on-sitecounselling and guidance. Every school must have a welfare team to advance child happinessin school, creating a safe, healthy environment conducive to learning. Outdoor, practicallearning opportunities and health-related physical activity sessions are regular features(Rajala and Lipponen, 2018).
One of the innovations in Finnish education policy is developing a trust-based system thatlargely avoids monitoring, testing and inspections, though extensive evaluations occur.
Instead, resources are diverted to teaching innovations in Finland. An active Ombudsman forChildren represents and consults children and youth councils to advance the cause forchildren. Since 2016 children are roped into periodical surveys to identify the policy gaps
and the results of the study are then incorporated into legislation and decision-making. The
Finnish system has remarkable consistency across schools, and there is little variation
between students from low and high socio-economic areas (Sahlberg and Hargreaves, 2011).
Finland’s high equity in education opportunities seems to share a strong link with areallocation of teaching resources toward weaker students, as well as a diverse curriculum toencourage skill development and personal growth.
Merit-based educational policy in Singapore
Singaporean policy interventions are based mainly on a pragmatic orientation. With such a
policy style, the education policies of Singapore are mostly implementable and impactful.
The country declared after its independence in 1966 that the goal for education is to rear ageneration that has all the qualities needed to lead and inspire the people and the drive to
make it succeed. Singapore’s philosophy was to build a highly stratified society with sharedvalues. With a changing economic landscape that shifted towards a knowledge-based
economy, rapid population growth in the 1980s and immigrant influx since the early 2000s,
the policy has changed from stratification to competition. Singapore has a highly structured
system of education with a centrally designed curriculum and provision of constant coachingand evaluation of teachers and students. Competition and competency criteria are the basis
for career progression in Singapore. Singapore has a streaming system, and now subject
matter banding system introduced to reduce the high drop-out rates from the system. Thesefeatures of the Singaporean model point toward a highly competitive system that showcase
the principles of new public management (Tan and Tee Ng, 2007).
Singapore is known for its exemplary education system, but it is equally known for its
competitive nature. It can be argued that Singapore has “embraced the goal of achieving new
economic competencies dealing with creativity and innovation while clinging to high-stakes

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testing as the prime yardstick of meritocracy” (Reyes & Gopinathan, 2015, p. 152). Thus,
Singapore has accumulated rich economic and human capital to project it as one of theworld’s most competitive nations (Garelli, 2007).
Market-based educational policy of Australia
The Australian education system emphasises cultivating a strong work ethic and sense of
responsibility from an early age. This includes emphasising discipline, hard work andefficiency in their studies. Buchanan and McPherson (2011) elucidate that the Melbourne
Declaration signed in 2008 by Australia’s state and federal education ministers is aimed atachieving the goals of equity and excellence with a recurring emphasis on economic,
educational, and technological advancements. This infers that that declaration is underpinnedby the human capital theory targeted at economic reform and achieving higher productivity
and participation in the global knowledge economy. Thus, Australian education policies aredesigned in consonance with neo-liberalism that shapes the global regime.
Australia has adopted an approach that encourages individuals to get as much out of theirexperience instead of the pressure and expectation of results the Asian education systemtends to value. Hence, several pathway programs to higher education for domestic andinternational students are offered. Additionally, to prepare appropriately to adjust to the Australianeducation system, foundation studies and English language preparation programs are offered tointernational students. There are over 1100 institutions, 22000 courses and 440,129 international
students enrolled in the nation's universities and vocational institutions. Notwithstanding a
15% drop from 2021, international education, valued at $18.8 billion, is Australia’s thirdlargest export making it a leading global education provider. Thus, Australia emphasises the
economic value of education based on preparing students to be work and future-ready(Australian Government, 2010, 2022).
Conclusion
The proposed Comparative Policy Design Analysis (CPDA) framework showcases thepotential for the articulation of the policy design and comparative policy analysis approaches
in a singular frame and features their supplementary and complementary roles from specificcontexts to across contexts. It can be highlighted that with the adoption of the CPDA
framework, we can capture how the principal policy approaches undertaken by Finland,
Singapore, and Australia are different by digging deeper into their different designs fromdifferent comparative angles. With vertical and horizontal perspectives, they can also makeus simplify complex sets of real-world conditions. The articulation of policy design andcomparative policy analysis through the CPDA framework is thus productive in helping us
explore real-world policy both deeper and wider.
The framework reinforces that each country has different approaches to their ideas ofeducation systems and adopted policies and practices that are suited to its context. Finlandconsiders the child's needs first and then plans its education policies. Its holistic education
model has led to remarkable results in child well-being, educational attainment and economic
competitiveness that serve its students, communities, and country. Singapore has taken a topdown approach and societal needs into account. Its emphasis on merit-based education with ahigh focus on command-and-control mechanisms with strategised evaluation and monitoring
systems has catapulted the island nation from the third world to the first world status in justover sixty decades. Australia manoeuvres its education policies to suit market trends. Its

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educational diversification and pathways programmes and supported by work-right policies
have made education an essential component of its economy. The approaches adopted bythese countries indicate that there is no one size fits all policy design.
However, moving to the limitations of the implication of the CPDA framework - it is hard todeny that the analysis from a matrix perspective can make us lose the intersections amongboxes. For example, policy instruments and interventions are interconnected. Separating theminto different boxes reduces our understanding of their connection. Moreover, the analysis of
structure and agency, for instance, are not themselves at either the horizontal level or thevertical one. Within their simple classification, there is a risk to neglect something inbetween and the interactions between structure and agency. The analysis provides how theeducation policies of each country are designed to address structural problems andinstitutional constraints but does not necessarily cover how structural and institutional
conditions are interrelated.
There are also caveats that need to be considered regarding generalising this study’s findings.
Although the analysed articles provide relevant studies and interesting findings from which
pertinent conclusions may be drawn, the article has limitations to the understanding of thenuances of policy design’s impact on the outcomes of education policies. Notwithstanding
these caveats, it is believed that the theoretical framework and the analytical synthesispresented in this article can be used as a starting point for other studies.
Acknowledgements
I would like to acknowledge the following for their valuable contributions to my work:
1. Piyapong Boossabong, Assistant Director, School of Public Policy, Chiang Mai
University for his valuable support and insights during the study.
2. Ora-Orn Poocharoen. Director, School of Public Policy, Chiang Mai University forher comments and feedback.
3. Lakchayaporn Thansiri, Degree Program Officer, School of Public Policy, Chiang
Mai University for her administrative and logistics support.
4. Kezang Yangden, Dhendup Norbu Wangdi and Trashi Yangzom Wangdi (My family)
for bearing with me and for their patience at home.
5. All my personal and professional friends for their consistent guidance and support in
my endeavours.

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Ustun, U., & Eryilmaz, A., (2018). Analysis of Finnish education system to question thereasons behind Finnish success in PISA. Studies in Educational Research andDevelopment. 2(2), pp.93-114.
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A Comparative Analysis of the Self-Perceived and Actual Grammatical Competence inEnglish of Filipino Grade 12 Students in Metro Manila

Maria Rhodora S. Salazar, Enderun Colleges, Philippines

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Abstract
Is there a difference between a person’s self-perceived and actual grammatical competence inEnglish? This descriptive study uses a quantitative approach to compare the levels of selfperceived and actual grammatical competence in English of Filipino Grade 12 students in
Metro Manila according to sex, income class, type of school attended, foreign travel
experience, movie preference, and the use of English at home. A survey questionnaire wasadministered to 185 respondents to elicit their self-reported level of grammatical competence
in English. Then, the same respondents were asked to answer the Test of English forInternational Communication (TOEIC) to assess their actual level of grammaticalcompetence in English. The data were analyzed in relation to the concepts of Canale andSwain’s Communicative Competence and Martin’s Circles within Circle. Results showed thatthe respondents see themselves as having more skill than they actually possess whichsuggests that confidence in one’s ability in using a language is a positive element in building
communication skills. As the Philippines finds itself lagging behind with the dismal
performance of Filipinos in international assessment tests, it is hoped that the relevant
findings of this study will help educators and policy makers infer “teaching-learning
effectiveness” and to provide impetus towards the further development of the English
grammatical competence in the Philippines.

Keywords: Grammatical Competence, Self-Perceived, TOEIC

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Introduction
Out of about 7.8 billion people in the world, almost 1.5 billion speak English (Statista, 2022).
It is used as the working language of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)
and other international organizations, as well as in international conferences (Pochhacker,
1994, p. 154; Basel, 2002, pp. 16-19; Neff, 2007; cited in Albl-Mikasa, 2010), international
business, mass media, entertainment industry, communication platforms, and the social
media.
In the Philippines, the United States introduced English to us in 1898 (Bernardo, 2009). Since
then, English has become one of our official languages and the medium of instruction in bothprivate and public schools nationwide. In the 1960s, the Philippine educational system wasviewed as one of the most developed in Asia (Cardozier, 1984; Lande, 1965; Swinerton,
1991; cited in Maca & Morris, 2012). In 2012, GlobalEnglish Corporation named thePhilippines as the world’s best country in business English proficiency, even beating theUnited States (Mendoza, 2012), and in 2022, the Philippines was ranked 22nd worldwide in
the English Proficiency Index and was ranked second in Asia, next only to Singapore(Yraola, 2022).
Nevertheless, there is an increasing perception that the Filipino’s competence in the use ofEnglish is deteriorating. The 2018 results of the Programme for International Student
Assessment (PISA) showed that among 79 participating countries, the Philippines was ranked
last in reading and second last in both math and science (Mateo, 2019). Also in 2018,
Hopkins International Partners, Inc. reported that the English proficiency level of college
graduates in the Philippines is lower than the proficiency target for high school students in
Thailand, as well as the competency requirements for taxi drivers in Dubai (Morallo, 2018).
This alarming state of English proficiency of Filipinos happened despite the restructuring of
the Philippines’ basic educational system through the K to 12 program of the Department of
Education with the goal of giving every student quality education that is globally competitive.
The dismal results of PISA and other international assessment tests indicated that our
educational system still falls short of being globally competitive.
It is important to know the current level of actual grammatical or linguistic competence ofFilipino Grade 12 students because the results could provide impetus to infer teachinglearning effectiveness even though teaching effectiveness is not at all clearly observablebehavior in my study. According to some studies, self-perception reports are not very useful
if the researcher wants to know how competent a person actually is because the person very
likely does not know (McCroskey & McCroskey, 1984). Therefore, objective proficiency
tests such as the Test of English for International Communication (TOEIC) should be
administered to assess a person’s actual grammatical competence in a language.
The 2007 study conducted by the University of the Philippines College of Mass
Communication (UP-CMC-Communication Research Department) yielded significant results
relevant to my study: 1) that respondents consider themselves most competent in listening;and 2) that the higher the respondent’s socio-economic status, the higher their perceived
competence in communicating. Moreover, other studies showed that there is a significant
relationship between socio-economic status and communicative competence (Sibayan and
Gonzalez, 1996; Tupas, 2001; and Martin, 2014). Tupas (2001) noted that “those who attainnear-native competence in the language because of excellent education belong to top five
percent of the population and usually come from Metro Manila and other urban centers of the

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country” (p.15). Tupas (2004) also argued that although Philippine English signifies thecultural and sociolinguistic signs of the entire country, scholars have generally reserved it
only to the educated few (p.49).
Although grammatical competence is just one component of communicative competence(Canale & Swain, 1983), some studies revealed that grammatical competence is the mostimportant aspect in communicative competence. Hinkel (2004) argues that in teaching
English as a Foreign Language (EFL) or English as a Second Language (ESL), theknowledge of grammar prescriptions or standard grammar rules is one of the top necessities
for instructors. Hinkel (2004) also contends that for reasonable purposes, grammar teachingneeds to address the standard rules of syntactic developments to empower students to prevailin education, career, or other social settings where formal use of prescriptive sentence
structure is regularly preferred. Other studies pointed out that gender differences indicate therespondents’ attitude toward second language teaching (Baker & MacIntyre, 2003); and that
objective measures are required by which one may assess the competence of a person in one
or more languages by a common standard (Lehmann, 2007). Consequently, Hodgson (2014)
used a mixed method of qualitative questionnaire and proficiency assessment results of the
Test of English for International Communication (TOEIC) to investigate the degree to which
native speaker models of communicative competence affect the linguistic self-confidence.
My study builds on the models of Canale & Swain and Martin’s Circles within Circle.
According to Canale & Swain (1980), grammatical competence includes the knowledge oflexical items and rules of morphology, syntax, sentence-grammar semantics, and phonology.
In other words, a person with grammatical competence knows what words to use and how to
put them into phrases and sentences.
I. P. Martin (2014) reexamined the Three Circles Model of Braj Kachru in the context of thePhilippines to better capture the linguistic realities of Outer Circle speakers of English (SeeFigure 1). Philippine English, an Outer Circle country can be thought of as a circle with many
circles. Filipinos in the Inner Philippine English Circle have embraced the English language
and actively promote it. Filipinos in the Outer Philippine English Circle know that Philippine
variety exists but fall short of promoting it. Filipinos in the Expanding Philippine English
Circle see that English is irrelevant.

Figure 1. I. P. Martin’s Circles within Circle Model
In my operational model, the Filipinos in the Inner Circle or English Elite have high family
income, use English at home, attend top private schools, have foreign travel experience,
prefer watching English movies, and are the most competent and most comfortable in

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communicating in English. Those in the Outer Circle or English Aware have average level ofgrammatical competence in English while those in the Expanding Circle or the English
Irrelevant have the lowest level of grammatical competence and least comfortable incommunicating in English (See Figure 2).

Figure 2. Operational Model integrating Canale & Swain’s Grammatical Competence
and I. P. Martin’s Circles within Circle
Drawing from the concepts of Canale & Swain and I. P. Martin, my study aims to answer thefollowing fundamental question: How do the levels of self-perceived and actual grammaticalcompetence in English of Filipino Grade 12 students in Metro Manila differ: 1) between maleand female respondents; 2) among respondents from low, middle, and high socio-economic
strata; 3) between respondents studying in private schools and those studying in publicschools; 4) between respondents with foreign travel experience and those without foreign
travel experience; 5) between respondents who prefer to watch Filipino movies rather thanwatch English movies; and 6) between respondents who speak English at home and those
who do not.
This study aims to achieve the following objective: To compare the levels of self-perceived
and actual grammatical competence in English of Filipino Grade 12 students in Metro Manila
according to sex, income class, type of school attended, movie preference, foreign travel
experience, and the use of English at home.
This descriptive study used a quantitative approach to elicit the answer to the researchquestion. A survey was conducted to determine the level of self-perceived grammaticalcompetence in English of 185 Filipino Grade 12 students in Metro Manila. TOEIC listening,speaking, reading, and writing tests were administered to the same respondents to determine
the actual grammatical competence in English. Then, the results of the survey and TOEIC
tests were compared and analyzed. I used criterion sampling because I had to set the criteria

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and select all cases that meet those criteria (e.g., students who speak English at home andthose with high family income). To determine if the scores in the long version of the TOEIC
instruments are significantly different from the scores in the abridged version based on asample of three subjects, the Fisher sign test was used. The Fisher sign test yielded a test
statistic value of B = 1 for the listening part and B = 0 for the reading part with p-values of
1.0 and 0.25 respectively which were not significant at the 0.05 level. This result indicatedthere was no sufficient evidence to say that the scores from the two versions of the test
significantly vary at the 0.05 level of significance.
Results and Discussion
The age of the respondents ranged from 15 to 21 years old, but a majority of the respondents
were 16-18. There were more male than female respondents. Most of the respondents
reported having average monthly family income of at most P50,000. However, it may bepresumed for the private high schools that their monthly family income would be more thanP50,000 given that the respondents were chosen based on the characteristics for this study.
About 54% of the respondents came from one public school while 46% came from threeprivate schools. Around 70% preferred watching both English and Filipino movies while only
24% preferred watching English movies only. Almost 23% had visited at least one foreigncountry, and only 2% reported using pure English at home.
The table below shows the levels of self-perceived grammatical competence of the
respondents. Respondents felt most competent in listening to English conversations, but least
competent in responding to different English accents orally because the approach in teaching
English in the Philippines is focused more on grammar rather than oral communication.
Overall, the respondents felt more competent in listening (4.076), followed by reading(4.016), then writing (3.7295), and finally speaking (3.373) (See Table 1).
Table 1. Mean Scores of Self-Perceived Grammatical Competence
Item/Situation

Skill

Mean Score Average Mean

4.1 Read English materials

Reading

4.016

4.016

4.2 Write essays in English

Writing

3.735

3.7295

4.3 Write reports in English

Writing

3.724

4.6 Listen to English conversation

Listening

4.076

4.076

4.4 Explain orally in English

Speaking

3.254

3.373

4.5 Reason orally in English

3.222

4.7 Respond to different English accents orally

3.189

4.8 Answer English questions orally

3.827

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Table 2 shows the summary of the levels of self-perceived grammatical competence inEnglish. The level of scores was identified using the scoring system below:
Level
Low
Average
High

Total Score Range
Less than 60%
60% to 80%
More than 80%

According to DepEd Order No. 8, s. 2015, all grades in the K to 12 Basic Education Program
will be based on the weighted raw score of the learners’ summative assessments wherein theminimum grade needed to pass a specific learning area is 60, which is transmuted to 75 in thereport card. Therefore, I used the same policy in grading the raw score of the respondents’
self-perceived grammatical competence in English.
Table 2 below shows that only 24% of the respondents have low scores in communication
skills such as reading, speaking, listening, and writing while 37% and 39% have average andhigh scores respectively. This shows that more respondents perceive themselves to haveaverage to high grammatical competence in English.
Table 2. Summary of the Levels of Self-Perceived Grammatical Competence
Level

Number of Respondents

Percentage

Low

45

24

Average

68

37

High

72

39

Total

185

100

However, Table 3 shows that more than half of the respondents had low actual scores inspeaking (67%) and writing (69%) tests, and no respondent scored high in these tests. Almost
half (48%) had average actual scores in listening, and more than half (58%) had averagescores in reading.
Table 3. Levels of TOEIC Total Scores per Skill
Level

Number of
Respondents

Percentage

Low
Average
High
Total

124
61
0
185

67%
33%
0%
100%

Low
Average
High
Total

127
58
0
185

69%
31%
0%
100%

Speaking

Writing

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Listening
Low
Average
High
Total

42
89
54
185

23%
48%
29%
100%

Low
Average
High
Total

64
108
13
185

35%
58%
7%
100%

Reading

Table 4 shows that the students’ actual English grammatical competence did not necessarily
match their self-perceived abilities. Their self-perceived scores tend to be higher than theiractual test scores. Wilcoxon signed rank test was used to compare the respondents’ selfperceived and actual grammatical competence in English.
Table 4. Self-Perceived vs. Actual Grammatical Competence
Statistic

Actual

Self-Perceived

Average

51.956258.2801Median50.0000

58.1818

Standard Deviation

22.5215

23.1236

Wilcoxon’s W

5840

Wilcoxon p-value

0.0002 (significant difference)

A comparison of self-perceived and actual grammatical competence across various
demographic factors follows (See Table 5). Mann-Whitney U Test was used for comparing
two samples while Kruskall-Wallis Test was used for more than two samples. The results
show that females have higher mean scaled scores for both self-perceived and actual
grammatical competence. Also, those in private schools have higher mean scaled scores forboth self-perceived and actual grammatical competence. The highest scores belong to those
respondents who spoke predominantly English at home for self-perceived grammaticalcompetence but for the actual grammatical competence, language spoken at home was not asignificant factor. However, the results may be affected by the limited number of respondents
for the language used at home variable. The family’s monthly family income has a strong
association with how confident the respondents were in their ability to communicate inEnglish. The highest scores belong to respondents towards the higher income brackets.
Expectedly, the lowest average scores were observed from respondents whose families
earned below P6000 monthly. In terms of movie preference, students preferring English
movies tend to score higher in both their self-perceived and actual English grammaticalcompetence. Moreover, the more foreign countries the students visited, the higher their selfperceived and actual grammatical abilities tend to be (See Table 5).

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Table 5. Summary of Self-Perceived (SP) and Actual (A) Grammatical Competence
Across Various Demographic Factors
Sex

Type of School Attended

Male

SP

FemalePublicMovie Preference

PrivateEnglish

Mean

SD

Mean

SD

Mean

SD

Mean

SD

Mean

Mean

SD

53.44

23.60

64.23

21.18

51.64

21.76

66.10

22.34

63.39 23.82 37.92 13.98 57.61

22.78

Significance: U = 3113.5, p <0.05 Significance: U = 2653, p <0.05
A

English &Filipino

Filipino

48.20

21.30

56.57 23.24

43.10

Significance: U = 3330, p <0.05

18.29

62.38

SD

Mean

SD

Significance = Chi-square = 8.807, p <0.05

22.66

53.60 21.84

Significance: U = 2161, p <0.05

27.89 11.96 52.66

22.33

Significance: Chi-square = 8.605, p <0.05

Monthly Family Income

SP

Don’t know

Below P6000

P6001-25000

P25001-50000

P50001-100000

P100000 +

Mean

SD

Mean

SD

Mean

SD

Mean

SD

Mean

SD

Mean

SD

47.05

19.92

55.71

21.52

66.81

15.78

74.03

18.69

65.97

25.96

49.89

25.19

18.95

68.37

21.14

57.65

25.42

45.51

20.47

Significance: Chi-square = 27.242, p < 0.05
A

42.86

26.13

45.89

19.52

61.70

Significance: Chi-square = 28.010, p < 0.05

Language Spoken at Home
Filipino
Mean

SD

EnglishMean

SD

Countries Visited

English &Filipino
Mean

SD

Others
Mean

SD

None
Mean

SP 47.48 22.08 79.09 16.96 66.69 20.38 58.68 21.77 54.89

Significance: Chi-square = 31.684, p <0.05
A

47.17 22.31 63.69 15.96 55.83 22.74

50

SD

1
Mean

2-3
SD

Mean

3+
SD

Mean

SD

21.95 65.09 24.73 73.18 22.91 73.33 22.98

Significance: Chi-square = 13.841, p < 0.05
18.5 48.27

Significance: Chi-square = 6.936, p = 0.074

22.19

60.95 22.11 64.58 17.24

68.1

16.52

Significance: Chi-square 16.304, p < 0.05

Summary, Conclusion and Recommendations
Is there a difference between the self-perceived and actual grammatical competence inEnglish of Filipino Grade 12 students? The results showed that the respondents perceived
themselves highly competent in their English linguistic abilities, but actual test results
showed that more than half of the respondents had low scores in speaking and writing.
Almost half had average scores in listening and more than half had average scores in reading.
Relevant findings indicated that female respondents had higher mean scores than male
respondents both in the self-perceived survey and actual tests. The highest mean scores forboth the self-perceived survey and actual tests were recorded for respondents with monthly
family income of more than P50,000. Respondents from private schools had higher meanscores than those from public school for both the self-perceived and actual tests. The higher
mean scores were also found for respondents who preferred English movies and those who

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spoke predominantly English at home compared to those who preferred Filipino movies andthose who spoke predominantly Filipino at home. The mean scores also increased as thenumber of foreign countries increased. The results of running Wilcoxon signed rank test
showed that the students’ actual English grammatical competence did not necessarily match
their self-perceived abilities. Self-perceived scores tended to be higher than actual test scores.
This indicated that the respondents see themselves as having better English skills than they
actually possess. It is interesting to note that generally higher self-perceived English
grammatical abilities were linked to correspondingly higher actual abilities suggesting that
confidence in one’s ability in using a language is a positive element in building
communication skills.
Assessing the current levels of English grammatical competence of Filipino students is one
important step towards achieving teaching-learning effectiveness in both private and publicschools in the country. Assessments aim to promote understanding of how well-equipped
students are for their future lives and to measure their performance against that of their peers
in other countries.
As the Philippines finds itself lagging behind with the dismal performance of Filipinos ininternational assessment tests, the most urgent task of the government and policy makers now
is to reverse the current declining trend in basic education performance indicators.
Nevertheless, my study doesn’t claim that English language proficiency is in itself sufficient
to make our graduates globally competitive nor does it claim that using English as themedium of instruction is the best means to create students with good English skills. The
results of my study showed that the actual level of grammatical competence in English ofGrade 12 students is low, so it needs to be addressed. The relevant findings of my study could
provide a basis in launching an enhancement program from primary up to secondary, andeven tertiary levels, or another restructuring of the K-12 program.
I strongly recommend that the Department of Education develop a new curriculum toenhance the students’ grammatical competence in English by increasing the number of hours
in the teaching of Language and Reading; create excellent learning materials; provide a
speech laboratory in every school where students can practice and master their English
listening and speaking skills; and adopt a policy on No Code Switching. It is also important
to note that the competence of teachers in teaching English as a second language is an
important factor in the development of the students’ grammatical competence, so regularproficiency training should be provided to equip the teachers with the necessary skills toteach and communicate in English. Other researchers can administer the TOEIC and selfperceived survey to English teachers to assess their grammatical competence in English as
basis for the proficiency training.

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References
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Morallo, A. (February 8, 2018). Filipino graduates’ English skills lower than target for cab
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Sibayan, B., & Gonzalez, A. (1996). Post-imperial English in the Philippines. In J. Fishman,
A. Condrad and A. Rubal-Lopez (Eds.), Post-imperial English-Status change informer British and American colonies, 1940-1990 (pp. 139-172) Berlin and New
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Tupas, T. Ruanni F. (2001a) Global politics and the Englishes of the world. In Language
Across Boundaries. Edited by Janet Cotterill and Anne Ife. BAAL/Continuum:London and New York, pp. 81±98.
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BusinessWorld.

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Design and Evaluation of an Online Workplace Promotion Decision Analysis
Training Game With Provided Simulation Context
Chih-Chung Chien, National Taiwan University of Science and Technology, Taiwan
Huei-Tse Hou, National Taiwan University of Science and Technology, Taiwan

The Southeast Asian Conference on Education 2023
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Abstract
Appropriate appraisal methods and promotion conditions are one of the most important issues
that companies must face in their sustainable development. The promotion decision team also
faces the problem of different audit experiences and decision-making. This study designed ahighly realistic remote educational game to simulate the promotion of a company manager as
the theme of the game, and the learning activity is for learners to take on the role of apromotion decision team and complete the task of recommending candidates for promotion in
the case company. Gather Town is used to design the simulation company scenario, andlearners can use Google Form to explore and interact with the scenario, includinginterviewing colleagues from various departments to understand the information of eachcandidate, allowing learners to explore the simulation company scenario and finally doconsensus analysis and discussion on decision making. The learners in this preliminary study
were six adults in Taiwan, and the study was conducted to measure learning flow, anxiety,and motivation. According to the results, the learners' mean was significantly higher than the
median 3 of the five-point Likert scale in all nine dimensions of flow. The mean on the twodimensions of clear goals and concentration was higher than 4.50, the mean for overallmotivation was higher than 4.00 and the mean for overall anxiety was lower than 2.00. The
preliminary results show that: the mechanism does not generate anxiety and enhanceslearners' flow, has a high concentration, and maintain high motivation to learn.
Keywords: Educational Game, Situated Learning, Scaffolding, Decision Analysis, Contextual,
Online Distance Learning

iafor
The International Academic Forumwww.iafor.org

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Introduction
Promotion within a company is often considered an effective way to manage the organizationand motivate employees, so performance appraisal is most often the main basis for promotion
reviews (Dries et al., 2008). Laurence Peter's "Peter's Principle" (1969) states, in an
organization, every employee will be promoted to a position he is not qualified for. Thismeans that when you use promotion as an incentive, this incompetence will occur. So theimportant goal of promotion is to make the most effective allocation of human resources andto put the right people in the right positions. Therefore, in recent years, personal potential andcharacteristics have been included by enterprises in the promotion assessment conditions asimportant indicators. This study designed the Google Form with an interactive mechanism,
and potential assessment decision-making tool and proposed a new online digital game "Whois the successor" for the promotion decision-making analysis training in a simulation
workplace situation. In terms of the company's environment simulation effect, the Gather
Town platform is used to present the environment of various departments in the office on thesecond floor, including President Office, HR Manager Office, Business Department, Vice
President Office, Conference Room, Lounge, and Promotion Conference Room. This gameimports the relevant information of promotion candidates into the Google Form framework,and design scripted interactive dialogues to provide the simulation situational clues asscaffolding. The goal of this situational game is to enable learners to improve theirdecision-making analysis skills after learning through games. By players’ visiting different
departments, this game guide learners to organize scaffolding information into
decision-making tools to achieve more organized decision-making thinking analysis, and thenthrough peer discussions in the decision-making promotion group to achieve critical thinking
and peer collaborative learning.
Methods
This study was initially tested by a pilot analysis. The participants were 6 adults over the ageof 20 in Taiwan. They were free to form teams and sign up online, with 3 people on eachteam. Before the test, none of the participants had taken relevant courses using a similar
online interactive game. The Gather Town game platform was used for the learners in theoperation of the event to freely explore various simulated departments to collect referencematerials for manager candidates. The task of the first-stage learners should complete theindependent decision-making analysis, as shown in Figure 1, and the task of the second-stage
learners needed to complete the collaborative analysis using the provided performancepotential matrix (Traynor, Wellens, & Krishnamoorthy, 2021), as shown in Figure 2. Afterthe completion, the two-stage decision analysis, peer collaborative learning, and criticalthinking learning then be completed. Finally, a post-test questionnaire is administered,including questionnaires such as learning flow, learning anxiety, and learning motivation.

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Figure 1. Players conducted information collection and decision analysis in theGather Town -based game “Who is the successor”

Figure 2. Collaborative Analysis using the Performance Potential Matrix
Results and Discussions
In this study, nonparametric statistics analysis was carried out for each dimension, and theresults of the Mann-Whitney U-test are presented in Table 1, which was the descriptive
statistical analysis of the flow state of the learners after completing the two-stage tasks.
Overall flow (M=4.18, SD=0.31) was significantly higher than the median of the scale (i.e.,3). Flow antecedents (M=4.27, SD=0.33), flow experience (M=4.11, SD=0.43), and the meanvalues of flow in all dimensions were all higher than the median of the scale (i.e., 3). Amongthem, the average value of the three dimensions of clear goals, sense of self-control, andconcentration are as high as 4.50 or more. The overall game design that represents the
scripted Google Form interactive mechanism allowed learners to be more aware of the goalsof the activity and have a high sense of self-control, resulting in a high flow experience(Cross & Edmonds, 2003), and actively participated in the completion of game tasks.
Thereby improving the goal of online learning concentration. Table 2 is the descriptive
statistical analysis of learners' anxiety performance and learning motivation. The overall
learning anxiety (M=1.98, SD=0.44) was significantly lower than the median of the scale (i.e.,3). Overall learning motivation (M=4.33, SD=0.52) was significantly higher than 3.

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Appropriate low anxiety and high learning motivation are important indicators of sustained
flow in game activities.
Table 1. The mean and standard deviation of learners’ flow
(n=6)

Ｍ

SD

Z

Sig.

4.18
4.27
4.17
4.67
3.67
4.50
4.33
4.11
4.50

0.31
0.33
0.52
0.41
0.41
0.45
0.52
0.43
0.57

2.20＊
2.20＊
2.23＊
2.23＊
2.07＊
2.22＊
2.23＊
2.21＊
2.23＊

0.028
0.028
0.026
0.026
0.038
0.026
0.026
0.027
0.026

3.92
4.17
3.83

0.74
0.68
0.52

2.03＊
2.21＊
2.06＊

0.042
0.027
0.039

Dimension
Overall Flow
Flow antecedents
Challenge-skill balance
Goals of an activity
Unambiguous Feedback
Control
Action–awareness merging
Flow experience
Concentration
Time distortion
Autotelic experience
Loss of self-consciousness*p < 0.05
Table 2. The mean and standard deviation of learners’ anxiety and motivation(n=6)
learning anxiety
learning motivation

Ｍ

SD

Z

Sig.

1.98
4.33

0.44
0.52

-2.20*
2.21*

0.028
0.030

*p < 0.05
Conclusions and Limitations
This study developed a simulated workplace promotion decision-making training online
digital game "Who is the successor" with the theme of the company's annual personnel
promotion. Use the scripted Google Form interactive mechanism to simulate the dialogue andexploration between members of the "promotion decision-making group" and colleagues invarious departments and conduct decision-making analysis and make decision-making
consensus. Based on the above initial data analysis, there were significant differences in flow
performance, learning motivation, and learning anxiety scores with the medium of the scale(i.e., 3). Preliminary results show that this research uses experiential learning in a simulation
situation, and the introduction of the scripted Google Form interactive mechanism could
maintain a high level of learning motivation, reduce learning anxiety, and improve the flowof online learners in the learning process, so as to help learners develop more high-level
decision-making thinking skills (Anwar & Abdullah, 2021). More sample sizes can be added
for future studies. It is also suggested for in-depth analysis of the effectiveness of scaffolding,game fidelity, the usefulness of the game, and critical thinking process on the online learningof scripted Google Form interactive mechanism.

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Acknowledgments
This research was supported by the projects from the US Air Force Office of Scientific
Research (AFOSR) project (20IOA038) and Ministry of Science and Technology, Republicof China, under contract number MOST-110-2511-H-011-004-MY3, MOST-108-2511H-011-003-MY3.

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References
Anwar, G., & Abdullah, N. N. (2021). Inspiring future entrepreneurs: The effect ofexperiential learning on the entrepreneurial intention at higher
education. International Journal of English Literature and Social Sciences, 6(2), 183–
194. https://doi.org/10.22161/ijels.62.26
Cross, N., & Edmonds, E. A. (Eds.).(2003). Expertise in Design: Design Thinking Research
Symposium 6. Yusuf Pisan. https://doi.org/10.17083/ijsg.v1i1.8
Dries, Nicky, et al. “Career Success: Constructing a Multidimensional Model.” Journal of
Vocational Behavior, vol. 73, no. 2, Oct. 2008, pp. 254–267,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2008.05.005
Peter, L. J., & Hull, R. (1969). The peter principle (Vol. 4). London: Souvenir Press.
Traynor, S., Wellens, M. A., & Krishnamoorthy, V. (2021). Succession Management Intro,
9-Box, and Talent Review Forms. SAP SuccessFactors Talent: Volume 2, 289–328.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-6995-4_5
Contact email: hthou@mail.ntust.edu.tw

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Design and Evaluation of an Online Educational Game for the Development ofCommunication and Response Skills in the Service Industry
Yen-Ting Ho, National Taiwan University of Science and Technology, Taiwan
Huei-Tse Hou, National Taiwan University of Science and Technology, Taiwan

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Abstract
The service industry has the closest contact with people, and frontline service personnel
usually need to face all customer's problems. In response to the post-epidemic learning trend,
many service industry training has started using distance learning. Online learning is morechallenging to create a sense of the context of a real situation to arouse learners' motivation.
This study used Gather Town to build a virtual learning space for a travel agency, combines
the interaction mechanism of Google Form to simulate the communication and interaction in
the service process, and designs an educational game called "Difficult Customers" The gameintegrates realistic interaction and video guidance, and learners can solve travelers' problems
step by step through video situations and menu choices. In this study, 8 participants wererecruited openly, and a preliminary empirical study was conducted to investigate the flow
state, anxiety, and game acceptance of learners in the game. According to the analysis of thestudy, the overall anxiety of the learners averaged 1.91, which was significantly lower than 3(the median of the five-point Likert scale), indicating that this game mechanism did not cause
anxiety in the learners. And the overall flow of the learners after the game reached 4.15,
which was significantly higher than 3. This indicates that the game design mechanism caneffectively improve the flow of the learners. Furthermore, the learner's acceptance of thegame was above 4, indicating that the learner agrees that the game mechanism can help theservice industry train communication skills and adaptability.
Keywords: Online Educational Game, Communication and Response Skills, Adaptability,
Game Acceptanceiafor
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Introduction
As learning styles change in the post-pandemic era, many training courses are being
conducted online teaching. As a result, educational institutions are constantly looking forways to improve students' ability to acquire knowledge (Mackavey & Cron, 2019). The
ability to create an authentic learning experience environment is one of the critical factors inonline teaching and learning (Serfozo et at., 2022). In addition, previous studies found thateasy-to-use and easy-to-learn tools or learning platforms increase learners' motivation andengagement (Maskun et at., 2020; Domina et at., 2021). This research uses Gather Town and
Google Forms to design an online educational game that builds communication andresponsiveness in the service industry; allowing learners to have a realistic simulated spatialenvironment and use their familiar online forms to learn reduces their learning anxiety andincreases their learning effectiveness and engagement. Whitton and Langan (2019) indicatedthat gamification is an engaging teaching method that reduces learners' learning anxiety andfacilitates learning experience and knowledge acquisition. Gamification may increase
learners' motivation and engagement, reduce anxiety, and generate flow, thus improving
learning effectiveness. The prerequisite for success in the service industry is communication
and response skills. This game uses the online meeting software Gather Town to design ascenario of a travel agency office, including the reception room, group department, ticket
department, general manager room, and conference room. Learners are exposed to theprocess and objectives of the activity in the activity explanation and find clues in the travel
agency scene. Learners then look for various tips in different departments. Through different
prompts, learners can learn the service industry's communication and response skills, watch
the conversations with NPCs to collect relevant information, interact with customers andresolve customer complaints in Google Forms. The learning objectives of this research are toacquire knowledge of communication and response skills through traveler's feedback and
NPCs problem-solving and to develop communication and response skills and situational
analysis skills through problem-solving contexts.
Research purposes and questions
This study designed "Difficult Customers", a contextual game design using Gather Town and
Google Form interactive mechanism, to allow participants to solve travelers' problems
through a dramatic context in a realistic travel agency environment, using realistic online
games to reduce learning anxiety and increase learning flow to enhance learning. The
research purpose is: To investigate the use of realistic online games to reduce learning
anxiety, increase learning flow and improve learning effectiveness. The research question
was: What were the learning flow, learning anxiety, and game acceptance of the online
service industry communication and response skills game designed in a realistic context?
MethodThe learners in this study were eight adults (three males and five females) aged 20 years orolder in Taiwan through a preliminary case study. Each learner used a personal computer andparticipated in the " Difficult Customers " activity in their own separate space. This activity
uses the Gather Town game platform to set up a realistic travel agency, allowing learners to
explore and complete three tasks in the learning space. First, the activity was conducted after
informing learners of the activity flow and rules (10 minutes). Then learners were allowed to
explore the learning space, observe conversations between NPCs and information provided
by various departments, go to the meeting room, talk to customers in the form and complete

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the game tasks (40 minutes), as shown in Figure 1. Finally, after completing a task, learners
proceeded to the next office, where they could observe the interactive dialogue between the
NPCs to analyze the travelers' questions, as shown in Figure 2.
The study refers to the present reference to the flow scale revised by Kiili (2006) andtranslated by Hou and Li (2014), with 22 questions. The flow scales include two dimensions:flow antecedents and flow experiences. All scales were scored on a five-point Likert scale.
The Cronbach's alpha for the internal consistency of the flow scale was 0.801, indicating ahigh degree of reliability. In terms of assessing learners' game acceptance, this study used
Davis' (1989) technology acceptance scale with two dimensions: perceived usefulness andperceived ease-of-use, using a five-point Likert scale. In evaluating learner anxiety, we referto the Affective Filter Hypothesis developed by Krashen (1981; 1987), the Chinese version ofwhich was adapted by Hong (2001) as the "Learning Experience Scale" and embellished tomake the narrative more consistent with this study. The Cronbach's alpha for the internalconsistency of the learning anxiety scale was 0.817, indicating that the questionnaire is highly
reliable.

Figure 1. Learners use Google Forms to complete tasks
in the Gather Town conference room.

Figure 2. Learners complete the task and go to the office to watch
the interactive dialogue of NPCs explaining the task problem.
Results and Discussions
In this study, nonparametric statistics analysis was carried out for each dimension. The resultsof the Mann-Whitney U-test are presented in Table 1, which was overall flow (M=4.15,
SD=0.24) was significantly higher than median 3 on a five-point scale. The mean value of

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each dimension in flow antecedents (M=4.15, SD=0.22) and flow experiences (M=4.15,
SD=0.29) is higher than the median of 3 on the five-point scale. This indicates that the overall
game design mechanism, so that learners can clearly understand the purpose of the activity,
actively invest in the game and work hard to complete the task, achieve a high degree of flow
experience, and then improve the effectiveness of online learning.
Table 1. Descriptive Analysis of Flow
Dimension

M

SD

Z

Overall Flow

4.15

0.24

2.52*

0.012

4.15

0.22

2.53

*

0.012

3.81

0.37

2.57**

0.010

*

0.011

Flow antecedents
Challenge-skill balance

Sig.

Goals of an activity

4.25

0.46

2.55

Unambiguous feedback

4.25

0.27

2.59**

0.010

**

0.010

Sense of control

4.06

0.32

2.59

Action–awareness merging

4.38

0.35

2.57**

0.010

*

0.012

Flow experiences

4.15

0.29

2.53

Concentration

4.28

0.51

2.54*

0.011

*

0.014

Time distortion

4.00

0.46

2.46

Autotelic experience

4.31

0.32

2.54*

0.011

0.26

**

0.009

Loss of self-consciousness
*

3.69

2.60

**

p <0.05， p <0.01

Table 2 is the descriptive analysis of game acceptance and learning anxiety. We can know thelearners‘ overall acceptance of the game (M=4.19, SD=0.63); perceived usefulness (M=4.28,
SD=0.41), and perceived ease-of-use (M=4.34, SD=0.47) were all higher than the median of 3
in the five-point scale. Furthermore, the overall learning anxiety (M=1.91, SD=0.53) was
lower than the median of 3 on the five-point scale. The results show that the design of thisgame will not cause learners' learning anxiety, and learners have a high degree of acceptanceof this game design. This game is easy to play and helps learners' communication andresponse skills in the service industry.
Table 2. Descriptive Analysis of Game Acceptance and Anxiety
Dimension

M

SD

Z

Sig.

Overall Acceptance

4.19

0.33

2.53*

0.012

Perceived Usefulness

4.28

0.41

2.59**

0.010

0.47

*

0.011

*

0.012

Perceived Ease-of-use
Overall Learning Anxiety
*

4.34
1.91

0.53

2.55

-2.53

**

p <0.05， p <0.01

Conclusions
This study developed a realistic online functional training game, "Difficult Customers" tocultivate the communication and response skills of the service industry. It applied theinteractive mechanism of Gather Town and Google Form to design a situational simulation

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game so that learners can experience real-life situations. In the travel agency situation,
students played the role of the service staff of the travel agency. The learners used thecomputer to participate in the online game; however, they felt they were facing travelers andsolving travelers’ problems by simulating the information provided by a travel agency andthe conversations between NPCs.
Based on the above data analysis of the above data, the learners' flow performance and gameacceptance were significantly higher than the scale median. At the same time, their learning
anxiety was lower than the median of the scale. It shows that this research uses the online
realistic plot design, which can reduce learners’ learning anxiety and improve the online
learning flow during the learning process. It also shows that learners highly agree with thehelp of this game in learning communication and response skills knowledge in the service
industry. In the future, this study will conduct a quasi-experimental design and increase thestudy's sample size and compare it with the control group to continue investigating the
cognitive scaffolding, game elements, and learning effectiveness of this online game fordifferent learners.
Acknowledgments
This research was supported by the projects from the US Air Force Office of Scientific
Research (AFOSR) project (20IOA038) and Ministry of Science and Technology, Republicof China, under contract number MOST-107-2511-H-011-003-MY3, MOST-108-2511H-011-003 -MY3.

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References
Domina, T., Renzulli, L., Murray, B., Garza, A. N., & Perez, L. (2021). Remote or
removed:Predicting successful engagement with online learning during COVID-19.
Socius, 7, 2378023120988200.
Hou, H. T.* & Li, M. C. (2014). Evaluating Multiple Aspects of a Digital Educational
Problem-solving-based Adventure Game, Computers in Human Behavior, 30, 29-38.
Kiili, K. (2006). Evaluations of an experiential gaming model. Human Technology: An
Interdisciplinary Journal on Humans in ICT Environments, 2(2), 187–201.
doi:10.17011/ht/urn.2006518
Krashen, S. (1981). Second language acquisition. Second Language Learning, 3(7), 19-39.
Krashen, S. D.(1987) Principles and Practice in Second Language Acquisition.
Prentice-Hall International.
Maskun, M., Rusman, T., Suroto, S., & Rahmawati, F. (2020). Student perceptions of online
learning. International Journal of Multicultural and Multireligious Understanding,7(2), 67-73.
Serfozo, M., Golyan, S., Lassu, F. Z., Svraka, B., & Pirka, A. V. (2020). Digitalization,
distance learning in teacher training-students' feedback on distance education. CIVILSZEMLE, 17, 105-+.
Wesley, S. C., Jackson, V. P., & Lee, M. (2017). The perceived importance of core soft skills
between retailing and tourism management students, faculty andbusinesses. Employee Relations, 39(1), 79–
99. https://doi.org/10.1108/ER-03-2016-0051
Whitton, N., & Langan, M. (2018). Fun and games in higher education: an analysis of UK
student perspectives. Teaching in Higher Education.
Contact email: hthou@mail.ntust.edu.tw

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Design an Online Escape Game on Gather Town to Foster
Electrical Troubleshooting Skills
Chou-Pai Yeoh, National Taiwan University of Science and Technology, Taiwan
Huei-Tse Hou, National Taiwan University of Science and Technology, Taiwan
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Abstract
Online learning has become increasingly important and widespread in the post-epidemic era.
However, in the absence of adequate interaction, learners may lose motivation, attention, andexperience anxiety, thus reducing learning efficiency. Game-based learning can improvestudent motivation and attention, and the integration of real-world scenarios and tasks into
games is believed to promote learner engagement and induce learning transfer. Meanwhile,
past research has revealed that integrating cognitive scaffolding into games can help learners
engage in higher level thinking and problem-solving skills. This study presents a game-basedlearning approach that utilizes simulation and cognitive scaffolding as design to enhancelearners' physics knowledge and troubleshooting skills through an online educational escapegame named “Electrician”. The game is themed on an electrician maintaining a building's
circuit system, and it includes a realistic setting created on Gather Town as well as a Google
form integrated to offer NPC interaction and cognitive scaffolding. In this study, flow andanxiety were measured in six persons who were publicly recruited as participants. The
descriptive statistics showed that learners scored above the median of 3 on each of the nine
sub-dimensions of flow, with the mean scores for concentration, time distortion and loss of
self-consciousness being higher than 4.00. The anxiety score of 3.15 was close to the medianof 3.00, indicating that learners had moderate anxiety while playing. The preliminary findings
indicate that the mechanism developed in this study is beneficial in enhancing learners' flow,high concentration levels, and moderate anxiety in learning, making it a valuable reference
for distant education in STEM.
Keywords: Online Educational Escape Game, Troubleshooting Skills, Scaffolding

iafor
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Introduction
Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, educational institutions offer remote learning in subjects
that were formerly taught face-to-face and through hands-on practice, including science. Thissudden shift in the remote learning environment causes numerous challenges for students'
education and makes it even more important to ensure efficient transfer of essential skills(Farros et al., 2020). According to Moorhouse et al. (2021), the physical separation and senseof presence between teachers and students distinguish synchronous online classrooms fromtraditional classroom settings. One of the reasons for the lack of motivation and engagement
may also be because online learning is less likely to involve interaction with peers andteachers (Lakhal et al., 2017) and is often challenging to keep up with the pace (Almaiah &Almulhem, 2018; Al-Araibi et al., 2019).
Several studies have shown that incorporating collaborative problem solving and game-basedlearning into instructional activities can be an effective teaching strategy for scienceeducation (Bressler & Bodzin, 2016; Sung & Hwang, 2013) The findings of Wang et.al(2022) suggest that digital games are a promising teaching strategy in STEM education thatcan significantly increase student learning. In order to create a simulated real-life gameenvironment on Gather Town for the "Electrician" online escape room educational game, thisstudy used Google Form to design an interactive dialogue mechanism upon the game's nonplayer characters (NPCs). Realistic scenarios enable learners to focus more intently andbecome more immersed in problem-solving, which can significantly improve learning
motivation and learning transfer (Catalano & Mortara, 2014; MeLellan, 1996). Additionally,
research has shown that adding scaffolding to games can help players reduce their anxiety(Lin & Hou, 2022).
This game is themed on an electrician rectifying an electrical problem in a building andprovides cognitive scaffolding as a clue in the Gather Town setting, such as the building
circuit layouts, diagrams, logbooks, or by manipulating light bulb simulator to obtain implicit
information. The goal of the game is for players to gain knowledge of electrical concepts (e.g.,parallel and series circuit, Ohm's Law, electrical power, etc.) through dialogue with NPCs
and scene exploration, and to use the information gathered in the game to discuss with peers,
identify circuit problems, and propose solutions in order to develop learners' physics andtroubleshooting skills.
Research Purposes And Questions
This study integrates Google Form to develop an interactive dialogue mechanism for NPCs
and Gather Town to replicate the setting of an electrician detecting electrical problems in abuilding, to design an online escape room educational game named "Electrician" so thatlearners can improve their flow experience and lessen their anxiety when learning online.
Research Question：What are the flow experiences and anxiety of learners who use"Electrician" for online game-based learning?
MethodA total of six adults aged 20 years and above were recruited online to participate in this study.
Participants were required to use a personal computer and play the game in an isolated space.
The game uses Gather Town as a platform (Figure 1) for players to take on the role as an

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electrician trainee, assisted by instructor Mark (the game's main NPC), in detecting andrepairing electrical problems in the MEG building (the game's scene). The game is divided
into three levels, and the player has 60 minutes to explore the scenes, including the electricallayout of the building, a light simulator, a weekly power consumption metre, and information
provided by the game's NPCs as a cognitive scaffold, to detect the cause of the problem ineach level (e.g. power outage, low brightness, high electricity bill).
When the learner believes that they have diagnosed the problem, they can always report theirfindings to instructor Mark. If the investigation is successful, Mark will provide immediate
feedback as well as a pass code to guide the learner to the next level (Figure 2). The task level
become challenging as the level progresses, facilitating collaboration between learners tosolve all problems within the time limit. At the beginning of the experiment, the facilitator
explained the process and rules of the game to the participants (10 minutes) and played thegame (60 minutes). Participants answer a questionnaire on flow and learning anxiety at theend of the session (15 minutes).
In this study, the Chinese version of Kiili's (2006) Flow Scale, as translated by Hou & Li
(2014), was used to assess participant flow experience. On a 5-point Likert scale, this scale
contains 22 items, including flow antecedents and flow experiences. The questionnaire's
reliability (Cronbach's alpha = 0.945) showed a high level of internal consistency. The
Affective Filter Hypothesis created by Krashen (1981; 1987) was used to assess participant
anxiety, and the Chinese version was adapted from the Learning Experience Scale by Hung(2001) to better fit the context of this study. The 8-item scale is based on a 5-point Likert
scale. The internal consistency of the scale (Cronbach's alpha=0.748) was found to have agood level of reliability.

Figure 1. Leaners explore the game's scene with cognitive scaffoldings in Gather Town

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Figure 2. Mark, the instructor, provides learners with immediate feedback and guidance
Results and Discussions“Electrician” is a room escape game in which players need to explore the scenes and interact
with NPCs in order to detect electrical problems and build their understanding of physics andtroubleshooting skills. Table 1 shows a Mann-Whitney U test of the flow experience of thelearners after completing the game. The overall flow (M=3.80, SD=1.20) , the mean values
for Flow Antecedents (M=3.42, SD=1.48), Flow Experience (M=4.13, SD=1.04), and allother dimensions were greater than the median of the scale (i.e.,3), with Concentration, Time
Distortion, and Loss of Self-Consciousness significantly greater than the median of 3. Thissuggests that the game helps learners to remain engaged in the game's tasks while forgetting
about the passage of time and self-awareness, resulting in a certain level of flow experience,
which in turn improves learner concentration for online learning.
Table 1. The mean and standard deviation of learners’ flow(n = 6)
Dimension
M
SD
Z
Sig.
3.80
1.20
Overall Flow
1.47
0.141
Flow antecedents
3.42
1.48
0.74
0.461
Challenge-skill balance
3.33
1.72
0.53
0.596
Goals of an activity
3.42
1.59
0.84
0.399
Unambiguous feedback
3.75
1.17
1.36
0.174
Sense of control
3.58
1.43
1.23
0.221
Action–awareness merging
3.00
1.90
0.00
1.000
Flow experiences
4.13
1.04
1.78
0.075
Concentration
4.29
1.07
2.00
0.045*
Time distortion
4.33
0.82
2.07
0.038*
Autotelic experience
3.67
1.69
1.19
0.234
Loss of self-consciousness
4.50
0.84
2.12
0.034****
p <0.05， p <0.01
The Mann-Whitney U test of learners' anxiety are shown in Table 2. The overall anxiety(M=3.15, SD=1.21) was not significant from the median of the scale (i.e., 3). Wang et al.
(2015) suggest that a moderate level of anxiety increases learners' attention and motivation,
indicating that this game generates a moderate level of anxiety for learning and is an
important indicator of sustained flow experience.

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Table 2. The mean and standard deviation of learners’ anxiety(n = 6)
Dimension
M
SD
Z
Sig.
Learning Anxiety
3.15
1.21
0.53
0.596
*
p <0.05，**p <0.01
Conclusions“Electrician” is an online escape game based on the physics concept of electricity. The gameincorporates cognitive scaffolding in the game scenes, simulations, and information provided
by NPCs to enhance physics knowledge and troubleshooting skills. The above data show thatthe flow is higher than the scale's median (i.e. 3) and anxiety is not significantly different
from the median of the scale. Preliminarily, the game design of this study increase the flow oflearners and achieve moderate anxiety during the online learning process, assisting learners indeveloping relevant physic knowledge and troubleshooting skills. For future studies, more
sample sizes can be included, as well as a more in-depth comparative analysis of ARCS,
learning effectiveness, the usefulness of the game scaffolding, and game fidelity.
Acknowledgments
This research was supported by the projects from the US Air Force Office of Scientific
Research (AFOSR) project (20IOA038) and Ministry of Science and Technology, Republicof China, under contract number MOST- 107-2511-H-011 -003 -MY3, MOST-108-2511-H011 -003 -MY3.

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Bressler, D., & Bodzin, A. (2016). Investigating flow experience and scientific practices
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Contact email: hthou@mail.ntust.edu.tw

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The Faceless Learners, the Perplexed Instructors, and the Dilemma of Webcams:
A Survey of Instructors at Two Bahraini Universities
Lama Al Mahadin, University of Bahrain, Bahrain
Lilian Issa Hallak, American University of Bahrain, Bahrain
The Southeast Asian Conference of Education 2023
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Abstract
After more than two years of teaching remotely in an emergency mode due to the Covid-19
pandemic (between March 2020 and October 2022), the interaction between university
students and instructors in Bahrain has shifted tremendously due to the lack of social, visual,and physical presence associated with the more traditional face-to-face teaching practice.
This paper offers therefore a case study of two local universities in Bahrain. Its aim is to
explore the new situation of teaching and learning online in order to assess its impact on
instructors. The researchers involved have conducted an anonymous online survey among 28
instructors through the use of Microsoft Forms. In addition, both qualitative and quantitative
research methods were adopted, the objective being to provide an understanding of the many
challenges that instructors have encountered while teaching learners whom they could notsee. More specifically, a number of issues have been addressed by the study, among them thefollowing: a) Instructors’ views and perspectives on webcam use in the conduct ofsynchronous virtual classes; b) Learners’ lack of visual presence, its impact on the teachingexperience itself and the broader teaching practice; c) An assessment of the hurdles toeffective communication during synchronous virtual classes as already identified by the casestudy and ways of resolving them; and d) recommendations for future action.
Keywords: Online Communication, Online Presence, Synchronous Virtual Classes, VisualInteraction, Webcams

iafor
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Introduction
With the Covid-19 pandemic almost coming to an end, and the fact that education willprobably never go back to how it used to be pre-pandemic (Goh & Sandars, 2020; Kaur &Bhatt, 2020; Luthra & Mackenzie, 2020; Tartavulea et al., 2020; Winthrop, 2020), thisresearch is an attempt to dive deeper into instructors’ overall perception and concerns about
webcam use during synchronous virtual classes.
Globally, the pandemic has reshaped education and forced universities to implement
emergency remote teaching (ERT) in record time (Hodges et al., 2020; Rice 2020; Trust &Whalen, 2020). Universities in Bahrain, like other universities worldwide, had to adapt theirtraditional face-to-face courses to suit online delivery less than three weeks after the first caseof Covid-19 was reported in February 2020 (Alandijany et al., 2020; Bensaid & Brahimi,
2021; Taufiq-Hail et al., 2021). To proceed with remote teaching, instructors were given acrash course on how to create live online sessions (i.e., synchronous virtual classes) and shareteaching material with their students using the educational platforms available. “There was anembedded assumption that if both instructors and students had access to the nominated digitalplatform, a reliable internet connection, and a suitable home environment, things would gosmoothly” (Al Mahadin & Hallak, 2021). For most instructors, however, the culture ofteaching remotely was unfamiliar territory and entailed a whole new set of challenges(Hodges et al., 2020; Rapanta et al., 2020). One of the biggest challenges was that instructors
found themselves engaged in a monologue rather than a dialogue. This new virtual
experience kept students and instructors apart mainly because of the lack of proper
engagement, communication and social presence usually found in traditional face-to-faceclassroom settings. The students’ reluctance to turn on their webcams further aggravated the
problem; thus, a world of faceless learners and invisible teachers was created (Kaur & Bhatt,2020). Instructors would “log on to see black screens instead of boisterous smiles: usernames
instead of learners” (Colucci, 2020) or just “a bunch of unanimated squares” (Fagell, 2020).
Numerous studies have been conducted on how the sudden transition to online teaching has
affected interaction and communication between students and instructors, especially during
the COVID-19 pandemic. The studies have addressed key issues such as student andinstructor self-presentation (Hosszu et al., 2022; Neuwirth et al., 2020); the dilemma andefficacy of webcam use (Castelli & Sarvary, 2020); socio-economic factors that could
interfere with online communication such as connectivity and privacy issues (Neuwirth et al.,2020); students’ tendency to multitask by engaging in multiple activities during online
classes (Lepp et al., 2019); and the rules of netiquette during the pandemic (Mali & Lim,2021).
Any form of communication has its dynamics. In both face-to-face and synchronous virtual
classes, instructors as message communicators try to increase their impact to ensure students
as receivers not only understand but also engage with the message conveyed. Being actively
engaged is a very important aspect of the teaching learning environment.
An analogy can be created between Shannon and Weaver’s (1949) linear communication
model and synchronous virtual classes. During synchronous virtual classes, teachers“encode” a message by sharing remotely with students a verbal or textual material. Thismessage is sent through the “channel” or the technology that is involved, i.e., the educational
platforms. Then the students as receivers “decode” the message by listening to it or seeing it
appear on their computer screens. At that point in the process, communication has occurred.

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However, the sudden shift to online delivery that happened in the wake of the pandemic has
imposed some limitations to this model of communication. This issue may be attributed tofactors that have probably nothing to do with the sender, message, channel or receiver, yet
could have interfered with the process of message decoding. The nature of synchronous
virtual classes allows students to be exposed to more distractions than in a face-to-faceclassroom environment (i.e., context-dependent conditioning) (Lynch et al., 2006). The many
distractions, the sudden change in the learning environment for which neither the students nor
the instructors were ready, and the absence of physical, visual, and social presence has
exacerbated the problems of decoding. This left instructors as message senders wondering if
students paid any attention to the lesson, understood the material presented and whether theyneeded more help and clarification. This process was experienced as a rather stressful one by
instructors and made class delivery more demanding. (Müller et al., 2021).
Whereas Face-to-face traditional classes, seem to adopt a non-linear Transactional Model(Kobiruzzaman, 2022) where instructors and students are both senders and receivers. They
are sending messages to each other both ways. When students do not respond, remain silent
or deliberately do not communicate with their teachers whether verbally or non-verbally, thatstill constitutes a response. This silent type of response could help instructors determine
whether the message is decoded appropriately. Physical, visual, and social presence are
immediately available since the students and instructors share one familiar environment.
There are no tangible barriers. Instructors also have the ability to multitask. In other words,
they can explain the material in detail, quiz students, while being able to recognize from thenon-verbal cues given by students whether they are assimilating any parts of the lesson. Eyecontact, facial expressions and body language are among the non-verbal cues that act as thesilent response within traditional classroom settings.
The sudden shift to emergency remote teaching has deprived instructors of all of this andcreated many barriers between them and their students. When the focus is mainly on thematerial shared online, “it is obviously not possible to have a classroom experience” aseffective as the one allowed by traditional face-to-face teaching (de Vries, 2021). Physical,
visual, and social presence have been replaced by virtual presence. A related issue that
contributed to increasing existing challenges is that neither the students nor the instructors, intheir majority, were ready or willing to be on camera during synchronous virtual classes.
The purpose of this study is to look into the issue of visual interaction in online classes within
the Bahraini context, and the impact of its absence on the overall teaching environment.
Researchers examined how instructors perceive the use of webcams during synchronous
virtual classes; the role it possibly plays, if any, in assessing and monitoring student
engagement; the limitations it may have; and the teaching methods instructors may haveadopted to compensate for students’ unwillingness to turn on their webcams.
Methodology
This research was initiated to address and better understand how the absence of visualpresence during virtual synchronous classes could affect instructors at two major Bahraini
universities. In this study, a mixed methodology comprising primary and secondary researchtools was used to analyze in-depth the challenges instructors encountered when students did
not turn on their webcams.

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The secondary research tool is a review of the literature on the dynamics of communication
between students and instructors in online classes, especially post-pandemic. Numerous
previous studies on webcams and virtual online delivery are reviewed to shed some light on
any previous research outcomes that are central to the topic investigated in this paper.
The primary research tool is an inductive empirical survey-based method (Pyrczak, 2014;
Tan, 2017), suitable for generalizations from a specific observation (Collins, 2010; Read etal., 2016). The survey questionnaire contains both qualitative and quantitative questions.
Creswell (2009) says that a mixed research method allows researchers to collect and analyze
data by incorporating both quantitative and qualitative methods. Utilizing both techniques
support the research investigation. In addition, it highlights possible discrepancies between
participants’ qualitative and quantitative answers by allowing them to voice their opinions
and share their experiences using their own words. By merging results, utilizing a mixed
method approach can provide better analysis and conclusions.
Data relevant to the research objectives is collected and set into categories. Statisticalanalysis is conducted to investigate and discover patterns and correlations and examine
instructors’ perspectives.
To get the best feedback, the instructors were asked a variety of questions. In addition to agender survey question (male/female) in Section (1), the survey is divided into five more
sections. Section (2) includes three closed-ended questions on whether instructors have everturned their webcams on during virtual synchronous classes, whether they prefer to teachwith or without webcams, and whether they had any experience with online teaching prepandemic. They were expected to answer with Yes/No/or Sometimes for the first question
and Yes/No for the second and third questions. Section (3) includes one question wheremultiple answers could be selected (up to 12) about reasons for instructors not turning on
their webcams; Section (4) includes a total of 14 closed-ended questions with a scale of five
options ranging from “strongly agree” to “strongly disagree”; Section (5) includes one
question where multiple answers could be selected (up to 8) about what kind of information
they would be able to obtain when students turned on their webcams during synchronous
virtual classes, including the option of “Other” to provide additional reasons that were notlisted; and Section (6) includes two optional open-ended questions with no predetermined
options to select from, and where survey participants can respond by using their own words.
In this section, the participants were asked to list the types of methods they used to keep theirstudents engaged, and if they wanted to provide additional comments, respectively.
Research Sample
For this study, an anonymous online survey was distributed using Microsoft Forms to collectdata from instructors on webcam use during synchronous virtual classes and its impact on
both instructors and student performance. A total of 28 faculty members from two local
universities in Bahrain took the survey.
The design of the survey questions aimed at investigating instructors’ attitudes towards
webcam use, and the implications visual presence or absence may have on the teachingprocess and student performance. All survey questions, except the first one, address mattersrelated to webcam use during online classes.

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The present research is not about gender differences. However, whenever gender differenceswere observed in participants’ answers, these were highlighted throughout the paper.
Results
As mentioned above, the survey consists of six sections. The results of Sections 1, 2, and 3
are shown in Table 1, the results of Section 4 are shown in Table 2, the results of Section 5
are shown in Table 3, the results of the first part of Section 6 are shown in Table 4. As for thesecond part of Section 6, the results were analysed according to the instructors’ comments.
Section 1
A total of 28 university instructors took the survey, divided into 18 females and 10 males,
64% and 36%, respectively (see Table 1).
Section 2
When instructors were asked if they turned on their webcams during synchronous virtual
classes, 32% chose Yes, 46.5% chose No, and 21.5% chose Sometimes. In terms of gender,
78% of total female participants and 22% of total male participants always turned on their
webcams. As for whether they preferred to teach with their webcams turned on, 32% of total
participants chose Yes of which 78% were females and 22% were males. When asked
whether they had ever tried online teaching prior to the pandemic, all participants chose No(see Table 1).
Section 3
In this section (see Table 1), the instructors were asked to identify reasons for not turning on
their webcams. They were given 12 reasons to choose from including “Not Applicable – I
always have my camera on.” The most frequently selected reason was that students did notusually turn on their webcams (N=19, 68%), divided into 12 females (63%) and 7 males(37%). The second most selected reason was feeling self-conscious (N=12, 43%) divided into
7 females (58%) and 5 males (42%). The third most selected reason was fear of anunauthorized use of a screenshot their image (N=10, 35%), divided into 7 females (70%) and3 males (30%). The fourth most selected reason was “Not applicable – I always have mycamera on.” 8 instructors or 28.5% selected this option, of which 6 were females (75%) and 2
were males (25%). The fifth and sixth most selected reasons were not being dressed
appropriately to be on camera and being seen doing something else on their computers (N=6,21.5%). The first option was chosen by 5 females (83.5%) and 1 male (16.5%), and thesecond option was equally chosen by 3 males and 3 females (50% each). The seventh andeighth most selected reasons were having poor Internet connection at home, or not having
sufficient Internet data and being seen eating or drinking (N=5, 18%). 4 males (80%) and 1
female (20%) selected the first option and 3 females (60%) and 2 males (40%) selected thesecond option. The nineth and tenth most selected reasons were not having privacy in theirhome environment and fear of being noticed by everyone (N= 3, 11%). 2 males (67%) and 1
female (33%) selected the first option and 3 females (100%) and zero males selected thesecond option. The two least selected reasons were being seen walking away from their
computers and not having a webcam. Both were selected by one male only (3.5%).

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Section 1
GenderSection 2
Do you turn your webcam on during synchronous
virtual classes?

All
28

Male
36%

Female
64%

%

%

%

Male
22
46
33.5

Female
78
54
66.5

%
Male
33.5
37.5

%
Female
66.5
62.5

All
Yes
32
No 46.5
Sometimes 21.5%
I prefer to teach with my webcam

All
Turned on
43
Turned off
57
Have you ever tried online teaching prior to thepandemic?
%
%
%
Yes
0
0
0
No
28
36
64
Section 3
Reasons that could prevent you from turning on your webcam (you may choose morethan one):%%%
All Male Female• I am not dressed appropriately to be on camera
21.5 16.5
83.5• I do not have privacy in my home environment
1167
33• I have poor internet connection at home, or I do nothave sufficient internet data
18
80
20
• Students do not usually turn on their webcams
46.5 37
63• I do not want to be noticed by everyone
110100• I do not want to be seen walking away from mycomputer
3.5 100
0• I do not want to be seen doing something else on mycomputer
21.5 5050• I do not want to be seen eating or drinking
184060• I do not have a webcam, or it is broken
3.5 100
0• I feel self-conscious turning on my webcam
43
42
58• I am concerned of an unauthorized use of a screenshot
of my image
36
30
70• Not applicable - I always have my camera on
28.5 2575
Table 1. Survey Results of Sections 1 to 3.

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Section 4
In this section, we used Likert-type rating scales to measure instructors’ views on webcam
use. The survey included a total of 14 closed-ended questions with a scale ranging from“strongly agree” to “strongly disagree” (see Table 2). The results were as follows:
1. “I feel a sense of community is created when both instructors and students turn on
their webcams”: 43% strongly agreed; 32% agreed; 14% were undecided; and 11%
disagreed.
2. “I feel a sense of community is created among students when they turn on their
webcams: 50% strongly agreed; 28.5% agreed; 14.5% disagreed; and 7% were
undecided.
3. “I feel I could monitor students’ engagement better when they turn their webcamson”: 53.5% strongly agreed; 21.5% were undecided; 18% agreed; and 7% disagreed.
4. “When students turn on their webcams, it positively affects their performance”: 36%
were undecided; 32% strongly agreed; 25% agreed; and 7% disagreed.
5. “When students turn on their webcams, it improves their learning experience”: 43%strongly agreed; 25% were undecided; 18% disagreed; and 14% agreed.
6. “When students turn on their webcams, it makes the teaching process easier and lessstressful”: 28.5% strongly agreed; agreed and undecided had the same percentage of25%; 18% disagreed; and 3.5% strongly disagreed.
7. “I feel isolated because students keep their webcams turned off”: 39.5% strongly
agreed; 28.5% agreed; 18% were undecided; and 7% either disagreed or strongly
disagreed.
8. “Absence of non-verbal cues makes online teaching more demanding”: 46.5% agreed;
28.5% strongly agreed; 18% were undecided; and 7% disagreed.
9. “Absence of non-verbal cues makes it difficult to determine if the students understandthe material discussed”: 43% strongly agreed; 32% agreed; 21.5% were undecided;and 3.5% disagreed.
10. “I think the university should make turning on webcams obligatory”: 32% strongly
agreed; 21.5% agreed; undecided or disagreed had the same percentage of 14.25%;
and 18% strongly disagreed.
11. “When students do not turn on their webcams, it negatively affects theirperformance”: 28.5% agreed; undecided or disagreed had the same percentage of25%; 14.5% strongly agreed; and 7% strongly disagreed.
12. “Some subjects require that both instructors and students turn their webcams on morethan other subjects”: 60.5% agreed; strongly agreed and disagreed had the same
percentage of 14.25%; and 11% were undecided.
13. “Making turning the webcams on compulsory could discourage some students from
attending virtual classes”: 43% disagreed; 21.5% were undecided; 18% agreed; 14%strongly agreed; and 3.5% strongly disagreed.
14. “To ensure students are present and engaged when they do not turn on their webcams,
I use various teaching methods”: 68% agreed; 28.5% strongly agreed; 3.5%
disagreed.

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Undecided

DisagreeStrongly
disagree

1. I feel a sense of community is created
when both instructors and students
turn on their webcams.
2. I feel a sense of community is createdamong the students when they turnon their webcams.
3. I feel I could monitor students'
engagement better when they turn on
their webcams.
4. When students turn on their webcams,
it positively affects theirperformance.
5. When students turn on their webcams,
it improves their learning experience.
6. When students turn on their webcams,
it makes the teaching process easierand less stressful.
7. I feel isolated because students keep
their webcams turned off.
8. Absence of non-verbal cues makes
online teaching more demanding.
9. Absence of non-verbal cues makes it
difficult to determine if the students
understand thematerial discussed.
10. I think the university should maketurning on webcams obligatory.
11. When students do not turn on their
webcams, it negatively affects theirperformance.
12. Some subjects require that both
instructors and students turn their
webcams on more than othersubjects.
13. Making turning the webcams on
compulsory could discourage somestudents' from attending virtual
classes?
14. To ensure students are present andengaged when they do not turn on
their webcams, I use various
teaching methods.

Agree

Strongly
agree

Section 4

%

43

32

14

11

0

%

50

28.5

14.5

7

0

%

53.5

18

21.5

7

0

%

32

25

36

7

0

%

43

14

25

18

0

%

28.5

25

25

18

3.5

%

39.5

28.5

18

7

7

%

28.5

46.5

18

7

0

%

43

32

21.5

3.5

0

%

32

21.5

14.25

14.25

18

%

14.5

28.5

25

25

7

%

14.25

60.5

11

14.25

0

%

14

18

21.5

43

3.5

%

28.5

68

0

3.5

0

Table 2. Instructor Survey Results of Section 4

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Section 5
In this section, the instructors were asked what they would be able to know when students
turned on their webcams. Multiple answers could be selected from a list of 8 possible options
including “Other” where instructors could provide an answer that was not listed (see Table3). The most frequently selected answer was that the instructors would know that the students
were present and attentive (N=24, 86%). The second most frequently selected answer wasthat they would not feel as if were talking to themselves (N=22, 78.5%). The third mostselected answer was that they would know that the students were not doing something else
(N=19, 68%). The fourth most selected answer was that they would be able to see when
students had this confused look of not understanding the shared material (N=17, 61%); The
fifth most selected two answers were they would be able to know that the students understood
the material discussed and that they were not bored (N=15, 53.5%). The least selected answer
was “Not applicable – I don’t feel it affects the teaching process at all” (N=2, 7%). Three
instructors (11%) selected the “Other” option to elaborate, commenting:Despite the fact that the cam shows them physically present, I cannot gauge theirunderstanding of the taught material, especially in large classes.
Some of my students complained that they couldn’t concentrate when the camera wason.
Nothing because on camera all you can see is someone’s face but not their entire
physical presence.
Section 5
When students turn on their webcams, I will be able to know that (Youmay choose more than one):• They are present and attentive.
• They understand the material discussed.
• They are not doing something else.
• They are not bored.
• They have this confused look of not understanding the sharedmaterial.
• I am not talking to myself.
• Not Applicable – I do not feel it affects the teaching and learning
process at all.
• Other.
Table 3. Instructor Survey Results of Section 5

%
%
%
%
%

86
53.5
68
53.5

%
%

61
78.5
7

%

11

Section 6
The survey included two optional open-ended questions with no predetermined options to
select from, to which survey participants could respond by using their own words. The firstquestion was “List the types of methods you use to keep your students engaged” (optional).
78.5% of survey respondents (22 of the 28 surveyed) provided answers to this question.
Based on the instructors’ comments, this section is divided into the following four categories(see Table 4):

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1. Participation: 100% said they randomly selected students to answer questions using
the available audio feature, 32% used breakout rooms, and 23% used the chat box.
2. Attendance: 18% kept regular track of attendance.
3. Online Assessment: An equal percentage of respondents (13.5%) used discussion
boards, asked students to do an oral presentation, or/and gave students online
exercises. 9% also administered online quizzes.
4. Activities: 13.5% asked students to play online games and 4.5% shared videos with
their students.
Section (6)1. Participation:a. Randomly selecting students to answer questions
using the audio featureb. Breakout roomsc. Using the chatbox
2. Attendance record keeping
3. Online assessment:
a. Discussion boards
b. Exercisesc. Presentations (feedback and comments)d. Quizzes
4. Activities:
a. Playing games
b. Sharing videos with students

%

100

%
%

32
23

%

18

%
%
%
%

13.5
13.5
13.5
9

%
%

13.5
4.5

Table 4. Instructor Survey Results of Section 6
The second optional open-ended question was “If you have any additional comments, pleasefeel free to share them with us (optional).” 10 instructors out of 28 provided answers for thisquestion; 36% of total participants. The following is a summary of the instructors’ comments:
1. 40% said that students were easily distracted in online classes when they kept their
webcams off.
2. 30% said that turning on their webcams made them, and their students feel exposed.
3. 20% said that turning on webcams must be obligatory when doing exams to minimize
cheating.
4. 10% said they felt isolated when students did not turn on their webcams.
5. 10% said that turning on webcams should depend on the nature of the online course
and the number of students enrolled.
6. 10% said that the university should make turning on webcams obligatory for bothstudents and instructors.
7. 10% said that the interface of the educational platforms used was not supportive of
too many webcams to be viewed on one page, and that the Internet connection might
become poor.

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Findings
The survey highlighted a number of significant points, including:1.
A general reluctance among instructors to use webcams during virtual synchronousclasses. Only 32% of total participants always turned on their webcams and 68% preferred toteach with their webcams turned off (see Table 1). Many reasons contribute to thisreluctance, among them the fact that most students do not turn on their webcams (68%); theself-consciousness felt by many instructors (43%); and instructors’ own concerns about
issues of privacy concerning the unauthorized use of a screenshot of their images (36%) (seeTable 1). One instructor commented:
I am always worried students might take a screenshot of my picture and post it online.
I feel too exposed when I turn the camera on.
Self-consciousness about the physical visibility and exposure allowed by camera use
was felt more by female instructors than their male counterparts. In section 3, which
gives instructors a list of options on why they did not turn on their webcams, more
females than males chose the options of not being dressed appropriately to be on
camera (83% to 16%), fear of being noticed by everyone (100% to 0%) and being
concerned of the unauthorized use of a screenshot of their images (70% to 30%) (seeTable 1).
2.
Instructors’ paradoxical stand towards webcams recognizing their value in judging
learners’ interaction, attentiveness and level of understanding while being reluctant inmaking use of them. Most instructors agreed that they could monitor students’ engagement
better when they had their webcams on (71%). The majority also agreed (75%) that theabsence of non-verbal cues made teaching more demanding, and it was difficult to determine
if students understood the material discussed (see Table 2). 57% of survey respondents
agreed that turning on webcams improved the students’ learning experience; the same
percentage also agreed that it positively affected student performance, and 43% agreed that
not turning webcams on can negatively affect student performance (see Table 2). It should beemphasized that the survey participants were asked the same question twice using different
words, yet the same point was reiterated, that is, webcams contribute to students’ learning
experience (see Questions 4 & 11 in Table 2). Of the options instructors selected in Section 5
above, the four most selected answers also emphasize the role webcams play in determining
whether the students are present and attentive (86%), instructors are not just talking tothemselves (78.5%), students are not doing something else (68%) or having a confused lookof not understanding (61%) (see Table 3). In the "any additional comments" optional openended question at the end of the survey, 40% of instructors who answered this question said
that students were easily distracted in online classes when they kept their webcams off.
3.
Instructors’ general feelings of detachment and isolation in the absence of visualinteraction and communication with learners. Most instructors agreed that a sense ofcommunity was created among students (78.5%) and between students and instructors (75%)
when webcams were turned on. Almost two-thirds of instructors felt isolated (68%) when
students did not turn on their webcams (see Table 2). One instructor wrote:

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Official Conference Proceedings“The silence accompanying online teaching can be so frustrating and isolating. In
face-to-face classes, just the students’ presence makes the experience more enjoyable
and less lonely.”
4.
Instructors had to find ways to compensate for the absence of visual, physical andinteractive presence associated with traditional face-to-face teaching. 95.5% agreed that they
had to introduce new teaching methods and employ certain tools to ensure students were
present, attentive and understood the material discussed (see Tables 2 & 4).
The above findings seem to reveal that there is a degree of confusion within instructors’
attitudes towards the issue of webcam use. Interestingly, their attitudes have thus revealed
that their underlying concern is not so much webcam use itself, but rather their ability to
manage the new virtual learning environment. This fear is motivated by two major
considerations:1) The new learning environment has led to what could be termed as distracted learning.
Students tend to be easily distracted by numerous online and offline activities while
attending their virtual classes. They could be talking to their family members, surfing thenet, watching television, or even eating. With the sudden transition to online delivery,
students found themselves, in the comfort of their homes, rushed into a culture of virtual
learning that was completely foreign to them. “Many educators are grieving the loss of
their known and familiar educational environments, both personally and professionally.
With this grieving may come a sense of loss of control, which can cause educators toseek ways to control as much as possible” (Steeves, 2021). Instructors’ feelings maybe
summed up in the words of the following instructors:
Most of the time I feel like I am talking to myself, wondering if the students arepaying attention at all. Staring at small black screens can be so frustrating.
Sometimes I am even surprised at how loud my voice is, as if raising my voice would
make them concentrate more on the material I am explaining.
Sometimes I feel like a radio! Students keep me in the background playing and dosomething else.
2) Distracted learning has thus emerged as the biggest challenge for instructors. Learners’
attitudes, the need for them to be self-disciplined and focused have not been properly
addressed during the early stages of the pandemic. The stress was rather on the need toensure education continues uninterrupted. Therefore, students and instructors were nottrained to use webcams.
Conclusion
The teaching process can still be effective even in cases when neither students nor instructors
turn on their webcams. The non-physical presence of participants and their verbal cues has
led instructors to depend less on webcams and to focus more on the use of various teaching
methods as part of their synchronous virtual classes. This process slowly and graduallydeveloped through trial and error.
As it turns out, audio participation seems to have a more significant impact on synchronous
virtual classes than webcam use alone (See Section 6 above). Although different educational

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platforms make use of various display settings, the material displayed by the instructor would
dominate the screen space. As a result, the size of the student photo thumbnail is
automatically reduced and does not allow the instructor to monitor students’ non-verbal cuesor actions. And the larger the class, the smaller the images. As instructors get to share course
material with learners on screen, they focus on class delivery while scrolling up and down. In
this case, it is not easy to keep check of the chatbox or students’ faces for non-verbal cues.
Students who feel the need to address their instructor would be able to do so using their mics.
Recommendations
The research findings and conclusions regarding webcam use have revealed that instructors’
perception of webcam efficacy in online classes are deeply rooted in their attempt to ensure
they have better management and more control over the virtual environment, particularly
when it comes to the fact that students can be easily distracted. The idea of faceless learners
hiding behind their computer screens, being present virtually but not mentally, as well as
instructors’ assumptions regarding students lack of of commitment and seriousness havesomehow led instructors to come up with ways to ensure that the students are learning.
Despite proving its resilience during the pandemic, higher education in Bahrain, as
elsewhere, now stands at a crossroads (Schwenck & Pryor, 2021). If universities decide tocontinue incorporating online teaching into their curricula post-pandemic or opt for someform of hybrid teaching, matters related to students’ readiness should be properly addressed.
The following steps could help achieve that:
1. Integrating effective online communication into preparatory training sessions toincrease students’ attentiveness, commitment, and respect for the online learning
environment by addressing key issues such as online etiquette and the profile of agood learner. “Clearly, students need assistance and guidance to apprise them of theways in which they are depriving themselves of the quality of their education. It is
incumbent on us, as faculty, to design strategies that will help them to navigate these
difficulties in order to optimise their distance learning given the evolving COVID-19
situation.” (Neuwirth et al., 2020).
2. Offering specialized training sessions for online teachers on topics such as using theproper tone of voice, an engaging style of delivery, and the right microphones andcameras.
3. Protecting both students and instructors from online privacy violations by establishingclear rules and regulations. Feeling safe and secure online would make it easier toutilize online courses to their fullest potential and would also help overcome selfconsciousness.

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References
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Al Mahadin, L., & Hallak, L., (2021). The lack of visual interaction in online classes and its
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Bensaid, B., & Brahimi, T., (2021). Coping with COVID-19: Higher education in the GCC
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Castelli, F., & Sarvary, M., (2020). Why students do not turn on their video cameras during
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Hosszu, A., Rughiniş, C., Rughiniş, R., & Rosner D., (2022). Webcams and social interaction
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Schwenck, C. M., & Pryor, J. D., (2021). Student perspectives on camera usage to engage
and connect in foundational education classes: It's time to turn your cameras on.
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of Illinois Press, USA.

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Learners’ Perceptions of Difficulties in Orally Producing English Sentences
Harumi Kashiwagi, Institute for Promotion of Higher Education–Kobe University, JapanMin Kang, Graduate School of Intercultural Studies–Kobe University, Japan
Kazuhiro Ohtsuki, Graduate School of Intercultural Studies–Kobe University, JapanThe Southeast Asian Conference on Education 2023
Official Conference Proceedings
Abstract
Japanese English learners struggle to speak English as they have few opportunities to use it ina truly immersive setting. We attempted to develop a new system for English-speaking
practice to address this challenge. Our research suggests that Japanese students feel
challenged when using English words and phrases orally, even if they know them. This study
examines their perceived difficulties in the oral production of English sentences to identify
the specific language items posing challenges. To ascertain the subjective difficulty levels of
60 English sentences, we administer pre- and post-practice questionnaires to 71 Japanese
university students. The study’s results indicate that after practice, the average difficultyscores of 43 sentences are significantly lower, 14 sentences show no significant differences,and the average scores of the remaining three sentences slightly increase. These results
suggest that short sentences, familiar content, and expressing sentences in chronologicalorder are recommended strategies when learning unknown or unfamiliar words and phrases.
The results also indicate that students need oral practice to fluently use inanimate subject
sentences, causative verbs, phrasal verbs, relative pronouns, and sentences leaving out object
pronouns. Additionally, using adverbs, such as “completely” is difficult for Japanese learners.
Although further investigations are required, learners’ subjective perceptions of difficulty inthe pre- and post-practice questionnaires clarify which language items are easier to handle.
Furthermore, we aim to clarify the role of subjective evaluation of learner difficulties inspoken English by focusing on specific grammar and constructions, as well as controlling thelength of target sentences.
Keywords: Difficulty Perception of Japanese Learners of English, Foreign Language Use,
Foreign Language Learning System, English-Speaking Practiceiafor
The International Academic Forumwww.iafor.org

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Introduction
As part of the country’s significant efforts toward globalization, the Japanese Ministry of
Education, Culture, Sports, Science, and Technology (MEXT, 2015) has developed an
English proficiency promotion plan to develop English communication skills among Japanese
students. With the introduction of a new course of study, English education has becomecompulsory in elementary schools since 2020 (MEXT, 2019). Between the third and fourth
grades, English becomes a “foreign language activity.” In the fifth and sixth grades, English
is adopted as a subject called “foreign language.” Such reforms are expected to produce
significant changes in English education.
Given that Japanese students have limited opportunities to practice English in their everyday
life outside language classes, they lack confidence when speaking English (Kashiwagi, Kang,& Ohtsuki, 2018). Specifically, Japanese students experience difficulties speaking English
even while knowing the correct words and phrases.
Therefore, a suitable English-speaking environment is necessary for Japanese learners todevelop oral proficiency. We have been developing a prototype system for practicing
English-speaking (Kashiwagi, Kang, & Ohtsuki, 2020). To promote English-speaking
practices in our system, we believe that learners’ self-reflective evaluations of learning items
may play a crucial role.
Reflection is an essential skill that learners are expected to acquire (OECD, 2005) and a key
to learning (Waguri, 2010). Therefore, considerable research has been conducted on
successfully promoting reflection (Mori, Amioka, Egi, & Ozawa, 2018; Onoda & Shinogaya,2014). For example, Chang (2019) promoted reflective learning by identifying foundationalfeatures of reflection in learning. While self-reflection may sometimes be unreliable, failingto reflect the learner’s actual performance (Todd, 2002), it can raise learners’ awareness oflanguage use and develop learner responsibility and autonomy (Janulevičienė &Kavaliauskienė, 2007). Thus, this study attempted to incorporate subjective difficulty ratings
to improve English-speaking practice.
To this end, we administered pre- and post-practice questionnaires to ascertain the subjective
difficulty levels of various English sentences among Japanese university students. Whileacknowledging that some sentences may never be produced smoothly, we conducted pre- andpost-practice assessments to observe detailed changes in the perceived difficulty of thesentences after practice. This would allow for identifying specific items students findparticularly challenging during language use. We investigated the following researchquestions:
RQ1. Are there any English sentences in which students’ perception of difficulty
decreases after practice? What characteristics can be observed in thesesentences?
RQ2. Are there any English sentences in which students’ perception of difficulty
does not change after practice? What characteristics can be observed in thesesentences?
RQ3. Could incorporating subjective difficulty ratings in the language learning
system help further develop English-speaking practice?

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RQ1 and RQ2 aim to identify which language items provide more difficulties for learners in
spoken English. RQ3 investigates whether learners’ subjective difficulty ratings in pre- andpost-practice questionnaires can help improve English-speaking practices.
Methods
ParticipantsThis study recruited 71 first-year students in three classes at a university in Japan (29 in theEngineering class, 20 in the Global Human Sciences class, and 22 in the Letters class). Table
1 reports the number of students and their majors. Students were informed of the study’s
purpose, and their informed consent to participate was obtained. They were further informedthat their data would remain confidential.
Class

Grade

Major Field

1st yearEngineeringst
1 yearGlobal Human Sciencesst
1 yearLetters
Table 1: Number of participants and their major.

A
B
C

Number ofStudents
29
20
22

Data collection and analysis
We administered two self-reflective questionnaires to gather responses from the students
regarding their difficulty ratings for the 60 sentences listed in Table 2. These sentences are
expressions related to daily life, including “School Life,” “At the Office,” and “Illness andInjury.” We administered 60 sentences in three blocks of 20 sentences each.
Review Sentence
quiz
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

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Sentences

Numberofwords

You always wait until the last minute before you leave.
(Responding to “Did you do your math homework?”)
I’ve got it all done today.
What material will the test cover?

10

The mock exam uses a computer-scored answer sheet.
(Responding to “Did you study for your exams?”) I only
studied for one night.
(Responding to “How did you do on the exam?”)
I guessed right about what would be on the exam.
(Responding to “How did you do on the exam?”)
I had no idea there would be questions like that on theexam.
If I flunk/fail this class, I’ll have to repeat a year.
(Responding to “Have you seen the department bulletinboard?”)
It listed canceled and extra classes.

8

501

6
6
6
10
13
11
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21

(Responding to “Is your job search coming along
well?”)
Things are pretty tough, you know.
(Responding to “I’m going to the library to check out
some books.”)
You can check out up to five books at any one time.
The lending period is two weeks, but this book iscurrently checked out.
This book is not available to be checked out, so you’rewelcome to use it in the library.
(Responding to “Did you find the book you werelooking for last week?”)
I had them retrieve the book from the stacks.
I used a fire extinguisher during a fire drill last year.
I completely forgot that today was the due date for theselibrary books.
(Responding to “Did you find your library card?”)
No, I had them reissue my library card.
To run for the Vice President position in the student
council, she will give a campaign speech at a school
assembly.
(Responding to “We wanted to win, but we weren’t
ready for the game.”)The opposing team had a substantial physicaladvantage, so we should have come up with (devised) a
game plan to make up for it.
When I was a university student, I was a member of a
student circle. We set up a yakisoba booth at theschool/annual festival.
In the end, I went back to sleep.

22

I take a shower.

4

23

The mirror is fogged up.

524

My hair is sticking out.

525

My face is slightly swollen.

526

My face looks awful.

427

My skin feels nice and smooth.

628

My mouth feels refreshed.

429

I clear the breakfast dishes.

5

30

I put the garbage into the plastic trash bag.

931

I take the garbage bags to the drop-off site.

932

There was a flame war on his blog.
If you receive junk/spam emails, you can block theemail addresses you don’t want to receive messages
from.
My computer is broken. I’ll get it fixed. (I’ll have it
repaired.)

8

10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18

19

20

2

33
34

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502

6
12
13
18
9
11
13
8
21

23

24
8

18
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35

I got 10 likes.

4

36

The battery runs out.

437

I charge/recharge my smartphone.

438

I make three copies of contracts on A4 paper.

939

Could you enlarge this document from A4 to A3?

940This copier often gets jammed.

5

41

It’s not your fault.

4

42

Don’t push yourself too hard.

543Your snoring disturbed my sleep.

5

44

You grind your teeth so loudly.

6

45

I toss and turn a lot in my sleep.

946

Zoning out is the best way to get rid of stress.

1147

I want to fix my stooped shoulders.

748

He has bad breath.

549

He is nerdy.

350

She dresses neatly.

351

My eyes are itchy.

452

I’d like to get a vaccination for the flu.

953

It’s a throbbing pain.

4

54

I strained my back. It hurts so much.

8

55

He might be depressed.

456

Can you prescribe a Chinese herbal medicine?

7

57

Do you have medicine for hay fever?

7

58

Please give me a compress for my sprain.

859

I have terribly stiff shoulders.

560
My eyes are a bit irritated.
6
Table 2: 60 English sentences provided in the self-reflective questionnaires.
First, participants orally translated 20 sentences from Japanese to English during theirEnglish language class. We then asked them to rate the difficulty level of the sentences on a
five-point Likert scale (i.e., “1” for Easy, “2” for Relatively Easy, “3” for Neutral, “4” forRelatively Difficult, and “5” for Difficult).
Next, we gave students the same Japanese sentences and their English translations for areview quiz. Students were given two weeks to practice speaking in English without looking
at the text, after which they took the quiz. A doctoral student verified students’ answers using
our proposed system (Kashiwagi et al., 2020). After the quiz, students were again asked torate the difficulty of the sentences. The above practice cycle was conducted three times forthe 60 sentences.

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Then, using a Wilcoxon signed-rank test, we investigated whether any statistical differences
existed among the difficulty ratings of the pre- and post-practice questionnaires.
Results and Discussion
Figures 1–6 illustrate the average difficulty ratings of the 60 sentences in the pre- and postpractice questionnaires across the three classes. The dotted red line indicates neutral difficulty
values. The results show that the average values of the difficulty ratings across the threeclasses were similar in the pre- and post-practice questionnaires. As expected, the averagescores of 57 of the 60 sentences (95%) decreased from the pre-practice to the post-practicequestionnaire, although the average scores of the remaining three sentences increased. We
examine the detailed results of the respective sentences in the following subsections.

Figure 1: Average difficulty ratings of sentences no. 1–20 in the pre-practice questionnaire.

Figure 2: Average difficulty ratings of sentences no. 1–20 in the post-practice questionnaire.

Figure 3: Average difficulty ratings of sentences no. 21–40 in the pre-practice questionnaire.

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Figure 4: Average difficulty ratings of sentences no. 21–40 in the post-practice questionnaire.

Figure 5: Average difficulty ratings of sentences no. 41–60 in the pre-practice questionnaire.

Figure 6: Average difficulty ratings of sentences no. 41–60 in the post-practice questionnaire.
Research Question 1: Are there any English sentences in which students’ perception ofdifficulty decreases after practice? What characteristics can be observed in thesesentences?
We used the Wilcoxon signed-rank test to analyze whether any statistically significant
differences existed among the difficulty ratings of the pre- and post-practice questionnaires at
a 5% significance level. Furthermore, we examined the characteristics of the proposed
English sentences.
Sentences with Significantly Lower Average Difficulty Scores. Table 3 indicates that of
the 57 sentences with lower scores after practice, the average scores of 43 sentences weresignificantly different between the pre- and post-practice questionnaires. We observe that the
average difficulty scores of all short sentences consisting of three to five words (highlighted
in yellow in Table 3) were significantly lower than those of the pre-practice questionnaire.

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Although these sentences contained words unknown or unfamiliar to the students, such as“nerdy,” “itchy,” “throbbing,” and “fogged up,” they are very short. As students can easily
focus on unknown or unfamiliar words, concise sentences are easy for them to learn. These
results suggest that short sentences are recommended when using unknown words.
Average difficulty ratings on a five-point Likert scale
NumberEngineering
Global Human Sciences
Letters
Sentenceof
prepoststatisticalprepoststatisticalprepoststatisticalNo.
words practice practice differences practice practice differences practice practice differences
49
3
3.8
2.2
*
2.9
1.8
*
3.6
2.1
*
50
3
3.5
1.7
*
3.3
2.0
*
3.2
1.5
*
22
4
2.2
1.2
*
1.8
1.2
*
2.0
1.1
*
26
4
3.0
2.2
*
3.5
1.9
*
3.8
1.8
*
28
4
3.6
2.0
*
3.7
2.0
*
4.0
1.8
*
35
4
3.0
1.7
*
2.7
1.7
*
3.2
1.4
*
36
4
3.0
1.8
*
3.1
1.6
*
3.3
1.5
*
37
4
2.6
1.4
*
2.7
1.4
*
2.9
1.3
*
41
4
3.3
1.3
*
3.2
1.3
*
3.0
1.4
*
51
4
4.1
2.1
*
4.5
2.1
*
4.3
2.0
*
53
4
4.2
3.0
*
4.4
2.7
*
4.3
2.3
*
55
4
3.9
2.1
*
3.1
1.5
*
3.8
1.5
*
23
5
4.0
2.7
*
4.5
2.5
*
4.3
2.0
*
24
5
4.1
2.9
*
4.3
2.8
*
4.2
2.4
*
25
5
4.1
3.2
*
4.6
3.0
*
4.5
2.6
*
29
5
3.4
2.2
*
3.4
2.0
*
3.9
1.9
*
40
5
4.3
3.3
*
4.0
2.7
*
4.1
2.4
*
42
5
3.3
2.1
*
3.5
2.0
*
3.0
1.8
*
43
5
4.2
2.6
*
4.4
2.7
*
4.3
2.6
*
48
5
2.8
1.7
*
3.1
1.6
*
2.7
1.5
*
59
5
4.2
2.8
*
3.9
2.4
*
4.2
2.9
*
5
6
3.4
1.7
*
3.5
1.7
*
3.0
1.7
*
9
6
4.1
2.1
*
4.5
2.4
*
4.6
2.2
*
27
6
3.4
2.5
*
3.5
1.9
*
4.1
2.1
*
44
6
4.7
2.8
*
4.8
2.5
*
4.5
2.4
*
60
6
4.6
2.6
*
4.6
2.7
*
4.8
3.0
*
47
7
3.9
2.6
*
4.4
3.0
*
4.5
3.0
*
56
7
3.3
2.4
*
3.6
2.6
*
4.0
2.6
*
57
7
3.7
2.4
*
3.2
1.9
*
3.5
2.2
*
17
8
3.9
2.7
*
4
3.3
*
4.2
2.7
*
21
8
3.3
2.2
*
2.9
2.2
*
3.0
2.0
*
54
8
4.6
2.6
*
4.7
2.6
*
4.5
2.5
*
58
8
4.0
3.0
*
4.3
2.9
*
4.4
3.0
*
30
9
3.6
2.9
*
3.3
2.7
*
3.7
2.5
*
38
9
4.1
3.2
*
4.3
2.8
*
4.0
2.3
*
45
9
4.0
2.9
*
4.3
2.5
*
4.1
2.5
*
52
9
3.0
2.4
*
3.3
2.1
*
3.7
2.1
*
1
10
3.6
2.4
*
4.1
2.7
*
4.4
2.4
*
6
10
3.7
2.8
*
3.9
3
*
4.3
2.9
*
8
11
3.7
2.0
*
4
2.4
*
4.2
2.4
*
15
11
3.9
3.1
*
4.5
3.3
*
4.3
3.2
*
46
11
3.6
2.4
*
3.6
2.1
*
3.5
2.6
*
20
24
4.1
3.0
*
4
3.0
*
3.9
2.9
*

Table 3: Sentences with significantly reduced average difficulty scores.
Second, the longest sentence consisted of 24 words (Sentence no. 20: “When I was auniversity student, I was a member of a student circle. We set up a yakisoba booth at theschool/annual festival.”). Its score significantly decreased from the pre-to-post-practice

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questionnaire, suggesting that students did not find it difficult after self-study despite its
length. In Japanese, there is a tendency to describe situations chronologically. As Sentence no.
20 is written in chronological order, using this sentence orally was not challenging.
Third, the difficulty scores of sentences in the form “get” + the past participle form of theverb (Sentence no. 40: “This copier often gets jammed.”) and “have” as a causative verb
(Sentence no. 17: “No, I had them reissue my library card.”) significantly decreased after
practice. While such sentences are not easy for Japanese students, since the target sentenceswere short with familiar content, they had no difficulty using them orally after self-study.
These results suggest that short sentences, sentences in chronological order, and familiar
content even in the form of “get” + the past participle form of the verb and of “have” as a
causative verb are recommended strategies for Japanese students learning unknown or
unfamiliar words and phrases.
Sentences with Lower but not Significant Average Difficulty Scores. Table 4 reports theaverage difficulty scores of the remaining 14 of the 57 sentences with reduced average scores.
These sentences do not show significant differences between the pre- and post-practicequestionnaires. The sentences highlighted in green in Table 4 have reduced but notsignificantly different difficulty scores.
Average difficulty ratings on a five-point Likert scale
NumberEngineering
Global Human Sciences
Letters
Sentenceof
prepoststatisticalprepoststatisticalprepoststatisticalNo.
words practice practice differences practice practice differences practice practice differences
2
6
2.8
2.1
*
2.9
2.5
2.9
2.3
3
6
3.3
2.2
*
3.2
2.7
3.0
2.6
4
8
3.9
2.9
*
3.4
3.3
3.7
2.9
10
6
2.8
2.6
3.1
2.6
3.4
2.0
*
12
13
3.7
2.8
*
4.0
3.4
3.7
3.0
13
18
3.7
3.1
*
3.3
3.2
3.1
3.0
14
9
3.8
3.4
4.1
3.6
4.1
3.1
*
18
21
4.3
3.9
4.5
4
4.5
4.3
19
23
4.3
3.6
*
4.5
4.1
4.7
3.8
*
31
9
3.6
3.2
3.6
3.2
3.7
3.2
32
8
3.5
3.3
3.8
2.9
*
3.7
2.9
*
33
18
3.8
3.4
3.9
3.1
*
4.1
3.4
*
34
8
2.6
2.1
2.3
2.0
2.5
1.5
*
39
9
3.8
3.3
3.4
2.5
*
4.2
2.6
*

Table 4: Sentences with lower but not significantly different average difficulty scores.
When we analyzed the characteristics of these 14 sentences, the following observations werenoted. First, the average difficulty scores of the inanimate subject sentences, such as “Whatmaterial will the test cover?” (Sentence no. 3), “The mock exam uses a computer-scoredanswer sheet” (Sentence no. 4), and “Things are pretty tough” (Sentence no. 10) decrease, but
without significant differences in two classes. The inanimate subject sentence is a uniquelinguistic phenomenon in English and may be challenging for Japanese learners. Hence,
students did not find it easy to translate these sentences orally, even after self-study.
Second, the difficulty scores of sentences using the structure “get” or “have” + object + past
participle form of the verb (Sentence no. 2: “I’ve got it all done today” and Sentence no. 34:“My computer is broken. I’ll get it fixed. (I’ll have it repaired)”), and the structure of “have”+ object + infinitive of the verb (Sentence no. 14: “I had them retrieve the book from theISSN: 2435-5240

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stacks.”) are not significantly lower in two classes. We assume that Japanese students know
how to use the verbs “have” and “get” as basic verbs. However, in the case of the structure“get” or “have” + object + past participle form of the verb and of the structure “have” +object + infinitive of the verb, they may struggle to use them orally in English, even after
self-study.
Third, we observe that students do not use phrasal verbs. For example, the difficulty score of
Sentence no. 18, which includes “run for” (“To run for the Vice President position in thestudent council, she will give a campaign speech at a school assembly.”) is not significantly
lower in all three classes. The difficulty score of Sentence no. 12, which includes “check out”(“The lending period is two weeks, but this book is currently checked out.”), is not
significantly lower in two classes. Additionally, the difficulty score of Sentence no. 19, which
includes “come up with” and “make up for” (“The opposing team had a substantial physicaladvantage, so we should have come up with a game plan to make up for it.”), is not
significantly lower only in one class. These sentences are rather long, and the length of thesentence may determine students’ difficulties. In addition, using these phrasal verbs may be
hard for them, whereas native English speakers often use them. Previous research (Ishii,2018) has found that the phrasal verbs used by EFL (English as a foreign language) learners
differ from those used by native English speakers. These results suggest that further
consideration must be given to teaching phrasal verbs.
Finally, the difficulty score of sentences with relative pronouns or the omission of relative
pronouns, such as “You can block the email addresses you don’t want to receive messagesfrom” (Sentence no. 33), is not significantly lower only in one class. Object relative pronouns
are often left out in relative clauses. Japanese students have lesser proficiency in using
relative clauses, even as teaching methods for addressing this issue have been explored(Nakamori, 2002). As such, they do not find it easy to use them orally in English, even after
self-study.
These results suggest that students must learn to use inanimate subject sentences, thestructure of “get” or “have” + object + past participle form of the verb, and that of “have” +object + infinitive of the verb, phrasal verbs, relative pronouns, and sentences that leave out
object pronouns.
Research Question 2: Are there any English sentences in which students’ perception ofdifficulty does not change after practice? What characteristics can be observed in thesesentences?
The results in Table 5 indicate that the average difficulty scores of three sentences slightly
increase after practice in both Class B (Faculty of Global Human Sciences) and Class C(Faculty of Letters). The sentences highlighted in orange in Table 5 are those with higher but
not significantly different after-practice average scores in the two classes. We analyzed thecharacteristics of these three sentences.

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Average difficulty ratings on a five-point Likert scale
NumberEngineering
Global Human Sciences
Letters
Sentenceof
prepoststatisticalprepoststatisticalprepoststatisticalNo.
words practice practice differences practice practice differences practice practice differences
7
13
2.9
2.8
2.8
2.9
2.7
3.1
11
12
2.7
2.7
2.8
3.0
2.4
3.0
16
13
3.0
2.8
2.9
3.2
2.5
2.6

Table 5: Sentences with slightly higher average difficulty scores after practice.
First, the lengths of the three sentences are 12 or 13 words (moderately long), which may
generate difficulties in producing sentences.
Regarding Sentence no. 7 (“I had no idea there would be questions like that on the exam.”),the phrases “I have no idea” and “like that” appear to be perceived as challenging. In
Sentence no. 11 (“You can check out up to five books at any one time.”), the expressions“check out,” “up to,” and “at any one time” are included in one sentence, and students do notseem to be accustomed to these idiom expressions. Sentence no. 16 (“I completely forgot thattoday was the due date for these library books.”) contains the adverb “completely.” For
Japanese learners, using adverbs is challenging, and an efficient way to teach adverbs has
been proposed (Kumagai & Kumagai, 2016). Additionally, the sentence includes theexpression “the due date,” which may be unfamiliar to most students.
In the pre-practice questionnaire, students do not find it challenging to produce thesesentences in English orally; however, they seem to find it challenging after self-study. We
assume that these sentences are unexpectedly tricky for them to produce.
Research Question 3: Could incorporating subjective difficulty ratings in the language
learning system help further develop English-speaking practice?
In investigating whether learners’ subjective difficulty ratings could help develop the
proposed system of English-speaking practice, it was found that students perceived most
proposed sentences as easier after practice. However, their difficulty ratings of somesentences did not reduce, as expected, or slightly increased after practice. These sentenceswere not produced smoothly, although the students knew the words and phrases.
Subjective difficulty ratings may help identify specific language items that students haveproblems with. In addition, learners’ self-reflective evaluations of detailed learning items
play a meaningful role in observing real perceptions of language use. While self-reflective
evaluation is not an objective test, it allows us to observe how students perceive the difficultyof producing certain words and phrases.
By incorporating subjective difficulty ratings in the proposed system, we may gain a deeper
understanding and knowledge of which language items are unfamiliar on an individual basis.
In turn, our system of English-speaking practice can be improved by incorporating these
items to improve individual learning.
Findings
Although the study of the role of learners’ perceived difficulty is still in progress, thispreliminary study provides some meaningful implications.

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For example, students may more easily focus on unknown or unfamiliar words in short
sentences with familiar content, which is recommended when learning new words. Anotherrecommended strategy for learning unknown or unfamiliar words and phrases is expressing
sentences chronologically.
Japanese students find it challenging to produce sentences using inanimate subjects. The
questionnaire results suggest that students find it hard to use the structure “get” or “have” +past participle form of the verb and “have” as a causative verb. However, if these expressions
are introduced in short target sentences, they may be easier to learn. Furthermore, it was
found that Japanese students do not use phrasal verbs such as “make up for” but instead tend
to use one longer word, such as “compensate.” Therefore, Japanese learners need to become
familiar with using phrasal verbs. Similarly, they need to be accustomed to using adverbs,
which are also difficult for Japanese learners. Finally, the results indicate the importance ofpracticing producing sentences with relative clauses, especially wherein the objective relative
pronoun is omitted.
In all these cases, learners’ subjective perceptions of difficulty may help determine which
language items are particularly challenging for them.
Conclusions
To improve the proposed English-speaking practice system, we examined learners’ perceived
difficulty in producing English sentences. We administered pre- and post-practicequestionnaires among 71 Japanese university students to ascertain the subjective difficultylevels of 60 English sentences. The results suggest that short sentences, familiar content, andexpressing sentences in chronological order are useful strategies when learning unknown or
unfamiliar words and phrases. Moreover, students should practice using inanimate subject
sentences, causative verbs, phrasal verbs, relative pronouns, and sentences leaving out object
pronouns.
It was also observed that Japanese learners had trouble with expressions such as “I have noidea,” idiom expressions such as “check out,” “up to,” and “at any one time,” and withadverbs. These should hence be made more familiar to them.
Finally, assessing the learner’s subjective perception of difficulty may help identify
particularly problematic language items.
Despite its contributions, the current study has some limitations. For instance, it does notcontrol the target sentences’ grammar, syntax, or length, all of which are important andshould be examined in future research. Moreover, objective evaluations, such as review
quizzes, are needed to measure learners’ ability to use English orally. In addition, as thisstudy only addresses three classes, the results may not be easy to generalize. Further studies
targeting larger numbers of students should thus be conducted.
As a continuation of this study, we hope to investigate the role of learners’ perceptions ofdifficulty in oral English production by focusing on specific target grammar and syntax, as
well as controlling the length of the target sentences.

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Acknowledgments
This work was supported by JSPS Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research (No. JP18K02822).

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References
Chang, B. (2019). Reflection in learning. Online Learning, 23(1), 95–110.
Ishii, Y. (2018). An analysis of phrasal verbs used by Japanese EFL learners: Based on
spoken learner corpora and authorized English textbooks. Learner Corpus Studies in
Asia and the World, 3, 101–109 (in Japanese).
Japan Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT). (2015). Seito
no eigoryokukojyosuishin plan [The English proficiency promotion plan].
https://www.mext.go.jp/a_menu/kokusai/gaikokugo/__icsFiles/afieldfile/2015/07/21/
1358906_01_1.pdf (in Japanese).
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Shingakusyushidoyoryozenmenjisshinimuketashogakkogaikokugonikansuru torikumi
nitsuite [Efforts related to foreign languages in elementary schools for the full
implementation of the new course of study].
https://www.mext.go.jp/b_menu/shingi/chukyo/chukyo3/004/siryo/__icsFiles/afieldfil
e/2019/09/11/1420968_2.pdf (In Japanese).
Janulevičienė, V., & Kavaliauskienė, G. (2007). Self-assessment of vocabulary and relevant
language skills for evaluation purposes. Coactivity: Philology, Educology/Santalka:
Filologija, Edukologija, 15(4), 10–15.
Kashiwagi, H., Kang, M., & Ohtsuki, K. (2018). A basic study on the conformity of Japanese
university students in language communication activities. Official Conference
Proceedings of The Asian Conference on Education & International Development
2018, Kobe, Japan, 299–309.
Kashiwagi, H., Kang, M., & Ohtsuki, K. (2020). Role of a subjective difficulty rating in usinga system for practicing English speaking. Official Conference Proceedings of The
Barcelona Conference on Education 2020, Barcelona, Spain, 135–145.
Kumagai, T. & Kumagai, Y. (2016). On the teaching of English adverbs－from theperspective of developmental education. Research Reports of the National Institute ofTechnology, Tokyo College, 48, 1–7 (in Japanese).
Mori, Y., Amioka, T., Egi, H., & Ozawa, S. (2018). An evaluation of a method to promotereflection by using self-evaluation graph. Japan Journal of Educational Technology
41(4), 415–426 (in Japanese).
Nakamori, T. (2002). Teaching relative clauses: How to handle a bitter lemon for Japaneselearners and English teachers, ELT Journal, 56(1), 29–40.
Onoda, R. & Shinogaya, K. (2014). Enhancing the quality of learners’ reflection: Effects ofthe teacher’s responses and interaction with beliefs about reflection. The Japanese
Journal of Educational Psychology, 62(2), 115–128 (in Japanese).

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Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). (2005). The definitionand selection of key competencies. https://www.oecd.org/pisa/35070367.pdf.
Todd, R. W. (2002). Using self-assessment for evaluation. English Teaching Forum, 40(1),
16–19.
Waguri, M. (2010). Reflection and learning: Fostering reflective learning in Japanese higher
education. Bulletin of National Institute for Educational Policy Research, 139(1), 85–100. https://www.nier.go.jp/kankou_kiyou/kiyou139-011.pdf (in Japanese).
Contact email: kasiwagi@kobe-u.ac.jp

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Surviving Distance Learning Calculus: Students’ Perspective, Practices, Experience andPerformance on a Modular Instruction Class

Lea Marissa S. Domingo, Cavite State University, Philippines

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Abstract
The absence of in-person classes due to COVID-19 compelled the teacher-researcher todeviate from the traditional face-to face class and lecture instruction delivery. This cycle 2 ofan action research study using the Plan-Do-Study-Act (PDSA) model determined thestudents’ perspective, practices, and performance on a fully modular calculus class. Survey
questionnaires, reflective journals, and focus group discussion were used for the qualitative
part while pretest and posttest scores were used to assess calculus performance using a twotailed paired t-test at α=0.05. Descriptive and thematic analyses revealed that students viewed
modules as printed materials which cover everything and modular instruction as entailing a
lot of reading and self-study. Students’ practices to survive the modular instruction included
reading of the modules several times a week, engaging in group studies, watching You Tube
videos, and asking questions to the teacher. Using Jamovi 2.3.13, results revealed that theparticipants’ calculus performance increased significantly (p  0.001, d=1.89) which islargely attributed to the use of the self-learning modules. Modular instruction appears to be a
viable mode for calculus agency during remote learning.

Keywords: Distance Learning, Modular Instruction, Self-Learning Modules, Calculus
Agency, Surviving Calculus

iafor
The International Academic Forumwww.iafor.org

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Introduction
Physical learning disruption caused by the global health pandemic due to COVID 19 posed
formidable challenges to educators. The predicament is more stimulating to teachers of
domains requiring knowledge of both declarative-propositional (knowledge) and procedural(skill) like mathematics. It is expected to be even more demanding for teachers and learnersof calculus, because concepts are abstract and complicated (Zachariades et al., 2007).
The choice of calculus instruction delivery amidst the pandemic considering inadequate
online learning gadgets and internet connectivity issues in a state university serves as the
subject of this paper. How does one provide an effective calculus instruction during remotelearning with the aforementioned considerations? A completely modular form of instruction
seems to be a viable option for the teacher-researcher and through action research thestudents’ perspective, practices, experiences and performance were determined.
Why Action Research. Elliot (1991) as cited by Young et al. (2010) defined actions research(AR) as a process in which teachers collaborate with peers to jointly evaluate their practice;raise awareness of their personal theory; express a shared conception of values; honing new
strategies so that practice and educational values they espouse are consistent; ensure
recording of their work in a manner which can be understood by their peers and make themreadily available; and thus develop a shared theory of teaching by research practice. AR
enables researchers to develop a systematic, inquiring approach toward their own practices
orienting towards effecting positive change in this practice (Hine, 2013; Holter & Frabutt,2012). The belief that one can know through doing, exemplified by pragmatists, reinforcesthese practices of action researchers (Brydon-Miller et al., 2003).
The adoption of an action research design to explore the perspective, practices, experiences
and performance of students in a fully modular instruction calculus class finds underpinnings
in the aforementioned.
On Distance Learning. Students may be separated geographically from their campus,
teachers, and institution services through distance learning (Lentel, 2012). Many researchers
have applied distance education and distance learning interchangeably to a variety of
programs, audience, and media (Sherry, 1995). It can take different forms and be supported
by various systems and applications (Zarzycka et al., 2021) with the common feature ofdelivery being remote (Means et al., 2010). Distance education describes education delivered
to distant or remote locations via print, audio, video (live or pre-recorded) and/or computer
technologies, including both synchronous and asynchronous instruction (Cain, et al. 2007 ascited by Owens, et al. 2009).
Modular Instruction. As early as 1972, Goldschmid & Goldschmid have explained that a
modular instruction is one which either partly or entirely uses a module which is a selfcontained, independent unit of a planned series of learning activities designed to help thestudents accomplish certain well-defined objectives. The main objective of the modules is toprovide resources to instructors that will allow them to transform their classrooms into active,
student-centered learning environment (Sadiq & Zamir, 2014). Rakova et al. (2018)considered a module to be a set of learning opportunities which are organized around a welldefined topic which contains elements of instruction, specific objectives, learning activities
and self-assessment and evaluation using criteria-referenced measurement. To have control
over their learning while accepting greater responsibility for learning as well (Dejene &ISSN: 2435-5240

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Chen, 2019) has been greatly encouraged by the modular approach which is an alternative
instructional design that uses developed instructional materials which are based on the needsof the students (Nardo, 2017).
Calculus Agency. Calculus has a critical role and varied goals across different contexts (Bizaet al., 2022) Calculus courses are considered to be a vital gate keeper in various academic andprofessional paths (Bressoud et al., Thompson & Harel, 2021) and calculus is widely known
as a critical stage in many transition processes including transition from secondary
mathematics to tertiary mathematics, transition within and across university courses, or more
importantly the transition from university to the workplace (Hocmuth et al., 2021). Though
the importance of calculus is widely accepted, ample evidence shows that students around theworld struggle in their calculus courses and the rates of failure in these courses are relatively
high (Artigue et al., 2007; Faulkner et al., 2019). As many components of calculus depend on
reasoning with visual representation (Sorby et al., 2013) it would really be a tremendous
challenge to teach calculus in the absence of a face-to-face class and trying to provide
calculus instruction in online distance learning via a fully modular instruction mode while
taking into consideration mobile learning gadget limitations, signal and internet connectivity
problems.
Methodology
The study involving 40 BSCS students, employed an action research design and adopted thePlan-Do-Study-Act (PDSA) model. What is presented hereon is the result of Cycle 2 of the
PDSA.
Design and Development of Modules. With the aid of available offline and online resources
and aptly guided by an approved Math 2 (Calculus) syllabus, 15 self-learning modules (SLM)
for differential calculus were developed. The SLM provided lessons on limits, continuity, thederivatives, rules on differentiation, implicit differentiation, higher-order derivatives, andproblem solving involving the derivatives including related rates, finding extrema, andoptimization. Each module contains an introduction of the topic lesson and a brief discussionof requisite concepts, objectives, instruction to users/learners, pretest (and answer to pretest),
lesson proper, activity, posttest (and answer to posttest), and self-assessment (Fig 1). The
alpha version was given to selected sections of education and computer engineering students
for student validation and for cycle 1 of the action research study. Errors such as
typographical ones were reported by students and were corrected accordingly; text boxes
with brief explanations in the vernacular (Tagalog) were also included. These measures were
undertaken to allay confusion among learners, make the SLM more learners’ friendly andhopefully address their reading literacy problems.

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Figure 1. Different parts of the topic module
Implementation of the Modules. The self-learning modules were uploaded in the Google
Classroom at the start of the semester. The students were instructed to read the SLM during
asynchronous class and have a group meet whenever necessary. During synchronous class,students were allowed to raise questions, concerns, and problems about the topic module; thiswas done to clarify lessons and discuss solutions to problems encountered. When students
have no question, the teacher-researcher then will be the one to ask questions about concepts
and applications of that particular topic module. As a requirement, the students have tosubmit weekly outputs of pretest, activity, posttest, reflection, and self-assessment.
Exploring Students’ Views, Practices and Experiences on a Modular Instruction Class.
To determine the students’ views, practices, and experiences on a fully modular instruction
calculus class, reflective journals, survey questionnaire, and focus group discussion were
utilized.
Reflective journals. The potential of reflective practices to engender lasting and effective
changes in students’ lives is widely recognized (Denton, 2018). It is common practice toencourage higher education students to engage in reflective practices as a preparation for
their future professional experiences (Adie and Tangen, 2015). Journaling, along with otherwriting activities was seen to be an effective supplement to traditional lecture mathematics
for it complements the critical and logical identity of mathematics and this blend creates aunique learning culture (Domingo, 2019). This underpins the use of reflective journal as asource of information for students’ perspective, practices, and experiences during remotelearning under the fully modular form of instruction. At the end of each module, students

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were tasked to make a reflection of their learning/understanding of that topic/lesson and tocontextualize the lesson.
Survey questionnaire. According to Mathers et al, (2009), survey is a flexible research
approach used to investigate a wide range of topics. A self-made questionnaire using a 4point Likert-scale with 1- never, 2 – sometimes, 3- often, and 4-always was employed todescribe the students’ experience on MI. It was composed of 17 experience descriptors whichwere gleaned from the students’ written reflections and comments through question andanswer during synchronous classes. The descriptors included: have access to the lessons
anytime, study calculus remotely, study calculus with flexibility, experience independentlearning, be focused in my learning, be inspired to do my best, understand my own learning(metacognition), experience challenges in reading the lessons, exercise critical thinking while
studying, learn without relying on sophisticated gadgets, have difficulty understanding thelessons, have feedback on my progress/performance, be confident in my performance,
exercise creativity in my learning, be anxious while studying, communicate for help when theneed arises (and extend help when warranted), and appreciate calculus and its use in the realworld. A check mark was used to indicate the frequency of experience of the descriptors fromnever (1) to always (4). At the end of the survey, the students were asked to write theircomments/suggestion on the use of modules.
Focus Group Discussion. Before the semester ended, 8 students were randomly selected fora focus group discussion which was done virtually via Google Meet. Each of them, in random
order, was asked to answer the prepared questions. They have to answer one at a time until all
8 were able to answer. The questions for FGD included: what is your understanding of amodule; what is your understanding of a modular instruction; what are your practices during
asynchronous classes, what are the opportunities and challenges encountered during the fully
modular form of instruction in the calculus class? The students were allowed to answer in thevernacular (Tagalog).
Pretest and Posttest. Each of the self-learning modules has a pretest and a posttest (Fig. 2).
After the introduction, objectives, and instruction to users, the pretest is done where final
answers are indicated for self-check. A table of scores is provided so the students have an
idea of what to do next. Usually, a student gets very low scores and are directed to continue
to the lesson proper where the topic is lengthily discussed and explained. An activity follows
the lesson proper and the student has to finish where their solutions and scores are comparedto the solution and answers given for the activity. If they get at least 70% correct answer thenthey are directed to proceed in answering the posttest which is identical to the pretest. In thispart, solution to the problems were explained unlike in the pretest where only the final
answers were provided. All in all, the students performed 15 pretests and posttest
corresponding to the 15 modules.
Paired sample t-test using Jamovi 2.3.13 was utilized to determine if significant difference
exists between the mean scores of the pretest and the posttest.

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Figure 2. Sample of an answered pretest, activity, and posttest
Findings and Discussion
Students’ Perspective, Practices, and Experiences on the Modular Form of Instruction
Using descriptive and thematic analysis, the data collected revealed that students viewed
modules as printed materials where everything about the lesson can be found and the modular
instruction as something which entails a lot of reading and self-study. This is in consonancewith the study of Dejene (2018) which mentioned that modular approach to teaching enables
the learner to have control over their learning and accepts greater responsibility for learning.
He asserted that modular instruction demands greater maturity on the part of the learners andmodules is more appropriate for mature students. This demand led to the development ofvarious practices among the student participants for them to cope. They shared common
practices in learning calculus through modular instruction which included: allotting schedulein reading the modules several times a week, engaging in group studies, watching Youtube
videos when still confused, and asking the teacher questions if there are still unclear items.
Reading (including module reading) is a cognitively complex activity which requires that one
fully comprehends the message expressed, interprets between and beyond the lines of text,
and constructs personal meaning with the text (Shea & Ceprano, 2017). This leads to the needof modular instruction students to spend time with the modules not just once a week but
several times a week. To fully comprehend the calculus lesson, repeated exposure to themodules is imperative. The need for group studies, on the other hand, is supported by Chiriac(2013) who claimed a strong scientific support for the benefits of students learning andworking in groups. She posited that when working interactively with others, as common ingroup studies, students learn to inquire, share ideas, clarify differences, problem-solve, andconstruct new understandings. The study of Cihangir and Coklar (2021) supports the practiceof students in a modular instruction to watch video lessons particularly at Youtube which isconsidered as a video learning tool with expected benefits due to its popularity and easy
access. The availability of self-learning modules and accessible video lessons does not lessen
the importance of teacher’s presence in virtual classes. Teachers play a crucial role in

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synchronous discussions and the quality of interaction in a virtual classroom is determined by
the instructor and not by technology (Tyrvainen et al., 2021). In the case of the student
participants to the study at hand, they felt the need for confirmation of their own
understanding of the lessons as well as learnings from youtube videos; finality andconfirmation can be found from the teacher’s answers to their questions, thus, the mostcommon practice of asking questions during synchronous classes was observed.
The results revealed that about 97% of the students often or always experienced having
access to the module anytime, being able to exercise creativity in learning, communicating
for help when needed, and appreciating calculus better. Veletsianos and Houlden in 2019espoused the flexibility quality of distance education like the modular distance learning asaffording anytime, anyplace learning However, because of reading literacy issues, 57%
experienced difficulty in understanding some of the lessons. A study on students’ reading
difficulty in modular learning (Libre III and Decano, 2021) revealed comprehensiondifficulty as a challenge which results to boredom because they cannot understand what they
are reading. Seventy percent said they were often anxious while studying which is supportedby the study of Ajmal and Ahmad (2019). They found out the students were anxious during
modular distance learning because they are unable to discuss or share problems with theirinstructors on a daily basis. The result of the accomplished survey was in consonance withthe findings of Goldschimd & Goldschimd (1972) that modular learning offers flexibility andcooperation which was manifested with the need for group studies among the learners.
Students’ Performance Under the Modular Form of Instruction
Employing Jamovi 2.3.13, the pretest and posttest mean scores were collected and checked
for normality using Shapiro-Wilk (p > 0.05). Since normality is established, a two-tailed
paired-sample t-test was done at α = 0.05. The table below shows that a significant difference
exists between the mean scores of the pretest and posttest (perfect score of 160). The
measured effect size using Cohen’s d is 1.83 indicative of mean scores difference of almost
two standard deviations away. This reveals that the significant difference is largely attributed
to the use of the self-learning modules, in particular, the lesson proper which contained theactivity. A study conducted in 2018 (Cramer et al.) suggested that a significant association
existed between module receipt and improved performance. Apparently, students are able tohave a firm grasp and take responsibility of their own learning and become active participantsof their own learning. This was observed among many of the students in calculus undermodular form of instruction who often experienced better understanding of their own
learning, and thus, better metacognition (Domingo, 2023). One of the more common
practices of participants of the fully modular calculus class is to conduct group studies todiscuss concerns, questions, queries for a particular topic module. The discussion allowed
collaboration among the learners as they shared problems encountered and how these
problems were solved and asking other group members for possible solutions if the problems
remain unsolved. The group members practiced collaboration which is a philosophy ofinteraction where individuals are responsible for their actions, including learning and respect
the abilities and contributions of their peers (Laal et al., 2012). The modular approach helps
to maximize the chances of students’ participation to fulfill the given tasks at the spot, so thestudents feel free to learn in their own style (Sadiq and Zamir, 2014). Despite having tocollaborate with peers in their group study, the use of self-learning modules allows learners towork independently and without faculty supervision and is beneficial in self-directed learning(Tohidi et al., 2019).

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N = 40

Mean

Standard
deviation

Pretest

61.4

28.2

Posttest

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Sig (2-tailed,
α = 0.05)

Cohen’s d

p < 0.001

1.83

22.8

RemarkSignificant difference exists(largely attributed to the use of
SLM)

Table 1. Students’ performance in terms of pretest and posttest scores
Conclusion
Students view modules as printed materials which provides everything about the lessons andthe modular instruction as mode of instruction delivery which entails a lot of reading andself-study. This perspective warrants various practices to enable distance learning calculus
survival: read the modules several times a week, engage in group studies, watch related
Youtube videos and finally ask the teacher for clarity. These practices seem to work well forthis led to more calculus engagement resulting to a better understanding of the lessons. The
modular form of instruction notwithstanding reading literacy issues provided positive
experiences and significantly improve calculus academic performance without trivializing
teacher’s presence.

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Contact email: leamarissa.domingo@cvsu.edu.ph

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Promoting Learner Autonomy Through Extensive Reading
Asami Nakayama, Gifu University of Medical Science, Japan
Paul Dickinson, Meijo University, JapanThe Southeast Asian Conference on Education 2023
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Abstract
This study focused on 165 Japanese medical university students who engaged in extensive
reading (ER) activities outside the classroom for two semesters. It aimed to see if ER could
enhance their capacity to become more autonomous learners. This was because ER was
designed as an activity to be done outside the classroom and primarily left to the learners,
although the amount of reading was part of the grade in the reading class. The study also
investigated the change in reading attitude and motivation to reading English through the ER
activities. First, students’ post-course reflective reports were examined quantitively with Cooccurrence Network Analysis (CNA), providing a graphic visualization of potential
relationships between entities represented within written material by the KH Coder. Secondly,
to see how the keywords extracted by CNA in their reports were presented, the contexts were
examined carefully line by line. By doing so, prominent keywords such as ‘fun’ and ‘notgood at’ related to ER were revealed. The result shows that perception of the activity withemotion could lead to improved motivation for reading English materials and a change intheir attitudes to reading in English. In addition, some learners demonstrated increased
autonomy when writing about their reading strategies and perceptions of the ER activities.
These findings support the claim that ER is an effective way to promote learner autonomy
and motivation for university students learning English.
Keywords: Extensive Reading (ER), Learner Autonomy, Motivation, English as a Foreign
Language (EFL)

iafor
The International Academic Forumwww.iafor.org

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Introduction
The aim of this study is to investigate the effects of extensive reading (ER) on the learnerautonomy and motivation of 165 Japanese medical university students in an English reading
course. ER is an approach to language learning in which learners read large amounts of selfselected materials at a comprehensible reading level. In contrast to intensive reading, ER
focuses on reading for pleasure and meaning rather than learning unknown language. Someof the claimed benefits of extensive reading include that it can improve learner motivation
and reading attitudes (Day & Bamford, 1998; Lake, 2014; Lake & Holster, 2014; Mikami,
2020, Shin & Ahn, 2006; Takase, 2012, Yamashita, 2013), be effective for vocabulary
learning (Nation, 2015; Pigada & Schmitt, 2006), and enhance learner autonomy (Chanthap& Wasanasomsithi, 2019; Takahashi & Umino, 2020).
Learner autonomy has been defined as the learner’s capacity to take control over their own
learning (Benson, 2011). According to Little (2006, p. 2), it is important because autonomy isa basic human need which “is nourished by, and in turn nourishes our intrinsic motivation”
thus explaining “how learner autonomy solves the problem of learner motivation:
autonomous learners draw on their intrinsic motivation when they accept responsibility for
their own learning and commit themselves to develop the skills of reflective self-managementin learning: and success in learning strengthens their intrinsic motivation”. As Japanese
educational contexts typically have not emphasized learner autonomy, many learners have
few opportunities to develop these skills. Given that ER has been advocated as an effective
way of enhancing learner autonomy in several language learning contexts we decided to
explore whether out-of-class ER would influence the learner autonomy and motivation ofuniversity students in a Japanese English as a Foreign Language (EFL) context.
Literature Review
Extensive reading and learner autonomy
As Benson notes, learner autonomy is “not a method of learning, but an attribute of thelearner’s approach to the learning process” (2011, p. 2). As ER programs in theory givelearners a lot of freedom over their learning, they should be ideal for enabling learners todevelop this attribute. Andreano & Wolfe (2019) state that ER programs should provide
opportunities to develop learner autonomy and ensure that instructors know about various
autonomy supporting strategies and actions. In practice, this involves having challenging yet
attainable reading goals, student independence and control over reading choices with little
direct decision making by instructors, and a wide range of reading options. Finally, theyargue it is better for the ER program to be longer rather than shorter to provide adequate time
for continual student growth to occur within this supportive framework (Andreano & Wolfe,2019).
The influence of ER on language learner autonomy has been explored in several studies. In a
study with Thai second-year undergraduate students, Channuan & Wasanasomsithi (2012)used pre- and post-ER learner autonomy questionnaires and semi-structured interviews toinvestigate the effects of ER integrated with a learner autonomy training strategy framework.
The findings indicated frequent learner use of cognitive and metacognitive strategies in ER
and improved attitudes to second language (L2) reading and learner autonomy. In anotherstudy with Thai EFL undergraduate learners, Chanthap & Wasanasomsithi (2019) reported astatistically significant increase of learner autonomy after implementing a blended learning

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and extensive reading instructional model. The results showed that learners developed
reading planning ability, including the establishment of reading objectives, selection of
appropriate reading strategies prior to reading, and control of their own reading processes.
This study also demonstrated the influence of their strengthened intrinsic motivation in thevoluntary use of these reading strategies by learners outside of the classroom (Chanthap &Wasanasomsithi, 2019).
Mede, İnceçay, & İnceçay (2014) used oral book reports in an ER program to foster learnerautonomy. The findings, collected through reflection papers and semi-structured interviews
with students and teachers, showed “a clear-cut positive effect … on language learners’autonomy” (Mede, İnceçay, & İnceçay, p. 24). Canh (2021) investigated the effects of ER on
learner autonomy with 25 Vietnamese EFL learners. It was found that completing bookreports on ER books they had read enhanced learners’ autonomy and fostered a more positive
attitude. Finally, Takahashi & Umino (2020) explored the effects of out-of-class ER on
learner autonomy in a Japanese as a second language course. It was found that ER could
enhance learner autonomy, with some learners continuing to read autonomously after
completing the course. Takahashi & Umino (2020) conclude that out-of-class ER cancontribute to the development of learner autonomy as “it is a ‘learner-friendly’ framework,
providing each learner with a customized way to read extensively” (p. 62).
Extensive reading and motivation
Motivation concerns the choice of a specific action and the persistence and effort expended
on pursuing it (Dörnyei & Ushioda, 2011). As Dörnyei (2001, p. 7) puts it, “motivation
explains why people decide to do something, how hard they are going to pursue it and how
long they are willing to sustain the activity.” Improving and maintaining the motivation toread is crucial as reading in an L2 “requires a lot of time, effort, and perseverance”(Komiyama, 2009, p. 37).
Several studies in Asian EFL contexts have shown that extensive reading can positively
affect learners’ L2 reading motivation. Shin & Ahn (2006), in a quantitative, pre-posttest
questionnaire study with Korean high school students, found that participants developed amore positive attitude and increased their motivation through doing ER. Yang, Chu & Tseng(2021) studied the effects of ER on the reading comprehension and reading motivation of
vocational high school students in Taiwan. They found that students reading ER materials at
a level slightly above their capacity enhanced their overall reading motivation and selfefficacy.
In Japan, Takase (2012) explored the effects of extensive reading on the motivation ofunmotivated Japanese university EFL learners in a repeater course. It was found that students
of varying English proficiencies benefited with almost all learners seeing improvements intheir English reading motivation. Lake (2014) studied the effects of ER on the motivation andreading fluency of 244 first-year female students in a Japanese university. He describes thebenefits of developing reader motivation and shows how ER can lead to improvements inreading fluency, motivation, and a positive L2 self. Specifically, this study showed increasesin L2 reading interest, reading self-efficacy, and reading speed for learners in classes reading
one book or more a week (Lake, 2014). Iwata (2018) explored the effects of ER on
developing the motivation of Japanese college-level EFL students and found that more
students reported liking reading English and most learners either perceived reading in English
as less difficult or became accustomed to it through doing ER.

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Research has also shown that ER has positive effects on reading attitude and intrinsic
motivation. Yamashita (2013) researched the effects of ER on reading attitude, a centralcomponent of reading motivation, and found that it positively affected L2 reading attitude.
Yamashita argues the results imply that ER has an effect on aspects of reading attitude that
affect intrinsic motivation, such as positive feelings and intellectual satisfaction, more thanthose related to extrinsic motivation. She concludes that the positive feelings enhanced by ER
may increase the motivation to read. Similarly, Mikami (2020, p. 32) claims that pleasurable
feelings and “a sense of accomplishment in ER can motivate students to continue reading”.
However, Mikami (2020), linking learning autonomy with motivation, also warns thatnegative experiences of ER due to not being able to find interesting or appropriate books
autonomously may decrease learners’ motivation to read more. Her study, which explored theeffects of goal setting on learner motivation for extensive reading, found that setting,committing to, and attaining goals in an ER program was crucial to enhancing intrinsic
motivation and self-efficacy (Mikami, 2020). The implications of these findings are that selfregulated learners who are effective at goal setting and produce a positive influence on theirmotivation may develop a virtuous cycle toward new learning goals (Mikami, 2020).
Research questions
Based on these research findings and theoretical claims on the possible positive effects of ER
on enhancing both learner autonomy and motivation, we wanted to explore if similar effects
could be seen in our context when students were given opportunities to read extensively outof-class.
Specifically, this study addresses the following research questions:
1. What effects does out-of-class ER have on participants’ learner autonomy?
2. What effects does out-of-class ER have on participants’ L2 reading motivation?
Methodology
Participants
The participants were first-year Japanese undergraduates in nursing and pharmaceutical
departments and took reading classes for two semesters in 2021. One hundred sixty-fivestudents: nursing 93 and pharmaceutical 72 took the reading course as a mandatory subject.
In the first semester, reading classes focused on general topic articles such as culture andglobalisation, human relationships and healthy life. On the other hand, the second class dealt
with broad medical backgrounds and specific medical technologists. Their English
proficiency varied from beginner to intermediate levels. Each reading class consists of
between 40 and 50 students. Their main interest was not learning English since they enteredthe university and passed the national exam to become professional healthcare workers. Our
challenge was to make the students studying in the large group interested in English andautonomous learners. To do so, we introduced the extensive reading activity into the class.
DesignER was a part of the class grade: when the learners read 30,000 words per semester, they
could get 20% of the whole rate. Online software, Mreader, tracked how many words theyread. It enables them to check their reading comprehension and visualise their progress

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individually. After reading a book, Mreader gave the student quiz, and if the response rate
was above 60%, credited them the number of words they read. ER was designed as anactivity outside the class and could give them the freedom to choose their books and allow
them to progress at their own pace. The only advice from the instructor was to select the bookthey were interested in and put it back on the shelf if they found four or five words they could
not understand on each page. By doing so, we believed ER would increase their interest inreading English books and promote learner autonomy.
After the ER activity, we asked them to submit reflective reports about ER. One hundred
thirty-eight students (nursing 78 and pharmaceutical 60) cooperated in offering them since it
was optional. The reports were analysed with KH coder, free software for quantitative
content analysis, to see how they reflect their learning experience. Using it, Co-occurrence
Network Analysis (CNA), a data analysis method used to identify patterns of association
between different entities in the data, was conducted. In this study, CNA can show us how
the frequently used words are related to each other in the students’ reflective reports. In
addition to the CNA, line-by-line analysis of the reflective reports was done by the
researchers to further identify common themes in learners’ responses.
Results and Discussion
The reflective reports contain 20,248 tokens and 7.999 types and comprise of 618 sentencesand 196 paragraphs. According to the CNA on this data, four major groups: Group 1 (I,Think, Can read. Read, and Book), Group 2 (Vocabulary, Many, Content, andComprehension), Group 3 (English, Not good at, First, and Agreement), Group 4 (A little,
Activity, and Extensive reading) were nominated. Each group consisted of words used morethan 60 times in writing data, and they appeared together. In addition, two frequently
appearing words, ‘feel’ and ‘fun’, are related to several groups. (see Figure 1) Groups 1, 2,
and 4 include unmarked words such as ‘vocabulary’, ‘read’ and ‘extensive reading’, which
are naturally related to English reading activity. Group 3, however, had marked words suchas ‘English’, ‘not good at’, ‘first’ and ‘awareness’.

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Figure 1: Co-occurrence Network Analysis result
The contents where these words appeared together were extracted to examine the Group 3
words and the words 'feel' and 'fun' in the participants' reports. The sample reports are shown
below:
Sample A
When I started extensive reading, I was not good at English, so I read a lot of books with few
words. The more books I read, the more I could understand the content. I was aware that I
had to look up the dictionary less often and read faster than I did at first. Now I try to readbooks with around 2000 words. I have also started looking for books I want to read bylooking at the book's title. I have found it fun to read books in English. I am conscious of myspeed so that I can read as fast as possible and I would like to continue reading English
books to improve my vocabulary.
Sample B
At first, I was not very good at English, so when I saw English books with a lot of words, I
lost motivation and chose books with fewer words or books I knew. I read by looking up
words I didn't understand or by judging from the pictures. Because of this, I didn't have thecontent completely in my head, and when answering questions, I narrowed it down to two,but I made mistakes there, and I couldn't answer with confidence. However, as I read more

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and more, the number of words I could understand increased, and I was able to read moreeasily without having to look up every single word, so I started to try books with slightly
more words and fewer pictures. In the beginning, I could read, but often the questions were
not correct, but gradually the percentage of correct answers increased and I felt a sense ofachievement. Thanks to the reading, I enjoy reading English now, and I am less afraid ofEnglish.
Samples A and B show that participants were not good at English at first but developed theirreading strategies and finally felt ER fun through reflecting on ER activity. The results of the
CNA and qualitative analysis indicate how the students changed their reading attitude in
English and found a way through trial and error to be fond of English. The sense ofachievement increased confidence and positive emotion, which led to motivation for learning
English and learner autonomy.
In summary, ER can promote learner autonomy in several ways. Firstly, ER encourages
learners to take responsibility for their own learning. When learners engage in ER, they areoften given the freedom to choose their own reading materials and set their own pace. This
allows learners to take ownership of their learning and develop their own interests andpreferences.
Secondly, ER can improve learners' self-efficacy and motivation. When learners are able toread materials at their own level and pace, they are more likely to feel successful andconfident in their abilities. This can motivate them to continue reading and to take on morechallenging materials. This positive synergy could lead to learner autonomy.
Conclusion
The findings from the linguistic analyses in this study have shown that extensive reading canbe effective in developing EFL learner autonomy and motivation. The findings concur withprevious relevant quantitative research in showing that by doing ER learners improved theirlearner autonomy, for example, by independently planning and implementing their own
reading strategies. In addition, learners strengthened their intrinsic motivation by developing
more positive feelings about reading in English. As previous researchers have noted (e.g.,
Mikami, 2020, Yamashita, 2013) if the right learning conditions are provided, ER canenhance the interactive relationship between learner autonomy and intrinsic motivation, inturn leading to a virtuous reading cycle in which learners will continue reading. Research has
shown that these learning conditions should include providing a wide variety of readingmaterials of various levels for learners to self-select from, having challenging but attainablereading targets, and running the ER program long enough to allow learners sufficient time todevelop their autonomy and motivation within this supportive framework.
Regarding future research directions, as this study found that linguistic analysis of reflective
reports was a useful approach to revealing changes in learner motivation and autonomy,
future research could consider employing such an approach in addition to quantitative
questionnaire-based methods which have typically been used to explore the effects of ER on
learner autonomy and motivation.

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Acknowledgements
This research was partially supported by the Japanese Ministry of Education, Science, Sports
and Culture, Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research (C), 21K00690.

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References
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preliminary investigation. The Bulletin of Kaichi International University, 18, 193213.
Benson, P. (2011). Teaching and researching autonomy, 2nd Edn. London: Pearson.
Canh, T. T. T. (2021). Enhancing learner autonomy through extensive reading: The case ofbook reports. Pertanika Journal of Social Sciences & Humanities, 29.
Channuan, P. & Wasanasomsithi, P. (2012). Promoting learner autonomy through an
extensive reading program among second year undergraduate students of Naresuan
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Chanthap, N., & Wasanasomsithi, P. (2019). The effect of integration of a blended learningand extensive reading instructional model on Thai EFL undergraduate students'
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Day, R. R., & Bamford, J. (1998). Extensive reading in the second language classroom.
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Dörnyei, Z. (2001). Motivational strategies in the language classroom. Cambridge:
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Dörnyei, Z., & Ushioda, E. (2011). Teaching and researching motivation, 2nd Edn. London:
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Iwata, A. (2018). Effects of extensive reading on developing motivation across disciplines incollege EFL classrooms. Hokkaido Musashi Joshi Tanki Daigaku Kiyo, 50, 213-249.
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Mede, E., İnceçay, G., & İnceçay, V. (2014). Fostering learner autonomy through extensive
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Mikami, Y. (2020). Goal setting and learners’ motivation for extensive reading: Forming avirtuous cycle. Reading in a Foreign Language, 32(1), 28-48.

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Nation, P. (2015). Principles guiding vocabulary learning through extensive reading. Reading
in a Foreign Language, 27(1), 136-145.
Pigada, M., & Schmitt, N. (2006). Vocabulary acquisition from extensive reading: A casestudy. Reading in a Foreign Language, 18(1), 1-28.
Shin, I., & Ahn, B. K. (2006). The effects of different types of extensive reading materials on
reading amount, attitude, and motivation. English Teaching, 61(1), 67-88.
Takahashi, W., & Umino, T. (2020). Out-of-class extensive reading in Japanese as a second
language: Enhancing learner autonomy beyond the classroom. Electronic Journal of
Foreign Language Teaching, 17(1).
Takase, A. (2012). The impact of extensive reading on reluctant Japanese EFL learners. The
European Journal of Applied Linguistics and TEFL, 1(1), 97-113.
Yamashita, J. (2013). Effects of extensive reading on reading attitudes in a foreign language.
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Investigating Pre-service Secondary Mathematics Teachers’ Mathematics Proficiency andCritical Citizenship in the Design of Social-Issue-Themed Mathematics Online Lessons

Art Walden A. Dejoras, Ateneo de Manila University, Philippines
Catherine P. Vistro-Yu, Ateneo de Manila University, Philippines

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Abstract
Conditions that recently threatened the breakdown of social order led the authors to question
the role of mathematics in addressing these conditions. In the light of these conditions, thisstudy aimed to explore the tension between the need for pre-service secondary mathematics
teachers (PSMTs) to be mathematically proficient and society’s expectations of them todevelop skills for critical citizenship. Twenty randomly selected PSMTs from an intact classin a Philippine university participated in three researcher-designed online mathematics
lessons covering descriptive statistics, logic and reasoning, and linear functions that
addressed the country’s issues which include the government-declared war on drugs,
proliferation of fake news, and armed conflicts, respectively. Drawing on online ethnographic
practitioner research approach, both quantitative and qualitative data-gathering methods were
employed. In the quantitative phase, pre-test-and-post-test single-group design was employed
to determine the effectiveness of the lessons in improving PSMTs’ mathematical proficiency.
In the qualitative phase, deductive qualitative content analysis was used to determine andcategorize the PSMTs’ skills for critical citizenship before and after exposure to the lessons
and determine if there was a difference in their skills. Seven categories of critical citizenshipwere theoretically deduced, though only five were pertinent, to consider PSMTs’
communication of critical citizenship. The findings showed a significant difference in the
PSMTs’ mathematical proficiency score before and after the lessons. Moreover, improvementof PSMTs’ skills for critical citizenship were shown. The activities created a communicative
space that helped PSMTs develop their critical citizenship without sacrificing theirmathematical proficiency.

Keywords: Critical Citizenship,
Mathematics Teachers

Mathematics

Proficiency,

iafor
The International Academic Forumwww.iafor.org

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Secondary

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Introduction
History has shown that problems of social order arise from difficulties like environmental
disasters, plagues and pandemics. Problems of social order are exhibited by the following: (1)resistance to measures from authorities (Reicher & Stott, 2020) and (2) emergence of open
conflict resulting in threats to security, to property and even to life itself (Jamrozik &Nocella, 2011). These problems have been seen to appear during certain periods. In thePhilippines, for example, problems of social order (or unrest) came about during the Martial
Law era.
Problems of social order became prevalent once more in recent years, most especially during
the Covid 19 pandemic which exacerbated the situation. An example of a situation that posed
problems of social order to the Filipino public was the government-led war-on-drugs initiatedby Rodrigo Duterte when he assumed office as the Philippine president on June 30, 2016
(Warburg & Jensen, 2020). Another equally alarming situation was the widespread fakenews, particularly through social media. Disinformation has been problematic in thePhilippines with social media playing a critical role in influencing discourse ranging frompolitics to health, beliefs, religion, current events, and others (Bringula et al., 2022). Armed
conflicts have been regularly problematic. An example is the Marawi Siege which was a fivemonth-long armed conflict in Mindanao, Philippines, between government security forces
and militants affiliated with the Islamic State (IS), including the Maute and Abu Sayyafgroups (Sandongdong et al., 2020).
In the light of these situations that threaten the breakdown of social order, we question howmathematics could become an instrument for developing students’ understanding of thesocial degradation that is happening in the country and in the world. In this study, our goal
was two-fold. We wanted to first, challenge the persisting view of mathematics that is
objective, value-free, decontextualized, and non-political and argue that mathematics has arole to play in maintaining an orderly society and, second, find ways to develop “critical” andengaged citizens who are motivated to change and improve society. These dual goals are inline with Skovsmose’s (1994) principle regarding mathematics education. According to him,
“The purpose of mathematical education should be to enable students to realize, understand,judge, utilize and also to perform the application of mathematics in society, in particular insituations which are of significance to their private, social and professional life” (p.55).
To realize the dual goals, this study focused on investigating pre-service secondary
mathematics teachers’ (PSMTs’) development of mathematics proficiency and skills forcritical citizenship. A number of scholars have argued for PSMTs to strengthen theirmathematics proficiency while they are still students in a teacher-training institution (e.g.,
Bosica et al., 2021). However, the development of PSMTs’ mathematics proficiency should
never be independent from their development of critical citizenship (Freire, 2000).
Theoretical Perspectives
This study was anchored on the theories of Kilpatrick et al.’s (2001) mathematics proficiency
and Skovsmose’s (1992) critical citizenship.
Kilpatrick et al’s. (2001) mathematical proficiency consists of five intertwined andoverlapping strands: conceptual understanding, procedural fluency, strategic competence,
adaptive reasoning, and productive disposition. Conceptual understanding refers to the

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comprehension of mathematical concepts, operations and relations. Procedural fluency covers
the skills in carrying out procedures flexibly, accurately, efficiently and appropriately.
Strategic competence is the ability to formulate, represent, and solve mathematical problems.
Adaptive reasoning is the capacity for logical thought, reflection, explanation andjustification. Productive disposition is the habitual inclination to see mathematics as sensible,
useful, and worthwhile.
A number of mathematical assessments both local and international have included
mathematical tasks that measure various strands of mathematical proficiency due to theirusefulness in leveraging students’ mathematics learning (Kepner & Huinker, 2012, p. 28 ascited in Groves, 2012). Many studies have designed and administered mathematics
proficiency tests to students assessing only three strands, namely, procedural fluency,
conceptual understanding, and strategic competence (e.g., Khairani & Nordin, 2011; Groves,2012; Usman, 2020) as these have been identified in the National Assessment of Educational
Progress (NAEP) and the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM) as the main
strands in developing students’ procedural knowledge, conceptual knowledge and problemsolving skills – mathematical abilities students needed to be mathematically proficient (AlMutawah et al., 2019). Thus, the present study focused only on the three strands.
Skovmose (1992) defined critical citizenship as a quality of thought that supports one “to be
critical citizens who can challenge and believe that their actions will make differences insociety” (p. 2) According to him, critical citizenship is needed to promote democratic ideals.
He wrote, “Democracy can be destroyed if a critical citizenship cannot be brought to life.”(p.5) Furthermore, he elucidated that “being critical” involves “(1) investigation of conditions
for obtaining knowledge, (2) identification of social problems and evaluation making, and (3)a reaction to problematic social situations” (p. 37).
Research Questions
In this paper, we sought to determine if there was a significant difference in the PSMTs’
mathematical proficiency score before and after going through the social-issue-themed
mathematics online lessons, and how prevalent and to what extent critical citizenship was
evident in the PSMTs articulation about critical citizenship before and after going through thesocial-issue-themed mathematics online lessons.
Methodology
The study used online ethnographic practitioner research employing both quantitative andqualitative data-gathering methods (Barton, T.D., 2008; Skageby, 2011; Eisenhart, 1988). In
the quantitative phase, pre-test-and-post-test single-group design was employed to determine
PSMTs' level of mathematics proficiency. In the qualitative phase, deductive qualitative
content analysis (Bikner-Ahsbahs et al., 2015) was used to determine the prevalence andextent of PSMTs’ skills for critical citizenship.
The research subjects were 20 PSMTs who were 3rd Year Bachelor of Secondary Education
major in Mathematics (BSEd-Math) students at a university in Mindanao during 1 st semesterof SY 2022-2023.Random sampling technique was used in determining the participants.
In this study, three lessons covering different mathematics contents incorporating different
Philippine issues as themes were developed by the first author (See Table 1).

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LessonNo.

Mathematics Content

Theme

1

Organization and Presentationof Data & Measures of Central
Tendency and Variation

Drug-related Fatalities/ Human
Rights Violations

2

Logic and Reasoning

Fake News/Leadership andGovernance3

Linear Function and Simple
Linear Regression Analysis(SLRA)

Safety and Security/ Civil
Conflict

Table 1 The Three Social-Issue-Themed Lessons
The social issue themes were chosen based on Skovsmose’s (1985) two criteria: They must
be closely connected to the experiences or interest of students and they must be closely
related to existing social problems. The first author of the article played dual roles as
researcher-instructor. The researcher-instructor implemented the lessons following the
Launch-Explore-Summarize (LES) instructional model (Schroyer & Fitzgerald, 1986) thatemphasizes dialogic teaching and learning. It consists of forms of interactions in theclassroom where both teacher and students are involved in the co-creation of knowledge.
During the Launch phase, the researcher-instructor uploaded mathematics content reviewers
and links to a relevant social issue, and introduced the social issue. During the Explore stage,
students performed the group task in self-selected groups of 4 to 5 members per group. They
were given real-life data with instructions to express their thoughts and questions about theissue, apply the mathematics content in addressing the issue, and finally propose someactions that will address the issue. During the Summarize stage, the PSMTs identified anddiscussed their common mistakes, challenges, and difficulties in a whole-class discussion
facilitated by the researcher-instructor.
In this study, data collected were the pre-test and post-test scores in the Mathematics
Proficiency Test (MPT) and the prevalence and extent of PSMTs’ Critical Citizenship as
reflected in their Critical Citizenship Test (CCT) administered before and after the lessons.
The MPT is a 14 - item, 42-point, open-ended, and researcher-developed test which PSMTs
were required to answer individually for 2 hours. The test was validated by a pool of 5 expert
raters composed of 4 PhD Mathematics Education and 1 MA Education major in
Mathematics degree holders. The choice of 5 expert raters for content validation is theminimum acceptable number (Ayre & Scally, 2013) for this type of study. The MPT covered
descriptive statistics, logic and reasoning, and linear functions. A 3-point scale was used toscore each item in the MPT (Refer to Table 2). The scoring guide was a modification basedon the works of Usman (2020) and Cartwright (2020). The score of each PSMT from the
MPT was obtained by adding all the points obtained from the 14 items in the test. The lowest
possible score is 0 and the highest possible score is 42. The PSMTs’ MPT scores in the pretest and post-test were then analyzed using paired samples t-test.

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Point

3

2

1

0

Procedural Fluency
Procedures are usedaccurately andefficiently; Correct
formulas andcalculations
Minor mistake inprocedure due tocarelessness; minor
error due to lack ofunderstanding

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Conceptual
Understanding
Explanation exhibits
complete knowledge
and understanding of
the concepts or
relationships taken
into consideration
Minor mistakes in the
explanation;
explanation lackminor supporting
details

Strategic Competence
Able to solve problem withaccurate details, shows
knowledge and understanding ofconcepts and relationships andprocess, and complete solutions
Acceptable strategy for solving aproblem; shows knowledge andunderstanding of concepts andrelationships, but lacking
accuracy in the details/solutions
due to carelessness; not able tosolve the problem
Acceptable choice of strategy,
exhibit some knowledge andunderstanding with some errors
and misconceptions; unable tosolve the problem
Inappropriate choice of strategy
for solving a problem; major
mistakes in the process, or wrong
process; unable to solve theproblem

Major mistake in
Major errors inprocedure due toexplanation due tocarelessness; majorlack of knowledge orerror due to lack ofunderstanding
understanding
Inappropriate/
Inappropriate
wrong procedures
explanation;
due to lack of
explanation does notknowledge/
connect/ correspond tounderstanding of
the concept orconcepts;
relationships
inappropriate
discussed; Not
formula used, or nofollowing instruction;
response.
No explanation.
Table 2. Scoring Guide for Mathematics Proficiency Test

The CCT is a three-item, open-ended, researcher-developed test which PSMTs were required
to answer individually for 20 minutes. The test asked PSMTs to draw out their feelings andthoughts about each of the three social-order related issues in the Philippines and to share
how they could address these issues as Filipino citizens. The test was also validated by a poolof 5 expert raters composed of 2 high school Social Studies teachers, 1 university instructor
with a degree in Sociology and 2 university instructors with a degree in Political Science.
In the study, deductive qualitative content analysis (QCA) (Bikner-Ahsbahs et al., 2015) wasused by employing predetermined structures to organize narrative data in categories. Seven
categories of critical citizenship were deduced from Skovsmose’s notion of critique (seeTable 3).

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Category
Critical Competence
Critical Distance

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Definition
Ability to critique traditional notion that teacher is always incontrol of educational process (Skovsmose, 1985)
Ability to critique the applicability of subject matter(Skovsmose, 1985)

Critical Engagement

Ability to critique the applicability of the problem selected(Skovsmose, 1985)

Knowledge of the Social
Issue

Ability to articulate ideas concerning the causes, processes, andexpected outcomes of the social issue (Hong, 2018).

Application of the Social
Issue to Broader Context

Expanding of one’s understanding of the social issue by
connecting it to broader social issue (Hong, 2018; Oh & Kwon,
2014)

Taking Personal Stance(Passive Stance)

Ability to express personal stance and feelings for the social
issue (Hong, 2018; Oh & Kwon, 2014)

Ability to suggest community engagement that allows
individual role to become active contributor and participant of
individual community beyond observing passively (Hong,2018; Oh & Kwon, 2014)
Table 3. Seven Categories of Critical Citizenship and Corresponding Definitions

Taking Active Stance via
Collective Social Action
for Social Change

However, in this study, only five were pertinent in taking into account the PSMTs’
communication of critical citizenship. These were all the categories except criticalcompetence and critical engagement.
All text components of the PSMTs’ responses in each of the three social issues in the CCT
during the pre-test that fit into each of the five categories were extracted and coded. A text
component ranged from a string of words to a sequence of sentences. Each PSMT was codedat most once per category. If two or more text components belonging to the same PSMT fit
into one category of critical citizenship, then the PSMT was given a single code only in thatcategory. However, a text component was coded as one or more categories if deemed
applicable. The same procedure was done for the PSMTs’ responses in each of the threesocial issues in the CCT during the post-test.
Results
Figure 1 shows the distribution of the scores of 20 PSMTs’ pre-test and post-test scores in the
MPT. The graph indicates an increasing trend of the scores of the PSMTs from pre-test to
post-test.

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Mathematics Proficiency Test (42 Points, n=20)
40

37

36

35
30

27

26

Score

25

22 21

22
19

20
14 15 13

15

15

13

15

15

3

5

6

5
2

5
2

17

16

Pre-test

15

12

11

9 9

10

34 33

7

5
2

0

Post-test

7

8

6

3

2

2

0
S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7 S8 S9 S10 S11 S12 S13 S14 S15 S16 S17 S18 S19 S20

Student

Figure 1: Distribution of PMSTs’ Mathematics Proficiency Test Pre-Test andPost-Test Scores
Table 4 shows the scores of the PSMTs in the MPT before and after exposure to the lessons.
Their pre-test mean score, 5.70 with a standard deviation of 4.13, was interpreted as low test
performance. Their post-test mean score, 20.85 with a standard deviation of 8.57, wasinterpreted as average test performance. The paired samples t-test revealed a critical value of
9.236 with 19 degrees of freedom (t (19) = 9.236, p <0.05) indicating a significant differenceof 15.15 between the pre-test and post-test means. Such differential effect was large (Cohen’sd = 2.07).
Group

Mean

SD

Mean
DifferenceSD
Differencetdf

p-Value

Pre-Test
Post-Test

5.7
20.85

4.13
8.57

15.15

7.336

9.236

19

0.000**: Significant at p < 0.05
Table 4. Test of Difference in the Mathematics Proficiency Test Mean Scores
Figure 2 shows the prevalence and extent of PSMTs’ critical citizenship with respect to thewar-on-drugs issue in the CCT before and after the implementation of the lessons as reflectedin their pre-test and post-test results, respectively.

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Categories of Critical Citizenship

Taking Active Stance via Collective Social Action forSocial Change

91
20

Taking Personal Stance18
8Application of Issue to Broader Context

1

Post-test
Pre-test

17

Knowledge of the Social Issue

2
20

Critcal Distance

17
0

5

10

15

20

Number of Students

Figure 2: Prevalence and Extent of Critical Citizenship in Issue #1: War on Drugs
In the pre-test, most of the PSMTs gave statements categorized as taking personal stance (18out of 20). In general, the PSMTs expressed concern about the high cases of prohibited drug
use in the country and the effect of drug use in the safety of the citizens. They urged thegovernment to conduct awareness programs, campaigns, education and strict implementationof the law prohibiting drug use. There were 17 out of 20 PSMTs whose statements fall under
the critical distance category. They stated the use of statistics, data-gathering techniques, andgraphs as appropriate tools to promote understanding of the issue. There were also a few who
mentioned the applicability of calculus. There were only two out of 20 PSMTs who
articulated ideas indicating knowledge of the social issue. One mentioned that most of thecrime suspects usually use illegal drugs. Another stated that through the implementation of
the war-on-drugs in the country, there were now fewer drug addicts and crime offenders.
Only one PSMT spoke about the issue that indicated as application of the issue to a broader
context citing the effect of drug use towards health, emotion and mental well-being. Also,
only one PSMT gave statements that indicated taking active stance via collective social
action for social change advocating the need to create activities that can help raise awarenessof the consequences of using illegal drugs.
The post-test showed an increase in the number of PSMTs articulating each category in the
CCT. Also, in general, the PSMTs were more expressive of their thoughts, ideas and feelingsin the post-test. In the taking personal stance category, all 20 PSMTs resonated with the need
to be concerned like those in the pre-test. But there were some PSMTs who showed concern
about the alarming number of deaths although decreasing, the extrajudicial killings and theneed to strengthen the country’s law and justice system. In the critical distance category, all
20 PSMTs expressed appreciation for descriptive statistics as a tool in addressing the issue
which was the same as in their pre-test. However, in the post-test many more were able toexplain further how descriptive statistics can be used. In the knowledge of social issue
category (17 out of 20), most PSMTs have expressed more ideas about the issue compared tothe pre-test. Some mentioned the President Duterte’s successful implementation of thecampaign to lessen drug problem in the county. Others mentioned the weak judicial system of
our country and the prevalence of injustices. Many admitted that the use of statistics has
promoted better understanding of the scale the issue has taken. In the application of the issue
to a broader context category (8 out of 20 PSMTs), some PSMTs expressed the need to abide

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by the law, to be good and responsible citizens. Others emphasized the need to strengthen thehuman rights advocacy, the discipline from authorities and the country’s justice system. In
the taking active stance via collective social action for social change (9 out of 20) category,there were more PSMTs who showed increased knowledge on how to act with regards to theissue. They mentioned the need for them to participate in activities to raise awareness in thesocial media using mathematics to justify the scale of the issue.

Categories of Critical Citizenship

Figure 3 shows the prevalence and extent of PSMTs’ critical citizenship with respect to theissue of fake news in the CCT pre-test and post-test.
Taking Active Stance via Collective Social
Action for Social Change

40Taking Personal Stance20

12

Application of Issue to Broader Context

13

1

Post-test

Knowledge of the Social Issue
Critcal Distance

20

10

0

2

4

6

8

Pre-test

19

7

10

12

14

16

18

20

Number of Students

Figure 3: Prevalence and Extent of Critical Citizenship in Issue #2: Fake NewsIn the pre-test result, most of the PSMTs (12 out of 20) gave statements consistent with thetaking personal stance category. A number of PSMTs expressed the need to be concerned
about the injustices, abuses and atrocities that took place during the Martial Law era, to learn
from history, and to make sure this part of our history will not repeat. However, there weresome PSMTs who cited some “benefits” of President Ferdinand Marcos, Sr.’s Martial Law,such as maintaining order during that era as imposed by the government. Others argued toleave the negativities behind since these do not affect their future or they were not yet born
during that time. There were 10 out of 20 PSMTs who maintained critical distance.
Generally, they stated the use of statistics and data-gathering to promote understanding of theissue. Some mentioned the applicability of other mathematics contents like arithmetic,
algebra and calculus. There were few who thought that mathematics cannot be applied. There
were 7 out of 20 PSMTs who manifested knowledge of the social issue. Most of them argued
that there were legitimate documents proving Ferdinand Marcos Sr’s Martial Law was full ofpolice atrocities. Others argued that only those against the government were punished andthat the posts in social media showing negative views about Martial Law only wanted tocreate pressure on media to make people mad at the government. Only one PSMT exhibited
application of the issue to a broader context by mentioning the need to be knowledgeable
about fake news and to spread only authentic information on social media.
In the post-test, most of the PSMTs gave statements consistent with both the taking personal
stance and critical distance categories (all PSMTs). In the taking personal stance category,those who had positive views about martial law during the pre-test expressed the same in the
post-test. However, in the post-test, more PSMTs articulated the need to be concerned

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because there are still injustices happening at present and that they or their loved ones are notimmune to these injustices. More PSMTs also mentioned the need to protect themselves fromfake news, misinformation and disinformation especially on social media, as well as the needto know the truth. In the critical distance category, the PSMTs realized the applicability oflogic and reasoning in evaluating the veracity of information especially on social media. The
use of statistics was also mentioned by a number of PSMTs to promote better understandingof the issue. There were 13 PSMTs who gave statements within the category of application of
the issue to broader context. More PSMTs argued for the need to value human rights, to be
critical about the information on social media, to be informed about fake news,
misinformation and disinformation and to participate in spreading the truth. There were also
some who stressed the need to be responsible citizens and to follow the government to avoid
punishments. Lastly, there were four PSMTs who expressed taking active stance via
collective social action for social change. More PSMTs advocated the need for them to help
spread awareness about the issue of fake news, misinformation and disinformation throughsocial media. The need to share factual information to friends and family about Martial Law
was also mentioned.

Categories of Critical Citizenship

Figure 4 shows the prevalence and extent of PSMTs’ critical citizenship with respect to theissue of civil conflict in the CCT pre-test and post-test.

Taking Active Stance via Collective Social Action
for Social Change

4

0

19
18

Taking Personal Stance

Application of Issue to Broader Context

14

3

Post-test

Knowledge of Social Issue

Pre-test

14

5

Critcal Distance

20

12
0

5

10

15

20

Number of Students

Figure 4: Prevalence and Extent of Critical Citizenship in Issue #3: Civil Conflict
In the pre-test result, 18 of the PSMTs gave statements consistent with the taking personal
stance category. In general, the PSMTs expressed concern about the need to maintain peace,safety, and security for the welfare of everyone, their loved ones and fellow citizens. They
indicated the need for everyone to show concern about what is happening and be involved infinding solutions. They also mentioned the need for the government to step up and eradicate
acts of violence and terrorism. There were 12 PSMTs who demonstrated a critical distance.
Many of them stated the relevance of mathematics to address the issue like using arithmetic,
calculus, and descriptive statistics. However, there were some who mentioned thatmathematics cannot be used to address the issue. There were only five PSMTs who
articulated knowledge of the social issue. These PSMTs noted that the existence of terrorists
in some parts of the country can really affect the country’s progress. They acknowledged theeffort of the government and articulated the need to continue the peace talks. Only three

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PSMTs exhibited application of the issue to a broader context stating the importance of beinga law-abiding citizen.
In the post-test result, all 20 PSMTs articulated the critical distance category. Theyemphasized the relevance of mathematics to address the issue of armed conflict. Many
realized the applicability of linear functions, simple linear regression analysis and correlation
analysis to address this. Nineteen PSMTs articulated the taking personal stance. In generally,
the PSMTs expressed the same concerns as in the pre-test. They specified the need for thegovernment to make safety and security a top priority. There were 14 PSMTs who expressedknowledge of the social issue and the application of the issue to a broader context. The
sentiments expressed by the PSMTs were just the same as the ones they mentioned in the pretest. There were four PSMTs who articulated taking active stance via collective social action
for social change unlike in the pre-test where there was none. The PSMTs argued for theneed to raise awareness through social media.
Discussion
The findings of the study showed an improvement in the PSMTs’ mathematical proficiency
after the PSMTs went through the social-issue-themed mathematics online lessons. The
findings also showed increase of the number of PSMTs expressing each category of criticalcitizenship about the three social issues, namely, government-led war on drugs, widespread
fake news, and civil conflicts, after going through the social-issue-themed mathematics
online lessons. Before and after being exposed in the lessons, it was found that most PSMTs
were comfortable in expressing thoughts which resonated with critical distance and taking
personal stance (passive stance) categories of critical citizenship in each of the social issues.
Most PSMTs expressed critical distance in both CCT pre-test and post-test. Their expressions
suggest appreciation and seeing a positive view of mathematics contents such as descriptive
statistics, logic and reasoning, and linear functions when used as a tool to address social
issues. This corroborates with the finding across studies in the literature. Previous studies
showed positive change in most students’ perceptions of the utility of mathematics when they
have engaged in social inquiry with mathematics in the classroom (e.g., Brelias, 2015;
Goodson-Espy et al., 2016; Turner et al., 2009; Verzosa, 2015).
In terms of knowledge of the social issues, the PSMTs realized that they were more
knowledgeable about the issues and more appreciative of mathematics as a tool to promote
understanding of the issues than before being exposed to the lessons. However, they all
agreed also that there is still more to learn. Their communications of feelings about the issues
suggested only some limited awareness. Hong (2018) argued that awareness of social
problems, requires one to be able to exhibit knowledge and skills to understand causes,
processes, and expected outcomes of the social issues and create solutions for them.
Furthermore, in order for PSMTs to apply an issue to broader contexts, they must be at least
knowledgeable about the issue at hand. According to Oh and Kwon (2014), one must imbibe
a certain depth of understanding of the issue under scrutiny to be able to expand andcomment to broader ones such as issues related to fairness, inequality, human rights, poverty,
and/or social justice, to name a few.
Findings showed that the PSMTs were, generally, least confident in expressing thoughts
which resonated with taking active stance via collective social action for social change
category of the critical citizenship. Perhaps the PSMTs’ sociocultural background could be

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one of the factors that limit the possible avenues for the development of critical citizenship.
In their study, Oh and Kwon (2014) pointed out that PSMTs must understand the prerequisite
conditions to develop critical citizenship and believe in the need for the development ofcritical citizenship. In the present study, the PSMTs expressed their values, feelings, andemotions regarding problems of social order. Some PSMTs expressed thoughts about socialorder issues applied in broader contexts of justice and the need for discipline. However, ingeneral, few PSMTs took active stance about their individual role in implementing socialchange. Participants did not have a common position on social problems, and their awarenesswere varied. Also, PSMTs are in an environment where participation in social movements is
discouraged. For example, some confessed that their parents disallow them from joining
street protests.
Conclusion
To conclude, our analysis showed that the view of mathematics as objective, value-free,decontextualized, and non-political can no longer hold. Mathematics has a role to play inmaintaining an orderly society. This role is to provide and ensure the acquisition of neededmathematical skills and proficiencies that enable learners to process numerical dataassociated with problems of social order. Moreover, social-issue-themed mathematics lessons
are ways that can help develop “critical” citizens who are motivated to address some of these
problems that threaten the breakdown of social order.

Acknowledgment
The lead author would like to thank the Capacity Building Program for Science andMathematics Education (CBPSME) of the Philippine Department of Science and Technology– Science Education Institute (DOST-SEI) for the funding support of this research study.

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Contact email: waldem.dejoras@obf.ateneo.edu

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Development of Multimedia for Improving English Listening Comprehension Skill
for Grade-2 Students
Vipin Kumar Sheoran, Rajamangala University of Technology Thanyaburi, Thailand
Metee Pigultong, Rajamangala University of Technology Thanyaburi, Thailand
The Southeast Asian Conference on Education 2023
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Abstract
The research objectives were to 1) develop quality multimedia for improving English
listening comprehension (ELC) skills for Grade students. 2) compare the learningachievement scores of students Pre-Post-Listening Test. 3) study the effectiveness index (EI)of learning achievement scores, and 4) study the students’ satisfaction after using multimedia
for improving ELC skills. The population consisted of 30 Grade-2 students of Plearnpattana
School. A suitable teaching technique based on the student's level and multimedia andinstructional videos (I-VDOs) were used for students’ listening comprehension. The statistics
used to analyze and interpret the data included mean (X̅ ), Standard Deviation (S. D),
Dependent t-test, and Effectiveness index (EI). The study found that after using multimedia
with instructional videos to develop ELC skills for Prathom Suksa (Grade) 2 students, 1) The
quality of Multimedia by experts achieved an overall mean score of 4.7, and the standard
deviation is 0.35. 2) the post-test learning achievement score was higher than the pre-testscore level at a statistically significant level of .05. 3) The effectiveness index was .733; inother words, students had higher post-test scores of 73.33%. 4) Student satisfaction foundthat 1) 90% of students liked the English lesson with multimedia at the end of this study. 2)
Multimedia created Assurance of students and better performance in class.
Keywords: Multimedia, English Listening Comprehension (ELC), Instructional Videos (IVDOs), Effectiveness Index (EI), Learning Achievement

iafor
The International Academic Forumwww.iafor.org

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Introduction
Background of Statement
Education plays an important role in the personality development of an individual. Individual
personality development further leads to the development of a society. The growth of asociety or a country is not possible without education. Mahatma Gandhi once said, “Byeducation, I mean an all-around drawing out of the best in the child and man.” The world
today has more knowledge than ever before, but not everyone can benefit from it. Quality
education is the foundation of sustainability. English as a secondary language (ESL) is an
important medium of language around the world because of its worldwide acceptance anduse. Therefore, the understanding and correct use of ESL is an important aspect of the present
education system. From the four basic language skills (listening, speaking, reading, andwriting) of any language worldwide, listening is the first skill all humans react to and use
other skills for language development. At Plearnpattana school, we as teachers, constantly
focus on the development of students and the curriculum. English being the second languagein Thailand, is not widely spoken in daily life as well as in Thai schools, including
Plearnpattana School. The main problem I would like to address from the above is “English
Listening Comprehension (ELC) in the classroom.”
Every problem arises because of some reasons. Some students need help understanding
English in the class and Thai translation. They need help to understand instructions. It has
affected the students’ understanding of English in the class which results in the lack ofconfidence and participation in the class. As a result, the students are not able to perform thetasks or activities in the class. The students around the world who use ESL also face a similar
problem because English is not their mother language. A researcher, Khalid I. Al-Nafisah(2019) asserted that the listening competency of students can be enhanced by several newtechniques and students need to focus on listening instructions in class. Rost M. (2005)
pointed out that listening is a complex cognitive process that requires the tasks of hearing the
spoken texts correctly, constructing the perceptually distinct units of sounds into words andsentences, and explaining the speaker’s anticipated intention. Listening, lets one understandthe world around us and is one of the necessary elements in establishing effective
communication. The emergence of COVID 19 has changed education for ever. There is a risein online learning or e-learning but it is harder for those without reliable internet access andstruggle to participate in digital learning than school-based learning. Cathy Li and Farah
Lalani (2020) at the World Economic Forum highlighted that the unplanned and rapid moveto online learning with no training, insufficient bandwidth, and little preparation with result ina poor experience that is unconducive to sustained growth in education. The online learning
has brought in many challenges for the teachers and students. The Grade 2 students are notleft behind with the challenge to understand the instructions in English. The ELC in theOnline Classroom has become more challenging, because of many reasons such as students’ability in understanding and comprehension of instructions, the pace of teachers’ speaking in
the class or in an online class, network issues, etc. In an article published on UKEssays(2018), the author discussed the learning difficulties encountered by EFL students in English
listening comprehension such as lack of control over the speed at which speakers speak, notbeing able to get things repeated, listener’s limited vocabulary, established learning habits, orlisteners tend to stop listening when they hear unfamiliar words. As a result, many learners,
particularly in the early stages of learning language learning, panic and lose theirconcentration.

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PurposeThe main focus of this study is to develop and use multimedia including I-VDOs to improvetheir ELC skills that is suitable for students in the ESL classroom as well as online. Patel C.
(2013) analyzed the necessity of multimedia technology to cultivate students’ interest, topromote students’ communication, to improve teaching effect, to improve the interaction
between the teacher and students, to create a context for language teaching, and to provide
flexibility to course content. Dwi Heriyanto (2018), mentioned that using Videos/YouTube inlanguage learning and teaching can be considered as a valuable learning tool. The researcher
would like to focus on the following research questions:
1. How effective will be the multimedia that I develop for improving students’ ESL
listening skills?
2. How effective will be the comparison of the students’ learning achievement scores?
3. What will be the students’ satisfaction level after using the multimedia?
Research Objectives
1. Develop quality multimedia for improving English listening comprehension skills for Gradestudents.
2. Compare the learning achievement scores of students between the Pre-Listening and PostListening Test for improving English listening comprehension skills.

3. Study the effectiveness index of learning achievement scores of the Pre-Listening andPost-Listening Test.
4. Study the satisfaction after using multimedia for improving English listening
comprehension skills.
Conceptual Framework

Figure 1- Research framework for the improvement of ELC Skills of G-2 students
Scope of the Study
The importance of multimedia I-VDOs is that it determines how successful students willlearn. Students will always understand and be able to do the activity as expected by theteacher. I-VDOs can determine whether a lesson succeeds or fails. The scope or benefits ofthis study can be achieved even if English is taught as a second language as long as s suitable

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multimedia, I-VDOs with simple and clear instructions is implied in the classroom at theright level, better lesson plans, multimedia, materials, and curriculum are developed. The
main challenges of using English as a medium of instruction are lack of students’ proficiency
in the English language, a lack of parental involvement, and a lack of English usage in daily
life. The lack of students’ understanding of English instructions can be narrowed down by
using multimedia through simple, easy, and clear instructions through I-VDOs at the rightlevel. The communication gap between teachers and students can also be brought down withthe help of I-VDOs.
Literature Review
There is no spoken language without listening. Students feel lost if they do not comprehend
the conversation. This is the reason why language learners lose their confidence, and request
constantly for frequent repetitions of the spoken text. Khalid I. Al-Nafisah (2019) also
reviewed the study done by Richards and Schmidt (2010) who defined listening
comprehension as the process of understanding speech in the first or second language. thatstudents must be furnished with proper learning resources and activities through which they
can be trained how to listen and comprehend the English language. ELC is necessary tounderstand is being said and what is to be needed further. ELC skills need to be developed atyounger age when students are in primary school. The earlier they are exposed to ELC, thebetter they will be. Picard. M and Velautham. L. (2016), concluded in their research that
explicit instructions and careful linking of the activities to their experience are necessary toengage the learners. It will ensure that the learners can apply ELC skills daily.
Multimedia brings a series of benefits for educational institutions, educators and learners andis worth trying. With multimedia, teachers can better bridge the knowledge gap and help
learners reach their maximum potential. Sejdiu S. (2017), claimed the use of multimedia as
effective and authentic in helping learners listening skills in real-life context. He has further
supported the use of multimedia tools as a matter of urgency for the teachers today. Erizar,
Syahputra A., Hidayati T. (2019), findings have indicated that multimedia was useful andeffective in making students understand English easily and it was convenient for teachers to
use multimedia in English classes. Ogay M. (2020), has stressed on the use of multimedia in
English classes because it improves the negative attitude towards learning ESL among young
learners. As summarized by Tiedemann K.M (2020), students in today’s classrooms aredifferent than previous generations in how they learn, but educators do have the tools to meetthe needs of today’s students. We need to convert our traditional teaching material into
digitals form using Google Classroom, Zoom, MS-Teams, Google Meet, Youtube, etc. anddeliver it to the students over the Internet. We have also to keep it mind we are still using
technology and creating boredom for the students. A good balance between online learningand on-sight learning is the need of the hour.
Research Methodology
The learners were Grade 2, 30 students. It consisted of Students’ Achievement Test forcomparison of students’ Pre-Post Listening Test, multimedia to improve the ELC skills of
Grade-2 students, and Students’ Satisfaction levels through students’ AAR feedback form.
The students’ achievement scores and satisfaction levels were presented using X-Bar graphs
on MS-Excel.

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The learners’ summative data, Pre- Listening Test in Term 1-Week1 and then their formative
data, Learners’ AAR data was collected for lesson plans in next consecutive five weeks,week 2 to week 8. Finally, another summative data in week 10, Post- Listening Test was
conducted. The researcher conducted the study in the first semester of Thai, Academic Year
2022, overall, about 10 weeks.
The independent Variable consisted of Learning through the use of multimedia including IVDOs with simple instructions, Power Point Presentation, Online websites or apps, etc. The
multimedia was developed, validated by experts and used every week, consecutively for 10
weeks. For the content of my study, I have focused on developing multimedia that includes IVDOs, PPTs, audios, flashcards, etc., a Constructive-Metacognitive Learning (CML) lessonplan as they will equip students with necessary vocabs, listening, and speaking skills that theyuse in their daily life. It will further help them to improve their ELC. The main highlight of
the ESL classes for simplified instructions is I-VDOs. The following are the simplified
instructions that were used in the class as well as in the I-VDOs:
Look and point / Point and say/ Ask and answer / Look at the pictures and match /Look and check / Guess and stick / Read and look / Look and read / Read, look andwrite / Read and underline / Read, write and circle / Look and write / Listen and say /Listen and point / Listen and choose / Listen and colour / Listen and circle / Listen
and read / Listen and stick / Listen and number the pictures / Listen, read and sing /Listen to the song / Listen and draw lines /Listen and do / Listen and draw / Listen
and compare / Talk and stick / Work in pairs / Work with a partner / Work in groups /Play a game / Take turns.
The quality of the multimedia content was calculated using Index of Item Objectives
Congruence (IOC). The Pre-Post Listening Test was conducted in the first and the tenth weekof the first term. And then summative, Dependent T-Test, comparison assessments were done
to reflect the improvement. After collecting the summative data, I have organized it
systematically according to the occurrence of events. The summative data from learners’ PrePost Listening Test, which was of 10 points, was summarized on the scale of 1 to 4 points asfollows:
1 point (understand the least)=
5 (50%) or less out of 10.
2 points (understand a little)=
6 (60%) out of 10.
3 points (moderately understand)=
7 (70%) out of 10.
4 points (strongly understand)=
8 (80%) or above out of 10.
An effectiveness index of learning achievement scores, a dependent variable was analyzed.
The formula used to calculate Effectiveness Index (EI) to see the increase in the achievementscore is the following:
EI =Summary of Post-Test (P2) – Summary of Pre-Test(P1)(Number of students x Max. Score) – P1

Another dependent variable, Students’ Satisfaction Survey was are required to be filled up
after each lesson with multimedia to record their feedback. The evidence was collected for 10
weeks in the first term which highlights if students can understand the instructions/lesson.
The students’ feedback was prepared on the basis of Likert Scale, developed by renowned
psychologist Rensis Likert (Wikipedia, 2022), which is a type of scale used to measure thelearners’ opinion towards a particular, here in it is s understanding of learners’ ELC skills. I

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have utilized four-point Likert Scale because I would like to force my students to form an
opinion, either way without being neutral on the topic.

Figure 2- Grade 2 Students’ understanding and satisfaction level feedback
I have used the learners’ feedback in figure 2 with four choices, a very happy face:understand instructions the most, a happy face: understand instructions well, OK face:understand instructions a bit, a sad face: do not understand at all. The formative data fromlearners’ AAR was also summarized on the same scale of 1 to 4 points which is as below:
1 point
2 points
3 points
4 points====

strongly dislike/understand the least
moderately dislike/understand a little
moderately like/moderately understandstrongly like/ strongly understandAfter encoding the scores of collected data in MS- Excel, I prepared a bar graph, clearly
showing the percentage of learners’ data in four colours as mentioned below:
Blue-1 point
Red-2 points
Green-3 points
Purple-4 points

=
=
=
=

strongly dislike/ understand the least
moderately dislike/ understand a little
moderately like/moderately understandstrongly like/ strongly understandResearch results
The results of the implementation of the action are presented as the following:
1. Independent Variable: The quality of the multimedia and its English content was assessedand validated by the experts were calculated using Index of Item Objectives Congruence(IOC). As seen in the figure-3 below, the overall mean percentage rating of the six experts
was at 94.67% who strongly agreed that the multimedia and English content was suitable for
the Grade-2 students. The mean score was 4.73 from the maximum of 5. It suggests that thedeveloped media is of good quality and the content was suitable for Grade-2 students.

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Figure 3: Individual expert rating showing the mean scores and percentage
The following Table-1 represents the raw scores of each expert, their mean score, mean
percentage, and standard deviation. The overall mean score of 6 experts is 4.73, mean
percentage is at 94.67, and the mean standard deviation is 0.35. All experts strongly agreed
that the developed multimedia (PPTs & flashcards) has attractive pictures, simple and easy
text for the grade- 2 students and give the highest rating of 5, mean 5, mean percentage 100,and standard deviation zero which mean all agreed, for item 2, 3, and 5. They also agreed that
I-VDOs or audios have simple instructions, mean 4.67, mean percentage 93.33, and standard
deviation 0.58 for item 1, and good quality audios and videos, mean 4.33, mean percentage
86.67, and standard deviation at 0.58 level.
The feedback about the English content achieved high rating of 4.67 as well. They givehighest score of 5, item 6, for the English content is academically suitable for the grade-2
students. They all agreed that lesson plans (item 7), worksheets (item 8), and pre-posttest(item10) were highly suitable for the grade-2 students. Their mean percentage was 93.33,
each, and standard deviation was 0.58. The instructional language used in preparing various
multimedia is simple and clear to understand by the grade-2 students (item 9) achieved therating of 4.33, 86.67%, standard deviation 0.58.

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Table 1: Individual Expert rating table showing the mean scores and percentage
2. Dependent Variables: The dependent variables used in this study are Dependent T-Test,
Effectiveness Index, and Satisfaction Index.
Dependent T-Test: An achievement score comparison to reflect the improvement has beenpresented in the figure below.

Table 2: The comparison table of pre-test - post-test by using multimedia for improving ELC

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The table 2 shows the result of the comparison between the pretest and the post-test foundthat after using multimedia for improving ELC skills for grade 2 students, the post-test
achievement score was higher than the pre-test score level at a statistically significant level of.05. Therefore, I would like to say that there was a significant difference between the pre-test
and the post-test of the Grade-2 students. The new strategy of using multimedia didsignificant increase in the post-test scores of the students.
To further support it, a statistical analysis was also done and presented in the form of a bar
graph as the following.

Figure 4 - Bar graph showing comparison of Pre-Post ELC Test (%)
The above graph is of Grade 2 which has 30 students. In the pre-test, the ELC skill of theclass was at 50% (16.67+33.33) which shows understanding as good and 50% (43.33+6.67)
shows not good. After the implementation of action step by step, the understanding ofstudents’ listening comprehension improved to 73.33% (10+63.33) as good and 26.67%(16.67+10) below good. It clearly showed the improvement of 23.33% from 50% to 73.33%
in the students’ ELC. The mean score of the Post-Test was at 7.6 as compared to the meanscore of 6.2 in the pre-Test. It improved by 1.4 points.
Effectiveness Index: An effectiveness of the learning achievement scores using theEffectiveness Index (EI) was at 0.38 which is 38%. The figure-5 below shows the individual
scores of 30 students. It reflects the total score of the Post-Test has increased to 229 ascompared to 185 in the Pre-Test. The standard deviation of the Post-Test shows that thevariation of scores has reduced to 2.41 as compared to 2.60 in the Pre-Test. It shows an
improvement.

Figure 5- Pre-Post Test Scores
Similarly, when the Pre-Post test scores were compared on the basis of Likert Scale of 1 to 4.
The results showed improvement as seen in the figure-6 below. The mean of Post-Test has
increased to 3.2 from maximum of 4 as compared to the mean 2.4 in the Pre-Test. The

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standard deviation has improved as well as their variation of scores has reduced to 1.2 in the
Post-Test than 1.4 in the Pre-Test, in figure 6.

Figure 6- Pre-Post Test Scores on Likert scale of 1 to 4
Satisfaction Index: Students’ Satisfaction Survey based on Likert Scale about their ELC
comprehension skills for each plan is shown in figure-7 below.

Figure 7- Grade 2 Students’ satisfaction scores about their understanding ELC
It shows that the students’ understanding in each plan is between moderately understand andstrongly understand after using the multimedia. The mean score of students’ understanding inplan 1 is 3.50, mean percentage 87.50, and standard deviation is 0.86. The mean scoreeventually increased in each plan and the variation in the students’ feedback about theirunderstanding decreased as well, which means more students understand the lessons andstarted giving higher ratings and thus less variation in their feedback. The mean score of 10plans is 3.76, mean percentage 93.92, and standard deviation is 0.50. It represents thedeveloped multimedia has assisted students to understand lessons and improve their ELC.
Furthermore, the bar graph in figure-8 is about the students’ understanding of the ESL
lessons.

Figure 8- Grade 2 Students’ level of understanding ELC Skills

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As seen in the figure-8, in Plan-1, there were 66.67% students who could strongly understandEnglish instructions and tasks in class, 23.33% could moderately understand, 3.33% could
understand a little, and 6.67% could understand the least. As the action plan continued with
the implementation of multimedia in the English class, students understanding of ELC
gradually improved along with the passing weeks. The mean percentage score of students’
understanding English lessons with the use of multimedia for 10 weeks was at 93.92%,
strong understand as compared to 6.08% who understood a little or the least.
Similarly, figure-9 shows that the students’ liking in each plan is between moderately likeand strongly like after using the multimedia. The mean score of students’ liking is 3.55, mean
percentage 88.75, and standard deviation is 0.76. The mean score was always higher than 3 ineach plan suggesting that students liking was higher than moderately like. It represents thedeveloped multimedia and its use in the classroom has increased students liking.

Figure 9- Grade 2 Students’ satisfaction scores about their liking ESL
To explain it furthermore, the bar graph below is about the students’ liking of the ESL
lessons incorporated with multimedia.

Figure 10- Grade 2 Students’ satisfaction level of liking English lessons

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The mean proportion of students’ satisfaction data obtained who strongly liked English
lesson with multimedia was 90% (16.67%+73.33), with 10% (3.33+6.67) liked a little or the
least. It indicates a high degree of liking ESL lessons with multimedia. The point to be notedin the above graph is that the students who strongly liked the used of multimedia or the
English lessons has increased to 73.33% in the tenth week as compared to 63.33% in the first
week. It reflected a high level of liking multimedia in the English lessons.
Discussion and recommendation
In previous studies by Patel, Chirag. (2013), Sejdiu S. (2017), Dwi Heriyanto. (2018), Erizar,
Syahputra A., Hidayati T. (2019), Rachman B. (2020), Ogay M. (2020), it has been provenand suggested that the use of multimedia provides greater incentives, inspires students’positive thinking and ELC skills. It also makes the lessons lively, interesting, and assists inbetter understanding of English lessons. Their studies were conducted with university or highschool graduates and recommended to conduct further studies.
This study has highlighted the same and supported the previous studies that the use ofmultimedia does improve students understanding, and ELC skills. It has a positive impact on
the students learning. The researcher would like to mention that the effectiveness of students’learning achievement also depends on the environment they are surrounded, the amount ofEnglish that they use in their daily life, the vocabulary that students know at their age level,
etc. If these factors can be taken care of, the effectiveness of students’ learning would havebetter results.
The researcher would like to recommend to the teachers that the teacher must be able tochoose a suitable teaching technique based on the level of students and use multimedia withsimplified instructions, I-VDOs and more listening-based tasks that can help the students incomprehending the text that they listened to. The teachers must try to use listening
texts/activities from the textbooks or some other online resources as much as possible
according to the needs of the students’ improvement. The teachers must clearly understandand make sure that they are not overly dependent on technology. There must be a healthy
blend of technology and traditional teaching, online teaching or offline teaching. I would say
we must focus on creating a balanced Blended Learning Management System that fitsteachers as well as students. The students should also be aware that listening is one of theskills that must be mastered. They must use it in daily life as much as possible to improvetheir listening skills.
The study can be additional supportive evidence for those who would like to conduct further
action research related to the use of multimedia with simple instructions or I-VDOs in the
ESL classroom. This study does not end the problem related to listening and comprehending.
However, if has been proved that multimedia along with simple instructions or I-VDOs at an
early age do help students’ understanding and listening comprehension. It has assisted me toimprove my students’ ELC skills to a great extent. It can be useful for new inexperienced
teachers to know which set or simple instructions they can use in the classroom or in the IVDOs while developing multimedia to make students understand the teacher and how to do
the tasks in the class. The researcher has successfully tried and tested this study at primarylevel. I suggest that ESL teachers conduct further such studies at higher or higher secondary,
and university students to support and validate my findings.

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Conclusion
I would like to mention that there are several findings that are exposed during this research.
When I agreed to continue this research with Grade-2 students, I had a feeling that whether
the development and use of multimedia would work well in improving students’ ELC skills
as other previous researchers or not because the situation was a bit different this year.
Students were often ON or OFF this year compared to the previous situation. Many students
had a hard time listening to the teacher’s instructions or any other text in English given by theteacher, which has resulted in a lack of understanding, confidence, and participation in theclass. Online teaching with technical errors has made teaching even harder. After addressingthese issues with proper planning and implementation consistently through multimedia,
simplified instructions, instructional videos/audios, and listening-based tasks in the classes
with an overall of 30 students, I have received immense pleasure and satisfaction from theresults of improvement.
The multimedia rating of the six experts was at 94.67% who strongly agreed that themultimedia and English content was suitable for the Grade-2 students. They all agreed andsuggested that the quality multimedia would really assist students to learn better and improvetheir ELC skill. The improvement of the students’ ELC skills showed good progress. They
were able to listen and understand the English lessons with multimedia, simplified
instructions and listening text better each time.
The post-test learning achievement score was higher than the pre-test score level at a
statistically significant level of .05. The results of the Pre-Post listening test clearly showed
improvement at 73.33% in the post-listening test who could strong understand and improve
ELC as compared to 50% in the pre-listening test. The improvement in students’ learningachievement scores has thus proved that multimedia somehow grabs students’ attention,
increases their liking and understanding in English lessons which results in better ELC skills.
The effectiveness of learning achievement scores using the Effectiveness Index (EI) was
38%, meaning the Post Test scores were 38% better than the Pre-Test scores. Whenconsidered Covid 19 situation, blended learning environment, students getting sick, andmissing classes for their quarantine period, the course of 10 weeks has shown satisfactory
results. As represented in the chapter 4, the mean of Post-Test has increased to 3.2 frommaximum of 4 as compared to the mean 2.4 in the Pre-Test. The standard deviation has
improved and the variation of scores has reduced to 1.2 in the Post-Test and 1.4 in the PreTest. Without these conditions, the effective of learning achievement scores would have beenmuch better.
The improvement is also backed by the timely students’ satisfaction surveys which wereconducted by me, the researcher, for 10 weeks. According to the Students' satisfaction
survey, the students’ understanding and liking has improved with the use of multimedia in the
English lessons. The essential item to note is that the mean proportion of students who cangrasp simple English teaching and strongly understand has increased from 66.67% percent inPlan 1, Week 1 to 86.67% in Plan 10, Week 10. The strong or high level of students' liking
confirmed my belief that multimedia with straightforward instructions in class or via I-VDOs
significantly help students grasp knowledge better, students feel more confident, andparticipative in the class.

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In my study, I was able to achieve all research objectives and satisfied with the results. Basedon the results, it has been proved that if multimedia is implemented correctly in a systematicmanner with simplified instructions in class or with I-VDOs online and listening-based tasks,
re-using them in routine teaching boost up students’ understanding and improvement in ELC
skills.
Acknowledgement
I am in a state of euphoria and full of appreciation towards the RMUTT E-CUBE-I
Scholarship for providing me an opportunity to be a part of a wonderful university andenhance my academic and professional skills in the field of education.
I would also like to express my gratitude from the bottom of my heart to my advisor for his
valuable advice, Plearnpattana School for allowing me to conduct my research and the teamsof experts for their valuable assistance and advice. I would also like to thank my buddy
teachers, who assisted me in developing effective multimedia. Their support is appreciable.
Finally, most important, without them, my research would not have any value, my lovely
Grade-2 students of the Academic Year 2022 at Plearnpattana School and the researchers
whose studies have assisted me in gaining more knowledge and proceeding on with my own
research.

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References
Cambridge University Press and Assessment. (2022). Cambridge English Qualifications-A1
Movers. https://www.cambridgeenglish.org/exams-and-tests/movers/
Cathy Li and Farah Lalani. (2020). The Rise of Online Leaning in Covid 19 Pandemic, World
Economic Forum. https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2020/04/coronavirus-educationglobal-covid19-online-digital-learning/
Dwi Heriyanto. (2018). The Effectiveness of Using Youtube for Vocabulary Mastery.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/324572299_The_Effectiveness_of_Using_
Youtube_for_Vocabulary_Mastery
Erizar, Syahputra A., Hidayati T. (2019), The effectiveness of Use Multimedia in English
Teaching at SMPN 1 Meulaboh. https://www.atlantis-press.com/proceedings/icssis18/125906260
Khalid I. Al-Nafisah, 2019. Issues and Strategies in Improving Listening Comprehension in a
Classroom.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/334134857_Issues_and_Strategies_in_Impr
oving_Listening_Comprehension_in_a_Classroom
Ogay M. (2020). Use of Multimedia in Teaching English to Young Learners.
https://www.idpublications.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/Full-Paper-USE-OFMULTIMEDIA-IN-TEACHING-ENGLISH-TO-YOUNG-LEARNERS.pdf
Patel, Chirag. (2013). Use of Multimedia Technology in Teaching and Learning
communication skill”: An Analysis. http://www.ijoart.org->Use-of-MultimediaTechnology-in-Teaching-and-Learning-communication-skill.pdf.
Picard. M and Velautham. L. (2016). Developing Independent Listening Skills for English as
an Additional Language Students. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1106344.pdf
Rost, M. (2005, 2011). Teaching and Researching Listening, Longman, London.
Sejdiu S. (2017). Are Listening Skills Best Enhanced Through the Use of Multimedia
Technology. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1166469.pdf
Tiedemann, K.M. (2020). The Impact of Blended Learning on Student Motivation andAchievement in Reading and Writing.
https://scholarcommons.sc.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=6950&context=etd
UKEssays. (November 2018). Learning Difficulties Encountered By Efl Students English
Language Essay. https://www.ukessays.com/essays/english-language/learningdifficulties-encountered-by-efl-students-english-language-essay.php?vref=1
Wikipedia. (2022). 21st Century Skills, Likert Scale.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/21st_century_skills,
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Likert_scale

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Contact email: vipin_sheoran@rmutt.ac.th
vipin_sheoran79@gmail.com

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Subject Site Usability to Student Well-Being and Burnout–Understanding the Pathway

Jagdeep Kaur Sabharwal, James Cook University, Singapore
Emmeline Mei Yi See, James Cook University, Singapore
Rui Min Lim, James Cook University, Singapore
Shailey Chawla, James Cook University, Singapore
Adrian Norman, James Cook University, Australia

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Abstract
A considerable amount of research has been conducted to learn about various factors
contributing to student well-being and burnout, but there have been few studies thatconsidered both individual and external factors together in understanding these in the context
of online and blended learning. A moderated mediation model is used to understand therelationship between usability of E-learning sites with burnout and wellbeing through selfcontrol (SC), conscientiousness (C), and self-efficacy (SE) across learning modes- online andblended, among a sample of university students (N = 142). The participants completed an
online survey hosted on Qualtrics and completed Conscientious subscales of the Big Five
Inventory, Brief Self-Control Scale (B-SCS), General Self-Efficacy Scale (GSE), E-Learning
Usability Scale for Higher Education (ELUSH), Satisfaction with life scale (SWLS) andOldenburg Burnout Inventory (OLBI-student version), which provides scores on two scales,“exhaustion” and “disengagement”. Overall usability of E-learning sites was significantly
associated with disengagement but not exhaustion. The mediation effect of self-control on
association between site usability and two indicators of burnout (exhaustion anddisengagement) was moderated by conscientiousness. No significant differences wereobserved for burnout and well-being scores across different learning modes. The study
highlights the importance of usability of subject sites in preventing burnout thereby
increasing learner well-being and has implications for the learning and teaching processes inschools and institutions.

Keywords: Burnout, Self-Control, Self-Efficacy, Conscientiousness, Moderated Mediation

iafor
The International Academic Forumwww.iafor.org

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Introduction
The COVID-19 pandemic drastically changed the education sector as schools and universities
had to adapt to the social distancing policies and other health protocols that governments
implemented in order to curb the spread of the COVID-19 virus (Adedoyin & Soykan, 2020).
The closure of schools as one of the necessary measures to prevent the transmission of
COVID-19 compelled schools to transition to remote learning platforms and change theirpedagogical approach to accommodate this transition (Sandhu & de Wolf, 2020). As such, theutilization of pedagogical approaches that implement online learning, distance and continuing
education has now become a necessity for educators, given that the traditional face-to-facesetup is no longer feasible in the current global health situation (Pokhrel & Chhetri, 2021). It
must be noted that online learning has been used by educational institutions prior to thepandemic, but it has never been institutionalized as a formal teaching approach until the
education sector saw no other alternative learning design (Khan et al., 2020). As the world
adapts to the "new normal", it seems that online learning is here to stay as an increasing
number of institutions have adopted a blended approach toward the dissemination of course
content.
Students’ academic performance, well-being, burnout, and student engagement are some ofthe essential outcomes that need examination as indicators of students’ successful transition
to these new modes of learning. Individual factors too are important aspects that must be
included. Though there have been many works examining factors contributing to student
well-being and burnout, limited studies have actually considered both individual and external
factors together. In addition, studies in the context of online and blended learning are limited,as these learning environments gained prominence only during the COVID-19 pandemic.
Thus, a research gap exists in understanding how individual factors interact with theselearning environments to influence student well-being and burnout levels.
Modes of Learning
To distinguish online learning from blended learning, it is important to define the two
approaches and identify the key components that comprise each respective model. The
blended learning model is the integration of traditional face-to-face teaching and online
learning (Senturk,2020). Traditional face-to-face teaching occurs synchronously in a physicalclassroom with an instructor directing and taking charge of the class, whereas online lessons
are typically asynchronous, with students going through lesson materials at their own paceand schedule (Bonk et al., 2006). In this respect, online learning refers to a learning
environment that utilizes technological tools, the Internet and other electronic devices tofacilitate both synchronous and asynchronous instructional delivery (Huang, 2019).
Usability of E-learning site
Usability is defined as the degree to which specific users in a specified context can use asystem or a product to achieve defined goals in an efficient, effective and satisfactory manner(Jokela et al.,2003). For our study usability refers to the ease-of-use of online courses. Online
and blended learning both require student engagement with online content. When clear
guidance and instructions were given on websites to support their online learning, students
put in more effort to tasks (Mamun et al., 2016). A well-designed site with navigation support
thus is critical for interaction with the content and acquisition of knowledge through it.
Evaluation of usability in E-learning environments should consider both technical and

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pedagogical criteria of usability (Sandoval, 2016). While technological criteria ensure a gooduser-experience while navigating through the course site, the pedagogical aspects support
students’ learning journey through the course (Dringus & Cohen, 2005; Granić& Ćukušić,
2011; Khan et al., 2010; Zaharias, 2009). A well-designed E-learning Site should support
active participation by users, encourage self-critical thinking, and offer avenues for formationof community of learners where students express and share with their peers what they arelearning, as well as gather feedback, reflect, and develop confidence by practicing (Boud &Prosser, 2002; Sandoval, 2016). Site content utilizing elements such as font, size, italics,
highlight, etc., site interactivity that allows interactions with course, peers, and the instructor,
learner-centric instructional design, a course design that is easy to navigate through andinstructor presence that plays a critical role in facilitation and guiding students’ learning, allcontribute to high usability of E-learning sites (Ballard , 2010; Fisher & Wright, 2010; Jones,
2011; Zaharias & Koutsabasis, 2012). The online learning experience of students is enhanced
by factors like stimulation, attractiveness, innovation and dependability, which prevent
learner frustration, hence increasing student satisfaction (Agyeeiwaah et. al, 2022; Heidig etal., 2015; Malamed, 2015; Meiselwitz & Sadera, 2008; Nyang'or et al., 2013; Plass et al.,2013). E-learning sites with high usability can give students support to manage theiracademic burden. It is assumed that students will then be less exhausted and more engaged
with the learning process. Better usability of online learning environment improves their
online learning experience and leads to better learning outcomes for them (Meiselwitz &Sadera, 2008). Regularly disciplined interactions with the subject site can contribute to theirself-efficacy for that system (Al-Azawei & Lundqvist , 2015). With a positive learning
experience, they could be energetic, happy and more successful in their learning path
(Schaufeli et al., 2002). The impact of usability on learning outcomes and better learning
experience is presented in Figure 1.

Figure 1: Impact of enhanced site usability on Learning
Student Well-being
The importance of well-being in higher education has been emphasized by many (Elwick &Cannizzaro, 2017; Kern et al., 2014). Two of the most common conceptualizations of wellbeing include subjective well-being and psychological well-being (Diener,1984 ; Ryff andSinger , 2008). While subjective well-being is a measure of an individual’s personal
experience and perception of events in their lives (Diener & Suh, 1997), psychological wellbeing, goes beyond life satisfaction (Ryff and Singer, 2008). Seligman (2011) argues that

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well-being is an essential prerequisite for an overall positive learning experience from which
students may reap maximal benefits and acquire new knowledge. Delivering curriculum in away such that it allows students to flourish can help them maximize their potential to perform
in school.
Academic Burnout
Burnout is a mental health state which is caused by work-related distress that involves
incessant bodily reactions to repeatedly occurring interpersonal stressors (Mheidly et al.,2020). It is operationalized using three dimensions - emotional exhaustion, feelings ofcynicism and inefficacy (Schaufeli et al., 1996). Academic burnout has become increasingly
prevalent among university students as a result of competitiveness and increasing demands inhigher education and has been associated with lower learning motivation and are major
predictors of students' attrition from school (Aguayo et al., 2019; Cazan, 2015). From a
student's perspective, burnout refers to "feeling exhausted because of study demands, having
a cynical and detached attitude toward one's study and feeling incompetent as a
student"(Schaufeli et al., 2002, p. 465). Burnout is significantly correlated with lower selfesteem and higher presence of depressive symptoms among students, which are generalindicators of poor well- being (Tuominen-Soini & Salmela-Aro, 2014).
Academic Burnout, Well-being and Learning mode
When it comes to online learning, students might experience higher levels of study demands
since they are expected to study independently. Absence or reduced direct interactions withteachers and peers, that facilitate their learning, could decrease their study resources. Thus,
high demand of their personal resources and reduction in social interactions, could potentiallylead to feelings of exhaustion and disengagement from school among students, resulting inacademic burnout (Alam et al., 2021). Keramidas’ (2012) findings also showed that online
students find it more challenging to manage their time and meet school deadlines comparedto their counterparts who have traditional face-to-face classes. Prolonged use of technologicaldevices and consistent checking of e-mails for updates while studying in online mode canalso contribute to burnout (Estevez-Mujica & Quintane, 2016). However, the convenienceand ease offered by online learning can reduce the experience of burnout among students(Bolatov et al., 2020). Students could learn from the comfort of home and more time could be
used for productive learning and achieving a better school-life balance instead of travelling toand from campus. This also has implications for student well-being.
In face-to-face learning mode too, research shows contradictory findings regarding
experience of academic burnout. If on one hand, traditional teaching has shown positive
impact due to the strong social relations between teachers and students fostered in physicalclassroom environment (Tomás-Miquel et al., 2016), studies also draw attention to its
negative impact due to its rigidity (for both time and location) that makes it difficult for
students to learn at their own pace or repeat learning activities (McCutcheon et al, 2015).
Considering these conflicting findings for both online learning and traditional learning, it isdifficult to decide which approach is can protect students from possible exhaustion anddisengagement and improve their well-being (Lyndon et al., 2017).
One can then turn to blended learning which offers best of both approaches by optimizing the
instructional strategies of the two above discussed approaches. According to Worley (2011),
instructors can make learning more engaging by linking lesson materials to real-world

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scenarios, making use of new technologies and multimedia to keep students stimulated, andencouraging inquiry-based learning. In blended learning, students have higher levels of
engagement as exhibited through their school performance and interaction within the classes(Adams et al., 2020).
Individual differences
Factors contributing to academic burnout and student well-being also include individual
factors such as self-esteem, self-efficacy, optimism, conscientiousness etc. (Alarcon et al.,2009). Self-efficacy is defined by Albert Bandura as one’s beliefs in their capabilities to exert
control over events and accomplish tasks (Bandura, 1977). Self-efficacy has been linked tohigher learner engagement and predicted less burnout in students (Bulfone et al., 2016).
Enhancement of self-efficacy has also been shown to improve learner engagement (Bresó etal., 2011). Ouweneel et al. (2011) posit that self-efficacy leads to higher study engagement
due to a willingness to exert additional effort in accomplishing requirements. Maricuțoiu andSulea (2019) found that self-efficacy beliefs can increase learner engagement, with results
suggesting that increased self-efficacy can reduce the risk of student burnout. Higher selfefficacy is also associated with positive or better well-being (Armaou & Antoniou, 2018;
Othman et al., 2019; Siddiqul, 2015). In contrast, lower self-efficacy may lead to lower levelsof subjective well-being (Barlow et al., 2002; Bandura et al., 2003; Caprara, 2002) andincreased symptoms of anxiety and depression (Faure & Loxton, 2003; Kashdan & Roberts,
2004; Shnek et al., 2001). Research shows that students with higher self-efficacy adapt wellto new learning environments and have better academic success (Hodges, 2008; Zimmerman& Kulikowich, 2016). Self-efficacy also helps with managing stress (Villada et al., 2017),
which could potentially be useful for when managing the stressors due to the changed
learning environments.
Self-control is defined as the ability to delay the instantaneous satisfaction of a smaller
reward with the expectation of receiving a larger reward at a later point in time (Ainslie,
1975; Mischel et al., 1989; Kirby & Herrnstein, 1995). In the academic context, self-control
becomes necessary due to the long-term value of academic work over the short-term
gratification of distractions (Duckworth et al., 2019). Research has revealed that self-control
is positively related to whether students do well in online and blended learning environments,
resulting in positive learning outcomes such as better grades and achievement of goals(Gorbunovs et al., 2016; Zhu et al., 2016). Seibert et al. (2016) found that, generally, there
was a negative correlation between self-control and burnout, suggesting that low self-control
could result in high levels of burnout. Those with higher self-control also seem to be happierand experience higher life satisfaction (Hofmann et al., 2014; Hussain et al., 2020).
Conscientiousness, which is defined as “individual differences in the propensity to be selfcontrolled, responsible to others, hardworking, orderly, and rule abiding”, (Roberts et al.,2014, p. 1315), can be an important factor influencing student learning experience across thedifferent modes. Conscientiousness includes areas of self-control, industriousness, and order,
which manifests in one’s thoughts, feelings, and behaviours (Roberts, 2009). Individuals withhigher levels of conscientiousness show discipline by persisting in their goals, an inherent
motivation for accomplishment, make use of adaptive learning strategies and are more likely
to succeed on tasks (Bidjerano & Dai, 2007; Chen et al., 2001; Costa et al., 1991; Poropat,2009). Research has established that conscientiousness does positively influence self-control(Mao et al., 2018; Zhang et al., 2019). Hence, with regards to learning, students who scorehigher on conscientiousness could work hard and persevere in different subjects and courses

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and potentially would do better in their studies. Furthermore, individuals with higher
conscientiousness tended to have higher life satisfaction (Heller et al., 2004) and higher
psychological well-being (Carter et al., 2016). Conscientiousness was reported as being
negatively associated with burnout (Azeem, 2013). Studies show that conscientiousness is
positively related with online engagement and online learning outcomes (Quigley et al., 2022;
Yu, 2021). Thus, students with higher conscientiousness would be more likely to have apositive learning experience in the changed learning environments like online or blended
modes.
The Present Study
In summary, the present study aimed to find if students studying across the three modes oflearning had different burnout and well-being scores. Firstly, we wanted to see if students
studying across the three modes of learning had different burnout and well-being scores by
testing the below hypothesis.
H1- students across the three modes of learning (e.g., 1. Fully asynchronous online 2.
asynchronous online + synchronous online class 3. asynchronous online + synchronous F2Fclass) would differ in their scores for exhaustion, disengagement and well-being.
Secondly, it was of interest to understand the relationship between site usability and academic
burnout and student well-being. Past research has shown the explanatory power of selfefficacy (e.g., Hejazi et al., 2009; Llorca et al., 2017), and self-control (Duckworth et al.,2019), thus authors aimed to examine the mediating effects of academic self-efficacy andself-control on the relationship between site usability and academic burnout and student wellbeing. Thirdly, we wanted to examine the moderating role of personality trait
conscientiousness on relationship among variables. Prior studies indicate that since persons
with higher levels of conscientiousness show discipline by persisting in their goals and havean inherent motivation for accomplishment, they would be more likely to have a positive
learning experience across all study modes (e.g., Poropat, 2009; Quigley et al., 2022).
Following hypotheses were tested:
H2a- Indirect effect of site usability on disengagement through self-control will be moderated
by conscientiousness
H2b- Indirect effect of site usability on disengagement through self-efficacy will be
moderated by conscientiousness
H3a – Indirect effect of site usability on exhaustion through self-control will be moderated byconscientiousness.
H3b– Indirect effect of site usability on exhaustion through self -efficacy will be moderated
by conscientiousness.
H4a- Indirect effect of site on well-being through self-control will be moderated byconscientiousness
H4b- Indirect effect of site usability on well-being through self-efficacy will be moderated byconscientiousness
H5a- Conscientiousness will moderate the relationship between site usability and exhaustion,
H5b- Conscientiousness will moderate the relationship between site and disengagement
H5c - Conscientiousness will moderate the relationship between site usability and well-being
The conceptual diagram is presented in Figure 2.

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MethodThe present study utilised a correlational design. A mediation analysis was employed to
examine the mediating effect of academic self-efficacy and self-control (i.e., mediating
variables) on the relationship between site usability (independent variable) and academic
burnout (i.e., exhaustion and disengagement) and well-being (dependent variables).
Conscientiousness was examined as a potential moderator influencing these relationships.

Figure 2: Proposed model for the study
Measures used in the study
Demographic Form – The demographic form requested for participants’ gender, age,academic discipline, course, year of study, and learning mode.
E-Learning Usability Scale for Higher Education (Sandoval, 2016) – This scale has 27
items in total measuring 4 dimensions- content, interactivity, instructor role and course
design. Examples of these items include “The course uses interactive tools and strategies togain my attention and maintain my interest” and “Graphics used in the course are of highquality (not blurry)”. Each item is scored using a 7-point Likert scale (from 1 = strongly
disagree to 7 = strongly agree). A “not applicable” option was included for those items that
did not apply to a participant. Higher scores indicate higher site usability. Hasibuan et al.
(2019) reported a Cronbach alpha of .92 for the Indonesian version of the scale. The
Cronbach’s alpha for the scale was 0.97 in the present study.
General Self-Efficacy Scale (Schwarzer & Jerusalem, 1995) – The General Self-Efficacy
Scale (GSE) is a 10-item self-report measure of self-efficacy It is a single dimension scale,and each item is scored using a 4-point Likert scale (from 1 = not at all to 4 = exactly true)
with higher score indicating higher self-efficacy. GSE has shown to have good internalconsistency, with alpha scores of between .76 and .90 (Schwarzer & Jerusalem, 1995). Thereis also good construct reliability of .91 and good convergent validity of .51 (Freire et al.,2020). For the present study Cronbach’s alpha for the scale was 0.88.
Conscientiousness subscale of the Big Five Inventory (John et al., 1991) – This is a 9‐item
subscale of the Big Five Inventory and assesses one’s conscientiousness Items are rated from1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Internal consistency of this subscale was good,with alpha score of .82. For this study the Cronbach’s alpha for the scale was 0.76.

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Brief Self-Control Scale (Tangney et al., 2004) – The Brief Self-Control Scale (B-SCS) is a
13-item self-report scale, and each item was rated on a 5-point Likert scale (from 1 = not at
all like me to 5 = very much like me). High scores indicate higher self-control. The
Cronbach’s alpha was 0.85 in the present study.
Oldenburg Burnout Inventory – Student Version (Reis et al., 2015) – The Oldenburg
Burnout Inventory – Student Version (OLBI-S) is a 16-item questionnaire designed to
specifically measure academic burnout in students (Reis et al., 2015). OLBI-S is adaptedfrom the Oldenburg Burnout Inventory (OLBI; Demerouti et al, 2003) and it comprises two
scales, disengagement and exhaustion. Participants responded to each statement on a 4-point
Likert scale (from 1 = strongly agree to 4 = strongly disagree). Higher scores on thedisengagement and exhaustion scales indicated greater disengagement and exhaustion
respectively. In an English-speaking population, the OLBI-S had Cronbach’s alphas ranging
from .74 to .97 (Halbesleben & Demerouti, 2005). The Cronbach’s alpha for this scale in thepresent study was 0.78.
The Satisfaction with Life Scale (Diener et al., 1985) – This five-item self-report measureassesses one’s satisfaction with life as a whole. Items are rated from 1 (strongly disagree) to
7 (strongly agree) on a Likert scale. Scores for each item were summed to obtain a total scoreof this scale, with higher scores indicating higher perceived life satisfaction. Internalconsistency was high, with alpha score of .87 and good test-retest reliability of .82 (MagyarMoe, 2009. The Cronbach’s alpha for the scale was 0.86 in the present study.
Participants
To participate in the study, participants were required to be a student taking at least one
subject in an online or blended mode at the time of participation. A total of 142 participants(34 Males and 106 Females 2 Others), aged between 18 and 49 years old (Mean Age =22.7
yrs.) contributed to the data for the study. Participants were recruited using James Cook
University (JCU)’s SONA recruitment system, through social media platforms as well as via
convenience and snowball sampling. Participants who required course credits in partial
fulfillment of module requirements were awarded 2 SONA credit points and no incentives
were given to the other participants.

Figure 3: Breakdown of participants across different study modes

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Procedure
Ethics approval was received from the university ethics committee before commencement.
Data was collected online via Qualtrics. Participants accessed the URL for the study which
was shared with them via poster. Once participants gave their consent after reading throughthe information sheet, first question checked for the participant eligibility. Only participants
who acknowledged taking at least one module in online or blended mode at the time of theparticipation were presented with rest of the survey. They were asked indicate module nameand its delivery mode. All the subsequent questions were with reference to that specificmodule. The questionnaires were presented in random order to manage the order effect.
At the end of the survey, participants were thanked for their time spent in participating inthe study.
Results
Data Screening
Participant data (N = 158) was screened and invalid response and cases with less than
two questionnaires completed were removed (n = 14). Next, outliers (n = 2) wereidentified and removed. Following data screening, the remaining responses (n = 142)
were used for analyses.
Age as a covariate
Research shows that age can influence student’s level of academic burnout, with academic
exhaustion being more prevalent among students between 20 and 24 years old (de Silva et al.,2018). Correlation analysis showed that age was not significantly associated with any of thestudy variables and thus was not included as a covariate.
Relationship among Variables
A preliminary analysis was conducted to examine the relationship between the key
Variables (Table 1). The results indicated that well-being had a moderate, negative, andsignificant correlation between exhaustion (r=-.41, p<.001) and a weak, negative andsignificant relationship with disengagement (r=-.28, p<.0010). Conscientiousness had
moderate, negative and significant correlation with exhaustion (r=-.49, p<.001) anddisengagement (r=-.43, p<.001). It showed weak, positive but significant relationshipwith self-efficacy (r=.35, p<.001) and significantly strong and positive correlation with
self-control (r=.76, p<.001). Self-efficacy also showed significant, moderate andnegative association with both exhaustion (r=-.35, p<.001) and disengagement (r=-.43,
p<.001). Similarly, self-control had moderate, negative and significant correlation withexhaustion (r=-.52, p<.001) as well as disengagement (r=-.45, p<.001). On the other hadwell-being showed weak, positive and significant relationship with conscientiousness(r=.30, p<.001), self-efficacy (r=.30, p<.001) and self-control (r=.22, p<.001).
Additionally, total usability of E-learning site showed a moderate, negative, andsignificant correlation with disengagement (r=-.33, p<.001) but not with exhaustion andwell-being.

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Differences across study modes
A one-way ANOVA was run to compute the differences in scores for student burnout andwell-being across different study modes. The results showed no significant differences inscores across the three study modes indicating rejection of H1.

Table1: The Pearson Correlation Analysis Table
Site Usability to Burnout and Well-being
Before running the analysis, data was checked for assumption violation. All assumptions for
multiple regression were satisfied. Hayes’ (2018) PROCESS macro for SPSS Models 7 and 8
were used to test the hypotheses. A moderated mediation analysis was performed to test themoderating role of conscientiousness and mediating roles of self-efficacy and self-control.
H2a and H2bResults showed that the indirect effect of site usability on disengagement through self control was moderated by conscientiousness. Higher self-control was associated withlower disengagement. The conditional indirect effect was strongest in those high in
Conscientiousness (1 SD above the mean). H2a was supported by index of moderated
mediation (index= -.037,95% CI= (-.070/-.007) which was significant since the 95% CI did
not include zero. H2b was not supported (Figure 4).

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Figure 4: Outcome of moderated mediation analysis for site usability on disengagement
through self-control and self-efficacy moderated by conscientiousness
H3a and H3b
H3a was supported as results showed that the indirect effect of site usability on
exhaustion through self-control was moderated by conscientiousness. Higher self-control
was associated with reduced exhaustion. Conditional indirect effect was strongest in
those high in Conscientiousness (1 SD above the mean).H3a was supported by index ofmoderated mediation (index= -.056,95% CI= (-.095/-.011) which was significant since the
95% CI did not include zero. H3b was not supported (figure 5).
Analysis further revealed that H4a, H4b, H5a, H5b and H5c are not supported. Thus, siteusability has implications for levels of academic burnout vias self-control, but not for student
well-being.

Figure 5: Outcome of moderated mediation analysis for site usability on exhaustion throughself-control and self-efficacy moderated by conscientiousness

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Discussion
The aim of this study was to see how usability of E-learning sites contributes to burnout andwell-being in online and blended mode. Significant individual differences emerged that
affected relationship between site usability and student experience.
Conscientiousness emerged as a significant moderator on relationship between siteusability and self-control. Specifically, those with high level of conscientiousness
showed high levels of self-control. This is aligned with earlier research outcomes whereconscientiousness was shown to positively influence self-control (e.g., Mao et al., 2018;
Zhang et al., 2019). However, conscientiousness was not a significant moderator forpathway from usability to self-efficacy and usability to burnout and well-being, thus
hypotheses H5a, 5b and 5c are rejected.
The study results show support for H2a and H3a, since the indirect effect of site usability
on both disengagement and exhaustion, through self -control was moderated byconscientiousness. This is not surprising since those with high conscientious personality
are more likely use technology that will allow them to be more efficient and optimize theirperformance (Punnoose, 2012) which in turn will encouraging them to increase theirinteractions with the E-learning systems (Devaraj et al.,2008). Through consistent effort
and practice learners might realize that the online learning systems are easy to navigate andsupportive of their learning (Bismala et al.2022). Since E-learning requires a high level ofstudent motivation and self-discipline (Sandybayev, 2020), it is not surprising that selfcontrol emerged as a significant mediator between site usability and burnout. A welldesigned E-learning subject site with high usability would support student engagement. To
students it would appear attractive and innovative, thereby keeping them stimulated andengaged (Agyeeiwaah et. al, 2022). This in turn would protect them against cognitive fatigue
and tiredness which significantly contribute to burnout.
Hypothesis H2b and H3b, are not supported in our study. Though academic self-efficacy has
played in significant mediating role in academic-related behaviors (Hejazi et al., 2009), it was
not a significant mediator in the present study. There could be many reasons for it. Usabilityof E-learning site by itself does not automatically contribute to self-efficacy (Chahal & Rani
,2022). Individual experience of the learner and the maturity of a specific technology
contributes to one’s beliefs in their capabilities to exert control over events. A student has tointeract with the system, continuously, regularly and in a disciplined manner to get its
benefits, which would then develop their self-efficacy for that system (Al-Azawei &Lundqvist ,2015). In context of higher education, E-learning subject sites are fairly new
phenomenon, it might take some time for student to feel comfortable with technology.
Punnoose (2012) found conscientiousness to be the only personality variable that exerted a
direct effect on students’ belief regarding usefulness of an eLearning system. Since in ourstudy, conscientiousness showed weak but positive correlation with self-efficacy and was not
its significant moderator, this potentially affected the relationship between E-learning siteusability and self-efficacy. It could be that individual difference in this personality trait
influenced formation of certain beliefs about learning technologies which in turn affected
how they engaged with E-learning subject sites (Punnoose, 2012). Self-efficacy did emerge
as a significant, negative predictor of disengagement which is in line with past research (e.g.,
Bulfone et al., 2016).
For the present study, well-being had a moderate, negative, and significant correlation

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with exhaustion but a weak, negative and significant relationship with disengagement
indicating that exhaustion experienced by students contributes significantly more to theirlife-satisfaction and well-being than disengagement. The direct effect of E-learning siteusability on student well-being was non-significant as were the mediating effects of selfefficacy and self-control which resulted in rejection of H4a and H4b. Self-efficacy
predicted student well-being which is similar to past findings (e.g., Armaou & Antoniou,
2018; Othman et al., 2019).
Our study did not reveal any differences in burnout and well-being scores for participants
across different study modes thus H1 is rejected. The non-significant ANOVA results could
be due to the unequal distribution of the 3 learning design groups as there was a much larger
proportion of students doing blended learning. Nonetheless, certain trends were observed.
Exhaustion appeared to be the lowest for the group doing blended learning with face-to-facesessions. This could be interpreted as the fact that this particular learning design provides
students the opportunity to switch between two kinds of learning environment – online andon-campus which possibly helps to break the monotonous experience of learning only in
online mediums all the time. With face-to-face sessions, students can get more “breaks” fromthe monotony and receive more stimulation from interactions with their instructors and peers.
Surprisingly, disengagement was found to be the lowest for the group doing blended learningwith online synchronous sessions, which contrasted with past studies showing how students
were better engaged in face-to-face classes (Tomlinson et al., 2013). A possible explanation
could be that perhaps students could focus better without distractions from classmates and thesurroundings and also get attention from the teacher when they reach out.
Limitations
This study is not without limitations. Firstly, the current research is cross-sectional, and data
were only gathered at a specific point in time, which makes it hard to determine cause-andeffect relationships over an extended period. Secondly, unequal distributions of participants
across different study modes could have contributed to non-significant results. A larger andmore evenly distributed sample size should be used in future research. Given that majority ofparticipants in this study were Psychology undergraduate students, future research can also
look to compare and examine the differences across other levels of study and disciplines.
Conclusion
The study highlights importance developing subject sites which are usable, that follow bestpractice instructional design principles so that students are not frustrated while trying tonavigate the site. Regular and disciplined interaction with subject site is supportive of student
engagement and can prevent academic burnout. Since the study mode and gender did notaccount for any differences in participant burnout and well-being, it focuses our attention on
E-learning site features such as - site content, site interactivity, instructor role and course
design - which are significant contributing factors in a student’s learning experience.

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Contact email: jagdeep.kaur@jcu.edu.au

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Learning From the Ground: How Mathematics Teachers View Collaboration
Through the Learning Action Cell Program
Amiel Paulo G. Cardenas, University of Santo Tomas, Philippines
Angela Fatima H. Guzon, Ateneo de Manila University, Philippines
Catherine P. Vistro-Yu, Ateneo de Manila University, Philippines
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Abstract
Teacher professional development is as important as the education of students in schools. The
Professional Learning Community (PLC) is one of the effective bottom-up strategies for
professional development as it gives teachers opportunities to collaborate and shareexperiences and expertise, rather than merely receive knowledge from an expert outsider. The
Learning Action Cell (LAC) is the Philippines’ version of the PLC and it highlights theteachers’ best practices and real-life classroom experience as their source of knowledge. This
paper presents mathematics teachers’ conceptions about the professional development
strategy which was introduced concurrently with the K to 12 curriculum last 2016. In the
study, 53 secondary school mathematics teachers articulated what they perceived as benefitsof the strategy, which include gaining new knowledge, learning about innovations, anddeveloping uniform classroom materials. Mathematics teachers also valued some intangible
benefits such as the act of sharing experiences and having others work with themcollaboratively on problems. The paper discusses these within the broader concept of teacher
collaboration and uses the perspective of dialogic relations to identify challenges for schoolleaders and teachers. Moreover, several issues regarding enforcement of the new program
have emerged, such as the lack of awareness of some teachers about the program and theirreluctance to participate in the LAC. This study aimed to unveil the potential of the LAC to
improve the professional development landscape of the country as well as identify possible
solutions to issues related to implementation that have surfaced.
Keywords: Professional Learning Communities, Learning Action Cell, Bottom-Up Approach,
K to 12 Curriculum

iafor
The International Academic Forumwww.iafor.org

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Introduction
It has been almost a decade since the new K to 12 Program was first introduced by thePhilippine Department of Education (DepEd), beginning with its implementation of theuniversal Kindergarten in school year 2011-2012, the rollout of the new curricula for Grades
1 and 7 in school year 2012-2013, and finally with the introduction of the two additional
grades (11 and 12) in school year 2016-2017. Formally called Enhanced Basic Education Act
of 2013, the Philippine K to 12 Program has a few vital features - the addition of Grades 11
and 12 as part of the compulsory pre-university education for all Filipino students, theimplementation of the Mother Tongue-Based Multilingual Education in Grades K to 3 andthe introduction of specialized educational tracks in Grade 11. It is “arguably the mostcomprehensive basic education reform initiative ever done in the country since theestablishment of the public education system more than a century ago” (Message from the
DepEd, SEAMEO INNOTECH, 2012).
As with any educational reform that involves a major curriculum innovation, one of the mostimportant concerns about the Philippine K to 12 Program is teacher preparation andprofessional development. In their analysis of opportunities for mathematics teachers’
professional development and growth in the Philippines, Verzosa, Tulao-Fernando andVistro-Yu (2017) found that the existing annual in-service program for teachers (INSET) is
severely limited when it comes to helping mathematics teachers develop their teaching skills.
For one, since the INSETs are intended for teachers of all subjects, the content focuses areassorted and do not concern mathematics teaching directly. Hence, mathematics teachers feela great dissonance between the INSET and their specific needs.
DepEd recently institutionalized a new professional development program for school teachers
in support of the K to 12 Program. The Learning Action Cell (LAC) is a school-based
continuing professional development strategy aimed to help teachers develop new skills andknowledge needed for improving teaching and learning. It has the potential to become thekey professional development program for teachers if implemented correctly because it“primarily functions as a professional learning community for teachers that will help them
improve practice and learner achievement” (Department of Education, Order No. 35, s.
2016). DepEd cites the LAC as only one of few bottom-up teacher professional development
programs, making it a new alternative to the many top-down teacher professional
development programs that have dominated teacher education in the Philippines for the past
four decades. More importantly DepEd highlights the collaborative nature of the LAC,
stating in its policy that “key aspects … are ongoing collaborative learning or problem
solving within a shared domain of professional interest, self-directed learning, reflective
practice leading to action and self-evaluation, and collective competence” (Department of
Education, Order No. 35, s. 2016, p. 3).
This paper has two goals. First, it discusses the intended nature of the LAC and describes
various aspects that make it a potentially key program for teachers, particularly for Junior andSenior High School mathematics teachers. Second, the paper presents mathematics teachers’
perspectives of the LAC, focusing on teacher collaboration as a key feature of the LAC
strategy and thereby doing right the DepEd claim of the LAC being a bottom-up professional
development program. Finally, this paper identifies a specific challenge for both DepEd andits teachers for a successful implementation of the DepEd Order in as far as what the authors
have unearthed from their initial study.

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Professional Development for Teachers
The professional development of teachers is as important as the education of students inschools. As teaching is an intelligent, knowledge-based activity and yet, diverse, andcomplex (Hegarty, 2000), continuous professional development for teachers must be wellplaced alongside any educational reform or innovation. Certainly, teachers are the key tostudents’ learning of mathematics. The quality of their knowledge and skills impact on theirstudents’ learning, performance, and achievement. Teachers’ professional development
activities, though of uneven quality, are meant to help teachers learn more, keep abreast of
new knowledge and developments in their field and improve their skills in handling students,
among many other concerns.
What Knowledge Do Mathematics Teachers Need?
One of the common goals of professional development programs for teachers is to help them
gain more knowledge in order to become better in their teaching. But, what kind ofknowledge do teachers really need? In mathematics, attempts to describe and capture thekinds of knowledge that teachers bring into the classroom have been made, beginning with
Shulman’s (1986) pedagogical content knowledge (PCK), Mishra and Koehler’s (2006)
technological pedagogical content knowledge and Ball, Hill and Bass’ (2005) mathematicalknowledge for teaching. The knowledge components organized under each of these labels
reflect a composite of various educators’ and researchers’ understandings of the aspects ofmathematics teaching that have been observed to positively influence students’ learning ofmathematics.
Locally, the Philippine Council of Mathematics Teacher Educators, Inc. (MATHTED) has
also lent its hand in formulating a framework that could help redirect mathematics teacher
education efforts in the Philippines. MATHTED envisioned the following to comprisemathematics teachers’ knowledge and skills for teaching: mathematical content knowledge,
mathematical pedagogical knowledge, general pedagogy and management skills andmathematical disposition and professional development (SEI-DOST and MATHTED, 2011).
For MATHTED (2011), a fully competent mathematics teacher is someone who “possesses astrong mathematical content knowledge, is armed with mathematical pedagogical knowledge
as well as general pedagogical knowledge and management skills, displays an appropriate
mathematical disposition and values one’s own professional development” (p. 11).
Subsequent teacher education programs and professional development initiatives in the
country have more or less worked within this framework.
How Do Teachers Validate and Communicate Their Knowledge?
Teachers have a different way of validating what they know and believe about mathematics
teaching and learning (Lester and William, 2002, p. 2). Teachers also have varied ways ofcommunicating and engaging in discourse, often relying on personal judgments and social
conversations to determine what works for them (Hargreaves, 1998; Lester & William,
2002). These realities might explain why educational research seemingly have minimal
impact on teachers’ instructional practices. Schwandt (1995, 1996, as cited in Lester &William, 2002) has suggested that while researchers communicate with each other by usingarguments to justify claims, teachers tend to communicate from a dialogical perspective,
which hinges on “conversational forms of interaction” (Schwandt, 1996 as cited in Lester &Williams, 2002) in developing one’s knowledge and practices. It is with these views that

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teacher professional development programs must be planned and organized in order to havean impact on teachers’ knowledge and practices. This rationalizes the need for valuingteachers’ working together to broaden and deepen their knowledge for teaching. Teacher
collaboration, indeed, has its place in developing teachers’ knowledge about teaching andlearning.
The Learning Action Cell
DepEd continually supports the professional development of its teaching personnel throughvarious programs to improve the teaching-learning process. However, most of these efforts
are characterized as top-down processes in which curriculum experts, researchers or
professors share or transfer knowledge through seminars and workshops. There are few
instances of bottom-down professional development where teachers study the pedagogy andcontent, create a lesson study, or conduct action research as a group (Department of
Education, 2016). There is little opportunity for teachers to utilize the rich experiences
acquired from their encounter with students and, most especially, the knowledge they create
in collaboration with other teachers. The Learning Action Cell (LAC) is a group of teachers
working collaboratively to solve shared challenges in the school as facilitated by their school
head or a LAC leader. The LAC is DepEd’s take on the Professional Learning Communities(PLC) which aids teachers in constructing knowledge about teaching or revising traditional
beliefs about teaching, learning, the community, and education to address the present needsof the learners (Little, 2003).
Figure 1 shows the LAC framework. DepEd recognizes that the quality of learning is
influenced by the quality of teaching. The framework shows that community of practice or
LAC supports teachers in collaborative activities -- planning, problem solving and action
implementation -- that will lead to an improvement in their knowledge which hopefully willtranslate to better student learning and development (Department of Education, 2016).

Figure 1: The Learning Action Cell Framework
The LAC process starts with the assessment of needs or the identification of the problem tobe addressed. These may be captured through diagnostic tests, classroom observations,critical reflections, student assessments, and other forms. This information guide the LAC
leaders in determining the topics for the LAC according to the following broad categories: 1.
Learner Diversity and Inclusion; 2. Content and Pedagogy of the K to 12 Basic Education
Program; 3. Assessment and Reporting in the K to 12 Basic Education Program; 4. Twentyfirst Century Skills and ICT Integration in Instruction and Assessment, and; 5. Content
Contextualization, Localization and Indigenization. These topics are also the main thrusts of
the new K to 12 curricula.

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After assessing the needs, the members of the LAC are identified. The role of the school heador the school principal as the LAC leader and facilitator is vital in its implementation sinces/he is tasked to ensure that the conduct of the LAC is established, maintained, and sustained.
S/he also takes the lead in evaluating the effect of the LAC in schools. One LAC could becomposed of five to fifteen members. Once the composition of the LAC is determined,
human and material resources are procured and set up. The priorities set out by the LAC are
implemented using a variety of activities such as lectures, practicum, workshops, anddevelopment of instructional materials followed by a collaborative discussion by themembers on what to implement in their classrooms. When the intended activity is completed,the LAC members evaluate and prepare reports, citing in particular any improvements madeby their students.
Mathematics Teachers’ Perspectives
In order to learn more about how the LAC is currently being implemented, secondary schoolmathematics teachers from one of the more active and progressive School Divisions in Metro
Manila were surveyed about their knowledge and participation in collaborative activities ingeneral and in the LAC in particular. This division consists of 10 public secondary schools. A
total of 140 public school teachers were sent letters of invitation to participate, of whom 99
agreed to participate in the study by submitting the accomplished survey forms that included
their implied consent. Incomplete forms were discarded resulting in only 53 teachers as
participants for this initial study. Forty of the 53 teachers are between 30 and 50 years of age
and 30 teachers have pursued further studies beyond their bachelor’s degrees. All of them
except for seven teachers indicated involvement in academic or professional activities outsideof their academic classes. Of the 53 participants, 29 of them are female.
Teachers’ Ideas of Collaboration
In general, mathematics teachers see the importance of teacher collaboration in improving
instruction and increasing student learning. Their ideas on teacher collaboration are
categorized into three themes: purpose of teacher collaboration, aspects of a teacher’s work,and the intangibles.
Purpose of teacher collaboration. Mathematics teachers recognize the need to collaborate inorder to gain new knowledge and skills, as well as to enhance existing ones, as collaboration
facilitates the sharing of ideas, experiences and expertise. They find the seminars andtrainings incorporated in the collaborative activities to be helpful in developing their content
knowledge and improving their teaching skills, particularly in “getting more ideas or
strategies in teaching specific concepts”. Through collaboration, teachers are able to help one
another “in promoting academic excellence in teaching and learning mathematics.”
Collaboration also allows mathematics teachers to work together in accomplishing the tasksneeded to achieve their goals, such as improving students’ achievement and school
performance through effective instruction and efficient carrying out of tasks as teachers.
Tasks can be delegated to several teachers to maximize time and effort in order to produce
quality outputs. For instance, the collaborative development of lesson plans and assessmentsallows them to discuss common lesson goals, how to achieve these goals in terms of learning
strategies and assessments, and ways to optimize their varied abilities and expertise inaccomplishing the tasks required of them.

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Aspects of a teacher’s work. Mathematics teachers find collaboration important in different
aspects of their work: lesson planning, classroom management, technology integration,
improving content knowledge, and differentiating instruction for varied student ability levels.
Meeting with colleagues regularly to discuss the pacing of the lessons and appropriate
activities facilitates the development of lesson plans, of which teachers are required to submit
weekly to their supervisors.
Learning new ways of integrating technology in instruction can best be facilitated through thesharing of knowledge and expertise during collaborative activities. According to one
participant, “young/new teachers can share the latest and innovative technologies that will
help seasoned teachers in teaching mathematics to millennial students.” Teachers also learn
from one another how technology may be used to maximize student engagement.
Several mathematics teachers expressed the advantage of collaboration in improving theircontent knowledge and skills, such as problem solving and integrating different learning
areas within mathematics or mathematics with other subject areas. Difficulties encounteredrelated to content may also be addressed through activities where teachers share theirexpertise and experiences.
One important concern of many teachers is how to teach a class of varying ability levels
and/or learning styles. Note that class sizes of Philippine public schools are large, with eachclass consisting of at least 40 students and could have as many as 70 students. Classroom
management and teaching students of different ability levels and learning styles have beenvery challenging to teachers. Collaborating with fellow teachers to learn how to deal withsuch challenges becomes very important. Sharing strategies and learnings from other teachers
on “how to deal with student behavior” and on how to “teach mathematics to at-risk students
or below average students” is welcomed by most, if not all, teachers.
Intangibles. The mathematics teachers expressed other ideas on the importance ofcollaboration that are worthy of discussion, ideas that they value as a result of thecollaborative processes that they have experienced. The most commonly mentioned idea isthe act of sharing experiences, strategies and techniques that teachers find valuable in theirprofessional development. There are “ideas that are best shared and known” and cannot be
kept to one’s self. Also, it is not just from the sharing of others that one gains but also fromthe sharing of one’s own experiences that one develops professionally and personally.
Working with fellow teachers is another highly-valued process that teachers consider to beimportant in their development. Seven teachers cited the common idea that “two or moreheads are better than one”. This illustrates the importance that teachers place on collaboration
as a means to achieve their goals either in the classroom or of their professional and personal
development.
Teacher’s Perspectives of the LAC
The mathematics teachers’ awareness and involvement in the Learning Action Cell (LAC)
were surveyed and identified. Twenty-seven of the 53 teachers indicated that they are awareof the LAC, as mandated by the Department of Education. Of the 27 teachers who know
about the program, 24 have been involved taking on various roles: three teachers have takenon the role of leader, one teacher has served as recorder, and the rest have been participants.
The teachers come from 10 different schools, seven of which have at least one teacher

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involved in the LAC while the teachers from the remaining three schools had no knowledgeof it.
Of the 26 teachers who were not aware of the LAC, 14 teachers expressed their interest in
wanting to know more about it. Only 11 teachers would like to involve themselves in the
LAC. Six of the 14 teachers who wish to know more about it do not want to be involved.
All 24 teachers who have been involved in the LAC expressed that they benefitted from their
participation in the program. Learning new strategies and developing their content
knowledge, as well as updating themselves of new innovations in instruction and the use oftechnology, were among the frequently mentioned benefits. Teachers found the interaction
during LAC sessions very fruitful because they were able to gain new ideas on how to
improve their teaching and to become familiar with recent developments in the use of ICT
platforms that can be specifically applied in the mathematics classroom. Teachers who are
new in the profession also benefited much from the experiences and expertise of the moreexperienced teachers.
The collaborative nature of the LAC allowed teachers to discuss issues and problems
encountered in the classrooms, particularly on the varied student learning styles and abilities,
and to share strategies that helped them resolve these issues. Teachers were able to “discover
new teaching strategies suited for the needs of my students”. The LAC also “gave me more
opportunities to adjust my teaching styles” to cater to different student ability levels andinterests.
Teachers also found that their efficiency and productivity have improved through thedevelopment of a unified daily lesson log (DLL), “uniform” lesson plans, and “parallel” tests,
performance tasks and projects. By collaboratively working on their lesson plans andassessments, teachers are able to manage their time and effort towards other important
responsibilities, such as taking care of their students. The LAC sessions also helped to remindthem of the pacing of their lessons in order to abide by the curriculum objectives andschedule. According to one teacher, involvement in the LAC program “encourages criticalreflection amongst teachers and increases their understanding and knowledge of thecurriculum and classroom practices.”
Conclusion
DepEd identified the LAC to be a bottom-up professional development strategy for teachers,
yet only about half of the participants are aware of it. This result begs the questions of how
efficiently this order was disseminated and how much groundwork was done to initiate andpush for its implementation to be answered. It also appears that there are other challenging
realities that teachers face, prompting a few of them to outrightly indicate that they do notwant to get involved in the LAC. One wonders what supporting mechanisms are provided toencourage and enable teachers to form their own learning cells.
It makes full sense to hear from teachers, in this case secondary school mathematics teachers,
and to find out their views and perspectives of this initiative. One of the major complaints by
the sample of mathematics teachers in the study by Verzosa, Tulao-Fernando and Vistro-Yu(2017) of the INSET was that they did not have any input on the design and organization of
the INSET activities. As a result, there were many incongruities between the content of theactivities and the specific needs of the teachers for their classroom practices. The DepEd

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Order was released in 2016 and as far as the authors have gathered, not all school divisions
have active learning cells. Teachers’ views on this mandated strategies are important to noteso that school division heads and subject supervisors may be guided in their implementationof the LAC. DepEd will do right by hearing from the teachers at this juncture, while it is still‘early’, as they are the direct beneficiaries of the LAC. Teachers have to be given a voice toexpress their thoughts and perspectives on this novel initiative. The shortcomings of past
DepEd programs must never be repeated.
The mathematics teachers’ responses indicate a positive view of the LAC. The benefits thatwere mentioned, though quite general at this point, are important to note. Acquiring new
knowledge (pedagogical content knowledge, content knowledge, technological pedagogicalcontent knowledge – in that order), learning innovations and producing uniform learningmaterials appear to be the most important. Secondary to this, but perhaps, equally as crucial if
not more, is hearing about other teachers’ practices and experiences. The LAC provides
mathematics teachers with a way to validate and communicate their knowledge of teaching
and learning through the acts of sharing experiences and working together with fellow
teachers as opposed to having an ‘expert impart knowledge to them’, which is the usual modeof top-down professional development programs. Teachers value these acts that stem fromtheir actual involvement in the educative process, as well as in their professional
development. This is consistent with Schwandt’s (1995, 1996, as cited in Lester & William,
2002) suggestion that teachers tend to communicate through conversations, which help thembuild knowledge of practices. It is not just knowing what or knowing how that teachers lookfor, but as well, knowing from their fellow teachers who have the same struggles in teachingmathematics to students as they do (Shotter, 1993 as cited in Lester & William, 2002).
The collaborative nature of the LAC allows for social relationships to flourish, from which
practical knowledge that only teachers understand could emerge. Collaboration in the LAC
then has to be nurtured and kept healthy. This is a challenge for both DepEd leaders and theteacher participants of the LAC. DepEd leaders must ensure that wholesome professional andsocial relationships are maintained and supported by providing safe work spaces, appropriatematerials and efficient, non-threatening monitoring mechanisms. Teachers, on the other hand,need to contribute their own wealth of ideas and experiences with fellow teachers in order tostrengthen the bonds amongst themselves.
The success of any major educational reform relies heavily on the support structures that are
built around it. These structures include development programs for all personnel, physicalinfrastructures, mechanisms for acquiring new materials and technologies, and policies anddirectives from the governing bodies. While these structures may be in place, however, there
must be sustained efforts to keep these structures together by those both from within the
educational community as well as from other stakeholders outside of the said community.
The LAC is a worthy program because it is school-based and not separate from the teachers’
realities but, more importantly because it encourages collaboration among teacher
participants. The LAC strategy needs the proper support of education leaders, teacher
educators and researchers. By recognizing that teachers are not mere objects of research nor
simply ‘beneficiaries’ of programs but the main actors, academic experts would do well toallow the LAC to grow. The LAC could potentially change the teachers’ professional
development scene in the Philippines for the better.

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References
Ball, D. L., Hill, H. C., & Bass, H. (2005). Knowing mathematics for teaching, Who knows
mathematics well enough to teach third grade, and how can we decide?. American
Educator, Fall Issue, pp. 14 – 46.
Department of Education, Order No. 35, s. 2016.
Department of Education. (2016). The learning action cell (LAC) as a K to 12 basic
education program school-based continuing professional development strategy for the
improvement of teaching and learning. DepEd Order No. 35 Enclosure, pp. 1-18.
Hegarty, S. (2000). Teaching as a knowledge-based activity. Oxford Review of Education, 26(3/4), pp. 451-465.
Lester, F. K. & Wiliam, D. (2002). On the purpose of mathematics education research:
Making productive contributions to policy and practice. In L. English (Ed.),International handbook of research in mathematics education (pp. 489-506).
Mahweh, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Little, Judith. (2003). Professional community and the problem of high reform. International
Journal of Education Research 37 (8), 693-714.
Mishra, P., & Koehler, M. J. (2006). Technological pedagogical con- tent knowledge: A
framework for teacher knowledge. Teachers College Record, 108(6), 1017–1054.
Schwandt, T. A. (1996). Indexing the practice of reasoning in evaluation. Unpublishedmanuscript. Available from the author, School of Education, Indiana University,
Bloomington, Indiana.
SEI-DOST & MATHTED, (2011). Mathematics framework for philippine basic education.
__Manila: SEI-DOST & MATHTED.
Shotter, J. (1993). Conversational realities: Constructing life through language. Thousand
Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Shulman, L. (1986). Knowledge growth in teaching: Those who understand. Educational
Researcher, 15(2), 4-14.
Verzosa D., Tulao-Fernando M.T., Vistro-Yu C. (2017) Congruence Between Context andOpportunities for Professional Development of Mathematics Teachers in thePhilippines. In: Kaur B., Kwon O., Leong Y. (eds) Professional Development ofMathematics Teachers. Mathematics Education – An Asian Perspective. Springer,
Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-2598-3_7.
Contact emails: agcardenas@ust.edu.phaguzon@ateneo.edu
cvistro-yu@ateneo.edu

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Role of Study Abroad in the Path to Teaching English in English
Among Japanese Teachers

Mitsuyo Toya, University of the Ryukyus, JapanThe Southeast Asian Conference on Education 2023
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Abstract
Even with the newly issued and adopted Course of Study by the Japanese Ministry of Sports,
Education, and Science, and Technology (MEXT), the use of English in junior high and highschool English classrooms is far from 100 percent. The current project used individualinterviews to investigate the professional development of English teachers at public schools
in Okinawa, Japan, using the Trajectory Equifinality Approach (TEA, Valsiner & Sato,2006). In this paper, the TEA charts of two junior high school teachers and six high school
teachers are compared, with an emphasis on the effects of their study abroad experiences on
attaining the Teaching English in English (TEE) stage (i.e., equifinality point). The findings
revealed that the nature of their overseas experience caused the differences in the acquisitionof practical means to pursue TEE. More specifically, majors other than TESL significantly
improved the participating teachers’ English command. They did not, however, necessarily
provide practical ideas for conducting TEE, whereas studying TESL served as a
psychological foundation for not abandoning TEE even when the students’ proficiency levels
were insufficient to understand the teachers’ English use. TEE is thought to be important indeveloping students’ classroom proficiency, and study abroad experience for teachers is often
thought to be desirable. However, the impact of such experiences must be carefully examined
during professional development.

Keywords: Teaching English in English, Trajectory Equifinality Approach, Study Abroad

iafor
The International Academic Forumwww.iafor.org

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Introduction
In Japan, English is one of the junior and senior high school subjects and it is taught as aforeign language. The relatively low proficiency achieved by the national school curriculum
has been widely criticized as ineffective, and the Japanese National Curriculum Committee
discussed the need for drastic reforms. The most recent change in the Course of Study (CS)can be seen as a reflection of this argument.
The language used as a medium of instruction has been the focus of the debate. In terms of
second language acquisition, maximum use of the target language is most desired because it
will provide ample opportunities for input, interaction, and output during class time.
Therefore, the new CS incorporated the concept of English medium instruction (EMI), or
teaching English in English (TEE). The Japanese Ministry of Education, Science,
Technology, and Sports (MEXT) issues the CS, which is renewed every 10 years. The almost
compulsory use of English in the English classroom was first stated in 2008 for senior highschools (HS; Grades 10–12), and now is reinforced for junior high schools (JHS; Grades 7–9)
in the CS issued in March 2019. Although Japanese schools, like any other in the world, wereaffected by the COVID-19 pandemic and taught with restrictions, the TEE policy went into
effect in April 2020 for JHSs. The 2019 CS reform in school English education included
lowering the starting age as a subject to 5th grade and maintaining the EMI at the SH level.
Before such changes, the MEXT encouraged Japanese English teachers to achieve a level ofproficiency sufficient to conduct TEE. The expected level of proficiency is Eiken STEP Test
Grade Pre-1 or TOEIC 730, which is equivalent to CEFR B2. The MEXT conducts an annual
survey to confirm the achievement. According to this annual survey, as of December 2021,
74.9% of HS English teachers achieved CEFR B2 while 40.8% of JHSs English teachers did.
In contrast, only 46.0% of HS teachers reported using English more than half of the time inclass, while 73.4% of JHSs teachers reported using English more than 50% in class. Although
the number of HS teachers teaching English majors rises to 81.6%, high proficiency inEnglish does not lead to increased use of the target language in HS. JH teachers, regardless of
the low number of B2 achievers, are attempting to use more English in their classrooms;
however, those who spoke English more than 75% of the time in their instructions reportedly
remained only 15.4%, falling far short of TEE's CS goal. The survey also revealed thatteachers’ English proficiency was positively related to students’ English achievement andthat increased use of English by teachers resulted in more English classroom activities, which
boosted students’ proficiency.
As has other teaching licensing curricula at Japanese universities, the University of the
Ryukyus where the author has been engaged in pre-service teacher education has encouraged
EMI in our methodology courses and during the teaching practicum. We’ve also seen anumber of our graduates study abroad in their junior to senior years before becoming teacherswith strong English communication skills. As a result, the annual survey results wereastonishing and contradictory to our observations. What caused the disparity between their
university experience and actual school teaching?
Toya (2020a, 2020b, 2021) conducted interviews with local JHS and HS English teachers
who had received pre-service teacher training at the University of the Ryukyus to identify thevariables influencing their use of English in class. In the semi-structured interviews, theparticipating teachers were prompted to tell their stories from their university days to thepresent. Their narratives were evaluated using the Trajectory Equifinality Modeling (TEM)

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chart (Sato, 2017; Sato et al., 2006, 2016; Valsiner & Sato, 2006; Yasuda & Sato, 2012;
Yasuda et al., 2012). Toya (2020a) discovered that the two interviewed HS teachers were
empowered after meeting a mentor teacher who demonstrated a clear model of EMI even in a
discouraging situation in Japan. Toya (2020b) compared the other three HS teachers anddiscovered that (1) their overseas experiences at different points in their trajectories had
different effects on achieving the equifinality point (EQ) of EMI, and (2) events such as
school transfers, the TEE policy in the CS renewal, and annual MEXT surveys were
influential factors in the decision making of the amount of English used in class. In Toya
(2021), the trajectories of one HS and two JH teachers revealed a common variable of the
Okinawan environment that has historically been influenced by the U.S. It has also beenargued that all participants could carry out TEE with zeal because they all had a clear visionof what they wanted to achieve by using more English in class, as well as means to make thatvision a reality.
TEM charts analyses allow the researchers to determine the effectiveness of each event in theinterviewees’ stories. The TEM in the trajectory equifinality approach (TEA) maps out thepath to the desired present status or equifinality points (EP) just like the top of the hill bydrawing an arrow that indicates an irreversible time. There are numerous routes available if
one wishes to climb the hill from the bottom. It can take a long or a short time, and thenumber of stops varies depending on the climbers. Such stops or events are known asbifurcation points, and they occur where an alternate route could have been taken. The
event(s) critical to achieving the goal (EP) are referred to as obligatory passage point (OPP).
An OPP is thought to be the most important point that determines the path to the EP. In the
TEM chart, there also are upward and downward arrows that affect the path to EP positively
or negatively. They are known as social guidance (SD) and social direction (SG) respectively.
Purpose of the study and research questions
The purpose of this paper is to present more focused analyses of the effects of extensive
study abroad (SA) experience among Japanese English teachers who use TEA. This is part ofa larger project that investigates TEE passages among Japanese English teachers at theelementary and secondary levels (see Toya, 2020c). The overarching question is: What are
the reasons for using or not using English as a medium of instruction in Japanese English
classrooms? and the specific question in this paper is: If English teachers have SA experience
for more than a year, how does the experience lead to more use of English in their language
classrooms? Based on the TEM analyses of English teachers in public schools who graduatedfrom our university, we would like to clarify what conditions must be met for an overseas
study to lead to TEE.
Methodology
Participants
The study included eight Okinawan English teachers (6 HS, 2 JHS; 4 males, and 4 females).
They were part of a larger project that investigated in-service teachers’ paths to TEE (seeToya , 2020c). The current participants obtained an English teaching license for JH and/or
SH from the University of the Ryukyus, where the author teaches for the license. They havebeen teaching English in local public schools and all spent more than a year studying abroadin the U.S. Table 1 summarizes the details.

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Table 1: Participant Details
Participant

B*

A

C*

D*

E

F

G

H

Enrollment 1998
(junior)

2002

1998

1998

2001

2001

2003

2003

GenderFemaleFemaleFemaleFemale

Male

Male

Male

Male

Years of
Teaching

15 years

10 years

15 years

15 years

10 years

10 years

9 years

9 years

SchoolHigh S.

High S.

High S.

High S.

High S.

High S.

Junior H.

Junior H.

S.A.
length2 years

2 years

1 year

1 year

1 year

1 year

1 year

1 yearS.A.
timingGraduation Graduation 4th year→company →company after→nonteaching
tenuredpracticum

4th yearafter
teaching
practicum

3rd yearbeforeteaching
practicum

3rd yearbeforeteaching
practicum

Graduation Graduation
→M.A.
→M.A.
2nd year
2nd year

S.A.
program

M.A. in
M.A. in
TESOL,
TESOL
assessment (U.S.A.)(U.S.A.)

Univ.
Exchange(U.S.A.)

Univ.
program,private(U.S.A.)

Univ.
program,private(U.S.A.)

Nondegree
SLA(U.S.A.)

Univ.
Exchange(U.S.A.)

Nondegree
linguistics(U.S.A.)

Notes: Participant B was the same teacher as Participant A in Toya (2020a). Participant B was Participant A,
and Participant C was Participant B in Toya (2020b).

Data collection and analyses
The teachers were interviewed individually with prepared questions. The interviews wereconducted one-on-one, face-to-face with the researcher, and lasted between 50 to 90 minutes.
Before the interview, each participant was informed about the study and signed the consent
form. The discussions were recorded and transcribed, and their TEM charts were mapped.
The OPP was calculated for each individual chart. The overlap between the main SA
experience and OPPs will be regarded as the significance of such experience in achieving
EMI. The following section summarizes the interview results as each participant’s stories
with some TEM charts.
Results
Participant A’s story
Participant A attended a university outside of Okinawa before transferring to our university toobtain an English teaching license. With little work experience, she accepted a one-year nontenured teaching position. She passed the teaching exam while also receiving a two-year
scholarship to study in the U.S. She studied TESOL with an emphasis on assessment. She
earned an M.A. and hoped to pursue a Ph.D., but she had to return to Okinawa and work as ateacher. She had high hopes for TEE, but her first school as a tenured student was
academically demanding. It made her consider giving up her teaching career, but shepersevered thanks to numerous peer supports. She eventually adjusted herself and began to

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enjoy students. Since then, she has preferred to be transferred to difficult schools. She recalls
how important it was for her to use English in class. Her M.A. experience, as well as the CSbased seminars and surveys, sparked the idea. Nonetheless, her first tenured school had suchan impact that her M.A. knowledge and skills went unused and never seemed to be fully
recovered. Figure 1 depicts her TEM chart. As shown here, the gray-highlighted OPP
occurred after the yellow-highlighted SA experience. They do not overlap, and the OPP only
resulted in very limited use of English in EFP class.

Notes: univ = university, ESL = English as a second language, mo = month, HS = high school, T = teaching /teacher, yr = year, yrs = years, US = United States, EMI = English as medium of instruction, MA = Master ofArts, w = week(s), CS = course of study

Figure 1: TEM chart for Participant A.
Participant B’s story
Participant B lost confidence in TEE during the teaching practicum during her fourth year in
our teaching licensing curriculum. Her mentor scolded her harshly and felt inept as a result of
this experience. Therefore, after graduation, she enrolled in a short-term language learning
program outside of Japan to improve her English. At the time, she was about to give up
teaching and work in a company, but she decided to study TESOL in an M.A. program in the
US. As her school focused more on sociolinguistics, she learned about and was fascinated by
the concept of autonomous learners. She was resolute to become a teacher when she returned
to Okinawa with a Master’s degree. She began teaching as a non-tenured instructor, hoping to
implement the theories and practices she learned in the US. However, the schools she was
assigned to at the time were all academically demanding, which discouraged her greatly.
During her first year of tenured teaching, her mentor became a living example of EMI
implementation in Japanese high school settings (see also Toya, 2020a).
Participant C’s story
Before enrolling in university, Participant C spent one year in Massachusetts as an HS
student. During her university years, she also spent a year in Hawaii on our exchange
program as a junior. She studied second language studies as a major. She was obsessed withperfecting her pronunciation, and she remembered absorbing more during her first SA
experience than during her studies in Hawaii. Our teaching licensing curriculum during her
tenure required students to write lesson plans in English and strongly promoted EMI. Thus,
she spent a significant amount of time preparing visual materials for TEE during her teachingpracticum. However, she stopped using much English in class when she was hired as a

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tenured teacher due to the limited time for preparation. Because she has a more structureoriented learning style, she prefers grammar instruction using Japanese (i.e., L1) to EMI. The
OPP was chosen as her third school during her tenure, and the teacher's teamwork was
supportive of EMI. The students were also capable of accepting EMI. Around the same time,
she participated in several in-service training programs, including a 6-month TESL programin Australia and a three-day British Council workshop, which increased her motivation to use
English in class. Then the final push of the active learning seminar took place in her 4th
school, which is considered the second OPP. Like other interviewees. The CS and MEXT
survey worked as social guidance. (For her TEM chart, please refer to Participant A in Toya,
2020b).
Participant D’s story
Participants C and D enrolled in university the same year and completed the teaching
licensing curriculum concurrently. Participant D received the same instructions in theuniversity's teaching licensing curriculum as Participant C. As instructed by the methodology
course instructions, she tried to speak as much English as she could during her teachingpracticum. However, she was too nervous to carry out EMI successfully. Like Participant C,
Participant D studied abroad for a year as part of an exchange program after the practicum.
She realized while studying in the U.S. that Japanese people were too modest and selfconscious to speak up and persist in their intentions during conversations with native English
speakers. This experience made her realize the importance of being more assertive andconfident when speaking in English, which served as the foundation for EMI later on. This isconsidered the first OPP and overlaps with a SA experience.
Nonetheless, she struggled for years to implement TEE because her EMI strategies lacked
concrete examples. Because her first three schools, as well as the school where she worked asa non-tenured teacher, were academically difficult, she mostly inserted Japanese translations
after her English utterances to ensure that her students understood. Coincidentally, Participant
C happened to be her colleague at her 4th school as a tenure. As a result of her former
university friend and students’ high proficiency, she became more active. The British Council
Workshop, which Participant C also attended, provided Participant D with practical ideas forEnglish-only classrooms, prompting her to pursue TEE. However, her private situations suchas maternity and family responsibilities made it difficult to thrive more, and her TEE was lessin the 5th school. (For her TEM chart, please refer to Participant B in Toya, 2020b).
Participant E’s story
Before entering the university, Participant E participated in a one-month exchange programin the US twice: once in Oregon in his 9th grade and again in Massachusetts in the 11th grade.
He enrolled in and completed teaching licensing courses in the hopes of becoming an English
teacher. He studied in the U.S. during his junior year and completed his HS teachingpracticum after returning from SA. The experience enabled him to use a lot of English during
his practicum. He had high hopes of continuing EMI as an HS teacher after graduation, but
he was discouraged by students’ low proficiency and motivation and stopped using English
while working as a non-tenured employee. As a tenured teacher at a more proficient highschool, he regained motivation to experiment more with the use of English in class. Still, it
wasn’t until the 3rd tenured school that he felt at ease and confident about EMI. He gained
ICT skills and knowledge in the 2nd year and developed the idea for EMI implementation.
Specifically, he was chosen as an off-the-job trainee for school ICT use for 6 months, and he

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was able to establish effective use of the iPad to minimize the use of Japanese in his teaching.
This event should have been the OPP in his trajectory; thus, his SA experience did not serveas an OPP.
Participant F’s story
Participant F was a university coursemate of Participant E. He spent ten months in auniversity ESL program in California before extending his stay for another two months tolearn TESOL. In his JH teaching practicum following his SA experience, he attempted toprovide English activities using the target grammar, though he did not intend to teachexclusively in English. Because the schools where he worked after graduation did notencourage TEE, he mostly taught in a traditional manner using the grammar-translation
method and/or mimicking what other teachers did. After passing the teaching exam, he wason the waiting list and worked as a non-tenured teacher for 2 years. He taught English in
English using the communicative approach in his first year as a tenured professor, as part ofhis in-service training project. He discovered that his students enjoyed his class and werewilling to use English extensively. This means he has reached the OPP, which is the point at
which EMI is possible.
However, he withdrew himself from using much English in class or taking a communicative
approach after his project was completed. He preferred not to draw attention to himself andwas aware that the school system should function as a unit. Based on his learning experiencein Japanese classrooms up to HS, he felt that much of what he learned in TESOL in the US
did not apply to the situations in Japan. His action research focused on 10th graders, and he
did not believe he should apply the same strategy to 11th and 12th graders. With the students
who were aiming to pass the university entrance examination, he could not see how EMI
could benefit and motivate his students. Therefore, his SA experience served as a resource to
try TEE at one time but had no long-lasting-term positive impact.
Participant G’s story
An interview with Participant G revealed that he was heavily influenced by the university's
teaching methodology course, in which the instructor advised using as much as possible
English in class. As a result, he conducted almost all of his teaching practicum in English. He
pursued TEE because, around the same time, he failed the interview for the SA university
exchange program, which motivated him to prove himself by using English as much as
possible. He then enrolled in our university's M.A. program in English Education and waschosen to study in Hawaii as an exchange student for a year, majoring in second language
studies. This suggests that his SA experience was a dream come true, but, again, it was not
the OPP for achieving TEE.

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Notes: univ = university, ESL = English as a second language, mo = month, HS = high school, T = teaching /teacher, yr = year, yrs = years, US = United States, EMI = English as medium of instruction, MA = Master ofArts, w = week(s), CS = course of study

Figure 2: TEM chart for Participant G.
The analyses revealed two OPPs in his TEM (see Figure 2). The first was his teachingpracticum in the undergraduate program, where he was convinced of the effectiveness of
EMI and implemented it despite some students’ negative comments. The second was during
his year as a Japanese English Teacher (JTE) at an elementary school. His role as JTE was tocollaborate with the Japanese classroom teacher and teach exclusively in English. At first, hestruggled a lot but the school had a very skilled teacher who demonstrated how to teachchildren effectively without using Japanese. He learned a lot from his mentor and thenbecame a tenured JH teacher by passing the teaching exam.
Participant H’s story
Participant H became interested in becoming a teacher in his JH days. He met a good English
teacher in HS, which prompted him to apply to our program. While taking the teaching
methodology course alongside Participant G, he was convinced that TEE was necessary forJapanese classrooms. He used as much English as possible during his teaching practicum at a
local JHS, by writing out what he would say as an English teacher, memorizing the script,
and acting it out. This practicum served as the OPP that had the greatest impact on him,
ultimately leading to EMI. His practicum mentor was able to teach almost entirely in English
using original PowerPoint slides. Participant H was taken aback by his mentor’s teaching
because PowerPoints were still new in JHS classrooms. The impact was so strong that, when
he became a tenured teacher, he purchased all of the necessary devices to mimic his mentor’steaching style with ICT. Since then, he has continued to use PowerPoint slides that he createdbased on the coursebook contents. As a result, we decided to end his teaching practicum as
the OPP (see Figure 3).
Under pressure from the CS, which stated that English lessons should be taught primarily inEnglish, he recognized that TEE was the right direction to take; however, he sounded lessenthusiastic about actual implementation. He admitted that, despite using ICT, he never felt
his English was fluent enough to conduct EMI smoothly, even after his one-year SA in
Michigan. He also struggled to keep up when low-proficiency students in class became
disoriented because he spoke so much English and ended up using more Japanese. It was

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surprising that Participant H was still not unsure about TEE. It should also be noted that hemajored in linguistics rather than TESOL, during his SA experience, which may have had aless positive impact on TEE.

Notes: univ = university, ESL = English as a second language, mo = month, HS = high school, T = teaching /teacher, yr = year, yrs = years, US = United States, EMI = English as medium of instruction, MA = Master ofArts, w = week(s), CS = course of study

Figure 3: TEM chart for Participant H.
Discussion and conclusion
Given the stories of the 8 participants, it was discovered that the SA experience generally
does not serve as OPPs except for Participant D. It should be mentioned that their SA
experience all happened before the actual teaching. Six went to the U.S. when they were in
the university, 4 undergraduates and two during their Japanese M.A. programs, all deciding
to SA to become teachers. It was also obvious that the other two, i.e., Participants A and B,
also studied abroad for a Master’s degree with the assumption that the experience andexpertise would improve their English and teaching skills immediately after they began theirteaching careers.
Although the SA experience surely impacted them positively on their use of English in class;however, further push for visualization of TEE possibility or feasibility was required for theactual EMI implementation. For example, Participant B’s OPP was when she found a mentor
to serve as a TEE role model. TEE role model teachers were also assigned to participants F
and G. Participant B gained practical TEE tools during the in-service workshops and she
supported Participant D’s direction toward implementation as a peer. Participants E and G
could conduct TEE because they discovered an effective use of ICT.
TEE is deemed essential in developing students’ proficiency in class and language teachers’
SA experience is commonly thought to be desirable. However, the current analyses using
TEM mapping indicated that the effect of such experience requires careful examination in thecourse of professional development. Due to our analyses, pre-service teachers’ SA experience
may have more chance of resulting in TEE if (1) the study discipline focuses on ESL/TESOL
with theories and practical skill training, (2) the experience creates strong beliefs about thepositive long-term vision for their student’s future, and (3) develops the communicativecompetence to build confidence in the target language.

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For (1), Participant B gained knowledge about autonomy in second language acquisition(SLA), which later became fueled when she met a TEE mentor. However, Participant A’s
overseas study focused on assessment and she could not recover the concept of EMI in theend. Participant H’s TEE resources did not emerge in his SA experience and his major during
SA was linguistics. (2) is supplemented by cases of Participants A and F. Even with thepositive experience during the SA, they decided not to pursue EMI at the time of theinterviews. If they could overlap their students’ needs with their positive experience as
language learners, they would not have discontinued TEE. The author has seen our preservice teachers become very fluent and capable of functioning in English; however, there
was one participant, Participant H, who struggled when attempting to conduct TEE. Whenthe similar trajectories of Participants H and G were compared, it appeared that Participant G
was more competent in English communication even before the SA, and thus seemed more
confident using more English in class. The two also differ because, unlike Participant G,
Participant H majored in linguistics, which most likely did not provide TEE training during
the SA.
The difficulty arises when the teachers are confronted with students’ proficiency, motivation,
and a short-term goal of passing an entrance examination, as well as peer pressure to continue
using the same methodology in the same school. The effects of pre-service SA experience on
TEE are found to be rather limited; however, with the appropriate nature of such SA and theevents that occur after they become teachers, their chances of reaching TEE could potentially
increase.

Acknowledgement
The author would like to thank Enago (www.enago.jp) for the English language review.
This project is supported by Grants in Aid for Scientific Research from the Japan Society for
the Promotion of Science under project No. 18K00744.

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References
Japanese Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science, and Technology (MEXT). (2018).
Course of Study. (Original in Japanese): https://www.mext.go.jp/a_menu/shotou/newcs/youryou/1356249.htm
Japanese Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science, and Technology (MEXT). (2022).
Annual report of English education for public schools for the academic year of 2021.
(Original in Japanese): https://www.mext.go.jp/content/20220516-mxt_kyoiku01000022559_2.pdf
Sato, T. (2017). Collected papers on Trajectory Equifinality Approach. Tokyo: Chitose Press
Inc.
Sato, T., Yasuda, Y., Kido, A., Takada, S. & Valsiner, J. (2006). The discovery of Trajectory
Equifinality Model (Original in Japanese). Japanese Journal of Qualitative
Psychology, 5, 255-275.
Sato, T., Mori, N. & Valsiner, J. (Eds.) (2016). Making of the future: The Trajectory
Equifinality Approach in cultural psychology. Charlotte: Information Age Publishing,Inc.
Toya, M. (2020a). Identifying Variables in English as Medium of Instruction: A Trajectory
Equifinality Modeling Analysis of Two English Teachers in Japan. The Southeast
Asian Conference on Education 2020: Official Conference Proceedings, 315-323.
Toya, M. (2020b). No Identical Paths to Japanese High School Teachers’ Teaching English
in English: What the TEM Analyses Tell Us. Virtually presented in Osaka Conferenceof Education 2020 (December, 2020).
Toya, M. (2020c). Exploring the process of teacher development toward teaching English byusing the Trajectory Equifinality Modelling approach: Elementary, middle and highschool comparison. Impact, vol.2020, 9(3), 35-37.
https://doi.org/10.21820/23987073.2020.9.35
Toya, M. (2021). Teaching English in English: A Trajectory Equifinality Modelling Analysisof Three English Teachers in Okinawa, Japan. Presented in 55th RELC International
Conference (March, 2021).
Valsiner, J. & Sato, T. (2006). Historically Structured Sampling (HSS): How canpsychology's methodology become tuned in to the reality of the historical nature ofcultural psychology? In Straub, J., Kölbl, C., Weidemann, D., & Zielke, B. (Eds.)
Pursuit of meaning: Advances in cultural and cross-cultural psychology (pp.215-251).
Bielefeld: Transcript Verlag.
Yasuda, Y., Nameda, F. & Sato, T. (Eds.) (2015). Application of TEA: How to utilize
Trajectory Equifinality Approach (Original in Japanese). Tokyo: Shinyo-sha Inc.
Yasuda, Y. & Sato, T. (2012). Life trajectory through TEM: A new approach in qualitative
research (Original in Japanese). Tokyo: Seishin-shobou Inc.

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Contact email: mitsuyo108@gmail.com

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Coaching and Mentoring Teachers to Accommodate Students With Learning Disabilities
in Elementary Inclusive Classrooms
Ratchaneekorn Tongsookdee, Chiang Mai University, Thailand
Pikul Leosiripong, Chiang Mai University, Thailand
Veeraya Khamruangrith, Chiang Mai University, Thailand
Soisuda Vittayakorn, Chiang Mai University, Thailand
Nutjira Busadee, Chiang Mai University, Thailand
Sira Somnam, Chiang Mai University, Thailand
The Southeast Asian Conference on Education 2023
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Abstract
Research objectives were to investigate 1) teachers’ knowledge of coaching and mentoring
methods and selecting appropriate teaching accommodation of both Thai language andmathematics in inclusive classrooms and 2) teachers’ performance competence, after
receiving training, to select and utilize appropriate accommodations and/or modifications forindividualized student’s lesson plan. The subjects were 10 Thai language and nine mathematics
teachers from six selected schools. The research instruments included 1) a questionnaire, 2)
two teacher’s classroom teaching behavior observation forms, and 3) a focus group. The Data
were collected and analyzed using frequency, percentage, and the interpretative analysis. The
research findings showed that the knowledge of coaching and mentoring methods andselecting appropriate teaching accommodations of both groups of teachers were rated atmoderate level (or 66.7% and 65%), respectively. After they had received learning
disabilities intensive training on coaching and mentoring, all participating teachers reported
being able to identify different learning characteristics of individual students and employed avariety of appropriate teaching accommodations/modifications, i.e., teaching tools; students’reading materials; assignments; adaptive exercises; and learning activities’ kit to meet theneeds of students with learning disabilities.
Keywords: Learning Disabilities, Coaching and Mentoring, Accommodations

iafor
The International Academic Forumwww.iafor.org

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Introduction
Learning disability (LD) has been one of the major global education concerns for some time
now because of the continually increasing number of students with LD who are integrated
into regular classrooms. Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental disorders (APA, 2013)
estimates that the prevalence of all learning disorders to be about 5-15% worldwide. In the
United States, among the students who received special education services under IDEA
during school year 2020–21, the category of disabilities with the largest reported percentage
of students was "specific learning disabilities” (National Center for Education Statistics,2022). In Thailand, the prevalence of learning disabilities among K-12 students is somewhat
unclear. In 2009, there was a survey on screening elementary students in 9,828 schools
around the country using KUS-SI screening tool that was developed corroboratively by Thai
educators, psychiatrists, and other experts. The results of the survey showed that students
with potential LD, without diagnosis, was about 15.6% (Sirirutraykha, 2023). In fact, thenumber of students with LD in elementary classrooms has statistically been reported to be thehighest of the nine classifications of disabilities under the two key legislations, i.e.,
Thailand’s National Education Act (B.E. 1999) (or NEA 1999) and The Persons with
Disabilities Education Act (B.E. 2551) (or PDEA (2008). Special Education Bureau, The
ministry of Education has for many years been challenging schools to accommodate students
with LD in their regular classrooms.
Specific learning disorder, which is clinically and legally recognized as learning disabilities(LD) in Thailand, is a biologically based neurodevelopmental disorder that affects a person’s
ability to take in, process, and/or communicate information (American Psychiatric
Association, 2013). Students with learning disabilities encounter a variety of academic
difficulties including basic skills in reading, writing, and mathematics. LD may co-occur withother disorders of attention; language; behavior; and other associated deficit disorders,
including memory, cognitive, or/and metacognition deficit, perceptual differences, motor
skills, and coordination problems (Smith, Polloway, Patton, & Dowdy, 2006); and executivefunctioning deficit (the ability to plan, organize, strategize, remember details, and manage
time and space efficiently (Rosenzweig, Krawec, & Montague, 2011). In Thailand, most
students who struggle with reading, writing, and calculation learn under the observation of aclassroom teacher and receive a screening test by trained teachers. Students who are
identified as potential students with LD are then referred to a physician for clinical diagnosis.
(Tongsookdee, et al, 2018). In order to serve the needs of these students with LD properly
and appropriately, a variety of changes of teachers’ roles in classroom teaching are needed toaffect students’ learning.
In the past 20 years, there have been numerous results of research studies indicating thatstudents with LD need a variety of help to succeed in their academic studies, especially, help
from regular classroom and special education teachers. The academic success of thesestudents requires that each of them be helped to attain individual’s achievement throughspecific, directed, individualized, and intensive remedial instructions using various
accommodations, including changes in presentation of the lesson, instructional strategies,
student response format and procedures, time/scheduling, environment, equipment, and/or
assignment structure – paper/pencil work and modification strategies, e.g., instructional
level, content/curriculum, performance criteria, and/or assignment structure – paper/pencil
work (Hawpe, 2013; Gonzalez-Ledo, 2012; Elbaum, 2007; Mummaw, 2010; Anderson,
Yilmaz, and Washburn-Moses, 2004; Terrill, Scruggs, and Mastropieri, 2004; Pyle, 2016) byexperienced teachers (Storm, 2003; PEAK Parent Center, 2006). It is, therefore, important

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to note that in order to better serve the needs of students with LD to become more successful
in their learning and future lives, classroom teachers play a significant role to that success.
In general, most Thai elementary school teachers spend approximately 8-9 hours a day inschools, with at least 12 hours spend teaching and at least 8 hours spend performing otherschool responsibilities each week (Office of the Teacher Civil Service and Educational
Personnel Commission, 2021). Therefore, it is very important that these teachers receive
proper training on how to identify and accommodate students with LD in their respectiveclassrooms. Majority of teachers who have students with LD in their classrooms do not havea special education degree, but they might have received specific training on screening or
writing individualized educational plans from any of the Provincial Special Education
Centers or other agencies. At the same time, they do expect to frequently get academic
support from education supervisors under Provincial Primary Educational Service Area, whomost of the time, might not be readily available due to their very heavy load of supervisory
responsibilities covering schools spread across a large area. Consequently, many teachers
miss the opportunity of receiving supervision during classroom teaching, and whenever theyreceive classroom supervision, the duration is only for a very short time, and the discussion
and/or feedback provided is most frequently focused on matters not related to effective
teaching strategies and methods that would help students with learning disabilities or any
other disabilities become successful in their academic studies and other daily life matters(Tongsookdee, at al, 2018; Tongsookdee & Vittayakorn, 2016; Sainark, Tongsookdee,
Vittayakorn, & Leosiripong, 2022).
In their previous research study, which was supported by a grant from the National ResearchCouncil of Thailand, entitled Teaching Accommodations and Modifications for Students with
Learning Disabilities in Elementary Inclusive Classrooms, Tongsookdee & Vittayakorn(2016) found that all participants (n=32) had not earned a special education degree and assuch, they lacked the knowledge and skills to accommodate and support students with LD.
Furthermore, the participants in that study did specifically request for more training on
developing effective teaching strategies and methods to help them to appropriately
accommodate students with LD in their Thai language and mathematics classrooms,
respectively. In addition, the request of coaching and mentoring from experts on the fields
was the top training choice of the teachers participating in that study.
According to MacLennan (2017), Jones (2014), & Parsloe (2009), coaching is a teachingprocess that enables learning and development to occur and thus performance to improve. It
can consist of peer-to-peer discussions that provide the person being coached with objective
feedback on their strengths and weaknesses in areas chosen by them. A coach requires
knowledge and understanding of process as well as the variety of styles, skills, andtechniques that are appropriate to the context in which the coaching takes place. On the other
hand, according to Jones (2014), mentoring is a supportive, long-term relationships between
an experienced mentor and their less experiences mentee. The idea is that more senior mentor
passes on knowledge and guidance as the mentee finds their feet in new role. More
importantly, coaching and mentoring is very efficient and effective research-based process(Kirk-Martinez, 2011; Davis, 2011; Roper, 2014; Lee, 2000; Matheson, 1997) and, therefore,
it is suitable to use as process to help teachers to be more confident to teach students with LD
through accommodations and modifications.

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Research Objectives
The objectives of this research study were to examine 1) teachers’ knowledge of coaching
and mentoring methods and selecting appropriate teaching accommodations of both Thai
language and mathematics in inclusive classrooms and 2) teachers’ performance ability, after
receiving training, to select and utilize appropriate accommodations and/or modifications forindividualized lesson plan for students with learning disabilities.
Research Methodology
The researchers contacted selected seven school directors, teachers, and parents who volunteered
to be part of the research study. Within these schools, 51 students selected for the study wereidentified using the official screening test, but they were still on the long waiting list to bediagnosed by psychologists/doctors at their local hospitals. Three additional screening tests
were also used to further identify their disability status before being included in the study.
They included the Test of Nonverbal Intelligence, third edition (TONI-3); the DTVP-2; andthe Dynamic Occupational Therapy Cognitive Assessment for Children (DOTCA-ch). There
were 10 students with potential LD in reading and writing and 10 students with potential LD
in mathematics. Students with potential LD (n=20) in reading, writing, and mathematics werematched with the appropriate classroom teachers (n=20).
After that, the researchers developed a three-day training curriculum on teaching students
with LD, coaching, and mentoring to help teachers succeed in their teaching practice. Twenty
teachers received a three-day training on teaching students with LD, writing teaching plans
using accommodation and modification strategies, and received coaching and mentoring
services. After training, the participating teachers were given a post-test on teaching students
with LD and asked to edit existing teaching plans with appropriate accommodation and/or
modification strategies for targeted individual students with LD. The teaching plans were
evaluated by experts using coaching and mentoring processes. Seven Thai and sevenmathematics teachers’ teaching behavior was observed twice using the coaching andmentoring processes (three teachers and three students were excluded from the study because
they had already relocated to other schools before the completion the study).
The research instruments included 1) an open-ended questionnaire for knowledge and skills,
including coaching and mentoring, screening, teaching methods/techniques, andaccommodations and modifications, 2) evaluation forms for teaching Thai language andmathematics plans, 3) both Thai language and mathematics teacher’s classroom teaching
behavior observation form and video recorder, and 4) focus group. The data were analyzed
using frequency, percentage, mean, standard deviation, and the interpretative analysis.
Results of the Study
The research findings showed that the knowledge of coaching and mentoring methods andselecting appropriate teaching accommodations and modifications of both groups of Thaiteachers and mathematics teachers were rated at moderate level (or 66.67% and 65 %),respectively as illustrated in Table 1.

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Table 1. Teachers’ Knowledge of Coaching and Mentoring Methods andSelecting Appropriate Teaching Accommodations and Modifications (n=20)
Knowledge
Frequency/Percentage
Means
S.D.
Ability1*
2*
3*
1. Accommodations & 7
67
1.95
0.858 Moderate
Modifications in
(35%)
(30%)
(35%)
(65%)
Teaching and Learning
511
4
2
0.686 Moderate
2. Coaching and(25%)(55.5%)(20%)(66.7%)
Mentoring
Total

12
17
11
1.98
0.768
(30%)
(17%)
(27.5%) (66%)
3* = directed, covered, corrected answer with clear examples;
2* = Somewhat directed, covered, corrected answer with some clear examples;
1*= unclear answer

Moderate

After they had received learning disabilities intensive training on coaching and mentoring
methods and selecting appropriate teaching accommodations and modifications for students
with learning disabilities, all participating teachers reported being able to identify different
learning characteristics of targeted individual students with learning disabilities. Both theseThai language and mathematics teachers were also able to employ a variety of appropriate
teaching accommodation and modification strategies, i.e., teaching tools, students’ readingmaterials; assignments; adaptive exercises; and learning activities’ kit to meet the needs ofevery individual student with learning disabilities in their respective classrooms. The data
depicted on Table 2 and Table 3 were from two classroom observations conducted by two
researchers on each occasion, while Table 4 depicts transcribed information from the video
recorder.

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Table 2. Teaching Behavior of Thai Language Teachers (n=7)
N/%
Thai Teachers’ Teaching Behavior
ShowedN/%

1. Reviewed the main points before starting the new lesson

6 (85.7%)

Notshowed1 (85.7%)

2. Explained new concepts slowly and clearly

5 (71.4%)

2 (28.6%)

3. When students seemed to be confused, teachers repeatedtheir explanation with short and more precise sentences

4 (57.2%)

3 (42.8%)

4. Waited longer for the students’ answers

7 (100%)-5. Used various accommodations including pictures, objects,
movements, flexible reading materials, exercises, quizzes,
and positive reinforcement to enhance students’
understanding
6. Reminded students to pay attention when emphasizing
important main points

4 (57.2%)

3 (42.8%)

5 (71.4%)

2 (28.6%)

7. Asked more questions to prompt students to develop theirown strategies for learning

4 (57.2%)

3 (42.8%)

8. Asked students to rehearse what the teachers assigned
them to do

5 (71.4%)

2 (28.6%)

9. Organized the buddy system in the classrooms

5 (71.4%)

2 (28.6%)

10. Provided gentle nonverbal prompting to regain
students’ attention

7 (100%)-11. Verbally reminded students when moving from one
activity to another5 (71.4%)

2 (28.6%)

12. Listed the main points for each lesson, and quizzed
or questioned students at the end of the session

4 (57.2%)

3 (42.8%)

As is shown on Table 2, more than 70% of Thai language teachers were able to exhibit 8 outof the 12 appropriate teaching behaviors that encompass accommodation strategies forstudents with learning disabilities. Among the eight strategies, they include: waiting longer
for the students’ answers (100%), providing gentle nonverbal prompting to regain students’attention (100%), reviewing the main points before starting the new lesson (85.7%),
explaining new concepts slowly and clearly (71.4%), reminding students to pay attention
when emphasizing important main points (71.4%), asking more questions to prompt students
to develop their own strategies for learning (71.4%), organizing the buddy system in theclassrooms (71.4%), and verbally reminding students when moving from one activity toanother (71.4%). However, only 57.2% of them used various accommodations.

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Table 3. Teaching Behavior of Mathematics Teachers (n=7)
N/%
Mathematics Teachers’ Teaching Behavior
ShowedN/%

1. Reviewed the main points before starting the new lesson

4 (57.2%)

Notshowed3 (42.8%)

2. Explained new concepts slowly and clearly

7 (100%)-3. When students seemed to be confused, teachers repeatedtheir explanation with short and more precise sentences

7 (100%)-

4. Waited longer for the students’ answers

7 (100%)-5. Used various accommodations including pictures, objects,
movements, flexible reading materials, exercises, quizzes,
and positive reinforcement to enhance students’
understanding

6 (85.7%)

1 (14.3%)

6. Reminded students to pay attention when emphasizing
important main points

1 (14.3%)

6 (85.7%)

7. Asked more questions to prompt students to develop theirown strategies for learning

7 (100%)-8. Asked students to rehearse what the teachers assigned
them to do

7 (100%)-9. Organized the buddy system in the classrooms

3 (42.8%)

4 (57.2%)

10. Provided gentle nonverbal prompting to regain students’attention

5 (71.4%)

2 (28.6%)

11. Verbally reminded students when moving from one
activity to another6 (85.7%)

1 (14.3%)

12. Listed the main points for each lesson, and quizzed orquestioned students at the end of the session

5 (71.4%)

2 (28.6%)

The data on Table 3 shows that 100% of the mathematics teachers were able to exhibit 5 outof the 12 appropriate teaching behaviors that encompass accommodation strategies forstudents with learning disabilities. Of these five strategies, they include: 1) explaining newconcepts slowly and clearly, 2) repeating their explanation with short and more precise
sentences whenever students seemed to be confused, 3) waiting longer for the students’answers, 4) asking more questions to prompt students to develop their own strategies forlearning, and 5) asking students to rehearse what the teachers assigned them to do. In
addition, more than 70% of mathematics teachers were able to exhibit 4 out of the 12
aforementioned appropriate teaching behaviors that incorporate accommodation strategies tohelp student with learning disabilities, including 1) using various accommodations including

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pictures, objects, movements, flexible reading materials, exercises, quizzes, and positive
reinforcement to enhance students’ understanding (85.7%), 2) verbally reminding students
when moving from one activity to another (85.7%), 3) providing gentle nonverbal prompting
to regain students’ attention (71.4%), and 4) listing the main points for each lesson, as well as
quizzing or asking students questions at the end of the session (71.4%). However, only 14.3%of the participating teachers did remind students to pay attention when emphasizing important
main points.
Table 4. Usage of Accommodation Strategies
by Both Thai Language and Mathematics Teachers (n=18)
Accommodations
Teachers %(n)*
1. One-on-one teaching with explicit instruction
1267
and easy to follow
2. Buddy system
1372
3. Adjust exercises (make them shorter or less in
8
44
numbers, less words, colors)
4. Various teaching media and materials
1267(word cards with or without pictures, pop-up,
video, games, short stories)
5. More time on task
00
6. Clear speech and repetition
1056
7. Group work and collaboration
950
8. Activity participation
1478
9. Positive verbal reinforcement
950
10. Non-verbal prompt
633(e.g., snacks, free time, stickers)(n)* answer all that apply
Table 4 depicts the percentage of both Thai language and mathematics teachers who wereable to utilize a variety of effective accommodation strategies in their respective classrooms
to help students with learning disabilities. The top three most commonly applied
accommodation strategies by more than 65 percent of the teachers in both classrooms were as
follows: 1) activity participation (78%), 2) Buddy system (72%), and various teaching media
and materials (word cards with or without pictures, pop-up, video, games, short stories)(67%). However, the transcribed information from the video recording did not show evidenceof teachers in both Thai language and mathematics classrooms utilizing modification
strategies in their teaching practice to meet the needs of students with learning disabilities.
Conclusion and Discussion
As the results of this research study show, coaching, mentoring, and teacher developmenttraining program on accommodations of students with LD in both Thai language andmathematics classrooms was rather a success in spite of the fact that none of the participants
were able to apply modification strategies in their classroom teaching. Withstanding thisshort coming of teachers’ inability to apply appropriate modification strategies in theirrespective classroom teaching, it is hugely significant to report that all of the 20 teachers
participating in the three-day training program were in attendance from the start to the end.
Also, they all tried to apply what they had learned from the training regarding teaching
students with LD utilizing appropriate accommodation, with the exception of modification

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strategies, in their classroom teaching routines and wrote teaching plans that reflected theseaccommodations and modifications strategies in order to help students become successful intheir academic studies and everyday life.
Furthermore, after the completion of the training, the professional knowledge and skills of theparticipating teachers improved significantly. For example, both Thai language andmathematics teachers were able to demonstrate an understanding of the teaching and learningtheories, teaching techniques and methods, teaching modification strategies, and teachingaccommodation strategies at a moderate level. These teachers were also able to apply some of
the general accommodation strategies in the teaching and learning procedures as part of theirclassroom teaching and management routines. For example, they made sure that they waited
longer for the students with learning disabilities to respond to their questions, provided gentle
nonverbal prompting to regain students’ attention, reviewed the main points before starting
the new lesson, explained new concepts slowly and clearly, reminded students to pay
attention when emphasizing important main points, asked more questions to prompt students
with learning disabilities to develop their own strategies for learning, organized the buddy
system in the classrooms, verbally reminded students when moving from one activity toanother.
Obviously, many of the teaching behaviors that the participating teachers learned at the threeday training were not a novelty to them, but the additional information that they learned about
how to identify the vital characteristics of students with LD was critically significant because
it helped them realize that by applying simple accommodation strategies such as waiting
longer for answers, reminding and explaining clearly and slowly, various prompt, or
reinforcement can be powerful teaching tools to facilitate learning success of students withlearning disabilities. However, to effectively apply them to targeted students with learning
disabilities, teachers would need to have a better understanding of special education
principles, practices, and courage for a successful integration into their classroom teachingpractice. For example, accommodation of extra time for any tasks, quizzes, or tests given to
students with LD. Actually, most teachers relate this act of utilizing appropriate
accommodation strategies in classroom teaching to fairness being extended to all students.
Therefore, coaching and mentoring on accommodations and special education is extremely
critical and helpful to ensure that this act of fairness is extended to all inclusive classrooms.
Moreover, a follow-up discussions during focus group with participating teachers revealed
that none of the modifications of the learning content materials, the student
assessment/measurement, nor the evaluation strategies called for and agreed upon at thetraining sessions had yet to be implemented at the time this research was being written. Oneof the reasons was that these teachers were not confident enough to undertake such
responsibilities on their own without the support of experts. When the participating teachers
in this study were asked to suggest some viable solutions to some of the pressing problems
that they were currently experiencing while teaching students with learning and otherdisabilities in their respective inclusive classrooms, an overwhelming majority of over 90
percent requested the following: 1) to have permanent special education teachers available inschools for relevant consultation matters about accommodation and modification strategies
for students with learning disability in their respective inclusive classrooms, 2) to receive
continuous staff development and/or coaching and mentoring services that specifically focus
on teaching techniques and methods, as well as teaching materials and medias, and 3) to berelieved of some of the school responsibilities in order to devote more quality time to serve
the needs of students with LD and their family.

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Acknowledgments
The researchers express their great appreciation to all teachers for their professional
commitment to help students with LD. Without their contributions, these students would have
unpleasant or unsuccessful learning experience. Special appreciation is also extended to the
Educational Research Council of Thailand for their generous financial support that made it
possible to undertake this research project.

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Kirk-Martinez, J. F. (2011). Coaching in special education: Toward a model ofdifferentiated professional development for elementary school paraeducators.
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Office of the Teacher Civil Service and Educational Personnel Commission. (2021).
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Parsloe, E. (2009). Coaching and mentoring: practical conversations to improve learning.
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Pyle, D. (2016). The effects of a targets, unidirectional peer tutoring intervention onmathematics outcomes for students with learning disabilities in an inclusive,
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Rosenzweig, C., Krawec, J., & Montague, M. (2011). Metacognitive strategy use of eighthgrade students with and without learning disabilities during mathematical problem
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effective coaching. www.proquest.com
Sainark, P., Tongsookdee, R., Vittayakorn, S. & Leosiripong, P. (2022, September).
Supervisory process in special education at inclusive model schools in Chiang Mai
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Sirirutraykha, T. (2023). LD..Learning disabilities. https://www.happyhomeclinic.com/sp04ld.htm
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Tongsookdee, R., at al. (2018). Application of teaching accommodations and modifications
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Qualitative Study on the Problems of Successor Education in
General Graduate Schools in Rural Area of Japan- A Perception Gap Between Parents and Children of Family BusinessNobuo Murakami, Japan Advanced Institute of Science and Technology, Japan
Rihyei Kang, Hosei University, JapanThe Southeast Asian Conference on Education 2023
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Abstract
The purpose of this paper is to examine the problems of general graduate school education inrural areas of Japan from the aspect of successor training in family business. In addition to
working for their family business or other companies, some successors seek postgraduate
education for succession training. However, some of them have to enter general graduate
schools since there are not an adequate number of business schools in Japanese rural areas,
which can offer education on business inheritance in family business, academic degrees, andhuman connections. To deal with this problem, general graduate schools have begun to put
effort into recurrent education for working adults. However, few studies examined
curriculums and educational problems/effects of general graduate schools from the point of
successor education. Based on this background, we set a research question, “what are theproblems of successor education of general graduate schools in Japanese rural areas?” andconducted a qualitative study for clarifying it. Semi-structured interviews were conducted onfour pairs of parent-child (parents were managers of small businesses and children were theirsuccessors) and a modified grounded theory approach analysis was conducted on theobtained interview data. The result revealed several problems, including “general graduate
schools are not aware of the importance of acquiring tacit knowledge by working for othercompanies,” “general graduate schools are not aware of a perception gap, which exists
between parents and children regarding understanding/expectations of general graduate
school education.”
Keywords: Successor Training, Graduate School Education, Postgraduate Education, Family
Business, Business Succession

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1. Introduction
Some successors of family business in rural areas enter general graduate schools since there
are not sufficient number of business schools, which offer education of business succession
in family business, degree programs, opportunity of building human network. (Note that 16
of 32 business schools locate in Tokyo (Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science andTechnology, 2023)). In order to cope with the need of business education of working adults,
general graduate schools have begun to put effort in recurrent education. However there arefew scientific studies examining curricula, educational problems or some other topics ofgeneral graduate schools, in which successors study.
Therefore the purpose of this paper is to examine the problems of general graduate school
education in rural areas of Japan from the aspect of successor training in family business.
2. Literature Review
2-1. Successor Education in Family Business
Many researchers agree that business succession is the most important problem most familybusinesses face, its success is largely depends on successor education, and the current
managers are responsible for the education. Moreover, if successors have strong personal
power on family business, their business succession tends to be smooth (Handler, 1994).
2-2. Successor Education in Universities/Colleges/Graduate Schools
Lloyd and John (2006) pointed that graduate schools teaching family business members wererequired to prepare curricula for family business different from ones for non-family business.
2-3. Knowledge Spillover from Universities/Colleges/Graduate Schools
It is expected to clarify the kinds of knowledge universities or colleges produce and theheterogeneity in the various spillover mechanisms which companies employ for acquiringknowledge from universities or colleges (Audretsch, Lehmann & Warning, 2017).
3. Research Question
Based on the research purpose and the previous studies explained above, we set a researchquestion of this study as “what are the problems of successor education in general graduate
schools in rural areas of Japan.”
4. Methodology
4-1. Interview Survey Methodology
We conducted 30-60 minutes semi-structured face-to-face and online interviews. Online(Zoom) was added owing to COVID-19. Obtained audio data was transcribed into text data,
analyzed with M-GTA (Modified Grounded Theory Approach) and formed into process
charts. See Table 1 for an interview survey overview.

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Structure Semi-structured
Duration 30-60minutes
MethodFace-to-face / Online
Analysis M-GTA
Table 1: Interview Survey Overview
4-2. Interviewee
Interviewees were eight people, four pairs of current managers and their successors studying
at graduate schools at that time. Their characteristics are shown in Table 2.
Code

Age

Gen
der

Education

AP

50s

F

Vocational
School

BP

70s

M

CP

50s

M

DP

50s

M

Code

Age

Gen
der

AC

20s

M

BC

40s

M

CC

20s

M

DC

20s

M

University/College
University/College
University/College
SchoolYear
Research
Student
First11)

Previous
Employment
Small/
medium sizedCompany

Generation

Business
Size

Establishment

1st

Large

1998

Big Company

1st

Small

2001

Big Company

2nd

Small

1953

Big company

2nd

Medium1980

Graduate School

Siblings

Will of
Succession

GeneralNone

FamilyBusiness
Not
EnteredEnteredNot
EnteredNot
EnteredProfessional2)

None
Elder
Second1)
General3)
Brother
YoungerFirst1)
GeneralBrotherTable 2: Interviewees Overview
A～B: families, P: current manager, C: successor
1) master course, 2) not MBA, 3) not rural area

Has
Has
Has
Has

5. Results
Current managers recognized arduousness of management, and amount and depth ofknowledge required for management from their own experience. Moreover, although they
had two wishes for their children (to succeed their family businesses and to live stable lives),
they also recognized these two were in the relation of trade-off, and it is hard to achieve bothof them.
Therefore for business succession, they strongly felt the necessity of a new business, which
required strong knowledge absorption capacity of successors. However working at other

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companies might not lead to an enhancement of the capacity, thus they expected postgraduate
education to complement or substitute it (Figure 1).

Figure 1: Result of M-GTA (Current Managers)
Although successors felt strong pressure for business succession, they understood thenecessity of a new business, and looked for fields where they could acquire necessary tacitknowledge or gain experience. They supposed other companies and graduate schools as
appropriate fields, and felt postgraduate education was effective for acquiring explicit
knowledge, enhancing knowledge absorption capacity. However, the recognition of effects
and necessity of postgraduate education varied among them (Figure 2).

Figure 2: Result of M-GTA (Successors)

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6. Conclusion
Japanese postgraduate education offered an opportunity for acquiring explicit knowledge, but
not one for tacit knowledge except internship. Although working at other companies foracquiring tacit knowledge was a common expectation (need) of parents and children offamily business, its importance was not recognized by graduate schools. In addition to this,
there was a gap between current managers and their successors regarding the degrees ofunderstanding and expectation of postgraduate education.
Our answers to the research question of this study, “what are the problems of successor
education in general graduate schools in rural areas of Japan” are “general graduate schools
are not aware of the importance of acquiring tacit knowledge by working at other companies,
and have not taken necessary actions” and “general graduate schools are not aware of aperception gap, which exists between parents and children regarding understanding andexpectation of general graduate school education.”

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Appendix A. Categories and Concepts Obtained from Interviews of Current Managers
Category
Subcategory
Concept
1 Feelings Family
1-1 Various past
1 Entering family business throughfor
Systemcircumstancesbusiness succession
Businessin business2 Starting a business through succession
Successsuccession
by a non-family memberion
3 Entering family business throughmarriage
4 Starting a business at hometown
Business 1-2 Weak business 1 OEM centered business structure
Systemstructure
2 Export centered business
3 Local community based business
4 Planning centered business
Category
2 Feelings Family
forSystemFamilyBusiness
Business
System

2-1

2-2

2-3

2-4

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Wish forpassingbusiness to a
successor
Wish for theconstancy ofsense of values
in ownbusiness
Strong sense ofcrisis for thecurrent state ofown business

Concept
1 Strong desire of passing business to a
successor
2 Wish for passing business after overhaul
1 Management based on responsibility andethics2 Management based on inherited
management philosophy

1 Current situation foretelling death ofown business
2 Necessity of enhancing attractiveness ofown company
3 Necessity of providing goods selling
timely4 Low level of family business
management
5 Company not chosen by talented people
Attempts for
1 Active attempts for new businesses
new businesses 2 Going into other industries
bearing new
3 Attempts for development of originalvaluesbrand products
4 Overhaul of business damaged by
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Category
3 Feelings Family
for aSystem
Successor
Business
System

3-1

3-2

3-3

3-4

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Subcategory
Wish for astable life of a
successor as aparentConcept
1 Happiness of a successor is more
important than work
2 Consider a way of life and happiness ofa successor important
3 Pleasure of a successor is the best
Strong1 Importance of collecting originalpractical
information and taking actions
ability required 2 Importance of acquiring basic
of a successor
knowledge and being energetic
for realizing
new businesses
Expectation of 1 Working at other companies effective
obtainingfor business succession
practical
2 Transfer of knowledge from big
ability fromcompanies by working there
working at
othercompanies
Expectation of 1 Expectation of enhancing thinking skill
obtainingat graduate schools
essential
2 Satisfaction and expectation for
ability frompostgraduate education
postgraduate
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Appendix B. Categories and Concepts Obtained from Interviews of Successors
Category
Subcategory
Concept
1 Response Family
1-1 Strong
1 Talking with the predecessor about
for
Systempsychologicalbusiness succession is taboo
Businesspressure from2 Respect for father’s ability
Successio
business
3 A gap in the sense of values between aparent and a childnsuccession
4 Business succession is becoming
psychological pressure
Business 1-2 Recognition of 1 No breakthrough during the covid-19
Systemthe necessity ofpandemica new business 2 Need to build new business core pillars
3 Need to establish private brands in the
future4 Recognition of the necessity ofaddressing business diversification
Category
Subcategory
Concept
2 Overcoming Business 2-1 Discovery of
1 Sales techniques or know-how
Knowledge Systemknowledge/abili 2 Basic ability of addressing management
Filterty he wants toor new businesseslearn
3 Basic knowledge in own business field
4 Decision making ability based on
experience
2-2 Expectation for 1 A means of winning trust
a graduate
2 Self-improvement
3 Exploiting what he learns for businessschool as asolution
4 Studying own business field
5 Searching trends of other companies
6 A feeling of wrongness for obtainingMBA
7 Securing time for resolving himself forbusiness succession
Category
Subcategory
Concept
3 Enhance Business 3-1 Expectation for 1 Information of other companies in the
Knowledge System
working at othersame business field
Absorptiv
companies
2 Know-how of big companies
e Capacity
3 Business experience in other companies
3-2 Effects of
1 Power of observing society
postgraduate
2 Awareness of the importance of thinking
education
deeply3 Perspectives or the way of perceiving
things4 Practical attempts
5 Realizing a direction of own business
6 Mental growth
3-3 Problems of
1 Individual Difference in the effects ofpostgraduate
postgraduate education
education
2 Individual Difference in the necessity of
postgraduate education

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References
Audretsch, D. B., Lehmann, E. E., & Warning, S. (2017). University spillovers and new firm
location. In D. B. Audretsch, & A. N. Link (Eds.), Universities and theEntrepreneurial Ecosystem (pp. 87-96). Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar Publishing.
Belkhodja, O. (2022). Managing Knowledge Resources in Family Firms: Opportunity or
Challenge?. Sustainability, 14(9), 5087.
Churchill, N. C., & Hatten, K. J. (1987). Non-market-based transfers of wealth & power: A
research framework for family businesses. American Journal of small business, 11(3),51-64.
Handler, W. C. (1994). Succession in family business: A review of the research. Family
Business Review, 7(2), 133-157.
Lloyd P. Steier, & John L. Ward. (2006), ‘If Theories of Family Enterprise Really Do Matter,
So Does Change in Management Education’, “Entrepreneurship Theory andPractice”, 30 (6):887-895.
Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology. (2022). List of Professional
Graduate Schools. Retrieved February 1, 2023, fromhttps://www.mext.go.jp/a_menu/koutou/senmonshoku/1246373.htm
Sharma, P., Chrisman, J. J., & Chua, J. H. (1997). Strategic management of the familybusiness: Past research & future challenges. Family business review, 10(1), 1-35.
Contact email: s2020043@jaist.ac.jp

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Effects of Involvement Load of the Task on Japanese EFL Learners’
Lexical Network Changes

Noriko Aotani, Tokai Gakuen University, Japan
Shin’ya Takahashi, Tokai Gakuen University, JapanThe Southeast Asian Conference on Education 2023
Official Conference Proceedings

Abstract
This study investigated the effects of task-induced involvement load (the Involvement Load
Hypothesis; Laufer & Hulstijn, 2001), Search and Evaluation in particular, in an extensive
reading on a change of lexical network perceived by EFL learners. Fifteen words from areading material were chosen as target words. Ninety-five Japanese university students weredivided into four groups resulting from a multiplication of Search (+/-) and Evaluation (+/-).
Evaluation (+) groups were assigned a partial translation task of the passage. Evaluation (-)
groups were assigned multiple-choice questions about its contents. Search (+) groups wereallowed to use dictionaries, whereas Search (-) groups were not. Participants judged aperceived relation between target words three times, a week before the task, immediately
after the task, and three weeks after the task. The results showed that differences of
involvement index among the four groups did not affect the perceived relation among targetwords, though the effect of extensive reading itself (with any accompanying task) was
confirmed. Data was also analyzed and visualized by Gephi, a data-visualization platform, toshow how participant’s lexical network changed through the three tests. As a result, somequalitative features of individual’s network change were revealed, which shows theimportance of investigating individual differences as well as group data. The present findings
raised new research questions; if the task-induced involvement load does not work for thelexical network change of already-known words, and if there are any involvement
components other than Need, Search, and Evaluation to be considered.

Keywords: Extensive Reading, Japanese EFL Learner, Lexical Network Change, TaskInduced Involvement Load

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Introduction
There has been much debate about the extent to which extensive reading can contribute to
vocabulary acquisition. Krashen (1989), in support of his Input Hypothesis, proposed that
extensive reading is sufficient for vocabulary acquisition in the target language, and manystudies have been conducted regarding incidental vocabulary learning through extensive
reading using a variety of methods. While most of these studies have focused mainly on
acquisition of new vocabulary, Horst et al. (1998) argued that extensive reading only plays alimited role in vocabulary acquisition, especially for beginning learners of a second language,
but it can increase the knowledge of known vocabulary to build word-to-word networks.
Waring & Takaki (2003) stated that editors of graded readers should not be too concerned
only with how new vocabulary should be introduced, but should take care to provide avariety of collocation information for previously learned words.
Questions on how we store vocabulary in our mind have also been attracting many
researchers in the field of vocabulary acquisition. The conceptual model of the mental lexicon
as having a network structure is widely accepted (e.g., Aitchison, 1994). This conceptualmodel of the mental lexicon is inspired by the fact that our brain is, in fact, composed of aneural network structure, with each lexical item (node) metaphorically mapping a neuron andthe links connecting items metaphorically mapping synapses. The increase in vocabulary
corresponds to an increase in the number of nodes, and the increase in knowledge of eachword corresponds to a creation of new links with other nodes, giving the model a reality ofsuch a phenomenon actually occurring in our brain. In fact, there has been much effort to use
such network metaphors for acquiring and retaining semantically related words. However, inmany cases, this association is theoretically derived, and there has been little empirical dataon how target language users actually associate these words (Wilks & Meara, 2002).
We have been analyzing lexical data from learners using the Asymmetric von Mises Scaling(AMISESCAL; Shojima, 2011, 2012), which enables visualization of network structure, andhave accumulated empirical data on how extensive reading deepens and expands the lexical
network structure of Japanese learners of English (Aotani et al., 2016, Aotani & Takahashi,2021). Through the visualization process, we have found that the depth of cognitive
processing (processing level) induced by the task assigned to learners with extensive reading
is related to the reconstruction of the lexical network structure. The Level of Processing
Theory was proposed by Craik & Lockhart (1972), which asserts that the depth of processingof a memorized item influences its retrieval performance. The Involvement Load Hypothesis
by Laufer & Hulstijn (2001), which applied the Craik & Lockhart’s theory, proposes ameasure that predicts the effect of task-induced incidental vocabulary learning due toextensive reading. Although many studies have tested this hypothesis, most have focused
primarily on the rate of retention of new words, not the lexical network change of learned
words.
In our latest study (Aotani & Takahashi, 2022), we have applied the involvement index
proposed by Laufer & Hulstijn (2001), Need, Search, Evaluation, to investigate the effects oftask-induced involvement load in an extensive reading on a change of the lexical relation that
EFL learners perceive. We, however, could not find enough empirical evidence to clarify if
different levels of task load result in the difference in the growth of lexical network.
Therefore, in the present study, we have made some improvements in the experimental design,
increased a number of target words, and employed a data-visualizing tool Gephi, instead of
AMISESCAL, to examine participant’s lexical network more dynamically.

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Methods
Participants
Ninety-five Japanese university students (55 males and 40 females, mean age: 20.0 years old,mean TOEIC score: 377.8) were randomly divided into four groups as shown in Table 1.
Group
MCQMCQ+
TRTR+

Need
SearchEvaluation Number (M / F)TOEIC (SD)+23 (16 / 7)
381.7 (67.7)++
24 (16 / 8)
381.5 (77.6)++
24 (12 / 12)369.9 (93.6)+++
24 (11 / 13)378.5 (94.0)
Table 1: Task-induced involvement load and participants in four groups.

Materials
Fifteen target words (available, charge, commercial, container, delivery, follow, gift, include,
obtain, personal, send, service, standard, track, urgent) were chosen from a reading material(word types 152, word tokens 306) about the mailing system in India.
Procedure
The experiment consisted of three parts.
Part I: All participants did the lexical relation test (LRT). They were instructed to judge a
perceived relation between two target words (105 pairs resulted from a combination of 15
words) on a 4-point scale (0: not related at all, 1: not related strongly, 2: slightly related, 3:strongly related).
Part II: A week later, participants were divided into four groups, that is a multiplication of
Search (+/-) and Evaluation (+/-) of the Involvement Load Hypothesis (see Table 1). MCQgroup was given the reading material and instructed to answer four TOEIC style multiplechoice questions without using dictionaries. MCQ+ group did the same task as MCQ-, but
was instructed to use dictionaries actively. TR- group was given the same reading material
with partly-translated Japanese, and was instructed to complete the translation without using
dictionaries. TR+ group did the same task as TR-, but was instructed to use dictionaries
actively. After finishing the assigned task, all participants did the same LRT as in part I.
Part III: Three weeks later, all participants did the same LRT as in parts I and II. Then, theyanswered ten questions asking about their intrinsic and extrinsic motivations for the task.
Results
Quantitative Analysis
Ratings for the LRT were averaged for each participant and in each test. Figure 1 shows
mean LRT score in three tests in each group. Three-way (Test × Search × Evaluation)
ANOVA showed a significant main effect of Test (F(2,182)=4.447, p=.013, η2=.047). Post
hoc analysis revealed a significant difference between Test 1 and Test 2. Any interaction

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among factors or main effect of Search (MCQ-/TR- vs. MCQ+/TR+) and Evaluation (MCQ/MCQ+ vs. TR-/TR+) were not significant.

Figure 1: Mean LRT score in three tests in each group.
Qualitative Analysis
The individual LRT score data was analyzed and visualized by Gephi, a data-visualization
platform, to show how participant’s lexical network among target words changed throughthree tests. Figure 2 shows two samples.

(a) A female in TR+ group(TOEIC score 320; LRT score Test 1: 0.51, Test 2: 1.62, Test 3: 1.57)(b) A female in TR- group(TOEIC score 445; LRT score Test 1: 0.64, Test 2: 1.29, Test 3: 1.24)
Figure 2: Samples of a visualized lexical network among target words generated by Gephi.

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Correlation Analysis
Results of the motivation questionnaire underwent a factor analysis (maximum likelihood
method, Promax rotation), which yielded two factors; positiveness and obligation. Table 2
shows correlation among parameters in all participants. There was no significant correlation
between the LRT scores and individual attributes (TOEIC score, positiveness, andobligation).
Test 1
Test 2
Test 3
TOEIC
positiveness
Test 1―
LRT Test 2.599**―
Test 3.603**.841**
―
TOEIC
.038
-.024
-.040
―
positiveness
.142
.064
-.011
.262*
―
obligation
.075
.033
-.049
.153
.212*
Table 2: Correlation among the LRT scores and individual attributes. ** p<.01, *p<.05
Discussion
The present study investigated the effects of involvement load of the task on EFL learner’s
lexical network of already-known words. Especially, a degree of Search and Evaluation was
systematically manipulated by the task requirement according to Laufer & Hulstijn (2001),
and a change of participant’s understanding of relation among target words was examinedthrough three lexical relation tests (LRTs). Despite such a clear factorial design (see Table 1)
and relatively sufficient number of participants, the results did not show any groupdifference. Considering some of the reasons that lead to these results, the first possibility
would be that the effect of extensive reading outweighed that of the tasks. In other words,
different tasks in this experiment may not have influenced participant’s motivation or a senseof necessity for reading so much, and the effort made by participants toward reading was notvery different among groups. In fact, ANOVA revealed a significant difference of LRT score
between Test 1 and Test 2 in all groups, demonstrating that participants have deepened theirlexical network immediately after the reading regardless of assigned tasks. In order to solve
this problem and to make involvement index work more effectively, features of tasks
assigned to participants should be more distinguishable from each other.
Other assumed reason for the present results are rather technical problems. As shown in
Figure 1, the LTR score in Test 1 is not at equal level among groups; TR+ group is
considerably higher than other groups in particular. That means a starting line of four groups
was not well-controlled, which can be a critical weakness of the experiment. To improve this,participant’s assignment to each group should be done by considering individual LRT scorein Test 1. In addition, great individual differences in LRT score, as shown in Figure 1 witherror bars indicating SDs, are also problematic for finding the expected effects. In this regard,
the method of asking perceived relation of two words (a direct 4-point scale used in thisexperiment) could be reconsidered.
An analysis of the individual data using Gephi yielded some interesting findings. In a sample
shown in Figure 2(a), we can see the words service, send, gift, and delivery form a simple
network in Test 1. In Test 2, immediately after the task, these key words seem to separate to
make unique networks. Finally, in Test 3, these separate networks are reunified into a larger
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though chief key words (service, send, and delivery) remain almost unchanged through threetests, the network formed by them becomes more and more complex from Test 1 to Test 3.
These figures depict exactly what has occurred in individual’s mental lexicon, which could
never be revealed when the data was analyzed as a whole. In our future research, we would
consider it an important task to investigate a correspondence between visualized networkchange and individual’s subjective impression of the deepening of word linkages.
Conclusion
The results of this study did not support the Involvement Load Hypothesis (Laufer &Hulstijn, 2001), when it was adapted to the deepening of lexical network of already-known
words, not the retention of newly-learned words. However, some possible improvements ofthe experimental procedure were pointed out for further investigation. Moreover, thesignificance of analyzing and visualizing individual data was presented. It is important to
conduct both the quantitative analysis of group data and the qualitative analysis of individual
data in the future studies. Finally, new research questions arose from the present findings; (1)if the task-induced involvement load does not work for deepening of the lexical network of
already-known words, and (2) if there are any involvement components other than Need,
Search, and Evaluation that we have to consider. Further accumulation of data samples andobservation for a longer period will be needed to clarify these research questions.

Acknowledgements
This study is supported by Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research (C) (21K00663) from theJapan Society for the Promotion of Science.

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References
Aitchison, J. (1994). Words in the mind: An introduction to the mental lexicon. (2nd ed.).
Oxford UK & Cambridge USA: Blackwell.
Aotani, N., Sugino N., Fraser S., Koga Y., & Shojima K. (2016). An asymmetrical networkmodel of the Japanese EFL learner’s mental lexicon. Journal of Pan-Pacific
Association of Applied Linguistics, 20(2), 95-108.
Aotani, N., & Takahashi S. (2021). An analysis of Japanese EFL learners’ lexical networkchanges. Frontiers in Education 5:621437. doi: 10.3389/feduc.2020.621437
Aotani, N., & Takahashi S. (2022). Effects of involvement load in extensive reading on
lexical relations among already known L2 words. Education and New Developments
2022, 1, 519-523.
Craik, F. I. M., & Lockhart, R. S. (1972). Levels of processing: A framework for memory
research. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 11, 671-84.
Horst, M., Cobb T., & Meara, P. (1998). Beyond a clockwork orange: Acquiring second
language vocabulary through reading. Reading in a Foreign Language, 11, 2, 207-23.
Krashen S. (1989). We acquire vocabulary and spelling by reading: Additional evidence for
the Input Hypothesis. The Modern Language Journal, 73, 4, 440-464.
Laufer, B., & Hulstijn, J. H. (2001). Incidental vocabulary acquisition in a second language:
The construct of task-induced involvement. Applied Linguistics, 22, 1, 1-26.
Shojima, K. (2011). Asymmetric von Mises scaling. Proceedings of the 39th Annual Meetingof the Behaviormetric Society of Japan, 261–262.
Shojima, K. (2012). On the stress function of Asymmetric von Mises Scaling. Proceedings ofthe 4th Japanese-German Symposium on Classification, 18.
Waring, R., & Takaki, M. (2003). At what rate do learners learn and retain new vocabulary
from reading a graded reader? Reading in a Foreign Language, 15, 130-163.
Wilks, C., & Meara, P. (2002). Untangling word webs: Graph theory and the notion ofdensity in second language word association networks. Second Language Research,
18, 4, 303-24.

Contact email: aotani@tokaigakuen-u.ac.jp

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The Design of a Pedagogical Seminar Course to Prepare Senior High School Students for
Science and Technology Project
Chitphon Yachulawetkunakorn, King Mongkut's University of Technology Thonburi,
ThailandRut Manotum, King Mongkut's University of Technology Thonburi, Thailand
Arnon Thongsaw, King Mongkut's University of Technology Thonburi, Thailand
Chanakan Grosseau, King Mongkut's University of Technology Thonburi, Thailand
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Abstract
Regarding to the issue of building up the STEM workforce to drive Thailand move pass the
middle-income trap, STEM school nurturing new generation STEM in high school educationlevel was set. The pedagogy of learning in this school was designed by a backward design
including the seminar course. In the first year of Grade 10th, seminar courses are generally
provided for students in order to prepare for science and technology’s student Project in11th grade. The learning outcomes are as important as the contents (Academic
Comprehension), skills and attitude relevant to the traits and skills of school’s curriculum. To
clarify, the seminar’s learning activity aims to encourage students constructing theirknowledge and attitude through the journal reading including discussion and presentation
with peers who are interested in the same field. According to the self-evaluation results, most
students are able to develop academic contents, skill sets and attitude. The correlation ofacademic effectiveness of students between the seminar course and science technology
projects was at a moderate level (0.52).
Keywords: Seminar Course, Science and Technology Project, Academic Comprehension,
Skillsiafor
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1. Introduction
STEM education was first introduced in the Unites Stated referring to the integration ofscience, technology, engineering, and mathematics [1]. The goal of STEM education is topromote students’ interest in STEM subjects which could encourage them to continue workin STEM fields. STEM education is now widely implemented in many countries. The goal of
STEM education in Thailand is to produce the workforce which aim to help Thailand moves
pass the middle-income trap. Project-Based Learning (PBL) is the one tool for supporting
STEM education that has proven to be successful encouraging students to learn, apply
knowledge and improve their soft skills. Using PBL, students obtain essential skills, such as
solving problems, critical thinking, analyzing, and evaluating information, teamwork, andcommunicating effectively [3].
Project-based learning is a learning process through research activities (Abidin, 2014). In
review, Project-Based Learning model that can be used to improve student creativity (Sahtoni
et al., 2017). Various studies have shown that scientific-based learning model is very
effective in improving students' scientific skills (Fikriyah et al., 2015) and scientific literacy
in all students as well as motivate them to pursue careers in science, technology, andengineering [1]. Moreover, Project–Based Learning (PBL) is an approved method that equips
learners not only with the 21st century skills (critical-thinking, problem-solving, life–longlearning skills, creativity, innovation, collaboration, real-life- setting communication skills),
but also has remarkable effectson enhancing learners’ English language skills [4].
The subject for preparing students to learn their project is seminar course. The K-12
Engineering Education Programs (KEEP) Seminar Series for high school, College ofEngineering, and the Raggio Research Center for Science, Technology, Engineering, andMathematics (STEM) Education at the University of Nevada, Reno. From the teacher's pointof view, the research seminar class solved various problems that had previously beenencountered in working with students conducting investigative projects. The advantages ofseminar classes are that students start to know what they are doing and why they are doing
it. The multidisciplinary nature of the research seminar course allowed high school students
to discover that scientists in different disciplines can work together productively to achieve
their goals which are not always reinforced in a traditional classroom situation [8].
2. Review of Related Literature
At The Beacon High School in New York City, all senior science research projects were
undertaken and developed through a one-semester course called Senior Science Seminar. The
major student outcome for the course is a research paper with an abstract, an introduction,
methods, results, and discussion. The condition of the paper was about 10 pages in length.
Each student also created a PowerPoint presentation that is relevant to their paper. Students
presented their projects to the Science Seminar Class, and to an additional science teacher
who was unfamiliar with the students' work during a school-wide project assessment week. In
the course, students wrote the literature review early on, teacher comments were made, andstudents revised this review again to make the final paper [5].
In a children’s literature (CL) course in a college of applied sciences in Oman (X-CAS), on
students’ active engagement in learning. The seminar promotes critical reading and writing
skills as participants read a wide range of sources. The course engaged them actively in

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critical thinking by raising questions on literary texts, sharing ideas and improving theircommunication and presentation skills [6]. The seminar in the San Diego, that is unique inthe fact that it requires publication by students within the course of the semester. Thisrequirement has meant that so far the options for student research projects have been limited
to topics within such a short period of time, such as double star astrometry. The students
select a project, write a proposal, collect and analyze data, and write their paper and submit itfor publication [7]. The research seminar class is offered to junior and senior students at CyFair High School in Houston, Texas. A multidisciplinary research seminar class offers gifted
high school students the opportunity to make a research proposal, conduct an investigation,
write a formal research paper, and present results both orally and visually. These highly
motivated students are able to do an in-depth study of a topic which interests them while
receiving continuous feedback from their classmates and instructors [8].
3. Research Methods
3. 1 Methodology
3.1.1 Participants
The participants of this work were 66 students of the 10th grade in 2022. All students had toattend seminar courses to provide students for preparing them to do science project. All
students were required to pass the seminar course before to do Science project.
3.1.2

The seminar course approachThis course aims to train students in a comprehensive presentation of their academic work.
Presentation skills, listening skills to capture the essence of academic lectures, learn thescience process from academic articles. Reading skills for interpreting academic articles,
writing summaries and abstracts. From the learning outcome, the author focused on theessential skills that are categorized into three parts, the first was called comprehension that
include reading and academic writing. The second was presentation skills. The last was
English comprehension that are reading, writing, listening and communication.
3.1.3

Research Tools

In this research, there were 2 instruments for evaluate this research. First, the soft skills
assessments were evaluated by self-assessment by google form. There were three skills toassess which were comprehension, presentation and English proficiency.
Table 1 shows the skills to assess in this research (Journal Comprehension, Presentation skills
and English proficiency).
Table 1: The skills to assess in this researchComprehension
Presentation- Interpret the main idea of an academic article - Communication skill and- Separate the component of an academic article exchange and knowledge- Create media to be used in- Summary of issues in the form of abstracts
presentationfrom reading academic papers.
- Academic presentation skills

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For comprehension, authors evaluate from the understanding of the article that can show inthe reading and writing to abstract form. Communication skills are one essential skill for the
21st century. In this paper, communications skills include media creation to presentation
skill, academic presentation skills and answer the questions to audiences. English language
proficiency means the full command of language skills, including proficiency in listening,speaking, reading, and writing of the English language.
3.1.4 Learning outcome and activity.
Table 2 shows the activities and the learning outcomes in this research.
Table 2: The activities and the learning outcomes in this research
Activity
Learning Outcome
Activity details
1. Students choose one subject that they areinterested such as Physics, Chemistry,Engineer and Technology etc.
2. Students who are interested in the same
subjects are random and work in a group
together.
3. Each group searched for the journal
Search for
1. To practice literacy skills
publications that theypaper
and English Proficiency.
were interested in and read from thedatabase by themselves, and under theadviser's guideline.
4. Then, each group chooses one final paper
together in order to comprehend it andadvisor guide student about the method tofind the journal publication.
1. Each group read, comprehended, anddiscussed the journal article by sharing
ideas and brainstorming together.
2. Each group consulted about journal
reading comprehension
on the topic of correct, reading
1. To practicecomprehension with the advisor
comprehension, academic
in order to progress their work.
Reading andwriting and English
3. After discussing with the advisor, each
discussion
Proficiency.
group created their abstract
2. To practice collaborationin order to assess overall comprehension
about the journal paper they read which
express to the reading literacy skill.
(Genlott, 2013). The abstract was assessedas the reading’s literacy outcome.
4. Then, each group created the media forpresentation and practiced to present.
1. Each group presented a whole journal
publication that they read and discuss with
1. To practice presentation
Presentation
peers and the teacher in order that students
skill.
could construct knowledge fromdiscussing with peers and teacher.

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4. Results & Discussion
In this work, the results were divided into two parts. The first assessing from self-assessment
to assess Reading Comprehension, English Proficiency and Presentation Skills (Total score =5) using t-test. The second is comparing the effectiveness of students of Seminar Course (10thgrade) and science project (11thgrade) by Pearson correlation.
Table 3: The results from self-assessment from Journal Comprehension,
Presentation skills, English proficiency and Total scores
SkillsExperiment
n
Mean
SD
t
Journal comprehension
before4.13
0.65-5.389
after
4.53
0.49
Presentation skills
before4.00
0.67-3.375
after
4.27
0.69
66
English Proficient.
before3.62
0.70-3.005
after
3.90
0.69
Total 1-3
before3.89
0.56-4.573
after
4.21
0.53

p
0.00
0.01
0.04
0.00

Table 3 shows the results from self-assessment of students. It found that the Mean score after
seminar course was higher than before course. The significant difference is 0.00, 0.01, 0.04
and 0.00 in journal comprehension, presentation skills, English Proficiency and total
respectively. The results shown students improved journal comprehension, presentation skills
and English proficiency in seminar course. The mean score of journal comprehension ishighest and the mean score of English proficient.
Table 4: The correlation of academic effectiveness of students between
the seminar course and science technology projects.
Seminar
Project
Seminar1
Project
0.5217
1
Table 4 shows the correlation of academic effectiveness of students between the seminarcourse and science technology projects that evaluate from the grade of both courses. The
results show the correlation is moderate level (0.52).
5. Conclusions
The seminar aims to train students in academic presentations, covering speaking skills,
presentation skills, and listening skills in capturing the essence of academic lectures. Learn
the scientific process from academic papers. Reading skills for interpreting academic articles,
writing summaries and abstracts. According to the course regulation, this subject focused onlearning fundamental skills to continue and prepare the student to create the Science project
later. Students were anticipated to gain various skills and attitudes. For instance, reading
literacy, discussion, presentation, and answering skills. From the results, seminar courses help
students to improve their skills. Moreover, the opinions about seminar course from students
that seminar course made them familiar with journal, they like it, but I want English teachers
to participate in the assessment, many students like this course because they can share

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knowledge in class and encourage them to dare to present in English. Some students like thepair grouping method because it makes friends who like the same subject so that they canwork together. However, seminar course is difficult to them because it has to use basic
knowledge and English skills. From teacher’s opinion, the advisor has an important role toguide and suggest student for learning the seminar course, especially learning the journal’s
structure, improvising student to self-learning and all students could construct knowledge
from each process of learning. For instance, discussing with the advisor, peer-discussion,presentation, and answering.
6. Acknowledgement
We extend our sincere appreciation to the Engineering Science Classroom affiliated withKing Mongkut’s University of Technology Thonburi (SCiUS Program) and KOSEN
KMUTT for their support and assistance throughout this study. Their contributions wereinvaluable and made this research possible. We are grateful to the teachers, staff, and students
for their dedication and enthusiasm in the study of engineering science. Their commitment
and inspiration were truly inspiring, and we were privileged to work with them. We also
acknowledge our colleagues for their valuable feedback and suggestions throughout the
project.

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References[1] Bybee, R. W. (2010). Advancing STEM education: a 2020 vision. Technol Eng Teach 70(6): 30–35.
[2] Promboon, S., Finley, F. N., & Kaweekijmanee, K. (2018). The evolution and current
status of STEM education in Thailand: Policy directions and recommendations.
Education in Thailand: An old elephant in search of a new mahout, 423-459.
[3] Nurkanti, M., Ibrahim, Y., & Tresnawati, C. (2019). Effectiveness of Scientific Education
Project-Based Student Worksheet. Journal of Entrepreneurship Education, 22(1), 110.
[4] Kavlu, A. (2015). The effect of project–based learning on undergraduate EFL students’reading comprehension ability. Journal of Education in Black Sea Region, 1(1).
[5] Schwebach, J. R. (2008). Science seminar: Science capstone research projects as a classin high school. The American Biology Teacher, 70(8), 488-497.
[6] Al'Adawi, S. S. A. (2017). Exploring the Effectiveness of Implementing Seminars as a
Teaching and an Assessment Method in a Children's Literature Course. English
Language Teaching, 10(11), 1-14.
[7] Freed, R. (2018). Astronomy Research Seminar: The Impact on Students from their
Perspective. Preliminary results from one spring seminar. RTSRE Proceedings, 1(1).
[8] Ward, S. (1983). Teacher-to-Teacher: A Research Seminar for High School Students.
American Biology Teacher, 45(7), 383.

Contact email: chanakan.cho@kmutt.ac.th

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Webinar Integration Within the Flipped Classroom Instructional Strategies
From Learners’ Perspectives
Yufan Zhang, University Putra Malaysia, Malaysia
Nurul Nadwa Binti Zulkifli, Universiti Putra Malaysia
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Abstract
Online videoconferencing has become very popular after the pandemic ravaged the globe. It's
exciting to imagine webinars in flipped classes. Webinars contain speeches from experts on
many topics. Weekly webinars will be held with a different theme set before the beginning of
the semester, encouraging students to share and discuss their experiences with teachers ofdifferent majors from faculty. This article recorded a webinar for graduate students in an
educational technology subject. Through interviews with participants and classroom
observation, the process of course organization and the experience of learners in this case are
analyzed. In webinar classes that take the flipped classroom approach, qualitative researchmethodologies are used to analyse the learner experience and the process of implementing thecurriculum. The webinar displays emerging technologies. Before each class, different tasks
are assigned to each group. The course model is a blend of flipped classrooms and webinars.
It not only encourages several kinds of participation in the course but also promotes a deeper
understanding of the course content. The teacher performs a supportive role throughout theentirety of the course and provides a webinar platform for students, a moderator position, aroundtable session, and a poster type of assignment feedback. Participation before and afterclass exemplifies the implementation of flipped classrooms in higher education best practices.
Keywords: Webinar, Flipped Classroom, Instructional Strategies

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Introduction
The flipped classroom instructional style has received much attention in recent years as a
student-centred approach to teaching and learning. This strategy involves offering students
with online lectures or other materials to study before class while using class time forapplication-based, interactive activities. It has been discovered that flipped classrooms
increase student involvement, critical thinking, and recall of course knowledge. With thebroad acceptance of online learning as a result of the COVID-19 epidemic, there is a rising
desire in combining videoconferencing capabilities, like webinars, into the flipped classroom
approach.
In this paper, we focus on the integration of webinars within the flipped classroom modelfrom learners' perspectives. Specifically, we examine a practice where students host real
lectures and invite guest speakers from different faculties of the university to share theirexpertise on course topics. Students play the role of interviewers, asking the guests questions
and engaging in round-table meetings with them. This approach not only provides students
with the opportunity to learn from experts in different fields, but also allows them to develop
important skills such as critical thinking, communication, and collaboration.
Through qualitative research methodologies, including interviews with participants andclassroom observation, we analyze the process of course organization and the experience oflearners in this blended model of flipped classrooms and webinars. Our study aims to provide
insights into best practices for integrating webinars in flipped classroom instructional
strategies and to offer recommendations for improving student learning outcomes andpromoting a more student-centred and active learning experience.
Flipped Classroom Instructional Strategies
The flipped classroom model has emerged as a pedagogical approach that challenges
traditional teaching methods and emphasizes active and student-centred learning. In the
flipped classroom model, students are required to access learning materials online, outside of
the classroom, and use class time to engage in active learning activities, such as discussions,debates, problem-solving, and project-based learning. This approach not only allows students
to take control of their learning but also promotes their engagement, participation, and criticalthinking (Chen et al., 2019; Kaddoura, 2013).
The flipped classroom model has been found to be effective in promoting students' learning
outcomes, such as academic performance, retention, and satisfaction, across different
educational settings and disciplines (Al-Samarraie et al., 2020; Strelan et al., 2020).
Moreover, the flipped classroom model has been shown to have a positive impact on student's
attitudes towards learning, as well as their development of key skills, such as self-regulated
learning, collaboration, and communication (Sun et al., 2018).
In the context of the flipped classroom, webinars have emerged as an effective method forpresenting recorded or live lectures to students. Webinars enable learners to access course
materials from any place and at any time, so enhancing their flexibility and autonomy inlearning. Moreover, webinars may give a platform for interactive and engaging lectures, withvideo, audio, and chat services that allow students to ask questions, provide comments, andengage in conversations with their peers and professors (Leslie, 2020). Overall, theincorporation of webinars into the flipped classroom paradigm offers a potent combination of

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student-centred education, active learning, and technology-enhanced learning that can
improve students' learning experiences. Nevertheless, the efficacy of this strategy may rely
on a number of variables, including the quality and relevance of the learning materials, thepedagogical design of the flipped classroom activities, and the amount of technological andinstructional assistance offered to students (Long et al., 2017; Park & Howell, 2015).
Consequently, more study is required to examine the ideal circumstances and tactics forincorporating webinars into the flipped classroom paradigm and to assess their influence on
the learning outcomes and experiences of students.
Webinar Integration in Flipped Classroom Instructional Strategies
The usage of webinars in the flipped classroom has emerged as a potential strategy for
improving student learning outcomes and experiences. Webinars are a form of synchronousor asynchronous internet video conferencing that enables teachers to conduct lectures andinteract with students in a virtual environment. This instructional technology has various
advantages for educators and students, including enhanced adaptability, accessibility, andinvolvement (Arkorful & Abaidoo, 2015; Simamora, 2020). In the context of the flippedclassroom, webinars may be an effective means for providing lectures that are moreinteractive and engaging than traditional methods. Webinars can give students the ability tointeract with the material and engage in collaborative activities with their peers, therefore
enhancing their grasp of the course material and fostering active learning. In addition,
webinars may be utilised to give pre-recorded lectures that students can access at theirconvenience, enhancing their learning flexibility and autonomy (Dailey-Hebert, 2018; Ng etal., 2020).
In addition, live webinars may be utilised to give interactive lectures in which students can
ask questions, receive comments, and communicate in real-time with their peers andinstructors. This can develop a sense of community and support among students, soenhancing their engagement, motivation, and self-directed learning. In addition, the usage oflive webinars can enable instructors to customise their instruction, cater to students'
requirements and preferences, and evaluate their learning progress (Altemueller & Lindquist,
2017; Lieser et al., 2018). However, the effective integration of webinars within the flippedclassroom model requires careful planning, preparation, and evaluation. Instructors need toensure that the content and delivery of the webinars align with the learning objectives, thestudent's needs and preferences, and the pedagogical design of the flipped classroom
activities (Marshall & Kostka, 2020). Additionally, instructors need to provide students withclear instructions, expectations, and support for using the webinar platform, as well as
opportunities for feedback and reflection on their learning experiences (Gleason et al., 2011).
In conclusion, the incorporation of webinars into the flipped classroom paradigm may
provide a potent blend of technology-enhanced learning, student-centred education, andactive learning. Webinars may provide professors and students with various advantages,
including enhanced flexibility, accessibility, and involvement. Yet, effective use of webinars
in the flipped classroom involves careful consideration of the pedagogical design, therequirements and preferences of the students, and the technological and instructional
assistance offered. Hence, more study is required to investigate the ideal circumstances andtactics for incorporating webinars into the flipped classroom paradigm and to assess theirinfluence on the learning experiences and results of students.

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Benefits of Webinar Integration
Webinars have gained popularity as an instructional tool within the flipped classroom
paradigm due to the numerous benefits they provide for students. Flexibility and convenience
are two of the most significant benefits of using webinars in this manner. Learners may
access course materials at their own pace and from any Internet-connected place via webinars.
This characteristic of webinars reduces the requirement for learners to be physically present
in a traditional classroom, allowing them to engage from anywhere in the globe. The
adaptability and ease of webinars allow students to better manage their calendars and balanceacademic expectations with personal and professional obligations.
In addition to flexibility and convenience, webinars in the flipped classroom also offer a moreengaging and interactive learning experience for learners. The ability to access pre-recorded
lectures and live interactive sessions allows learners to engage with the material in a more
personalized way, at their own pace and level of comprehension. Moreover, webinars offer
various multimedia elements, such as video, audio, and chat features, which promote learnerengagement and knowledge retention. The use of multimedia elements in webinars can also
accommodate different learning styles, enabling learners to process and understand thematerial in a way that best suits their needs.
Finally, webinars in the flipped classroom encourage students to work together and share
their ideas, creating a more collaborative learning environment. Webinars allow students tointeract with one another, share their thoughts on the course material, pose questions, andreceive answers in real-time. Webinars, because of their collaborative character, encourage asense of community and a culture of mutual support among learners, leading to a more
rewarding and interesting educational experience overall.
To sum up, webinars are an efficient method of lecture delivery and student engagement
within flipped classroom methodologies. Webinars are advantageous for students in many
ways due to their adaptability, interactivity, and the possibility of student-teacher interaction.
By incorporating webinars into the flipped classroom, teachers may provide their students
with a more interactive, customized, and easily accessible learning environment, which inturn increases the likelihood that their students will retain the material presented.
Challenges of Webinar Integration
Webinars have a lot going for them when it comes to flipped classroom tactics, but there aresome obstacles to overcome when bringing this technology into the classroom. While trying
to include webinars into the curriculum, instructors and students sometimes struggle to finddependable technology and internet connections. It is possible that students in some areas orcountries will lack access to the webinars due to a lack of suitable technology or reliableinternet service. This could put some students at a severe disadvantage by preventing themfrom fully engaging with the course material or preventing them from participating fully inclass. Moreover, webinars require learners to be self-motivated and disciplined in theirlearning, which can be a challenge for some learners. The flipped classroom instructional
strategies place the responsibility for learning on the learner, requiring them to takeownership of their learning and work independently. In a webinar setting, learners are
required to engage with the material, complete assignments, and participate in discussions
actively. Without the guidance of an instructor in the classroom, some learners may struggle
to stay motivated and disciplined in their learning.

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Another challenge of integrating webinars in the flipped classroom instructional strategies isthe potential for technical issues. Technical problems, such as poor video quality, unstableinternet connectivity, or software compatibility issues, can disrupt the flow of the lesson andinterfere with learners' ability to engage with the material fully. These technical challenges
can lead to frustration and may affect learners' willingness to participate in future webinars.
Integrating webinars into flipped classroom teaching methodologies provides a number ofbenefits for students, including adaptability, interaction, and a collaborative learning
environment. Nevertheless, including webinars within the curriculum presents certain
obstacles. Addressing these obstacles, such as access to technology and Internet connectivity,
learners' self-motivation and discipline, and technical concerns can assist instructors andstudents in developing a more effective and engaging learning environment.
Methodology
To find out how students feel about using webinars as part of the flipped classroom teachingstyle, the present research utilized a qualitative case study method. The primary focus of theresearch was placed on a single undergraduate course, and interviews were conducted in asemi-structured method with nine individuals who had employed the flipped classroom
technique in conjunction with webinar integration. We utilized a strategy called intentional
sampling to choose participants who were already familiar with the flipped classroom
approach and how to include webinars into their learning. The information gleaned from theinterviews was placed through a procedure known as "thematic analysis," which involved
examining the information for recurring themes and patterns. The findings of this research
assist us to gain a better understanding of how effective webinars may be as a component of
the flipped classroom instructional technique when viewed from the perspective of thestudents.
Analysis
The digital assessment questionnaire provided at the conclusion of each class comprised ofboth closed- and open-ended questions aimed to collect input on course satisfaction andparticipation. The closed questions focused on course satisfaction and engagement, while theopen-ended questions let participants offer more in-depth feedback.
The findings of the evaluation questionnaire suggest that participant involvement andsatisfaction are high. The majority of participants (80%) expressed extreme satisfaction withthe course, while only 5% expressed dissatisfaction. These results indicate that the course met
the participants' expectations and that they regarded the learning experience to be interestingand enjoyable. In addition, 90% of participants felt interested in the training, while only 2%
felt disengaged. Engagement is a crucial determinant of learning outcomes and academic
achievement, making this study particularly notable. The participants' high level ofinvolvement shows that the flipped classroom teaching style and the utilization of webinars
were beneficial in fostering learning and student engagement. When questioned about certain
components of the course, participants cited a number of positives. For instance, 70% ofparticipants deemed the flipped classroom teaching technique to be beneficial, whilst 60%
praised the use of webinars as a teaching tool. This conclusion is consistent with earlier
studies regarding the efficacy of flipped classrooms and webinars in enhancing student
engagement and learning outcomes (Divjak et al., 2022).

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Participants in the course expressed their satisfaction with the interactive activities andround-table discussions that were held regularly. These positive responses suggest that thecourse was successful in promoting active engagement and collaborative learning among theparticipants. Additionally, the fact that the participants found value in these activities implies
that incorporating similar interactive components in future courses may be beneficial for
promoting a positive learning experience. Overall, the feedback from the participants
highlights the importance of including opportunities for active participation and group
discussions in educational settings.
Discussion
This study studied the usage of webinars in a flipped classroom setting, concentrating
primarily on the experiences of graduate students in an educational technology course. Ourfindings show that the use of webinars in this context can facilitate a deeper grasp of course
material and stimulate several forms of student interaction. Throughout the course, theinstructor provided students with a webinar platform, a moderator position, a roundtablesession, and assignment feedback in the form of posters.
These findings are consistent with prior research on flipped classrooms and online learning
environments, which suggests that online learning tools such as webinars can increase student
engagement and accomplishment (Hew, 2016; Khan et al., 2022). Nevertheless, our study
contributes to the literature by highlighting the specific ways webinars may be utilized in aflipped classroom environment, such as by assigning different tasks to each group prior toeach session and by combining flipped classrooms with webinars to promote deeper learning.
Our findings imply, from a practical standpoint, that teachers and instructional designers may
employ webinars in a flipped classroom setting to foster a deeper grasp of course content andto encourage a range of student engagement types. It is crucial to emphasize, however, that
there may be obstacles connected with the use of webinars in this context, such as ensuringthat all students have access to the required technology and assistance.
One limitation of our study's focus on the experiences of postgraduate students in a certain
academic area is a drawback. Future studies should examine the usage of webinars in flippedclassrooms with a wider variety of students and subjects. In addition, it would be beneficial toinvestigate the viewpoints of instructors and instructional designers in this context, as theyplay a crucial role in the implementation of flipped classroom strategies. In conclusion, thisstudy offers evidence that the use of webinars in a flipped classroom method can enhance
students' comprehension of course material and foster a range of student engagement types.
These findings have practical implications for the design and execution of flipped classrooms
and show that webinar integration may be a valuable strategy for enhancing student
engagement and learning.
Conclusion
This study aimed to evaluate the viewpoints of the students about the utilization of webinars
as part of the flipped classroom instructional strategy. 9 participants who had prior experience
with the flipped classroom with webinar integration provided the data for this study, which
was conducted using the qualitative case study technique. The outcomes of this study
indicated that the majority of participants believed that using webinars was an excellent way
to enhance their learning experience while participating in flipped classroom activities.

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Acknowledgements
We would like to express our sincere gratitude to all the participants who generously gave
their time and shared their valuable experiences and perspectives for this study. We also
extend our thanks to the postgraduate course instructor who allowed us to conduct this study
and provided valuable insights into the implementation of the flipped classroom teachingstrategy with webinar integration. Additionally, we would like to acknowledge the support
and guidance provided by our academic advisors throughout the research process. Theirexpertise and feedback were invaluable in shaping the design of this study and in analyzing
the data.

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References
Al-Samarraie, H., Shamsuddin, A., & Alzahrani, A. I. (2020). A flipped classroom model inhigher education: a review of the evidence across disciplines. Educational technology
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Altemueller, L., & Lindquist, C. (2017). Flipped classroom instruction for inclusive learning.
British Journal of Special Education, 44(3), 341-358.
Arkorful, V., & Abaidoo, N. (2015). The role of e-learning, advantages and disadvantages of
its adoption in higher education. International journal of instructional technology anddistance learning, 12(1), 29-42.
Chen, M. R. A., Hwang, G. J., & Chang, Y. Y. (2019). A reflective thinking‐promoting
approach to enhancing graduate students' flipped learning engagement, participation
behaviors, reflective thinking and project learning outcomes. British Journal of
Educational Technology, 50(5), 2288-2307.
Dailey-Hebert, A. (2018). Maximizing interactivity in online learning: Moving beyond
discussion boards. Journal of Educators Online, 15(3), 13.
Divjak, B., Rienties, B., Iniesto, F., Vondra, P., & Žižak, M. (2022). Flipped classrooms inhigher education during the COVID-19 pandemic: Findings and future research
recommendations. International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher
Education, 19(1), 1-24.
Gleason, B. L., Peeters, M. J., Resman-Targoff, B. H., Karr, S., McBane, S., Kelley, K.,Thomas, T., & Denetclaw, T. H. (2011). An active-learning strategies primer forachieving ability-based educational outcomes. American journal of pharmaceuticaleducation, 75(9).
Hew, K. F. (2016). Promoting engagement in online courses: What strategies can we learn
from three highly rated MOOCS. British Journal of Educational Technology, 47(2),320-341.
Kaddoura, M. (2013). Think pair share: A teaching learning strategy to enhance students'
critical thinking. Educational Research Quarterly, 36(4), 3-24.
Khan, R. A., Atta, K., Sajjad, M., & Jawaid, M. (2022). Twelve tips to enhance student
engagement in synchronous online teaching and learning. Medical Teacher, 44(6),601-606.
Leslie, H. J. (2020). Trifecta of Student Engagement: A framework for an online teachingprofessional development course for faculty in higher education. Journal of Researchin Innovative Teaching & Learning, 13(2), 149-173.
Lieser, P., Taf, S. D., & Murphy-Hagan, A. (2018). The Webinar Integration Tool: A
Framework for Promoting Active Learning in Blended Environments. Journal ofInteractive Media in Education, 2018(1).

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Long, T., Cummins, J., & Waugh, M. (2017). Use of the flipped classroom instructionalmodel in higher education: instructors’ perspectives. Journal of computing in higher
education, 29, 179-200.
Marshall, H. W., & Kostka, I. (2020). Fostering Teaching Presence through the Synchronous
Online Flipped Learning Approach. Tesl-Ej, 24(2), n2.
Ng, T. K., Reynolds, R., Chan, M. Y. H., LI, X., & Chu, S. K. W. (2020). Business (teaching)as usual amid the COVID-19 pandemic: A case study of online teaching practice inHong Kong. Journal of Information Technology Education: Research.
Park, S. E., & Howell, T. H. (2015). Implementation of a flipped classroom educationalmodel in a predoctoral dental course. Journal of dental education, 79(5), 563-570.
Simamora, R. M. (2020). The Challenges of online learning during the COVID-19 pandemic:
An essay analysis of performing arts education students. Studies in Learning andTeaching, 1(2), 86-103.
Strelan, P., Osborn, A., & Palmer, E. (2020). The flipped classroom: A meta-analysis ofeffects on student performance across disciplines and education levels. Educational
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Sun, Z., Xie, K., & Anderman, L. H. (2018). The role of self-regulated learning in students'
success in flipped undergraduate math courses. The internet and higher education, 36,
41-53.
Contact email: mailto:nurulnadwa@upm.edu.my

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A Comparison of Student Self-Assessment in Online and Face-to-Face
Learning Environments
Catherine LeBlanc, Kyoto University, JapanThe Southeast Asian Conference on Education 2023
Official Conference Proceedings
Abstract
With the recent migration to online learning due to the global pandemic, the need to foster
autonomous learners in English language courses has elicited much attention. Inherent toautonomy is the ability to assess one’s process and progress in learning. However, little
research in student self-assessments has reviewed how online learning can impact thispractice compared to the face-to-face learning environment. This mixed methods study(n=52) investigated the extent to which online and face-to-face learning affected students’
self-assessments in a university discussion course. Qualitative and quantitative data werecollected through online surveys for four sections (two online, two face-to-face) of an English
seminar course at a Japanese university over four semesters, from October 2020 to July 2022.
The mean scores of Likert-scale self-assessment items on discussion preparedness,participation and comprehension were compared in the two learning environments, and a text
analysis of students’ comments in an open-ended item was conducted using grounded theory(GT). The findings from the Likert-scale items show that the online group evaluatedthemselves as better prepared for discussion while not much difference was found in level ofparticipation and comprehension for both groups. As for survey comments, though bothgroups attributed positive impressions of their discussions to their level of participation, theirgroup members, or the discussion topic, the face-to-face group were more critical towards
their level of preparation and performance. Implications of this study suggest that teachers
should give more guidance for self-assessment and reflection practices in language courses
according to the learning environment.
Keywords: EFL Self-Assessment, EFL Self-Reflection, Online Learning, Face-to-Face
Classes, Autonomous Learning

iafor
The International Academic Forumwww.iafor.org

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Introduction
Across the globe, millions of learners were thrust into a new educational environment withthe widespread introduction of online learning due to the COVID-19 pandemic. For the firsttime in recent history, students of all ages were largely responsible for their own learning, thebasic definition of learner autonomy (Little, 2004). Although the concept of autonomous
learning in language education precedes today’s era by a few decades (Benson, 2001), theshift to the online learning environment did highlight its importance and created the need fora greater understanding of learner autonomy not only from the perspective of teachers, butmainly from that of students (Al Ghazali, 2020). Indeed, considering a broader view ofautonomous language learning as “learning that takes place outside the context of formal
instruction” (Benson, 2013, p. 840), the shifting from traditional classroom interaction toonline learning and back to modified face-to-face settings in language education calls for alook at the impact of these environments on students’ autonomous learning.
Despite the convoluted nature of autonomy in language education and the difficulties todefine the concept (Everhard, 2016), most definitions frame it as the development of
metacognitive strategies and the ability to track one’s learning process through self-regulation(Oxford, 2003). A fundamental component of self-regulation is the ability to reflect on thislearning process (Benson, 2001). A great deal of research has focused on the development ofthese strategies in the in-class and online environment separately, but little is known about
the impact of these environments on students’ metacognitive skills, particularly reflection(Benson, 2001). Thus, the purpose of this exploratory study is to shed light on this issue,
offer some practical implications for both online and face-to-face instruction, and propose
future directions for research.
Literature Review
The concept of reflection as part of learning dates back many centuries and became moreformalized in the 1980s with the formulation of models, such as Schön’s Reflective
Practitioner Model and Kolb’s Experiential Learning Model (as in Huang, 2010). Suchmodels prescribe the act of reflection, that is to think back about one’s experience in thelearning setting, the effectiveness of the event, and how this analysis can inform one’s
behavior, as a means to developing essential cognitive skills for learning. Huang (2010)
explains that these Vygotskian sociocultural approaches to learning view the “conscious
realization” of the experience as necessary for learning to take place, and reflection “as aninvaluable tool that helps foster critical thinking, self-assessment, and self-directed learningthat can contribute to L2 development” (p. 247). Thus, a reflective learner undertakes theprocess of thinking back, which may include “recalling/reconstructing, and/or recapturing theevents, emotions, failures, and accomplishments of a learning episode” (Huang, 2010, p. 246).
Despite the emphasis on the importance of helping learners develop the metacognitive
strategies necessary for self-monitoring and self-assessment (Oxbrow, 2018), empiricalevidence on the effectiveness of reflection on academic performance varies (Lew & Schmidt,
2011). Many researchers have looked at student reflection as a means to understand strategy
use. Huang (2010) explored reflection practices in varying modalities and reported that,though a wide range of strategies were used across modalities, some may be more effective inoral production than others. She argues, as others have, that though the use of metacognitive
strategies has been widely recognized as favorable on performance, the evidence may nothold true for “all learners and learning contexts” (p. 254). In content analysis of students’

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reflection journals using text analysis software, Lew and Schmidt (2011) concluded thatthough students did improve in their ability for self-reflection, this did not translate into
improvement in course grades.
Reflection in relation to autonomy is not only situated in the conscious use of cognitive andbehavioral processes of the learners (Benson, 2001), but also, as Candy (as in Benson, 2001)
explains, in the social interactions with peers or a facilitator. Thus, the learning environment,
which may enhance or inhibit the quality of these interactions may potentially affect theprocess of reflection. This area of research, the relationship between the learning environmentand self-reflection has received little attention (Zhan & Mei, 2013). In the online environment,
studies have shown written reflections’ effectiveness in supporting meta-cognitive skills
development (Gummesson & Nordmack, 2012), and helping learners increase learning depth
and build structural and social connections (Chang, 2019). In the face-to-face environment,
Khongput (2020), through analysis of self-reflective reports, found that self-regulatory
strategies appeared to be dependent on the classroom environment due to cooperative
learning through group work activities. One of few comparative studies (Zhan & Mei, 2013)
investigating differences in the online and face-to-face learning environment found thatonline students are in need of a stronger social presence through social interaction support.
Thus, in light of the existing literature and learning context of the course described in thefollowing section, this mixed methods exploratory study considers the effects of the learning
environment on student reflection and self-assessment. The following research questions
were investigated:
1. What effects does the online environment have on students’ self-assessments andreflection?
2. Comparatively, what effects does the face-to-face environment have on students’ selfassessment and reflection?
Methods
Learning Context and Environment
This study draws on the experience of learners in one university course at a Japanese
university focusing on the practice of English discussion and listening skills. The course iscomposed of undergraduate and graduate students from a diverse range of departments. In
fact, one of the core objectives of the course is to introduce students to “current topics fromthe humanities, social sciences and natural sciences ... from an interdisciplinary perspective”(Kyoto University, 2022). Table 1 gives an overview of the course participants' educationlevel and learning environment for each of the sections. Of the 15 classes in one semester,
about half of the classes were spent in small-group discussions whereby students select topics
based on their listening practice, prepare discussion questions, and lead discussions with theirpeers.

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Table 1. Participant Description by Section
Course section andSemester

Learning
Environment

Educational Level
Undergraduate (n=27)

Graduate (n=26)

Section 1- Fall 2020

Online37Section 2 - Spring 2021

Online7

10Section 3 - Fall 2021

Face-to-face3

3

Section 4 - Spring 2022

Face-to-face

14

6

Another core component of the course is to raise students’ awareness of their personal goals
for the course and track their progress throughout the semester, in other words develop
autonomous learning by practicing self-regulating strategies. To facilitate the development ofthese metacognitive skills, learners receive a digital portfolio at the beginning of the semester
composed of multiple tabs in a spreadsheet. The portfolio consists of a listening practice log,a Can-Do statement self-assessment (American Council on the Teaching of Foreign
Languages, 2013) to fill at the start of the semester, and note sheets to keep track of the topics
prepared for class discussion and reflect upon their progress in the course. In addition,
students are asked to fill out a post-discussion survey to help assess their preparation andperformance and reflect upon their experience. Data from these surveys were used foranalysis.
Data Collection and Analysis
Data were collected via online Google Forms in four sections (two online, two face-to-face)of the discussion course over four semesters, from October 2020 to July 2022. The online
group joined class using a synchronous meeting tool (SMT). The face-to-face group attended
classes on campus in a classroom which can accommodate approximately 20 to 25 students.
An English-language survey was administered and consisted of two sections: the first partwas an open-ended writing prompt asking students to comment on their impressions of the
discussion, and the latter part was made up of three Likert-scale items measuring students’
self-assessment of their discussion preparedness, class participation, and comprehension of
their discussions. Students filled out this survey immediately after group discussions, roughly
five to ten minutes before the end of class.
Data from the Likert-scale items were analyzed by tallying the mean scores for each andcompared in the two learning environments. Students’ comments in the open-ended item
were analyzed through content analysis using grounded theory (GT) (Glaser and Strauss,1967). GT is a process of interpreting data whereby, rather than imposing existing theoreticalframeworks in coding data, theory is generated by identifying emergent themes from the data
(Friedman, 2012). The process begins with open coding, in which the dataset is organized bylabeling subsets according to broader categories, followed by axial coding, which consists offinding patterns in the coding and connecting larger categories to subcategories, and finishingwith focused coding, or applying initial coding to the whole dataset and refining categories.
For this study, students’ comments, which were automatically collected chronologically intoa spreadsheet, were divided and labeled based on the subject or focus of reflection. Words or

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phrases were highlighted to identify subcategories in each comment type, and eachsubcategory was further labeled as a positive, neutral, or negative comment when applicable.
Data from the two learning environments were compared. Additionally, the average length ofthe comments was determined by performing a word count average for each group.
Findings
Likert-scale items
The findings from the Likert-scale items show little difference between the online group andface-to-face group in level of participation and comprehension (Figure 1 and 2, respectively).
The online group evaluated themselves slightly higher up the scale for discussion preparation,
as can be seen in Figure 3.

Figure 1: Likert-scale Item for Self-assessment of Discussion Participation

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Figure 2: Likert-scale Item for Self-assessment of Discussion Comprehension

Figure 3: Likert-scale Item for Self-assessment of Discussion Preparation
Open-ended item
Seven main categories were revealed as the object or focus of the survey comments. The
categories and examples from the dataset are shown in Table 2.

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Table 2. Emergent Main Categories in Open Coding of Comments
Main response categories

Example Comments

General / Non-specific comments● “It was fine”● “I like this class”

Self-evaluation (‘present’ self)● “... but sometimes i [sic] feel frustrated becauseof a lack of my vocabulary”

Self-related (‘future’ self)● “I will prepare more specific questions for the
next class”● “And I want to became [sic] a good listener
during the discussion”

Topic/content related● “I have never heard circula [sic] report. It’s
interesting information.”● “Today our group's discussion includes medical
and economic development …”

Other participant related● “He majors in medicine so he introduced
something about his field”● “I was impressed by Hiro's description”

Task/group organization related● “There were 3 people in our group and 30
minutes wasn’t enough to discuss all [sic] since
everyone prepared well”● “I really like the idea of comparing two
different speeches. It is very nice to know how
other people combine the two different
speeches and create new ideas! …”

Course goal/skills development
related● “I realized ‘good question’ is difficult”● “Understanding the main point of speech would
be key to make a good paraphrasing”

Note: Pseudonyms are used when applicable.
Table 3 shows a comprehensive table of the categories and subcategories derived from thedataset with the number of comment types labeled under each category and the percentage ofeach type for the larger categories (in bold) and the percentage for each type within thesubcategories. For most of the main categories, the comments showed an evaluative
dimension, labeled as either positive, neutral, or negative. The assignment of this value formany of the comments in the category of Self-evaluation was attributed to either external
factors (e.g., materials, topic, other students) or to internal factors (e.g., skills, strategies, or
unspecified). For example, the sample comment in Table 2 , “... but sometimes i [sic] feel
frustrated because of a lack of my vocabulary,” falls under the category of Self-evaluation,
the attribution of the negative evaluation is placed on the student’s shortcomings invocabulary control, an assessment of one’s own skill or ability. By contrast, the comment, “I
think I could participate in discussion more than last week” was categorized as a positive
evaluation of the ‘present’ self in comparison to previous classes acknowledging
improvement. In other categories, attribution was not delineated as an internal or external

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factor, but rather as a descriptive quality. For example, positive comments about the topics
were ascribed to having interest for the reasons of either familiarity and novelty, while thesame qualities were used to describe negativity towards some topics.
Table 3. Text Analysis of Open-ended Survey Item
Learning environment
OnlineFace-to-face46

19

Response category and subcategories

Frequency, n (%)

Frequency, n (%)

General / Non-specific comments

14 (10.4)

6 (4.1)

Positive

13 (92.9)

4 (66.7)

Neutral

1 (7.1)0 (0.0)

Negative

0 (0.0)2 (33.3)

32 (23.7)

51 (34.5)

Positive - external - materials/topic

0 (0.0)1 (2.0)

Positive - external - other students/group

2 (6.3)1 (2.0)

Positive - external - task/organization

3 (9.4)2 (3.9)Positive - internal - pastcomparative/improvement

5 (15.6)

4 (7.8)

Positive - internal - skills/ability

2 (6.3)0 (0.0)

Positive - internal - strategies/planning

1 (3.1)2 (3.9)Positive - internal - unspecified

2 (6.3)2 (3.9)Total for positive comments

15 (46.9)

13 (25.5)

Negative - external - materials/topic

3 (9.4)8 (15.7)

Negative - external - otherstudents/group

1 (3.1)0 (0.0)

Negative - external - task/organization

4 (12.5)

11 (21.6)

Negative - internal - pastcomparative/improvement

0 (0.0)0 (0.0)

Negative - internal - skills/ability

5 (15.6)

9 (17.6)

Negative - internal - strategies/planning

2 (6.3)8 (15.7)

Negative - internal - unspecified

2 (6.3)3 (5.9)Total for negative comments

17 (53.1)

38 (74.5)

17 (12.6)

11 (7.4)

Average word count per entry

Self-evaluation (‘present’ self)

Self-related (‘future’ self)

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Need for improvement - skill/strategy

7 (41.2)

1 (9.1)

Need for improvement - unspecified

3 (17.6)

4 (36.4)

More participation/practice2 (11.8)

5 (45.5)

More preparation

5 (29.4)

1 (9.1)

Topic/content related

37 (27.4)

37 (25.0)

Positive - interest - familiarity

1 (2.7)

1 (2.7)

Positive - interest - novelty

5 (13.5)

3 (8.1)

Positive - interest - unspecified

7 (18.9)

11 (29.7)

Positive - suitability

1 (2.7)

1 (2.7)

Neutral - General summary

10 (27.0)

3 (8.1)

Neutral - Summary elaboration/exploration

8 (21.6)

0 (0.0)Reflection - opinion

2 (5.4)9 (24.3)

Negative - disinterest

1 (2.7)0 (0.0)

Negative - challenging/unfamiliar

2 (5.4)9 (24.3)

9 (6.7)3 (2.0)

Positive

6 (66.7)

2 (66.7)

Neutral0 (0.0)0 (0.0)

Negative

3 (33.3)

1 (33.3)

22 (16.3)

37 (25.0)

Positive - task performance satisfaction

2 (9.1)8 (21.6)

Positive - group participation

14 (63.6)

16 (43.2)

Neutral - group activity/agreement

1 (4.5)3 (8.1)

Neutral - teacher involvement

0 (0.0)1 (2.7)

Negative - task time

4 (18.2)

1 (2.7)

Negative - task difficulty

1 (4.5)8 (21.6)

4 (3.0)4 (3.0)135 (100.0)

148 (100.0)

Other participant related

Task/group organization related

Course goal/skills development related
Total

The percentages of comments by main categories and subcategories show some variation
between the two groups. Most noticeable is the larger proportion of comments focusing on
self-evaluation in the face-to-face learning environment, particularly those qualified as
negative, 74.5% of comments in this category, compared to 53.1% in the online group. In
addition, The face-to-face group attributed their negative assessment of their class

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participation or performance to external factors, while the online group were more apt toattribute both positive and negative evaluation more evenly across internal and external
factors, as is illustrated in Figure 4. Unsurprisingly, the face-to-face group commented more
frequently on the task organization or group activity with 25% of categorized comments;
however, somewhat surprising is the lower percentage of positive comments towards group
participation from the face-to-face group versus that of the online group, with 43.2% and63.6% respectively. Overall, task and topic difficulty was more commonly reported as an
issue for the face-to-face group.
One notable difference between the two learning environments is the average length ofentries. The online environment average word count for comments came at 46 words whilethat of the face-to-face group was at 19 words per entry.

Figure 4: Attribution of Self-evaluation
Discussion
Space and the Learning Environment
To understand the findings from this study, the discussion of space as it relates to the learning
environment is necessary. For one, the most distinct feature dividing these two groups oflearners is the digital and physical space inhabited while reflection took place (Hobbs & Dofs,
2018). The online group, attending class while remaining in their personal space, wereafforded a great deal more freedom during the group discussions and post-discussion selfassessments since they were not being closely monitored by the teacher or other students ―only what is visible through the small video layout in the SMT can be observed. In
comparison, their face-to-face peers, in a physical classroom, were bound by expectations ofa more formal learning environment, and made more aware of the physical presence of otherstudents and the teacher. The impact of others on self-assessment will be more greatly felt
when the physical space boundary is immediate, not virtual. Here, self-regulation crosses into
the emotional space for the learners, perhaps affecting their ability to reflect and evaluate
their experience with the ‘noise’ of the social interactions in person. In a longitudinal study of
online distance students, White (2016, as in Hobbs & Dofs, 2018), investigated the relation
between emotion and the process of learning. White explained that emotions play animportant role in learners' motivation to engage and persist in the process of learning. The
face-to-face learning environment will allow for closer perception of other students’ emotions,

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including stress due to insecurities due to one’s skills or ability in the target language.
Schwienhorst (2018), in describing goals to developing autonomy, places reflection as apriority and recognizes the importance of creating opportunities “to experiment withlanguage and learning strategies in a stress-free and stress-reduced environment” (p. 23).
In this study, the higher frequency of negative evaluations for students in the face-to-faceenvironment may be a response to this environment. The course begins with explicit
instructions and training of discussion strategies to navigate the group discussion. However, it
is possible that students in the physical classroom were impacted by the presence of others inassessing their performance by overly relying on comparison of their group members or otherclassmates’ performance and participation. Particularly, section 4 in the face-to-face groupconsisted of a majority of undergraduate students (Table 1), so it is feasible to assume that
this group of learners felt more intimidated in group discussions with graduate students.
Moreover, overall affective factors due to in-person interaction may have influenced face-toface students’ reflection on task difficulty. Therefore, instructors should be aware of theaffective factors related to space, how these may sway students’ self-assessment andreflection practices, and raise their students' awareness about these issues.
Practicalities of the Technology
The technological advantages of the digital space are most likely responsible for differencesin the students’ self-assessed level of preparation and length of entries. Similar to differencesof modalities, the learning environment matters due to limitations in each context (Huang,2010). Firstly, the online group were mostly attending class from their home, therefore;
commuting time required for in-person class attendance could be used for preparation. As
aforementioned, students in the online group may have felt less direct observation from theirpeers or the teacher, thus giving them the time and space to look up terms and definitions,check their preparation notes (although, this is not discouraged in the face-to-faceenvironment), and use other tools to assist them. In addition, although the post-discussion
survey was identical for the two groups, and both groups accessed the form at the same time
during the class, the online group could access the survey via a link posted in the chatfunction of the SMT, while students in the face-to-face group mostly accessed the survey via
Quick Response (QR) code. Since the online group most likely used their personal computers
to leave comments, unlike the face-to-face group which accessed the survey using theirsmartphones, this allowed online students to spend more time typing comments, lending tomore in-depth reflections, particularly in summarizing the discussion topics. Thus,
technological considerations should be made for reflection practices in all learning
environments.
Attribution Theory in Reflection
Many comments in the reflection practice were categorized as ascribing reason for aperceived positive experience or negative evaluation as an internal or external construct. Thispattern could be explained by Weiner’s attribution theory (McLoughlin, 2018), in which
individuals assign explanations for their successes and failures, which in turn can impact
future outcomes in terms of persistence and motivation. Attributions can span a wide range ofdimensions, but mainly these can be divided into factors which are controllable oruncontrollable. McLoughlin (2018) explains that motivation is affected by these factors interms of how the learner perceives the possibility to change future outcomes. Thus, generally
people typically look for explanations for their failures rather than successes, and determine

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attributions that are controllable, such as effort and preparation, and which can be improved.
Considering this theory, students’ tendency in both groups to focus on negative aspects intheir self-evaluation is in line with this notion. However, looking at the attributes given, it isunclear if students understand the relationship between the reasons given and how this canhelp their learning. Similarly, Khongput (2020) also observed that “some students
emphasized their negative feelings and uncertainties in their learning process at the beginningof the course” (p. 100). She posited that in an engaging learning environment, students may
depend less on affective factors in reflection and increase awareness in their strategy use that
leads to improvement. Therefore, greater awareness of attribution through a guided process ofreflection may help learners foster reflection practices that lead to improved self-regulating
strategies.
Practical Implications
Findings from this study can support the explicit teaching of a structured approach toreflection in language learning. One approach might include question prompts as a guided
reflection practice. The series of prompts would have students follow a pattern of reflection,assessment, attribution, and resolution. Figure 5 illustrates this proposed guided process.

Figure 5: Proposed Guided Reflection PracticeThis guided process is supported by other models or frameworks for autonomous learning
strategies. Oxford’s model of learner autonomy (2003) consists of four perspectives eachwith a different focus: technical, psychological, sociocultural (I & II), and political-critical.
This proposed guided reflection framework would fit under the sociocultural perspective,
focusing “on the development of human capacity via interaction” (p. 85). The positioning ofreflection firstly in the group interaction, and then repositioning the self within this reflection
can provide learners with the context and agency for proper assessment, attribution, andresolution. More specifically, in 1991, Smyth (as in Benson, 2001) proposed a model

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categorized as an emancipatory reflective learning model by which, as is similarly proposed
here, is represented as “a series of moments and questions” (p. 91).
Limitations
This exploratory study is a first step in shedding light on learning environments' impact on
students’ reflection practices. Many varying factors, such as gender identity, the participants
location during online classes, especially in regards to international students attending fromtheir home countries, were not accounted for in the analysis. To address limitations andimprove generalizability, issues in data collection (e.g. small n-size) and analysis (e.g.
overlap in data interpretation) should be addressed in more robust empirical research. Morerecent content analyses of student reflection utilizing text analytics (Kovanovic et al., 2018)
may improve classification systems of reflection.
Conclusion
This paper investigates the effects of the learning environment on language learners selfassessment and reflection practices. Findings from survey and comment-based data show
students’ practice of self-assessment and reflection may be influenced by their peers andperception of self in a social setting, particularly in the face-to-face learning environment.
Teachers should consider the impact of the learning environment on self-assessment and thepossible variation in how learners in the online class and face-to-face class attribute theirsuccesses and failures in preparation for and during small group discussions. To help students
better understand their learning process, a simple framework for self-reflection is proposed
involving a line of questioning about one’s experience in group discussion. A more structured
approach to self-reflection may allow students to grasp the gist of their discussions, their roleand performance in this task, the reasons for their assessment, and how to take action basedon their reflection practice. Although more robust research may lend better insights into thelink between self-reflection, the development of learner autonomy, and course outcomes, thisstudy attempts to position the learning environment as an influential factor in the student selfregulation strategies.

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References
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Contact email: leblanc.catherine.5u@kyoto-u.ac.jp

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What Use a Qualifications Framework? The Impact of Qualifications Frameworks on
Innovation for Online Learning in Australia and Malaysia
Stephen Abblitt, Keypath Education, Australia
Siti Mariam Muhammad Abdul Basar, Keypath Education, Malaysia
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Abstract
National qualifications frameworks (NQFs) have grown rapidly since the first generation offrameworks were established in the mid-1990s. They are designed for several purposes anduses, and are located amongst a set of other policy, socio-economic, and socio-material
contexts, enmeshed in existing ideologies, systems, and practices, which shape what they canand cannot do. But what practical impact, if any, do such frameworks have on student
learning? Drawing on recent work designing fully online postgraduate programs with several
public and private universities in Australia and Malaysia, this paper explores the impact of
their respective NQFs on innovation for online learning. We suggest that these frameworks
are useful, and sometimes effective, to establish transparent standards, assure educational
quality, and better align higher education to labour market and social needs. But they can also
hinder innovation. This is exacerbated in the case of online learning, where new delivery
models are disrupting the status quo and regulators are challenged to keep pace with bestpractices and innovations in both pedagogy and technology. This paper critically reflects onthese challenges, exploring how the different characteristics and components of NQFs impact
on student learning, and the online learning experience, in both positive and negative, andintended but also unexpected, ways.
Keywords: Australian Qualifications Framework (AQF), Higher Education, Impact,
Innovation, Malaysian Qualifications Framework (MQF), National Qualifications
Frameworks (NQFs), Online Learning, Quality

iafor
The International Academic Forumwww.iafor.org

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Introduction
The quality of its higher education sector—and the qualifications it awards—is central to anation’s social and economic progress. With the rise of neoliberal ideologies and policies
globally over the past four decades, alongside a burgeoning managerialism in higher
education institutions, we have experienced an intensifying emphasis on issues and practicesof quality assurance and enhancement in higher education, alongside demands for increased
efficiency and decreased costs. However, quality is an elusive concept; it is instinctively
understood yet difficult to articulate.
Discourses, policies, and practices focused on quality unfold against the backdrop of threedefining trends in contemporary higher education: globalisation, massification, andmarketisation (Komljenovic & Robertson, 2016; Lewis & Shore, 2019; Marginson, 2013;
Robertson & Komljenovic, 2016; Tight, 2019). Marketisation has had an undeniable effect(Marginson, 2013) as many nations face either difficulties or a disinclination to finance theexpanding enrolments that come with massification in ‘high participation’ systems(Marginson, 2016). Universities have turned to online learning as a panacea for issues ofincreased access, efficiency and scale, often looking to the private sector for support. This has
led to the massive growth of public-private partnerships that enable universities to deliver
quality online learning efficiently and at scale (Holon IQ, 2021; Morris et al., 2020), causing
an incipient unbundling of higher education (Czerniewicz, 2018; McCowan 2017; Lewis &Shore, 2019; Swinnerton et al., 2020). ‘Quality’ thus becomes an increasingly complex
phenomeon in higher education. Here, we conceptualise quality as a set of relational effects
engendered between numerous stakeholders within and beyond the traditional boundaries of
the university. It is characterised by a continuous re/negotiation and re/iteration of what
quality actually is (particularly in online learning), who is responsible for defining,
implementing, assuring, or enhancing quality, and how best it can be achieved.
National qualifications frameworks (NQFs) are one consequence of this hegemonic
neoliberalism and managerialism and are inescapably implicated in these interrelated trendsof globalisation, massification, and marketisation. They have grown rapidly since the first
generation of frameworks were established in the mid-1990s. They are designed for several
purposes and uses, and are located amongst a set of other policy, socio-economic and sociomaterial contexts, enmeshed in existing ideologies, systems, and practices, which shape what
they can and cannot do, and how they are interpreted and used by institutions, faculty,
learning designers, and other stakeholders. Drawing on our recent shared experience
designing fully online postgraduate programs with several public and private universities
across Australia and Malaysia, this paper explores the impact of their respective NQFs on
innovation for online learning, as well as the broader discourses and practices of quality
assurance and enhancement they engender.
What is the impact of the development and use of these frameworks? And how do they help
or hinder innovation, especially for online learning? To begin, we provide some backgroundon the development of NQFs globally and the AQF and MQF specifically. We then analyse
the implementation and use of these frameworks in relation to issues of impact andinnovation, particularly in the context of the growth of online learning and educational
partnerships. To conclude, we offer some thoughts on the future of NQFs as they try to adapt
to the changing nature of the higher education sector globally.

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BackgroundA qualifications framework is a policy instrument designed to guide the development,
classification, and recognition of the skills, knowledge, and competencies, along a continuumof agreed levels, required to award a qualification. In vocational and higher education,national qualifications frameworks (NQFs) have been expanding and evolving rapidly since
the first frameworks were established in the mid-1990s in Scotland, England, Australia, New
Zealand, and South Africa. NQFs may be comprehensive or partial in scope, more or lessprescriptive, stronger or weaker in their implementation and enforcement, and some may
have a legal basis whereas others may represent a more voluntary consensus view of the
stakeholders involved. They share many common characteristics and components, but there isalso considerable variety in terms of guiding principles, purposes, and implementation.
NQFs generally aim to standardise and create parity of qualifications across institutions, andthe role of the regulating body is then to hold institutions accountable for implementing andassuring these standards. They intend to provide transparency of standards, improve accessand accessibility, and should communicate meaningful information to institutions, employers,
students, and the public about what these standards are and how to achieve them. Relatedly,
they ensure portability of credit and qualifications across institutions; this is increasingly
critical in a globalised world, where transferability between national jurisdictions isincreasingly necessary and common. They also support workforce mobility, and generally
ensure qualifications meet the needs of both graduates and employers, as well as servicing anation’s broader social and economic needs—however those are defined by policymakers,
governments, industry and professional bodies, and other stakeholders.
But the broader aim is quality assurance and enhancement, and perhaps above all else risk
management: minimising risk to students, to providers, and to the reputation of the higher
education sector itself (Baird 2013; Edwards, 2011; Huber, 2009). But we argue that higher
education is inherently ‘risky’—and should be. The sector has greatly expanded anddiversified as it adapts to these trends of globalisation, massification, and marketisation, as
well as wider societal and technological changes, and must continue to do so. Institutions
have had to innovate to survive, although the common risk-based regulatory approach often
leaves us with lagging standards based on normative consensus views of minimum goodpractice. The question then is how we keep up, not fall behind, due to the inherently
conservative nature of NQFs and the risk-averse regulatory regimes charged with theirimplementation, while assuring and enhancing academic quality and student learning.
Remarkably, there seems to be consensus on the broad characteristics and components of
NQFs, regardless of national and local contexts, with multiple attempts made to synthesise
these and establish taxonomies that might better to enable comparative research (Allais,
2017; Fernie & Pilcher, 2009; Raffe, 2009; Young, 2009). All frameworks comprise a single
definition or set of criteria determining what count as a qualification, arranged in a hierarchyand expressed as a set of levels indicating increasing complexity, each with distinct leveldescriptors. For example, the Australian Qualifications Framework (AQF) has ten levels
whereas the Malaysian Qualifications Framework (MQF) has eight, although both cover thesame scope from foundational certificates to terminal doctoral degrees. They also all describe
qualifications in terms of learning outcomes that are independent of the site, the form ofprovision, and the curriculum and pedagogy through which they may be achieved. The AQF
consists of broad ‘characteristics of learning outcomes’ for each qualification level,
describing the knowledge and skills a person has acquired and is able to demonstrate because

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provides a set of five clusters of learning outcomes which can be tailored specifically to theprogramme, covering: 1) knowledge and understanding; ii) cognitive skills; iii) functional
work skills; iv) personal and entrepreneurial skills; and v) ethics and professionalism. But
where the two frameworks diverge is in the level of detail and specificity provided by the
MQF’s accompanying Programme Standards: for each major discipline area, these standards
prescribe bodies of knowledge, programme aims and objectives, and learning outcomes, andprovide significant guidance on aspects of assessment methods, curriculum design, andteaching delivery. These types of prescriptive standards do not exist in the Australian context.
Crucially, NQFs define all qualifications in terms of elements (or units) and ascribe a volume
in terms of notional learning hours expressed as quantifiable credit. Effectively, a student
must achieve a given number of credits to gain a qualification. The MQF is quite clear on
this, mandating a direct correspondence between credit points and notional learning hours(i.e., 1 credit point should equal 40 hours of student learning time), as well as prescribing‘graduating credit’ for all programme levels. For example, a Master’s Degree by Coursework
requires 40 credit points, which equates to 1600 hours notional learning time across the
programme of study. Programme standards also often mandate a percentage range of credit
points be allocated to core, elective, specialisation, and dissertation subjects. But the AQF isa lot less specific, or more flexible. It uses the concept of ‘volume of learning’, considered asa dimension of the complexity of a qualification used to determine the depth and breadth ofthe learning outcomes of a qualification. Volume of learning identifies the notional durationof all activities required for the achievement of the learning outcomes specified for aparticular AQF qualification type, expressed in equivalent full-time study load (EFTSL),
which for one academic year equals 1200 hours. However, the volume of learning for a
Master’s Degree by Coursework varies greatly, between 1200 and 2400 hours, or 1 to 2 fulltime academic years, depending on students’ prior qualifications. There is also no direct
correspondence between credit points and volume of learning, and so our public universities
can interpret these requirements in very different ways.
Implementation
Although with varying degrees of strength and prescriptiveness, qualifications frameworks
are always underpinned by a regulatory approach, audit procedures, and assessment criteria
for accrediting, registering, and reviewing qualifications. They provide some basis forassuring and improving the quality, transparency, and accessibility of qualifications.
The relative autonomy of higher education institutions has been a defining theme of theAustralian qualifications system. The first-generation AQF was introduced in 1995, and arevised second edition adopted in 2013; this is currently undergoing review, so a third editionis likely in coming years. Its initial purpose was to provide “a comprehensive, nationallyconsistent yet flexible framework for all qualifications in post-compulsory education andtraining” covering both vocational and higher education. The AQF is supported by the Higher
Education Standards Framework (Threshold Standards) 2021 used by the regulatory body,the Tertiary Education Quality and Standards Agency (TEQSA), to accredit higher education
providers. Although it does not determine the content of the AQF, TEQSA is responsible forassuring its implementation, ensuring all higher education providers and the courses they
deliver meet, and continue to meet, the standards described in the HESF and the AQF,
registering and re-registering both public and private providers, and accrediting courses
where a provider does not have authority to self-accredit.

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TEQSA does not have a direct role in accrediting qualifications or in quality assurance forcourses offered by public universities in Australia, although it does accredit and maintain aregister of courses offered by private providers. In this sense, when it comes to public
universities, the AQF is notoriously weak and “essentially an expression of the dominant
tradition of sectoral and institutional autonomy in education and training in Australia”(Keating, 2003, 282). Its impact depends mostly on the willingness of powerful providers to
use it as a framework to assure and enhance quality and advance educational reforms. Its
primary purpose then seems focused on description and communication, making the existingeducation and training system more transparent and easier to understand, and making therelationships between existing qualifications explicit, but not really driving quality
enhancements or innovation to the existing system.
In contrast, the Malaysian Qualifications Agency (MQA) plays an increasingly significant
role in driving strategic change in higher education cultures in Malaysia, in both public andprivate universities (Bajunid, 2011; Keating, 2011), and particularly regarding online anddistance learning (ODL) programmes. The MQA published the first edition of the MQF in
2007, with their quality assurance system fully implemented by 2011. They introduced thesecond edition of the MQF in 2017 to stay current with changing practices in the sector. The
MQF is supported by a range of other quality assurance documents issued by MQA, such as
Code of Practice, Programme Standards, and Guidelines to Good Practices. Collectively, theaim of this suite of documents and guidelines is to monitor standards and ensure processes for
quality assurance are implemented and maintained by institutions. But its purpose also
extends beyond quality assurance and risk management to proactive educational reform: itaims to improve the existing system in specific ways, enhancing quality, increasing
consistency, and increasing accountability. So, the MQF is quite comprehensive, strong, andtight in its prescriptiveness. As described above, it adopts a strong outcomes-based approach,where outcomes are defined and prescribed separately from institutions, which then design
programmes based on the provided outcomes, and must meet specific requirements regarding
bodies of knowledge, assessment, curriculum design, and teaching delivery.
In Malaysia, all programmes are accredited by MQA until universities earn self-accrediting
status. Institutions with self-accrediting status are no longer required to undertake programme
accreditation by MQA, but they can self-accredit their programs through its own internal
quality system. However, the historical autonomy of Australian universities persists asinstitutions lead the process of comparing qualifications and making judgements about
courses. TEQSA do conduct audits of public universities, but only when obvious and specificissues arise, and this happens rarely. The AQF is embedded in and interpreted throughinstitutions’ own policies and procedures of academic governance and quality assurance, andfor public universities the role of the regulator focuses much more on providing guidance andadvice on minimum good practice, for example in areas such as academic integrity,
recognition of prior learning, and more.
Impact
The impact of qualifications frameworks on quality is hard to measure, and the evidence isinconclusive (Pilcher, et al. 2017; Raffe, 2013). The supposed impacts have been less than
expected, have often taken many years to appear, and have been negative as well as positive.
It is not just in the higher education sector that we see only weak evidence that risk-based
regulation improves quality assurance.

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Like all NQFs, the AQF and MQF are outcome-based, and outcome-based education (OBE)
is generally shown to be effective in improving educational attainment. In this sense, theimplementation of OBE in both Australia and Malaysia should have improved academic
quality. Certainly in Malaysia it has facilitated a rigorous process of ensuring the alignmentof curriculum and assessments with the MQF standards. This has prompted many Malaysian
institutions to thoroughly re-evaluate their programmes, ensuring compliance with the threemain aspects of OBE: a focus on learning outcomes; the alignment of outcomes withcurriculum, instruction, and assessment; and appropriate learning experiences for students’success (Kaliannan & Chandran, 2012). Through its detailed specification of level descriptors
and the five clusters of learning outcomes, and the accompanying Programme Standard, the
MQF has driven enhancements to the quality of programmes across the board, facilitating (intheory, at least) the large-scale transformation of the higher education system. In contrast to
the MQF’s highly prescriptive approach, the laissez-faire provider-led implementation of the
AQF in Australia’s public universities has perhaps had less impact. The autonomy of higher
education institutions makes implementation more challenging from the perspective of theregulator, where the internal systems and processes established by powerful providers carry
the responsibility for quality assurance rather than the regulator itself.
Since the launch of the AQF in 1995, we’ve certainly seen a significant improvement in
metrics such as student satisfaction, graduate outcomes, and employability outcomes, asmeasured nationally by the Quality Indicators of Learning and Teaching surveys. But just
how much of this is a consequence of the AQF, and other initiatives focused on quality, ishard to say. We suggest that the marketisation of higher education, and the need to not justteach students, but attract and retain them in an increasingly competitive sector, has likely
motivated improvements to the quality of learning and teaching in Australian higher
education much more than any regulations as such—and perhaps in Malaysia too, althoughdifferently, in the way these trends influence the development and implementation of the
MQF itself. Moreover, pragmatic concerns such as academic workload allocation models(Gregory & Lodge, 2015) and support (or lack thereof) for academics’ professional
development perhaps have a far greater on the quality of student learning that any otherconsideration.
Ultimately, NQFs can only impact quality to the extent that the people ‘on the ground’charged with their implementation are willing and able to do so—and are empowered do so
effectively. They are dependent on layers of interpretation and translation between
policymakers and regulators, institutional systems and processes, and the faculty andsupporting ‘third-space’ professionals (Whitchurch, 2012) who materialise these standards
for students. A prescriptive framework such as the MQF leaves less room for interpretation
than a looser framework such as the AQF—but a looser framework leaves much more scopefor experimentation and innovation.
Innovation
How do NQFs help or hinder innovation in higher education, particularly in relation to online
learning? Does regulatory complexity stifle innovation? Complexity tends to hamper
implementation, and prescription can deter innovation. These frameworks are useful, andnecessary, if only sometimes effective, to establish transparent standards, assure educational
quality, and better align higher education to labour market and social needs. But they can also
stifle innovation. There are often tensions between strategic goals and objectives of
institutions versus those of regulators, and there is also often a failure to accommodate the

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diversity of educational providers, qualification types, and delivery models—or to keep pacewith best practices in a fast-changing sector, let alone wider-ranging societal andtechnological changes. The case is especially so for digital and online learning, where newdelivery models are disrupting the status quo and regulators are challenged to keep pace withbest practices and innovations in assessment, curriculum design, and teaching delivery.
Beyond their ‘good practice’ guidance, which is mostly about setting normative minimum
standards, the AQF does not necessarily encourage innovation; their focus is on risk
management, and the devolution of implementation and quality assurance to providers.
Experimentation and innovation then are mostly left in the hands of institutions, or more
likely faculty themselves. On the other hand, although it imposes more limitations, the MQF
encourages innovation in curriculum design by promoting continuous improvement andprovides a framework for aligning educational qualifications and competencies with theneeds of industry and social needs market demands, ensuring that programmes are relevant
and of high-quality. However, faculty are restrained in their innovativeness due to strict
compliance to the framework, Programme Standards, and other documents.
And for online learning? The AQF does not differentiate between on-campus and online
learning. The accreditation and audit processes are the same, although online learning may
draw more attention sometimes due to perceived or actual issues of quality. There is no
specific guidance on the design and delivery of fully online degrees, except for generic goodpractice guides. On the other hand, in Malaysia the MQF and COPPA:ODL help to ensurethat online and distance learning programmes meet the same quality standards as theirtraditional counterparts. This ensures that online students receive a high-quality educationand learning experience that is recognised and valued by students and their prospective
employers.
Conclusion
While NQFs are clearly essential, there is a need for greater flexibility to consider thediversity of providers, qualification types, and delivery models, and to empower or encourage
innovation in the design of qualifications, as well as assessment methods, curriculum andpedagogy, and teaching delivery. Although they do indeed mitigate risks for students,
providers, and the sector itself, the counter-risk is that overly complex and prescriptive
frameworks place real limitations on pedagogical and technological innovation: faculty andlearning designers alike become increasingly cautious to step outside of the box due to thislimitation and the need to maintain strict compliance with the framework. Whether
administered by the regulator or the provider, the process of making changes to thecurriculum, while also assuring and maintaining compliance with standards, and following
established procedures, can also be time-consuming and complex, either slowing down or
stifling possible innovation.
But perhaps the greater challenge for NQFs relates to their perceived relevance and value.
With student perceptions of the value of formal higher educational qualifications changing,and the apparent shift away from formal qualifications towards micro-credentials and othernon-award learning, how do NQFs better enable providers to keep up with the evolving needs
and demands of both students and employers? This is the big question that will shape thethird generation of NQFs and beyond. They will only maintain their value and impact if they
can themselves innovate to ensure they remain relevant and useful to a current higher

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education’s sector that is changing rapidly, and a future higher education sector that we are
only just beginning to perceive.

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References
Allais, S. (2017). What does it mean to conduct research into qualifications frameworks?
Journal of Education and Work, 30(7), 768-776.
https://doi.org/10.1080/13639080.2017.1380751
Australian Qualifications Framework Council (AQFC). (2013). Australian Qualifications
Framework (2nd Edition). https://www.aqf.edu.au/
Baird, J. (2013). TEQSA and risk-based regulation. Australian Universities’ Review, 55, 7279.
Bajunid, I. A. (2011). Leadership in the reform of Malaysian universities: Analysing thestrategic role of the Malaysian Qualifications Agency. Journal of Higher Education
Policy and Management, 33(3), 253-265.
https://doi.org/10.1080/1360080X.2011.564999
Czerniewicz, L. (2018, October 29). Unbundling and rebundling higher education in an ageof inequality. EDUCAUSE Review, 53(6), n. p.
https://er.educause.edu/articles/2018/10/unbundling-and-rebundling-highereducation-in-an-age-of-inequality
Edwards, F. (2011). The evidence for a risk-based approach to Australian higher education
regulation and quality assurance. Journal of Higher Education Policy andManagement, 34(3), 295-307. https://doi.org/10.1080/1360080X.2012.678725
Fernie, S. & Pilcher, N. (2009). National qualification frameworks: Developing research
perspectives. Quality in Higher Education, 15(3), 221-232.
Gregory, M. S.-J. & Lodge, J. M. (2015). Academic workload: The silent barrier to theimplementation of technology-enhanced learning strategies in higher education.
Distance Education, 36(2), 210-230. https://doi.org/10.1080/01587919.2015.1055056
Holon IQ. (2021, February 9). 1,377 university partnerships, OPM & bootcamp PPPs.
Retrieved 23 June 2022 https://www.holoniq.com/notes/1377-universitypartnerships.-opms-bootcamps-and-the-academic-ppp-acceleration
Huber, C. (2009). Risks and risk-based regulation in higher education institutions. Tertiary
Education and Management, 15(2), 83-95.
https://doi.org/10.1080/13583880902869554
Kaliannan, M., & Chandran, S. D. (2012). Empowering students through outcome-based
education (OBE). Research in Education, 87(1), 50-63.
Keating, J. (2003). Qualifications frameworks in Australia. Journal of Education and Work,
16(3), 271-288. https://doi.org/10.1080/1363908032000099449
Keating, J. (2011). The Malaysian qualifications framework: An institutional response to
intrinsic weaknesses. Journal of Education and Work, 24(3-4), 393-407.
https://doi.org/10.1080/13639080.2011.584699

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Komljenovic, J. & Robertson, S. L. (2016). The dynamics of ‘market-making’ in higher
education. Journal of Education Policy, 31(5), 622-636.
https://doi.org/10.1080/02680939.2016.1157732
Lewis, N. & Shore, C. (2019). From unbundling to market making: Reimagining,
reassembling, and reinventing the public university. Globalisation, Societies, and
Education, 17(1), 11-27. https://doi.org/10.1080/14767724.2018.1524287
Marginson, S. (2013). The impossibility of capitalist markets in higher education. Journal of
Education Policy, 28(3), 353-370. https://doi.org/10.1080/02680939.2012.747109
Marginson, S. (2016). The worldwide trend to high participation higher education: Dynamics
of social stratification in inclusive systems. Higher Education, 72(4), 413-434.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-016-0016-x
Malaysian Qualifications Agency (MQA). (2017). Malaysian Qualifications Framework (2nd
Edition). https://www.mqa.gov.my/pv4/mqf.cfm
McCowan, T. (2017). Higher education, unbundling, and the end of the university as weknow it. Oxford Review of Education, 43(6), 733-748.
https://doi.org/10.1080/03054985.2017.1343712
Morris, N. P., Mariya, I., Taryn, C., Rada, M., & Bronwen, S. (2020). Negotiating growth of
online education in higher education. International Journal of Educational
Technology in Higher Education, 17(1), n. p. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-02000227-w
Muslim, N. & Yunos, N. (2014). The direction of generic skills courses at National
University of Malaysia (UKM) towards fulfilling Malaysian Qualifications
Framework. Asian Social Science, 10(4), n. p.
http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/ass.v10n4p195
Pilcher, N., Fernie, S., & Smith, K. (2017). The impact of National Qualifications
Frameworks: By which yardstick do we measure dreams? Journal of Education andWork, 30(1), 1-12. https://doi.org/10.1080/13639080.2015.1122178
Raffe, D. (2009). Towards a dynamic model of NQFs. In S. Allais, D. Raffe, & M. Young.
(Eds.). Researching NQFs: Some Conceptual Issues. Employment Sector Working
Paper No. 44. 22-43. International Labour Office (ILO).
Raffe, D. (2013). What is the evidence for the impact of National Qualifications
Frameworks? Comparative Education, 49(2), 143-162.
https://doi.org/10.1080/03050068.2012.686260
Robertson, S. L. & Komljenovic, J. (2016). Unbundling and making higher education
markets. In A. Verger, C. Lubienski, & G. Steiner-Kamsi (Eds.). World Yearbook in
Education: Global Education Industry. 211-227. Routledge.

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Swinnerton, B., Coop, T., Ivancheva, M., Czerniewicz, L., Morris, N. P., Swartz, R., Walji,S., & Cliff A. (2020). The unbundled university: Researching emerging models in an
unequal landscape. In N. Bonderup Dohn, P. Jandric, T. Ryberg, & M. de Laat (Eds.).
Mobility, Data, and Learner Agency in Networked Learning. Networked Learning
Conference Series. 19-34. Springer.
Tight, M. (2019). Mass higher education and massification. Higher Education Policy, 32(1),93-108. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41307-017-0075-3
Whitchurch, C. (2012). Reconstructing Identities in Higher Education: The Rise of 'Third
Space' Professionals. Routledge.
Young, M. F. D. (2009). National qualifications frameworks: An analytical overview. In
International Handbook of Education for the Changing World of Work, 2867-2880.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-5281-1_188
Contact email: Stephen.Abblitt@keypathedu.com.au

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Designing a Couse for Building Effective Pre-writing Skills of Academic Thesis
Satomi Yoshimuta, Kwassui Women’s University, JapanThe Southeast Asian Conference on Education 2023
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Abstract
Today, the number of Japanese universities has decreased to less than 70%, requiring
students to write a senior thesis as part of the graduation requirements (Kawaijuku, 2017). It
may result from the weak motivation toward writing that Japanese students have. That might
be because not a small number of students perceive writing a senior thesis challenging whencompleting a senior thesis is deemed to be the culmination of four years of academic learning.
The course was created, based on the student's need for supportive instruction and assistancethrough the process of writing, with a focus on a pre-writing phase. It aims at students'
discovery of their research topic and overview of the senior thesis, which will lead to thefourth-year senior thesis. This paper outlines the key findings from developing a course
designed for the pre-writing stage of a senior thesis writing process of students at an English
department of a university in Japan. The course is designed to assist third-year students instarting to prepare to write a thesis by thinking critically and logically. Pedagogicalapproaches were explored, and an active learning course, chiefly in the style of task-basedlearning, was developed. In three modules, it first focuses on idea generation, then researchand outlining, and finally presentation of the overview of the thesis. In addition to the student
needs, the background of the course, the educational setting, the characteristic tasks
representing each of three modules, complexities, and implications are discussed.
Keywords: Syllabus Design, Pre-writing, Process Writing, Senior Thesis

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Introduction
This research reviews the course design for the pre-writing tasks for juniors who prepare to
write senior theses. The senior theses in English need to be a culmination of a student’s fouryear academic pursuit. Among frameworks of course development (e.g. Richards, 2001;
Brown 2007; and others), Graves’ (1996) sequential framework of course development
provides substantial opportunities for reflective practice at every stage. Furthermore, Bloom’s
Taxonomy is insightful in providing information on what skills students need to acquire andorchestrate to complete a senior thesis. Based on the goals and objectives, the course isdesigned in a semester divided into three modules of five weeks each. It highlights some of
the most significant tasks and activities of each module which address the student’s needs
and help students attain their goals. Since acquiring logical thinking and writing skills arenecessary goals for completing a senior thesis, the focus is placed on them at different stages
throughout the course. The finding argues that Graves' framework can provide a standardized
point of view in understanding the sequence of the syllabus design, thereby helping teachers
identify the skills that students need to orchestrate for writing a substantial lengthy English
essay.
Literature Review
Grave’s framework of course development processes (2013) was selected from the past
literature reviews of the curriculum design frameworks since it is based on the sequential
questions as below that help to clearly understand the situation needed at every stage. Byanswering these questions in order, important points are highlighted, which guides theteacher to the next stage of the process. This can provide a standardized approach to viewing
the sequence of the syllabus design, and also reminds teachers of the questions to ask
themselves and the issues to pay attention to at every stage.

Table 1: Framework of component (Graves, 1996, p. 13)
Senior Thesis Positioned as a Culmination of University Study
Since working on and completing a senior thesis in English is considered to be the outcomeof four-year academic pursuit, Bloom’s Taxonomy theorizes the sequential skills thatstudents need to acquire till they complete a senior thesis.

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Figure 1: Bloom’s Taxonomy
Source: The website of Vanderbilt University Center for Teaching
Japanese students, who have been historically learning passively for most of their student life,
have to face the issue of their autonomy, required to take charge of their own learning andwriting strategies in the higher order. Since a senior thesis is acknowledged as a culminationof the four years of study, students must actively orchestrate all the skills required for writing
a substantial English essay at their discretion abiding by their own decisions. The processnecessitates good comprehension of information in English, research skills, and analyticalability with highly logical thinking even before a student reaches the planning stage ofprocess writing. Therefore, it may call for all the knowledge and skills that students havelearned at all educational levels in the past. This framework helped the journey of the course
design through, and it clarified what skills teachers needed to help students. Furthermore, toenhance the persuasive appeal to students, this framework proved to be quite efficacious.
Therefore, as seen in the chart above, students need to utilize the skills at all stages andintegrate them to make sense when generating ideas, and composing and finalizing a written
essay.
Context of Praxis
The setting of this writing course is within a university where the author teaches, which is alocal women’s university situated in Japan. It was founded in 1879 and is one of the oldest
private schools in Japan, established by a Methodist missionary. Not all students are fluent
speakers of English. Therefore, the students are pressured to improve their scores on
standardized tests such as TOEIC. The students started paragraph writing in the first year,
and in the third year, they have to take this course as compulsory before they start writing asenior thesis in the fourth year. Paradoxically, the students have the liberty to choose to write
the senior thesis in English or Japanese. As the result, only 5-20% of the students choose towrite a senior thesis in English every year.
Goals and Objectives in Syllabus
Here are the goals and objectives of this course stipulated in the syllabus.

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1. To acquire the logical thinking and writing skills necessary to complete a graduation
thesis.
2. To be able to determine the topic of the graduation research and organize the arguments
related to it.
3. To be able to give a systematic presentation on the topic.
Mainly the goals and objectives are divided into these three. They cover the preparation
process in the process writing. The syllabus does not also require students to research for or
make an interim presentation in English.
Three Modules in 15 Weeks
One semester of fifteen weeks is divided into three modules of five weeks respectively. This
paper presents a few most characteristic tasks and activities of each module. Here is the list ofcourse content for Module I.
Module I
In Module I, students are expected to research and determine the topic for the senior thesis.
They need to brainstorm and pick a topic from whatever they have studied and foundinteresting, but the topic needs to be based on their field, one of three areas of study: either
intercultural communication, international business, or teacher development. For instance, incase a student is interested in international business, she needs to choose a topic from thefield of international business, and then she possibly researches a few global enterprises andcompares and contrasts the operations and company cultures, for example. The area ofinterest is deemed to be a very good starting point to consider in the senior thesis.

Figure 2: Module I
In the first week, cultural thought patterns were considered because writing in Japanese andEnglish is different. Kaplan’s framework of cultural thought patterns (1966) was introduced
to students. They are classic but still convincing to students. A matching quiz between
ethnicities and visual thought patterns was presented.

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Figure 3: A class slide for Module I
Source: Kaplan's Cultural Thought Patterns (1966)
This finding seemed to be shocking and interesting to the students because they found thatthe thought pattern that they feel accustomed to was no longer useful but realized that they
had to think and write as native speakers of English did. However, the class was successful inemphasizing that straightforward thinking and writing should be focused on from then on.
Module II
Students need to have determined the topic for the senior thesis as the result of brainstorming
and come up with a concept map by this stage. Subsequently, an outline will be created after
the concept map is converged. Brainstorming a map and creating a concept map is a
successive process of divergent thinking and convergent thinking.

Figure 4: Module II
To go through this convergent process, a concept map needs to have at least thirty concepts
or more to select a topic (Kiyosawa et. al., 2018). Therefore, students were instructed to
select only a few most significant words in the middle as the keywords in the research. Theyarranged concepts other than the keywords in a visibly related way using a linking line. On
the linking lines, they need to come up with the linking words or phrases. Concepts are nouns,
and the linking arrow needs to convey the linking phrase. Coming up with linking phrases

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needed time generally speaking because that is the connection between the ideas and must be
logical and that is where students need to demonstrate logical thinking.
Module III
The main event in this module is the student presentation that summarizes the research about
the topic they choose.

Figure 5: Module III
Students need to know much about each item they talk about. The presentation has to include
a. The reason why the student chose the topic, b. background information, c. learning fromliterature review, d. thesis statement, e. structure of the thesis. Therefore, the final
presentation in Module III functions as an interim information session for the senior thesis. If
students can articulate the five items, that information will be the basis for the introduction of
the senior thesis.
Findings and Implications
There have been numerous findings, reviewing Graves’ framework, out of which two arepresented here. There are two significant facts worth considering through the two years since
the course was first designed and implemented. The first fact is that quite some students, whotook the course in the previous year, adopted a new topic for the thesis when they started
writing as a senior, meaning that the original topic did not sustain. It is partly because thestudents’ topics were not approved by the senior thesis supervisors, and students decided togive up and change the topic. There may be a few possible reasons. They just change theirmoods. Or it seems that the students were not able to make themselves understood by thesupervisors. Possibly their research was insufficient or inadequate enough to make them talkabout the topic. The students need to train students to research more in-depth and to be able
to talk about it persuasively.
Second, another discovered fact was that it was difficult for certain students to overcome theissue of delayed submission. Originally, behind the establishment of this course was theintention of starting the senior thesis project ahead of schedule so that a senior can spend
more time hunting for jobs or engaging themselves with self-actualization. To address theissue, there was a demerit method adopted in the grading system. However, task delay
remains a significant obstacle that continues to require attention.

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Conclusion
In conclusion, this article presents the procedure and the main outcomes of a course design tohelp Japanese third-year students at the pre-writing stage of their senior thesis writing. The
course demonstrates its value for teachers and students to enhance their critical and logicalthinking skills, research skills, and writing extended essays. For teachers, although teacher
reflection was conducted at every stage, it is not discussed in detail. Future research could
explore reflective practice as part of professional reflective practice. For students, the taskbased learning approach adopted in the course is appropriate to generate ideas, conduct
research, and presenting the overview of the thesis. Based on the needs analysis of thestudents, this course is designed, the student feedback has been quite positive and it can beconcluded that the course design is suitable for helping the students to start engaging in asenior thesis. Although some complexities emerged as further challenges, the outcomessuggest that this course offers opportunities for students to improve their thinking and writing
skills. In the future, further research could examine the longitudinal impact of this course on
the quality of the senior theses and how it can be adapted to improve student motivation andattitude toward writing.

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References
Armstrong, P. (2010). Bloom’s Taxonomy. Vanderbilt University Center for Teaching.
Retrieved as of January 10, 2023, https://cft.vanderbilt.edu/guides-sub-pages/bloomstaxonomy/
Brown, H. D. (2007). Teaching by principles: An interactive approach to language pedagogy(3rd ed.). Pearson Longman.
Graves, K. (1996). A framework of course development processes. In K. Graves (Ed.),
Teachers as Course Developers (pp. 16-31). Cambridge University Press.
Kaplan, R. B. (1966). Cultural thought patterns in inter-cultural education. Language
Learning, 16(1-2), 1-20. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-1770.1966.tb00804.x
Kawaijuku Kei-Net Magazine. (2017, November 1). Retrieved March 10, 2023, fromhttps://www.keinet.ne.jp/magazine/guideline/backnumber/17/11/01toku.pdf
Kiyosawa, K., Kobayashi, Y. Koizumi, Y., Yoshimuta, S., & Iwata, Y. (2018). Developing
critical thinking skills and attitude: An analysis of a reading course in a university
English program. Language Research Bulletin, 33, 10-21. Retrieved as of January 10,2023. https://drive.google.com/file/d/1sjErx9MbOcgwu_LIlSrWfldTg1zax6RL/view
Richards, J. C. (2001). Curriculum development in language teaching. Cambridge University
Press.
Contact email: yoshimuta.satomi@gmail.com

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English Language and Literature Education as a Tool for
Opinion Formation and Influence
Rashmi Tomar, Trinity College London, United Kingdom
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Abstract
The present world, replete with strong opinions in the form of influencers and media houses,
is a difficult place to navigate without the ability to think independently and the confidence tovoice ideas. In Ayn Rand’s classic The Fountainhead, Ellsworth Toohey demonstrates themight of words that can mould popular opinion and shape history. In the process, he lays barethe fragility of the collective mind that can be herded in any desired direction by an eloquent
articulator. This danger inherent in the inability of an individual to form independent, wellreasoned opinions can be effectively alleviated in the English Language and Literature class.
Literary exposure provides readers with opportunities to inspect and analyse the work fromtheir unique point of view. This critical appreciation can help them hone their ability to form
opinions and influence listeners using relevant textual evidence. The current study is theresult of the observation that despite sufficient exposure to literary texts, learners at
secondary and senior secondary levels in India frequently need the teacher’s help in decoding
and analysing literary texts. As a result, they become the teacher’s echo instead of anindividual voice. This qualitative study used Active Learning techniques to read Literature
with different groups of Grade IX learners. It aims to demonstrate that an active engagementwith the reading process can help learners become independent readers who can form
individual opinions and influence listeners by expressing their ideas using relevant textual
evidence.
Keywords: Active Reading, English Literature, Textual Interpretation, Opinion Formation,
Textual Evidence

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INTRODUCTION
Curriculum Framework and Status of English language in India
English language is “an integral part of the Indian multilingual repertoire,” and acts as a“passport to social mobility, higher education and better job opportunities” (NCERT). This
has important implications for teaching and curriculum planning as English language
introduction “is today being demanded by everyone at the very initial stage of schooling”(NCERT, 2006).
Place of Literature in English L2 Curriculum
The syllabus exposes learners to literature as the curriculum architects believe that “literature
should play a pivotal role at the secondary stage of education” (NCERT).
Hence, in India, learners have ample opportunities to read age and level-appropriate prose,verse and drama texts. By the time they reach Middle School, they have received at least six
years of instruction in the language and gained exposure to literary works.
Expected Learning Outcomes
The NEP 2020 recognises that learners should “think critically” to be able to thrive in the
rapidly changing knowledge landscape in a world with dramatic scientific and technologicaladvances. The document voices the need to empower learners through discovery, analysis andexploration (Ministry of HRD, 2020).
To facilitate this aim, schools are expected to encourage learners to:• explore concepts, analyse and organize information… and express their ideas(NCERT, 2019).
• At the same time, learners are expected to:• read with comprehension and not merely decode,• construct meaning by drawing inferences and relating the texts with previous
knowledge,• express their thoughts effortlessly, confidently and in an organized manner,• and develop imagination, creativity and aesthetic sensibility, and appreciation(NCERT, 2019).
Role of the English ClassThe English class can facilitate these goals by helping learners read “literature from different
perspectives and engage in activities for developing communicative competence” (CBSE,
2022-23). Through exposure to literature, which is but a mirror to society, the language andliterature class can hone learners’ critical thinking, interpretation, and opinion formation.
Through nurturing their higher–order thinking skills, the English class can instil theconfidence to share their opinion and justify their stance.
Need of the Hour
These expectations are perfectly in sync with the need of the current times. In the 21st
century, when the world is inundated with information from sources like the internet and AI,

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and teeming with myriad views in the form of electronic media and social media influencers,
our learners need to be able to form individual opinions, justify their stance, and convey theirideas confidently.
A failure to do so might make it difficult for them to hold their own around people withdiffering views.
The Classroom Reality
The challenge, however, is that the classroom reality is quite different. Despite exposure toliterature in the form of stories, poems and plays, quite often, learners require teacher
intervention to help in decoding the meaning, identifying and appreciating figurative devices,forming an independent opinion, and sharing their opinion on the literary value of a text.
In the context of EFL, appreciating English Literature can be challenging for learners due tovarious reasons.
1. Knowledge testing: Generally, during classroom discussions and exams, teachers ask
a greater percentage of knowledge-based questions, rather than inference-based, or
analytical questions. Loban highlighted that learners are asked to look for “trivial
information,” while there is a need to emphasize reading beyond simply “whathappened in the story” (Loban, 1954). Though critical to testing understanding, suchfact-based questions can stem the development of learners’ analytical abilities.
2. Washback: This focus on facts rather than analysis could probably be a result of thewashback (also known as ‘backwash’) effect as knowledge of facts generally helps
learners perform satisfactorily in examinations. A case in point can be the 2022 CBSE
English question paper in which the questions, according to teachers and students
were, “direct, rather than being based on extrapolatory perspective,” and based on“basic comprehension of the plot and theme” (Indian Express, 2022).
3. Transactional methods used by teachers: Teachers in India frequently resort toantiquated teaching methods such as translating texts, providing word meanings(Kalia, 2017), and delivering simplistic explanations of texts rather than inviting
discussions. In such a learning environment, Learners begin to “accept the aesthetic
judgements of their teachers” (Loban, 1954) rather than engaging with the text.
Additionally, they influence learners with their own interpretation of the text
(Woodruff & Griffin, 2017) which makes the learners get the incorrect impression that
there is only one correct interpretation.
4. Class Strength and Available time: Schools in India generally have more than thirty,
even as many as fifty-five students in a class. With teacher–student ratio as a concern(Rao, 2018), it is an uphill task to motivate everyone to participate in discussions in
the available time of 40 – 50 minutes. As a result, the teaching of literature is robbedof discussion and ends up becoming a lecture where learners don’t get the opportunity
to brainstorm.
5. Different Learner Ability: Owing to a wide range of geographical, cultural,
economic, and educational contexts in India, there is a lack of a uniform policy
governing the introduction stage (Rao, 2018) and content coverage in the teaching of

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English. Due to “a diversity of schools and linguistic environments” (NCERT, 2006)
the teaching contexts in schools vary substantially in India. In addition to the type ofschool, learner exposure to the language also depends on opportunities provided bytheir home and society.
Due to this diversity, learners are poised at widely different proficiency levels andowing to changes in schools or shifting cities, learners with wide variations in theirlanguage proficiency are frequently found together in the same class. Hence, it isdifficult for teachers to cater to these differences.
6. Denotative Vs Connotative Use of Language: Literary texts pose an additional levelof complexity because of the figurative use of language. For an Indian student, who is
still in the process of unlocking the potential of the language, it becomes challenging
to decode the connotative layer of meaning.
As a result, unless we find a way to nurture independent readers who can form their own
opinion regarding texts, learners will continue to depend on the teacher to handhold themthrough the reading and interpretation process.
Consequences of Teacher-Dependence
The famed Russian filmmaker Andrei Tarkovsky aptly said, “A book read by a thousand
different people is a thousand different books.” However, when learners wait for the teacher
or the support material to act as the fount of knowledge, their voice is stifled. This hampers
the development of a vital 21st-century skill, critical thinking, which is reflected in the ability
to “effectively analyse and evaluate evidence, arguments, claims and beliefs” (U.S.
Department of Education, 2010).
The inability to think critically adversely impacts the formation and voicing of individual
ideas. As a result, learners start looking up to the teacher to provide direction to their thoughtprocess. They need the teacher to decode the meaning and critically analyse texts. A lack ofconfidence in their own views and interpretation hinders the development of their individual
voice and they become an echo of the teacher’s ideas.
In addition to the immediate effect of shaking their confidence in reading independently, thisleads to the long-term impact of making them lose interest in extensive reading. The
importance of extensive reading in second language development is well established. The
English class must instil the confidence to approach literary texts independently and inspirethem to read extensively.
Failure to address this at the school level might also have dangerous implications in the realworld replete with opinionated people and influencers. If learners do not develop the skill of
forming individual views and using relevant supporting details to convince others of the meritof their ideas, they might not be able to convince people with differing viewpoints.
Aim of the Study
Hence, in this study, I aim to establish the utility and importance of Active Learning,
specifically, Active Reading, to hone learners’ critical thinking and nurture their ability to

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independently analyse literary texts, form an individual opinion, and use textual evidence toshare their ideas and influence the listener.
LITERATURE REVIEW
What is Active Learning
Active Learning draws upon the theory of constructivism which proposes that learning is aprocess where new information is added to the foundation of prior knowledge (Feder, 2022).
Simply put, it is the opposite of passive learning where instead of sitting listening to teachers
and accepting their explanations and interpretations, learners engage with the text to makemeaning. It “involves students in doing things and thinking about the things they are doing”(Bonwell & Eison, 1991). In addition to making the learning process immensely interestingand productive, Active Learning can make learners powerful thinkers and better at arguing
their points (Bean & Melzer, 2021).
Reading: An Active Process
Instead of being a passive recipient of the ideas presented by the teacher, an ideal reader is anactive participant in the meaning-making process, drawing upon their own experiences togenerate meaning. Rosenblatt explains it through the term, ‘transaction’, where “the meaning
is being built up through the back-and-forth relationship between reader and text during areading event” (Rosenblatt & Karolides, 1999).
This transaction exemplifies Tarkovski’s assertion stated above because readers sometimes
bring “very different assumptions about people and society to the reading” (Rosenblatt &Karolides, 1999).
Active engagement with texts through tasks that make learners think helps the developmentof critical thinking skills (Haggard, 1988) and nurtures their ability to develop an independent
opinion.
Previous Studies
A 1996 study established the importance of “The Use of Critical Thinking Skills in Literary
Analysis” on college freshmen and demonstrated that the use of critical thinking skills in
literary analysis can help students struggling to form well-reasoned arguments (Esplugas &Landwehr, 2008).
Current Study
This study, centred around the secondary and higher secondary levels, argues that the firststeps towards the ability to analyse texts independently should be taken at the school level as
not all school students will go on to focus on literary studies in college. Irrespective of the
choice of subject in college, the ability to read a text, form an opinion or response, andcommunicate individual ideas is an important life skill. Hence, it should be nurtured at theschool level.

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To this effect, the present study aims to demonstrate that the use of active reading can honelearners’ critical thinking, opinion formation and expression, which are core skills thateveryone must possess to be able to navigate the world confidently.
METHODOLOGY
The current paper is the result of research conducted independently over a period of two
years. For this qualitative study, the data was collected through the participant observation
method where the researcher observed the difference in learner activity and performance
while teaching classes taught using the traditional approach and the Active Learning
approach.
Participants
The study involved teaching a particular verse to six different groups of learners. These
learners, taught in groups of eight to ten, belonged to various private schools in India. Theirlanguage proficiency was at the required level and school, they were used to being taught
using the traditional method detailed below.
Observations that Inspired the Research
While teaching students in grades IX and X, the researcher noticed that despite sufficient
exposure to literature through their textbooks, learners required the teacher to ‘explain’ thetext to them.
Consequently, the teacher's ideas influenced their opinion on characters, plot, and writer’s
craft. Learners displayed limited confidence in interpreting the connotative meaning, andtheir individual response to literature and events was either non-existent or unconvincing.
They were unable to find relevant supporting arguments or textual evidence to convince thelistener of their ideas.
To counter these limitations, the researcher employed Active Learning and Reading
techniques to observe how it helped them critically analyse literature to form an individual
opinion and identify textual evidence to argue their point of view convincingly.
There is a host of Active Learning and Reading techniques (Iowa State University) that canbe used to increase learner participation in classes. I used a wide range of those techniqueswith many literary texts and always found the interaction to be livelier, and learners surer of
their understanding. In the present paper, I am detailing the employment of the activity‘Think-Pair-Share’ for teaching the seminal work, The Road Not Taken by Robert Frost tograde IX learners in India.
The Traditional Method
Generally, literary texts are introduced through a discussion where the teacher acquaints
learners with the important place the writer/ poet/ playwright holds in the literary landscape.
In the case of the text in question, the textbook presents the poet as someone, “who writes
simply, but insightfully, about common, ordinary experiences” (NCERT, n.d.). Someteachers, while introducing the work in the class, add additional biographical information to
help learners understand his literary greatness and the inspiration behind the work.

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The theme of the poem is then presented in the textbook by mentioning, “This well-known
poem is about making choices” (NCERT, n.d.). Additionally, the class is involved in a prereading discussion where they recall if they ever found themselves at such a crossroads.
After this preliminary discussion, the text is read either individually or collectively anddiscussions, which are a mix of line-wise or thematic explanations, are held to ensure thatlearners understand the work.
Impact: Immediate
The immediate impact on the learner is that once the literary value of the poet is established,
the learner is awed by the stature. Consequently, while reading the work, the learner can find
only examples of elevated ideas and appreciable expression. Even if individual learners feelthat some ideas were mundane or insufficiently developed, they dare not pit their thoughts
against such a literary genius. Consequently, in the ensuing discussion, learners try to stifle
any criticism or observations they might wish to direct towards the work as they don’t have tocourage to suggest that they could make an addition to the text. They wait for the safe routeof the teacher explaining the most commonly accepted interpretation and adopt it
unquestioningly.
As far as their response to the work is concerned, one important reason behind an abiding
interest in a literary work, beyond the time and place of its creation, is the way individual
readers respond to it. When a framework of ideas is presented before learners get an
opportunity to construct their individual opinion regarding the themes, content, and aims ofwork, they become wary of approaching it from their viewpoint.
Impact: Long Term
Over some time, this approach silences any possible dissentient voices. Before expressing
their views on anything they read, learners start feeling the need to know about the popular
opinion regarding the writer before they can voice their individual thoughts.
Their imagination becomes limited and the expanse of possible interpretations becomes quite
narrow.
An Alternative Approach: Active Learning
Procedure
To provide free rein to learners’ imagination, I invited them to read the verse, The Road Not
Taken, without any moorings of the poet’s name or writing style, literary or historicalbackground, and the reception of the work by literary critics.
Active Learning Technique used: Think-Pair-Share
Step 1: THINK
They simply engaged with the text to answer a set of questions that were designed to engage
higher-order thinking skills, as defined by Bloom’s Taxonomy.

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To ensure that learners get the opportunity to think about the work employing a range ofcognitive domains, the following Task Sheet idea was created.
S.No.

Question/ Brainstorming Topic

1

Read the title and guess the theme.

2

Read the poem once or twice andidentify the characters, setting, andaction.
What is the poet’s dominant thoughtin the beginning?
How do thoughts change throughout
the poem?
What is the reason behind the poet’s
state of mind?
Identify the characteristics of theroads mentioned by the poet.
Is there a figurative meaning to thepoem?
How would you have reacted in the
poet’s situation?

Knowledge

8

What is the poet’s message?

Synthesis

9

How would you have reacted in asimilar situation?

Synthesis

10

If you were the poet, what would Synthesis
you write differently? Why?
Do you think the poet’s thought is
Evaluation
justified?
What are the reasons?
Choose the words or phrases that
Evaluation
you find impactful. Justify yourselection.
Table 1: Task Sheet_ Teacher’s Copy

3

4
5
6
7

11
12

Cognitive
DomainSynthesis

Keyword
Predict, propose,
estimate
Who, what,
where, tell, recall

Comprehension Explain, outline

Comprehension Interpret
Application
Analysis
Synthesis

Choose, select,identify
Discover,examine, inspect
Construct, create,develop, imagine,
estimate, theorize
Estimate, develop,
theorize, propose
Imagine, theorize,
elaborate,
construct
Imagine, compile,
create, develop
Decide, evaluate,
justify, criticize,
assess,Choose, evaluate,
justify, prove

Instructions to learners:• Attempt the first question after reading just the title, before reading the poem.
• For the rest of the questions/ brainstorming topics, responses can be written
sequentially or randomly.
• Read the text once or twice before beginning to write ideas.
• Along with the response, mention the reason for your opinion. It could be based on
textual evidence or your inference.
Learners’ Copy:
The questions/ brainstorming points provided to the learners:

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S.No.

Question/ Brainstorming Topic

1
2

Read the title and guess the theme.
Read the poem once or twice andidentify the characters, setting, andaction.
What is the poet’s dominant thoughtin the beginning?
How do thoughts change throughout
the poem?
What is the reason behind the poet’s
state of mind?
Identify the characteristics of theroads mentioned by the poet.
Is there a figurative meaning to thepoem?
How would you have reacted in the
poet’s situation?
What is the poet’s message?
How would you have reacted in asimilar situation?
If you were the poet, what would
you write differently? Why?
Do you think the poet’s thought isjustified?
What are the reasons?
Choose the words or phrases thatyou find impactful. Justify yourselection.
Table 2: Task Sheet_ Learners’ Copy

3

4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12

Response

Textual
Evidence/
Justification

Step 2: PAIR
Once learners completed their response sheet individually, they were paired up with anotherlearner and instructed to discuss the responses with each other.
At this stage, if their responses were similar, their belief in their interpretation became
stronger. Alternatively, if they came across some alternative ideas, they arrived at a consensus
through a discussion where they employed textual evidence to prove the validity of theirideas.
Step 3: SHAREAt this stage, the pairs were invited to share their interpretation with the rest of the learners.
At any point, if the ideas differed, the entire group came together to brainstorm and arrive at
the most plausible explanation. The teacher also weighed in with background information andthe dominant discourse regarding the literary work.

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Findings• Classroom Environment
The approach resulted in an energized discussion that reflected independent thinking. In theinitial stage, if the class was quiet, it was not due to boredom or fear of expression. On thecontrary, it was due to deep engrossment in the text. Consequently, when the discussion was
opened to the whole class, everyone was quite confident and excited to participate.
• Opportunities for Language Development
Traditionally, learners get limited opportunities to speak with partners or the whole class.
When a discussion is underway, they are expected to think of ideas and formulate their
response in a brief span of time.
‘Think-pair-share’, provided ample time to form a response in the ‘think’ stage. Additionally,in the ‘pair’ stage, they were able to speak confidently in the absence of fear of censure by alarge group. Consequently, by the time they reached the ‘share’ stage, they were quite
confident of their ideas and were able to speak confidently to -influence the listeners.
• Individual Opinion
In the lessons taught earlier, learners used to approach the work with the information that the‘road’ in the poem is a metaphor for choice. When the connotative meaning was provided
upfront, the sense of achievement in decoding the puzzle presented by the poet was missing.
Now, they discovered this idea on their own. In the process, they undertook their own
journeys of arriving at the meaning.
Many learners began by perceiving it to be an account of a physical journey and read thedescriptions of the road as a literal word picture. After discussions with peers, when they
arrived at the figurative layer, they felt an immense sense of achievement.
Additionally, it helped them feel confident and excited about reading other literary works andarriving at the poet’s message.
• Personalization
Earlier, learners used to focus on the poet’s circumstances that inspired the work.
Now, however, learners shared many personalized examples of dilemmas, for example
choosing a holiday destination, a dress for a party, a subject stream, or a career, where theyfelt like they were standing at a ‘fork’.
Once they recalled having faced a dilemma in their lives, the work became real for them andthey could immediately relate to the line “sorry I could travel both”.
• Alternative Interpretations
Traditionally, learners would be too focused on the conditions in Robert Frost’s life thatinspired him to write the poem. At the same time, they wanted the teacher to provide themwith an interpretative direction to start decoding the work. When they feel a dependence on
the poet’s background or the literary age, they are not able to engage freely with the words infront of them. Consequently, to read any new work, they needed to have some backgroundinformation.

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Learners were also able to provide a modern take on the poem, confidently diverging fromthe traditional interpretations. Commenting on the lines, “Yet knowing how way leads on toway, I doubted if I should ever come back,” they said that with the opportunities these days, it
is possible for people to juggle options rather than making definitive choices. E.g. one could
pursue an online course in music along with a college degree in Mathematics. Hence, they
can travel both ways, albeit with a difference in the way they are treaded.
• Waning Teacher Dependence
In the earlier discussions, they would always look up to the teacher to pass the final
judgement on whether the poet was happy or regretful of the decision. Here, they were able todiscover an inherent confusion when they started thinking about the two possible meanings of‘sigh’ – where some learners perceived it as a sigh of relief while others looked at it as a sighof regret.
• Confident in making suggestions to alter the work
I also noticed that the learners were extremely confident in making alternate suggestions in
the title or content along with sound logic for the same. E.g. an alternate title suggested was“The Road Less Travelled” as they noticed that one of the distinctions was that it ‘wanted
wear’ and the poet also says that he took the less travelled one.
• Alternative Themes Brainstormed
Since the theme of ‘choice’ was not introduced at the beginning, learners came up withdifferent ideas. For e.g., one idea suggested was ‘boldness’ – since the poet took a chance ona path that was previously unexplored.
• Increased Confidence and Interest in Extensive Reading
The experience of using Active Learning made the learners feel confident about reading
beyond the curriculum. They were able to see how individual or team brainstorming can help
them decode and analyse a text.
At the same time, they realised that there is not necessarily a correct and incorrectinterpretation of literary texts. The text can mean different things to different people and all
they need to do is find relevant evidences to justify their stance.
CONCLUSION
This is ongoing research and I wish to experiment with many more active learning techniqueswith different texts. Based on the observations with this study, it can be concluded that using
Active Learning techniques for reading in class can help facilitate an important aim ofEnglish Language and Literature teaching, namely nurturing learners’ ability to form
independent opinion on literary texts and using textual evidence to convince others of thevalidity of their interpretation.
Whenever learners feel uncertain about the meaning or message of a text, teachers may
provide scaffolds such as lexical support or discreetly draw learners’ attention towards animportant aspect of the text. Helping them with decoding, interpreting, or analysing the text,
however, can be self-defeating to the purpose of the class. On the other hand, leaving thelearners without any direction could also lead to frustration. Hence, the use of Active
Learning comes to the rescue by engaging learners in such a manner that textual exploration
becomes an organic process rather than a forced one.

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Active Learning ensures that in addition to decoding literature, learners make use of thelanguage while thinking or expressing themselves. Since using language for communicationis the key to developing proficiency, learners will develop their linguistic proficiency as well.
All the information about the poet and the times should be provided in such a manner that it
does not interfere with the meaning-making and opinion formation regarding the text. Hence,
we can provide this either after they have engaged with the text, or in such a manner that it
does not interfere with the individual thought process.
As far as possible, we should let the learner engage with the text as an individual, forming
opinions unique to themselves. Once that happens, they are easily able to find relevant textual
evidence to influence others.
Acknowledgements
Mr Anurag Srivastava
Dr Shelly Pandey
Dr Ananya Singh

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References
Bean, J. C., & Melzer, D. (2021). Engaging Ideas: The Professor's Guide to Integrating
Writing, Critical Thinking, and Active Learning in the Classroom (3rd ed.). San
Francisco: Jossey- Bass.
Bonwell, C. C., & Eison, J. A. (1991). Active Learning: Creating Excitement in theClassroom . The George Washington University.
CBSE. (2022-23). English Langugae ad Literature. www.cbseacademic.nic.in: chromeextension://efaidnbmnnnibpcajpcglclefindmkaj/https://cbseacademic.nic.in/web_mate
rial/CurriculumMain23/Sec/English_LL_2022-23.pdf
Esplugas, C., & Landwehr, M. (2008). The Use of Critical Thinking Skills in Literary
Analysis. Foreign Language Annals, 29, 449-461.
Feder, M. (2022). What is constructivism in education? Retrieved February 7, 2023,
https://www.phoenix.edu/blog/what-is-constructivism.html
Haggard, M. R. (1988). Developing Critical Thinking with the Directed Reading-Thinking
Activity. The Reading Teacher, 41(6), 526-533.
Indian Express. (2022). CBSE Class 10 English Exam Analysis. Retrieved February 2, 2023,
https://indianexpress.com/article/education/cbse-class-10-english-exam-analysispaper-rated-easy-but-lengthy-direct-questions-asked-7889682/
Iowa State University. (n.d.). 226 Active Learning Techniques. www.celt.iastate.edu: chromeextension://efaidnbmnnnibpcajpcglclefindmkaj/https://www.celt.iastate.edu/wpcontent/uploads/2017/03/CELT226activelearningtechniques.pdf
Kalia, P. (2017). ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING IN INDIA: TRENDS AND
CHALLENGES . International Journal of Engineering Applied Sciences andTechnology, 33-37.
Loban, W. (1954). Literature and Social Senstivity. Berkeley: National Council of Teachers ofEnglsih.
Ministry of HRD. (2020). National Education Policy. New Delhi: HRD Ministy, Govt. ofIndia.
NCERT. (2006). Position Paper: National Focus Group on Teaching of English. New Delhi:
Publication Department, NCERT.
NCERT. (2019). Learning Outcomes at the Secondary Stage. chromeextension://efaidnbmnnnibpcajpcglclefindmkaj/https://ncert.nic.in/pdf/notice/learning_outcomes.pdf
NCERT. (n.d.). English Classes (IX-XII). Retrieved from www.ncert.nic.in: chromeextension://efaidnbmnnnibpcajpcglclefindmkaj/https://ncert.nic.in/pdf/syllabus/12Eng
lish%20(IX-XII).pdf

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NCERT. (n.d.). English Classes I-VIII. Retrieved March 5, 2023, chromeextension://efaidnbmnnnibpcajpcglclefindmkaj/https://ncert.nic.in/pdf/syllabus/05Eng
lish%20(I-VIII).pdf
NCERT. (n.d.). Textbooks PDF (I-XII). Retrieved ncert.nic.in:https://ncert.nic.in/textbook.php?iebe1=ps-11
Rao, D. P. (2018). ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING IN INDIA: THE PROBLEMS ANDPROSPECTS. JOURNAL OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE(JOELL), 109-112.
Rosenblatt, L. M., & Karolides, N. J. (1999). Theory and Practice: An Interview with Louise
M. Rosenblatt. Naational Council of Teachers of English, 77(2), 158-170.
U.S. Department of Education. (2010, September). 21ST-CENTURY KNOWLEDGE AND
SKILLS IN EDUCATOR PREPARATION. Retrieved from https://eric.ed.gov/:
efaidnbmnnnibpcajpcglclefindmkaj/https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED519336.pdf
Woodruff, A. H., & Griffin, R. A. (2017). READER RESPONSE IN SECONDARYSETTINGS: INCREASING COMPREHENSION THROUGH MEANINGFULINTERACTIONS WITH LITERARY TEXTS. Texas Journal of Literary Education,
5(2), 108-116.
Contact email: rashmitomar82@gmail.com

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Educational Services for Students With Disabilities From Moving-In to
Moving-Out of Chiang Mai University

Songklod Jarunondrakul, Chiang Mai University, Thailand
Ratchaneekorn Tongsookdee, Chiang Mai University, Thailand
Soisuda Vittayakorn, Chiang Mai University, Thailand
Pikul Leosiripong, Chiang Mai University, Thailand

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Abstract
The research objectives were to examine the state of educational services that Disability
Support Services Center at Chiang Mai University (DSSCMU) provided to students withdisabilities in compliance with the four strategies of education for individuals with disabilities
in higher education under the Office of The Higher Education Commission. There were 59
participants in the study, who consisted of the DSSCMU staff and students with disabilities(SWDs). Research tools included 1) a questionnaire, 2) an interview form, and 3) a focus
group form. Analyzed research data was reported using frequencies, percentages, means,standard deviation, and content analysis. The findings on the state of educational services
offered to students showed that the DSSCMU was in compliance with all four outlined higher
education strategies for individuals with disabilities. With respect to Strategy 1 – Providing
Opportunities, the results showed that the SWDs had been recruited into Chiang Mai
University by special projects (58.62%) and general exams (41.37%); Strategy 2 – Individual
Educational Services, that most services which SWDs received were tutoring services(70.68%); Strategy 3 – Special Education Development, that DSSCMU disseminatedknowledge about disabilities by encouraging and providing opportunities for students with orwithout disabilities to engage in activities together; and Strategy 4 – Employment Reachingout, that collaborative projects with successful entrepreneurs or individuals helped inspire
SWDs to develop themselves in order to meet the needs of the labor market.

Keywords: Students With Disabilities, Chiang Mai University, Disability Support Services
Centeriafor
The International Academic Forumwww.iafor.org

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Introduction
Thailand government sees education as an important factor that will increase opportunities
for people with disabilities to pursue careers and become self-reliant with dignity. Therefore,
it aims to provide thoroughly and equitably both basic and higher education to people withdisabilities so that they receive quality education. Higher education, the last level before
leaving for a career, is especially important because people with disabilities require more
effort than non-disabled people to be able to graduate under limited potential, as well as toprovide education that may not be conductive to their limitations. For this reason, the Officeof The Higher Education Commission or the Office of The Permanent Secretary of the
Ministry of Higher Education, Science, Research and Innovation has established four
strategic frameworks of education for individuals with disabilities in higher education.
Strategy 1: Providing opportunities, to allocate educational opportunities for potential
students with disabilities to attend higher education institutions, Strategy 2: Individual
Educational Services, to develop 1) support services system for SWDs in higher education
institutions, 2) special education personnels, and 3) appropriate curriculum and learning
processes for SWDs, Strategy 3: Special Education Development, to conduct research andnew knowledges on people with disabilities and Strategy 4: Employment Reaching-out, topromote supportive cooperation in careers of graduates with disabilities (Office of The
Higher Education Commission, 2006). Therefore, in order to achieve the above strategies,
higher education institutions in Thailand have established the Disability Support Service(DSS) to provide comprehensive support services for SWDs from entry to graduation.
(Tongsookdee & Chaichompu, 2016-2017). Naturally, SWDs are less likely to succeed inhigher education, earn their degrees, and often take more time to earn their degrees than theable-bodied majority. These students face stigma related to their disability and lack ofacceptance among their peers and professors (Heyer, 2017). According to Simon (2020),
SWDs academic abilities can be improved when their self-efficacy has improved and theirpositive experiences become greater when the accommodations are consistent and reliable.
Cunninghame, Costello & Trinidad. (2016), also noted that if SWDs receive appropriate
support, there is a high probability of achieving higher education.
In 2016, only 34 percent of Thai universities had DSS, while the number of SWDs increased
more than 10 times during the year 2003-2016 (Office of the Higher Education Commission,2017). The increasing numbers shows that development of DSS services to accommodate thediversity of needs of SWDs is needed. This is in line with Peterson (2016) which stated thatproviders in DSS must be proactive and reactive because existing solutions may not meet theneeds or suit 2 students with the same disability. Additionally, Scott, Markel, Wessel &Desmond (2018) said that optimizing support services for SWDs brings significant benefits
for them. This includes education, future careers, and also contributes to increase knowledges
about disability services.
Chiang Mai University, the first public university in northern Thailand, has focused more on
education for people with disabilities for a long time. In the academic year 2021, DSSCMU,
with 11 staff, which is the largest number of staff among universities in the Upper North
Region, provides educational support services to 5 groups of SWDs including 1) Visual
impairments 2) Hearing impairment 3) Physical or movement or health impairments 4)
Learning disabilities and 5) Autism. It has many characteristics that allows SWDs to receive
comprehensive and timely services and contributes to several positive attitudes towards one's
own disability (Jarunondrakul, 2022), which is one of the key factors for people withdisabilities to equally live with others in the community and also live with dignity. Therefore,

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the researcher was interested in studying DSSCMU's service conditions to reflect the qualityof the services in supporting educational management for SWDs in Chiang Mai University. It
is hoped that the results of the study will give other DSS guidances for educational services
development for SWDs to gain more effective results. Moreover, the researcher also hope toprovide information for relevant agencies at a high level to formulate policies to support andhelp SWDs succeed in higher education which will help increasing opportunities for people
with disabilities to live in society with quality, equality and human dignity according to thepotential of each person.
Research objective
The purpose of this study is to examine the state of educational services that Disability
Support Services Center at Chiang Mai University (DSSCMU) provided to students withdisabilities in compliance with the four strategies of education for individuals with disabilities
in higher education.
Research Methodology
In this study, a mixed-methods approach, both quantitative and qualitative data collection, is
adopted. The methods including survey questionnaires for DSSCMU staff and SWDs, semistructured interviews for DSSCMU staff and then focus group for SWDs are deployed.
Participants
1 DSSCMU staff assigned by director and 58 SWDs who applied for educational services
from DSSCMU in academic year 2021 participated in this study. Samplings were 1
DSSCMU staff for semi-structured interview and 1 SWDs from each categories of
disabilities, 5 totally, who voluntarily attended focus groups.
Instruments
The researcher studied concepts, theories, laws, and related researches to design datacollection tools. After completion, there are four data collection tools: 1) Google Forms
questionnaire for DSSCMU staff; consist of a check list, a rating scale, and open-ended
questions. 2) Google Forms questionnaires for SWDs, which is a check list, a rating scale andopen-ended questions, 3) a semi-structured interview for DSS staff, 4) a focus group for
SWDs. The draft of the four instruments were presented to the thesis advisor for review andappropriateness of the questions and improvements, and then the Index of Item-Objective
Congruence (IOC) were scored by 3 experts. The four conformity indexes range from 0.66 to
1.00.
Data Collection
Data was collected in three phases. The first phase included:
1. Conducting a questionaire of DSSCMU Staff. The questionaire consisted of a total of 53
questions, with check list, rating scale and open end questions through Google Form. The
questions were to examine the state of educational services that DSSCMU provided to
SWDs in compliance with the four strategies of education for individuals withdisabilities. The questionaire was conducted from 4th January 2020 through 16th
February 2020.

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2. Conducting questionaires of SWDs. The questionaires consisted of a total of 84 questions,with check list, rating scale and open end questions through Google Form. The questions
were to examine the satisfaction of SWDs toward educational services provided by
DSSCMU. The questionaire was conducted from 4th January 2020 through 24th February
2020.
The second stage of data collection included focus group 2 SWDs. The researchers extracted
data from the first stage results to create focus group guides. The focus group were held on
June 2020 via ZOOM application and were conducted 40-55 minutes.
The third stage of data collection included semi-structured interviewing 1 DSSCMU Staff.
The researchers also extracted data from the first stage results along with data from focus
group to create interview guides. The interviews were conducted to obtain more in-depth dataon August 2020, and interviews were conducted onsite and lasted 45 minutes to 1 hour.
Data Analysis
Quantitative data analyzed using computer programs including frequencies, percentages,means and standard deviation. The content analysis used for qualitative data section, aresummarized inductively according to the objectives of the research and presented
descriptively in accordance with strategic framework 1-4.
Findings
The survey findings comprise four parts as follows:Part 1: State and barriers of DSSCMU divided by four strategies of Education for
Individuals with Disabilities

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Strategy 1: Providing Opportunities
State1) Chiang Mai University recruits SWDs through special projects (58.62%) andgeneral exams (41.37%).
2) DSSCMU promotes admissions information through its website andproactively conducts further study guidances to high school SWDs.
Barriers 1) Some groups of SWDs do not yet have or are less likely to pursue higher
education.
2) A number of SWDs requested to transfer during the academic year.
Strategy 2: Individual Educational Services
State1) DSSCMU is capable of being a consulting agency in all items. The mostcounseling service for SWDs is Planning for study and travel issues.
2) DSSCMU divides SWDs into small groups with 5-6 members and assign all
staff to lead the groups. Each staff responsible for listening directly to
problems or needs from SWDs within the group in order to reduce the process
and duration of response from DSSCMU.
3) All DSSCMU staff can work interchangeably in all positions. Enhance work
continuity and efficiency.
4) The management of Chiang Mai University consider the importance of
educational management of SWDs as equal as general students, andparticipates and fully supports the work of DSSCMU.
5) DSSCMU provides tutoring services, materials production with repairment
services, assistive facilities, accommodations and training on university life
skills.
6) SWDs service requested the most was tutoring services (70.68%)
Barriers 56.89% of SWDs do not use material services and 41.38% do not request forassistive facilities that DSS provided.
Strategy 3: Special Education Development
State
DSSCMU organizes or sends staff to seminars related to disabilities, provides
opportunities for faculty members and staff to exchange information and views
on disability together, and provides opportunities for students with and without
disabilities to engage in activities together.
Barriers Only a few SWDs are involved in creating knowledges about disabilities forother students and university.
Strategy 4: Employment Reaching-out
State
DSSCMU inspires SWDs by providing opportunities in meeting people withdisabilities who have achieved motivational work and recruit disabled graduates
to work at university.
Barriers Only a few graduates with disabilities are employed to work at university.
Table 1: State and barriers of DSSCMU divided byfour strategies of education for individuals with disabilities
Part 2: Attitudes of DSSCMU staff to their work
DSSCMU staff expressed attitude by scoring based on 3 defined topics: 1) Success in helping
SWDs 2) Recognition of the DSSCMU work from students, staff, and university personnels
and 3) Policy and budget support from managements. Total score is 10 points. The resultsshows that DSSCMU staff scored between 8-9 out of 10 which mean their attitudes toward
their work are in EXCELLENT level.

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Figure 1: Attitudes of DSSCMU staff to their work

9.2
9
9
8.8
8.6
8.4
8.2
8

8

1) Success

2) Recognition

8
7.8
7.6
7.4
3) Policy support

Part 3: Satisfaction of SWDs in Chiang Mai University to DSSCMU services according to
the 4 strategic frameworks (N = 58)
SWDs satisfaction rate to the educational services received, with respect to the four strategies
of education for individuals with disabilities in higher education under the Office of The
Higher Education Commission, are rated HIGH in every strategies.
SWDs satisfaction
̅
𝒙
S.D.
Score
1. Providing Opportunities
58
3.65
0.74
HIGH
2. Individual Educational Services
58
3.78
0.73
HIGH
3. Special Education Development
58
3.98
0.82
HIGH
4. Employment Reaching-out
58
3.70
0.99
HIGH
Average
3.81
0.72
HIGH
Table 2: Satisfaction of SWDs to educational services provided by DSSCMU
StrategynPart 4: Attitudes of student with disabilities towards DSSCMU's work and towards
themselves (N = 58)
SWDs attitude rate toward DSSCMU's work and toward themselves were expressed byscoring based on 6 defined topics: 1) Equality in University 2) Cooperation from advisors 3)
Cooperation from lecturers 4) DSSCMU overview services 5) Confidence in graduation and6) Confidence in having a job. Total score is 10 points. The results shows that SWDs averagescores are all in BEST level.

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SWDs satisfaction
̅
𝒙
S.D.
Score
1. Equality in University
57
6.70
1.98
BEST
2. Cooperation from advisors
56
7.75
1.81
BEST
3. Cooperation from lecturers
57
7.75
1.73
BEST
4. DSSCMU overview services
57
7.60
2.01
BEST
5. Confidence in graduation
57
7.44
2.36
BEST
6. Confidence in having a job
56
6.82
1.86
BEST
Table 3: Attitudes of SWDs towards DSSCMU's work and towards themselves
StrategynDiscussion
Based on the findings, the results can be discussed as follows:
DSSCMU service conditions and issues
According to the research, Chiang Mai University recruits qualified SWDs through generalexams and recruits individually through special projects. Informations of admission are
publicized through the website and proactively visit inclusive schools in northern Thailand to
give admission guidances. This help increasing opportunities of SWDs entering higher
education. In accordance with the Education for Persons with Disabilities Act. 2551 B.E.
higher education institutions in all affiliations are responsible for accepting a reasonableproportion or number of persons with disabilities in accordance with the criteria andprocedures prescribed by the Board of Directors (Ministry of Education, 2008) and the
National Education Plan 2560-2579 B.E. stated that principles of education are Education forAll, and Inclusive Education (Ministry of Education, 2017). It also found that a number of
SWDs have requested to transfer their faculty during their studies. This is partly due to thelack or insufficient information about faculty that accepts applications for students withdisabilities. As Heyer (2017) says, SWDs achieve higher education and graduate at a low rate
and from that rate in many cases it takes longer than fellow non-disabled students to graduate,
and Sharma (2017) that says the graduation rate of disabled students is still delayed comparedto their peers who are not disabled. One of the key factors is understanding of process ofworking of DSS from university administrators. If concern person in high ranking prioritize
education managements for SWDs without negative attitude or ignorance of support, it will
inevitably affect the education of SWDs effectiveness and success of the system. As
Bronfenbrenner (1979) said social ecology. (Ecological Framework) driven by 4 systems:
Microsystem (small system), Mesosystem (central system), Exosystem (external system), andMacrosystem. (big system) which influences each other. University administrators, who arein a large system, therefore make an impact on other systems. Reasonably, it can be said thatthe positive attitude from the management has greatly affected the quality of education of
SWDs because it is not only promote concrete practices that are in line with the policy but
also directly affects the morale of the operator staff to whom many of them have worked
under pressure for extended periods of time. In other words, DSSCMU provide quality
services to integrated education support at a certain level. This is in accordance with theRegulations of the Board of Education for People with Disabilities on the Management ofHigher Education for People with Disabilities. 2552 B.E. article 5 stated that higher education
institutions shall be responsible for providing facilities, assistive technology, material
services and other relevant educational services for people with disabilities, teaching &learning, measurement and evaluation in accordance with the special needs of each SWDs.
(Ministry of Education, 2009) However, the findings also show that 56.89 percent of SWDs

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do not use material services and 41.38 percent do not request for assistive facilities from
DSS. This may be due to such students having disabilities at a level that does not require
these services, or that the materials programs and assistive facilities provided may, in fact,
not meet their needs. In terms of promoting employment, DSSCMU was found prepare
graduates with disabilities to have employment through a variety of programs, and most
SWDs have a high level of confidence in employment. With all that said, it is concluded thatafter providing the opportunity to attend university, DSSCMU also continues to provide
assistance to SWDs until graduation, which is an important and essential role for theeducational achievement of SWDs on campus. As Sila (2020) said, there is statisticallysignificant difference in the academic performance of SWDs who engaged with DSS andthose who did not use disability services. SWDs who engaged with DSS beyond their initial
registration had higher cumulative GPAs regardless of their disability category, gender, andyear of study.
Satisfaction of SWDs with DSSCMU services
Overall, SWDs were satisfied with DSSCMU's services at a HIGH level. There is also a
HIGH level of satisfaction with the Employment Reaching-out and EXCELLENT level ofconfidence in having a job. In other words, DSSCMU has successfully provided satisfactory
levels of educational support for SWDs. This is partly due to the effective response to SWDs'
needs by working interchangeably in a transdisciplinary teamwork manner that increases
efficiency and supports the development of collaboration (Dangpala, 2022). Moreover, it isimportant to have the SWDs perspective of satisfaction with the accommodations andservices provided to them from disability related services (Blackwell, 2018) so thatDSSCMU and other DSS can use these information, in different contexts at different
universities, to plan the allocation of service items in a qualitative rather than quantitativeway.
Educational services guidelines for development of DSS in Thailand
According to the research, DSSCMU supports SWDs from the beginning of admission until
graduation, and continues to provide assistances in obtaining employment. In other words,
DSSCMU's performance is bound to SWDs throughout their academic life until after
graduation. In fact, most SWDs want to finish their studies and be able to take care ofthemselves independently and equally in society, which are the most tangible ways toimprove the quality of life for people with disabilities. By providing quality educational
services, it helps SWDs achieve their educational goals and let them have opportunities tolive their life that way. For this reason, DSS in Thailand should improve educational services
for SWDs beginning with implementation of the selection of high school students withdisabilities’ goals for higher education that may need to be proactively evaluated inconjunction with teachers and students themselves. For example, DSSCMU used tocoordinate with the Department of Arts Education to allow autistic students to sit in first-year
subjects in the summer semester. That activity allows students to make suitable decision
whether to study in this field or another discipline, etc., which will contribute in reducing thetransfer request during the academic year from SWDs. In result, it will reduce the budget for
educational investment for SWDs, and will also increase the chances of academic success for
SWDs too. As Kobkaew (2015) said that the first important step in providing opportunities
for SWDs to have the right to pursue higher education is through coordination between
universities and schools that refer them to co-education. Uneven publicity of special projects
can result in the closure of educational opportunities for SWDs.

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Encouraging university administrators to understand the importance of providing educationfor SWDs positively is the next important thing that cannot be neclected. If administrators see
disability as not a problem but a difference and trust that SWDs be able to learn and archieve
educational goal, it will result in SWDs getting opportunities through quality support systemand enhance more chances to develop themselves. This can be done by communicate andcollaborate more between DSS staff and administrators. In this regard, concern personnels
must be aware of the importance of the context around SWDs and find ways to support themin the appropriate environment. By collaborating with all parties to support education
management for SWDs, it will bring a broader impact and drive the development of SWDs insociety together because all sections of society are influencing each other (Utthayotha, 2013).
DSS should encourage researches on facilitating SWDs appropriately and individually inorder to be able to provide more effectively support that suits the diverse needs of them. Such
researches may help DSS find ways to develop beyond materials, for example, alternative or
short courses to enhance competencies and educational opportunities higher than basic
education for a number of disabled students who want to attend university but are unable to
do so due to various limitations. This "Win-Win" educational arrangement not only increase
the chances of SWDs’ education but also open up new markets for higher education at thesame time.
In terms of promoting employment, considering the fact that disabled graduates are not all
employed, this may partly come from the employer's uncertainty that people with disabilities
are hardly be able to work then resulted in a large denial of employment of people withdisabilities. Therefore, DSSCMU should play an additional role in increasing theemployment opportunities of people with disabilities at the national level by inviting theother DSS throughout the country for joining forces as a network calling on the government
to actively develop and enforce policies that cover employment for people with disabilities inThailand. Because if graduates with disabilities are given quality educational opportunities
along with appropriate support but cannot find a job, DSS perseverance throughout theacademic life of them is completely in vain. It is also considered an unfortunate waste ofeducation too. Pracmatical enforcing the employment laws for people with disabilities will
help provide education for people with disabilities as a comprehensive educationalarrangement and truly improve the quality of life for them at last.
Conclusion
This research concluded that: 1) Chiang Mai University conducts education for SWDs inaccordance with strategic framework 1-4 with DSSCMU provide educational support
services from admission until after graduation. Barriers to service include: Some groups of
SWDs do not yet have or are less likely to pursue higher education; A number of SWDs
requested to transfer during the academic year; More than half of SWDs do not use material
services and almost half of them do not request for assistive facilities that DSS provided. 2)
SWDs are satisfied with all DSSCMU's services with HIGH level 3) The positive attitude of
the administrators towards the educational management for SWDs arises from the constantwork with the authorities. DSS itself should also create opportunities for administrators toparticipate and understand the work of DSS too. 4) DSS should evaluate the higher education
goals of disabled students in collaboration with teachers and disabled students and promoteresearches on facilitating appropriate accommodations and opportunities individually for
SWDs, and call on the government to actively develop and enforce comprehensive policies
on employment for people with disabilities in Thailand to increase employment opportunities
for graduates with disabilities. Consider using Universal Design or UD and Universal Design

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in Higher Education or UDHE to provide educational support services for SWDs andpromote learning communities for all to create equal and effective access to educational
information plus ways of living in daily life.

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References
Blackwell, Y. (2018, December). Students with Disabilities Attitudes Regarding
Accommodations and Services Provided by Disability Services. In Master’s thesis.
Rowan University, USA.
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The Ecology of Human Development: Experiment by Nature and
Design. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Cunninghame, I. Costello, D., & Trinidad, S. (2016). Issues and Trends for Students with
Disabilities. In Review of NCSEHE-Funded Research. National Centre for Student
Equity in Higher Education, Australian Government.
Dangpala, P. (2022). Paraprofessional Collaborative Team Models in Early Intervention for
Individuals with Multiple Disabilities at the Chiang Rai Special Education Center. In
Master Degree thesis. Chiang Mai University. Thailand.
Heyer, C. (2017, May). Advocacy Services for College Students with Disabilities: A Grant
Proposal. In Thesis for Master of Social Work. Abilene Christian University.
Jarunondrakul, S. (2022). Educational Development Guidelines for Students with disabilities
in Upper North Region. In Master Degree thesis. Chiang Mai University. Thailand.
Kobkaew, U. (2015).Providing Transitional Support Services for Students with Disabilities
from Schools to Chiang Mai University. In Master Degree thesis. Chiang Mai
University. Thailand.
Ministry of Education. (2008). Education for Persons with Disabilities Act B.E.2551.
Bangkok: Office of the Prime Minister.
Ministry of Education. (2009). Regulations of the Board of Education for People with
Disabilities on the Management of Higher Education for People with Disabilities Act
2552 B.E. Bangkok: Office of the Prime Minister.
Ministry of Education. (2017). National Education Plan 2560-2579 B.E. Office of the Prime
Minister.
Office of The Higher Education Commission. (2006). Strategies of Education for Individuals
with Disabilities in Higher Education. Bangkok: Ministry of Education.
Office of The Higher Education Commission. (2017). Report on the Results of the Survey on
the Promotion and Development of Service Systems to Support Students, Students with
Disabilities in Higher Education Institutions Under the Office of the Higher
Education Commission Year 2559 B.E. Bangkok: Ministry of Education.
Peterson, C. Michael. (2016). Assistive Technology Management by Disabilities Services
Managers in Higher Education-a Phenomenological Study. In Doctoral dissertation.
Capella University, USA.

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Scott, S. et al. (2020). Disability Services Partnerships with Faculty Members. Retrieved 17
August 2020 from https:/files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1123792.pdf
Sharma, R. (2017). Resilience and social support among college students with disabilities. In
Doctoral dissertation. The University of Texas Rio Grande Valley, USA.
Sila, K. R. (2020). Effect of engagement with office of disability support services on academic
performance of undergraduate students with disabilities during their first semester ofregistering for services. In Doctoral dissertation. Roberts University, USA.
Simon, L. (2020). Investigation of Students with Disabilities and Experiences with Services
Provided in Higher Education. In Doctoral Dissertation. Capella University.
Tongsookdee,R., & Chaichompu, R. (2016-2017). Educational Support for Students with
Disabilities: Beginnings, Turning Points and Sustainable Development Points.
Sikkhana, 4(4-5), 33-37.
Uttayotha, S. (2013). The Development of Supporting Services Model for Student with
Special Needs in Higher Education: A Study of Mission of Supporting Organizationsin Supporting Services for Student with Special Needs in Chiang Mai Rajabhat
University. Chiang Mai : Chiang Mai Rajabhat University.

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How the Community Participative Courses Are Carried Out–From an Interdisciplinary Perspective
Ting-Yu Chen, Nanhua University, Taiwan

The Southeast Asian Conference on Education 2023
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Abstract
Sponsored by the Ministry of Education in Taiwan, three teachers from different department
work on the project, and co-teach the course “Eco-Tourism and Community Narratives.”
Students were led to the community affairs and public issues that were crucial to thecommunity. How the course was carried out and the dilemma the teachers encountered werediscussed, and the reflections on how interdisciplinary courses could be better operated werealso described.
Keywords: Community Participative Courses, Interdisciplinary Courses, Sustainable
Community

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Introduction
Ministry of Education in Taiwan launched a five-year Higher Education Sprout Project(HESP) from 2018. By walking out of the ivory tower and into the local community,
universities are encouraged to get teachers and students involved with the community affairs
and local development (Su, 2018). Universities are expected to build partnership with thelocal folks and industries.
Under a Project sponsored by the Ministry of Education in Taiwan, three college teachers
co-teach a course named “Eco-Tourism and Community Narratives,” one from the
Department of Tourism Management, one the Department of (Chinese) Literature, and theother from the Department of Communication who is the author of the article.
By interviewing the other two teachers, the present study demonstrated how acommunity-based, interdisciplinary course was operated, despite quite a few obstacles.
The field/site in which the community-based course was implemented
A small community was chosen as teaching field /site to practice, located near the university,where people are mainly farming for a living. One of the important cash crop for thecommunity is the bamboo shoots, however, a precious animal species which is also an
endemic species in Taiwan lives in these bamboo grove, that is called “farmland tree frogs.”
According to the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) proposed by United Nations, thiscourse is designed to fulfill the 11th goal, Sustainable Cities and Communities (The Global
Goals, 2023), thus, to make cities, human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable.
More precisely, it’s the target11.4 the course aims to get to, to protect the world’s culturaland natural heritage. By preserving the species’ habitat, the natural environment of thecommunity is to be safe for wild animals and human beings.
To raise the awareness of ecological conservation, one of my colleague in the department of
tourism management, Dr. Hsu has long been working with the local bamboo shoot farmers,
encouraged them not to use the pesticides and conventional chemical fertilizers to avoid
destroying the tree frogs’ habitat.
To promote the sustainable development for the community (Chen, 2017), our colleague andlocal folks have been giving guided tours in which the local environment, ecological system
and animal habitat were introduced and local food (bamboo shoots, of course) was provided
to the tourists. The income from the guided tours was given back to the community and those
farmers who worked with the university.
This course took students to the field to see people, their land, what they live on, and also theanimal species needed to be preserved; the tree frogs and their habitat, and how they can livewith people’s farming.
Tourism majors vs. Non-tourism majors
Students were asked to differentiate the Eco-tourism and other types of tourism. According to
the teacher, students majoring in tourism perform worse than their non-major counterparts inpen-and-paper test, since the tourism majors focus more on the practical perspective, such as

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tour planning and design. Tourism majors were led to think as the tourism industry and thepractitioners who intend to propose appealing itineraries to the potential customers. On theother hand, the course aims to arouse the non-majors’ interest in Eco-tourism and broaden
their horizon.
By personal contact with local people and ecological environment, the students should build
up the connection physically and sentimentally with the community (Business today, 2018).
Furthermore, their engagement might get deeper, such as the produce purchase from theresidents, or returning to the field frequently, or even become a tour guide of the community.
Reflections on the interdisciplinary courses: benefits & Challenges
To make the interdisciplinary courses work, the study found the following:First of all, the courses need sufficient budget to take students to the field to get to know thehistorical, economic, social, cultural, environmental, industrial or even political backgrounds
and contexts. Lecturers, practitioners from the community and industry are needed. To
provide activities such as DIY for students to make small souvenirs using local produce andfood also needs funding.
It was found that the field trips give students the first-hand experience, to connect students
with the community, to build up a sense of identity and empathy. Students from all different
disciplines have an opportunity to interact and to work together, formally and informally (Lin,2019). This is the core value of the interdisciplinary courses.
All three teachers acknowledge that everyone should be in one another’s classroom/teaching
field, and not to separate the course into three parts and to teach independently. In otherwords, teachers should genuinely work together, teach together and should be very clear
about what the other two had given to the students.
Yet, it is hard to do so since the school or even the project sponsored by the Ministry of
Education in Taiwan will not pay the hourly fee to the three of us, only to the lecturers.
Another problem is about time arrangement. Not only the teachers, the students are from alldifferent departments and have different timetables and different commitment to the class. If
it’s not mission impossible, it is still very hard to arrange the schedule to enter the field andthe lectures given by local residents or industry practitioners. We can but admit that it’s easier
to work with students from the same department, more precisely, students from the samedepartment as the teacher is. With their similar timetables and similar attitude and concern
about the course, the community-based courses seem to be more likely operated smoothly.
For its inter-disciplinary characters of the course, the students learn knowledge andtechniques from at least three areas. Compared to the one-dimensional course, the teacher
would not go too far, or too hard, if the students want to learn better, they might have tospend extra time to self-study to master what they learn in the class, such as making videos orgiving guided tours.

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How different areas of knowledge and skills integrated in the interdisciplinary,community-based course
The teacher from the tourism management elaborated the concepts and definition of
Eco-tourism and showed the students the examples of successful eco-tourism around theworld, such as those in Japan and Australia. He also indicated how to lead a guided tour. The
teacher from the Chinese literature took the responsibility to enable students to tell goodstories about the community and the farmland tree frogs, the species to be preserved. As aprofessional in the area of communication and media, I was asked to do marketing for thecommunity. I try to make students to write a news release, to build up relationship between
media (local or national) and the community.
I engaged students in community events or even hold or assist the events for the community.
To spread the information of events via social media, social networking service (SNS), such
as FB and Instagram is also what students can do for the local people. After all, young people
are the digital natives and the target population we want to arouse the most about the sense ofcommunity.
Although the three teachers in charge of this interdisciplinary course have been participating
in a project sponsored by the Ministry of Education for years, this is the first time to co-teach.
We spent quite amount of time to set the goal for the course and identify the role and mission
for each one of us. However, we realized the discussion, communication, coordination isnever enough. The students reported that the course has a heavy workload, especially the
final project. The three of us assign separate, independent final project, and this is too muchfor students. Actually we should have integrated the three final requirements into one.
We also came across some unsolvable problems, like, to give a guided tour is not as easy as it
seems. Students were asked to search for, edit and create the guiding texts, yet not just pile up
some popular science knowledge to cram into the tourists’ heads. Most tourists expect tohave fun to go on a tour, and not to gain a lot of knowledge. The community narratives
should be embedded into one’s life and experiences, that is, only when the story teller has theaffection for what he tells and the unique, personal experience with what he tells, he may tella good story. Since most students have limited interaction with local people, community andeven the tree frogs and their habitat, it is really hard for them to do a good guided tour. To
make the situation worse, we came across the worst outbreak of COVID-19 pandemic in
Taiwan when we were carrying out the course, most communities did not allow outsiders to
go in, and the school turned on-line and all these impacted the course harshly, especially for
my part of the course, since I wanted the students to get into the community to talk to the
local residents, to see and record their lives, to film the tree frogs and also the process of theguided tour. In the end, I was forced to compromise with some alternatives, and that wasquite frustrating experience in my teaching career.
Conclusions
Interdisciplinary courses have been promoted for quite some time, and considered a good
approach for higher education. The administration of education in Taiwan pushed theapproach by asking the universities to develop interdisciplinary courses and programs. Someschools even make it mandatory to take these courses or programs before graduation.
However, very few discussed how an interdisciplinary course is carried out, and what really

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happened in the education site. There are still a lot of problems to be solved and issues to be
explored.

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References
Business Today. (2018). College students get into the community, and become more practicaland competent. 2018.7.23. From:https://www.businesstoday.com.tw/article/category/80409/post/201807250053/
Chen, Y.L. (2017). From community development to sustainable community. Community
development journal quarterly, 158: 328-338.
The Global Goals. (2023). 11 Sustainable cities and communities. From:https://www.globalgoals.org/goals/11-sustainable-cities-and-communities/
Lin, G.Y. (2019). Interdisciplinary Learning. Tsing Hua Education, 2019.3.20.
Su, Y. M. (2018). Developing Universities’ Characteristics from Higher Education Sprout
Project (HESP). Taiwan Educational Review Monthly, 2018,7(12):1-2.
Contact email: annetychen@gmail.com

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Rethinking Technology Literacy for Effective Technology Integration ofSecondary Teachers
Rachel Ann H. Santos, Asian Institute of Management, Philippines
The Southeast Asian Conference on Education 2023
Official Conference Proceedings
Abstract
Technology integration is a popular topic in educational research that provides varying views
on classroom implementation. More and more countries execute laws on educational reform
to adapt to the progressive technological advances that require new sets of literacies fromboth teachers and learners. The main challenge for teachers in a developing country is not all
share a common understanding of what technology integration is. Technology literacy plays avital role in defining what makes technology integration in teaching and learning successful.
This study investigated the perceptions of secondary teachers on technology integration andthe implications of their perceptions with their technology literacy. We surveyed two sets ofsamples of secondary teachers from a private school in Manila (P=157), with 27 respondents
for the qualitative questionnaire and 120 respondents for the quantitative instrument that wedeveloped. The instrument was based on a conceptual framework incorporating: A
Framework for Understanding and Assessing Technology Literacy, and Technological
Pedagogy Content Knowledge: A Framework for Teacher Knowledge. A one-way ANOVA
with post hoc Tukey HSD test was used to understand the correlation between technology
literacy levels. Results propounded that there was a dissonance between how the secondary
teachers perceive technology integration and how they perceive their technology literacy.
These findings indicated a technology literacy gap that needed to be addressed to maketechnology integration effective.
Keywords: Technology Literacy, Technology Integration, One2One Learning, Educational
Technology, TPACK

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Introduction
In recent years, many studies have pointed out that technology is an integral component ofteaching and learning in the 21st century. In a study conducted by Kayalar (2016) on a Crosscultural Comparison of Teachers' Views upon Integration and Use of Technology inClassroom, it was evident that teachers agreed on the need and significant benefits of using
individual technological devices for learning. Yet, despite the transformation in teaching andlearning practices due to technological devices, the teachers in the study agreed that thefundamentals of teaching and learning remain unchanged. Similar views were discussed in
the studies of Davies and West (2013), and Carlson (2016). The onset of these relevant
studies inevitably resulted in the creation of many institutional standards and national policies
on technology integration in different countries.
According to Bonifacio (2013), integrating technology into teaching and learning has becomea great concern for many educators in developing countries like the Philippines. Since
Republic Act No. 10533 or Enhance Basic Education Act of 2013 was passed into law toimprove the Philippine educational system, the discussion on the inclusion of technology
integration in the K to 12 curricula has been consistently relevant in many basic education
institutional policies and teachers’ professional development programs of the said country.
The implementation of the law, supported by research, has made educators interprettechnology integration through varying contexts in different ways. With so many pressuresfrom the learners, as well as the school, state, and national educational change agendas,
teachers are placed in positions where they have good cause to feel anxious (Robertson,
Webb, and Fluck, 2007). Educators often teach with technology, which does little to equip
students with the skills they need beyond the classroom (Summey, 2013).
Technology is not being integrated into instruction to the degree that most expect (Davies,
2009). There is a common misconception that technology use, for whatever purpose, directly
equates to technology literacy, or what Davies cites as the method of technology adoption.
Thus, not all share a common understanding of what technology integration is.
This study aimed to understand the perceptions of secondary teachers on technology
integration in a private high school in the Philippines and identify their technology literacy
level based on Davies (2011) and Mishra and Koehler (2009) to attain the goal of technology
integration. The said private high school is a known basic education institution as one of thepioneers of technology integration in the Philippines; with efforts to institutionalize
technology integration in teaching and learning, by equipping each student with atechnological device in the classroom.
The attainment of the objectives of the study is the first attempt to measure technology
literacy in the context of technology integration, particularly in the Philippines. The
researcher also developed an instrument based on a conceptual framework that can be used
for further studies. More importantly, the proposed technology integration workshop to
improve the technology literacy levels of secondary teachers provided an immediate responseto the misconception of technology integration. Hence, this study is a valuable contribution to
informing the policies of educational institutions in promoting technology literacy andintegration for 21st-century quality learning.

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The succeeding parts of this paper are organized as follows. The next section examines theextant literature. The third section presents the foundations of the conceptual framework of
the study. The fourth section narrates the methodology and descriptive statistics. The fifth
section describes the results. Lastly, the sixth section concludes with a discussion andopportunities for future research.
Literature Review
Substantial literature exists on technology integration with central themes on (a) the different
definitions, (b) existing standards, and (c) examples of best practices. These themes arebriefly examined through the three subsections below.
Definitions of Technology Integration
Through the years, the definitions of technology integration have evolved from the simple
meaning of 'technology use' to the more complex meaning of applying technological skills
for understanding lessons and content with the overall teaching and learning process.
According to Dockstader (1999), technology integration is using computers effectively andefficiently in the general content areas to allow students to learn how to apply computer skills
in meaningful ways. In this definition, technology integration is focused on learning
computer skills through learning different content. A decade after, a new definition oftechnology integration claims that it is not just about the mere use of computers but also
about attaining specific teaching and learning goals with the use of these devices. For
Cennamo, Rozz & Ertmer (2010), to integrate means to combine two or more things to makea whole; when we integrate technologies into instruction, we make them an integral part of
the teaching and learning process.
As such, the two different definitions mentioned above show how the application oftechnology in education changed over time.
Existing Standards on Technology Integration
The existing standards on technology integration are emergent initiatives among groups ofeducators to streamline understanding and practices of technology integration. At least threeinternationally recognized organizations have published these standards.
First is the National Educational Technology Standards for Teachers (NETS-T) by theInternational Society for Technology Education (2008), which provided five standards andperformance indicators for teachers. Second is the P21 Framework for 21st Century Learning
by Partnership for 21st Century Skills (P21), which suggested the need for educators tomaster nine competencies. And third is the Standards for the 21st Century Learner by theAmerican Association of School Librarians (2007), which provided four sets of skills
expected from the students as a guide for librarians with key guide questions for educators.
The three different sets of standards published by the ISTE, P21, and AASL are based on
21st-century skills and may be summarized into four critical areas for development.
According to Potter, Whitener, and Sikorsky (2014), these areas are collaboration, creativity,
critical thinking, and problem-solving. These concepts are crucial points for educational

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reform in many countries depending on technological leadership, economy, and culturalcontext.
Examples of Best Practices
Examples of best practices and guidelines in effective technology integration are evidence ofteachers’ active involvement in the continuous refinement of technology integration. These
are also supported by studies on the effects of technology integration, proving that the use oftechnology has significant benefits for teaching and learning.
A study by Ismail et. al. (2019) revealed an increase in students' interaction and mastery oflearning as a result of the integration of multimedia in a vocational college in Malaysia.
Positive effects were seen such as mastery of techniques and skills as well as having an
exciting and effective impact on teaching and learning (Ismail et al, 2019).
In addition, a hypothetical model was suggested to improve the instructional abilities ofteachers by Uslu (2018), which emphasizes the significance of teachers' use of technology byintegrating it into pedagogical and content knowledge in the learning process to support
learner-centered activities. In the model, gender, frequency of computer, TPCK
(Technological Pedagogy Content Knowledge), and attitude were shown to have direct
effects on technology integration, while technical support, individual innovativeness,seniority, and duration of computer have indirect effects. All of these aspects combined willserve as basis for improving instructional abilities for the pre-service teaching education andschools (Uslu, 2019).
There is a significant increase in technological advances in recent years; therefore, there is afundamental belief that both teachers and students are expected to be technology literate. As
new technologies emerge, both students and educators are often eager to find methods ofassimilating these technologies into their classroom experience (Courts & Tucker, 2012).
Given these factors, there is a need for streamlining technology integration practices in the
curriculum to define standard practices that would ensure quality education in the 21stcentury, wherein technology literacy plays a vital role.
Conceptual Frameworks
Two frameworks were combined in this study to demonstrate how a person’s technology
literacy can be determined and how technology integration can be effectively implemented in
the education sector. The first framework is developed by Davies (2011) outlining the threelevels of technology literacy, while the second framework created by Mishra and Koehler(2009) offers an approach to implementing technology integration in education.
Davies (2011) presented A Framework for Understanding and Assessing Technology
Literacy, which illustrates three levels of technology literacy starting from Awareness, thenmoving to Praxis, and finally to the Phronesis Level. These levels are represented as acontinuum that requires a cyclical process of continual reeducation (Davies, 2011). It is acontinuum because it has a specific sequence starting from the first phase and continuing up
to the third phase to convey progression from a lower level to a higher level of technologicalliteracy. The cyclical process refers to the reiteration of the continuum of levels of technology
literacy as development and innovations in technology are introduced and adopted.

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Literacy Level

Type of User

Usage Level

Awareness

Functionally illiterate
Limited literacy

Non-user
Potential user

None/ resistant
Limited

PraxisDeveloping
Experienced

Tentative user
Capable user

Guided/ directed
Bring it on

Phronesis

Practical competence
Practical wisdom

Expert user
Discerning userPower
Selective

Table 1. Levels of Technology Literacy by Randall S. Davies (2011)
As seen in Table 1, there are three levels that an individual must go through to achieve
technology literacy. The first level suggests that a learner needs to be aware of the technology
first before he or she can effectively use it in his or her context. The two higher levels (Praxis
and Phronesis) are based on the Aristotelian notion, wherein praxis involves the actual
practice or application of something, for instance in the field of educational technology. On
the other hand, phronesis involves practical wisdom or the ability to discern why or why not
do an act, in this case, use technology in authentic learning situations. Davies (2011) further
discussed that the lower-level skills in his framework are prerequisites to attain the highestlevel Phronesis. His explanation cited Bloom’s taxonomy of cognitive development as asimilar concept in acquiring higher-order thinking skills. In addition, Davies (2011)
consistently reiterated that these levels are represented as a continuum that requires a
cyclical process of continual reeducation. This may easily be related to the fast-paced
development of technology, wherein new hardware devices and software tools are being
invented and made known to the public every day. Likewise, his framework encompasses any
available tool and focuses on reviewing one’s ability to discern when or when not to use aparticular technology and why or why not to use it in a particular learning situation.
The Technological Pedagogy Content Knowledge: A Framework for Teacher Knowledge byMishra and Koehler (2009) or more commonly known as TPCK was used as the basis to
identify specific types of knowledge needed to become truly technology literate. Throughusing and combining the three types of knowledge, namely technological knowledge (TK),
pedagogical knowledge (PK), and content knowledge (CK), the framework outlines how
content and pedagogy align with effective technology integration in education. Accordingly,
teachers who possess TPCK choose to use specific technology because they understand thepedagogy for teaching specific content and how the technology will facilitate theaccomplishment of the intended learning goal (Davies, 2009).
TPCK provides conceptual lenses for describing and understanding the goals of technology
use through a framework that represents the interdependent relationship of technology,
pedagogy, and content knowledge of teachers. It further describes the relationship between
technology and teaching that can transform the conceptualization and the practice of teacher
education, teacher training, and teachers' professional development. Various knowledge
systems are fundamental to teaching, including knowledge of student thinking and learning,and knowledge of the subject matter. Teaching is a highly complex activity that draws on
many kinds of knowledge (Mishra and Koehler, 2009). Likewise, as Davies suggests, there isno single technological solution that applies to every teacher, every course, or every view of

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teaching. Mishra and Koehler presented the seven domains of TPCK, shown in figure 1, as a
guide to how these knowledge systems interact as a set of skills for teachers.

Figure 1. Technological Pedagogy Content Knowledge: A Framework for
Teacher Knowledge by Mishra and Koehler (2009)
Integrating the principles from the two frameworks, the TK, TCK, TPK, and TPCK domains(from TPCK of Mishra and Koehler) were represented as prerequisites of higher order skills(from the Technology Literacy framework of Davies). These are shown through the blue
blocks in figure 2. Based on Davies (2011), each technology level also has a specific need tosuccessfully acquire the expected set of skills. These are represented in white blocks. The
Teacher is represented as the person who acquired the CK, PK, and PCK skills in which he or
she is expected to be technology literate. To become a technology-literate teacher, he or sheneeds to acquire the skills listed below.
1. To attain the Technology Literacy Level of Awareness, TK skills are needed. According toDavies (2011), given the opportunities to learn technology, there is a great chance to bepromoted from being functionally illiterate to having limited literacy;
2. To attain the Technology Literacy Level of Praxis, TCK and TPK skills are needed.
Davies (2011) suggests that given expert guidance and practice involving simulated
problem-solving activities, there is a great chance to be promoted from a developing level
to being experienced; and,3. To attain the Technology Literacy Level of Phronesis, TPCK skills are needed. Davies(2011) reiterated that given an authentic situation in which to use technology, there is agreat chance to be promoted from being practically competent to practically wise.

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Figure 2. Researcher’s Conceptual Framework of the Study
Using the conceptual framework described above, the secondary teachers' level of technology
literacy (awareness, praxis, or phronesis) was looked into based on their responses on theselected TPCK domains (TK, TCK, TPK, and TPCK) with a focus on the knowledge related
to technology.
Methodology
To obtain the objectives of the study, an action research method was utilized. The primary
purpose of action research is to provide the means for people to engage in systematic inquiry
and investigation to “design” an appropriate way of accomplishing a desired goal and toevaluate its effectiveness (Stringer, 2007). Thus, action research was preferred due to its
ability to diagnose problems or weaknesses and develop effective solutions in a specificcommunity.
A combination of qualitative data from 27 respondents and quantitative data from 120
secondary teachers or 76% were collected out of the 157 total population. Two online survey
instruments were developed for this study.
Perceptions of Teachers on the One2One Learning Program Survey
The first instrument was a 5-item open-ended questionnaire, which aided in gathering
qualitative data on the perceptions of secondary teachers on technology integration. Eachquestion was constructed to elicit short responses from the respondents that provided richinformation on how secondary teachers think and feel about the program, and how they have
implemented it through their own experiences.
The responses from this survey were analyzed through the 'basic approach for analyzing andinterpreting narrative data referred to as content analysis' (Taylor-Powell and Renner, 2003),
which involved: (1) discussing the items one by one; (2) organizing it into categories (such as
positive and negative), and; (3) identifying common themes to reiterate important
information that was crucial in the findings of the study.
The summary of statistics in table 2 shows the feelings of the secondary teachers toward the
One2One Learning Program. The positive feelings focused on the benefits of the program forteaching and learning, while the negative feelings were about its disadvantages and threats to

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the teachers. Evidently, there is a dissonance among the teachers' perceptions of technology
integration.
Categorized responses to item 2

Frequency

Percentage

Positive

830%

Both positive and negative

13

48%

Negative

6

22%

27

100%

Total number of respondents

Table 2. Frequency table of positive and negative feelings of secondary teachers about
Xavier´s One2One program
Technology Literacy Survey (Quantitative)
The second instrument was developed from the conceptual framework of the study with the
combined concepts of Davies (2011) on technology literacy levels, and Mishra and Koehler(2009) on the TPCK domains. The item breakdown was divided into three subscales
according to each technology literacy level namely Awareness, Praxis, and Phronesis. Each
subscale was composed of items both constructed based on the exact descriptors of Davies(2011) and adapted from the research of Koh, Chai, and Tsait (2010) on Examining theTechnological Pedagogical Content Knowledge of Singapore pre-service Teachers with alarge-scale Survey, that validated a TPCK instrument through the exploratory factorial
analysis.
A test was conducted, using SPSS software, to ensure the reliability and validity of the
instrument. The reliability coefficients of each subscale (Awareness, Praxis, and Phronesis)
were 0.890, 0.855, and 0.938 respectively, which means that the values of Cronbach's alpha
per subscale suggest that the items have high internal consistency.
Summary statistics of the respondents’ technology literacy scores are shown below. The
central tendencies of the total scores of the 120 respondents for each subscale show that thesecondary teachers are highly confident about their technology literacy.
Technology Literacy

Mean Score

Description

Awareness

6.0

High

Praxis5.4

HighPhronesis

5.7

High

Table 3. Measures of Central Tendency of the Technology Literacy Survey Scores

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Action to be Taken to Attain the Goal of Technology Integration
Completing the action research process is to plan, implement and evaluate potential solutions
based on the relevant data gathered. Subsequently, both qualitative and quantitative data
mentioned above were explored and analyzed in line with the conceptual framework toprovide a sound action plan.
A module was designed following the Ignatian Pedagogical Paradigm with varying types oflearning activities such as lectures, differentiated and hands-on learning; and approaches toteaching and learning such as student choice and student's voice.
Empirical Results
The results of the study are organized into three subsections following each of the objectives
in response to the research questions.
The Need for Professional Training
The perceptions of teachers on technology integration were found dissonant as both positive
and negative experiences were elaborated from the qualitative responses. As a result, the needfor professional training related to technology integration was the most dominant theme
across the 5-item questionnaire, as key to gaining concordance towards one common
perception of technology integration.
Table 4 shows the common themes and the frequency of their mentions from the responses
when asked how can the school help in dealing with their difficulties in technology
integration.
Common themes of the responses in item 5

Frequency

Review and improve student disciplinary guidelines involving the useof technology

4

Conduct more trainings and workshops about technology integration

13

Provide regular updates about the school´s infrastructure and available
or preferred resources for technology integration

9

Collaborate with parents

1

Table 4. Frequency table of common answers in item 5, How do you think can the school
help you in integrating technology more often?
In overview, results from the qualitative data show that the secondary teachers were notadequately technology literate to perform a successful technology integration due to theinability to overcome difficulties and admittance for the need to conduct more frequent
professional trainings, as both described in the negative experiences from the responses.

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Technology Literacy Gap
According to the quantitative data gathered, the most dominant technology literacy level ofthe respondents is Awareness (as shown in table 3). A one-way ANOVA test, with post hoc,
Tukey HSD was run using SPSS software to better understand the correlation in how teachers
answered the survey between the technology literacy levels: Awareness, Praxis, andPhronesis. The values are shown in the table below.
Technology Literacy Level
Awareness

PraxisPhronesis

and thep-value

Praxis0.013

Phronesis

0.345

Awareness

0.013

Phronesis

0.186

Awareness

0.345

Praxis0.186

Table 5. Technology Literacy Survey Scores in post hoc, Tukey HSD, values
Results of the statistical treatment present significant differences between Awareness andPraxis and vice versa which both have a p-value of 0.013. Using the conceptual framework,
Awareness only had the Technological Knowledge (TK) items under it, while Praxis had the
combination of pedagogy and content with technological knowledge described by Mishra andKohler (2009) as TCK and TPK. This implies that teachers perceived their content andpedagogical knowledge with technology differently from the way they perceive theirknowledge in technology alone. This is where the "gap" in the technology literacy levels of
secondary teachers was found.
Discussion and Conclusions
The following study was conducted in a private basic education institution in the Philippines,
to understand the perceptions of secondary teachers on technology integration, identify theirtechnology literacy level, and take the necessary action plan to attain the goal of technology
integration. One of the limitations of the study is the low response rate in the qualitative
survey questionnaire resulting in a limited sampling size, though it was supported by thequantitative data with a high response rate to validate the statistics and represent the
population.
Results of the study highlight the similarities in the perceptions of teachers in other studies
mentioned in the first part of this paper. Whereas, the teacher respondents agreed on the needand impact of the use of technological devices for learning. They also reiterated theimportance of keeping the fundamentals of teaching and learning. In addition, an option tofind one common understanding in integrating technology into teaching and learning in aparticular school or community is through the research process undertaken.

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Further research on this subject matter may be pursued by conducting a pre-test and post-test
to measure the effectiveness of the action plan in addressing the gap in the technology
literacy level of the teachers. Another recommendation is a replication of the study to a larger
scale to better understand the trends in technology literacy relating to technology integration
among educators from a particular area or district.
Every framework is either derived with a certain range of situations in mind or emerges froma particular set of circumstances (Robertson, Webb, and Fluck, 2007). Thus establishing acommon understanding of educational reform, such as technology integration, is an importantbasis for drafting policies and defining standards on what makes a curriculum program
successful.
Acknowledgment
We express our gratitude to Ma. Celeste Gonzales Ed.D., who provided guidance and support
throughout the research process.

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References
American Association of School Librarians. (2007). Standards for the 21st Century Learner.
https://standards.aasl.org/framework/
Bonifacio, A. (2013). Developing Information Communication Technology (ICT) CurriculumStandards for K-12 Schools in the Philippines. Learning International Network
Consortium. November 24, 2016
http://linc.mit.edu/linc2013/proceedings/Session7/Session7Bonifacio.pdf
Carlson, S. (2016). An Examination of Teacher Understandings of Technology Integration at
the Classroom Level. Theses & Dissertations. Paper 293. The University of SouthernMaine.
Cennamo, K., Ross, J. and Ertmer P. (2010). Technology Integration for Meaningful
Classroom Use - A Standard-Based Approach. Wadsworth Cengage Learning, CA.
Courts, B. and Tucker, J. (2012). Using Technology to Create a Dynamic Classroom
Experience. Journal of College Teaching & Learning. Second Quarter 2012. The
Cute Institute. Retrieved November 29, 2016 from static.
Davies, R. (2011). Understanding Technology Literacy: A Framework for Evaluating
Educational Technology Integration. Brigham Young University. Published online:
September/ October 2011.
Davies, R. and West, R. (2013). Technology Integration in Schools. Handbook of Researchon Educational Communications and Technology (4th Edition). Brigham Young
University, USA.
Dockstader, J. (1999). Teachers of the 21st century know the what, why, and how oftechnology integration. Northern Arizona University. Retrieved November 28, 2016
http://jan.ucc.nau.edu/~coesyl-p/principle3-article2.pdf
International Society for Technology Education (2008). National Educational Technology
Standards for Teachers. https://www.iste.org/standards/for-educators
Ismail, A. (2019). The Effect of Multimedia Technology Integration on Students’ Academic
Achievement. October 11, 2019 http://eds.a.ebscohost.com/eds/viewarticle/
Kayalar, F. (2016). Cross-cultural Comparison of Teachers’ Views upon Integration and Useof Technology in Classroom. The Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology.
April 2016, volume 15, issue 3.
Koehler, M. J., & Mishra, P. (2008). Introducing Technological Pedagogical Content
Knowledge. In AACTE Committee on Innovation and Technology (Eds.), Handbookof Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPCK) for Educators (pp. 3-29).
New York: Routledge.
Koehler, M. J., & Mishra, P. (2009). What Is Technological Pedagogical Content
Knowledge? Contemporary Issues in Technology and Teacher Education, 9, 60-70.

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Official Gazette of the Republic of the Philippines. (May 15, 2013). Republic Act No. 10533.
http://www.gov.ph/2013/05/15/republic-act-no-10533/
Partnership for 21st Century Learning. (n.d.). P21 Frameworks for 21st Century Learning.
http://www.battelleforkids.org/networks/p21
Potter, A., Whitener, A. & Sikorsky, J. (2014). 13 Essential 21st Century Skills for Today’s
Students. https://www.envisionexperience.com/blog/13-essential-21st-century-skillsfor-todays-students
Robertson M., Webb I., & Fluck, A. (2007). Seven Steps to ICT Integration. ACER Press inAustralian Council for Educational Research. Victoria, Australia 3124.
Stringer, E. (2007). Action Research (Third Edition). Sage Publications, Inc., USA
Summey, D. (2013). Developing Digital Literacies - A Framework for Professional
Learning. Corwin, CA.
Taylor-Powell, E. and Renner, M. (2003). Analyzing Qualitative Data. The University of
Wisconsin-Extension.
https://deltastate.edu/docs/irp/Analyzing%20Qualitative%20Data.pdf
Uslu, O. (2018). Factors Associated with Technology Integration to Improve Instructional
Abilities: A Path Model. Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 43(4). Retrieved
October 18, 2019 http://ro.ecu.edu.au/ajte/vol43/iss4/3
Contact email: aki.rachelsantos@gmail.com

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Teaching and Learning in COVID-19 Situation:
The Design of an Online Pedagogical Seminar Course
Chanakan Grosseau, King Mongkut’s University of Technology Thonburi, Thailand
Rut Manotum, King Mongkut’s University of Technology Thonburi, Thailand
Arnon Thongsaw, King Mongkut’s University of Technology Thonburi, Thailand
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Abstract
This study examined the effectiveness of an assessment approach that focuses on three
aspects of presentation (content, presentation skills, and answering) in a seminar course. The
research also investigated the relationship between presentation and student development,
specifically regarding communication skills, teamwork, public speaking, and problemsolving abilities. The study also aimed to determine the feasibility of using online systems toteach and learn seminar courses at the secondary level. The results showed that the students
had relatively high scores in all three assessment areas, with most of the scores clustering
around the mean and median values and relatively small standard deviations. A questionnaireadministered to a sample of students revealed that participating in seminar courses andpresenting research papers had a statistically significant positive effect on students'
communication skills. The results also indicated that online systems can potentially be a
viable alternative to face-to-face instruction for seminar courses at the secondary level.
Keywords: Online Seminar Courses, Discussion-Based Courses, Student-Led Presentations,Interactive Learning, Critical Thinking, Problem Solving, Collaborative Learning, Student
Engagement, Motivation, Learning Outcomes

iafor
The International Academic Forumwww.iafor.org

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1. INTRODUCTION
Seminar courses, also known as seminar-style or discussion-based courses, are a popularteaching method at the secondary school level (K-12). These courses typically involve small
group discussions, student presentations, and interactive learning activities, and are designed
to promote critical thinking, problem solving, and collaborative learning (Chung, Kim, &Lim, 2018). Research has shown that seminar courses can be effective in promoting student
engagement, motivation, and learning outcomes (Duggan & Swain, 2013).
One study found that students in seminar courses reported higher levels of motivation andengagement compared to students in traditional lecture-based courses and had better retentionof course content (Duggan & Swain, 2013). Another study found that seminar courses had apositive impact on students' problem-solving skills and critical thinking abilities, as well as
their communication and collaboration skills (Chung, Kim, & Lim, 2018). In addition,
research has shown that seminar courses can be particularly beneficial for disadvantaged
students, as they can provide an opportunity for equal participation and support for diverse
learning styles (Santos, Aquino, & Gomes, 2015).
However, it is important to note that seminar courses can also present challenges for teachers,
including the need for careful planning and preparation, and the need to manage student
behavior and participation (Cochran-Smith & Lytle, 2009). To be effective, seminar courses
may require additional resources and support, such as training for teachers and access totechnology and other learning materials (Hannafin, Land, & Oliver, 1999).
According to research conducted in Thailand, there has been an increase in the number ofschools offering STEM or STEAM education in order to help students reach their fullpotential and be well-prepared for entry into the industry in the 4.0 era (e.g., Pongkittipong,2019). One approach that has been found to be effective in helping students understandresearch is the use of seminar courses (e.g., Rungruang & Wannasiri, 2018). These courses
allow students to engage in active learning and have been shown to improve critical thinking
skills and understanding of complex concepts (e.g., Suwannasiri & Rungruang, 2020).
Overall, it seems that incorporating seminar courses into STEM or STEAM education
programs in Thailand may be an effective way to enhance student learning and prepare themfor success in the 4.0 era.
The outbreak of SARS-CoV-2 has resulted in a shift from in-person classroom learning toonline learning. Online platforms, such as learning management systems (e.g. Google
Classroom) and social media platforms (e.g. Facebook), have become increasingly popularfor educational purposes in recent years. These platforms offer a range of features andbenefits, including the ability to access course materials and communicate with classmatesand instructors remotely. In addition, the use of video conferencing tools (e.g. Zoom) has
allowed for the creation of virtual classrooms, where students can participate in live,
interactive seminars and lectures from the comfort of their own homes.
Past research has explored the effectiveness of these online platforms for learning. One study
found that students who used a learning management system in their course reported higher
levels of satisfaction with the course and had better academic outcomes compared to those
who did not use the system (Jones, 2019). Another study found that the use of social media
for educational purposes can facilitate the creation of online learning communities, which canenhance student engagement and support collaborative learning (Smith, 2018).

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Overall, the use of online platforms for education has the potential to improve accessibility
and convenience for students, as well as provide new opportunities for interaction andcollaboration. It is important, however, to consider the potential challenges and limitations ofthese platforms, such as unequal access to technology and the need for appropriate digital
literacy skills (Carter, 2020).
The main objective of this study could be to evaluate the effectiveness of using an online
system comprising Facebook, Google Classroom, and Zoom for teaching seminar courses tosecondary students in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic. This objective would involve
examining whether students are able to effectively engage in the seminar courses through theonline system, and whether they are able to achieve the same learning outcomes as theywould in traditional in-person classes.
2. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
2.1 Seminar courses at the high school level (K-12) and their importance for being able topresent academic work.
According to a review of the literature, seminar courses at the high school level (K-12) can be
an effective way to support learning and the ability to present academic work. In a study by
Smith and Jones (2020), seminar courses were found to improve student communication
skills, which can be important when it comes to presenting academic work. In addition,
research by Brown and Williams (2019) found that seminar courses can help students
develop important skills such as collaboration, presentation skills, and public speaking. Theseskills can be beneficial for students when it comes to presenting academic work, as they
allow students to effectively articulate their ideas and work effectively with their peers.
Another benefit of seminar courses is that they often involve active learning and discussionbased activities, which can promote deeper understanding of course material (Kim & Lee,2018). This is particularly important for presenting academic work, as it requires students toengage with and analyze complex ideas and communicate them effectively to an audience.
Additionally, seminar courses may provide students with the opportunity to practice theirpresentation skills through in-class presentations and feedback from peers and instructors(Park & Kim, 2017).
Overall, the literature suggests that seminar courses at the high school level can be an
important tool for supporting student learning and the ability to present academic work.
However, further research is needed to fully understand the specific ways in which seminarcourses impact presentation skills and the best practices for implementing these courses in theclassroom.
2.2 Seminar courses at the high school level (K-12) and their importance for student
retention, social engagement, and academic performance, particularly for first year students.
According to a review of the literature, seminar courses at the high school level (K-12) can be
an effective way to support student retention, social engagement, and academic performance,
particularly for first year students. In a study by Smith and Jones (2020), seminar courses
were found to improve student retention rates by promoting a sense of belonging andconnection to the school community. Similarly, research by Brown and Williams (2019)
found that seminar courses can help students develop essential skills, such as teamwork and

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communication, which can improve social engagement and contribute to a positive school
experience.
In terms of academic performance, several studies have found that seminar courses can havea positive impact on student achievement. For example, Kim and Lee (2018) found thatseminar courses that included discussion-based activities led to a significant improvement intest scores. Additionally, Park and Kim (2017) found that seminar courses that provided
opportunities for students to practice their writing skills and receive feedback from peers andinstructors were associated with higher grades on writing assignments.
Overall, the literature suggests that seminar courses at the high school level can be an
important tool for supporting student retention, social engagement, and academic
performance, particularly for first year students. However, further research is needed to fully
understand the specific ways in which seminar courses impact these outcomes and the bestpractices for implementing these courses in the classroom.
2.3 Seminar courses at the high school level (K-12) and their importance for designing
methods for assessing student understanding of research through class presentation.
According to a review of the literature, seminar courses at the high school level (K-12) can be
an effective way to support the design of methods for assessing student understanding ofresearch through class presentation. In a study by Smith and Jones (2020), seminar coursesthat included presentation-based activities were found to be an effective way to assess student
understanding of research. In addition, research by Brown and Williams (2019) found thatseminar courses can help students develop important skills such as communication,
collaboration, and public speaking, which can be beneficial when it comes to presenting
research in front of the class.
Another benefit of seminar courses is that they often involve active learning and discussionbased activities, which can promote deeper understanding of course material (Kim & Lee,2018). This is particularly important for research presentations, as it requires students toengage with and analyze complex ideas and communicate them effectively to an audience.
Additionally, seminar courses may provide students with the opportunity to practice theirpresentation skills through in-class presentations and receive feedback from peers andinstructors (Park & Kim, 2017).
Overall, the literature suggests that seminar courses at the high school level can be an
important tool for supporting the design of methods for assessing student understanding ofresearch through class presentation. However, further research is needed to fully understandthe specific ways in which seminar courses impact student understanding of research and thebest practices for implementing these courses in the classroom.
2.4 Review of literature from past research on teaching and learning seminar courses at thehigh school level (K-12) through an online format due to Covid-19.
Recent research on teaching and learning seminar courses at the high school level (K-12)
through an online format due to Covid-19 has shown mixed results. Some studies have foundthat students in online seminar courses have performed just as well as their in-person
counterparts (e.g., Kao & Yates, 2020; Smith et al., 2021). However, other research hassuggested that there may be challenges associated with online learning, such as a lack of face-

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to-face interaction and difficulties with technology (e.g., Nguyen & Smith, 2020; Xu et al.,2021).
One study found that students in online seminar courses reported more isolated feeling andless connected to their classmates compared to students in in-person seminar courses(Nguyen & Smith, 2020). However, other research has suggested that online platforms canprovide opportunities for collaboration and communication through using media such as
discussion forums and video conferencing (Kao & Yates, 2020).
Overall, the literature suggests that while online seminar courses can be effective for somestudents, there may be challenges for others. It is important for teachers to be aware of thesepotential challenges and to work to address them through the use of various teachingstrategies and technologies. Additionally, it may be helpful for teachers to provide supportand resources for students who are struggling with the transition to online learning.
3. HYPOTHESIS DEVELOPMENT
Research has shown that the assessment of presentation in front of the class in a seminar
subject is an effective way to promote student learning and improve overall performance(Jones, 2020; Smith, 2019). This assessment approach consists of three key elements:
content, presentation skill, and answer (Brown, 2018). First, students must be able to present
basic information that is necessary for the academic article being discussed, and thisinformation must be accurate (Jones, 2020). This ensures that students have a solid
understanding of the content and are able to effectively communicate this knowledge to theirpeers. Second, students must be able to present the academic article with confidence (Smith,2019). This is important because confidence can help students feel more comfortable andengaged in the learning process, leading to better retention and understanding of the material(Brown, 2018). Finally, students must be able to answer questions clearly, accurately,
confidently, reasonably, and to the point (Jones, 2020). This demonstrates their ability tothink critically and apply their knowledge to new situations.
The 1st hypothesis of this research is that assessing three aspects of presentation (content,
presentation skill, and answer) will help students achieve the learning objectives of theseminar course. This assessment approach will provide a comprehensive evaluation of
student performance and help identify areas where students may need additional support or
guidance. By focusing on these three areas, the research aims to determine whether thisassessment method is effective in promoting student learning and improving overall
performance in the seminar course.
According to research, presenting research in front of the class in a seminar course can help
develop students' communication skills, teamwork, public speaking, and problem-solving
abilities (Jones, 2020; Smith, 2019). For example, students who present research in front of
their peers have the opportunity to practice effective communication skills, such as speaking
clearly and concisely, using appropriate body language, and organizing their thoughts in a
logical manner (Jones, 2020). Additionally, working together as a team to prepare and present
helps students develop teamwork skills, such as collaborating, delegating tasks, and providing
constructive feedback (Smith, 2019). Furthermore, presenting research in front of a class canhelp students overcome their fears of public speaking and become more confident in theirability to present in front of others (Brown, 2018). Finally, the process of researching and

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The 2nd hypothesis of this research is that presenting research in front of the class in aseminar course develops students' communication skills, teamwork, public speaking, andproblem-solving abilities. This research aims to investigate whether the act of presenting
research in front of a class. By examining the relationship between presentation and student
development, the research aims to determine whether this activity can be an effective tool for
promoting learning and improving overall performance in the seminar course.
According to research, teaching and learning seminar courses at the secondary level with an
online system can be effective and may even be preferable to traditional face-to-face
instruction in some cases (Jones, 2020; Smith, 2019). Online learning can provide students
with more flexibility and convenience, as they can access course materials and complete
assignments at their own pace and from any location (Jones, 2020). Additionally, online
systems can offer a wider range of resources and interactive tools that can enhance thelearning experience (Smith, 2019). For example, online systems may include multimedia
content, virtual discussions, and collaborative projects that can help students engage with thematerial more actively and deeply (Jones, 2020). Furthermore, online systems can facilitatecommunication and collaboration among students and instructors, even when they are notphysically present in the same location (Smith, 2019).
The 3rd hypothesis of this research is that teaching and learning seminar courses at thesecondary level with an online system is effective and can potentially replace traditional
face-to-face instruction. This research aims to investigate the effectiveness of online learningin the secondary education setting and determine whether it can provide students with a highquality learning experience that is comparable to traditional instruction. By examining thebenefits and limitations of online learning in this context, the research aims to determine
whether online systems can be a viable alternative to face-to-face instruction for seminarcourses at the secondary level.
All research frameworks arising from research assumptions are described in Figure 1.A. This
figure presents a visual representation of the different approaches and methods used to study
a particular research question or problem. It allows readers to quickly understand andcompare the various approaches and methods used in the study, and how they are related to
the research assumptions underlying the investigation.
4. METHODOLOGY
4.1 Seminar course overview
4.1.1 Participant
All of the participants in this study were enrolled in 1st year high school and were part of theSCiUS project, Engineering-Science classroom (ESC), KMUTT, Thailand. The sample sizefor this study was 149 students, with 71 students in the traditional classroom group and 78
students in the online seminar group. These students were selected for the study based on
their enrollment in the specified grade level and academic program. The research aimed to

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compare the effectiveness of traditional classroom methods versus online seminar courses forstudents in 1st year high school.
4.1.2 Learning outcome of this course
The objectives of the teaching and learning seminars for high school students are as follows:
1. To equip students with the ability to present their work in a clear and understandable
manner.
2. To provide students with the skills to ask and answer questions during academicpresentations, as well as the etiquette for participating in such events.
3. To enable students to engage in discussions and exchange ideas on various topics
related to the presented work.
4. To develop students' listening skills in order to effectively comprehend academic
lectures.
5. To teach students the scientific method through the analysis of academic papers.
6. To enhance students' reading skills in order to interpret academic articles effectively.
7. To enable students to write summaries and abstracts of academic material.
4.2 Seminar course approach
Seminar courses aim to train students in effectively presenting their academic work. This
includes developing presentation skills, listening skills for comprehending academic lectures,and learning the process of science through academic papers. Reading skills, such as theability to interpret and analyze academic articles, as well as write summaries and abstracts,
are also essential skills for success in these courses.
The learning process in a seminar course is held on the Google Classroom (Fig.1B) platform
typically follows the following steps:
1. Students, working in groups of two, search for academic articles that align with theirinterests, as determined by the course coordinator.
2. Students discuss the chosen articles with their group advisors to determine theirsuitability for presentation.
3. Students practice their reading and interpretation skills by summarizing and writing
an abstract of the research they have read, and have it reviewed by their groupadvisor.
4. Students meet with their group advisor regularly to ensure they are making progressin the course (Fig.1C).
5. Students prepare to present their academic papers, taking into consideration thecontent, their presentation skills, and their ability to answer questions (Fig.1D).
On the presentation day, students will be evaluated based on three criteria: the content of theirpresentation, their presentation skills, and their ability to answer questions. By actively
engaging with the material and seeking feedback and guidance from advisors, students candevelop the skills necessary to present their academic work comprehensively and effectively.

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H2: Presenting
research helps develop
communication,
teamwork, public
speaking, andproblem-solving skills.

H1: Assessing three
aspects of presentation
helps students achievelearning objectives.

H3: Online seminarcourses can potentiallyreplace traditional
instruction.
D)

C)
B)

Fig.1A: The research hypothesis summarizes the overall picture of the research framework.
Fig.1B: Various teaching management uses LMS such as Google Classroom
to facilitate learning.
Fig.1C: Students meet with the advisor to understand the content of the research,rehearse their presentation, and ask questions.
Fig.1D: On the day of the presentation, there will be 3 assessments taking place using the
ZOOM platform to evaluate the students' understanding and application of the research.
4.3 Rubric for Assessment in Presentation Day
On the day of the presentation of research papers, the evaluation criteria for students include:
1. Content: Students are able to present the content of the academic article in an
organized and clear manner, including all necessary information. The information
presented must be accurate and relevant to the topic.
2. Presentation Skills: Students demonstrate confidence and professionalism in theirpresentation, maintaining eye contact with the audience, speaking clearly and at an
appropriate volume, and avoiding reading their slides or scripts.
3. Answering: Students are able to answer questions related to their presentation in aclear, concise, and accurate manner, demonstrating a thorough understanding of thematerial.
To successfully meet these evaluation criteria, it is important for students to thoroughly
prepare for their presentations, practicing their delivery and anticipating potential questions.
By effectively presenting their academic work and engaging with the audience, students can
showcase their understanding of the material and their ability to communicate it effectively.
4.4 Finding and Discussion
4.4.1 Equal importance of content, presentation skills, and answering in determining student
learning outcomes in seminar course.

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Before changing the format of teaching in the seminar course to an online format, theresearch team anticipates considering the impact of the class presentation assessment form on
student learning outcomes. Specifically, the team is interested in determining which of thethree factors (content, presentation skill, and answering) will be most related to the learning
outcomes of the course, such as the ability to present work effectively, ask and answer
questions, listen and understand the main ideas, and explain and exchange opinions on
various issues related to the work presented. The team hopes that this analysis will help
inform decisions about the best approach to teaching the course online and ensure thatstudents have the skills and knowledge they need to succeed in the course.
Overall, the statistical analysis of the three assessment areas showed that the students
performed well in all three areas. In the content section, the mean score was 8.17, the medianwas 8.00, the mode was 8.00, and the standard deviation was 1.09. This indicates that most of
the scores were clustered around the mean and median values, with a relatively small
standard deviation. In the presentation skill section, the mean score was 8.09, the median was
8.00, the mode was 9.00, and the standard deviation was 1.32. This indicates that the scores
were slightly more dispersed, with a larger standard deviation compared to the content
section. However, many of the scores were still clustered around the mean and medianvalues. In the answering section, the mean score was 7.95, the median was 8.00, the modewas 10.00, and the standard deviation was 1.35. Like the presentation skill section, the scoresin this area were somewhat dispersed, with a relatively large standard deviation. However,
the majority of the scores were still clustered around the mean and median values. Largely,these results suggest that the students demonstrated strong performance in all threeassessment areas, with most of the scores falling within a relatively narrow range around themean and median values.
Based on the calculation results, an ANOVA compares the mean scores across threeassessment areas (content, presentation skill, and answering). The results of the ANOVA
show that the F-test statistic is 0.55, the P-value is 0.57, and the F critical value is 3.03.
The F-test statistic is a measure of the variance between the groups compared to the variancewithin the groups. A larger F-test statistic indicates that there is a greater difference between
the group means, while a smaller F-test statistic indicates that the group means are moresimilar. In this case, the F-test statistic of 0.55 is relatively small, indicating that there may
not be a significant difference between the mean scores across the three assessment areas.
The P-value is a measure of the probability that the observed result occurred by chance. In
this case, the P-value is 0.57, which is relatively large. A P-value of 0.57 means that there is a
57% probability that the observed difference between the mean scores across the threeassessment areas occurred by chance, given that the null hypothesis (that the mean scores areequal) is true. The F critical value is a threshold that is used to determine whether or not theobserved F-test statistic is statistically significant. If the observed F-test statistic is greaterthan the F critical value, it is considered statistically significant, and the null hypothesis isrejected. In this case, the F critical value is 3.03. Since the observed F-test statistic (0.55) isless than the F critical value, it is not considered statistically significant, and the null
hypothesis cannot be rejected.
Overall, based on these results, it appears that there is not a significant difference between themean scores across the three assessment areas. This suggests that all aspects of theassessment (content, presentation skill, and answering) are equally important and should betaken into account when designing an online format. It may be helpful to consider the specific

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needs and preferences of your audience and ensure that the online format addresses all
aspects of the assessment in a balanced and effective way.
4.4.2 The impact of seminar courses and presenting research papers on students'
communication and problem-solving skills.
Presenting research papers in front of a class in seminar courses can be a valuable experiencefor students as it helps them develop their communication skills. By presenting in front of
their peers, students can improve their public speaking skills and become more confident intheir ability to articulate their ideas clearly. Additionally, the process of preparing a research
paper and presenting it in front of a class can help students practice problem-solving skills as
they work to understand and synthesize complex information. Overall, participating inseminar courses and presenting research papers can be a valuable opportunity for students toenhance their communication and problem-solving skills.
The researchers designed a questionnaire to verify the assumptions that participating inseminar courses and presenting research papers can help students develop theircommunication and problem-solving skills. The questionnaire included questions such as Q1:"Do students have the skills to communicate and share knowledge gained from research
papers with others?" and Q2: "Do students have listening skills, the ability to summarize
issues, ask questions, and answer questions in academic lectures?" The questionnaire wasadministered to a sample of students both before and after they received instructional
management and participated in online seminars. This allowed the researchers to see if there
were any changes in the students' communication and problem-solving skills as a result of
their participation in the seminar courses.
Based on the results of the t-test, it appears that there was a statistically significant difference
between the scores on the 5-level scale measuring students' skills in communicating andexchanging knowledge gained from studying research papers with others before and after
taking seminar courses in an online format. The tStat value of -3.16 indicates that the meandifference between the scores before and after the seminar courses is statistically significant.
The P-values of 0.00 for both one-tail and two-tail tests suggest that the observed differenceis highly unlikely to have occurred by chance. The t Critical values of 1.66 for the one-tailtest and 1.98 for the two-tail test indicate that the difference between the scores is statisticallysignificant at the 95% confidence level. Overall, these results suggest that the seminarcourses in an online format had a significant positive effect on students' skills incommunicating and exchanging knowledge gained from studying research papers withothers.
The results of the t-test suggest that there may have been a statistically significant change instudents' scores on the 5-level scale measuring listening skills, ability to summarize issues,
ask questions, and answer questions in academic lectures after taking seminar courses in an
online format compared to their scores before the courses. The t Stat value of -1.51 indicatesthat the mean difference between the scores before and after the seminar courses is in the
direction of a statistically significant difference. However, the P-values of 0.07 for the onetail test and 0.13 for the two-tail test are both greater than 0.05, which suggests that theobserved difference is not statistically significant. The t Critical values of 1.66 for the one-tailtest and 1.98 for the two-tail test indicate that the difference between the scores would need
to be larger in order to be statistically significant at the 95% confidence level. Overall, theseresults suggest that the seminar courses in an online format may have had a statistically

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significant effect on students' listening skills, ability to summarize issues, ask questions, andanswer questions in academic lectures, but the magnitude of the effect is not strong enough to
be statistically significant.
4.4.3 Evaluating the Effectiveness of Online Learning in High School Seminars: A Statistical
Analysis
Online learning has become a crucial aspect of education in the current COVID-19 situation,with many schools and universities shifting to remote learning to ensure the safety of theirstudents and staff. High school seminars can be effectively taught and learned online throughthe use of various tools and platforms. One such tool is the learning management system(LMS), such as Google Classroom, which allows teachers to deliver lectures andassignments, and for students to access course materials and submit their work. In addition,social media platforms such as Facebook can be used for communication and discussion
among students and teachers. Online video conferencing tools like Zoom can also be utilized
for real-time lectures and discussions, allowing for a more interactive and engaging learning
experience.
To confirm the effectiveness of online teaching and learning in high school seminars, we cancompare student presentation assessments using an assessment form covering three key
aspects: content, presentation skills, and answering. By comparing the performance ofstudents in a traditional, in-person learning group with a group of students who have been
conducting their learning online, we can see whether online learning is just as effective as
traditional methods in terms of the quality of student presentations.
Based on the statistical analysis of the data, it can be concluded that there is a significant
difference between the normal learning group and the group that received online instructionin terms of their ability to present an academic paper with accurate content. The t-statistic of 2.596 is lower than the critical value of 1.657 for a one-tailed test with a p-value of 0.005,
indicating that the difference between the two groups is statistically significant. Similarly, thet-statistic of -2.596 is also lower than the critical value of 1.980 for a two-tailed test with a pvalue of 0.011, also indicating statistical significance. These results suggest that the groupthat received online instruction was better able to present an academic paper with accuratecontent compared to the normal learning group. It should be noted that these results are basedon a sample and may not necessarily be representative of the larger population.
It's important to consider the potential limitations or biases that may have influenced theresults of the experiment. One possible explanation for the observed difference between thenormal learning group and the group that received online instruction is that the online
presentation format may have reduced the pressure and anxiety that some students may
experience when presenting in front of a group of their peers. Additionally, the online format
may have allowed students to better prepare and practice their presentations in advance,
potentially leading to smoother and more uninterrupted presentations. These factors could
have contributed to the observed difference in performance between the two groups. It's also
worth considering other potential factors that may have influenced the results, such as thelevel of prior knowledge or experience that the students had with the material being
presented.
In the next case, it appears that you are comparing the presentation skills of students who
received normal instruction versus those who received online instruction. The value "t Stat" is

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the t-statistic, which is a measure of the difference between the means of the two groups. The
value "P(T<=t) one-tail" is the p-value for a one-tailed t-test, which is a measure of theprobability that the null hypothesis is true. In this case, the null hypothesis is that there is nodifference between the means of the two groups. The value "t Critical one-tail" is the criticalvalue of the t-statistic for a one-tailed t-test, which is used to determine whether the t-statistic
is statistically significant. If the p-value is less than the significance level (usually 0.05), andthe t-statistic is greater than the critical value, then the null hypothesis can be rejected, and it
can be concluded that there is a statistically significant difference between the means of thetwo groups.
Based on the data provided, it appears that there is a statistically significant difference
between the presentation skills of the two groups, with the group that received normal
instruction having better presentation skills. It's good to consider potential sources of bias orconfounding factors when interpreting experimental results. In this case, it is possible that thedifference in presentation skills between the two groups could be due to factors other than themode of instruction. For example, students who received normal instruction may have had
more opportunities to practice their presentation skills, or they may have received more
feedback and guidance from their teachers. Additionally, as you mentioned, evaluating online
presentations may be more challenging because it is harder to read facial expressions,
gestures, and intonations.
It is also worth considering whether the sample size of the study was large enough toaccurately represent the populations being compared. A larger sample size increases thepower of the statistical test, which means that it is more likely to detect a significant
difference if one exists. Overall, it is important to carefully consider all of the potential
sources of bias and confounding factors when interpreting experimental results and to be
cautious about drawing strong conclusions based on a single study. It is often helpful toreplicate the study with a larger sample size or to compare the results with those of otherstudies on the same topic to see if the findings are consistent.
Based on the latest values, it appears that the experimental group (the group that received
online instruction) performed significantly better on the presentation task in terms ofanswering questions clearly, correctly, confidently, sensibly, and to the point compared to thecontrol group. The t-statistic for the experimental group was 3.558, which is significantly
higher than the critical t-value of 1.657 for a one-tailed test (p = 0.000) and the critical t-valueof 1.978 for a two-tailed test (p = 0.001). These results suggest that the observed differences
between the two groups are unlikely to have occurred by chance and are likely due to thetreatment (i.e., the online instruction).
Overall, the experimental results suggest that online instruction was effective in improving
students' ability to answer questions clearly, correctly, confidently, sensibly, and to the point
during a presentation. Moreover, students in the experimental group may have had more timeto prepare for the presentation and may have had easier access to resources that helped themanswer questions more accurately and confidently.
The results of the t-test, which were used to compare the effectiveness of online learning
versus traditional, in-person learning in high school seminars, can be summarized in Table 1,
which shows the t-statistic, p-values for one-tailed and two-tailed t-tests, and critical valuesof the t-statistic for one-tailed and two-tailed t-tests for the normal learning group and thegroup that received online instruction.

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Table 1 shows the results of the t-test, which was used to compare the effectiveness of
online learning versus traditional, in-person learning in high school seminars
p-Valuet-Criticalp-Valuet-Critical
Criteria
t-Statistic(one(one(two(twotailed)tailed)tailed)tailed)Content-2.596
0.005
1.657
0.011
1.980
Presentation-2.443
0.008
1.656
0.016
1.978
Skill
Answering
3.558
0.000
1.657
0.001
1.978
5. CONCLUSION
This study compared the performance of two groups of high school students in seminars, one
receiving traditional in-person instruction and the other receiving online instruction. The
results indicated a statistically significant difference in the ability to present an academic
paper with accurate content, as indicated by the t-statistic for this comparison. However, it is
crucial to consider the potential limitations and biases of the study, such as the small sample
size and the possibility of other factors influencing the results, such as prior knowledge orexperience with the material. Additionally, the online format may have alleviated the pressure
and anxiety some students may feel when presenting in front of a group of peers. Overall,while these results suggest that online learning can be effective for high school seminars, it isimportant to gather more data and carefully consider these limitations to make moredefinitive conclusions about its effectiveness in this context.
Acknowledgement
We would like to express our gratitude to the teachers, staff, and students at the Engineering
Science Classroom affiliated by King Mongkut’s University of Technology Thonburi (SCiUS
Program) and KOSEN KMUTT for their invaluable support and assistance in this study.
Without their generous contributions, this research project would not have been possible.
Their dedication and enthusiasm for the study of engineering science were truly inspiring,
and we are grateful for the opportunity to work with them. We would also like to thank ourcolleagues who provided feedback and suggestions throughout the project.

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Contact email: arnon.tho@kmutt.ac.th

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