Cambodia / India / Indonesia

28

2022

The Twenty-eighth Regular Report

Kazakhstan / Lao PDRACCU Nara International Correspondent
The ACCU correspondents periodically send reports on cultural heritage protection activities in which they have been
recently involved. This is a collection of ten reports submitted by international correspondents in the Asia-Pacific region.

The Twenty-eighth Regular Report
Contents
Cambodia

1

India

6

Indonesia

14

Kazakhstan

18

Lao PDR

25

Chan Vitharong
Primary Results of the Survey at Prasat Khnach Tol in Sambor Prei Kuk, Ishanapura

Maulishree Mishra
An Effort to Conserve Himalayan Heritage by Empowering the Local Community with Knowledge andOpportunity

Yosua Adrian Pasaribu
Designation of Tanjung Tanah Code of Law Manuscript as a National Cultural Heritage

Gulnaz Kulmaganbetova
Some Results of Research Work on the Settlement of Aktobe-Stepninskoe

Sommay Singthong
The Protection and Promotion of That Foun in Seephom, Khoun District, Xiengkhouang Province, Laos

Malaysia

28

Mongolia

37

Sri Lanka

43

Uzbekistan

52

Viet Nam

57

A Ghafar Bin Ahmad
Dilapidation Survey of Rumah Sri Aman, Sarawak, Malaysia

Munkhtulga Rinchinkhorol
A Newly-Found Uighur Period Runic Inscription from Eastern Mongolia

R. Nishanthi Ranasinghe
A New Approach towards the Documentation of Ancient Wall Paintings in Kelaniya Temple

Akmaljon Ulmasov
Analysis and Methods of Conservation of Ancient Khorezm Wall Paintings (based on scientific literature)

Tran Thanh Hoang Phuc
The Japanese Covered Bridge Conservation ProjectCambodia
Cambodia

Primary Results of the Survey at Prasat Khnach Tol in Sambor Prei Kuk, Ishanapura
Chan Vitharong, Director
Department of Site, Archaeology and Conservation, National Authority for Sambor Prei Kuk,
Ministry of Culture and Fine Arts
1. Background
The Prasat Khnach Tol Complex, with the registerednumber M 103, (UTM) X: 501810 and Y: 142213, is a groupof temples located within the ancient moat city of Isanapura,modern Sambor Prei Kuk archaeological site [Figure 1]. I
have previously written about this site in a number ofreports, so I will not go into further detail here. This
complex was constructed on the southern edge of thenatural water reservoir Beong Khnach Tol. This complex
illustration has an important connection with the traces of
the northern ancient city road (?) [Figure 2]. This complex issurrounded by moats to the east, south, and west, but inthe east it functions as a wide plain area or channel tothe southern area of the city. This complex consists offour mounds in total, one of which has an octagonal plan
design, enclosures with rectangular-shaped tracing moundenclosure wall structures (118 × 77 meters), a lateriteembankment pond in the northeast corner with a squareshape (43 × 43 meters), and an indeterminably-shaped
reservoir in the northwest. The majority of the structures
were covered with plants, accumulated ear th, anddamaged architectural materials [Figures 3 & 4].
So far, fragments of ceramics, architectural elements, art
objects, and some fragments of pre-Angkor inscriptions
have been found [Figure 5]. In March 2022, the National
Authority of Sambor Prei Kuk (NASPK) initiated a projectto examine, research, and raise the significance of sites
based on the potential of heritage through the study andanalysis of the site setting with the most recent surface
collection results as mentioned in the Twenty-seventh
Regular Report (2021: 14-16).
2. Aim of the ProjectTwo primary goals drive this project. In order to identify
the chronological structures, the study first concentrated
on the structural and architectural forms of Tower 1 (KT1)and Tower 2 (KT2), together with the complex’s master plan
design. Second, the project aims to enhance the monument’s
worth by keeping a balance between its restoration andconservation, and presenting the original structures tothe public, which helps people comprehend the surroundingarchitecture, urban planning, and ancient landscapeswithin the moat city of Ishanapura. Additionally, this projectplans to lengthen and enhance the new visitation route,which runs parallel to the master plan of the conservationand development of NASPK.
3. Results of the Project
The results of the excavation research and clearance workof this complex show the architectural structures which areburied beneath the ground surface. Due to the factors of age,nature, and humans, the remains of two temples consistedof only the basement mounds below the walls. However, atleast we understood that this complex was built within

1the enclosure walls and the current research shows that
there are two gate structures, one from the south andanother one from the north [Figures 6, 7 & 8].
The primary conclusion is that this complex probably
exists within three main stages of construction. Moreover,the evidence of decorative arts [Figures 9 & 10] andarchitecture can lead to proposed dates between the 7th
and 8th centuries CE (from Sambor Prei Kuk to Prei Khmeng
styles) [Figures 11 & 12]. In addition, we can compare thetwo structures, found through the excavation, to some towers
in Sambor Prei Kuk (e.g., especially the Prasat Yeay Poanand Prasat) and some pre-Angkor temples in Cambodia(e.g., Prasat Srei Krup Leak – Phnom Baset in Kandal
Province (see The Sixteenth Regular Report 2016: 5)).
Meanwhile, during this investigation, some Khmer stonewarefrom the Angkor period was also discovered. This projectwill be completed with consolidation and restoration works[Figures 13 ~ 16].
With the intention to increase the participation and awarenessof all researchers, the NASPK was pleased to permit any
requests for scientific studies of this temple such as apetrological and chemical analysis by the Institute ofTechnology of Cambodia, and provide an on-site training
course on archaeology and conservation of cultural heritage
to architectural and archaeological university students withthe cooperation of the University of Tsukuba and the Royal
University of Fine Arts, funded by the Agency for Cultural
Affairs, Government of Japan.
Remarks: This report is published based on the results ofarchaeological surveys and conservation work of the
Department of Archaeology and Conservation of the National
Authority for Sambor Prei Kuk (NASPK). Members of thesurvey teams: Chan Vitharong, Khann Mony, Seang Sopheak,Em Phearak, and Chhun Reaksmei. The LiDAR image wastaken in 2015 under the CALI project with the collaborationof APSARA, Ministry of Culture and Fine Arts and Écolefrançaise d’Extrême-Orient.

Cambodia

Fig. 1. Map of the archaeological features of Sambor Prei Kuk and Prasat Khnach Tol location

Fig. 2. LiDAR hillshade of the archaeological features of Sambor Prei Kuk and Prasat Khnach Tol location2

Cambodia
Fig. 3. LiDAR hillshade: Prasat Khnach Tol location

Fig. 4. Scene of the complex prior to the excavation survey, which was covered with plants and accumulated soil.

3Cambodia

Fig. 5. Pre-Angkor inscription fragments discovered in 2005 by SCP at Prasat Khnach Tol (Photos: NMPP via CISARK)

Fig. 6. Primary layout of Complex of Prasat Khnach Tol

Fig. 7 (left) & 8 (right). Unearthed structures of the northern and southern gates4

Cambodia
Fig. 9 (left) & 10 (right). Lintels from KT1 and KT2 dating from the 7th century

Fig. 11 (left) & 12 (right). Ruins of KT1 and KT2 structures from the 7th to 8th centuries (to be verified)Fig. 13 (left) & 14 (right). Before and after excavation work on the KT1 and KT2 ruins

Fig. 15 (left) & 16 (right). Conservation activities on the KT1 and KT2 structures

5

IndiaIndia

An Effort to Conserve Himalayan Heritage by Empowering the Local Community with Knowledge
and Opportunity
Maulishree Mishra, Architect & Co-Founder / Visiting Conservation Architect
Artefacts and Habitats Sustainable Solutions LLP / Tibet Heritage FundIntroduction
India is a land of cultures and languages (Fig. 1). It is difficult
to say how many there are and how old they are, but eachwith its unique attributes is important. Carefully identifying
these unique cultures and preserving them in this era ofglobalisation is a challenge as they are now threatened due
to changing patterns of human life and migration.1 Further,
as we move faster and faster towards urbanisation andglobalisation, there is an increasing risk of accelerated
climate change triggering a chain reaction of food shortages,
poverty, and hampered access to basic life necessities likeclean drinking water and hygienic living conditions amongst
innumerable others. Therefore, the identification andpreservation of communities living closely with nature practicing
agriculture and local crafts as their primary livelihood is
now more important than ever in an attempt to strike theright balance for a sustainable future.
The relationship between indigenous communities, migration,
urbanisation, and climate change can be easily understoodas a one-way pattern of consumption which is resource
exhaustive and irreversible by nature as indicated in Fig. 22.

Fig. 1. Elderly Ladakhi woman separates apricot pulp and seeds for preparing
local jamFig. 2. Shift from a sustainable to resource exhaustive way of life poses a big question on the survival of the human race6

IndiaThe long-term impact of this unidirectional progress is climatechange, the results of which are now becoming more visible
than ever before. In such a scenario, empowering local
communities in rural, indigenous locations and semi-urban
settings becomes more and more important. This is how
Tibet Heritage Fund’s (THF) role can be understood overthe many years of their dedicated conservation practice.3
THF makes a broad contribution towards the conservationof traditional architecture in Tibet and Mongolia, amongst
other places, however, the focus of this particular article

shall be the northern-most part of India, i.e. the cold desertof Ladakh (Fig. 3). I have been fortunate to have had theopportunity to be a part of THF’s team a few times overthe last decade and understand the real meaning ofconservation under the mentorship of Mr. Yutaka Hirako
and his experienced team of craftsmen. This article tries tohighlight the role of dialogue, the right knowledge andguidance, documentation, community participation, andperseverance in conservation of a cultural landscape,spanning over a decade.

Fig. 3. Google Image indicating the location of the Ladakh region (Source: https://earth.google.com/)

Brief introduction to Leh Old Town, a Tibetan settlement in
the High Himalayas, which served as the royal seat for theregion of Ladakh in the 16th and 17th centuries
As per international research teams and scholars, theirstudies over the years indicate that the first royal temples
and stupas in Leh were constructed sometime between
the 14th and 16th centuries, of which Leh Palace, a ninestorey high structure in stone, wood, and mud was built
as the seat of the Namgyal kings and is a well-preserved
example overlooking the Historic Old Town of Leh.
Geographically, the positioning of the palace at the top
with a settlement surrounding it below, housing the mostinfluential families of the region, guarded with afortification wall all around, with four stupa gates forming
the guarded entrances to the settlement, is significant inunderstanding urban planning according to culturalbeliefs and climate responsiveness, as well as considering
the security of the settlement. The fortification (Mani) wall
during those days marked the edge of the settlement andbeyond it were situated the agricultural establishments,
however, in the later years extensive building activity took
over most of the portions lying outside the Mani wall, and7

now only the four stupa gates*(Figs. 4 & 5), with few
portions of the Mani wall can be found standing guard overthis historic part of the Leh town. The Leh Palace was
identified as a monument of national importance in 1982
and has since been taken care of by the Archaeological
Survey of India. However, the Old Town, which forms thecontext to the palace, invited little attention until 2003
when Mr. Andre Alexander a German researcher and one of
the founders of THF travelled to Leh on the recommendationof a friend.
On his arrival in Leh, finding the entire site of the Old
Town in poor sanitary condition and in need of urgent
repairs, he immediately initiated a building identificationand condition survey to understand the exact situation ofthis dusty settlement of a royal lineage. Almost 200 traditional
structures built of mud, stone, and wood were listed,
indicating the existence of one of the biggest clusters ofTibetan households and temples he had ever seen, existing
until the 21st century with many of its cultural features
still intact. The study revealed that more than 60% of the Old
Town structures were inhabited by the owners, 30% were
occupied by tenants, and 10% were vacant. It also pointed

survey laid the foundations for community-based conservation
to be attempted to restore and revive this old settlementwith traditional materials and techniques, and with anapproach of with the community and for the community.

Fig. 4. Diagram indicating the four stupa gate entrances to Leh Old Town with respect to the Leh PalaceIndia

out that more than 50% of the existing structures had major
damage and were in need of urgent repairs, the drainage
and sanitation of the area was in a poor state, and thehistorical settlement showed signs of becoming a slum. The

Fig. 5. West Stupa Gate or ‘The Nub Kagan
Chorten ’ after restoration in July 2022

*Each of the four stupa gates have been restored by the Tibet Heritage Fund over the years with the help of local craftsman and their respective sponsors, making
use of traditional materials and techniques.

Listing the major areas of concern and bringing the community
together to work towards solving themFirst, the major areas of concern were listed as follows:
1. Poor living conditions
2.	Slow deterioration of the historic settlement due tonegligence and no maintenance
3.	Loss of cultural identity due to loss of traditional
knowledge and skills
4.	Rapid economic shift from being agriculture-based
to becoming tourism-based
5.	Changing demographics due to migration of actual
residents
To carry forward the mission, a search was carried out tofind the best craftsman of the region who still retained
their skills and the traditional knowledge systems of theregion, bringing together a team of master craftsman, chief
masons, translators, and local historians from the local

Figs. 6 & 7. Leh Palace, as viewed from Leh Old Town in May 2013

community. A sister branch of the organisation for the pilot
project was registered locally and marked the beginning of
LEH OLD TOWN INITIATIVE “LOTI”, the intention beingthat in future, the community takes over the mission andbecomes self-sufficient in the process while gaining therequired knowledge and experience at the beginning.
Along with the community, THF/LOTI constantly dialogues
with the local government and local development authority,
as well the various NGOs/NPOs working in and around LEH
to add more solidarity to this mission at the local level. It isbecause of this close social networking created as part of
the action plan that in 2012 this historic precinct (Figs. 6, 7
and 8) was saved from being identified as a slum andbeing redeveloped under slum rehabilitation regulations
which if implemented would have eliminated the centuriesold heritage and its indigenous way of architecture andliving, replacing it with standardized tiny concrete boxes.

Fig. 8. Traditional Dwellings, Leh in May 2013

8

One Structure at a Time- Reviving the Old Historic Dwellings in one of the highest human settlements in the worldIndia

1. Model Conservation
Street Project:
Installing proper drainage
and paving on streets(Fig.9) to p r o v i d e acleaner environment to
the residents of the old
town.

Fig. 9. Drawing of the conservation plan

The model conservation street project began in 2005 withthe hope of having the people of Leh town understandhow a historical setting can be restored in an efficient way
and why proper infrastructure was as important as the historicalbuildings. The beginning of this project targeted a particularprecinct of Stagophilok (adjoining Stagophilok stupa gate)
which is very often used by the locals coming to the old town,
which, along with a historical entrance stupa gate, also hashistorical structures on either side of the street. The project
execution required at least one member from each family inthe precinct to be part of the team, along with the craftsman,so that the community would remain committed to theupkeep of the improvements. The technical details for thedrain and paving were prepared by THF, keeping in mind
the regular cleaning, freezing, and thawing of drain water
during the extreme winter months, the steep terrain, thecarrying capacity during different seasons, the uniformityof the paving and its slope towards the drain so water
clogging the street could be prevented, ensuring longterm maintenance by the community. The intention was
also to keep the detail as simple as possible so that it could
easily be replicated in the entire old town in the years to
come.

Fig. 10. Construction of drain in progress in May Figs. 11 & 12. Life in different parts of the old town after the infrastructure addition in May 201320139

Following the example of Stagophilok, most of the streets of
Leh Old Town have now been built with proper drains andpaved with cut stones by THF (Figs. 10, 11 and 12) withsupport from the community and sponsors over the years,
and better living conditions prevail in the precinct as thestreets are no longer flooded with drain water and filthbecause of choked drains. The enormous task of building
infrastructure in a historic setting could be accomplished wellwith the dedicated efforts of the community when provided
with the right kind of technical knowledge and motivation.

by the THF team to not demolish the historical structure as
this would drastically impact the historical context, themonastery decided to let THF retore it and use it as a gallery
to showcase a model restoration for the coming few years.
In 2006, the restoration was carried out using traditional
materials and techniques with the help of craftsman guided by
Mr Andre Alexander and Pimpim De Azevedo, founders of
the THF. The conservation of the structure involved strengthening
the structure on the ground floor and replacing the timber on
the first floor, along with repair and reconstruction of the
traditional ceiling with “dungmas” wooden beams, “taloos”
wooden purlins, “yagzas” grass, and mortar prepared fromlocal clay (Fig. 14). Since the restoration it has been serving
its purpose as an exhibition gallery, café, and community
gathering space where people of the Old Town gather
from time to time to discuss important matters concerning
the future of the town (Figs. 15 and 16).

India

The project did better than imagined, as the community
came closer in the process, convincing residents in otherparts of the town for infrastructure improvements as they had
already witnessed the Stagophilok Model Street Conservation
Project. The local government became more interested as
something they could never undertake or attempt was nicely
executed and working well. THF’s efforts for Stagophilok Street
conservation were well recognised by UNESCO and awarded
an honourable mention for cultural heritage conservation.

2. Building conservation:Restoration of Old Historical
Structures included residences, Buddhist temples, a mosque,and community spaces.
As per the initial surveys of the Old Town there werearound 200 historical structures in the precinct, of which
at least 50% needed major repairs while the others
required minor or part repairs. Almost 50 structures both
big and small have been restored within the precincts of
the Old Town, all of which are now occupied as residences
or being adaptively reused as homestays or cafés, while 1520 major restorations for conservation of old Buddhist
temples and palaces have been carried out in thesurrounding region of Leh, many of which otherwise would
have been lost a long time ago.
One such restored structure in Leh Old Town is LALA’s café
(Fig. 13). Originally known as the Sankar house, this tiny
but important landmark at the beginning of the Old Town
was formerly the residence of a monk who took care of thesurrounding temples. Later on, for many years the structure lay
abandoned and deteriorated due to neglect, following which
the monastery to which it belonged decided to demolish it
and build a new concrete frame structure. After many requests

Fig. 13. A view of Lala’s café in June 2022

Fig. 14. Restoration works in progress Fig. 15. Bright and cosy interiors of LALA’s café In June 2014
at Lala’s café in May 2006. Source:
https://www.tibetheritagefund.org/

Fig. 16. Community meeting in progress on
the terrace of Lala’s café in June 201410

IndiaBailay House is another such example of the ongoingbuilding restoration projects of THF/LOTI in the Old Town
that has recently been completed and saved from slow
deterioration and decay. Bailay House, a three storey
structure, was documented in 2015 in detail by myself aspart of the Old Town building survey by THF. It took four
years to find funds for its complete restoration as itshowed signs of major damage (Figs. 17 & 19). In 2019,the restoration was finally started as per the restorationplans prepared by Mr. Yutaka Hirako, Project Architect for
THF, and in 2022 it has been brought back to life withimproved spaces, structure, sanitation, and water supply
in various parts of the house (Figs. 18 & 20).

Fig. 17. Front elevation of Bailay House facing the Leh Palace before restoration in July 2014

Fig. 19. Staircase area before restoration in July 2014

Fig. 18. Front elevation of Bailay House facing
the Leh Palace after restoration in July 2022

Fig. 20. Staircase area after restoration in July 2014

3. Capacity Building and Innovation:
AAA House or The Artisans, Artists and Architects House(Fig. 21)After years of working towards community building,building restoration, and infrastructure development, THF
understood that there was a growing need for local
craftmanship in LEH but the craftsmen were slowly
decreasing and losing touch with their skills due to lackof opportunities, lack of proper training centres, absenceof modern machines, etc., and it was therefore felt there
was an urgent need for a centre that could save the craftsof the region from disappearing.

11

Fig. 21. Entrance to AAA Houseuse to help artisans use their skills in making a livelihood.
Gotal Rigzin House was restored and brought under use in
2021 holding workshops for people interested in learning aswell as giving space to artisans to use their skills in making
local crafts, thus marking the beginning of the Himalayan
Bauhaus, as Mr. Hirako chooses to refer to it (Figs. 22 & 23).

India

In 2018, THF approached a family who owned a historicalhouse in the Old Town and was not using it as the house
had lain abandoned and dilapidated for many years.
Requesting the owners’ permission to restore the house anduse it as an artisan centre proved to be successful in many
ways, as the historical house could be restored and put toFig. 22. Ladakhi woman weaves on the AAA machine as the winter Fig. 23. Mr. Hirako and Ms. Dolkar explain the design to craftsmen at the AAA Jun. 2022.
sets in Oct. 2021.

Apart from artisan training, AAA House is also a place of
creativity and innovation. One innovation of AAA House is
the Dry Toilet, which has been designed by keeping in
mind climatic factors, ergonomics, hygienic living, andsustainability (Fig. 24). It is a blessing for the local people
as well as tourists, as water in the high altitudes of Ladakh
is extremely limited and the climatic conditions here do
not allow usage of water for around 4-5 months as it is at
sub-zero temperatures.
Challenges for the coming times!
The entire project has been a continuous challenge, but as ateam THF/LOTI has dealt with it step by step. However,solid government support in terms of active participation
in local development in order to carry the project forward
at the required pace —physically, financially, and inpolicy making—remains a big challenge as THF has
limited resources to keep the project moving. The othermajor challenges as observed include:a)	Lack of heritage laws to protect this historical precinct.
b)	Lack of regular maintenance from the owners of therestored structures, which is very important to maintainthem in good shape.
c)	Lack of interest and active participation by the youth
in the restoration process, as it is important that theylearn the skills to carry them forward.
d)	Lack of funds to involve more professionals andcraftsmen in the process.

Fig. 24. Dry Toilet, designed by Mr. Yutaka Hirako in July 2014

Conclusion
Owing to the architectural, cultural, and aestheticalhomogeneity of the Leh Palace and Old Town, in its context
the entire precinct shows absolute potential in becoming
a UNESCO World Heritage Site as a cultural landscape as
it very well fulfills criteria ii, iii, iv, v, and vi for assessing
OUV or outstanding universal value. However, due to thelack of funds for research, local interest, and political support,
the same has not yet been accomplished. Meanwhile THF/
LOTI has slowly worked towards this community-based
restoration with financial help from the house owners aswell as part support from its sponsors. Such efforts of THF
make visible what can be made possible if the right vision,correct guidance, and right support is present for indigenous
communities. At the same time, this also shows a way
forward for the sustenance of historic settings and theindigenous communities living in historic precincts.

Fig. 25. Team members of THF during a tea break (left); Ms. Stanzin Dolkar and Mr. Yutaka Hirako at the Kushu House Studio (right)

12

IndiaReferences:
1.	UNESCO. (2020) UNESCO list of endangered languages
in India.
	https://www.universal-translation-services.com/unescolist-of-endangered-languages-india/#16485579783736565223a-e946
	TOI. (2013) Times of India. India lost 220 languages inlast five decades
	
https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/India-lost220-languages-in-last-50-years-survey-finds/
articleshow/21720601.cms
2.	DowntoEarth. (2021) India’s Urban-Rural Conundrum.
https://www.downtoearth.org.in/blog/urbanisation/
census-2021-india-s-urban-rural-conundrum-67221.
	Mishra, Maulishree. (2021) “Quest for Urban and Life in
the Unliveable Urban.” Quest for Urban and Life in the
Unliveable Urban, Copal Publishing Group	https://jpad.copalpublishing.com/index.php/cu/article/
view/6/6
3.	THF. (2015) Tibet Heritage Fund. Orientations. Vol.46
No.6, Standing at a Crossroads: The Struggle to Preserve
Leh Old Town. https://www.tibetheritagefund.org/

13

Acknowledgements: Ms. Pimpim De Azevedo (Programme
Director and Co-founder THF/LOTI); Mr. Yutaka Hirako(Project Architect THF/LOTI); Ms. Stanzin Dolkar (ProjectManager THF/LOTI); Ar. Siddhartha Mukherjee; Team
Members Tibet Heritage Fund; Sponsor’s Tibet Heritage
Fund, Local Community of Leh Old Town; LAHDC; thelocal people of Ladakh, whose support, no matter how
small, has helped this initiative, and the late Mr. Andre
Alexander, who continues to inspire the THF team in all
their efforts.

Indonesia
Yosua Adrian Pasaribu, Junior Heritage Expert
Directorate General of Culture, Ministry of Education and Culture
The Tanjung Tanah Code of Law Manuscript in Kerinci,
Jambi is a seven-hundred-year-old code of law manuscript
which is written in the Ancient Malay language with theAncient Sumatra script. This manuscript is the oldest
written law in the Malay world before the spread of Islam.
This late 14th century manuscript is one of many sacred
heirlooms of the people of Tanjung Tanah Village, Danau

Indonesia

Designation of Tanjung Tanah Code of Law Manuscript as a National Cultural Heritage

Kerinci, Jambi. Traditionally, the people of Tanjung Tanah
Village are called Tiga Luhah Tanjung Tanah and are ledby the Depati Talam Tuo, who is helped by the Depati
Sikumbang (similar to a secretary) and the Depati Bumi
(similar to a prime minister). Figure 1 shows a map of thelocation of Tanjung Tanah.

Fig. 1. Tanjung Tanah Location Map (Source: Ulrich Kozok, Cambridge, 2004)

The Tanjung Tanah Manuscript and heirlooms of theKerinci people were first recorded in modern science byPetrus Voorhoeve and Poerbatjaraka in 1941. They recorded,
described, and published 261 old manuscripts found in
Kerinci. The majority of the manuscripts were written on
buffalo horn or paper. The Tanjung Tanah Code of Law is
the one and only manuscript that is written on a kind of
paper manufactured from the bark of the paper mulberry
tree (Broussonetia papyrifera Vent.), which under the namedluwang, was a common writing medium in Java. Thisancient manuscript is called “Tambo Kerinci 214” by
Voorhoeve and Poerbatjaraka. They identify this manuscript asclearly pre-Islamic. A photograph of this manuscript is shownin Figure 6. A photograph of a page from the manuscript
is shown in Figure 7.

Ulrich Kozok updated the record and dated the manuscript
in 2002. He wrote that “the manuscript measures 10 × 15
cm and consists of 17 leaves of bark paper, sewn together
and written on both sides. Each page consists of seven lines oftext, some of them are not legible due to some damage bymoisture. The book is not bound, and does not have a cover
page. It is not illustrated and simply consists of text writtenwith black ink on the bark paper.” The manuscript was
written in the late 14th or early 15th century, according to
the dating.
In 2006, Hasan Djafar, Ninny Susanti, and Waruno Mahdi
translated the Tanjung Tanah Code of Law. This code oflaw was written at the request of Maharaja Dharmasraya
for the people of Kerinci. Dharmasraya, located 315 km
north of Tanjung Tanah, was the Malayu Kingdom’s most14

Indonesia

important city. In 1286, a gigantic statue of Amoghapasa
was sent to Maharaja Dharmasraya by Kertanagara, theJavanese king of Singasari. The statue is now displayed at
the National Museum, Jakarta (Figure 2). At that time,
Malayu and Singasari were cooperating to prepare for a
defensive move against Kublai Khan’s invasion of thearchipelago. The manuscript says that it was written bysomeone named Dipati Kuja Ali. The manuscript says thatthe people of Kerinci should obey their depatis andfollow the code of laws written in this manuscript.
The manuscripts and other heirlooms of Tiga Luhah
Tanjung Tanah have been preserved in the traditional
method for many generations. These heirlooms, known
as pusaka, are kept in their homes’ lofts and only see thelight of day once every five years. These heirlooms fromtheir ancestors play an important role in the lives of thepeople. These pusaka are objects of immense spiritual
wealth and are eagerly guarded because they are believed
to protect the community. This traditional preservation
method has ensured that the Tanjung Tanah Code of Law
has survived the centuries.
Nowadays, the people of the Tiga Luhah Tanjung Tanahand their surroundings cannot read their manuscript, butthey still practice the traditional law that is written there.
The manuscript, along with other manuscripts and otherheirlooms, is shown to the people and cleaned in a ritualcalled “Kenduri Sko” every five years. This year, the ritualwas held from May 11–14. The opening and cleaning of theheirlooms is shown in Figure 4 and Figure 5. Traditionalarts such as welcoming dances are also performed as partof this ritual (Figure 3). I was with the team from the
Ministry of Education, Culture, Research, and Technology
and the National Library, Republic of Indonesia at theritual to support the people and document the ritual andthe ancient manuscript.

Fig. 2. Massive statue of Amoghapasa from Dharmasraya, National Museum

Fig. 3. Kerinci women dressed in traditional attire in Kenduri Sko

15

Indonesia

Fig. 4. The Depati Talam Tuo opens the jar where the Code of Law is kept.

Fig. 5. The Depati Talam Tuo symbolically cleans the manuscript in the ritual.

Fig. 6. Tanjung Tanah Code of Law Manuscript and other manuscripts at the ritual16

Indonesia
Fig. 7. Page from the manuscript (Source: Ulrich Kozok, Cambridge, 2004)

The Kenduri Sko ritual shows the continuity of the historyof people in the Malay world as it is written in the ancientmanuscript. The depatis of Kerinci are still the traditional
leaders of the people and the Dharmasraya king (nowrepresented by the Regent of Dharmasraya) is still
respected and present in the Kenduri Sko ritual. In 2018,
the Kenduri Sko ritual was designated as a National
Intangible Cultural Heritage.

17

The designation of cultural heritage is the first step for theTanjung Tanah Code of Law Manuscript to be managed
according to the Law of Cultural Conservation. This
manuscript is very sacred and important to the people ofTiga Luhah Tanjung Tanah, the Malay people internationally,
and Indonesia legally. Designation of the manuscript as a
National Cultural Heritage is still ongoing and planned tobe signed this year.

Kazakhstan
Gulnaz Kulmaganbetova, Chief Researcher
Kazarchaeology LLP
Today, Kazakhstan is carrying out a set of measures aimed
at preserving our cultural heritage, which was created over along period of time through the efforts of our ancestors.
The preservation and enhancement of this historical andcultural heritage, the promotion and popularization ofmonuments that reflect the roots of our people andstatehood, is the most important task of our country. These
activities include the search for and discovery of newmonuments of history and culture, scientific research, workon conservation, restoration of monuments, and the creationof open-air museums and museum reserves.
Archaeological monuments are of particular interest to
researchers. These cultural heritage sites have played aspecial role in the development of society for many centuries.
The ruins of the ancient cities of our country reflect theheyday of the ancient tribes of the Kazakh steppes, thestages of formation and development of statehood. In thisera, the formation of the most important elements of thematerial and spiritual culture of the population of the
Kazakh steppes took place.
Among the surviving and most significant monuments isthe settlement of Aktobe-Stepninskoe. The city is known for
its identification with Balasagun. The ancient settlement of
Aktobe is on the UNESCO World Heritage List as part of
the Tien Shan Silk Road Corridor, located 3 km southeastof Aktobe village, Shu district of the Zhambyl region.
The monument was studied for several decades by the
expedition of the Kazakh National University named after
Al-Farabi (then KazNU) (Shalekenov U.Kh., Eleuov M.E.,
Aldabergenov N.O.). The ancient settlement has been
known to science since the time of the summary works of
V.V. Bartold. In 1941, G.I. Patsevich carried out exploration
work, made measurements of the ancient settlement of
Aktobe. In 1954, Kyrgyz archaeologists led by P.N. Kozhemyako
carried out reconnaissance excavations at the settlement.
In 1965, research was carried out by the Institute of History,
Archeology and Ethnology led by Ch.Ch. Valikhanov of
the Academy of Sciences of the Kazakh SSR (IHAE). Since
1974, research has been carried out on an ongoing basisfor 46 years by archaeologists of the Kazakh National
University named after Al-Farabi (KazNU). During thisperiod, a huge amount of scientific material was obtained,on the basis of which archaeologists led by Professor
W.Kh. Shalekenov identified the ruins as the historicalcapital of the Karakhanid state, the iconic city of Central
Asia, Balasagun.
In recent years, Akymbek E., an archaeologist of the Kazakh
National University named after Al-Farabi, has been fruitfully
engaged in researching the monument. Since 2020, the teamof Kazarchaeology LLP has been working to study thedesign of the settlement with further conservation of thestudied objects. For study and conservation work, an

KazakhstanSome Results of Research Work on the Settlement of Aktobe-Stepninskoe

object was chosen, interpreted by G.I. Patsevich in 1941 as“tortkul,” designated in the works of archaeologists of
KazNU as “Tortkultobe.” For three years, archaeologicalexcavations were carried out here by the KazNU expedition(Shalekenov U.Kh. Scientific works V. 1: the city of Balasagunin the V-XIII centuries, 2014, pp. 416-418).
Thus, the monument we have chosen entered science
under the name “Tortkul.” However, this term is used byresearchers to designate settlements, primarily Zhetysu,
the foothills of Tanir tau, the Issyk-Kul basin, Central
Kazakhstan, Tuva, Mongolia, as areas fenced with a
rampart with towers along the perimeter, called citiesrates, shelters, etc. According to K.M. Baypakov, this term
is translated from the Turkic languages as “like four lakes”(Baypakov K.M. Settlements of the “tortkul” type //Archaeological monuments of Kazakhstan. Alma-Ata:
Nauka, 1978, p. 80–96). In turn, there is a more appropriate
interpretation by S.E. Azhigali. According to S.E. Azhigali,
the ancient Turkic word “tortkil” means “quadrangular”[Azhigali S.E. Nomadic architecture is a phenomenon of
the history and culture of Eurasia (monuments of theAral-Caspian region)].
Our examination of the territory of the settlement confirmed
the conclusions of U. Kh. Shalekenov that it was a huge city,
occupying a significant territory. Shafts enclose the areaof almost 5 × 10 km. Tortkultobe, chosen for research andconservation, has the most promising architecturalcomponent—the walls of the monument have beenpreserved to a height of up to 7 meters. The structure
consists of a number of rooms, passages, and design
features.
Studying the town-planning structure of the settlement, werevealed that the settlement arose on a site featuring a
concentration of fortified castles from ancient times. Here,on the territory of the settlement, several hillocks wereidentified, which we identified with ancient castles.
Research on tortkuls confirmed our assumptions. Under asmall cultural layer of the Middle Ages, the structure ofancient times was revealed.
The tortkul is not connected with the shahristan of thesettlement and is located separately, on the eastern sideof the citadel, 600 m from the central part of the settlement.
It has the shape of a quadrangular hill in plan. Its total size
is 50 × 70 m, with a height reaching 8 m. The monument
is surrounded by a pakhsa fortification. The width of thefortress wall is 4 m. The fortress wall was cleared from theoutside—from the eastern, northern, and western sides.
From the inside, 8 rooms were opened. Their eastern wall
is made up of pakhsa blocks facing the outside, and there
are no windows. The doors face west, inside the fortification.
The fortification gate is on the eastern side (Fig. 1).

18

Kazakhstan
Fig. 1. General view of the tortkul – an aerial photo

Pakhsa is a building material (broken clay) that was widelyused in Central Asia in ancient times and the Middle Ages,
often with raw bricks. When clearing excavations forrestoration work, we identified two cultural layers. The
lower, main layer is the remains of an ancient corridorcomb-type castle. This castle was built from pakhsa andhad powerful walls. It can be assumed that this building
was rectangular in plan with single-chamber adjacent rooms
attached to the fortress wall from the inside. Judging by
the thickness of the interior walls (4-5 m) and fragmentsof the vaulted ceiling, these are probably the remains of thefirst tier of the castle. Despite the presence of dozens ofsimilar corridor-comb-type monuments located in the basinof the Shu and Talas rivers, two-tier fortified castles of thistype have been little explored.
The Less significant cultural layer belongs to the Middle Ages.
During this period, the elevated ruins of the ancient castle
were used as dwellings. A large number of millstones andtandoors suggests that the dwellings of farmers were locatedhere. As already noted, the works were envisaged mainly forconservation, and were aimed at strengthening the surviving
structures of the monument and the original parts andelements with partial restoration of areas that are beyond doubt
and play one role or another in the preservation of the original(Fig. 2).
Conservation works of the fortress wall
During the conservation of the fortress wall, a complete
examination of the walls for damage was carried out anda complete fixation was performed with instrumental

19

measurement of the steepness of the walls. The area atthe base of the wall was cleared for conservation work andthe area was compacted manually (Fig. 3).
Mechanical sealing is aimed at eliminating the subsidence
properties of the base. Mechanical sealing was carried out
in compliance with several stages:
Stage 1 - moistening the site before tamping;Stage 2 - tamping was carried out over the entire areaof the structures (Fig. 4).
Stone foundation device: The stone foundation was used,
firstly, to create an elevated compacted zone, secondly, toreduce pressure on the foundation and, thirdly, to prevent
capillary suction of groundwater into the conservation
structure. Stone slabs are laid on top of the compacted
layer (Fig. 5).
Arrangement of buttresses from masonry with raw bricks:
The buttresses are set on top of a stone base to fill theweathered niches in the pakhsa walls (Fig. 6).
The pre-strengthened surface was cleaned of weakly
adhering fragments. The dimensions of the raw brickwere 40 × 20 × 10 cm (Fig. 7).
To create a connection between the lining and the wall,connections were made from wooden rods with a step of
1-1.5 m in a checkerboard pattern. Wooden rods are buriedin the walls as deep as possible (Fig. 8).

Kazakhstan

Fig. 2. Aerial photo of the tortkul before and after restoration

Fig. 3. Process of clearing the fortress wall, the northwestern part of the object

Fig. 4. Wall foundation tamping

Fig. 5. Stone foundation device

20Kazakhstan
Fig. 6. Device of buttresses from masonry with raw bricks

Fig. 7. Raw brick production

Fig. 8. Installed wooden rods

21

filled with soil from archaeological dumps. Each 6th and 7th
row of masonry is made of solid brick masonry. All bricksurfaces are plastered with clay mortar (clay + straw) in aratio of 1:1. The top of the plaster mortar is coated with aprotective solution (clay + rice husks) in a ratio of 1:1(Figs. 9-16).

Fig. 9. View of the fortress wall of the tortkul from the west

Fig. 10. Southwest corner of the property

Fig. 11. West facade before and after restoration

Fig. 12. Aerial photo of the tortkul from the west

Fig. 13. Photo of the eastern facade after restoration

Kazakhstan

During the conservation work, building materials such as
mud bricks and stone slabs were abundantly wetted withwater to improve the adhesion between the mortar and thematerial. In the eastern part of the tortkul, traces of fortresswalls were cleared, following the traces of which a wall up
to 2 m wide and up to 1 m high was reconstructed. The
walls were laid using the well method, with the inside being

Fig. 14. Aerial photo of the tortkul from the east

22

Kazakhstan
Fig. 15. Aerial photo of the tortkul from the south

Fig. 16. Aerial photo of the tortkul from the northConservation work on the walls of the tortkul rooms
In order to clarify the layout of the monument, work was
carried out to study rooms 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9. Aftercleanup work, the interiors of rooms 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9
were revealed and work was continued to determine thefloors of these rooms.
First, the walls of rooms 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9 were clearedof slush and blockages, and weak and destroyed layers
were removed (Figs. 17-20). Further, laying of the lost partsof the walls of the premises of the tortkul was carried out.
To prevent subsidence of the brickwork, foundations weremade of stone blocks. To create a connection between theold masonry and the new, wooden rods were installed.
All brick surfaces were plastered with clay mortar (clay +straw) in a ratio of 1:1. The top of the plaster mortar wascoated with a protective solution (clay + rice husks) in aratio of 1:1. Gulleys and weathered niches, such as animal

Fig. 17. Excavations of rooms 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7

23burrows and karsts in adobe walls, were also patched up.
Depending on the types of gullies, various methods ofsealing were used. In areas of small gullies with a depth of 5
to 15 cm, the method of sealing the canals with liquid clay
mortar was used.
With a ravine depth of more than 15 cm, two methods ofsealing were used:
A. Guvalak, i.e., clay balls were used. Round balls up to 10
cm in diameter were fashioned from clay of dough-likeconsistency, and walls were fashioned from them. Thismethod of building adobe walls has been used in Central
Asia since ancient times.
B. For large gullies more than 15 cm wide, a brick lining
was made, followed by plastering on horizontal sections
with greasy clay, and on vertical sections they wereplastered with a protective solution with the addition ofrice straw.

Fig. 18. Object corridor

Kazakhstan

Fig. 19. Room 5. The burnt brick threshold

The discrepancy between the initial data of the designers
and the actual architecture of the monument prevented theauthors of the project from performing some restoration
tasks. In this regard, the chief researcher of Kazarchaeology
LLP, Doctor of Architecture Turganbayeva L.R., preparedan analytical article on architectural monuments of thecorridor-comb type. These data can be used in further
scientific and restoration work at the site.
Basic materials for restoration:
Clay - mined in a quarry outside the fortress walls;
	Water - low mineralized water from the Aksu River,which is a mountain river, was used;
Rubble stone - Buryl quarry, Taraz city;
Straw - barley, local;
	Rice husks - rice processing enterprise in Zhanakorgan
district, Sunakata village;
Wood - round pine timbers with a diameter of 10-15 cm.
For restoration work, raw bricks were made with dimensionsof 40 × 20 × 10, by stuffing into molds. Thus, primaryconservation work was carried out, which made it possible
to preserve the studied archaeological structures for further

Fig. 20. Room 4. The adobe thresholdstudy of the unexcavated sections of the tortkul—acorridor-comb-type castle. Further archaeological researchon the tortkul will reveal the spatial arrangement of the
tortkul, the location and nature of its constituent premises,
their dimensions, the design of the vaults, etc.
In conclusion, I would like to note that every year, theunderstanding of the importance of preservation, and acareful and respectful attitude towards cultural heritage
objects is increasing. This inspires firm confidence that theprotection and preservation of living evidence of the ageold traditions of our civilization will become a common
cause of all the inhabitants of our country.
References
Shalekenov U.Kh. Scientific works V. 1: The city of Balasagunin the V-XIII centuries. 2014: pp. 416-418
Baypakov K.M. Settlements of the “tortkul” type // Archae
ological monuments of Kazakhstan. Alma-Ata: Nauka,
1978. pp. 80–96.).
Azhigali S.E. Nomadic architecture is a phenomenon of thehistory and culture of Eurasia (monuments of the AralCaspian region). Almaty, 2002. p. 654.

24

Lao PDR
Lao PDR

The Protection and Promotion of That Foun in Seephom, Khoun District, Xiengkhouang Province,
Laos
Sommay Singthong, Lecturer
Department of History and Archaeology, Faculty of Social Sciences, National University of Laos
1. Introduction
Cultural remains are valuable cultural resources whose
precise value is hard to determine. However, the economic
development of a country effects rapid change to the wayof life and this can affect the cultural value of the past, while
the standard of protective management is insufficient andenforcement action is also not strongly implemented and so
the future will put cultural heritages in danger. Regarding
those significant cultural heritage issues, the Decree of the
President of the Lao People’s Democratic Republic on the
Preservation of Cultural, Historical, and Natural Heritage
was issued and promulgated in 19971, after which the Law
on National Heritage was developed and issued in 20052,
and after that it was continuously improved before theLaw on National Heritage was issued and promulgated in
20143, involving all types of properties. Currently, the Laogovernment has also taken cultural heritage protection
and promotion into account in terms of the country’s
development as mentioned in the 8th Five-Year National
Socio-Economic Development Plan4.
This report aims to briefly highlight a case study ofcultural heritage management at an ancient stupa, a local
heritage site in northeastern Laos called “That Foun.” This
stupa is one of the oldest remaining structures demonstrating
the arrival of Buddhism in this region. It became a
representative of Buddhist belief that contributed to thesolidarity of the people in the region. After the tourism
promotion campaign “Visit Laos Year” in 1999, That Founbecame a famous tourism destination of a cultural sitethat has contributed to the socio-economic developmentof Xieng Khouang province to the present.
The research on the conservation management of That Founin Seephom village, Khoun district, Xieng Khouang province
has two objectives: 1) Identification of the management
conditions of That Foun and 2) Examination of various
approahes for the management of That Foun. The qualitative
research method and an archaeological survey were also
applied. The population sample targeted the local authority,
related stakeholders, and local people by observation,
field in-depth interviews, and general interviews, and an
archaeological survey was also conducted to obtain
crucial information.

1

2

3

4

 Nouhak Phoumsavan (1997). Decree of the President of the Lao PDR on the Preservation of

3. History
At the beginning, That Foun was constructed as a small
stupa in 945 AD for preservation of the remains of Buddha
to promote Buddhism to the Phouan ethnic group5 and it
became a symbol that demonstrated the arrival of Buddhism
in this region. In 1379 AD, the king of the Phouan Kingdom
led his people to build a bigger stupa to cover the original
one, and established an annual festival. In 1874, That Foun
was dug up during the war of Hor and the properties inside
the stupa were stolen, which effected a great amount ofdamage, before Saykham, the governor of Meuang Phouan,
led his people to reconstruct it. In 1969, this stupa wasdestroyed during the American war, and was dug up several
times by treasure hunters.6
Moreover, the stupa was also destroyed through the passageof time, due to environmental factors such as natural phenomenon
including deterioration of the raw materials inside thestupa, plant growth, animals, etc. (Fig. 1). Human activities
and the unawareness of visitors and local communities werealso involved in the destruction.
However, That Foun was restored in 2017-2018 to protect
against the destruction (see Fig. 2) under the funding
support of New Zealand, which aimed to promote thesustainable development of tourism in Laos in collaboration
with the Department of Information, Culture, and Tourism
and Khitthavy restoration company. The restoration also
considered the use of similar materials as the original
elements as much as possible, such as white cement,
buffalo skin, non-timber forest products, etc.75 Kaenchan Sithanonxai (2010). History of Meuang Khoun. Department of Information, Culture

Cultural, Historical, and Natural Heritage, Article 6 Immovable National Heritage.

and Tourism of Khoun District, Xieng Khouang Province.

 National Assembly (2005). Decree of the President of Lao PDR on the Promulgation of the6 D epartment of Information, Culture and Tourism of Xieng Khouang Province, 2010.

Law on National Heritage: Chapter 2 Historical Heritage.

Unpublished reports.

 Ministry of Information, Culture and Tourism, (2014). Law on National Heritage No. 44/NA,

7

Article 2 National Heritage.

2020) Strategic Plan for Tourism Development and Promotion of Lao PDR, Government Ministry of Information, Culture and Tourism (2016). Law on Heritage Amendments to the

Policy on Tourism Promotion.

State Policy on National Heritage.

25

2. Site location
That Foun is located on top of a hill with a great view in
Seephom village, which is in the center of Khoun district,
Xieng Khouang province (the site covers around 11,534
hectares). This stupa has specific characteristics of architecture
which distinguished the Buddhist art of the Phouan
ethnic group. That Foun was constructed in considerationof various factors, particularly the location, viewpoint,
and artistic styles that highlighted the artistic style of thenortheastern region of Laos, which is known as ancient
Lao Phouan artistic style. That Foun was constructed withbricks and Pathayphet (elements to construct pagodas or
holy sites in ancient times which involved sandy cement
and natural rubber, etc.).

 Department of Tourism Development, Ministry of Information, Culture and Tourism (2012-

Lao PDR

Fig. 1. That Foun stupa before (left) and during the restoration in 2017 (right)

Fig. 2. That Foun after the restoration (Mao Nanthana, 2021)

26

Lao PDR

4. Protection management
The task of conservation involved various stakeholders including
government offices (central and local levels) and local
communities. The results revealed the following:1)	The protection management of That Foun began in
1994 by the district and local community and slightly
improved through practical tasks such as site management,
security, cleanliness, and guardianship etc. Then, several
facilities were developed to make it a tourism destinationof the district. This ancient stupa site has also beendeveloped to be a place for religious activities.8 In
addition, after development of the regulations and law
on cultural heritage protection the implementation ofmanagement tasks had crucially improved. However,
several issues still exist and are required to be solvedin the future, especially the process of management sothat it remains an attractive tourism destination site,
human resources, local community awareness, etc.
2)	Regarding the protective management approaches forthis historic site, even though there were management
guidelines for the years 2012-2014 and after the
restoration, a proper system should be adopted forvarious issues especially preservation, tracking, security,
event management, cleanliness, location management,
and information dissemination. Moreover, other factors
also required to be developed include the humanresources to upgrade and maintain precise and accessible
information on the site. Improving the awareness of
the local communities who live nearby the historicsite is another significant issue to be solved.

8 Department of Heritage (2017). Report on the achievement of Wat Phia Wat and That Founreconstructions in Khoun district, Xieng Khouang province; National Tourism Organization

27

5. Protection condition and issues
Cultural heritage management in Laos is largely concernedwith the management of monumental sites, historicalarchitecture, and more recent sites or objects. Lao heritage
management has its roots in the time when Laos was part ofFrench Indochina with additions from Buddhism, communism,and the currently growing business of alternative tourism.
The That Foun management included various processes
such as maintenance, registration, monitoring activities
cleanliness, location management, and dissemination of
information, as well as security, event management,
infrastructure, information promotion, and management
evaluation.
There remain several issues regarding the preservation ofthis ancient site, especially the gap between the actual
regulations or law and practical implementation, andcooperation among stakeholders and the local community.
Meanwhile, natural factors such as environmental change
are also involved. The solution to site management canbe the introduction of practical standard, and capacity
building for the local community, especially regarding thevalues of the cultural heritage site for the future. In
addition, infrastructure, facilities, and services are also
required to be developed alongside cultural heritage protection
as well.

(2005) Textbook for the Development of Ecotourism.

Malaysia
A Ghafar Bin Ahmad, Professor Dr.
School of Housing, Building and Planning, Universiti Sains Malaysia
Introduction
Surrounded by lush vegetation and tall tropical trees,
Rumah Sri Aman is a heritage building located in the townof Sri Aman, about a 3-hour drive east of Kuching, thecapital of Sarawak. “Rumah Sri Aman” literally means
House of Peace in the Malay language. Rumah Sri Aman
(formerly known as Rumah Simanggang) was once theofficial abode of the British Resident of Simanggang underthe Brooke administration in Sarawak during the 19th century.
Built in the late 1920s, the two-storey Rumah Sri Aman
was designed in an octagonal shape (locally recognised as
Rumah Segi Lapan) featuring a hybrid architectural fusionof European and vernacular styles. This is observed in its
wide openings, porch, windows, high ceiling at first floor,
and a jack-pitched roof with a rooster wind vane at the top.
The first floor, ceiling, and roof trusses were built in timber,while the ground floor was constructed in brick, concrete,
and lime plaster. All the windows, doors, and staircases areof timber. The building is characterised as modest yet
functional with simple ornamentation and decoration
depicting the vernacular architecture of the early 20 th
century. Rumah Sri Aman has witnessed several historicalevents during its heyday. In September 1963, Rumah Sri
Aman was used as the official meeting place and guest housefor government officials and their guests when Sarawak
together with Malaya, Singapore, and Sabah (North Borneo)
formed the Federation of Malaysia. In October 1973,
Rumah Sri Aman was chosen as the venue for signing a
Peace Declaration between the North Kalimantan Communist
Party (NKCP) and the Sarawak government. The NKCP wasthen dissolved, which ended the communist insurgency inSarawak. Simanggang was renamed Bandar Sri Aman tocommemorate this significant event. In March 1974, Rumah
Simanggang was renamed Rumah Sri Aman by the Sarawak
government. Due to its historical, social, and architectural
significance, on 21 March 2022, Rumah Sri Aman was
declared in the Sarawak Government Gazette Part II(2022) as a Historical Monument and Historical Site under
the Sarawak Heritage Ordinance 2019 (Chapter 7). This
article is focused on the dilapidation survey of Rumah Sri
Aman before conservation work in 2021-2022. It highlights
the dilapidation survey, building defects, and proposed
conservation works or treatments for Rumah Sri Aman.
Dilapidation Survey
During the 1960s-1990s, Rumah Sri Aman underwent a
series of renovation works which resulted in major changes
and modifications to its interior building plans, roof
structures, roofing materials, and fittings. In 2020-2021, theGovernment of Sarawak through the Land Custody andDevelopment Authority, Sarawak (LCDA) (Lembaga
Pembangunan dan Lindungan Tanah, Sarawak) allocateda contract sum of RM3.53 million (USD761,514) to conserve
Rumah Sri Aman. The conservation project of Rumah Sri
Aman began on 16 August 2021 with a construction periodof 12 months. Fifty years after the Peace Declaration, in

Malaysia

Dilapidation Survey of Rumah Sri Aman, Sarawak, Malaysia

2023, Rumah Sri Aman is planned to be converted into a
museum or heritage gallery showcasing the rich history andculture of Simanggang, Sarawak. Prior to the commencementof conservation works, a dilapidation survey of Rumah Sri
Aman was conducted by a consultant team led by consultant
architect Konsortium Bumi Consultants and Services Sdn
Bhd, based in Kuching, Sarawak, and a registered conservator.
The main purpose of the dilapidation survey was to
document the existing conditions of Rumah Sri Aman
including its historical background, architectural significance,levels of building defects, and proposed conservation works.
Extensive research was carried out by the consultant
architect to document the historical background of Rumah
Sri Aman, the development of Simanggang town during
the Brooke administration until the present time, and thecolonial architecture of Sarawak during the 1920s-1940s.
In January 2021, the dilapidation survey report preparedby the consultant architect was completed and submitted
to the Land Custody and Development Authority, and theSarawak Museum Department for their records and for
future reference. The dilapidation survey report is presented
in seven (7) sections as follows: introduction, historicalbackground of Simanggang and Rumah Sri Aman, architectural
significance, building defects, proposed conservation works,
conclusion, and references.
The dilapidation survey of Rumah Sri Aman began byidentifying and recording the building defects by adopting
non-destructive methods including observation, inspection,
examination, identification, and photo documentation
using tools such as a moisture detector, Schmidt hammer,
scrapper, and high-density camera. Measured drawings werecarried out conventionally on site using a measuring tape,scaled ruler, or distance meter. The measured drawings
consisted of a site plan, location plan, floor plans, elevations,sections, and architectural details. Building plans were
produced digitally using the AutoCAD software. The
dilapidation survey of Rumah Sri Aman was instrumental inproviding the consultants, clients, and government agencies
with key information as follows:i.	Understanding of the common building defects andtheir levelii.	Determination of the causes of the building defectsiii.	Identification of appropriate methods and techniques
for building conservationiv.	Estimate of the cost of building repairs and conservation
works
v.	Provision of additional building information in thetender documentsvi.	Provision of reference materials to those involved in theconservation project including the building contractor
During the dilapidation survey, several site visits andtechnical meetings were conducted on site between theclient, registered conservator, and consultant team members
including the architect, structural engineer, electrical and28

Malaysia

mechanical engineers, and the quantity surveyor. Despite
the movement restriction order (MCO) imposed throughout
the country due to the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020-2021,
the dilapidation survey was successfully carried out onsite under a special permit for inter-district travel, healthregulations, and standard operating procedures (SOPs).
Historical records, periodicals, documents, books,
newspaper cuttings, and printed floor plans of Rumah Sri
Aman were sought by the consultant architect fromvarious sources including the Public Works Department,
Sarawak, Borneo Post website, Sri Aman District Office,and Sri Aman Resident Office as supporting evidence forverification.
Common Building Defects
The dilapidation survey report prepared by the consultant
architect revealed that Rumah Sri Aman faced several
common building defects. Each building defect was
carefully analysed to determine the possible cause. No
structural examination was carried out on the existingbuilding and no material testing was conducted outside
the premises. All building defects were identified andcategorised according to the level of defect, and indicatedon the building plans in the dilapidation survey report.
This practice is vital for the purposes of determining
quantity and cost estimates for future reference. Some of
the common building defects found at Rumah Sri Aman
are leakage, cracks, peeling off or faded paint, stains,
corrosion, plant and fungal growth, and defective floors.
The main causes of these building defects were lack ofmaintenance, ageing of building materials, climatic or
environmental conditions, and soil settlement or slope
instability. Rumah Sri Aman also faced issues of ineffective
building services including poor air conditioning, fire
protection, electrical wiring and conduits, and water
pump system. Table 1 shows the common building
defects of Rumah Sri Aman and their respective locations.
Leakage, cracks, and peeling off or faded paint are themost common building defects observed at Rumah Sri
Aman.

Table 1: Common building defects at Rumah Sri Aman in 2020-2021
No.
Types of Building Defect1 Leakage
2 Crack
3 Peeling off or faded paint
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

Stain
Corrosion
Plant growth
Fungal growth
Uneven surface
Squeaky floor
Damage11

Blockage

LocationsRoof, porch ceiling, ground floor ceiling
Building apron, dry walls, columns, perimeter drain
External pilaster, RC column, timber panels at porch, doors and window
casements, fascia board
External walls, plastered ceilingAir-conditioning compressors, roof gutters, water pipes, water pump
Building apron
External walls
Building apron, bedroom walls
Floorboards
Kitchen top, toilet cabinet, sanitary fittings, external timber cover at
porch beam
Roof gutters(Source: Konsortium Bumi Consultants and Services Sdn. Bhd. Dilapidation Survey Report, 2021)

The dilapidation survey of Rumah Sri Aman included thecategorisation of building defects as either minimal (M),moderate (Md), or severe (S). A minimal conditionindicates a minor defect requiring less repair work, still ingood condition, and able to function as intended. A
moderate condition refers to a sensible defect with planned
repair and corrective maintenance programme, but still
functioning. A severe condition implies a major fault or aserious stage that requires urgent repair or replacement.
Various inputs from a civil and structure (C&S) engineer,mechanical and electrical (M&E) engineer, architect, andregistered conservator were consulted in assessing the levelof building defects on site. Table 2 shows some examplesof building defects and their level of defectiveness on the
ground floor of Rumah Sri Aman.
Based on Table 2, the building defects of Rumah Sri Aman
were generally within the range of minimal and moderateconditions. Nonetheless, the moderate defects of building
structures and elements were given considerable attention
during the conservation works, including problems ofleakage, cracks, harmful growth, corrosion, and stains. The
consultant architect had proposed conservation works ortreatments for each building defect in the dilapidation

29

survey report for record and reference. These proposed
conservation works or treatments were clearly explainedin the bill of quantities (BQ) during the tendering stage.
Proposed Conservation Works
Upon a series of technical meetings and discussions among
consultants, representatives from the Land Custody andDevelopment Authority, Sarawak Museum Department,
and registered conservator, the consultant architect
proposed detailed conservation works or treatments in the
dilapidation survey report. For clarity and easy crossreferencing, the proposed conservation works or treatments
were divided into three components, which are architecture(external and internal), civil and structural, and mechanicaland electrical. The architectural component focused onfloors, walls, fenestration, drainage, ceiling, roofing, fixed
furniture, and sanitary fittings. The civil and structuralcomponent covered columns and walls, and flooring, whilst
the mechanical and electrical component included airconditioning services, fire protection services, cold water
services, and electrical services. Table 3 summarises the
proposed conservation works or treatments for Rumah Sri
Aman.

No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11

Building Structure and Element
Building apron
External wall
External column
External timber cover at porchbeam
External doors
Perimeter drain
Porch ceilingInternal dry wall
Internal brick wall
Internal column (RC)Internal ceiling

Type of Building Defect
Crack/Plant growth
Stain/Fungal growth
Stain/Corrosion
Slightly damage

Level of Defect
Md
Md
M
M

Slight damage
DamageStain
Crack
Crack (hairline)
Peeling off paint
Stain

M
Md
M
Md
M
Md
Md

Malaysia

Table 2: Some building defects and levels of defect on the ground floor, Rumah Sri Aman

* Note: Minimal defect (M) / Moderate defect (Md)
(Source: Konsortium Bumi Consultants and Services Sdn. Bhd. Dilapidation Survey Report, 2021)

Table 3: Proposed conservation works or treatments for Rumah Sri Aman
No.
Building Structure and Element
1 Roof
2

Floor

3

Ceiling

4

Wall

5

Fenestration

6
7
8

Sanitary fitting
WiringPlumbing

9External work

10

Internal work

Proposed Conservation Works / Treatments
To replace the whole roof structure including roof beams, battens, andinsulation. To replace roofing with new Belian shingles.
Ground Floor:
Floor structure to be maintained and to install new floor finish using polishedbrown ceramic tiles to match the original tiles.
First Floor:
To maintain floor structure but allow 30% to be replaced (joists).
Floor finish to be replaced 100% with new hardwood floorboards, varnished
to appropriate colours. Bathroom floors to be replaced with brown non-slip
tiles.
Ground Floor:
The existing plaster and UAC ceiling to be replaced 100% with a new plaster
ceiling.
First Floor:
The whole ceiling to be demolished and replaced with a new plaster ceiling.
Entire walls to be made good. Scrape off existing paint, patch up uneven anddamaged surfaces, and paint with new appropriate paint.
Ground floor brick walls to use appropriate plaster (lime plaster) as approvedby the specialist.
The wall boards on the first floor to be made good. Anticipate 30% to be
replaced with new boards.
Existing boards to be scrapped of old paint and repainted using new paint.
The wall board tongue and groove to be sealed to prevent water penetration.
All existing timber window and door frames as well as panels are to be madegood. Anticipate 30% to be replaced using new materials. Paint according to
specialist recommendations.
All fittings to be replaced with new fittings.
All existing wiring to be dismantled and replaced with new wiring.
All existing plumbing to be replaced with new pipes and accessories.
New air-conditioning pipes to be installed in all rooms.
New septic tanks to be installed. Drains and aprons to be demolished andreplaced with new ones.
Landscape to be entirely new but minimal.
Interior works to be redesigned to suit new functions.
Partition walls to be repositioned and use new dry walls according to newroom layout.
For gallery spaces, special lighting for exhibition to be installed.

(Source: Konsortium Bumi Consultants and Services Sdn. Bhd. Dilapidation Survey Report, 2021)

30

Malaysia

Conclusions
The conduct of the dilapidation survey of Rumah Sri Aman
presented in-depth information and knowledge to those
involved in the conservation of the building, particularly
on its historical narration, architectural significance, building
defects and proposed conservation works or treatments. The
dilapidation survey required the consultants to analyse allbuilding defects, the probable causes, and proposed remedial
measures, methods, and techniques, which are subject toproper valuation, cost estimation, and a comprehensive billof quantities in the tendering stage. The dilapidation
survey report prepared by the consultant architect concluded
that Rumah Sri Aman was in relatively good condition andsafe for occupancy. The level of building defects discoveredat Rumah Sri Aman, which ranged from minimal to moderatecondition including roof leakage, cracked building apron,
and plant growth on walls, did not affect the structural
integrity of the building. Nonetheless, in the interest of
future building condition, few structures and elements ofRumah Sri Aman were recommended by the consultants
to be replaced by new items of the same materials or to theclosest possible material. This is in reference to the principlethat the conservation of Rumah Sri Aman was based on its
original known state. The dilapidation survey of Rumah
Sri Aman posed many challenges to the consultant teammembers as it was conducted during the imposition of the
movement restriction order due to the COVID-19 pandemic
in the country in 2020-2021. The consultants faced difficulties
not only in conducting research and oral interviews with theauthorities involved, but also in assessing the building
structures and elements during the pandemic control.
Since Rumah Sri Aman is a gazetted heritage building, allproposed conservation works or treatments had to bepresented to the Director of Sarawak Museum Department
in Kuching for approval prior to construction on site. It isimperative that the adaptive re-use of Rumah Sri Aman froman official residence of the British Resident into a museum
or heritage gallery is able to instill greater awareness andinspire new interest in heritage conservation among the
local communities, tourists, and future generations.
Acknowledgements
The author wishes to thank the School of Housing, Building
and Planning, Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM), Land Custodyand Development Authority (LCDA), LCDA Real Estate Sdn.
Bhd., Sarawak Museum Department ( JMS), Konsortium
Bumi Consultants and Services Sdn. Bhd., DT Jurutera
Perunding Sdn. Bhd., Sarahill Consulting Sdn. Bhd., PEB
Consulting Sdn. Bhd., Setia Gaya Sdn. Bhd., Davidran
Somasundiram Prakasam, Allan Micheal Rimong, JoehariIskandar Effendi, Adi Dewanto, Tazudin Mohtar, Dayang
Morzanah Awang Haddy, Yasmin Khalid Nicholls, Iswandi
Junaidi, Nicholas Daby Anak Henry Atie, Seellren Anak
Anthony, Nur Shafrina Shafri, Siti Hazirah Wasli, Muhammad
Adib Yusuf, Bong Ah Khan, Mohd Sherman Sauffi, Ar. David
Hollis Tini, Edner Patrick Stephen, Nick Mattaari Matia,
Stanley Gita, Jimmy Anyi, Raina Tini, Ir. Voon Kuok Sen,
Derek Yeo Boon Sing, Go Yong Khiang, Ir. Alphonsus
Dorhat Rahani, Muhd Irysad Ismail, Nur Fiqra Ameera
Rosli, Sr. Lydia Chiong Chew Lian, Litty Ho, Associate
Professor Ar. Haris Fadzilah Abdul Rahman, Nur Zubaida
Madon, Lazarus Capirosy, Churchill Yahya, Nicholas Ling,
Dennis Tiong Ing Ching, Chua Kok Kwang, Chua Kim

31

Hoong, and Chai Chiang Pore for making this article
possible.
References:
A Ghafar Bin Ahmad. 2021. “The Practice of Heritage
Building Conservation in Malaysia. ACCU Nara International
Correspondent: The Twenty-sixth Regular Report, Cultural
Heritage Protection Cooperation Office, Asia/Pacific Cultural
Centre for UNESCO (ACCU), Nara, Japan. Vol. 26. p. 22-31.
Konsortium Bumi Consultants and Services Sdn. Bhd.
2021. Dilapidation Survey Report: Proposed Restoration of
Rumah Sri Aman on Lot Part of 726 and Part of 1786,
Block 2, Simanggang Town District, Sri Aman, Sarawak(unpublished).
“Rumah Sri Aman Bakal Dijadikan Muzium Sri Aman Tahun
Depan”. Sarawak Voice, 16 July 2022. https://sarawakvoice.
com/2022/07/16/rumah-sri-aman-bakal-dijadikan-muziumsri-aman-tahun-depan/ (accessed on 2 October 2022).
“Rumah Rehat Sri Aman Bakal Diubah Menjadi Muzium”.
UKAS Portal. 11 September 2022. https://ukas.sarawak.
gov.my/2022/09/11/rumah-rehat-sri-aman-bakal-diubahmenjadi-muzium/ (accessed on 2 October 2022).
Sarawak Heritage Ordinance. 2019. Laws of Sarawak: Chapter
77.
Sarawak Government Gazette. 2019. Part II. No. 83. Vol. LXXIV,
1 November.
Sarawak Government Gazette. 2022. Part II. No. 23. Vol. LXXVII,
11 April.
“Sejarah Sri Aman”. Pentadbiran Bahagian Sri Aman. https://sriaman.sarawak.gov.my/page-0-85-7-tid.html (accessed on 2
October 2022).
Wilfred Pilo. 2013. “The day the insurgency ended”. The
Borneo Post. 3 November.
https://www.theborneopost.com/2013/11/03/the-day-theinsurgency-ended/ (accessed on 2 October 2022).

Malaysia

Location of Sri Aman, Sarawak, Malaysia

Surrounded by lush vegetation and tall tropical trees, the two-storey Rumah Sri Aman was designed in an octagonal shape(locally recognised as Rumah Segi Lapan) featuring a hybrid architectural fusion of European and vernacular styles.

In October 1973, Rumah Sri Aman was chosen as the venue for the signing of a Peace Declaration between the North
Kalimantan Communist Party (NKCP) and Sarawak Government. (Source: The Borneo Post, https://www.theborneopost.
com/2013/11/03/the-day-the-insurgency-ended/)32

Malaysia
Sri Aman. The original table is kept intact at the nearby Fort Alice in Sri Aman. A
replica of the table used for the signing of the Peace Declaration is put on
display at Rumah.

Side view of Rumah Sri Aman showing its front porch, windows, doors, and a jackpitched roof with a rooster wind vane at the top.

Interior view of the living area on the ground floor of Rumah Sri Aman before Interior view of the master bedroom on the first floor of Rumah Sri Aman before
conservation in 2021-2022.
conservation in 2021-2022.

During the dilapidation survey of Rumah Sri Aman, several site visits and technical Despite the movement restriction order (MCO) due to the COVID-19 pandemic inmeetings were conducted on site between the client, registered conservator, Malaysia in 2020-2021, the dilapidation survey was successfully carried out onsite under a special permit for inter-district travel, health regulations, and standard
and the consultants.
operating procedures.

Structural inspection of the existing exterior walls of Rumah Sri Aman was conducted by the consultant team.

33

Malaysia

The dilapidation survey of Rumah Sri Aman began by identifying andrecording the building defects by using non-destructive methods including
obser vation, inspection, examination, identification, and photo
documentation using tools such as a moisture detector, Schmidt hammer,
scrapper, and high-density camera.

Examples of common building defects of Rumah Sri Aman including peeling off
paint (left) and leakage, stains and plant growth (right).

Detailed inspections of Rumah Sri Aman, particularly of its squeaky floorboards (left) and porch structures(right).

Cracks were found in the building apron, dry walls, columns, and perimeterdrain, while the timber doors, windows, and wall panels were damaged.

View of Rumah Sri Aman during conservation works in 2021-2022.

34

Malaysia
Front and rear elevations of Rumah Sri Aman showing the jack-pitched roof. (Drawing courtesy of Konsortium
Bumi Consultants and Services Sdn. Bhd.)

Left and right elevations showing the porch of Rumah Sri Aman. (Drawing courtesy of Konsortium Bumi
Consultants and Services Sdn. Bhd.)

Ground floor plan showing the main entrance, living area, and kitchen of Rumah Sri Aman. (Drawing
courtesy of Konsortium Bumi Consultants and Services Sdn. Bhd.)

35

Malaysia

First floor plan showing the bedrooms of Rumah Sri Aman. (Drawing courtesy of Konsortium Bumi Consultants andServices Sdn. Bhd.)

Sectional elevations showing the staircases and floorboards on the first floor of Rumah Sri Aman. (Drawing courtesyof Konsortium Bumi Consultants and Services Sdn. Bhd.)

Roof plan showing the octagonal shape of Rumah Sri Aman. (Drawing courtesy of Konsortium Bumi Consultants
and Services Sdn. Bhd.)

36

Mongolia
Mongolia

A Newly-Found Uighur Period Runic Inscription from Eastern Mongolia
Munkhtulga Rinchinkhorol, Researcher
Institute of History and Archaeology, Mongolian Academy of Sciences
In March 2020, a Runic inscription was discovered in Eastern
Mongolia by Ya. Batjargal, a herder of Bayandelger soum,
Sukhbaatar aimag, along with his wife and son. Between
April 1 and 10, 2022, art researcher D. Amaraa, as part of the“Agtana Khureet” project, realized the first documentationof this cultural heritage. The decoding and first historiclinguistic interpretation of the inscription were done between
May and June 2022 (Munhktulga et al. 2022).
Location
There are hills called Tavan Tolgoi in the middle of the plain,
22 km west of the center of Bayandelger soum, Sukhbaatar
aimag (Fig. 1). These are situated in an east-west orientationand their five hilltops are connected by a narrow linear
sequence of rocks (Fig. 2). There are an inscription and sometamgas (stamp, seal) in the middle of these five hilltops, ormore precisely, on one of the granite rocks extending fromsouthwest to northeast, in the western part of the middle top(Figs. 3 and 4). The surface of this granite rock has cracks
and is partially deteriorated with lichen.
General description
The height of the granite rock with the inscription is 140
cm on the northeast side and 70 cm on the southwest. In
other words, this rock is inclined from northeast to south
west. The top surface on which the inscription is written
is relatively flat, its length is 106 cm, and its width 35 cm (Fig.
5). The inscription is engraved along the length of the top
surface of the rock, close to its western (left) edge. The
inscription begins in the northwest corner and continues
along the western edge of the surface, following the slopeof the stone. The head of the letters in the line is oriented
to the west, to the western (left) edge of the surface (Figs.
6-8).
There are also some tamgas engraved on the left and rightsides of the inscription, as well as on the front or bottom(Figs. 6 and 7). The tamgas are on the top surface of a rockthat adjoins the north or upper side of the rock with theinscription, and on the right and upper surface of a verticalboulder that stands like a wall on the right side of theaforementioned rock with tamgas (Figs. 5). As with someTurkic and Uighur period stelae and rock inscriptions, it isclear that the inscription and tamgas of Tavan Tolgoi weredeliberately engraved in the same place and at the sametime.
The rock engraved with the inscription and tamgas resembles a lying stele with an inscription on its front side (Figs.
6 and 7). In other words, the surface of the rock adjoining
the upper (north) side of the rock with the inscription isindeed the top side of the inscription, like a stele of theTurkic and Uighur periods. On the other hand, as mentioned
above, the surface of the inscribed rock is inclined towards
the front from this part.

37

Moreover, while the heads of almost all tamgas are in thesame direction, orienting to the upper side, the head of theletters of the inscription faces left (west) (Figs. 6 and 7). In
this manner, this inscription is the same as for some Turkic
stelae, in which the lines run from left to right. Moreover,the head of the letters in most Turkic and Uighur stele isdirected to the left.
Engraving a large tamga at the top of the inscription is a
tradition of the stelae of the Second Turkic Khaganate, andit can be seen from the famous monuments in Mongoliathat it was followed in the Uighur period as well. In addition,
it should be mentioned that in the stelae of the Dongoin
Shiree complex of the Second Turkic Khaganate, and thehuman-figure stone statue of the Talyn Khöshöö complex,
the tamgas of the main aristocrats are depicted in a large
size in the upper part, and other small tamgas are carved
in a row from top to bottom, along with the inscription(Munkhtulga / Ōsawa 2015: 42-46; Munkhtulga et al. 2019:10-12, 24, 26, 31-34).
Therefore, it is obvious that the writer(s) who made thisrock inscription tried to reflect and adhere to the traditionof the Turkic and Uighur aristocratic stelae.
Inscription
The inscription is 63 cm long and is a single-line inscriptionengraved from top to bottom using the “pecking technique”.
It consists of 2 sentences with a total of 29 letters and 7
words, and 18 letters of the Runic alphabet including 4
vowels and 14 consonants were used. The letter for the front
consonant ‘n’ is written in two variants. The letter ‘a’ a has
been substituted for the special mark “two dots” (:), asymbol used to separate words, phrases, and sentenceparts. The stroke of the letters is 0.2-0.4 cm wide and 0.2
cm deep. If we take the letter ‘m’ m as an example, theheight of the letter is 4.5 cm, and the width is 2 cm (Figs.
6-10).
Text: amTRLvJWt wtamTRLvaNRv k ingj	Transcription: yegän irkin orun a olurtïm a törtinč ayolurtïm a.
	Translation: I, Yegän Irkin, sat on the seat. I sat in the fourth
month.
Text contents
In the text, a person with the title Yegän Irkin has written
as a memory which month he succeeded to the position.
When the inscription was initially read, the word ‘olurtïm’(‘I sat’) seemed to mean that the writer mentioned hedwelt in a certain place. In other words, the first thought
was that the inscription was not written by a traveler who
passed through Tavan Tolgoi but by a person who temporarily
lived in this area. Now, it seems that someone wrote about
when he succeeded to the position.

Linguistic features
The Tavan Tolgoi inscription is written in the Old Turkic(or Old Uighur) language. Although it has only two
sentences and a few words, it can be said that it is uniqueamong the Runic monuments of the Turkic and Uighur
periods, as it contains the word ‘orun’, which means ‘seat’or ‘throne’. The other five words, ‘yegän’, ‘irkin’, ‘olurtïm’,‘törtinč’, and ‘ay’, occur frequently in Runic texts of theTurkic and Uighur periods, so there is no need to explain
the meaning and form of these well-known words. The
word ‘orun’ occurs in the Uighur manuscripts of Eastern
Turkestan only from the 9th century AD onwards (DTS
1969: 372; Clauson 1972: 233), and from the fact that its
Runic form first appears in the Tavan Tolgoi inscription, it
seems that it was used in the sense of ‘seat’ or ‘throne’
from the time of the Uighur Empire in Mongolia.
TamgasAround the inscription, there are at least 20 types oftamgas (Figs. 5-7). Of course, this is not the complete
number of tamgas at the site, and if we look carefully, we
can find many more tamgas. Perhaps all tamgas at the site
are related to the inscription in some way. In particular, thetamgas near the inscription should have been engraved at
the time the inscription was written. These tamgas of theTavan Tolgoi inscription are quite common in the monumentsof the Second Turkic and Uighur Khaganates. Comparing
these tamgas based on where they were placed on theinscription and how large they were engraved; it can besaid that the most important tamga for those people who
left the monument was the ‘snake’ tamga. It is most likely
the tamga of Yegän Irkin, whose name appears in theinscription. It is now clear that there are at least four
versions of the ‘snake’ tamga.
Date
As mentioned above, the grammatological and linguistic
characteristics of the Tavan Tolgoi inscription indicate that
it was written in the Uighur period. Although the year ofengraving of the inscription and tamgas is not written on
this monument, the month is mentioned. This is a hint toclarify the time period. The “Fourth month” is the first monthof summer, and by today’s reckoning, it is generally May.
The “Fourth month” is rarely mentioned in the Runicmonuments of the Turkic and Uighur periods. It seems thatthe month was important to the writer, as the month was
written but the year was not mentioned. As noted in theinscription, a ceremony of “sitting on the seat” or“ascending the seat” may have taken place in the “Fourth
month”, the first month of summer.
Another piece of evidence that can help to determine thedate of the Tavan Tolgoi inscription is the tamgas that havebeen engraved along with the inscription. In particular,
how the tamgas are combined and which tamgas areplaced where may give us important clues. The tamgas

seem to show that the time of powerful Uighur rulers like
Bayanchur Khagan, Bögü Khagan, and Tung Baga Khaganfrom the Yaglakar clan had already passed and the powerof the Yaglakar was only nominal. The year when the
power of the Yaglakar dynasty deteriorated and the Ädizhad not yet come to power, a turbulent and critical period,
was 790. In the same year, Zhongzhen Khagan ( 忠貞可汗 ), the son of Tung Baga Khagan, was poisoned by his
younger Khatun, the granddaughter of the famous Tanggeneral Pugu Huai-en. Instead, the Khagan’s younger
brother was enthroned. Soon after, however, courtiers
together killed this new Khagan. Then, in the Fourth month,
the first month of summer, of the year of the Horse (790),
the 15 to 16-year-old son of Zhongzhen Khagan, Achuo
succeeded to the throne as Fengcheng Khagan ( 奉誠可汗 ) in the Uighur capital, present-day Khar Balgas(Mackerras 1972: 100, 105). In 790-791, the Uighur army
was defeated by the allied army of the Tibetans and Karluks
at Beshbalik and lost the Silk Road to the Tibetans(Malyavkin 1992: 215). In 795, when Achuo or Fengcheng
Khagan died, the minister Kutlug, who was of the Ädizclan, was enthroned. Thus, from that time onwards, theÄdiz became the ruling clan of the Uighur Empire(Mackerras 1972: 107).

Mongolia

Characteristics of letter
It is well known that the form T of the back consonant ‘T’ in
the Tavan Tolgoi inscription appears only in inscriptions
dating after the middle of the 8th century AD. The front
consonant ‘n’ has two allographic versions in the inscription:and n.

The aforementioned situation at the time suggests that theTavan Tolgoi inscription may have been written after
Fengcheng Khagan was enthroned in May 790, but withinthat year.
Writer of the inscription
Yegän Irkin is the title of the person who wrote or issued
the order to write the inscription. The name Tun Yegän
Irkin, which is very similar to this title, also appears in the
Choir inscription, along with the ‘snake’ tamga (Malov
1936; Klyashtorny 1969: 46; Klyashtorny 1971: 254;
Klyashtorny 1980: 96-97; Sertkaya 1996: 5; Bazylkhan 2005:
127; Özönder 2006: 113; Suzuki 2009: 421; Şirin User
2009: 467; Kormushin 2011: 212; Ölmez 2012: 211; Şirin
2016: 643; Battulga 2020: 197; Battulga 2021; Battulga
2022: 42-57). This person whose name or title appears in
the Tavan Tolgoi inscription is an Irkin of the Tungra(aRhv ; 同罗 ) people, one of the Nine Oguz. Since the nameof the Tungra occurs once in each of the inscriptions of
Kültigin, Bilge Khagan, Tonyukuk, and twice in the Uighur
period Tariat inscription (Şirin 2016: 244), it can be considered
as a group that actively participated in the political eventsof Mongolia at that time. It is also mentioned in Chinese
annals. (Kirilen / Kirilen 2022: 124-125). It fiercely foughtwith the Äshir Turks, being always on the side of Oguz, aconstant rival and powerful enemy of the Turks.
It seems that the writer of the Tavan Tolgoi inscription, theson (or grandson) of the chief of the Tungra, received thetitle Yegän Irkin most probably from Fengcheng Khagan,
the Uighur ruler of that time, and ascended to the seat
under the Khagan’s patronage.
Type of the inscription
We suggest that the Tavan Tolgoi inscription may belong
to a recently defined type of rock inscription called “roadinscription” (Munkhtulga 2022). It is logical from thetamgas at the site that the writer of the inscription might38

Mongolia

have been accompanied by different groups, or by somepeople representing different groups. Judging from thelocation of this inscription, the road from the Kherlen
Basin through Dongoin Shiree probably used to go from
Tavan Tolgoi to the south-west, to Darkhan Muumyangan
Banner, from there to the Ordos, and then to Chang’an, thecapital of the Tang Dynasty.
The number of “road inscriptions” of the Turkic and Uighur
periods in Mongolia, comprising only Runic inscriptions,amount to more than 80, and most of them belong to the
Uighur period (Munkhtulga 2022: 80). Based only onthese inscriptions, we have identified seven main routesof the Turkic and Uighur periods (Munkhtulga 2022: 81).
The Tavan Tolgoi inscription indicates that in addition tothese seven, there may have been an eighth route from the
Kherlen Valley through the Tavan Tolgoi to the Ordos, andthen Chang’an city. It should also be noted that the horseand silk trade between Uyghur and China was still very
active at this time.

Fig. 1. Location of the Tavan Tolgoi inscription

Fig. 2. Tavan Tolgoi hills, from the south

39

Conclusion
Since the Uighur period, the practice of engraving or writing
in ink on the rocks near roads in Mongolia has spread andevolved in many ways. Thus, the ancient “road inscriptions”
appear to be the most reliable source (as of today) of how
the roads from Mongolia reached the historical Silk Road.
The Tavan Tolgoi inscription imitates the general planningof the stelae of Turkic and Uighur aristocrats. The vocabulary
and typology of letters in the text reflect the characteristicsof the last quarter of the 8th century AD. Also, around theinscription are about twenty tamgas, including four
variants of the ‘snake’ tamga. The tamgas may have beenengraved by different people, but they are inextricably
linked to the inscription, and most of them were madetogether as one complex at one time.
The Tavan Tolgoi inscription was written by a man named
Yegän Irkin, an aristocrat of the Tungra people. This
monument is a “road inscription” that was left along theroute from the Kherlen Valley through Tavan Tolgoi to
Chang’an, the capital of the Chinese Tang Dynasty.

Mongolia

Fig. 3. Middle top of the Tavan Tolgoi hills, from the south

Fig. 4. Inscription at Tavan Tolgoi

Fig. 5. Location of the tamgas at Tavan Tolgoi

40

Mongolia
Fig. 6. Tavan Tolgoi inscription from the above

Fig. 7. Tavan Tolgoi inscription

Fig. 9. Middle part of the inscription (©D. Amaraa 2022)

References
Battulga 2020 – Ц.Баттулга. Монголын руни бичгийн багадурсгал. - Монголын археологийн өв. XII боть. Уб.
Battulga 2021 – Ц.Баттулга. Чойрын хүн чулууны бичээсийг
дахин нягтлах нь. // Altaica. Vol. XVII, fasc. 3. Уб.: 37-54
Battulga 2022 – Ц.Баттулга. Монголын руни бичгийн
дурсгалын шинэ судалгаа. III боть: Монголын зүүн, өмнөд бүснутаг дахь руни бичгийн дурсгал. Уб.: 42-57
Bazylkhan 2005 – Н.Базылхан. Қазақстан тарихы туралы
Түркi деректемелерi. II том. Алматы
Clauson 1972 – Sir G.Clauson. An Etymological Dictionaryof Pre-Thirteenth-Century Turkish. Oxford

41

Fig. 8. Upper part of the Tavan Tolgoi inscription (©D. Amaraa
2022).

Fig. 10. Lower part (©D. Amaraa 2022)

DTS 1969 – Древнетюркский словарь. Л.
Kirilen / Kirilen 2022 – Melike Kirilen, Gürhan Kirilen. Çin
Kaynaklarında Tongra Boyu. // Uluslararası Toplumsal
Bilimler Dergisi. Cilt 6, Sayı 1: 123-145
Klyashtorny 1969 – С.Кляшторный. Руническая надпись накаменном изваянии из Чойрэна. // Письменные памятникии проблемы истории культуры народов Востока. Л.: 46-47
Klyashtorny 1971 – С.Кляшторный. Руническая надписьиз Восточной Гоби. - Studia Turcica. Budapest: 249-258
Klyashtorny 1980 – С.Кляшторный. Древнетюркская
надпись на каменном изваянии из Чойрэна. // Страны инароды Востока. Вып. 22. М.: 90-102Ölmez 2012 – M.Ölmez. Оrhon Uygur Hanlığı Dönemi
Moğolistan’daki Eski Türk Yazıtları. Metin-Çeviri-Sözlük.
AnkaraÖzönder 2006 – B.Özönder. Çöyr Yazıtı. // Modern TürklükAraştırmaları Dergisi. Cilt 3, Sayı 3 (Eylül 2006): 108-124
Sertkaya 1996 – O.Sertkaya. Göktürk harfli Çoyr Yazıtı. //Permanent International Altaistic Conference XXXIX.
SzegedSuzuki 2009 – K.Suzuki. Revision and Reinterpretation of
the Choir Inscription. // Bonn Contribution to Asian
Archaeology. Volume 4: Current Archaeological Research in
Mongolia. Papers from the First International Conference
on “Archaeological Research in Mongolia” held in Ulaan
baatar, August 19th-23rd, 2007. Bonn: 417-425
Şirin 2016 – H.Şirin. Eski Türk yazıtları söz varlığı incelemesi.
AnkaraŞirin User 2009 – H.Şirin User. Köktürk ve Ötüken UygurKağanlığı Yazıtları. Söz Varlığı İncelemesi. Konya

Mongolia

Kormushin 2011 – И.Кормушин. Новое в чтении и толковании
Чойренской рунической надписи конца VII в. из Монголии.
// Тюркологический сборник (2009-2010). М.: 202-213
Mackerras 1972 – C.Mackerras. The Uighur Empire According
to the T’ang Dynastic Histories. Canberra
Malov 1936 – С.Малов. Новые памятники с турецкими рунами.
// Язык и мышление. Вып. VI-VII. Л.: 259-267
Malyavkin 1992 – А.Малявкин. Борьба Тибета с Танским
государством за Кашгарию. Н.
Munkhtulga 2022 – Р.Мөнхтулга. Монгол улсын нутаг дахьэртний замын бичээсүүд. Гэрэлт хөшөө, хад чулуун дээрхадгалагдсан соёлын баримтат өвийн өнөөгийн байдал” эрдэм
шинжилгээ-онол практикийн хурлын эмхэтгэл. Уб.: 67-83
Munkhtulga / Ōsawa 2015 – Р.Мөнхтулга, Т.Оосава. Донгойн
Ширээн дурсгалын гэрэлт хөшөөний бичээсийг анхны удаауншсан нь. - Эртний Түрэгийн түүх, соёл. Олон улсын эрдэм
шинжилгээний хурлын эмхэтгэл. Уб.: 21-55
Munkhtulga et al. 2019 – Р.Мөнхтулга, Г.Бүрэнтөгс, Б.Арьяажав.
Талын Хөшөөний тахилын онгон. Уб.
Munhktulga et al. 2022 – Р.Мөнхтулга, Д.Амараа, Г.Бүрэнтөгс.
Таван толгойн бичээс. // Нүүдэлчдийн өв судлал. Tom. XXIII,
fasc. 4. Уб.: 26-50

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Sri Lanka
Sri Lanka

A New Approach towards the Documentation of Ancient Wall Paintings in Kelaniya Temple
R. Nishanthi Ranasinghe, Archaeological Research Officer
Promotion Division, Department of Archaeology
Introduction

Fig. 1. Mural painting – Kelaniya Temple

The first photographic documentation in the history of Sri
Lankan archaeology was done in 1871 by J. Lawton. This
was a collection of black and white photographs of theruined cities of Anuradhapura, Polonnaruva, andSigiriya. This incidentally was the first photographic
recording of Sri Lankan archaeology. By this time thepractice of documenting architectural features ofarchaeological monuments and the cataloguing of movableand immovable objects had already been established. A
systematic method to document ancient paintings had still
not been established. Although there were methods suchas written descriptions, sketches, copying, etc., however,those methods also had many weaknesses. Even
photographic documentation—black and white and latercolor—presented some problems. Thus, thedocumentation of paintings, especially those in danger of
immediate decay or destruction remains a crucial task.
Owing to this need, we attempted the documentation of
the paintings of the Tivanka Image House in 2006.
For this task, we divided the painting surface into gridsections and photographed each grid section digitally. In
order to divide the painting surface into manageable
grids, we first cleaned the surface, then with the aid of a43level and twine, created a grid to encompass the painted
area. After photographing each section, we used computer
software technology to piece together the photographed
sections to form a single image of the entire painting.
Using this method, we documented the paintings of
Kelaniya Temple from 2012 to 2013. This techniqueallows us to enlarge the images and observe them inminute detail and to identify the instances of decay anddamage. This method also helps us to obtain correct
measurements of the painted surface. The development of
this photographic documentation method is a milestone
for this form of documentation in Sri Lankan archaeology.
Objective
The initial stage of this process is the photo documentationof such paintings as they exist as the first stage of theconservation of ancient paintings and sculptures. The main
objective of this project is, even though it involves intervening
to a certain extent when they are subjected to conservation,
to photograph such paintings which are on the verge ofdestruction exactly as they exist. At this stage, the antiquityof such paintings, their archaeological value, and theiraesthetic importance are especially considered. Accordingly,
this photographic documentation includes all aspects

Ancient Temple of Kelaniya (location)
This Buddhist temple known as Kelaniya Rajamaha Vihara,stands on a slightly elevated plot of land not far from thewest bank of the Kelani Ganga (Kelani River) in Kelaniya, avillage in the Gampaha District (western province) administeredby the Kelaniya Divisional Secretariat. The temple can bereached by traversing 6 km on the road to Biyagama at theright turnoff near the 4th km post along the Colombo–Kandy
Highway or by turning to the right at the 5th km post on
the same highway and traversing 7 km towards Biyagama.
Historical Background
Kelaniya is ingrained in the history of Sri Lanka as anancient city sanctified by much veneration. Ancient Buddhist
and literary sources and classical literature describe its
antecedents dating back thousands of years. In the opinionof scholars of bygone days, the Kelani (Kalyani) river basin
was the genesis of ancient human settlements and commercial
centres.
The name Kelani was mentioned for the first time chrono
logically one thousand years after the passing away of the
Buddha in chronicles such as Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa(Dipavamsa, Chapter II pp. 48-49 and Sinhala Mahavamsa;
Chapter I v. 73-75) In the Valahassa Jataka, one of the
Jataka stories found in the Buddhist epic known as Pansiya
Panas Jatakaya mentions traders who lived in the city of
Kalyani, situated on the west coast of the island of Sri
Lanka.
Layout of the Temple Building
What is presently known as the Temple Building iscomposed of two buildings known as the Old Temple
Building and the New Temple Building. Here, the Old
Temple Building had been built in the early 19th century.
The Draon Arch at the entrance to the Old Temple Buildinghas 2394 BE etched on it, signifying that its image house
was built in the year 1851 CE. Connected to it is the New
Temple Building built in the 20th century. The latterstructure, which had been adorned by the innovative styleof paintings of maestro painter Soilias Mendis, wasconstructed by covering three sides of the Old Temple
Building. The enclosure known as the Bera Mandapaya

or the Drum Beating Hall appears at the entrance to theTemple Building. The Bera Mandapaya, with its main
entrance facing the east, has two small side entrances,
one on each side. In here, columns decorated with floral
capitals are seen. Its ceiling is decorated with floral motifs
and geometrical designs. Access to the inner sanctum of
the Temple is from the Bera Mandapaya, which has two
beautifully molded guardian images on either side of it.
The entrance to the inner sanctum of the temple leads tothe ancient Raja Pilimage (Kingly Image House), which
in bygone days would have had two entrances, one to theeast and the other to the west. This enclosure, in the shapeof a rectangle, has two compartments. The compartment
to the left is called the Raja Pilimage or the Kingly Image
House and the one on the right is the Oth Pilimage or the
Image House of the Recumbent Buddha. Both sections
are adorned with paintings and sculptures of the 19th
century tradition. The right wall of the Raja Pilimage or
the Image House of the Kings has many sculptured images
including the main figure of King Maniakkhika of theNaga dynasty. Two entrance doorways to the Oth Pilimage
are also integral parts of this wall. The remaining threewalls and the ceiling have paintings of the panel type. The
Oth Pilimage has a colossal Buddha statue in the recumbent
posture with a pair of statues of the Buddha in the seatedposture exhibiting the Dhyana Mudra, one on either sideof it. Another important item in the interior of the Temple
Building is a Devale (shrine) dedicated to the gods, where
the three sculptured statues of the gods Vishnu, Kataragama,
and Natha are placed. The part that was added to theTemple Building is presently known as the New Temple
Building. An image house with a statue of a seated
Buddha is in the northern sector of the Temple to facilitate
the devotees who gather there to worship. The columnsof this structure are octagonal in shape. On either side ofthis image house and to the front of it are two more chamberswith paintings. One on the right has the renowned paintingof the ushering of the Buddha’s Tooth Relic, while one on
the left has the painting of the advent of the Jaya Sri
Maha Bodhi or the Sacred Bodhi Tree to Sri Lanka. These
parts of the Kelaniya Temple are named Ran Pilimage or
the Gold Image House. From the Raja Pilimage to the New
Temple Building, which is on the left, are two entrances
and two exits. To enter the Ran Pilimage from the side
part of the New Temple Building is an access door. Thischamber is identified as the Dhatu Mandiraya or the
Relic House where the Relic Casket is deposited. Its walls
are adorned with paintings of the painter Walimuni
Soilias Mendis. The top and bottom of the outer surfaceof the New Temple Building wall have mouldings ofdelicate character and beauty with the lowest strip
adorned with exquisitely sculptured figures of elephants,
swans, and dwarfs in various postures. In alcoves designedin the mid-section of the upper half of the wall surface,
figures of the god Kataragama, the god Natha, Ananga
or the cupid, King Maniakkhika of the Naga dynasty, thegod Ganesha, Gangadevi, the god Vishnu, the anointingof Vibhishana, Maitri Bodhisatva, an imprinting of the
Buddha’s Foot Print, and the god Saman are sculptured
in semi relief.

Sri Lanka

such as selected ancient cave temples, image houses andtempita viharas (temples on pillars), with paintings
representing different periods. As a result of that measure,it was possible to complete the photo documentation ofwall paintings at Kelaniya Temple in 2012 (two year
project). The most important object of this exercise is toprotect and conserve the photographs taken by the
Department as a collection for future generations.
Similarly, it will be of immense help in future conservations
too. Furthermore, a series of publications containing acollection of very rare paintings so obtained has also been
printed.
• Height of wall: Between 8 m and 12 m
• Painting area with sculptures (walls and ceilings):
1800 m²• Number of photographs: Around 30000• Team members: 7 (photographers, archaeologicalresearch officers, exploration officer, painter, andelectrician)Temple Paintings
The paintings of the interior walls of the Temple Building

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Fig. 2. Front view of Kelaniya Temple Image House

executed in two historical periods have yielded two stylesof paintings. While paintings of the Old Temple Building
are clearly of the 19th century style, the paintings thatadorn the New Temple Building walls are of a tradition
typical of the painter Soilius Mendis, who was influenced
by the ancient classical artistic styles of painting.
Methodology
After identifying certain weaknesses in the methodologies
initially adopted by the Photography Division of the
Department, subsequent projects were undertaken in a more
systematic and efficient manner using easier methodologies
and modern technology.

Fig. 3. Ground plan of Kelaniya Temple Image house: Old Temple Building:
Block B and C; New Temple Building: Block A, D, E, F, G, H, I, J, K and L

45

The methodology of the adopted procedure
1. Skillfully clean the painted layer of the painting.
2.	Mark the level line of the wall containing the painting
using a water level.
3.	Prepare a grid system with the ratio 3:2 using thread
covering the painted surface.
4.	Light up the whole surface of the painting with an
evenly installed illumination.
5.	The camera is to be placed equidistant, both verticallyand horizontally.
6.	When alternate photographs are required to overlap
each other with the second picture having one thirdof the first picture, overlapping should be done bothvertically and horizontally.
7.	The photograph obtained should be checked in thefield with the use of a computer to ascertain whether
it tallies with the actual object being photographed.

Fig. 4. Painted layer being skillfully cleaned by using a soft brush

Fig. 6. Preparing castor-wheeled scaffoldings

Fig. 9. Taking the water levelsoftware.
10.	The photographs thus obtained should be stored onlabeled compact disks and external hard drives.

Sri Lanka

8. Photographs to be numbered systematically.
9.	Finally, the photographs taken in parts are to bemerged to form a single picture by the use of suitable

Fig. 5. Painted layer being skillfully cleaned by using a soft brush

Fig. 7. Preparing castor-wheeled scaffoldings andlightsFig. 8. Preparing castor-wheeled scaffoldings

Fig. 10. Numbering and Recording the photographs taken

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Sri Lanka
Fig. 11. Taking photographs

Fig. 12. Taking photographs

First, the paintings were cleaned to the same level and thesize of the paintings was measured. The wall paintings
were measured (height, length and width) and sketches
were made of all the details. Subsequently, we ensured
that the walls were of the same standard.
In documenting the wall paintings of the Thivanka Image
House in 2006, the grid was prepared by making a wooden
frame and driving small nails into it at the required distancesand by attaching threads to those nails at the ratio of 3:2 sothat no harm would be caused to the wall containing thepaintings. But in documenting at Kelaniya Temple, the grid
was made by fixing threads to the wall using seasoned clay(outside the layer of paintings) so as not to cause damage tothe paintings. We ensured that the following conditions weremet.
1.	The vertical and horizontal movements of the camera
were uniform.
2.	The distance from the painting to the focal plane of
the camera was the same.
3. The lighting conditions were the same.
4.	The photographs taken were numbered, recorded,
and computerized.
Next, each grid was illuminated and then photographed
under the same lighting conditions. We maintained thesame distance from the painting to the focal plane of thecamera and in parallel to the wall. The same aperture wasused in all the photographs. We photographed with 1/3
overlap for each photograph. These are some of the photographs taken according to the above-mentioned method.
This photograph is a combination of the grid of photographs
taken. The quality of these photographs is extremely high.
However, due to problems in the software used to compile
the different photographs together, minute changes wereobserved.
These photographs are taken at a high resolution and canbe enlarged to a size larger than their normal size. This
helps us to study the levels of deterioration, any rapid

47

increase in deterioration in specific areas, etc. These
photographs are used to measure deterioration and damage.
Castor-wheeled scaffoldings were used for horizontal
movement as it was a more correct and easier method. In
taking photographs, techniques such as the position oflighting, distance from the camera, focus distance, verticaland horizontal movements etc. were used in the samemanner, and the computer software, camera, lens, andsource of lighting were controlled by modern technology.
Thus, it was possible to obtain more accurate and successful
photographs.
This was an extremely successful exercise. Having overcome
the technical drawbacks existing then using digital cameras
with modern technological facilities and software in 2012,
the paintings of Kelaniya Temple was recorded photographically. This marks the first step that we have takenin the field of conservation of paintings.
Conclusion
In the Kelaniya Temple painting documentation project in2012, we were able to achieve successful results by using
the above mentioned methodology. By the previously
mentioned technique, a flawless methodology of documentationof paintings surmounting the weaknesses and shortcomings
so far known in the field has been clearly achieved. By thismethod, all characteristics of the paintings including
deterioration could be delicately ascertained. The availabilityof the dimensions of the paintings resulting from this method
is of special significance. While the camera captures all thedata and the features of the targeted physical object, it isable to bring to light the value and the glory of our heritage
as well. The photographic documentation of any object thattakes place today will not only be in immediate demand,
but will also be priceless in times to come owing to its
uniqueness. The physical features of the Ruvanveliseya
Stupa (pagoda) captured in Lawton’s camera have notseen by us in real life. Our desire to imagine how the stupa
looked in the past is only through the photographs takenback then.

morally obliged, and duty bound to protect the uniquenessof these ancient paintings for posterity. Here we aredelighted at the result of a successful conservation effort
that attempted the task of grasping these paintings in an
instant, which are deteriorating with time at an alarming
rate, and delivering them to the future.

Fig. 13. About 40 photographs taken of parts of the painting have beencombined to form this complete picture.

Fig. 14. About 40 photographs taken of parts of the painting have beencombined to form this complete picture.

Sri Lanka

Here lies the importance of photographic documentation.
Impermanence is a universal norm. Change occurs every
moment. It occurs both imperceptibly slow and imperceptibly
fast. These changes could occur due to natural causes,
enemy incursions, animal activity, human intervention, or
modernization. Hence, it is imperative that the grandeur,exquisiteness, preeminence, and value of our past have tobe sustained into the future. Ancient paintings that can becompared to a mirror, displaying the identity of the era inwhich they were created, are being damaged incessantly
due to the abovementioned reasons. Therefore, we are

Taking into consideration this collection of paintings,
existing as an invaluable gift from the present generation
to future generations, it is our obligation to present it in an
effectively preserved state.

Fig. 15. About 55 photographs taken of parts of the painting have been combined to form this complete picture.

48

Sri Lanka
Fig. 16. In Ground Plan Block D, the full image of the entire wall. About 1450 photographs taken of parts of the work have been combined to form this complete
picture.

Fig. 17. About 55 photographs taken of parts of the painting have been combined to form thiscomplete picture.

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Sri Lanka

Fig. 18. In Ground Plan Block C, the full image of the ceilingFig. 19. Relief on outer wall50

Sri Lanka
Fig. 20. Photograph of the walls, ceiling, and floor made by combining pictures taken of parts of the work. Block D in Ground Plan

Fig. 21. Published book “The Wonder of Heritage Kelaniya” , Volume 1 & 2 includes all
photographs taken from photo documentation.

Acknowledgements:
The team members of the photo documentation project(Mr. Arjuna Smaraweera, Ms. Sumedha Deepthi Kumari,
Mr. Palitha Herath, Mr. I.P.S. Nishantha, Mr. Lasntha
Athukorala, Mr. Sekara)
References:
1.	Wicramasinghe, D.M.de Z. (1912-1927). Epigraphia
Zylanica volume IV., Oxford University Press.
2.	Kahandawaarachchi, C. (2006). Sinhala Deepavamsaya(Sinhala Medium). S. Godage Brothers, Colombo.
3.	Chutinwongs, N. Premathilake, L. Silva, R. (1990). Paintingsof Sri Lanka Kalaniya. Central Cultural Fund, Colombo.
4.	Bandara, S. (2004). fidhs, shia fukaÈia fn!oaO is;=jï l,dj
(Soilius Mendis Buddhist Paintings) (Sinhala Medium).
S. Godage Brothers, Colombo.

51

5.	Samaraweera, A. Herath, P. Deepthi Kumari, S. Ranasinghe,
N. Nishantha,
	I.P.S. Athukorala, L. (2018). Wreuhl wreuh le, Ksh fj¿ï 1 yd
2 (The Wonder of Heritage Kelaniya volumes I and II)(Sinhala Medium). Department of Archaeology, Colombo.
6.	Gunasekara Rajawasalamudali, D. (1911). Raajavaliya(Sinhala Medium). Government Press, Colombo.
7.	(1979). Sinhala Mahavamsaya (Sinhala Medium). Buddhist
Cultural Center.
Photo Credits: Arjuna SamaraweeraUzbekistan
Akmaljon Ulmasov, PhD, Head
Department “Unique objects”, Fine Arts Institute, Academy of Sciences of Uzbekistan
Introduction
Ancient Khorezm (Khwarazm, Chorasmia) was one of thefirst cradles of civilization not only in Central Asia, but also
in the entire ancient world. This historical and cultural
region has left a worthy mark in world history over the
centuries, as either part of various state associations, or as
part of a single state. The passage of the Great Silk Road
in the region led to the harmonization of various religious
beliefs, culture and art, and handicraft traditions on thisland. In ancient Khorezm, urban planning also graduallydeveloped. Later, the Achaemenids built many cities in
the area in ancient times. Today, the ruins of the cities
have survived in the form of hills Kalali gyr, Koi krylgankala,1 Dzhanbas kala, Ayaz kala, Gyaur kala, Kyzyl kala,Elkharas, Akshakhan kala (or Kazakli Yatkan), and manyothers (Fig. 1).

Uzbekistan

Analysis and Methods of Conservation of Ancient Khorezm Wall Paintings (based on scientific
literature)

As a result of large-scale archaeological excavations atthese monuments, constructive parts and architectural
decorations, household items, and works of art belonging
to many architectural structures of different periods wererevealed. Among them, a majestic work of fine art—thewall painting—is of particular importance. This is due tothe fact that wall paintings not only evoke the interiors ofbuildings and structures of the particular period, but also
serve to fill the unopened pages of history with the images
and plots depicted in them. In this regard, it becomes
clear how important it is to find murals and preserve andconserve them. The historical and artistic aspects of thepaintings found on the archaeological sites of ancient
Khorezm are sufficiently covered in the scientific literature(Tolstov, 1948). Therefore, in this report we will focus on
issues directly related to murals and their conservation.

Fig. 1. Archaeological sites of Ancient Khorezm (Source: www.wikimedia.org)

Survey of Wall Paintings
A brief analysis of ancient Khorezm paintings showed thatthey had both common features and differences in periodicity, interpretation of images, processing techniques,colors, and characteristics of raw materials. Most of themonuments at which murals were found (Kalali gyr, Gyaurkala, Koi krylgan kala, Elkharas) belong to an earlier period(the 5th to 4th century BC), and some (Toprak kala,Akshakhan kala) belong to the 2nd to 1st century BC. Of
course, these dates are arbitrary and are determined mainlyby the analysis of coins and pottery on the monuments.
After all, murals in ancient Khorezm appeared before
frescoes in the territory of other ancient historical andcultural regions of Central Asia, such as Sogdia (Sogdiana),
Bactria, Fergana, and Chach (Tashkent region). Researchers
attribute this to the influence of Parthia.

1

Preservation of the paintings and their fragments at different
monuments is improved both in terms of condition andsize. At Toprak kala and Akshakhan kala, the murals arewell preserved, at others (for example, Elkharas) they aresatisfactory, and the rest are in poor condition. This ispossibly due to damage as a result of weather or various
conditions at the monuments: from natural disasters (fires,floods) or human factors (war, invasion), etc. The safety of
the wall paintings after they were found depended on thequality of conservation. Another important aspect related tomurals is the function of the room, building, or structure inwhich they were painted, as well as the location of theimages. Many paintings were placed in palaces, in fortified
monumental buildings, in temples and shrines, or
ceremonial halls, which were usually located in cities.
However, sometimes they were found in suburban complexes(such as Toprak kala, Elkharas, Katta Kyrk kyz kala, etc.).

Kala (in Uzbek “qal’a”) – fortress or castle

52

Uzbekistan

The paintings were usually located in monumentalarchitectural structures, consisting of an altar or niches,
probably associated with ceremonies. In Akshakhan kala,paintings were also found in the bypass ceremonial
corridors. This suggests that the corridor was also associatedwith activities taking place in the central building (Kidd,
Negus-Cleary, Yagodin, Betts, Baker, 2008).
The painting technique is the same as for paintings foundin other similar monuments of Central Asia. That is, a wall
made of raw brick or pakhsa (sometimes with a mixed
technique using both) is plastered with clay mixed withstraw (sometimes reed). A thin second layer is applied on

top of the clay plaster layer, which serves as the base.
White paint is applied to a smooth surface, consisting ofa mixture of chalk and natural glue (or ganch), and thislayer serves as a background. The researchers described indetail the composition of the glue added to the dyes, notingthat it is obtained from the root of the eremurus plant,
common in Central Asia. The author also established thatthe plaster was applied in two layers: the first (black plaster)
was applied directly in a thick layer on the wall, and thenext (white plaster) was applied on top of it. The last layer
was carefully sanded with clay to obtain a smooth surface.
Next, a thin white primer was applied to apply the pattern(Fig. 2).

Fig. 2. Structure of Ancient Khorezm Wall Paintings (by author)

Methods of Conservation
Wall paintings are important because, as architectural andartistic decor, they decorate interiors, and the content andplots determine the function of the room or building inwhich they are located, and often being associated withreligious or secular ceremonies. The scenes, images, andpatterns depicted in the paintings are an important source
for understanding the social life of our ancestors of thattime. In this regard, it is also important to study the methodsof image processing, and the composition and properties of
the raw materials used. Analyzing the scientific literature,
we can say that not all monuments of ancient Khorezm paidenough attention to the technique of painting, analysis of
raw materials, and conservation. Among the monuments
described above, the paintings of Toprak kala, Elkharas, andAkshakhan kala were carefully studied and illuminated. In
particular, archaeologists note that when removing Toprak
kala paintings, a mixture of BMC-5 glue in different solventswas used. The paintings were divided into several parts andseparated from the ground. In the laboratory, the processed

53

fragments were reinforced on a foam base and the cracks
were filled with a special mixture – mastic. A study of raw
materials used in the paintings of country palaces from
Toprak kala showed that the red color was made fromiron oxide or cinnabar, and orange from a mixture of red
and ocher. If the green color is based on malachite, then theblack color is from the burnt wood charcoal. It was notedthat adhesives of natural origin were used as a binding
substrate in paints (Yarosh, Fedotova, 1982).
Chemical consolidation of the paintings in place, theirremoval from the walls, and subsequent stages of theirconservation were carried out in various ways. This wasdue to the nature of this or that monument, the state ofpreservation, and the possibility of expeditions. If in earlier
periods the paintings were studied at the level of thearchaeological context, then as a result of the developmentof technology, all scientific aspects began to be studied.
In particular, special attention is now paid to such aspects
as painting technique, pigment composition, and theIn the murals of Akshakhan-kala, the restorers notedsome differences in the addition of wood glue to bindnatural dyes when cleaning the fragments of the murals.

Due to the fact that over time the organic binder broke up
and disappeared, the paint remained only in the crystal
structure of the mineral pigment grain and in the layer ofgypsum plaster. Therefore, it is advisable to clean the brittle
and thinned surface of the painting only mechanically(Fig. 3). Lumps of soil adhering to the colorful surface ofthe painting are moistened with alcohol and a mixture ofwater purified from minerals. Excess mud mass after
drying can be removed with a sharp wooden stick or
scalpel. Before the conservation of the paintings, therestorers sketched the images with an ink pen on areflective transparent film. At the next stage, they were
photographed in high quality. The images on the murals
were reconstructed on a graphics tablet. In this case, themissing parts of the drawings (up to 3 cm) were drawn inpencil. Thus, first small and then larger fragments were
restored. After consultation with archaeologists, additional
reconstructed images have revealed many details (Betts,
Yagodin, Grenet, Kidd, Minardi, Bonnat, Khashimov,2009).

Uzbekistan

effect of chemicals on images. Through various chemical
analyses and experiments, it was determined which
adhesives were used as binders for natural dyes. In
particular, the chemist-restorer V.Ya. Birshtein analyzed
organic and inorganic substances in the primers and paintpigments of the paintings of some monuments in Central
Asia. Among them were the monuments of Kara tepa, Ajina
tepa, Penjikent (Tajikistan), as well as paintings from Toprakkala. Birshtein managed to separate polysaccharides fromthe picturesque layer and from the soil layer. That is, theinfrared rays (IR) of the isolated polysaccharides weresimilar to the infrared rays of fruit trees belonging to thecultivated families of roses or rosacea (lat. Prunoideae).
Comparison of the composition of polysaccharides andtheir IR showed that in the preparation of a binder (glue)
for dyes, craftsmen used apricot or cherry glue (gumarabic) (Birshtein, 1976).

Fig. 3. Fragment of the wall painting from Akshakhan kala site in situ (Source: https://karakalpak-karakalpakstan.blogspot.com)

Specialists have used various methods and polymers in theprocess of conservation of livestock in the field. In particular,
Toprak kala paintings were fixed with a solution ofacrylic resin (PBMA) in xylene and acetone. During theinitial gluing of the paintings, a 10% PVC solution wasused. This unique, universally recognized method wasdeveloped at one time in the laboratory of the Hermitage
Museum and was widely used in the practice of field
conservation, restoration, and chamber processing ofmurals. The complexity of this method and the toxicity of
the reagents used in its application do not satisfy the
specialists, and they have been testing the new BMC-5
copolymer. That is, the painting is fixed before removalwith a 2.5-4% solution of a mixture of BMC-5 in isopropyl
alcohol (IPA). In some cases, a solution of BMC-5 can also
be used in combination with solvents such as IPA, methyl
ethyl ketone (MEK), and White Spirit (Kovaleva, 2013).

In some cases, due to a lack of specialists, the expedition
members themselves carried out the work of fixing, conserving,
and removing the paintings. In particular, there was an
attempt to fix the paint layer of the paintings found in thefield at Elkharas with an aqueous solution of PVA. However,the color layer on the surface of the image darkened andthe texture changed, and it was abandoned. The next
painting and sculpture found was then wrapped in soft
sheets of papyrus paper, gauze, and cotton wool andplaced in boxes without any initial fixing. Some fragments
were wrapped in paper and covered with plaster. This
allowed them to be safely removed from the ground andtransferred to remote places. The painting was fixed witha solution of fluoropolymer (F-42L), developed in thelaboratory of the Russian State Hermitage Museum. According
to an expert, such processing made it possible to better
strengthen the surface of the image, which is fragile anddelicate, and to fully preserve the technical and technologicalproperties of these images (Sokolov, 2001).

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Uzbekistan

Restorers
When it comes to murals, it is always necessary to remember
the work of restorers who, together with archaeologists,
uncover the murals and do all the necessary proceduresfrom fixing them to removing them from the walls. They
have to work on the murals for a long time in the laboratory
and, in the end, obtain exhibits from them. In Khorezm,
as in other historical and cultural regions of Central Asia,
the issue of preserving murals is very acute. Due to thelack of local personnel, specialists from large scientificcenters in Moscow and St. Petersburg were previously
involved in the project. Initially, specialists came as partof expeditions, but later they were specially invited fromscientific centers. In particular, expeditions to Khorezm in
1939-1940 involved the participation of the architects V.A.
Lavrova (IHMC RAS) and V.I. Pilyavsky (SPSUACE), andthe artist N.P. Tolstov (IHMC RAS) (Tolstov, 1948: 31-33).
A great contribution to the conservation of Central Asianwall paintings, including those of Khorezm, was made by
the employees of the Central Restoration Laboratory (nowGOSNIIR). The first representatives of the laboratory were
G.A. Koshalenko and L.A. Lelekov, who took part in the
excavations of the palace in Toprak kala in 1969. In 19801990, their ranks expanded significantly, with the additionof V.A. Solovyov, N.A. Kovaleva, V.P. Buriy, A.D. Dorofeev,
G.E. Veresotskaya, E.I. Zheltov, E.A. Vinogradova, and manyother restorers. The study of soils and pigments used in thepaintings was carried out by employees of the chemicaltechnological laboratory of the Institute, including L.G.

Druzhinina, Z. Elninskaya, V.N. Yarosh, L.G. Fedotova(Buzkova), and M.N. Filimonova. The scientific literature
mentions the names of the architect A.S. Dubovsky and theartist G.M. Baev, who were assisted by the expedition leader
B.I. Vainberg (Vainberg, 2004).
Conclusion
It can be argued that in ancient Khorezm, wall paintings appear
much earlier than in other Central Asian historical andcultural regions of Central Asia. The murals of almost allmonuments are closely connected with monumental structures,
their architectural parts, and wall sculptures. As for the
subject matter, it is diverse and colorful: from the scene ofreligious ceremonies to the palace elite and everyday genres,you can also encounter geometric and floral patterns. When
compared with paintings from other historical and culturalareas, in Khorezm, a more diverse color palette was used toapply images.
Thanks to the painstaking work, patience, and perseveranceof the restorers, and most importantly, their dedication andlove for their work, wonderful works of ancient artists havebeen preserved and museumified. Among them are “Womanharpist” at Toprak kala, “Woman with a wreath,” “Scene ofmourning,” “Archer” at Koi kirilgan kala, “Horseman” at
Kalaly gyr II, and “Portrait Gallery” at Akshakhan kala. In aword, many monumental paintings and other art artifacts
are still found in this ancient land, which enriches thehistory of ancient Khorezm and Uzbekistan in general.

Fig. 4 a, b. Fragments of wall paintings from Toprak kala (Source: http://kungrad.com; https://art-blog.uz)

References:
Tolstov (1948) – Толстов С.П. Древний Хорезм. Опытисторико-археологического исследования. – Москва, «МГУ».
– 352 с. + 87 табл.
Tolstov (1948) – Толстов С.П. По следам древнехорезмийской цивилизации. – М.-Л.: Изд-во “АН СССР”. – С. 328.
Birshtein (1976) – Бирштейн В.Я. Исследование
органических и неорганических компонентов красок и грунта
стенных росписей некоторых памятников Средней Азии //Реставрация, исследование и х р а н е н и е м у з е й н ы ххудожественных ценностей. Вып. 1. – Москва. – С. 7-8.
Vainberg (2004) – Вайнберг Б.И. (отв. ред.) Калалы-гыр55

2: Культовый центр в Древнем Хорезме IV-II вв. до н.э. –Москва, «Восточная литература». – 286 б.
Kovaleva (2013) – Ковалева Н.А. Работы реставраторов
отдела монументальной живописи ВЦНИЛКР-ВНИИР вХорезме. Исследования, консервация и реставрация фрагментов
монументального декора // Приаралье на перекрестке культур.
– Самарканд, МИЦАИ. – С. 59-72.
Yarosh, Fedotova (1982) – Ярош В.Н., Федотова Л.Г.
Исследование материалов живописи Северного комплекса
городища Топрак-кала // Реставрация, исследование и хранение
музейных художественных ценностей. Вып. 4. – Москва. – С.
12-17.

Abbreviations:
IHMC RAS – Institute of the History of Material Culture,
Russian Academy of Sciences
RAACS – Russian Academy of Architecture and Construction
Sciences
SPSUACE – Saint Petersburg State University of Architecture
and Civil Engineering
GOSNIIR – The State Research Institute for Restoration
BMC-5 – Butyl methacrylate
IPA – Isopropyl alcohol
MEK – Methyl ethyl ketone
PBMA – Polybutyl methacrylate
PVA – Polyvinyl alcohol

Uzbekistan

Sokolov (2001) – Соколов В.М. Росписи и скульптура
Элхараса // Древнехорезмский памятник – Элхарас. Москва,«Качество жизни». – С. 270-271.
Betts A., Yagodin V.N., Grenet F., Kidd F., Minardi M.,
Bonnat M., Khashimov S. (2009) The Akchakhan-kala Wall
Paintings: New Perspectives on Kingship and Religion in
Ancient Chorasmia // Journal of Asian Art and Archaeology№7. – Р. 129.
Kidd F., Negus-Cleary M., Yagodin V.N., Betts A., BakerBrite E. 2004 (2008). “Ancient Chorasmian Mural Art” //Bulletin of the Asia Institute, 18. – P. 69-95.

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Viet Nam
Viet Nam

The Japanese Covered Bridge Conservation Project
Tran Thanh Hoang Phuc, Conservation Architect
Division of Heritage Management, Hoi An Centre for Cultural Heritage, Management and Preservation
I. Brief information about the project:
Hoi An used to be an important international trading port
from the 16th to the 19th centuries. During this time, foreign
merchants from Japan, China, and Europe settled and traded
here. Hoi An ancient town includes many building types
such as shophouses, communal houses, temples, assembly
halls, etc., and the bridge. The Japanese Covered Bridge
is located in the center of the town, and is also known asChùa Cầu, Lai Viễn Kiều, and Pont Japonais. Up to now, theexact construction date and original architectural form of
the monument have not been determined. However, basedon its stone steles and other old documentation, the bridge
could have been built around the end of the 16th century or
the beginning of the 17th century. It is said that the bridge
was constructed by Japanese who lived in Hoi An in thatera. Around 1653, the Japanese merchants had left Hoi An
because of the isolationist foreign policy (Sakoku) of theJapanese Tokugawa shogunate. The Chinese took overthis bridge and built an additional temple to worship BắcĐế Chân Vũ（北帝眞武 - “A God for land, storm and flood
protection according to legend ”) to form the whole architectureof the monument. In 1719, Lord Nguyễn Phúc Chu visited
Hoi An, and named it Lai Viễn Kiều ( 來遠橋 , literally “Thebridge of guests from afar”). Besides its traffic utility andreligious function, it is said that the monument also has a
Namazu-exorcising purpose.
The monument has been in existence for almost 400 years,
and has been repaired and renovated several times. Its
decorations have typical architectural expressions of theNguyễn Dynasty (1802 – 1945). It is hard to find traces ofJapanese architecture. However, with its name, the monument
reminds us of the golden age of Hoi An in the role of aninternational trading port, with the presence and residenceof the Japanese merchant community. It also reminds us of
the volatile military, political, and commercial relations between
the feudal dynasties of Vietnam, Japan, and China. Thus,
it has special values in terms of architecture, art, history, andculture. It has become a unique architectural work in
Vietnam, and is recognized throughout the world.
Over time, because of many factors, the Japanese Covered
Bridge has been deteriorating, even with the preservation
efforts of many generations in Hoi An. Since 1997, Hoi An
Center for Cultural Heritage Management and Preservation(HACCHMP) has raised the issue of conserving the monument.
In August 2016, the People’s Committee of Quang Nam
Province and Hoi An city held an international conferenceon conservation of the Japanese Covered Bridge with theparticipation of many experts and management agencies
from Vietnam and Japan. Some viewpoints and solutions
for this conservation project have been proposed, but there
was still no consensus at that time. To date, the issues
related to this conservation project are more pressing
than ever, and have been attracting special attention fromthe competent authorities, scientists, and Hoi An lovers.

57

Currently, urgent action is required to conserve the monument
in order to maintain its values in a complete and durable
manner. As the agency responsible for the implementationof the project, HACCHMP has recently been coordinating
the survey and study of the monument’s current status, andbased on the viewpoints of the scientists, history of monument
renovations, and various other perspectives, solutions for theJapanese Covered Bridge’s conservation project have been
proposed, and will be carried out in the near future. The
project has received part of its funding from the Sumitomo
Foundation, Japan. In addition, the Japan International
Cooperation Agency (JICA) has committed itself to supporting
conservation experts participating in this project.
II. Architecture of the monument:
1. Current architecture of the monument:
The monument consists of two parts: the bridge and thetemple (Figs. 1 and 2). The bridge is covered by yingyang roof tiles and, linked with the temple on the north side,creates a “ 丁 ” shaped plan. The temple and the bridge arepartitioned by a wooden wall, which is the most richly
decorated space of both the temple and the bridge. The
entrance of the temple is in the middle of the bridge. The
main bearing structure of the monument includes the stone
foundations, abutments, and piers below, and the wooden
beams and frameworks (pillars, rafters, main beams, joining
beams, etc.) above. The floors are paved with wooden
planks. The two bridgeheads are built with bricks where
the altars are arranged to worship two dogs (eastbridgehead) and two monkeys (west bridgehead). Stonesteles have been placed to record the restorations andrenovations of the monument through the periods. The
east wall is decorated with Buddha’s hand citron pattern,
and the west is decorated with a pomegranate pattern. On
both sides along the bridge are walkways where the floors
are raised higher than the transport access path in the
middle. Nowadays, vehicles are not allowed to access thebridge in order to protect the monument and to serve
tourism.

Fig. 1. General plan of the Japanese Covered Bridge

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Fig. 2. Front elevation of the Japanese Covered Bridge

2. Former architecture of the monument through documentation:
Based on documentation and old photos, it can be affirmedthat there are some differences between the current
architecture of the Japanese Covered Bridge and its former
architecture through the periods.
In a picture of the Japanese Covered Bridge in 1901 - 1903
(Fig. 3)1, the walls were limewashed in yellow. The southern

Fig. 3. Japanese Covered Bridge in 1901-1903. Source: gallica.bnf.fr

wall had some decorative details. The bridge piers stoodindependently. The barriers seemed to be covered withwooden planks and railings.
In a photo2 of the monument taken before 1915 (Fig. 4),
viewed from the East (now Tran Phu Street), it shows thatthe two sides of the eastern wall were decorated with thepattern “ 壽 ” (longevity). In particular, the photo shows thatthe transport access path was probably flat and as high as
road level.

Fig. 4. East view of Japanese Covered Bridge. Source: HACCHMP

Fig. 5. Japanese Covered Bridge. Source: BAVH.
1 Brossard (1906). Colonies Françaises. Gillot. Paris. Page. 459. Source: gallica.bnf.fr / Bibliothèque2nationale de France.

journalist of Carnets du Vietnam (a French magazine). Source: HACCHMP.

 Photo offered to People’s Committee of Hoi An city in 2014 by Dominique Foulon – A

58Viet Nam

In an article 3 by Albert Sallet, a French ethnologist,
published in 1919, there was a fairly detailed descriptionof the monument’s architecture. Accordingly, the bridge
was completely renovated in 1915, and decorated withfruit patterns (pomegranate, Buddha’s hand citron) on
both bridgeheads, which replaced the previous “ 壽 ”(longevity) pattern motif. The temple was damaged by astorm, and was rebuilt in early 1917. In this description,
there was no mention of changing the height of the transport
access path. Thus, it can be clearly seen that after therenovation in 1915, the architecture of the Japanese Covered
Bridge has some significant changes compared to its former
architecture in some pictures taken before this time, andis quite similar to its current architecture. The photos in thisarticle (Fig. 5) show that the southern wall was blank, withno decorative details. The bridge piers were linked by anarch structure. The barriers were built with brick and mortar
and decorated with a row of ventilation blocks in the middle
span, with wooden railings remaining. The photo also
shows very clearly that the transport access path was flat,
and as high as road level.
In 1986, the monument was renovated by the Centre forthe Design and Repair of Monuments (now Institute ofConservation of Monuments) in collaboration with the local
government (Fig. 6). The transport access path was raised(Fig. 7) in the middle, creating the curved shape as it
appears today. According to the report on renovation results,
a community consultation was held with some local people
aged 65 - 85 to ask for their opinions on the curvature ofthis path. They enthusiastically par ticipated andcontributed many comments, and agreed that the transport
access path should be raised.
Although there were some changes in architectural form
through numerous renovations in the past, the monument
still retains a harmonious and balanced appearance, withsoftness and elegance in its decorative details. The beautyof the monument does not only come from the carved
details, but also from the elegant wooden bearing frameswith some unique differences in technical structure.

Fig. 6. Japanese Covered Bridge during renovation in 1986. Source:
HACCHMP3 Albert Sallet (1998). ‘Những người bạn Cố đô Huế’ (Bulletin des Amis du Vieux Huế - BAVH),

Hội An cổ (Old Hoi An). Thuan Hoa Publishing House. Volume VIB (1919). Page 364-386.

59

III. The current condition of the monument:-	The abutments and piers have some small cracks. The
bottom of the pier’s foundation is eroded. Girders andbeams supporting the floor have rotted, rusted, andbroken, reducing bearing capacity (Fig. 8).
-	The load-bearing wooden frames are still capable ofsupporting the structure under normal conditions.
However, there are some positions and structural parts
that are rotted, cracked, especially at the top and thebase of pillars, at the head and tail of rafters, framework
mainbeams, etc. Mortise and tenon joints are warped,
loosened, or detached. Especially at the intersection
between the bridge and the temple, there is a position
that is separated by up to nearly 20 cm (Fig. 9). This
position has been temporarily reinforced. However,this is just a temporary solution. After each rainy andstormy season, the deterioration of the monument isvery evident.
-	The yin-yang tiled roofs: The tiles are damp and mossy.
Some positions have leaks. The decoration details on theroof ridges and gable ridges are also faded, peeled, anddeformed.
-	The brick walls are damp and some small cracks haveappeared (Fig. 10). The parallel sentences at the entranceof the bridgeheads are lost or peeled off. Decoration details
on the east wall and west wall of the bridgeheads arealso worn.
IV. Viewpoints and solutions for the Japanese Covered Bridge
conservation project:
Conservation viewpoints: Up to now, the original architecturalform of the Japanese Covered Bridge has not been determined.
The available documentation only helps us to determinesome changes in architectural form of the monument before
and after the two great renovations in 1915 and 1986. Bycomparison, the only major difference in architecture of
the monument in the 1986 renovation compared to the1915 renovation is that the transport access path wasraised. Since 1986, the architecture of the monument withthe curved access path has become an imprinted image
in the memories of local residents, Hoi An lovers, andtourists. Therefore, 1986 can be considered as the “optimaldate” of the monument. Therefore, temporarily, it can be

Fig. 7. Japanese Covered Bridge after renovation in 1986. Source: HACCHMP

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Fig. 8. Girders and beams have rotted, reducing bearing capacity.

Fig. 9. Wooden frame joint between the bridge and the temple has separated.

Fig. 10. Wall is cracked. Mortise and tenon joints have loosened.

determined that the conservation viewpoint for thismonument is to maintain the architectural form of the“optimal date”, which is similar to today’s architecture.
However, after dismantling, we will carefully study thetraces of the floors, consult with domestic and foreign
conservation experts, and the local community. From that,the final decision whether to maintain the access path withthe curved floor as it is, or to restore the flat floor as before
will be made.

access path in the 1986 renovation did not have a solid
scientific basis.

In addition, when carrying out the conservation, theauthenticity of each construction detail and the wholebuilding should be strictly ensured. Treatments related tothe structures must thoroughly solve the problems toensure the long-term stability of the monument. Building
components which are still usable should be used toretain their old appearance and historic value.

About conservation solutions: The study of the Japanese
Covered Bridge needs to be approached in multiple ways.
The conservation will be based on the evaluation oftechnical methods and with a specific scientific basis; notonly based on the preliminary external survey. Therefore,
it is required to carry out the dismantling to check andevaluate accurately and comprehensively the current
status of each item. We will carry out a partial dismantling tocheck and evaluate the current state of each component.
Depending on the results, specific treatments will be
proposed. It is planned that the tiled roofs, wooden frames,and floors will be dismantled. The abutments, piers, andbrick walls will remain to be studied, in order to apply
reinforcement measures.

In my opinion, I would like to restore the flat transport
access path as before, because there is much documentation
as mentioned above, showing that this access path had
been flat for a long time. Besides, part of the stone stele’s
description which recorded the conservation of themonument in 1817 that literally states “… the bridge has
covered roofs, and the wooden floor is calm as if movingon flat ground. The passengers can sit and take a rest here
if they feel tired. It’s convenient for walking and riding
horses.” According to this description, it can be understoodthat the access path was flat. In addition, the raising of the

Up to now, the investment policy for the conservation projectof the Japanese Covered Bridge has been approved by Quang
Nam Provincial People’s Council. The feasibility study reporthas been appraised and agreed to by the Ministry of Culture,
Sports and Tourism. Some works of the project have been
carried out:-	The survey and drawing of the current status of themonument have been completed. The degradation statusof all items has been preliminarily assessed. Damaged
wooden structures have been checked.
-	Many conferences have been organized and extensive

60Viet Nam

research has been conducted on the historical, cultural,architectural values, and technical status of the Japanese
Covered Bridge.
-	Vibration of the structures and the foundation of themonument have been measured to analyze and evaluate
their current status (Figs. 11 and 12).
-	The geology of the site has been surveyed by using 2Delectrical imaging method (Fig. 13).
-	The whole monument has been 3D scanned to create
three-dimensional digital data, and to fully retain thecurrent image, especially the architectural details (Fig.14).
This is a unique monument; thus, the study will be given
top priority, and the construction time is expected to belonger than normal. Therefore, an enclosed scaffolding
will be built to ensure that the study and conservation
process of the monument will not be affected by theweather, and the components after dismantling will bepreserved in optimal condition. Together, a temporary

61

walkway will be installed close by the site on the river side(the south) a certain distance away, which will allow local
people and tourists to observe part of the conservation
activities. In addition, a temporary worship space will be
set up, so that people can come to worship and ensurethat religious activities at the monument will not beinterrupted.
V. Conclusion:
Soon the Japanese Covered Bridge conservation projectwill be implemented. Hopefully, with the meticulous
research and utmost care given to conservation viewpoints
and solutions, together with the support of domestic andforeign conservation experts, especially those from Japan,
and with the attention and encouragement of Hoi An lovers,
this conservation project will achieve the expected results,
and maintain the maximum architectural, historical, andcultural values of this very special monument.

Fig. 11. Geological exploratory drilling at the site

Fig. 12. Measuring vibration of the structures and the foundation of themonument

Fig. 13. Surveying the geology of the site

Fig. 14. 3D scanning the whole monument

Published by
Cultural Heritage Protection Cooperation Office,Asia-Pacific Cultural Centre for UNESCO (ACCU)
437-3, Somanouchi-cho, Tenri, 632-0032 Japan
E-mail: nara@accu.or.jp
URL: https://www.nara.accu.or.jp© Cultural Heritage Protection Cooperation Office,Asia-Pacific Cultural Centre for UNESCO (ACCU) 2023

Malaysia / Mongolia / Sri Lanka

Uzbekistan / Viet Nam