論文 Article『人類学研究所 研究論集』第号（２０２１）

Research Papers of the Anthropological Institute Vol.10 (2021)

10

The Role of Women’s Self-Help
Organizations in the Process of Civil
Reconstruction after the
April 2015 Nepal Earthquake
Ai TAKEUCHI *In the former royal capital city of Patan in Nepal, NGO and Nepal local government
established women’s Self-Help Organizations (S.H.O.s) to support the Newar women who
are inferior to their families to start a small business and improve their status in theirhome in the 1990s. The members of women’s S.H.O. took literacy, business, and skill
training. After the project of NGO and local government, the local women in Patan had
been establishing their own organization one after another. Since then, they have been
doing not only the activities of the main purpose of social development but also various
activities’ in response to local needs according to the actual situation.
The 2015 Nepal earthquake caused serious damage to Patan. Immediately after theearthquake occurred, the main people who rebuilt the town were only men, and thewomen had been staying at home taking care of their family. But 1 year after theearthquake, women’s S.H.O.s have been starting to reconstruct their communities.
Along with them, the farmer caste Jyapu ’s S.H.O.s has been successfully leading thereconstruction of the community uniquely. In a case of N Tole (community), S.H.O.
members focus on multiple businesses and started new businesses. For example, theyeffectively started using the vacant room of the local disaster prevention centers andmanage an exercise class for local people and daycare centers for old people. And also
they are going to manage a traditional Newar dance show for tourists. In another caseof P Tole, a lot of houses were partially or completely destroyed, local people decided
that all destroyed houses shall be rebuilt with guest rooms on each house to aim
tourism. Women’s S.H.O. members are working at the construction sites as same as men.
After building all the houses, S.H.O. members plan to show the traditional Newar dance
and foods to tourists in P Tole.
Most of the previous disaster studies emphasizes only the vulnerable aspects of thewomen, but this paper illustrates that the women members of S.H.O.s in Patan canmanage the reconstruction in their community utilizing their experiences and abilities
though the activities of S.H.O. for long years.

Keywords
The April 2015 Nepal Earthquake
Newar People
The Farmer Caste Jyapu
Civil Reconstruction
Women’s Self-Help Organization(S.H.O.)

目次 Contents
Ⅰ

Introduction

Ⅱ

Overview of Study Area

Ⅲ

Public help of Lalitpur Metropolitan City

Ⅳ Formation and Development of women’s
self-help organizations
Ⅴ The community reconstruction process
and the role of women's self-helporganizations
Ⅵ Conclusion：Examination

22

Ⅰ

Introduction

activities on women as well as the changes broughtby the post-earthquake of the Newar society. Andin part 4, the reconstruction activities of the Jyapu

a large earthquake of magnitude 7.8 occurred in thecaste after the 2015 earthquake will be discussed.

central and western parts of Nepal. Severe damage

Two citizen-led reconstruction projects, such as

was observed in Nepal, China, Bhutan, Northern“Diversified management” and “New town planning

India, and Bangladesh. The earthquake caused

utilizing Newar tradition” will be highlighted. Finally,buildings to collapse, avalanches, and landslides,

the role of women’s S.H.O.s in these two projects will

killing 8,891 people, destroying 605,254 houses, andbe further analyzed in detail.

damaging 288,255 houses. About 188,900 people were

Ⅱ Overview of study
area

temporarily evacuated. In the Kathmandu Valley,
many buildings and temples registered as World
Cultural Heritage sites, including the Durbar Square,
Swayambhunath, Boudhanath and Dharahara Tower,
were also damaged by this devastating earthquake.

2-1 Patan (Lalitpur
Metropolitan City)

According to a United Nations announcement, about

Patan flourished in the late Malla dynasty (1476-

8 million people were affected, equivalent to about1768) in the 15th century, after the Malla dynasty

30% of Nepal’s population.

was divided into the three kingdoms of Kathmandu,

From 2003 to 2015, I conducted fieldwork on the

Bhaktapur and Patan. It is located 5 kilometers south

various activities of women’s groups in the old royalof Kathmandu, the capital city, on a plateau on thecity of Patan (Lalitpur Metropolitan City) and theirsouth bank of the Bagmati River, inside of a circularimpact on women as well as social changes. After theroad called Ring Road. Patan has an overwhelming

2015 Nepal earthquake, houses collapsed and people

number of Buddhist temples in comparison with

were injured in Patan, and community restoration

the other two old Malla cities, Kathmandu andand reconstruction activities are still underway in

Bhaktapur, in the Kathmandu Valley. These old

the present day. In particular, among the Jyapu

cities, former royal capitals, are still mostly occupied(farmer caste) communities, “creative reconstruction

by Newar people. In Newar society, the concept

activities” have been seen and women’s self-of purity or impurity of the object or person is

help organizations (S.H.O.s) are actively involved

perceived by whether one can touch or interact with(Takeuchi 2012,2018). My research focuses on thethings and people. And this kind of perceived purity

role of women’s S.H.O.s in rehabilitating the Jyapu

or impurity exist both in the daily code and in thecommunities. I conducted fieldwork nine times inhierarchy of the social classes (the caste system).

between November 2015 to December 2019 focusing
on post-earthquake reconstruction activities.

There are Newar people, who practice Hinduism
and Buddhism. It is to be noted that both religions

Part 1 of this paper gives an overview of theare intertwined and some festivals are mixed based

study areas. Such as Patan, and the Newar ethnic

on these religious concepts. Buddhism originallygroups that are living there. Part 2 of this paper is

had no caste system, but in the Kathmandu Valley,

going to explain the public help given by Lalitpur

Buddhists observe caste system based on Hindu

Metropolitan City. In part 3, I am going to discussphilosophies. The royal palace and temples are

the history and activities of women’s self-help

located in the center of the city, are surrounded byorganization in Patan and the impact of thesefour and five-story brick and timbered multi-family*Nanzan University

23

The Role of Women’s Self-Help Organizations in the Process of Civil
Reconstruction after the April 2015 Nepal Earthquake

At 11:56 am Nepal Standard Time on April 25, 2015,

『人類学研究所 研究論集』第号（２０２１）

Research Papers of the Anthropological Institute Vol.10 (2021)

10

Figure 1. Patan (Lalitpur Metropolitan City)
Source: 2007 Encyclopedia Britannica. Inc
dwellings. Upper caste people live in the center of thecaste group (Kasai ) and cleaning caste group (Pode )city and lower caste people live on the outer edge ofare considered to be the lower caste of society. On

the city. Each caste lives their life based on the rigid

the other hand, despite the caste ranking, each caste

caste system.

group has its own deity and customs, and each has

As I stated above, the city has a basic urban

its own caste identity for its caste group (Gellner

structure based on a religious view, and this

1996: 63-68). The order of caste and the degree ofstructure is formed according to the caste structure,

purity or impurity are determined at birth of thethe mandala worldview and the concept of “pure andindividual and are generally considered to be fixed.

impure”. The urban structure is linked to traditional

In Patan alone, there are more than 50 tals (family

culture of Newar.

names, or caste groups) (Maharajan 2002: 35). the

Jyapu (farmer caste group) has the largest number

2-2 Newar peopleof households of any caste group, followed by Bale

Newar people experience all phenomena through(gold and silver Buddhist statue crafters caste),the lens of whether something is pure or impure.

then the Gubaju (Buddhist monk caste), and thePure and impure views are derived from the world

Sessyo (government job caste group). The number

creation myth taught in Hinduism, and also fromof households in other caste groups is not very large.

the caste system, which defines people’s occupation

Different caste people keep a distance from otherand ritual role. A person’s caste level, occupation

caste groups, except for certain ceremonial Occasions.

and conducting of ritual roles are predetermined by

For an example, it is not customary for a upper caste

ones ancestral caste level. For an example, God has

family to allow a lower caste group or person into

the attribute of “purity”, and members of the priest

their house. In addition, there are restrictions against

caste group (Hindu priest Deyobalm , Buddhist priest

inter-caste marriage, and on “food transfer” between

Gubaju ), who are believed close to God, regarded

the different castes. Such as, the inability to receive

as upper caste, while in contrast, a butcher whowater and food (especially rice) from people of lower

handles meat is considered “impure”. The butcher

caste family or group and the inability to eat with24

lower caste people (Yamagami 2001). In particular,
cooked rice is seen as a likely conduit for impurenessbecause it is eaten on a daily basis. It is said that
one must not share a meal place with anyone otherthan family members. (Yamagami 2008: 60). Today,
traditional values, especially among young people
are changing. However, many elderly people live
according to the traditional caste norms.

Ⅲ Public helpof Lalitpur
Metropolitan City
3-1 Public assistance byLalitpur Metropolitan
City Office

Figure 2. Damaged temples
in Patan Durbar Square(November 14th, 2017 photographed by the author)
meets all the standards set by the government and iscompleted.
As of December 2019, 6,300 victims in Lalitpur
have received first-time grants. Second grants have

According to the government officer in charge

been awarded to 25% of the initial recipients, andof earthquake reconstruction work in Lalitpur

third grants to 20% of the first recipients. In all, 7,373

Metropolitan City Office, the damage to Lalitpur

people have received support from the City Office

was 49 fatalities, 128 injured people, 2,300 collapsed

between 2015 and August 2019. After the earthquake,houses, 5,000 partially damaged houses, and 75,000

the regional development bureau under the City

affected people. The role of the city office is to

Office had distributed shelters and tents, as well as

provide grants to all the applicants, who are seriously

baby clothes and diapers to pregnant women andinjured or have damaged houses based on standards

mothers with babies. One week after the earthquake,set by the Nepalese government. The damaged

large tents provided by UNICEF were set up in thebuildings are assessed and placed in one of threegardens of the City Office and in the fields of Wardgroups (red: no entry, green: safe, yellow: living will

8. About one month after the earthquake, children

be possible after repairs), and a disaster certificate ID

gathered, painted, and danced. At that time, children

card is issued for the affected applicant. The Nepalese

were given notebooks, pens, and erasers, as well as

government has instructed municipalities to provide

snacks by the local government officials.

300,000 rupees 1 (approximately 300,000 yen) for themet, applicants can receive financial support to begin

3-2 Public assistance by theWard officerebuilding their homes. First time applicants receive

After the earthquake, ward offices received

50,000 rupees if they pass the ground check; therelief supplies for the residents from City Offices,second time they receive 150,000 rupees, if their work

International organizations, NGOs, and others. Wardsatisfies the DPC seismic standard; and the third

8 3 , The most damaged area of Patan, received moretime they receive 100,000 rupees, if their first floor

relief supplies than any other ward. The City Officerebuilding of houses. If home rebuilding criteria are1
2

2

According to the conversion rate of 1 NPR = 0.95 JPY (as of September 25, 2019).
The data in this section is based on interviews with officials in Ward 8 and Ward 4 (August 2019).

25

The Role of Women’s Self-Help Organizations in the Process of Civil
Reconstruction after the April 2015 Nepal Earthquakewith modern education, are waning and caste norms

ward office. Besides that, several items were donated.

women’s self-helporganization (S.H.O.)?

Such as, daily necessary items, food from the Central

Women’s S.H.O. was first established in the year

District Administrative Office (CDO), tents from1991, by a local NGO that targeted Newar Jyapu『人類学研究所 研究論集』第sent 100,000 rupees (approximately 100,000 yen) as

the Red Cross, and acetaminophen from the several(farmer caste) women in Patan. CDS (Community

NGOs ENPHO and YUM, which are actively involved

Development Section) 5 in Patan had formed sevenin the public health sector. According to many of thewomen’s S.H.O.s between 1996 and 1999. Although,ward offices, a few days after the earthquake, ward

there have been no other projects since 2000, theoffice staff formed a rescue team and they began to

CDS has been supporting S.H.O.s and conducting

work again. At that time, the role of the ward officea number of operational trainings. Women withwas mainly to distribute relief supplies, received

knowledge of the women’s S.H.O.s have begun

from each organization. In addition, although notto establish other new S.H.O.s by them in thea ward, the Jyapu Samajdonated 10,000 rupees

community of Patan, where they live. They have(approximately 10,000 yen) for each injured Jyapu

been playing an important role to empower themember as a measure of public assistance.

women social as well as economically. In addition,

10

The Ward 4 office stood out by its effective

donation, medicines, and other food supplies to the号（２０２１）

Research Papers of the Anthropological Institute Vol.10 (2021)

4

response. International NGOs sent donation, rescue

they have been working based on the needs of theircommunities and caste groups.

supplies (gloves, helmets, boots, picks, and masks) and

There are also some other groups that choosetents to each ward office, and their first task was to

not to register their establishment with the CDS

distribute them to the residents. Seven days after the

because they prefer to work for their own interests

earthquake, the Ward 4 office had provided the plaza

rather than for the government. There are several

as a public shelter, built tents, and provided foodrequirements for registering women’s S.H.O.s withto residents. They were able to operate smoothly

the CDS. For an example, there must be more thanbecause they had providentially received earthquake

30 members, there must be one week of training indisaster training from an International NGO, the day

the establishment, the CDS can dictate how the S.H.O.

before the disaster took place. As a result, they were

will be managed, annual visits to the CDS must beable to anticipate the disaster more effectively thanmade, meetings must be attended and reports of theother ward offices in this area.

organization must be submitted, and leader of theorganization must be changed every three years

Ⅳ Formation anddevelopment of
women’s self-helporganizations

alternatively. To register with CDS scheme has somany benefits for women. Such as they can get
training in arithmetic, reading and writing, vocational
training such as courses in using sewing machine
and hairdressing, aptitude training, public speaking,and guidance in hygiene and nutrition from a health

4-1 What does mean thecenter.

3 Ward 8 consists of 12 toles (communities), with about 2,200 houses and a population of about 12,000. In Ward 8, the number of collapsed houses
exceeded 400, and the region was the most affected by the earthquake in Lalitpur. The first quake, followed by several aftershocks, left between
50 and 60 people injured. In Ward 8, there were no deaths, but a resident of Ward 8 was walking on a street in another ward and died of a heart
attack after seeing the university wall collapse in front of him.
4 Jyapu Samaj is a large farmer caste group self-help organization that comprises 40 communities of farmer caste groups living in Patan.
5 CDS (Community Development Section) is an administrative organization under the umbrella of City Office.

26

Women’s S.H.O.s go against the traditional Newar
values of keeping to one’s own caste group, as

homes and doing various outside activities, includinggroup meetings and events.
One of the characteristics of S.H.O.s for the Newarof which caste group they belong to. However,

women, is to conduct “small entrepreneurship

women have established S.H.O.s in each tole (small

activities” (such as microcredit, vocational training,community), so in Patan, where traditionally people

literacy training). Such activities aim to develop

are segregated by caste group, members of the same

women’s financial independence, which is the original

S.H.O. are allowed to interact with others of different

purpose of development. In addition, S.H.O.s organize

caste groups.

many community activities, such as participating

As of November 2018, there are 300 S.H.O.s inin festivals, cleaning up communities, establishing

Patan. Some groups have more than 20 years ofcommunity clinics according to the needs of theexperience. Until the year 2000, many women were

tole. Each tole is active, with its S.H.O. performing

unable to join as a member to a group because theira variety of new community activities to meet its

families opposed them from going out of their homes.

needs.

However, women’s S.H.O.s had been established inevery tole by the year 2010.

While initially many men strongly opposed thewomen from joining S.H.O.s and working outside

At meeting, women can get various kinds ofthe home. However, now they have come to know

information from the government and they get

and recognize that S.H.O.’s community work has aan opportunity to learn about sanitation, garbage

positive impact on the tole. Since the establishment

separation and recycling methods, which they canof S.H.O.s in Patan, women have gained a social role

practice at home. Women’s S.H.O.s are serving thein the tole, expanding women’s freedom and raising

tole and bringing so many benefits, therefore, S.H.O.

women’s social status like never before. In this way,

member’s husbands and other members of the family

S.H.O.s have unintentionally changed the traditional

can allow the women to participate in the training.

gender structure.

At the time of the national election, administrative

Ⅴ The community
reconstruction
process and the roleof women’s self-helporganizations

officials taught S.H.O. members about what is themeaning of a political party, what is the meaning of
citizens vote and how to cast one’s own vote. During
Election time, candidates frequently campaigned ineach tole and invited not only tole leaders but also
the women’s S.H.O. leaders to campaign events.

4-2 The life changes ofwomen who belong to
S.H.O.s
The gender structure of Newar society haschanged since Patan’s Newar women began to join
S.H.O.s. As mentioned earlier, traditionally, Newar
women were restricted to the private area of theirhusband’s house and parents’ house, and they could
not go out freely without the permission given by
their family. Once they started participating in S.H.O.s,
women became more accustomed to leaving their

The community reconstruction process and therole of women’s S.H.O.s were selected for researchbecause of their high level of women’s involvementin the community reconstruction process. In thisstudy, I will focus mainly on two toles in Patan,
referred to as N Tole and P Tole in order to preserveanonymity, which after the earthquake started new
urban development projects in which women’s S.H.O.s
are active in the process of reconstruction. In doing
so, I will discuss how women’s S.H.O.s are involvedin the project and their role in the community

27

The Role of Women’s Self-Help Organizations in the Process of Civil
Reconstruction after the April 2015 Nepal Earthquake

they serve all women in the community regardless『人類学研究所 研究論集』第号（２０２１）

Research Papers of the Anthropological Institute Vol.10 (2021)

10

reconstruction activities.

on their own. In addition to the original development

5-1 Reconstruction project：“Diversified management”
based on women’s ideas
in N Tole

activities, the S.H.O. is currently carrying out various

a. Overview of N Tole

measurement, routine health checkup, cleaning roads

activities based on women’s problems and community
needs.
For an example, members of this women’s S.H.O.
perform community activities, such as blood pressure

Talking about N Tole is located at Ward 20

and temples for residents in the Tole. Last year, theyin Lalitpur City and it has about 150 houses and a

repaired houses damaged by the earthquake. (All the

population of about 400. Most caste groups that live

damaged houses in N Tole have now been almostin the community have the last name “Maharjan”.

repaired.) Also, leisure activities, such as excursions

The N community is known for its historic Quina

and banquets are organized for members. In one

Gane Dyo (the god Ganesh) temple, which holds thenotably successful venture, of this women’s S.H.O.

festival of Jal Binayak Jatra. The festival starts on

was to convince the city office to clean a previously

the evening of the full moon in November. On that

unused garbage area and turn it into a parking lot.

day, in the evening around 6 pm, mankaa guthi, a

The S.H.O. members operate the parking lot. They

men’s band performing during ceremonies, begins tohave hired security guards from security companies

play. In recent years, women have been allowed tobecause it is dangerous at night. Since there is almost

participate. Men carry a portable shrine with Quina

no parking space in Patan, therefore this parking

Gane dyo inside, and women dance and play musicalmanagement venture is successful and also profitable.

instruments while parading through the town of

The profits from the parking operation are deposited

Patan.

into the community’s Sakhakari (financial union), but

6

In N Tole, the damage from the earthquake waswhen the community needs a large amount of money

minimal. Four houses were nearly collapsed, but mostfor events like community festivals and banquets andhouses were just cracked. There were no fatalities.

the donations are often made to the community from

For two months after the earthquake, community

this fund.

members stayed in tents in a large parking area run
by N Tole.

c. After the 2015 Earthquake
In N Tole, before the disaster, the women’s S.H.O. s

b. Activities of women’s S.H.O. in N Tole before

had cleaned up a garbage dump in the community

the 2015 earthquake

and used the space as parking lot, with the help of

N Tole has a women’s self-help organization

men. For two months immediately after the disaster,that was established in 1999. As of November

the space was provided for free of charge to establish

2017, N’s women’s S.H.O. had 92 members. Thisevacuation tent camp for Tole members.

S.H.O. was established to conduct three main

Although the women’s S.H.O. has been active in

activities: vocational training, literacy training, andwomen’s activities and for the Tole for some time

microfinance. Every member pays a small amountnow, members said that they had little time toevery month and the money thus collected is put

work for the women’s S.H.O. immediately after the

into a large fund. Members can borrow money fromearthquake. According to interviews with women

this fund and can take loan to open small businesses

living in Patan, after the earthquake, children’s

6
Guthis are social organizations that are used to maintain the socio-economic order of Newar society. Mankaa Guthi is one type of Guthis. The
members of Mankaa Guthi play traditional music instruments on the ritual occasions28

schools were closed for a long time, and many

tourists. Therefore, several vacant houses in the Tole

working men had to take a long time off from theirwere cleaned and renovated in order to accommodate

office work. Even when they returned back to theiraround 10 people at one time. Homestay hosts used

work, the men were afraid that the earthquake

to serve Newar dishes. Therefore, the S.H.O. womenmight reoccur, and they continued to leave thehad undergone cooking and cleaning trainings.
The second project was to use an empty or vacantback home as early as possible for a while. Women

house in the Tole, in order to manage boutiquewere often busy and had to take care of their family

stores. Women’s S.H.O. members used to keep themembers. In other words, many women were notstore open and tailor kurta (punjabi dresses) andable to leave their homes immediately after thesari. According to interviews, in November 2017, thedisaster.

location of boutique stores had already been finalized

On the other hand, immediately after thein the Tole and were in the process to open soon.

earthquake, men were able to work toward recovery.

The S.H.O. hopes to create employment for women

Men already had a network outside the home, which

through such boutique management.

they relied a lot to get financial and technical support

Third, they planned to use the empty space in thefor N Tole and successfully they were able to build acommunity disaster prevention center, in order tocommunity disaster prevention center in N Tole.

create a community day care facility for the elderly
people. This would be made available to about 100

d.Launching the project “Diversified management”

elderly people in the community. At present, theOne year after the earthquake, women’s self-

S.H.O. members are currently applying to open thehelp organizations finally started working for

facility with the ward office. When there were noreconstruction

7. At that time, the women’s S.H.O. insuch events to take place, this community disaster

N Tole had three projects to help people in order toprevention center was closed most of the time.

rebuild their lives once again, after the earthquake

Therefore, they wanted to use this center for suchthrough diversified management.

good reason.as much as possible. The plan was to

The first project focused on tourism. The first

open from 9:00 am to 6:00 pm as day care for thecomponent of this plan was to hold a show once in aelderly people. Activities would include communal

month and sell tickets to tourists. The show would

play, dance, and also for exercise class. A doctor used

include Newar dance and live music and a traditional

to visit once a month, in order to check the health

Newar style banquets prepared by local residents. In

condition of the elderly people.

order to serve this purpose, women’s S.H.O. members
started to conduct banquet cooking training sessions
to give training to its residents Also, three years ago,
they created a macha pucha (children’s group), andthey asked the children (both boys and girls) of theircommunity between the ages of 8 and 16 to learn
dancing and playing instruments like flute, drumfrom the members of mankaa guthi (men’s traditionalband). The second component of the tourism plan was

Figure 3. Members of women’s S.H.O. in N tole
(April 25th, 2018 photographed by the author)

to organize a program like homestay program for

The elderly day care service plan was aimed to

7
The border blockade between Nepal and India was in turmoil from September 24, 2015 to February 2016. With logistics stagnating, suppliesof daily necessities, which had relied on imports from India, fell sharply in Nepal and fuel and drug shortages became severe.

29

The Role of Women’s Self-Help Organizations in the Process of Civil
Reconstruction after the April 2015 Nepal Earthquake

office voluntarily and many of them used to return『人類学研究所 研究論集』第号（２０２１）

Research Papers of the Anthropological Institute Vol.10 (2021)

10

create employment for women’s S.H.O. members.

to live with their relatives, while others have rented

And the day care service for the elderly allowed toapartments. Even now, four years after the disaster,

give free space for women who have elderly familysome people are still living in the evacuation shelters

members to leave and find work outside of their

because they cannot even afford to pay monthly rent

homes. In addition, even if a disaster strikes, they canof an apartment.

feel reassured that elderly people are in a safe place
like disaster prevention enter. If a disaster occurs

b.Launching the project “New town planningduring use, there is no need to move elderly people

utilizing Newar tradition”

out of their homes in terms of disaster prevention.

After the earthquake, P Tole discussed how

It is believed that it will also reduce the burden

residents could restore and rebuild the community.

on everyday families and will be beneficial for all

It was thought that economic disparities would

residents of the community.

be a major problem if the community was rebuilt

5-2 Reconstruction project:“New town planningutilizing Newar tradition”
in P Tole of Patan

individually.

a.Overview of P Tole

A leader in P Tole, Mr. R.M, chairman of the
NGO Maya Foundation and president of a diamondcompany, suggested the idea of “New town planningutilizing Newar tradition” to residents. The purpose ofthis project was to invite tourists to their community,

P Tole is located in Ward 3 of Lalitpur City, within order to revitalize the town, preserve tradition,

a population of about 700 and there are around 115

generate income for the local people, and also tohomes. All inhabitants belong to the peasant caste

raise the standard of living in the tole. The Maya(family name: Maharjan). Maharjan have traditionallyFoundation (NGO) was trying to create a new town

worked in agriculture, but now they have no

by paying for a portion of the reconstruction costs

dedicated farmers and have sold most of their land

and attempting to attract tourists to P Tole. Theor built new houses there, leaving little land forfirst floor of each house is a craft shop or café; thefarming. Usually, most of the people in this area farmsecond floor is a space for guest rooms for tourists;

only for their own consumption. At present, the mostand the third and fourth floors are the owner’s living

common profession in P Tole is making hand crafted

quarters. Room reservations are handled by a central

Buddha statues and to work in offices. In recent

office that arrange an accommodation for guests to ayears, the number of young people studying abroad

guest house. This is to ensure that every guest houseand working abroad have increased a lot.

has an equal chance to have guests. The aim is to

P Tole was the worst affected area of Patan in thegive all residents equal work opportunity. Initially,

Great Nepal Earthquake, with 60% of homes were

the plan was to build 82 project houses (7 chokes),collapsed and inhabitants were unable to live in their

but the number of houses increased to 87 because thehouses. However, no one was died directly from thelarge number of applications were submitted. This

earthquake, but two people were died due to theproject was set to be completed within three years.

shock of such a traumatic event.
The biggest problem in the post-disasterc. Activities of the women’s S.H.O. in P Tole

community was that there were many poor people

The women’s S.H.O. in P Tole has 110 members,

living in houses that had collapsed so badly due towho pay 220 rupees a month (200 rupees are athe earthquake, they could not afford to rebuild theirdeposit, 20 rupees are a donation to the Tole). Whenhomes once again. Some inhabitants have given up

the earthquake occurred, they cleaned the rubble off

in rebuilding their homes and gone back hometown

the road so that people could pass through. Every30

day since the start of the project, from 7 a.m. to 6 p.m.,

yet to establish cultural norms for dividing a guest

they helped with the manual labor of reconstruction

house. Some families have decided that one siblingand provided food and drinks to the people working

will become the owner of the guest house while theon the site. At first, there were many volunteers, butother siblings will receive a portion of the house’safter a year and a half, the men gradually stopped

original value or future earnings from the guest

coming to the site because they were busy withhouse.

because Tole leaders are worried that the labor force
would be reduced and as a result the construction
period would be extended further.
According to my fieldwork, I have conducted in
November 2018, S.H.O. members have been training
for three months in Newar dance and traditional
instruments for tourism shows. These dances are tobe performed for guests in restaurants and stages in

Figure 5. Scenery during a breakin construction work in P Tole
(April 27th, 2018 photographed by the author)

P Tole guest houses. In the fall of 2019, the women
performed dances, which they had mastered.

Ⅵ Conclusion：
Examination
This paper, through fieldwork, has shown how thecivil reconstruction process in Patan has been carriedout since the Great Nepal earthquake and how
women’s self-help organizations have been involved in
Figure 4. Members of women’s S.H.O. in P Tole
(November 18th, 2018 photographed by the author)

the reconstruction process. The Nepalese government
mainly focused on the more severely damaged
suburbs of Kathmandu. Therefore, in the Patan,d. Project Issues

public assistance was insufficient. For an example,

What is currently a problem is the financial

the government did not create enough temporarydifficulties of residents engaged solely in agricultural

housing for victims in Patan. For this reason, theactivities. These residents can borrow funds, but

residents independently took the lead role for thetheir ability to repay the loan is in question.

community reconstruction activities. In this paper,

There is a consensus that division of property will

the Jyapu settlements were examined, along with the

be a major problem in the near future. In Newarrole of women’s S.H.O.s in the N Tole’s “Diversified

culture, when it comes to the division of property,

management” project and the P Tole’s “New town

a wall is built to divide the house equally amongst

planning utilizing Newar tradition” project. The

sons, so it becomes a narrow house. Houses are being

farmer caste was chosen because women in this area

rebuilt the same size as before the earthquake, so thehave so far been the most active in women’s S.H.O.s

sizes of rooms vary depending on the house. In theand they are also active in reconstruction.

future, when it comes to divide the property, there

Both the N and P communities started tourism

will be an issue like who will get the guest room. As

venture after the disaster. These reconstruction

guest houses are a new concept, Newar people haveefforts are aimed at creating jobs for all community
31

The Role of Women’s Self-Help Organizations in the Process of Civil
Reconstruction after the April 2015 Nepal Earthquake

work. The women’s labor has thus become invaluablemembers and reshaping life in the N and P

One of the reasons women were able to participate incommunities. It is noteworthy that women’s points ofrecovery is that women’s S.H.O.s have improved theirview are included in reconstruction. For an example,

organizational management skills and other abilities

in N Tole, women supported the idea of a senior day

through various activities over many years.
In this paper, the role of women’s self-helporganizations in reconstruction was discussed.

falls to the women in the family, but it is very tiring

Reconstruction aimed at tourism has provoked

and time-consuming work. Having a day care service

instances of what can be termed “remaking andhelps the women to take care of their elderly family

creating culture”. For an example, guest rooms formembers while freeing them to work outside theforeigners feature different ceiling heights, Western-home. The equality of all community members isstyle toilets, curtains and beds, in order to fulfill

here emphasized.

the need and requirement of the foreign customers.

earn money. Care for elderly family members usually

As the “Disaster and Gender” (Enarson 2000,

There are also several unsolved issues, such as how

Tsunozaki 2007) study pointed out, during natural

to divide the guest rooms into property in terms ofdisaster, women are likely to be vulnerable and belegal condition. In the future, I would like to address

10

unable to access to relief supplies because of theirand analyze those unsolved issues from the viewpointlack of education and social rights. Even in Patan,of tourist anthropology.

号（２０２１）『人類学研究所 研究論集』第Research Papers of the Anthropological Institute Vol.10 (2021)

care service because they want to work in order tothe family responsibilities and roles in the home

Referencesthat women had before the disaster were amplified
and expanded by the occurrence of disasters andemergencies, thus confining them to their homes.
The women’s S.H.O. was able to do almost nothing
for roughly a year. However, over a year later, finally

Enarson, Elaine.
2000

Programme on Crisis Response andwomen were able to begin their work outside theReconstruction no.1. International Labour
Organization.

home as S.H.O. members. In N Tole, the women’s
S.H.O. had played a central role in reconstruction,using buildings, human resources, and unique culturesin the community to plan for sustainable tourism, andGender and Natural Disasters : Infocus

Gellner, David N.
1993

Monk, Householder, and Tantric Priest.
Newar Buddhism and its Hierarchy ofgradually rebuild. The project is underway.

Ritual. Cambridge University Press

In addition, in P Tole, using the empty space of1976“Intra-Caste Organization in a Newari
Village: phuki and sana guthi” (inthe Disaster Prevention Center as day care for theJapanese) Minzokugaku kenkyu. 40, pp.

elderly on a daily basis is a unique idea from the271-298, Japanese Society of Cultural

perspective of women at home. Men who work

Anthropology

outside during the day cannot run a day care, andwomen are often engaged in the area of care athome. As women already possess the knowledge

Maharjan, Keshav L.
2002“Katomanzu Kinkou no Toshi Furontia:
Patan Shi no Machikeisei wo Jirei ni

and ability to take care of elderly people. Therefore,[Urban Frontier of Kathmandu Valley: A

it was very easy for them to gain the required very

Case Study of Patan City (The Frontier in
Comparative Perspective)]” (in Japanese).

little training.

Mita Gakkai Zasshi. 95(2), pp. 221-240, Keio

In Patan, women’s S.H.O.s, established in the 1990s

Universityand 2000s, have gained organizational management
skills through the experience of women’s activities
and have expanded their social roles in communities.
32

Takeuchi, Ai.
2012“A case study of the social impacts of theactivities of Newar farmer caste women,
through women’s self-help organizations“Misa Pucha” in Nepal”. Hikaku
Mainoritigaku [Comparative Minoritology].
3, pp. 91-110, Association of Comparative
Minoritology
2018“Neparu Daijishin no fukkoukatei ni

The Role of Women’s Self-Help Organizations in the Process of Civil
Reconstruction after the April 2015 Nepal Earthquakearawarerujyenda-Patan no N toru wo
jirei toshite [ (Gender roles in the processof reconstruction of the 2015 Nepal
earthquake-A case study of N tole in
Patan) ]” (in Japanese). Autres. 9, pp. 71-88.
CREA
Tsunozaki, Etsuko.
2007“Tojyoukoku ni okeru saigai tojyenda[(Disasters and Gender indeveloping countries)]” (in Japanese).
Oyane, Jyun /Urano, Masaki /Tanaka,
Jyun /Yoshii, Hiroaki (ed.) Shinsai・fukkou
no shakaigaku, pp. 229-236. Koubundo

Yamagami, Aki.
2001

“Kegare ni matsuwaru kannen to sono
shosou-nepa-ru bafun no shisen[ (On the
Nortion of Impurity in Various Aspects:
A case Study of the Nepal- Bahun) ]” (inJapanese) Seikei Jinbunkenkyu. 9, pp. 111155. Journal of the Graduate School of
Humanities of Seikei University

2008“Kome no Syouchousei- Neparu shakai
niokeru jyou/fujyoukannnenn wochuushinn ni[ (Symbolism of rice: conceptsof purity and impurity in the Newarsociety of Nepal) ]” (in Japanese) Seikei
University Center for Asian and PacificStudies. 33, pp. 59-78. Seikei University

33