Training Course on Cultural Heritage Protectionin the Asia - Pacific Region 2006

Research, Analysis and Preservation ofArchaeological Sites and Remains
11 September – 11 October, 2006, Nara, Japan

Cultural Heritage Protection Cooperation Office,Asia/Pacific Cultural Centre for UNESCO (ACCU)
Agency for Cultural Affairs, Japan (Bunkacho)
National Research Institute for Cultural Properties(NRICP)International Centre for the Study of the Preservation
and Restoration of Cultural Property (ICCROM)䎨䏇䏌䏗䏈䏇䎃䏄䏑䏇䎃䎳䏘䏅䏏䏌䏖䏋䏈䏇䎃䏅䏜䎃䎦䏘䏏䏗䏘䏕䏄䏏䎃䎫䏈䏕䏌䏗䏄䏊䏈䎃䎳䏕䏒䏗䏈䏆䏗䏌䏒䏑䎃䎦䏒䏒䏓䏈䏕䏄䏗䏌䏒䏑䎃䎲䏉䏉䏌䏆䏈䎏䎃䎤䏖䏌䏄䎒䎳䏄䏆䏌䏉䏌䏆䎃䎦䏘䏏䏗䏘䏕䏄䏏䎃䎦䏈䏑䏗䏕䏈䎃䏉䏒䏕䎃䎸䎱䎨䎶䎦䎲䎃䎋䎤䎦䎦䎸䎌䎃䎃䎱䏄䏕䏄䎃䎳䏕䏈䏉䏈䏆䏗䏘䏕䏄䏏䎃䎪䏒䏙䏈䏕䏑䏐䏈䏑䏗䎃䙼䎫䏒䏕䏈䏑䙽䎃䎲䏉䏉䏌䏆䏈䎃䎪䏕䏒䏘䏑䏇䎃䎩䏏䏒䏒䏕䎃䎚䎘䎚䎃䎫䏒䏕䏈䏑䎐䏆䏋䏒䎏䎃䎱䏄䏕䏄䎃䎙䎖䎓䎐䎛䎔䎔䎖䎃䎭䏄䏓䏄䏑䎃䎳䏋䏒䏑䏈䎝䎃䎎䎛䎔䎃䎋䎓䎌䎚䎗䎕䎐䎕䎓䎐䎘䎓䎓䎔䎃䎩 䎤 䎻䎝䎃䎎䎛䎔䎃䎋䎓䎌䎚䎗䎕䎐䎕䎓䎐䎘䎚䎓䎔䎃䎨䎐䏐䏄䏌䏏䎝䎃䏑䏄䏕䏄䎣䏄䏆䏆䏘䎑䏒䏕䎑䏍䏓䎃䎸 䎵 䎯䎝䎃䏋䏗䏗䏓䎝䎒䎒䏚䏚䏚䎑䏑䏄䏕䏄䎑䏄䏆䏆䏘䎑䏒䏕䎑䏍䏓䎃䎃䎳䏕䏌䏑䏗䏈䏇䎃䏅䏜䎃䎰䏈䏌䏖䏋䏌䏑䏖䏋䏄䎃䎃䣖䎃 䎦䏘䏏䏗䏘䏕䏄䏏䎃䎫䏈䏕䏌䏗䏄䏊䏈䎃䎳䏕䏒䏗䏈䏆䏗䏌䏒䏑䎃䎦䏒䏒䏓䏈䏕䏄䏗䏌䏒䏑䎃䎲䏉䏉䏌䏆䏈䎏䎃䎤䏖䏌䏄䎒䎳䏄䏆䏌䏉䏌䏆䎃䎦䏘䏏䏗䏘䏕䏄䏏䎃䎦䏈䏑䏗䏕䏈䎃䏉䏒䏕䎃䎸䎱䎨䎶䎦䎲䎃䎋䎤䎦䎦䎸䎌䎃䎕䎓䎓䎚Preface
The Cultural Heritage Protection Cooperation Office, Asia/Pacific Cultural Centre for UNESCO(ACCU) was established in Nara in 1999 with cooperation of the Agency for Cultural Affairs,
Japan (Bunkacho) Nara Prefectural Government, and the Municipal Government of Nara, with the
purpose being to serve as a domestic centre for promoting cooperation in cultural heritage
protection throughout the Asia-Pacific region.
Since then, our office has been engaged in the protection and study of cultural resources throughtraining courses, international conferences, the training of young leaders in cultural heritage
protection, the production of databases, our website and newsletters, and public relations.
The ACCU Nara training courses have comprised a significant part of the work of heritage
protection and research, and this was the seventh such course we have held. The theme of thisyear's course was “Research, Analysis, and Preservation of Archaeological Sites and Remains” andwas held in cooperation with the National Research Institute for Cultural Properties and theInternational Centre for the Study of the Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Property(ICCROM), from 11 September to 11 October, 2006. Fifteen participants from across the vast
Asia-Pacific region gathered in Nara to conduct their training.
Our purpose was to conduct training in regard to these methodologies of research and investigation
focusing on the excavation and the subsequent organization and classification of materials, as wellas the methods and principles relating to the preservation, the access, appreciation andunderstanding of archaeological sites and historic places by the public. Especially we offered thelecture on the Risk Management in this training course. Furthermore, we shall use this training
session as an opportunity for mutual debate, information exchange, and network building byarchaeological experts in the Asia and the Pacific region.

It is believed that information relating to the practical aspects of the latest methodologies andtechnologies is difficult to convey and disseminate promptly in the Asia and the Pacific region.
This situation needs to be improved, especially regarding the precision in archaeological site
exploration, and by providing the skills to researchers so that they may able to address this issue.

I believe that the discussions and lectures in this course were also a good opportunity for theexchange of ideas and knowledge between the participants, all of whom come from different
cultural backgrounds. I hope that in the future every participant will be able to utilize the results ofthe course and the networks that were built at that time, in their own countries.
We would like to express our deep gratitude to the prominent international experts who kindlyLdelivered lectures, and to the organizations that provided generous support in organizing the course.
We would also like to express our appreciation to the participants, who actively took part in thediscussions and whose eager efforts made the course more efficient and successful.
We hope that this report will benefit those who are making strenuous efforts in this field
throughout Asia and the Pacific.

YAMAMOTO Tadanao
Director
Cultural Heritage Protection Cooperation Office,Asia/Pacific Cultural Centre for UNESCO (ACCU), Nara

LL

Contents

Prefacei

Introduction
1. General Information
2. Programme Schedule3
7

Proceedings
1. Opening Ceremony
2. Summary of Lectures
3. Workshops
4. On-site Lectures

11
13
18
21

Country Reports by Participants

27

Lecturer Papers
1. Archeology and Natural Science

229

SAWADA Masaaki

2. Chemical preservation and processing of unearthed wooden
articles240

NISHIYAMA Yoichi

Final Reports by Participants

245

Appendix
Appendix A. List of Participants
Appendix B. List of Lecturers
Appendix C. List of Interpreter and tutors
Appendix D. List of Staff Members, ACCU Nara

349
352
355
355

Introduction

Introduction
1. General Information
2. Programme Schedule

1. General Information
Training Course on Cultural Heritage Protectionin the Asia - Pacific Region 2006

- Research, Analysis and Preservation ofArchaeological Sites and Remains(11 September – 11 October, 2006, Nara)
General Information

1. Organizers
Jointly organized by: Bunkacho (Agency for Cultural Affairs in Japan); the Asia/Pacific
Cultural Centre for UNESCO (ACCU); the International Centre for the Study of the
Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Property (ICCROM); and the National ResearchInstitute for Cultural Properties
In cooperation with Japan’s Ministry of Foreign Affairs; the Japanese National Commission
for UNESCO; Nara Prefectural Government and Nara Municipal Government
2. Background
In Asia and the Pacific region, there are various forms of cultural heritage which are of greatvalue from a global point of view. Proper investigation, analysis, preservation anddevelopment of these sites and remains are required of heritage professionals, in order toensure that this important cultural heritage is safeguarded for future generations. ACCU Narain partnership with ICCROM and Bunkacho has been organizing courses since 2000 on this
topic with a view to building the capacities of professionals in the region. The course will
examine the needs in the field, and highlight potential solutions including practical aspects of
the latest methodologies and technologies for investigation, conservation and development ofarchaeological sites.
3. Dates and Venues
Course dates and duration: 11 September (Monday) to 11 October (Wednesday), 2006
Venues: ACCU Nara-Cultural Heritage Protection Cooperation Office,(Nara Prefectural Government “Horen” Office, 757 Horen-cho, Nara City);
Additional venues: Facilities of cooperating organizations; sites undergoing preservation andrestoration, etc.



4. Objective of the Training Course
The objectives of the training course are to:•provide participants with a knowledge of recording and analytical methods forarchaeological features and relics;•

provide participants with knowledge of principles and methodologies of preservationof archaeological sites;•

provide participants with the knowledge of development and utilization ofarchaeological sites;•

provide participants with an opportunity to network with colleagues from the regionand share experiences.

5. Training Curriculum

Lectures-Conservation and Utilization of Cultural Heritage Resources-Risk preparedness for Cultural Heritages-Recording Survey Methods of Archaeological Features and Relics-Development and Management of Archaeological Sites-Introduction to Archaeological Science-Introduction to Scientific Dating Methods-Introduction to Conservation Science-Introduction to Environmental Archaeology

Presentation and Discussion-Presentation of the Current Status of Each Country, World and Cultural Heritage Resources,and Exchange of Views-Recapitulation of the Training Sessions



Practical Trainings and On-site Lectures-Workshops: Classification of Archaeological Relics / Measuring and Drawing / Rubbing: Recording of Archaeological Features: Conservation Science-Case Study on Preservation, Development and Utilization of Archaeological Sites(3-day study tour)

6. Participants in the Training Course(1) The training course is offered to the following 37 signatory countries listed on theUNESCO World Heritage Convention (see below).

For application, UNESCO National

Commissions or UNESCO liaison offices need to submit the following documents required for
those individuals nominated no later than 23 June, 2006: letters of recommendation writtenby the head of the organization to which a nominee belongs; a profile of the nominee; a reporton his/her major achievements.
*A total of 15 people will be selected from the nominees as participants in the training
course.
Afghanistan, Australia, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Cambodia, China, Fiji, India, Indonesia, Iran,Kazakhstan, Kiribati, Kyrgyz, Lao P.D.R., Malaysia, Maldives, Marshall Islands, Micronesia,
Mongolia, Myanmar, Nepal, New Zealand, Pakistan, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Philippines,
Rep. of Korea, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Sri Lanka, Tajikistan, Thailand, Tonga ,Turkmenistan,
Uzbekistan, Vanuatu, and Vietnam(2) Qualification Requirements
Applicants should be:1) experts or equivalent, aged 45 years or younger, who are engaged directly in the excavationof archaeological sites, and the preservation, restoration, and/or development ofarchaeological features, and who can make effective use of the results of the Training
Session upon returning to his or her home country.
2) those who have a good command of English, the working language for all lectures, so thatthey can deliver presentations and write reports from the Training Session;3) those who can attend the entire training programme;
4) those who are in good health to complete the entire training programme;5) those who can submit all of the required documents (i.e. a recommendation by NATCOM,
and reports) within the deadlines outlined;6) those who can continue exchanging information and interacting with ACCU Nara after
returning to their home countries;7) those who were not previous participants in training courses organized by ACCU Nara;
7. Notification of Screening Results
After consideration with the other organizers, ACCU Nara will select 15 people (one person
per nation only) around the end of July from among all applicants.

After selection, the

UNESCO National Commissions from each country and successful applicants will be
informed of the screening results.

8. Certificate of Completion
Each trainee will be awarded a certificate upon completion of the course.
9. Language of the Training Session
English will be the working language throughout the course.
10. Documents for Application(1) Application Form (Form 1)(2) Report Relating to Cultural Heritage Preservation.
The report should be written by the applicant and should be mentioned present andprevious work related to the theme of the course engaged in by the applicant. This reportwill be weighted during selection of the participants.
(3) Letter of Recommendation by NATCOM(4) Letter of Recommendation by the Attending Chief Official (Annex 1)(5) Documentation Indicating English Proficiency (if obtained)
11. Expenses
Expenses during the Training Course shall be borne by ACCU Nara, as follows:(1) Travelling expenses:
Each of the participants (except those from Australia, Republic of Korea and New Zealand)
shall be provided with an economy class return air ticket from the nearest international airport
from their residence to Kansai International Airport, and transportation fees between KansaiInternational Airport and Nara.
(2) Living expenses:
Participants shall be provided the basic living expenses incurred during the training course
from 11 September (Monday) to 11 October (Wednesday), 2006. Arrangements foraccommodations will be made by ACCU Nara
12. Secretariat
Cultural Heritage Protection Cooperation Office,Asia/Pacific Cultural Centre for UNESCO (ACCU Nara)
Nara Prefectural Government “Horen” Office,757 Horen-cho, Nara City, Nara Prefecture 630-8113
Tel: +81-(0)742-20-5001
Fax: +81-(0)742-20-5701
E-mail: nara@accu.or.jp                                     

2. Programme Schedule
Date
10

Sun.

11

Mon.

Morning (9:30-12:30)

Afternoon (13:40-16:40)(Lecturer / Venue)(Lecturer / Venue)
ArrivalOpening Ceremony
Orientation Session

12

Tue.

(ACCU)

Conservation and Utilization of Cultural

Risk Management for Cultural Heritages

Heritage Resources (Cases in Japan) (Mr(Dr Inaba㨯Mr Murakami / ACCU)

Ito / ACCU)
13

Wed.

Conservation and Utilization of Cultural Heritage Resources(Dr Wijesuriya / ACCU)

14

Thu.

Country Report by Participants (1) / Discussion(Dr Wijesuriya / ACCU)

15

Fri.

Country Report by Participants (2) / Discussion(Dr Wijesuriya / ACCU)

16

Sat.

17

Sun.

18

Mon.

19

Tue.

National Holiday
Introduction to Archaeological Science

Introduction to Dendrochronology(Prof. Sawada / NRICPN)

September

20

Wed.

Introduction to Dating Methods

Recording Survey Methods of Archaeological(Prof. Nagatomo / NRICPN)
21

Thu.

(Dr Mitsutani / NRICPN)

Features and Relics (Mr Kiguchi / NRICPN)

Principle of 3D Laser Scanning Survey and Application / Photogrammetry with Digital
Camera and Application / Principle of GPS and Application

22

Fri.

GIS Usage and Data Integration / Set-up Database of Archaeological Sites andRelics)

23

Sat.

24

Sun.

25

Mon.

(Mr Kiguchi / NRICPN )(Mr Kiguchi / NRICPN )Work Shop: Classification of Archaeological Relics / Measuring & Drawing / Rubbing(Mr Nishiguchi / NRICPN)

26

Tue.

Introduction to Conservation Science & Work Shop : Scientific Preservation Treatment for
Cultural Properties

27

Wed.

(Prof. Nishiyama / Nara University )Work Shop (Conservation Science) : Scientific Preservation Treatment for Cultural
Properties

28

Thu.

(Prof. Nishiyama / Nara University )Work Shop (Conservation Science) : Transcription of Stratigraphy(Prof. Nishiyama / Nara University )

29

Fri.

30

Sat.

Development and Utilization for Archaeological Sites

(Dr Ono / ACCU)                                     

1

Sun.

2

Mon.

Introduction to Environmental Archaeology & Survey Work Shop (Dr Matsui / NRICPN)

3

Tue.

On-site Lecture (Nara Imperial Palace Site)

4

Wed.

On-site Lectures(Mr Takase & Mr. Nakajima)

㧔Mr Kawashima / Matsugase Daiba : Mr Kojima / Torihama Shell Midden Site㧕

October5

Thu.

On-site Lectures (Mr Matsumura / Fukui City History Museum : Mr Mizuno / Ichijo-dani)

6

Fri.

On-site Lectures(Mr Kondo / Azuchi Castle in Shiga Prefecture: Mr Hanada / Mounded Tomb Group Site at Oiwayama in Yasu City)

7

Sat.

8

Sun.

9

Mon.

10

Tue.

Future Issues in the Preservation of Cultural Heritage

11

Wed.

Closing Ceremony

12

Thu.

National Holiday

Departure(Ms Tunprawat / ACCU)

1. Opening Ceremony
2. Summary of Lectures
3. Workshops
4. On-site Lectures

Proceedings

Proceedings





1.

Opening Ceremony

The opening ceremony of the 2006 training course washeld on 11 September 2006 at the Kasugano-so reception
hall in Nara City, with fifteen course participants andhonorable guests from the Agency for Cultural Affairs,
Japan (Bunkacho), the International Centre for the Study of
the Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Property(ICCROM), the National Research Institute for Cultural
Properties, Nara Prefectural Government, Nara Municipal
Government.

Mr
Suzuki,
Director,
Department of ACCU

Programme

The opening addresses were given by Mr SUZUKI
Yoshimori, Director, Programme Department, ACCU; Mr
YAMAMOTO Tadanao, Director, ACCU Nara Office; Mr
ASANO

Atsuyuki,

Head,

OfficeforInternational

Cooperation on Cultural Properties, Cultural Properties
Department, Bunkacho; Dr Gamini WIJESURIYA, ProjectManager, the International Centre for the Study of the
Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Property (ICCROM);

Mr Yamamoto, Director of ACCU Nara
OfficeMr YASUDA Ryutaro, Head, Centre for Archaeological
Operations, National Research Institute for Cultural
Properties; Mr FUKUTANI Tateo, Director, Science
City&Higher Education Coordination Office Division,
Nara Prefectural Government; and Ms IKEDA Midori,
Chief, Cultural Assets Division, Board of Education, Nara
City. In the above mentioned speeches, organizers andguests extended warm greetings to theparticipants andMr Asano, from the Bunkacho (Agency for
Cultural Affairs, Japan)

stressed the success of the training course. At the end of
the ceremony, the participants and an observer introduced
themselves and a group photo was taken with staff andguests.
Finally, the participants proceeded to the Nara Prefectural
Office. They were ushered to the roof floor of the building,where many historical monuments designated World
Heritage can be observed. Unfortunately, the sight was notDr Wijesuriya, from the International
Centre for the Study of the Preservation
and Restoration of Cultural Property

clear, but participants were given the explanation of
those monuments seen from there. After this stop, theparticipants met the Deputy Governor of Nara
Prefecture,Mr

NISHIO

Tetsuo.

Hegreetedparticipants and introduced Nara Prefecture. The
participants also asked the Deputy Governor about theprefecture.
Mr Yasuda, from the National ResearchInstitute for Cultural Properties

In the afternoon, the participants and ACCU staff met
in the ACCU meeting room whereupon each member
introduced themselves. After that, an introduction to
the training course was given regarding the course
theme,

objectives,

logistics,

andrequirements.

Following this, presentation about daily life in Japanfor visitors was made, followed by an open question
period.

Mr Fukutani, from the Nara Prefectural
Government

Ms Ikeda, from the Nara Municipal
Government

Meeting with the Deputy Governor of Nara Prefecture, Mr Nishio2. Summary of Lectures
Various experts delivered a series of lectures during this Training Course. The following is a complete
list of the lectures with a brief description of their contents.
Conservation and Utilization of Cultural Heritage Resources (Case in Japan)(12 Sept.) ITO Masayoshi (Agency for Cultural Affairs)- History of the enactment of the law for protection of cultural properties in Japan- System and category of cultural properties in Japan- Types of historical sites- Preservation system for historical sites- Preservation and management of historical sites- Utilization and promotion of historic sites etc.
Risk Management for Cultural Heritages(12 Sept.)
INABA Nobuko (NRICP, Tokyo), MURAKAMI
Yasumichi (Hyogo Prefectural Board of Education)“How to reduce disasters through the experience of the      Great Hanshin Earthquake”
Lecture by Ms Inaba and Mr. Murakami

Conservation and Utilization of Cultural Heritage
Resources (13 Sept.)
Gamini WIJESURIYA (ICCROM)- The role of ICCROM, how it cooperates with the ACCU
and what can be achieved by becoming an ICCROM
member state.
- Explanation of international guidelines such as charters,
declarations, recommendations and conventions and thebackground for their establishment

Lecture by Dr Wijesuriya- Different countries have different issues, so achieving abalanced management plan of heritage is not always easy.
- A variety of stakeholders all have a role in the preservation of heritage. The definition ofpreservation also differs from region to region and evolves with time.
- Our task in management of heritage is comprised of the 4R’s (Revisit, Research, React, Results).
- It is important for us to take in international knowledge as experts can give precise suggestions but
local communities should be the ones who have direct contact with the site.
- All stakeholders should work together in management and preservation of heritage.

Country Reports by Participants / Discussions(14-15 Sept.)
Gamini WIJESURIYA- Each participant gave a presentation of a country report.
Many issues were raised and valuable information was
exchanged through challenging discussions.
- In almost all countries the key issues are lack of qualified
Presentation by Mr Tahir Saeed

human resources, insufficient legislation, and lack ofpublic awareness.
Introduction to Archaeological Science (19 Sept.)
SAWADA Masaaki (University of Kokushikan)- Introduction of five main fields of archaeological science㧦age

determination,

production

identification

technique,ofenvironmental

materials

andarchaeology,

conservation science, and exploration and measurement of
Discussion after the presentation

ruins.
- Conservational treatment is not only important for
preservation, but also for presentation and utilization.
- An issue concerning the freeze dry method for objects,
whereby conservation which can manage the objects’ color
such as wet color or dried color of wood.
- Professionals have to choose the best treatment forconservation of cultural properties from both academic andLecture by Prof. Sawada

practical perspectives.
‫ ع‬Introduction to Dendrochronology (19 Oct.)MITSUTANI Takumi (NRICP, Nara)- Dendrochronology has many varieties and extension offields such as Tree-ring Dating, Dendroclimatology,
Dendroecology, Dendrohydorosy, Dendrochemistry and
Dendroisotopes.
- There are many historical wooden buildings and structures
Lecture by Dr Mitsutaniin Asian countries, so Dendrochlonology is useful andeffective to understand the history, the material andtechniques of the architecture.

Introduction to Dating Methods (20 Sept.)
NAGATOMO Tsuneto (Nara University of Education)- Explanation of principles of age determination methods.
- Age determination is conducted by stratigraphy andtypology in Archaeology for determining relative age.
- Scientific methods are also used for age determinationsuch as numerical and relative methods.
- Isotopes,

radiocarbon

dating(C-14),

fissiontrack,

luminescence, electron spin resonance are included

Lecture by Prof. Nagatomoinnumerical methods.
- Archaeomagnetism, paleomagnetism, and dendrochronology
are included in relative methods.
- Careful consideration is required to use a result for age
determination, and further consideration will be needed tochoose the most appropriate method.


Recording

SurveyMethodsofArchaeological

Features and Relics (20 Sept.)
Lecture by Mr Kiguchi

KIGUCHI Hiroshi (PASCO Corporation)- Introduction of GIS and its availabilities in Archaeology- GIS(Geographic Information System) is widely used in the
field

of

archaeology

such

as

makingmaps

forarchaeologists, excavations, measurement of culturalproperties, historical park design and constructing databaseof cultural properties.
- The explanation of background and the reason for GIS’s
wide and rapid diffusion of advances in the field ofJapanese archaeology

Demonstration of 3D digital, digital
photogrammetry and CAD- Demands for acquisition and practical use of digital data
are increasing more rapidly each year, however the
handwritten drawing will be necessary even if digital dataor photography developed, because a drawing can provide
us with much selected information depending on different
research purposes.
 Introduction of 3D digitizer, digital photogrammetry and
CAD

GPS measuring by participantsPrinciple of 3D Laser Scanning Survey and Application / Photogrammetry with Digital
Camera and Application/ Principle of GPS and Application(21 Sept.) KIGUCHI Hiroshi- GPS Demonstration. Set up base point of GPS measuring and demonstration how to use handy
GPS was also conducted outside. Plane-table survey to compare GPS point.
‫ ع‬GIS Usage and Data Integration/Set-up
Database of Archaeological Sites and Relics(22 Sept.) KIGUCHI Hiroshi- GIS is a system of computer software, hardware, and data.
- It also helps personnel to manipulate, analyze and present
information that is tied to a spatial location.
- GIS is an important tool to support decision-making and to
Lecture by Mr Kiguchi

present geographical information by visualizing.

Development and Utilization for Archaeological Sites (29 Sept.)
ONO Kenkichi (Agency for Cultural affairs)- Purposes of historic sites utilization should be developed to make sure the significance.
- Precautions for arrangement from both of conservation and utilization perspectives are as follows.
1) Precautions for arrangement with respect to conservation•

Reliable conservation of essential value•

Enhancement of study on conservation and better accuracy for arrangement•

Improvement of arrangement methods and techniques(Conservation and succession of
traditional techniques and development of new techniques)•Conservation of the landscape including surrounding areas

2) Precautions for arrangement with respect to utilization•

Enhancement of study on public opening and operation•

Development and selection of appropriate methods and techniques suitable for utilization
purposes (Learning and research resource/Town development resource for establishingregional identity/Sightseeing resources/Multipurpose space)Introduction to Environmental Archaeology & Survey
Work Shop (2 Oct.)
MATSUI Akira (NRICP, Nara)- Environmental archaeology was mainly composed of five
topics: screening and flotation examples, human bones andevidence of injuries, human and dogs, pigs in eastern Asia,
and research on toilet sites.
Lecture by Dr Matsui- Environmental archaeology has contributed to obtainingmuch information such as diet, pathology, demography, lifestyles, mortuary, social stratificationand kinship from human bones.
-

Human bones exhibit many differences between male and female.

- Comparing dog’s bones and pig’s bones is also effective to establish when domestication has
begun.


Future Issues in the Preservation of Cultural Heritage(10 Oct.)
Patcharawee TUNPRAWAT (SEAMEO-SPAFA)- Explanation of the activities of SEAMEO-SPAFA.
- SEAMEO-SPAFA cultivates awareness and appreciationof cultural heritage; promotes and enriches archaeologicaland cultural activities in the region; and furthers
Lecture by Ms Tunprawat

professional competence in the fields of archaeology andfine arts to advance mutual knowledge and understanding
among member countries.

- Its projects are based on cultural resource management, conservation collaboration with local
community, and training for architects and engineers. The CollAsia 2010 project aims to improvethe conditions for the conservation of heritage collections in Southeast Asia countries.
- Group session’s topics were as follows:
1) List key concepts that you have learnt from the course
2) List five major challenges in terms of heritage preservation in the Asia Pacific Region3) How can the course help you to overcome these challenges

3. Workshops
25 Sept.

Classification of Archaeological Relics/Measuring & Drawing/Rubbing
NISHIGUCHI Toshiki and JINNO Megumi (NRICP, Nara)

Workshop 1- Wet Rubbing of roof tiles- Many roof tiles have been excavated from the Nara Heijo Place Site, so the roof tile is one of thetypical relics and is important in identifying the historical age.
-

Introduction of Japanese ancient roof tiles. For example, rosette motifs on round tiles andarabesque motifs on flat eaves tiles were often used in the sixth to twelfth century AD.

-

Each of these tiles has various types, so classification and analyses of motifs in detail are very
important.

- The wet rubbing methods have many advantages such as 1) real scale 2) easiness to make many
copies 3) faster than drawing method 4) cheaper than taking photos.

Lecture by Mr Imai at NRICPN

Wet-rubbing: recording method of theinformation of roof tiles

Practicing the techniques of wet rubbing

At the storage of roof tiles

Workshop 2- Method and Drawing Pottery- Introduction of two kinds of drawings in order to record archaeological objects: projection drawing
and cross section drawing. In addition, projection drawing includes horizontal projection andvertical projection.
- Explanation of the concept, procedures and tools for drawing.
- Observation notes should be added in order to complete the drawing.

.

Drawing and Measuring of pottery

26 –28 Oct.
Introduction to Conservation Science & Workshop: Scientific Preservation
Treatment for Cultural Properties/Transcription of Stratigraphy
NISHIYAMA Yoichi (Nara University)

Lecture – Introduction to Conservation Science- Introduction of Japanese conservation science especially about wood and metal artefacts.
- In principle, archaeological relics should be kept as they found, and altered in any way.
- Excavated wooden artefacts are very fragile even if they appear to retain their original form
because wood constituents such as cellulose and lignin have eluted from the wood material.
- Sometimes chemical processing and preservation will be required in order to minimize additional
deterioration. Chemical materials for the preservation should have some criteria as follows; 1) ahigh degree of dimensional stability, 2) reversibility and 3) non-harmfulness to the environmentand human health.
- The preservation treatment of iron and bronze relics is as follows: 1) Desalination (for ironobjects) 2) Stabilization (for bronze objects) by BTA (benzotriazole) treatment 3) Resin
impregnation 4) Resin application 5) Rust removal 6) Bonding or patching. Reversibility ofprocesses is required.

Lecture by Prof. NishiyamaWorkshop2- Scientific Preservation Treatment for Cultural Properties- Introduction of the equipment and many artefacts treated with synthetic resin at the laboratory- Waterlogged woods identification by observing a cross section, a radial section and a tangential
section in both conifer and broad leaf tree under a microscope- PEG impregnation method of woods and gravimetry to see changes in weight before and after
PEG impregnation

At the laboratory

Practice

Workshop 3 – Transcription of Stratigraphy
Participants had an opportunity to take off the stratum by using Polyurethane resin (Tomac NS-10) at
Saidaiji excavation site located on the north part of the Nara Imperial Palace Site.

4. On-site Lectures

Nara Imperial Palace Site (3 Oct.)
TAKASE Yoichi and NAKAJIMA Yoshiharu (NRICP, Nara)- Overview of the Heijo Palace Site, from its historicalbackground to contents.
- History of the maintenance activities at the Heijo Palace
Site- Conservation and maintenance for the remains in the Heijo
Palace Site

Lecture by Mr Takase on the history,
maintenance and restoration of the Heijo
Palace Site

- Concept of the museum for ruins, and problems ofapplication- After the lecture, Mr Nakajima took the participants to themuseum, and then to the palace site to have an actual lookat the various presentation methods shown there.

Lecture at the Heijo Palace Site, by Mr
Nakajima

Fukui Pref.㨪Shiga Pref. (4 – 6 Oct.)

4 Oct.
Matsugase Daiba
KAWASHIMA Kiyohito (Ohi-town Historical Materials
Museum)- Matsugase

Daiba

(the

Battery

Fortification)

wasdesignated as a national historic site in 2001 for the firsttime in Ohi County.

On site lecture at Matsugase Daiba- Ohi-town had carried out research and excavations
withassistance of prefectural and national subsidies from1994 to 1998.
- At the completion of the excavation, the town educationalboard made the basic plan for preservation andmaintenance of the sites to utilize as a historic park.
At Mikata-cho Jomon Museum, brief
explanation by Mr Kojima

Torihama Shell Midden Site/Mikata-cho Jomon Museum
KOJIMA Hideaki (Mikata-cho Jomon Museum)- The Torihama Shell Midden Site, which is situated at themeeting place of two rivers (Hase River and Take River),was discovered by chance in 1961.
- Wooden artefacts, ropes, woven items, and lacquered
objects have been excavated in tremendously goodcondition through ten excavations from 1962 to 1985.
Torihama Shell Midden was called “A time capsule fromthe Jomon Period.”
On site lecture at Torihama Shell MIdden- Torihama Shell Midden site is estimated to spread out
about 4,000m2 areas and to be semicircular (100m east to
west and 50m north to south).
5 Oct.
Fukui City History Museum and Yokokan
MATSUMURA Tomoya (Fukui City History Museum)- Explanation of history of Fukui, ancient Fukui, the castle
town and city of the modern times and great people of theA tour of Fukui City History Museum

last days of the Tokugawa Shogunate and the Meiji Era.
- Introduction of gallery of the Matsudaira Familycollection.
- Nationally designated as a place of scenic beauty, Yokokan,   which was the second house of the Matsudairas, is aclassic representation of the middle Edo period with adrawing room showing refined taste and a wandering
path style garden.

On site lecture: sitting on tatami matsin the reconstructed Japanese house,
Yokokan

Ichijodani Asakura Family Historical Museum
MIZUNO Kazuo (Ichijodani Asakura Family HistoricalMuseum)- Ichijo-dani is an important example of a castle town of theWarring State Period. Given a lecture on the history of thesite at the museum, the participants visited the Ichijo-dani
site.
- Mr Mizuno gave a detailed explanation about thereconstruction project (how to reconstruct buildings fromAt the three-dimensional reconstruction
site

the

archaeologicalfeatures),reconstructed houses and gardens.

lookingaroundthe   

6 Oct.
Shiga Prefectural Research Institute of Azuchi Castle
Shiga Prefectural Azuchi Castle Archaeological Museum
The revival of the Azuchi Castle “The House of Nobunaga”
Azuchi Castle Remains
KONDO Shigeru (Shiga Prefectural Research Institute of Mr Kondo giving a brief lecture on
the Azuchi Castle

Azuchi Castle)- Shiga Prefectural Azuchi Castle Archaeologist Museum islocated in Omi Fudoki-no-Oka, a historical park
containing the special historic site of Azuchi Castle.
- Oda Nobunaga, who was the most powerful feudal lord
finished construction of a castle in 1579. However the
castle was burned down less than three years from its

A tour of the revival of the Azuchi
Castle “The house of Nobunaga”

completion of construction.
- The mystery of Azuchi Castle was solved by recent
research which led to the discovery of the original plans of
the castle. After the explanation of Azuichi Castle andArchaeological Museum, Mr Kondo showed participantsaround the house of Nobunaga and the Azuchi Castle
Remains.

Participants climbing up restored
Ote-michi stone steps at Azuchi
Castle Remains

The Dotaku Museum (The Mysteries of Dotaku)
HANADA Masahiro (Educational Board of Yasu City)- The Dotaku Museum was established to preserve and enhance the knowledge of our ancestors andthe past and present culture of Yasu city.
- The museum grounds also include the Yayoi period historical village and the Miyayama No.2
Kofun site and Mounded Tomb Group Site at Oiwayama.

On-site lecture at mounded tombgroup site at Oiwayama

At the Dotaku MuseumCountry Reports
by Participants

Country Reports by ParticipantsCambodia

Tech SRUN
Archaeologist
Archaeological Unit, Department of Monument and Archaeology I
APSARA Authority

Introduction:
The one-decade assets of international co-operation:
Since 1993, following more than one decade of regional and internal conflicts, the site of
Angkor with its 40 principal monuments and hundreds of archaeological reserves continues toprofit from the constant attention of the international community.
The site benefits from the increasing growth of tourist activities, which continue to provide
essential financial resources to the country.
Today, Angkor is generally recognized as a model of success of international cooperation in
the field of protection of cultural heritages in a post-conflict situation. The royal government
has actively supported the activities of the National Authority APSARA, which is in charge ofmanaging the site. In addition, the international community is represented by the International
Committee of Coordination (ICC), which celebrated its tenth birthday in 2003. The ICC works
with national authorities in the difficult and complex enterprise of protecting the historical siteof Angkor. It is rare to see such cooperation and commitment continuously supported by acoherent mechanism of international cooperation.
At the beginning of the international cooperation, in 1993 a model project called "Plan of
Zoning and Management of the Environment" (ZEMP) was initiated by UNESCO and theUNDP. The Team has 21 experts including one Khmer expert. The project’s guiding principle the adoption of an approach using several disciplines, with the concept of a durable
development of the area of Siem Reap/Angkor with respect for the site and local values remains topical. In the first phase, the priorities of the international action were focused aroundthe urgency and the commitment of the Cambodian Government at fulfilling the conditions

posed by the worldwide Committee of Heritage at the moment of registration of the site, suchas:

Establishment of a national agency of protection with adequate personnel;

Establishment of ZEMP plans (UNESCO and UNDP).



Definition of the buffer zones;

Establishment of a mechanism of monitoring and coordination of the international
effort of conservation.

Establishment of ICC and National Law for the Protection of Cultural Heritage (January1996).

The site of Angkor faces new challenges and requires a plan of management
Since 1993, a great number of projects have been put into action at Angkor. The main point offocus was not only the restoration of monuments, but also the establishment of a GIS and thestudies and research undertaken by different disciplines. This has contributed enormously tothe comprehension of how significant the site is.
Since years, Angkor has experienced a very fast transformation in the socio-economic andenvironmental context, which has added to a whole new series of conservation problems.
Angkor is considered a living site that has monuments surrounded by natural resources (forest
and water) with a population (around 900 000 people, in 2006) living in the Angkor Park.
However, while measures are being taken to conserve the archaeological structures, APSARA
simultaneously has taken into account the major source of the local residents’ revenue. The
main aim is that the inhabitants have the opportunity to benefit directly from the tourist
industry.

External work of APSARA:
Since Angkor was registered in the World Heritage list in December 1992, the Angkor area has
accepted the help offered from the international community, international governments,
institutes and NGO organizations working in the Angkor region.

Internal work of APSARA:APSARA was created by Royal Decree in 1995. Today, it is under the authority of the
President, of the Vice Prime Minister and the Director General. Furthermore, it is alsoorganized under the directors of the following departments:
1- Department of Personal and Finance
2- Department of Monuments and Archaeology
3- Department of Angkor Tourism Development
4- Department of Urbanization and Development in Siem Reap/Angkor Region
6- Department of Social and Economic Development
7- Intervention unit

Department of Monuments and Archaeology I
The Department of Monuments and Archaeology I, is most responsible for all sites. The
Department has many Khmer specialists such as archaeologists, architects, engineers andtechnical specialists, who work according to their own skills and are responsible for carryingout the following tasks:
1- Plan and implement the management of the monuments including their maintenance,in Angkor Park and at the rural points of cultural interest.
2- Establish a scheme of protection and conservation of Angkor Park; establish the risk
map of monuments in terms of their ecological and historical value, including data on
the health of the monuments and the risks threatening them.
3- Enhancement of landscapes and areas of water surrounding the monuments.
4- Plan archaeological surveys, excavations and all necessary archeological prevention
and safeguarding measures.
5- Plan and manage the land use in the protected zones (zone 1 and zone 2).
6- Cooperating and coordinating with international teams working in the Angkor areaand ensuring that they follow the archaeological guidelines for the Angkor area.
7- Put in place well trained and well-equipped mobile teams for the management,
maintenance and archeological follow-up of the sites.
8- Study, advise on and control private investments in Angkor archaeological park.

The Department of Monuments and Archaeology I, has created seven
Units:- Archaeological Unit: responsible for the protection and the evaluation of thearchaeological sites.
- Maintenance Unit: is the immediate intervention when building elements at temples
and other monuments are in danger of collapse.
- Conservation Unit: is divided into groups of conservators according to temples thatthey control.
- Surrounding Management Unit: preliminary studies have led to a visitor's circulation
plan on the whole of Angkor Archaeological Park. Further studies in order to develop
surrounding management plans are underway.
- Cleaning and Clearing Unit: cleaning and cutting grass and small plants growing
around the temples.
- Monument Clearance Unit: clearing all kinds of small plants that are growing on thetemple. Furthermore, the unit cooperates with all the groups of the temple's
conservation in order to survey dangerous places or collapsed areas of the temple. They
inform the Maintenance Unit of the need to proceed with emergency interventions.
- Forestry Management Unit: this unit surveys and prunes all big or decaying trees(risky trees) in Angkor Park that could fall or cause damage due to storms or rain, inorder to avoid any adverse impact on the monuments and visitors.

Archaeological Unit
The Archaeological Unit consists of a team of Khmer archaeologists that are divided into fourgroups: Preventive Excavation Unit: Responsible for carrying out preventive excavations.
 Tangible Heritage Research Team: In charge of inventory work on tangible heritage
collected from different places like unsafe ancient mounds and ruins. They collectartifacts provided by local residents, some institutes, the police and international
institutes. These artifacts are documented and put into a database before being given to
Angkor Conservation.
 Intangible Heritage Research Team: The team’s research goals are focused on local
communities’ lifestyles, traditional customs and ceremonies that are organized by local
people that live in the Angkor Area.
 Ceramics Conservation Center: This Center studies and makes an inventory of all
pottery of the Angkor area. They are concerned with the chronology, the commercialand cultural exchanges, and the function of the different places within an archaeologicalsite.
The most important team is the Preventive Excavation Team. This Unit has to respondpromptly to urgent announcements of archaeological emergencies in Angkor Park andthroughout the province of Siem Reap.

Preventive Excavation Team
1-Intervention on the Parvis:
APSARA has developed the Project of the Parvis for the whole Angkor Archaeological Park.
The “Parvis” is an approach area near each temple or group of temples. We planned a ‘visitors
circuit’ and visitor facilities (such as parking, toilets, restaurants, souvenir shop and resting
places).
Preventive excavation had to be undertaken before this Project could be carried out. It wasnecessary to avoid the destruction and loss of any archaeological data from the site. Through tothis excavation, we discovered more about social life in ancient times.
For the development project of the Parvis in Angkor region there is a need of collaboration
between the Preventive Archaeological Unit and “Abord Unit” with the Landscape Unit. The
partnership is crucial at the beginning of every task because the teams have to work together onchoosing a location for each Parvis. After the location has been chosen, the Landscape Unit
designs a location plan and the Preventive Archaeological Unit follows this up with research.
This is particularly important for determining the significance of a site, and assisting withdecision-making.
2-Intervention on the ancient bridges, along National Road N o 6:
Every development, conservation, restoration and investment project in the Angkor area mustfirst be approved and the recommendation of the ICC must be obtained.
In 2003, the Preventive Excavation Team collaborated with the Ministry of Public Works andTransport in the Project of “Road Rehabilitation” along National Road N o 6, which stretchesfrom Siem Reap to the Kampong Thom border.
This was an urgent preventive excavation because there were 13 ancient bridges that we needed
to apply the archaeological preventive excavation to.

First step: we excavated in order to determine the limit of the bridge's pavement andembankment step, then we gave advice on how to choose an acceptable place for constructing a
new bridge. Alternatively, we advised on a by-pass instead of using the ancient bridge.
The main purpose is to protect all ancient bridges from destruction through Road Rehabilitationand the building of new bridges.
Second step: recently, APSARA proposed the project of “Restoration and Consolidation
Project of 13 ancient bridges and manage their surroundings as a cultural site and erect
information panels for tourists”. We have surveyed the bridge’s structure condition and willREAP

kor Vat

G SI
EM
STUN

Ph. Reach Bo

Siem Reap

Ph. Svay Thom

Ph. Lolei

Ph. Tram Neak
Ph. Ang Krong

Pont Nº 45(Spean O Chine Chien), Km 298.050
Ph. Thnal
Ph. Trapeang Thom

Pont Nº 292.990 (Km 292.990) Fouilles de sauvetage

Ph. Rokar
KambotPh. kban

Ph. Lolei
DISTRICT DE PRASAT BAKONG

Pont Nº 36(Spean Thmor Bay Kriem), Km283.775
Dégagements diagnostics
Pont Nº 283
Fouilles de sauvetage

Pont Nº 34(Spean Beng Ampil),Km 277.739
Dégagements diagnostics

DISTRICT DE SOUTR NIKOM
Ph. Sala Kakooh

Ph. Kouk Dei

Pont Nº 27(Spean Toch Ta Meas),Km 270.959
Dégagements diagnostics
DISTRICT DE CHI KRENG
Pont Nº 25(Spean Phum O),Km 269.307
Ph. Sasor Thmor
Dégagements diagnostics
Pont Nº 23(Spean Khmoch Ta Ham), Km 266.105
Pont Nº 267.200
Dégagements diagnostics
Fouilles de sauvetage
Pont Nº 21(Spean Svay), Km 265.329
Ph. Thnal Dach
Dégagements diagnostics

Ph. Chi Kreng

Pont Nº 13(Spean Praptos or Kong Pong
Kdei), Km 253.960
Ph. Spean Tacol

Frontière du district

THOM

Ph.
TaTor

Frontière de la province

REAP

Pont Nº 16(Spean Tnal Ta Set), Km 258.984
Dégagements diagnostics

Ph. Don Reach

SIEA
M

Ph. Thnal Ta Set

Pont Nº 14(Spean Kpos),Km 256.450
Dégagements diagnostics

Route Nationale

KOM
PONG

Légende

I KR

EN

G

N

STUN
G CH

Ph. SandanVers Ang

Vers à l'aéroport

conduct the Project during the next dry season.

Ph. Ta Por Krom

Pont ancien

Ph. Ta Nguon
Ph. Boeng Tromao

RivièrePh. LoveayPhotographs of intervention activities on the three bridges (in the first step):
1- Kampong Kdei Bridge:

Removing accumulated soil from the Kampong Kdei bridge drainage system in order to protect
the bridge basement from water flow.

2- Beng Ampil Bridge:

Before excavation bridge’s embankment

Excavated to determine the limit of thepavement and embankment stepThe bridge’s pavement after excavation

This is the end of the bridge’s embankment
step

A new bridge was built 1.5m from theancient embankment

A new bridge being constructed

A new bridge already constructed3- Thmor Bai Kreim Bridge:

Excavated to determine the limit of thepavement and embankment step

Before excavation bridge’s

Handle auguring to study the bridge’s foundation

A new bridge was built 1.5m from the ancient embankment

3-Intervention on the Roluh ancient bridge, on the Golf Course in the Pourk district :In addition to excavations and conservation of the ancient monuments in the APSARA
Protected Zones of the Angkor region, the Preventive Excavation Team and Phokeethra
Country Club cooperated in the conservation and enhancement of Roluh Bridge.
Roluh is an ancient bridge that was built during the Angkor period (perhaps in the 12 th – 13 th
century). It is located along the ancient road running from North to West of the Western Baray
to Prasat Sdok Kok Thom (in the eastern part of Thailand).
The bridge is situated in the developing area of the Golf Course of Phokeethra Country Club in
the Pourk District, therefore it is within protected zones 3 and 4 (a Royal Decree “Reachkret”
approved by His Majesty the king in May of 1994) of the Angkor Archaeological Park that
presents a strong obligation for protection and conservation.
Thus the Archaeological Preventive Excavation Team of the APSARA Authority Departmentof Monuments and Archaeology I carried out an immediate preventive excavation in order togive a chance to Phokeethra Country Club to develop their golf course without destroying or
losing any ancient infrastructures and archaeological data.
Moreover, the Archaeological Team collected and recorded all the archaeological data in order
to conserve and enhance this ancient bridge.

In the future, APSARA and Phokeethra Country Club will consolidate the bridge considered areal archaeological heritage. Involved in this project are engineers, architects andarchaeologists working together.

In this case, conservation and developing activities worked well together; it is a real exampleof partnership between conservation and development that should be followed by otherdevelopment projects in the Angkor area.

LegendAncien bridge

Golf course

Ancien dike and road
Temple mound and pond
Reservor

National road No 6
Provincial roadRiver
Altitude

Reference Royal Angkor Foundation 1995
Ministry of public work and transportation and JCA 2003

0

10
Km

Angkor Thom

Western Baray

Angkor Wat

Clearing the bio-vegetation covering
the bridge

The bridge before excavation

The bridge after clearing the bio-vegetation

Removing the soil from the bridge

The bridge after removing the soil

Using an excavator to clean theaccumulated soil out of the bridge foot, inthe aim of finding the bridge pavement
and its embankment step

Blockages caused by accumulated soil inthe bridge’s drainage

Using water pumps to wash out the soil
blockages in all drainage areas“Restoration Project of Roluh, an ancient bridge on the Golf Course in Pourk”.

Photograph of plan II, Roluh bridge

Detail plan II, will be shoring up in order toprevent the bridge structure from collapsing

Conclusion:
Nowadays, most of the organizations and researchers focus only on monument structures,history, arts, local communities’ lifestyles and traditional customs. They do not pay muchattention to the conservation, restoration and enhancement of ancient infrastructures (roads andbridges) and underwater archaeological excavations.
At this time, I would like to ask for help from international institutes that are working for
cultural heritage to rehabilitate, consolidate, conserve and restore the ancient infrastructures
and ancient bridges.

Reference:- PROPOSITION DE PROJET, Etablissement d’un Plan de gestion pour le site du Patrimoine
mondial d’Angkor, Centre du Patrimoine Mondial, Août 2006

IndiaVasant Kumar SWARNKAR
Deputy Superintending Archaeologist
Archaeological Survey of India

PROBLEMS AND NEEDS FOR CULTURAL HERITAGE PROTECTION AND
RESTORATION ACTIVITIES IN INDIA
India is very rich in antiquarian wealth. This wealth is in the form of ancientmonuments ranging from pre-historic rock shelters to a variety of monumental edifices, such as
rock-cut caves, temples, mosques, tombs, churches, forts, palaces, reservoirs etc., many
belonging to different dynasties and ranging from the pre- historic period to the 19 th century
A.D. The Archaeological Survey of India is protecting more than five thousandmonuments/sites throughout the country including 18 World Heritage Sites. Today several ofthem are in a very good state of preservation or at least in presentable condition. Preserving
these priceless edifices for posterity is a challenging task and this task is undertaken by theArchaeological Survey of India a feat unparalleled in any country due to a variety of reasons.
These are the very principles that still govern the conservation works of theArchaeological Survey of India; for the first time in the history of the Archaeological Survey ofIndia the Director General was invested with the legal authority to preserve ancient monuments
and sites, and objects of national importance, through enacting “The Ancient Monuments
Preservation Act” in 1904 by Govt. of India. But gradually this Act has been superseded by the“Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains Act of 1958” and the Rules of1959. Subsequently the Archaeological Survey of India issued a notification on 16 th June, 1992
to prohibit and regulate all mining and construction activities within 100m and further 200m
from around the monument to avoid further damage and to maintain the surroundings of themonument. The Archaeological Survey of India and its conservators have been recognized as
being among the best in the world in regard to the art of conservation. The Archaeological
Survey of India is not only preserving/restoring the monuments throughout the country, butalso in places like Bamiyan (Afghanistan), Egypt and at Angkor (Cambodia).

Working Scope Under the Archaeological Survey of India
The structural conservation of the cultural heritage of India is one of the primaryfunctions of the Archaeological Survey of India. The activities of the survey have increased
manifold. We can clarify the main functions of the A.S.I. through its various attached offices in
the national capital and state capitals, and also in some important cities of various states.
(i) Structural conservation of ancient monuments/sites and remains (protected orotherwise) special/ annual repair works: (ii) chemical preservation of ancient monuments(including paintings thereupon), antiquities and research in chemical laboratories; (iii) original
works including original construction work-sanitary fittings and electrifications, illuminationof monuments, maintenance of Modern Buildings under the Archaeological Survey of India:(iv) acquisition of Land for protection and preservation of monuments; (v) development andmaintenance of gardens around protected monuments etc: (vi) exploration/excavation works:(vii) documentation of antiquities: (viii) setting up and maintenance of site Museums: (ix)archaeological expeditions outside India: (x) cultural exchange programmes; (xi) promotion ofarchaeological studies in Universities; (xii) publications and printings of books and reports,and (xiii) training in the field of Archaeology.
It is known that the growth of jungles (wild vegetation), the destructive action of salt,
wind, rain, earthquakes, vandals and the business of quarrying for bricks and stones, causes thedestruction of monuments and sites. The lack of sense of values is also a responsible factor forthe destruction. In the present scenario, urbanization is a major threat to India’s cultural
heritage.
With ruined standing monuments the main task of rescue has been the clearance offallen debris, the restoration of the core of masonry or brickwork exposed by the facing having
fallen off, filling up grouting cracks, under pinning worn-out bases of walls, resetting
perilously out of plumb walls, making ruined wall tops watertight, pointing the open joints,
eradication of vegetation etc. In rock-cut caves the gradual wearing of the rock has been thechief problem while chemical preservation is called for some cases, but in the majority of cases
the percolation of water from one on more resources, which may be at a considerable distancefrom the monuments, is generally hard to detected and check.
In excavated remains with the structures of more periods, the problems are necessarily
different, the preservation of overhanging later structures, often resting on nothing more thanloose earth or debris and sometimes with the drainage of rainwater from the lower levels much
deeper than the adjoining surface level is particularly hazardous.

Similarly, many more monuments/ sites are being conserved every year by the various
offices of the Archaeological Survey of India, information on which is also published in IndianArchaeology- A Review, the journal of the Archaeological survey of India. A factor of overriding importance is the aesthetic consideration involved in the restoration of the ancientmonuments/ sites. An ancient monument/site, signifies the achievement of a particular age andis the product of the creative urge of the people of the time and thus bears the indelible stampof the age in which it was constructed. If the conservator understands the monuments as awhole, the age and the architectural style it belongs to, the nature of its building materials, thestructural aspects and the reasons for its decay, he can confidently plan and execute its repairs
and will in the end, be surprised to find that the aesthetic consideration has already been takencare of without any special effort and that restoration (repair) is in complete harmony with thecharacter of the monument.
The application of a preservative coat on the cleaned stone surface of monuments is oneof the most important conservation measures to slow down the weathering of aged stonedepending upon its degree of penetration into the stone body, microclimate and thecharacteristics of the stone itself. However, the conditions under which the stone preservatives
are evaluated in the laboratory are generally at variance to when used in the field and as aresult, if is not possible to achieve the deep penetration of consolidates, it indicates that thepurely academic research on small samples under ideal laboratory conditions cannot always beof direct value for conservators facing real problems in the field. The weathering behavior ofmonuments made of ashlar masonry and composite veneering marble in polluted environments
indicates that the stone conservation problems are also dependent upon the building design andfunctional environment the different stone members are exposed to. The building designs ofmonuments made of ashlar masonry of colossal size with thick dry masonry walls permit the
ingress of water and the inner core of the masonry remains wet over extensive periods of time.
As a result, the weathering phenomenon continues unabated even when the micro climaticconditions are not very favorable. The functional environment being experienced by the in-situ
stone members of the monuments in such cases is different than the microclimate in thevicinity of the monument. The functional environment is also modified in the case ofmonuments in polluted environments due to certain localized action of visitors.
In carrying out repairs at the monuments the archaeological conservators of theArchaeological Survey of India have tried to conserve the structures in conformity with theoriginal pattern with a view to extend the monument’s life with dignity and as a result theaesthetic view of the monuments have been preserved. Conservators have been able torecognize and diagnose problems, to know where the right replacement materials may beobtained and to know where the appropriate skills may be found to carry out the work.

Causes of Destruction
Several causes can be attributed to the decay of monuments, but age is the main cause.
Atmospheric action due to constant exposure, and roots of vegetation embedded in the walls
are other agencies.
Gradation of weathering courses on the roof and walls, which is exposed to direct sun
and rain, blockage of original drains which causes stagnation of water inside the monuments
and changes of environment and ecology cause destruction of monuments. Above all, humannegligence has wrecked many ancient monuments and treasures. Monuments, which wereconstructed centuries ago are exposed to sun and rain due to atmospheric conditions, and thegrowth of moss, molars and lichen takes place.
Climatic Deterioration
Climate is the consequence of many elements and factors of a varying nature. The mainelements to be considered are variation in temperature and sunshine moisture etc.
The main factor is water, which reacts chemically (by oxidation, Carbonation,
Hydrolysis) with the stone and breaks down the mineral structure.
The excavated structures at Nalanda (Bihar) were found to have become powdery due
to salt crystallization. Ajanta, ellora and other caves scooped from Deccan trap, a soft varietyof rock, weathered by exfoliation shell by shell with hard rock forming core climate
deterioration depends on the degree of intensity of climatic agents and also on the nature of thematerial. In the case of structures built of the same variety material found in Rajasthan andGujrat, it is observed that structures in Bengal are found to deteriorate at a faster rate. This isbecause the rainfall and humidity in Bengal are higher than in Rajasthan.
Wind flow also contributes to the deterioration of monuments. Monuments in desert
areas and near the sea are found abraded due to the battering action of sand, and sea wind bychemical action. The sea breeze carrying sea salts can reach 24 to 48 kms inland. The chemical
examination of decaying rock at Elephanta Caves lying close to the sea, revealed the presenceof sea salts, and the splitting of one of the heads of a Trimurti figure in elephanta was found to
be due to climatic action.
Along with temples like Sun Temple, Konark Orrissa, and Dabeswara Temple,
Sarepally (A.P.) lying by the sea and built of stone, the shore Temple at Mahablipuram eventhough built of hard granite is also affected by salt action.

The deterioration of a monument is also related to the direction and intensity of thewind. In the Jagmohan of the Sun Temple (Konark), the northern side face does not get washedby the sea as it does on the other sides, but the decay was found to be more on the northern side.
In the case of Taj Mahal (Agra), weathering in the shape of a large deposition of surface
accretion in the form of fine dust, was observed on the N-W side of the structure from themeteorological studies carried out at Agra, it was found the prevailing wind at Agra is mainlyin the N-W direction, combined with pollutants from iron foundries, a thermal powerhouse etc.
In Moti Masjid (Delhi) about 40 of the facing slabs of the marble have been foundbroken by the oxidation of the iron –dwells. As a result of the pressure exerted by the oxidized
dwells, the stone developed cracks.
A greater part of the Asokan inscription at Jaugada (Orrissa) inscribed on granite rock,disappeared, due to the high temperature and rains of the area.
Botanical Deterioration
The climate and terrain of India favours vegetation growth, which in turn has
contributed to the deterioration of ancient monuments.
The plant Kingdom can be sub divided into cryptogams (seedless) and phanerogams(seed bearing) based on the means of reproduction.
The Cryptogamic growth i.e. algae, lichen and moss, is generally found in heavy
monsoon regions and also inside the monument where, water tickles inside, like the ruined
monuments, rock-cut cave etc. The rock-cut caves at Elephanta, Karle, Bhaja, Kanheri, The
Lingraja Temple (Orrissa) and Pillared Temple (Hanumakonda), Bibi ka Maqbara(Aurangabad) and Qutub Shahe Tombs (Golconda) are some of the monuments that are facingthese problems.
The problem due phanerograms growth can be seen at the roof of cave no. 11 at
Khandagiri (Orriss), which has developed cracks due to growing roots of a tree above. In ellora
caves much damage has occurred due to root penetration. At Sun Temple, Katarmal(Uttaranchal) a peepal tree has almost destroyed the main temple.
Because of the growth of a big tree within Kadaleswara Temple at Halebid, (Karnataka),
the structure has fully collapsed.

The single cause of the greater part of damage to Indian Monuments is due to theunchecked growth of vegetation.
Biological Deterioration
The damage to wooden parts of a structure by termites and rats in India requires noelaboration. Among the birds, pigeons found on top of domes and shikharas of temples are
directly and also indirectly responsible for the damage to monuments in the long run. Batsliving in large numbers in the dark interiors of monuments are a great nuisance and the excretaof bats is found chemically strong enough to cause damage to any smooth wall surface.
In any neglected monuments, the climatic, botanical and biological deterioration would
be occurring at the same time and as a result of their prolonged combined action, the structure
as a whole becomes weak.
Natural calamities like earthquakes, landslides, cyclones, flooding can also damage theancient monuments like at cave No.-18 (Ajanta) Buddhist Temple at Harwan (Kashmir).
Inherent Factors
A good number of ancient structures are situated close to water sources like rivers, seas
and water tanks like Konark, Mahabalipuram, Saluvakuppam, Augade Fort (Goa), Ballarpur
Fort, Khandwa (M.P.). Poor quality of material and workmanship is also responsible for thedeterioration of monuments like Imambara of Asafud-Daula (Lucknow). This monument ismade of ill burnt bricks, which disintegrated fast when coming into contact with damp.
Though some ancient temples, mosques and tombs surviving as living monuments, arebeing looked after and maintained by Trustee Boards, Custodians etc., preservation of ancient
structures with a modern spirit, basing on archaeological and architectural values, can be saidfrom the early decades of the 19 th century.

to have been initiated in India by the British

The preservation work of Taj Mahal for example was begun in 1808 and for Qutub Minar in
1826. Though the Archaeological Survey of India has existed since 1861, the conservation
work of monuments was brought under its purview only in 1886. In 1896, Government of India
decided that conservation should be given priority over ‘survey and research’. Sir John
Marshall was appointed as Director General of the Archaeological Survey of India (1902) andamong his major functions, the most important was to ensure that the ancient monuments of thecountry were properly cared for, that they were not utilized for purposes which were

inappropriate or unseemly, that repairs were executed when required and that any restoration
work was attempted or conducted along artistic lines.
During the time of Marshall a rational approach towards conservation evolved andfound acceptance in England, and this same approach was introduced by Marshall in India. The
principles of preservation of ancient monuments followed in India are embodied in “TheConservation Manual” prepared by Marshall in 1907 (revised in 1924) and also in the
periodical staff memoranda of the Director General of the Archaeological Survey of India.
Some of the principles are as follows:

Historical value is gone when the ancient monument’ s authenticity is
destroyed. Broken or half decayed original work is of infinitely more value
than the smartest and most perfect new work.

Every original member of the building should be preserved intact, anddemolition and construction should be undertaken only if the structure could
not be otherwise maintained.



Annual repairs are indispensable in the case of archaeological monuments.

Hypothetical restoration can be done, if they are essential to the stability of themonument.

With the practical experience the aim of treatment of monuments stated by theArchaeological Survey of India:Its preservation without disfigurement or alteration of the character.

Its maintenance in a proper and attractive condition.



The complete examination of the remains and documentary evidence
concerning it.

The preparation of monographs, guide books, and reports, so that the historicaland artistic interest may be brought home to scholars and the visitors, which
may rouse general interest in the ancient monuments of the country.

Here I would like to quote some examples taken from the challenging problems andremedial conservation works undertaken by the Archaeological Survey of India on themonuments also inscribed in the World Heritage List.
The sun temple, Konark (13 th century) and Khajuraho group of temples (10 th – 11 th
century) are built in ashlar masonry in the northern style of architecture (Nagra style) withcurvilinear shikharas topped by an Amalaka. Since the beginning of this century, the various
conservation measures have been carried out to salvage the tottered structure of the Sun temple,

Konark. These conservation measures carried out in the last eight centuries have helped
significantly to conserve this world heritage monument but the weathering of fine carving
depicting the plastic art continues to be a matter of concern.
The conservation problems of the Khajuraho group of temples, though older than the
Sun temple, at Konark are relatively less severe due to the different nature of the stone as wellas the less drastic climatic conditions. In these temples, only some pockets are more affected
due to mineralogical variations of the stone matrix and localized high humid conditions, as afunction of building design.
The white marble mausoleum, the Taj Mahal (1631-1648 AD) is made of brick andmortar, and marble is used only on the veneer slabs, which have been clamped with irondowels. The moisture and environmental conditions may not result only in local cracks but thestress may travel to the adjacent slabs as well which may eventually bulge or crack and permit
the ingress of moisture and pollutants. Such a phenomena, which is a factor of the building
design may further modify the functional environment to accelerate the rate of damage (if notcared for) than under normal weathering conditions, influencing the mechanical and isotropic
behavior of marble veneer slabs
Conservation Problems:
Functional environment is defined as the continuously changing complex of allconditions and influences, which are interacting, with the different composite materials of themonument. It is these interrelationships that should be the focal point of investigations while
evaluating the conservation problems of a monument. The functional environment
considerations acquire greater importance in the case of monuments made of ashlar masonry or
when located in a polluted environment.
The constituent materials of stone are continuously undergoing alterations due thechanging environment and are never in perfect equilibrium with their surroundings. Among thenatural weathering agent water seems undoubtedly to be the most potent cause for thedeterioration of monuments. The damage due to water can take place in numerous forms
because it participates directly or indirectly in more actions and reactions with stone than any
other agent. It dissolves, hydrolyses and hydrates rock materials, thereby some of the minerals
are leached out and the stone gets weakened. It transports reagents that may be oxidizing,
reducing, acidic, basilic or salt forming as well as carrying bacteria and various organic
compounds both in and out of the stone. The effect of pollutants in the form of acid rain on
marble/calcitic stones is a common observation. It enters by gravity, osmosis, capillary andsiphon action, and because the common rocks are hydrophilic, it can and does, permeate
through exceedingly tiny openings. In areas where the water table is high or where thesurroundings of the monuments do not have a proper drainage system, the water may rise bycapillary action. By osmotic pressure, water-imbibing minerals may swell within rocks anddisintegrate them. Swelling may likewise result from the interlayer hydration of common rockforming minerals such as iron oxides and a hydrite and by other minerals taking on water incrystallization. Dissolved salts brought in by rain rising from the soil or generated within thestone by weathering may, during crystallization as the water evaporates, destroy the stone
through granular disintegration or by the spalling of the surface shell.
The weathering potential of water in the case of ashlar masonry monuments is much
more severe for the same material which otherwise would have been under normal
microclimatic conditions. To investigate the extent of damage caused due to Mahadeva temple,
Khajuraho, it is essential to briefly evaluate the various conservation problems of thesemonuments. It is pertinent to identity the pockets which remain wet even after a long gap
between rains and to study the areas which permit the ingress of water and accumulation ofwater in such pockets as a result of building design. In this respect, the Sun temple, Konark andKandariya Mahadeva temples were closely examined with reference to the earlier conservation
measures.
The conservation of Sun Temple, Konark- Problems and remedies
Brief Description & Historical Background
The Sun Temple, Konark is situated about 65 km from Bhubaneshvar, the capital of
Orissa State. This monument was built in the 13 th Cent. A.D. by king Ganga Narsimha andstands in a nearly rectangular, walled compound, approximately 253 metres east to west and
167 metres north to south. The compound contains, in addition to the main temple, the remainsof several smaller temples.
The Jagmohan of the main temple is roughly square, approximately 30 metres in widthand 12 metres in height; it is surmounted by a truncated pyramid roof divided horizontally into
terraces and with tiers of cantilevered shelves. The roof is approximately 36 metres across and
18 metres high and is surmounted by Amlaka approximately 13 metres in diameter and 8
metres high inside. The masonry is corbelled to form a hollow pyramid. To the west of the
Jagmohan are the remains of Shikhara with the sanctum, sanctorum, originally wider and muchtaller, than the Jagmohan, but now barely rising above 10 metres.

Externally, the original, exposed surface is richly carved with a profusion of sculpturesand bas-reliefs and even the walls of the niches, in which the sculptures stand, have carved
textures.
The Jagmohana and the Shikhara stand on a common plinth, 6 metres high, with richly
carved sides, incorporating the huge decorative wheels of the Sun God’s Chariot, with a teamof horses at the eastern end.
Beyond the eastern side of the main temple are the remains of a pillared hall on a highplatform, often referred to as a dance hall or Nat Mandir, but now believed to have been abanqueting hall or Bhoga Mandapa. The pillars and the sides of the platform are again richly
carved. The buildings and the integral sculptures are made of Khandolite stone blocks, laid dry,with iron clamps in places, providing horizontal restraint. A number of sculptures and somedecorative features such as doorjambs, lintels etc. are carved from chlorite, a dense finegrained green stone.
The sun Temple, Konark was apparently attacked and damaged by the Muslims towards
and end of the 16 th or early 17 th century. Following the temple’s desecration, it was abandoned
as a place of worship.
Over the next centuries, the temple, no longer used and therefore unmaintained,
suffered from structural deterioration, sand-drifts, and robbery. The shikhara collapsed instages, the last being in a gale in 1848. The plinth was engulfed in sand dunes to a considerable
depth in the early part of the 19 th century and the Rajah of Khurda had its sculptures removed
to a temple being constructed in his fort.
Proposals were made for taking up the repairs of the Sun Temple in the 19 th Century but
significant works could be taken up only in 1903, when the temple was also declared as amonument of national importance. The excavations revealed the plinth and the Jagmohana,
which had been damaged by the fall of the last part of the Shikhara. At the same time, thewrought iron beams that had supported the ceiling inside the Jagmohana, which had fallen to
the floor during the first half of the Nineteenth century, were carried outside and stacked in thecompound.
In order to conserve the Jagmohan from further damage, internally the walls of the
Jagmohan were lined with a dry stone masonry wall nearly five metres in thickness, the door
openings closed and the open space inside was filled up with sand.

Other important works of conservation and protection included a plantation of tree belts
up to the 1920’s to check the drifting of sand.
In 1950, the Government of India, appointed a committee of experts, to go into thewhole question of the preservation of these monuments. The recommendations of thiscommittee started a campaign of restoration and preservation works, under the directions of theArchaeological Survey of India, with emphasis on exclusion of rain water, grouting of theplinth and its foundation, removal of algae growths and chemical treatment of the stone surface
to reduce porosity. The results that can be seen today are spectacular.
Stone Used in the Construction
The stones used in the construction of the various structures in the complex of the Sun
Temple, Konark are
1.

Laterite2.

Khandolite

3.

Chlorite

Laterite has been basically used in the core while Khandolite blocks laid dry with ironclamps have been extensively used in the veneers. The exposed surface of the veneer is richly
carved. Chlorite blocks richly carved and polished have been used as jambs and lintel beams in
the opening of huge doors etc. Wrought iron beams have been used to span the roof andopenings in the walls behind the doorjambs.
Problems
Although there are no problems concerning the conservation and preservation of thelaterite and chiroite stone used in the construction, in view of the composition of the
Khandolite stone, despite regular chemical treatment and preservation, there are someparticular areas where certain problems have been faced in the proper conservation andpreservation.
The Khandolite stone used in the construction of the temple occurs abundantly in the
Eastern Ghats of India. The main mineral constituents of Khandolite are quartz, garnet,
sillimanite, orthoclase, graphite etc. On getting weathered, clay minerals, iron oxides ofhydroxide etc. may be present in various proportions depending on the original mineralogical
proportions and the degree of weathering. The Khandolites cannot be considered very toughrocks, and their mineralogical composition and texture are such that these are rather easilysusceptible to physical erosion and chemical weathering as compared to the generally toughrocks like granite, basalts etc. Despite the above inherent drawback of Khandolite, this rock has
been commonly used in Andhra Pradesh and Orissa for constructing temples and monuments ofwhich Jagannath Temple, Puri Lingaraj temple, Rajarani temple, Bhubaneswar and the Sun
temple of Konark are the most famous, namely for the magnificent exuberance of the finest
sculptures and superb craftsmanship.
The Sun Temple, Konark has drawn the attention of art loving people, archaeologists,
tourists and the common man due to its exquisite sculptures. These invaluable sculptures havebeen exposed to the action of the atmosphere for the last seven centuries or so. The exposed
surface of the stone blocks is now found to have been affected adversely through physicalerosion and chemical weathering. The fine sculptures with which the monument (of Khandolite
stone), is decorated are found to have been defaced or disfigured at places due scouring, pitting,scaling, and disintegration owing to loosening of minerals grains etc. caused by natural decay,
weathering and erosion.
As per the study of the scientists of the Archaeological Survey of India, the factors
responsible for the deterioration of the stone of the Sun temple, Konark are:
1. Deterioration by Sand - Blasting EffectIt is generally observed that when the coastal winds blow towards the monument, thewind carries angular sand particles. When the sand particles strike against the surface of themonument at considerable speed, abrasion and scouring action of the stone takes place.
2. Micro Biological GrowthThis is in the form of algal growth etc. on the surface of the stone, discolouring thebeauty of the monument and also causing bio-chemical decay or alteration of the mineral grains.
Since their nature is to grow, they try to penetrate into the pores of the stone fabric and cause
either the cracking or weathering of the stone. The green form or the slightly black one is predominant.

3. Inherent Weakness of the Stone
Owing to various climatic and general factors, the Khandolite stones have undergone
physical erosion and chemical weathering due to loosening of the grains by the process ofmineral alterations viz. the conversion of feldspar into white kaolin and of garnet into darkbrown iron oxide or hydroxide minerals, ascribing a mottled appearance to the rock. Physicaland chemical weathering have effected the stone surface of Konark temple to varying degrees,giving rise to scouring, pitting, disfigurement etc. of the fine sculptures.
4. Deterioration by Salt Saturated Air, Humidity and Rainfall
The temple is located in close vicinity of the sea, therefore, the stones are very muchaffected by the saline salts that get impregnated in the body of the Khandolite stone of thetemple, and the sand grains abrade the surface of the stone. In nature, the physical weatheringof stones and rock takes place on account of various factor e.g.:- wind, rain and solar radiation
etc., and the cumulative effect of all these. During the rainy season, the soluble salts go into
solution and penetrate the pores of the stone, and when humidity is reduced, evaporation takes
place. The soluble salts tend to come out on the surface and in this process any impediment on
the way is mechanically removed, thus causing damage to the stone like pitting, erosion andcracking at times. Since the temple is in a tropical climate with moderately heavy annual
rainfall (around 1200mm), mainly due to monsoons, the meteorological factors are playing avital role in the damage to the Khandolite stone of this temple.
Measures Taken for the Preservation
The following measures have been taken for the proper conservation and preservationof the Sun Temple, Konark with particular emphasis on the safeguarding of sculptures on the
Khandolite stone and the veneer stones.
Chemical Treatment and Preservation of the Stone
The micro-biological growth, moss and lichens were removed from the surface of thestone, as well as from cracks, pits and interstices with the application of a 1% or a 2% solutionof ammonia in water. The softened vegetation growth was then eliminated by mechanicalmeans with coir brushes. Deeper holes and cracks were cleaned with nylon bristle brushes.
Further cleaning and removal of soluble salts was done using clean water.

Kandariya Mahadeva Temple, Khajuraho
To prevent water leakage inside the temple, the joints on the top were sealed. But the
problem of water seepage could not be fully achieved. In the sanctum and mandapa of thetemple, the floor and lower portion of the inside walls remain wet even after a gap of one
month when the rains are over. The wetness on the outside can also be observed at a level of
0.3 to 0.6 metres below the main floor of the temple. The periodic chemical conservation
measures for the removal of microvegetation from the stone surface, fungicidal treatment,
consolidation of relatively more weathered stone members and application of a preservative
coat are being taken. The wetness inside the walls was observed by relative humidity andconductance measurements through the opened joints (Table –1). The temperature
measurements at different depths inside the wall both from the inner as well as outer sides of
the temple were recorded. The increase in temperature and the increase in relative humidity bydepth are on the expected lines and confirm that the functional environment inside the core of
the wall is different than the microenvironment.

TABLE –1
FUNCTIONAL ENVIRONMENT MEASUREMENT OF INSIDE WALLS OF
KANDARIYA MAHADEVA TEMPLE, KHAJURAHOLOCATION/AREA

Garbha-griha(inside)West Wall(JANUARY 15.00 – 17.00 HRS.)
RELATIVE
TEMPERATURE
HUMIDITY(%)(C)
SURFACE DEPTH SURFACE DEPTH

20.5
21.0

North Wall

20.5
21.0

South Wall

20.5
21.0

East Wall

20.5
21.0

2”-20.0
4”-19.5
6”-19.52”-20.0
4”-19.5
6”-19.52”-20.0
4”-19.5
6”-19.0
2”-20.0
4”-19.5
6”-19.0



35

38

37

39

2” 48
4” 55
6” 65
2” 45
4” 54
6” 68
2” 48
4” 61
6” 69
2” 50
4” 60
6” 70

CONDUCTANCE(MILLI MHO)

0.61

1.58

0.73

Outer Side Walls
West Wall

North Wall

South Wall

East Wall

21.5

21.5

21.5

21.5

2”-21.0
4”-20.5
6”-20.52”-20.5
4”-20.0
6”-19.52”-20.5
4”-20.0
6”-19.52”-20.0
4”-20.0
6”-19.5

33

33

33

33

2” 36
4” 43
6” 50
2” 35
4” 42
6” 51
2” 36
4” 42
6” 49
2” 36
4” 42
6” 52

0.58

1.08

0.51

0.71

The Taj Mahal, Agra

The conservation problems of the milky white veneering marble slabs due tofunctional environment are different than the conservation problems discussed above.
The role of water as a weathering agent is relatively less severe and mainly confined tothe electrochemical corrosion of the iron clamps, resulting in the development of cracks,
localized stress and damage to the slab veneering, thereby permitting the intrusion offoreign matter and water vapour which in the long term could do more damage.
The functional environment experienced by the outside marble veneer slabs and insidemarble stone is different. Normally, the outside arches should be more soiled than the insidemarble surface, but the marble screen and lower areas of Sheeshmahal corridor (currently
visitors are not allowed) were observed to have a thick greasy soiled surface giving a dirty
appearance. This difference in the accumulation of greasy matter had been due to the repeatedtouching of hands by the visitors. Whereas the outer areas in general are free from thisnuisance as the visitors go around the mausoleum at a distance. This area inside has recently
been chemically cleaned though the effect of grease at some places can still be observed
especially inside the Sheesh Mahal –corridor.

Discussion
The conservation problems of stone monuments made by dry stone masonry work aremainly due to the ingress of water and these are further aggravated depending upon the natureof the stone and the proximity to the coastal area. One of the basic requirements for long-termpreservation of stones in such monuments is to stop the ingress of water by appropriate
measures, which may involve the sealing of joints and cracks, and by using grouting as well insome cases. The degree of damage is also observed to be relative to the colossal size of thestructure and the thickness of the walls, which act as a reservoir for the ingress of water. These
measures followed by present chemical conservation measures are expected to yield better
results than at present. However, the consistent efforts to develop better preservation materials
as well as technology to achieve deep penetration/consolidation need to be continuously
pursued.
In case of the Taj, the greasy/tarry particulate matter deposited on the marble surface
needs to be removed periodically to prevent a surface reaction due to the presence of soluble
salts and reactive anions in the deposited particulate matter. The joints between the marble
slabs need to be periodically checked and sealed wherever required to prevent the ingress ofmoisture and pollutants thus avoiding the problem of corrosion of iron clamps. To desist thevisitors from touching the marble screen, a temporary barricade has already been provided after
the recently completed chemical treatment work and is proposed to be replaced by a more
effective system with a provision of a hardened glass screen. This will help to modify thefunctional environment of the marble screen as well.
Since I am working in the Delhi Circle of the Archaeological Survey of India I would
like to describe some problems and conservation measures taken by the Archaeological Surveyof India on Delhi monuments situated mainly at Qutb Complex and Humayun’s Tomb; both areWorld Heritage Sites.
The World Heritage Committee identified and listed Qutb and Humayun’s Tomb on theWorld Heritage list in December 1993 in its meeting held in Columbia. They represent uniqueartistic achievements and are masterpieces of creative genius. Both the sites attracted theattention of archaeological conservation in the beginning of the last century and were protectedby the Govt. of India in the beginning of the present century and have since remained underregular maintenance.
Qutb and Humayun’s Tomb, are two milestones in the history of Indo-Islamic
Architecture, and although they come under the same socio-cultural system, artistically
represent two distinct traditions and styles besides having been set up in different environmentswith different surrounding land use and being nearly 350 years apart on the time scale. The
Qutb Minar was the tower of victory attached to the Quwwatul-Islam mosque. Its foundation
was laid by Qutbuddin-Aibak, the first slave ruler of the Delhi Sultanate, soon after the defeatof the Rajput rulers of Delhi when the Turks occupied the city and the new Sultanate wasestablished. The minar having a diameter of 14.32m at the base and about 2.75m at the top witha height of 72.5m and having 379 steps was completed by Qutbuddin’s successor Iltutmish.
The minar lost its original cupola towards the end of the 18 th century. The fourth and fifth
storeys of the minar are the works of Firoz Shah Tughluq who replaced its original fourth
storey with two storeys. Selective use of sandstone and marble in its projecting balconies withstalactite pendentive type brackets and calligraphic decorative bands on different storeys
enhance the grandeur of the monument.
Qutb and Quwwatul Islamic mosque were constructed on the ruins of old temples andthe construction material of the temples was reused in their construction. The area of themonument was under religious use even before the construction of these monuments during the
Rajput period and the recent excavations conducted in the vicinity prove that this area was
located just outside the fortified citadel of Lal Kot. The area was full of Brahmanical and Jaina
temples and was known as Yoginipura before the foundation of the first city of Delhi byAnangpala II, the Tomar ruler in the middle of the eleventh century A.D. who constructed Lal
Kot as his citadel and ruled from there. The Turks also occupied Lal kot and ruled from there
too. The Qutb complex was later enclosed within Lal Kot when its eastern extension wasprovided during late Khalji rule.
The ancient Indraprastha, which had been transformed into sub-division (pratigana orparagana) and the new city of Kaiqubad on the right bank of Yamuna at Kilokhari were urban
settlements outside the city of Delhi. In between these two settlements developed the village of
Ghiaspur (now known as Nizamuddin) when the Sufi Saint Hazrat Nizamuddin Aulia stayed
there. After his death in the early fourteenth century and his burial there, the locality developed
as a big graveyard where all those who followed him wished to be buried. This graveyard
continued to enlarge until the late Mughal period and was never part of any enclosed city ofDelhi. Humayun’s Tomb occupied the predominant position in this area, in which besides
Humayun and his wives, a large number of Mughal princes and princesses are buried. The lofty
mausoleum of Humayun with its double dome is situated in the middle of the Charbagh
garden on a podium faced with a series of cells with arched openings. The central octagonalchamber contains the cenotaph and is encompassed by octagonal chambers at the diagonals andarched lobbies on the sides, the openings of which are closed with perforated screens. Eachside contains three emphatic arches, the central one being the highest. A 42.5m high double
dome of marble surmounts the roof with pillared kiosks placed around it. Red sandstone islargely used, relieved by white and black marble. The tomb was most probably constructedaround 1565 A.D.



Qutb being the architectural wonder among the Islamic constructions of the country,
always attracted the attentions of rulers more than other monuments. Around 100 years after
the completion of the minar it was damaged due to lightning and was repaired. Muhammad
Tughlaq, Ferozshah Tughlaq and Sikandar Lodi all repaired it in the 13 th-15 th centuries A.D.
Their records are available on the stone blocks of the monument and also in contemporary
literature. Such details are not available about Humayun’s Tomb. Qutb minar was twice
damaged by lighting; once in 1326 and again in 1368. The former was during the reign ofMuhammad Tughlaq who repaired it in 1332, a record of this is inscribed at the door leading to
the third balcony dated 8 th April, 1332. The latter was on the 8 th February 1368 when due tolightening the tower was damaged and masons like Nana, Salha, Lola and Lashamana were
employed to repair it. The tower was repaired on 1 st February,1369 under the architect-mason
chahada, son of Devapala and the maternal grandson of (someone) and the masons Nana andSalha, and the carpenter Dharamuvanani. The record gives measurements of the repaired areaby dropping a measuring cord, but this is not very clearly understandable. This repair work isalso mentioned in contemporary literature “Futuhat-i-Firuz Shahi” (14 th century A.D.)
Sensible maintenance has always helped in the upkeep of the monuments and has
reduced the necessity for repair and replacement many times. Removal of extensive vegetation,
judicious cleaning, pointing of joints and other such routine maintenance have added to thestability of the structures, particularly monuments like Humayun’s Tomb. Therefore, themonument has never posed any real structural threat and minor repairs in forms of pointing of
joints, occasional replacement of red sandstone blocks and slabs wherever they are foundweathered and flaked or replacement of damaged marble pieces, underpinning the stone
masonry of walled enclosures and side buildings, plastering and providing lime-concrete
flooring, repairs to the water channels and tanks, grouting the cracks and consolidating thestone masonry, maintenance of gardens and chemical treatment of the structure havecontinuously been carried out at Humayun’s Tomb and its surrounding structures.
In maintaining the monuments and their surroundings special emphasis has been given
to assure that modern construction activities are restricted even outside the protected limits forwhich concerned local municipal authorities and enforcement agencies have always been
consulted. They insist that the environs of the monuments should be preserved and the skyline
not be disturbed.
The Delhi Circle of the Archaeological Survey of India has carried out certain items ofspecial repairs at Qutb Minar and its surrounding monuments in the recent past, which requirea mention here.



1.

Strengthening (grouting) the Foundation“Consequent to the damage caused by a severe earthquake in 1803, major structural

repairs were carried out between 1805 and 1828. The cupola put up during the repairs to
replace the fallen one, was brought down in 1848 as its design was based on conjecture and it
looked incongruous on the top of the Minar.” Bulges in the masonry of the Minar and cracks inthe veneering stones were repaired in 1920. Again major structural repairs were carried out
between 1944-49. The veneer in general, particularly the inscriptional bands had bulged out
badly at places and had started falling down. The affected portions were carefully reset in lime
mortar in consonance with the original pattern after inserting stainless steel dowels. Cracks in
the hearting were grouted and made watertight. In 1960 and thereafter in 1964 the successive
officers in charge of the Monument expressed their deep concern over the development of
cracks on the veneer stones and suggested a thorough examination. As a result, an Expert
Committee was constituted by the Government in 1964 to go into the defects and also tosuggest any remedial measures on finding the unsatisfactory condition of the foundation of
Qutb Minar. In the first instance, it was decided to check the verticality of the Qutb Minar,hence the 1 st observation was made in October, 1964, 2 nd in April, 1965, 3 rd in July, 1966, 4 th inApril, 1967, 5 th in January, 1969 and 6 th in March, 1975, which showed a tilt of 0.4 m at thefirst balcony, 0.58 m at the second balcony, 0.79 m at the third balcony, 0.85 m at the fourthbalcony and 0.94 m at the fifth balcony and the general direction of the tilt remained towards
the south-west in each case. It was observed that for a base of 14.32 m diameter and 72.5 m
height the tilt was not serious. Since no previous record on the verticality of the Qutb Minar
was available, it is not possible to say the tilt noted was of recent origin. It was recommended
by the Expert Committee to strengthen the foundation of Qutb Minar by way of grouting atdifferent pressures taking into consideration the safety of the Minar.
Development of cracks on the veneer stones compelled the authorities to have athorough examination of the Minar and also to ascertain the fact responsible for the decay. As aresult, mortar used during construction was taken from various places for chemical analysis,
which showed a presence of a considerable amount of water-soluble salts. The presence ofsoluble salts in the mortar has resulted in the weathering of the masonry. The rusting of irondowels used in the original construction was an importance cause of cracking of the veneer
stones. The deterioration of mortar and development of cracks due to expansive forces ofrusting dowels allowed ingress of moisture leading to the concentration of soluble salts;
possibly with the deterioration of mortar there has also been settlement of the masonry. Thus
the extent of deterioration on stone and mortar was serious enough to affect the overall qualityof the masonry and its performance.

The minar directly rests on an ashlar masonry pedestal 1.68 m high and 16.45 metres
square. There is a platform below the pedestal, which is built of rubble masonry and about
18.59 metres square. A trench dug down to a depth of 9.75 metres on the eastern side showsthat the lower footing of the rubble platform rests on masonry set in lime concrete and a thickrubble packing in mud mortar on the western side. The western side the trench was sunk to adepth of 8.22 metres but the natural soil or bottom of the foundation was not reached.
Efforts were also made to ascertain whether or not the Minar directly rests on bedrock,the National Geophysical Research Institute was requested to carry out geophysical work at
Qutb to acquire the information. Accordingly, some tests were carried out. In spite of very
limited scope of making adequate measurements, due to the existence of various structures
obstructing the layout of lines and destroying current flow etc. the depth of the bedrock could
be located around 45.72 m to 50.60 m Considering the stability of the structure it was felt thatthe weakness of the foundation could be the cause of the tilt which is within safe limits. In
addition, the stress in the masonry calculated as 75.32 tones per Sq.metre was deemed within
the safe limit, but left little margin of safety.
In view of the existence of a larger number of pockets in the masonry of the foundation,
it was decided that an attempt should be made to strengthen the foundation by filling the voids
both below and around the Minar proper with cement grout, keeping the grout pressure low
enough to avoid any upsetting of the stress equilibrium already attained.
As planned, grouting was started along the periphery of Qutb Minar i.e. (S-1) series tocreate a barrier around the foundation so that grout injected inside the area might not escape or
be wasted. In this series there were 32 holes in all. The maximum quantity of grout consumed
in one hole was 134½ bags and minimum 61½ bags of cement in the proportions of 5:1
thickened to 1:1 under a pressure of 5 p.s.i.
On the whole, consumption of the grout in the interior did not show a very different
picture from what was expected on the basis of information gathered by core recovery. Testholes drilled, showed that grout did not reach the 14.32m diameter base of the structure of the
Minar, Horizontal holes were, therefore, drilled from east to west and vice-versa to a depth of
6.70m in two stages and grouted to fill in the voids. In the first stage holes (1.38 or 3.50cm dia)
were drilled with standard non-coring rotary equipment up to a depth of 3.00m. Subsequently,
casing pipes (2” or 5cm dia) were fixed in the areas where the overburden was loose and holes
were thoroughly washed with water which were grouted with a water cement ratio of 5:1 (byvolume) progressively thickened to 1:1. in the second stage, the same holes were drilled further
up to a depth of 3.00 metres, which were washed and grouted following the above procedure ata pressure of 10 p.s.i. In the third or final stage, the same holes were further drilled up to adepth of 2.69m., and were washed and grouted; thus 32 holes along the periphery of Qutb
Minar, 48 holes in the square platform and 16 holes in the four corners were drilled andgrouted.
Four upheaval gauges with a sensitivity of 0.001” or one thousand of an inch were
installed at the four corners to assess if there was any disturbance caused due to the pressure ofgrouting. There was no incident of use of excess pressure to indicate upheaval at any point.
Although at a later stage, when grouting was almost completed and the interior spaces were
packed up, grout was seen coming out through joints of masonry of the super structure, which
was a good sign of successful grouting. Thus the grouting operation to consolidate the loose
fabric of the masonry of the foundation and distribute the load over a wider area was carriedout.
The work was started on 16.11.1971 and completed on 7.9.1972 and 5460 bags of
cement were used during the execution of the work. An expenditure of Rs.6,62,300/- wasincurred during 1971-72 for the execution of the work.
2.

Replacement of Damaged Steps
It was observed that in some cases the stones of the steps at Qutb were founddeteriorated due to the influx of visitors and of weathering for a very long time. The steps had
become slippery due to the continuous flow of visitors in spite of the fact that the stones usedat the time of construction were the most durable and hardest ones that were locally available.
Hence It was decided by the authorities of the Archaeological Survey of India to replace thesame with fresh stones strictly in conformity with the original pattern for which a throughstudy was made by the engineers, and Delhi quartzite stone matching with the original
characteristics in size and colour was selected.
The work was taken up by the Archaeological Survey of India after proper
documentation, including detailed drawings were prepared. In addition, before conservation,
photographs of the steps were also taken. Thereafter, the damaged and worn out steps weretaken out very carefully without causing any damage to the adjoining structure. The bed mortar
originally provided beneath the steps was found almost dead, which was then removed. Special
artisans familiar with the dressing of Delhi quartzite stones were employed. Thus the stone
steps as per the required size were prepared.

While fixing the first step at ground level, a compatible bed of mortar was provided.
Copper pins were also fixed in between the tread of the first step and rise of the second step toavoid any movement and also to have proper interlocking. Thus, the damaged steps at Qutb up
to the first balcony were replaced successfully.
3.

Replacement of Weathered Veneer Stones
Following a severe earthquake shock in 1803, major structural repairs were carried out

from 1805 to 1828. Bulges in the masonry of the Minar and cracks appearing the veneer stone
were repaired in 1920. The rusting of iron dowels used in the original construction was also an
important cause of cracking of veneer stones. Besides this, the red sandstone was flaking due tothe weathering of the stones. Hence, it was decided to replace the damaged and weatheredstones with fresh ones to stop further deterioration. The work was taken up for execution
during the year 1985, for which detailed drawings were prepared and photographs taken before
conservation began. A thorough study for the procurement of red sandstone was made by theengineers taking into account the original characteristics of the red sandstone, and it was
decided to import the same from Tantpur from where it was brought at the time of original
construction.
Damaged and weathered stones were taken out carefully little by little and theoverhanging portion was strutted properly. The core masonry was also studied from where thedead mortar was taken out and it was properly washed in order to make dust proof. Special
artisans were engaged for the dressing and fixing of the red sandstone veneering and they
prepared stones of required size depending upon the actual requirement at site. Red sandstone
veneer was fixed in proper alignment strictly in accordance with the original pattern withcompatible mortar, and copper clamps were also provided at the joints while jointing two
stones, and simultaneously copper clamps were provided in between the core masonry andveneer stones and was filled with lime cement concrete. The core was also grouted with pureliquid cement by gravitational method to fill up the cracks in the core masonry at various levels.
The old veneer stones that were in sound condition were also fixed and stones with calligraphy
were either re-fixed after consolidating them or were left untouched. Work is in progress at this
time.
4.

Replacement of Old and Decayed Stones at Quwwatul-Islam-Mosque in the Qutb
Complex
Owing to the weathering effect and the rusting of iron clamps, the red and buff

sandstone was flaked and cracked at so many places that they were taken out very carefully bitby bit following the procedure as at Qutb Minar. Fresh stones have now been provided. It has
also been noticed that many such stone blocks are reused stones of an earlier period, all ofwhich have been preserved properly if decorations of relief work have been found on them.
5.

Replacement of Weathered Veneer Stones at Madarsa (College) Complex Within
the Qutb Complex
This particular complex is located to the south-west of the Quwwatul Islam Mosque.

Some rooms and halls are in ruins making an ‘L’ shaped block. They are believed to represent
Alauddin’s tomb and college (madarsa) started by him in the 14 th century A.D. It is made of
RR masonry with a veneer of quartzite stone. The veneer stones are weathered due to time.
These weathered stones were properly documented both in drawings and in a photographic
manner, and replaced properly with the same Delhi –quartzite stone from the same quarry
from which the stones were brought at the time of original construction. This work has recently
been successfully completed.
A full inventory and documentation on the buildings with their contents and thelandscape of the site needs to be prepared immediately, which is required for the better
management of the World Heritage Site. Satellite photos, aerial photography, as well as aerial
and terrestrial photo-grammetry may prove to be very valuable in forming a quantitative
inventory of these sites for the holistic approach of future archaeological studies.









Indonesia

Natsir Mohammad
Head of section for monitoring & evaluation of restoration
Directorate of Archaeological Heritage

PRESERVATION OF PRAMBANAN TEMPLE COMPOUND AFTER AN EARTHQUAKE

I. Introduction
First of all, I take this opportunity to thank you for the chance to participate in the Training Course
on Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Heritage in the Asia – Pacific Region 2006. The
following provides some general information on Preservation of the Prambanan Temple Compoundafter the Earthquake of 27th May 2006. The reason for writing about this is that preservation is
becoming an interesting issue in Indonesia and throughout the world.

One week after theearthquake my team and I from the restoration division of the Directorate of Archaeological
Heritage undertook a preliminary observation of the area and the cultural heritage. Besides, to sharethe experience, in my opinion, this tragedy is relevant to the theme of the course.
As we know, on Saturday 27th May 2006 at 05.57 am, a tectonic earthquake measuring 5,9 on the
Richter Scale struck Yogyakarta and Central Java Provinces. The epicentre was 37 kilometers tosouth of Yogyakarta in the Indian Ocean at a depth of 33 kilometers. The 57-second disaster
destroyed properties and infrastructures in several regencies such as Bantul Regency, Yogyakarta,
Sleman Regency, Kulon Progro Regency and Klaten Regency. More than 6,200 people died, andmore than 6,500 people lost their homes.
The disaster destroyed various cultural heritages such as Temples in the Prambanan district,
Yogyakarta Palace, Tamansari (water castle), the Great Mosque and Traditional Town in Kota Gede,the Royal Cemetery in Imogiri, and Bayat Cemetery in Klaten, as well as other cultural heritages.
This report focuses only on Prambanan Temple Compound, as a world cultural heritage that sufferedserious damage. Based on a historical note in 1584, a big earthquake occurred in the area andcompletely destroyed the upper part of Siva temple. At present, we are facing the prospect of an
imminent eruption of Mount Merapi, which is near the temple.
II. Prambanan Temple Compound
Prambanan Temple Compound comprises four complexes: Prambanan Temple Complex(Larajonggrang), Sewu Temple Complex, Lumbung Temple Complex, and Bubrah Temple

Complex. This complex is situated in Prambanan, a village of Sleman Regency, and approx 17 km
from Yogyakarta City towards Solo, on the border of Yogyakarta and Central Java Provinces.
The temple complex was built on the plateau near the Opak River. Situated in an ideal spot, thetemple overlooks the Opak River flowing quietly in the west, the Sorogedug plateau in the south,from where the beautiful sight of the Prambanan plains and surroundings can be admired, and in the
North, Mount Merapi rising beautifully in the sky.
The Prambanan Temple Compound was listed as one of the World Cultural Heritage, number 642
by UNESCO in 1991.
a. Prambanan Temple Complex
Prambanan Temple Complex is the biggest Hindhunese temple in Indonesia, built by Rakai Pikatanin 850 AD. The complex is located in the south yard of Prambanan Temple Compound. The entire
complex is divided into three square yards and each yard is surrounded by walls and connected toeach other by one entrance. There are six large temples in the main yard standing in two rows from
North to South. On the west row there are three main temples, Civa temple in the middle flanked by
Visnu temple on the north and Brahma temple on the south. All are facing East. On the east row
there are three smaller temples, which are called Vahana temples (Vahana means carriage).
All temples in the main yard have been restored by the Government of the Republic of Indonesia.
Besides those six main temples, there are two Apit temples (at the North and the South and the main
yard in between has the two rows of temples mentioned previously), four Sudut temples (at eachcorner of the main yard), and Kelir temple (at in front of each entrance of the main yard, this main
yard is surrounded by a stone wall measuring 110 meters x 110 meters. This main yard issurrounded by a stone wall of 110 meters x 110 meters. Noteworthy is the fact that it is not the main
temple – which contains the statue of Civa Mahadewa – that forms the most sacred place of the
Prambanan temple group, but the temple Menara Sudut, which stands south of the eastern flight ofsteps. This temple has an open front, which is different from the other seven Menara Sudut temples(there are eight Menara Sudut temples, the four flights of steps of the main temple are each flanked
by a pair of them). Inside the temple we find a base with a hole, under which there is a tube
containing three rocks shaped as a parallelogram. This tube is not visible from the outside. There arelines drawn on these stones indicating the sacred spot in the centre of the square. In other words, themain statue does not stand exactly on the sacred spot, but a little to the northwest. This situation is
also found in the Gunung Wukir temple, Merak temple, Badut temple and Kidal temple.
Parallel with the surrounding wall of the main yard stands the surrounding wall of the second yard
on the lower ground level. This yard is 222 meters x 222 meters and has an entrance in the center of
each wall. Within this yard there are 224 perwara temples (minor temples) standing in four rows.

Two of them stand on the east side and those on the northeastern side have been restored by the
Yogyakarta Archaeological Office,The third yard is larger than the other two, and measures 390 meters x 390 meters, but the wall does
not run parallel with the two other yards. It faces more to the southwest, while the other two both
face the points of the compass.
b. Sewu Temple Complex
Candi Sewu is located in Dukuh Bener, Bugisan village, Prambanan sub district, in the Klaten
regency, Central Java province, 17 kilometers from Yogyakarta. Candi Sewu is located inside
Prambanan Temple Compound, which also consists of Prambanan, Lumbung and Bubrah temples.
Other temples which are located near Sewu temple but not in Prambanan temple Compound are
Gana temple, Kulon temple and Lor temple. Gana temple is located about 300 meters to the east,
Kulon temple is located about 300 meters to the west and Lor temple is located about 200 meters to
the north of Sewu temple complex. Both Candi Kulon and Lor were found in stone pile statue
condition.
Candi Sewu contains of 249 temples, consisting of one temple as the main temple, eight Apit
temples and 240 guard temples. The pattern of Candi Sewu is concentric where guard temples at
east-west-north-south orientation surround the main temple. In Sewu temple complex, there areeight Dwarapala statues, which stand at the four corners of the second yard entrance. Each corner
has Dwarapalas in a pair and stand opposite each other. The height of each statue is 2.95 meters andthey are placed on a 1.11 meters rectangular platform.
The main Sewu temple is located in the first yard, which is bordered by a 0,85 meters fence. It faces
east and the fence is 40 meters x 41 meters. The height of the main temple is 29.8 meters. The main
temple has one main room and four display rooms. Each display room has an entrance. The east
entrance of the display room also functioned as the entrance to the main room.
Guard temples and Apit temples are located in the second yard. All guard temples are arranged infour lines, which form a concentric rectangle. First line consists of 28 buildings, the second line 44buildings, the third line 80 buildings and the fourth line, 88 buildings. All guard temples in line I, II,
IV are facing to the outside or overshadowing the main temple. While the guard temples in line III
face the main temple. Apit temples are in between Candi Perwara line II and III. Each corner has
one pair. Each pair of Apit temples holds a pathway, which cut the second yard through its middle.
Each pairs of eight Apit temples have the opposite orientation.
Vertically, Candi Sewu can be divided into three parts. They are the base, the body, and the roof of
the temple. All the temple components are made from andesite except the core of the main temple,
which is made from. The structure of the brick cannot be seen from the outside because it is inside
the temple.

c. Lumbung Temple Complex
Lumbung temple complex is located on the Northeast side of Prambanan temple or in the south
aspect of Sewu temple. The complex consists of the main temple and is surrounded by sixteen
perwara temples. The main temple faces East, and the perwara temples, North, West, and South.
There are five perwara temples that have been restored in the north and the west of the main temple
by the Central Java Archaeological Office.
The main temple is formed of 20 sides; there are sculptures of men and women on the outside of thewall and the near entrance as on Kalasan temple and Sari temple in Yogyakarta. There are niches on
the outside wall for Dhiyani Budha statues. The roof of the main temple was a ruin when it was firstfound. Restoration of the main temple is in process.
d. Bubrah Temple Complex
Bubrah temple is located to the North of Lumbung temple and the South of Sewu temple. The main
temple is a rectangular shape. The temple faces west and there are no Perwara temples surrounding
the main temple. The temple was built originally of andesite stones. Previous restoration has
succeeded to reconstruct the foot and body of the temple, but the temple’s roof is still in ruin.

III.

Earthquake at Yogyakarta and Central JavaAt 05:57 hrs on 27th May 2006, an earthquake measuring 5,9 on the Richter scale struck Yogyakarta
and some parts of Central Java. The epicentre was located approximately 3,7 kilometers south of
Yogyakarta, on the 8,4oLS and 109,95oBT at a depth of 32 kilometers.
The earthquake caused tremendous damage to the world heritage site of the Prambanan Compounds.
For the time being, the first zone complex is closed to visitors because of structural damage to thetemples even though the temples are still standing, but the second zone is open. Civa temple is themost seriously damaged of the six major temples, with numerous cracks on its four corners, widening
everyday. The main temple of Sewu temple is also very seriously damaged.
Based on geological information, the serious damage occurred because the Compound lies on an
active fault line called Opak Cesar, from Prambanan, Piyungan, Plered, Imogiri, and Pundong. The
fault line is more active because further earthquake activities (Bambang Sutedjo; KR Daily, 3rd June
2006, page 12).
Besides the Prambanan World Heritage site, other cultural sites were also damaged, such as Plaosanand Sojiwan Temples, Taman Sari Water Castle and the Sultan’s Palace in Yogyakarta, the historic
town in Kota Gede, Centres of handicraft and batik producers, such as the well-known Kasongan
village also sustained serious damage.



IV.

Condition after the Earthquake

Government reaction to the earthquake consists of 2 phases of activities: Phase of Emergency
Response and Phase of Recovery. In the first phase, the activities are focused on actions that haveto be implemented promptly to minimize more damage. And, this phase should be conducted within
three months. Emergency response of the Directorate of Archaeological Heritage through theArcheological Office of Yogyakarta and Central Java (Balai Pelestarian Peninggalan Purbakala
Yogyakarta dan Jawa Tengah) have been carried out, that is:
1. To establish a rescue team for temples in Yogyakarta and Central Java
2. To undertake identification and observation to assess the damage to the temples
3. To identify and register
4. To document heritages through photos and video
5. To collect the stone of ruins in a dangerous position
6. To collect technical and archeological data
7. To build temporary storage
8. To put a non-permanent reinforcement around the structurally dangerous buildings
9. To measure the stability of temple through vertical and horizontal measurement
10. To erect signs and border lines in dangerous areas for visitors
In order to assess the damage to Prambanan Temple Compound, four days after the earthquake
experts from Gadjah Mada University made a Rapid Visual Assessment. Detailed observation andcomprehensive research will follow at the next phase.
The assessment group reported various levels of damage to the temple. Siva Temple and Sewu
Temple are seriously damaged. Up to now, even though the six main temples in the main square of
Prambanan temple and Main temple of Sewu are still standing, it cannot be denied that seriously
damage has occurred. The damage to Siva temple is presumed to have been caused by structural
reinforcement being too rigidand the deformation of the body of Sewu temple will influencebuilding stability. On the other hand, the damage to Lumbung temple and Bubrah temple was not so
serious.
Based on the preliminary observation, the main damage can be divided as:•

Structural: ruin, sagging, slanting, deformation, cracking•

Material: cracking, broken, peeled off•

Site: line cracking

a. Prambanan Temple Complex
Observation of Prambanan temple complex has been carried out by Geological assessment by
Gadjah Mada University (UGM), namely Subagyo Pramumijoyo, who assessed the main square in
the south between Brahma temple and Apit temple. In addition, there are line cracks (length 15 m,wide 2 cm). Other cracking is located on the outside of the east wall dividing the two Perwara
temples serial I (length 9 meters, width 0.5 centimeters). Based on observation, the cracking is not
influencing the main structure of the temple.
Observation undertaken by a civil engineer of UGM, namely Kabul Basah Suryolelono, stated that
almost all temples experienced damage, especially Brahma, Civa, Visnu and Garuda temples.
Structural damage is caused by the very rigid condition of the buildings.
The main damage can be described as follows:
1. Structurala. Sagging
There is a great deal of sagging of the temple buildings, especially Civa temple which isfound on the fourth side of the entrance gate, approximately 8 – 10 millimeters. There isslanting on the Brahma temple of 21 millimeters eastwards.
b. Cracking
Almost all temple buildings are cracked especially on the footings. The cracking on Civa
temple was found on the body and chamber entrance at four to five centimeters in width.
c. Deformation
There are many deformations on Civa temple especially on the footings, the body, gate, andchamber walls. While at Brama temple deformation was found on the footings, gate, andterrace floor. The deformation on Wisnu temple was found on its gated. Cracks
Structural cracks occurred on part of the footings and body of the temple as with the body of
Civa temple.
e. Ruination
Almost all of the components of the temples are in ruins, especially the roof part of Ratna,
the fence, and langkan fence. The other parts in ruin are the wall fence I on the south sideand the west, and fence III.
2. Material damagea. Stone Cracking
Almost all temple buildings have been damaged by cracking of stone materials such as thatcaused by horizontal and vertical movement of the earthquake. There are many cracked
stones on all footings of temples.
b. Broken
Damage such as broken stone is evident on the footing parts and temple body, as on the
body of Civa temple on the Southwestern side and the carved relief on the wall of the body.
c. FragmentationAlmost all components of the temples are in ruins especially the roof of ratna, the gate, andlangkan fence. The fence of Square I on the south side and west, and gate III is in ruin.
d. Peeling
Many stones on part of the body of the temples of Brahma, Civa, Wisnu have peeled off.
e. Ruination
Ruination of stone material of temple components was found from the roof of ratna, langkan
fence, and gate, especially in Brahma temple, Ciwa temple, and Wisnu temple.
3. Land cracking
Land cracking occurred in the main square of Prambanan temple complex at a length of 30
meters from North to South.
Furthermore, on the 8 and 9 of June 2006, in a close consultation with the Department of Culture andTourism of the Republic of Indonesia, UNESCO dispatched an international expert mission to
Yogyakarta to inspect the Prambanan World Heritage Site. Professor G. Croci, a UNESCO expert in
the field of structural engineering and restoration of archaeological and historical monuments was
accompanied by Ms. Himalchuli Gurung, Programme Specialist for Culture, UNESCO Office, Jakarta.
The mission emphasized two major areas to be focused on during the emergency phase:-

Based on a field inspection, it was decided to focus immediate attention on Sewu Temple, themost damaged temple, with severe cracks at each of its four corners, which are getting wider
and wider each day. There is a major risk of collapse if the temple is not wrapped up rapidly
with fiber strips and/or a propping system.

-

In the Prambanan Temples, there is also a need for urgent action and should be conducted
to clean the debris between the six major temples and to remove and replace the instablestones threatening to fall from the top of the Temples, which would be a danger to visitors.

Inspection result of Prambanan temple complex by Prof. G. Croci as follows:
It includes a certain number of temples that we have surveyed:-

three main temples of Siwa (the biggest), Brahma, Wisnu-

three Wahana (Garuda, Nandi and Angsa);

All of them, generally, have suffered an enlargement of the vertical joints with consequent
outward deformations, cracks in the stones, collapses of some ratna (small stupa), collapse ofparts of the balustrades, inclination of the top pinnacle, etc.
The deformations that have been measured.
The temples were originally built in a dry stone technique (Andsites and Basalts).
As we’ll see in the next paragraph, during the time they were rebuilt (in the second half of the past
century) reinforced concrete frames were inserted in the masonry body.

Presently there are no risks to the general stability of the temples but there are several local risky
situations with regard to the safety of people: some fragments, ratna, stones, etc. have collapsedon the cornice and roofs and are under unstable conditions.
In detail these are the situations that we have surveyed:-

Brahma Temple. The pinnacle on the top has collapsed, some ratna are damaged, several
vertical joints are deformed and wide open, and some stones have cracked and have slid
outwards. Some stones of the balustrade have fallen down. A global crack probably crosses
diagonally at the base of the temple. The photos show different degrees of damage.
Siwa Temple. There are several cracks in the stones, opening of the vertical joints, outwards-

deformation.
The footing of the second stage is broken.
-

Wisnu Temple. The damage is less compared to the two other temples. Part of the balustrade
has collapsed.

-

Wahana Temples. Generally the damage is less important than in the temples of Brahma andSiwa, even if enlargement of the joints and cracking in the stones are frequent.
In Garuda temple the top pinnacle is dangerously leaning.
In Nandi Temple part of the balustrade collapsed, the central ratna collapsed as well.
In Angsa Temple damage and collapses occurred in some ratna.

-

Apit and Kelir suffered minor damage.

-

Gates. The gates suffered significant damage and collapsed.

It is well known that Japan has a lot of experience in regard to the preservation of Cultural Heritages
in earthquake zones. The Government of the Republic of Indonesia through the Directorate Generalof Historical and Archaeological Heritage, Directorate of Archaeological Heritage invited theGovernment of Japan to participate in a discussion concerning research of heritages, which will beheld on 18th to 26th July 2006 in Yogyakarta and Central Java. The Japan mission consists ofstructural and architectural experts from many universities, and is coordinated by the National
Research Institute for Cultural Properties in Tokyo. Mr. Yamato will coordinate the team fromJapan. Observation of Prambanan and Sewu temple complexes have been carried out by measuring
the movement of the temple body. The research is expected to support the comprehensive planningof the restoration method for heritages in earthquake zones.



No

Building
Name

Type of Damage

1

Siva Temple

Body structure is cracked on the part of subsement in the southwest,
temple footing is damaged on the part of foot of the temple in thenortheast (width 4-5 centimeters)
Shearing of temple structure occurred on the steps in south and east
direction to outside (length 4 cm)
Material stone is cracked and part of the building component isruined2

BrahmaTempleBody structure is cracked and building components ruined,
especially on the ratna roof and langkan fence.
The condition of the east gate is slanting to the outside. Building
components that were ruined are broken and scattered in thesurroundings of the square.

3

Wisnu Temple

Body structure cracked, component of langkan fence on the south
side is ruined and broken into many parts.

4

Garuda Temple

Part of the roof structure (kemuncak) is slanting, some of the roof of
ratna and the langkan fence is ruined.

5

Nandi Temple

Roof structure (kemuncak) is broken, parts of ratna, langkan fences
are ruined, and stones are broken.

6Angsa Temple

Some of ratna roof and langkan fence is ruined and stones arebroken.

7

Apit Temple

Apit temple to the north, part of the roof is ruined

8

PerwaraTemplePerwara temple serial II no 1 on the east side, part of the roof
structure (kemuncak) is ruined.

8

Wall Square

Gate of wall square I, on the west side is ruined and the wall to thenorthwest is ruined. Gate of fence square II on the south side isruined.

Table 1. Type of damage
b. Sewu Temple Complex
1. Structural
a. Foundation sagging
There is less than 1° sagging of the foundation of Sewu Temple after the earthquake.
b. Slanting
In the corners of the main temple there are some parts of the wall structures that slant ± 1o 3 o.
c. Deformation

There are serious deformations on all four sides of the main temple’s wall. We can observe
this from the stone structures, which have been pushed out from the original structure by theearthquake.
d. Stretching
There are some parts of the structures where spaces between stones have increased. This canbe seen on the porch parts and on the frame of the four entrance walls.
e. Collapse
One of the pinnacle’s connectors between the main temple and the porch collapsed. The
pinnacle of Perwara Temple line III no. 49 also collapsed
2. Material damagea. Stone cracking
There are many components that have cracked especially stones from the lower part of thefour corners and the four sides of the main temple. Stone cracking is also evident in one ofthe doorpels of the main chamber and porch part of Perwara Temple line II no. 39.
b. Stone breaking
There are many components that exhibit broken stone especially from the lower part of thefour corners, the four sides of the main temple, and the lower part of the porch and the mainchamber entrance’s doors.

Inspection result of Sewu temple complex by Prof. G. Croci:
Sewu temple suffered severe damage and it is the temple in the most dangerous situation as there isa real risk of significant collapse. It has been surveyed that the main damage is to this temple.
This damage is detailed in the ‘crashing phenomena’, relevant outward deformations and large
opening of the joints.

c. Lumbung Temple Complex
1. Structural
a. Foundation sagging
There is no evidence that can explain the damage to the foundation.
b. Stretching
There is stretching on the main temple and Perwara Temples no. 9, 11, 12, 13, and 14.

c. Collapse
The main pinnacle and the small stupas of Perwara Temple no. 13 have collapsed. Some
components of the main temple and Perwara Temples no. 9, 11, 12, 13, 14 have alsocollapsed.
2. Material damagea. Stone cracking
There is stone cracking on the main temple and Perwara Temples no. 9, 11, 12, 13, and14.
b. Stone breaking
There are many components that exhibit broken stones especially the footing parts of
Perwara Temple no. 12. There also broken stones on the corners of the body parts of
Perwara Temple no. 11.
c. Total breaking
Perwara barat laut pada blok batu bagian bawah pintu masuk candid. Bubrah Temple Complex
There is no serious damage to Bubrah Temple Complex caused by the earthquake on 27 th May
2006.
V. Cultural Value and Structural Safety
A statement by Prof. G. Croci after an assessment of Prambanan temple compound reported that the
temples of Prambanan, built in the 9th century, before the realization of the greatest dry stone
temples of Angkor, must maintain their huge historical value as witness of an ancient civilizationand of an advanced building construction capacity, Originally those temples, as happened in someother regions of Asia, were abandoned without any maintenance so that when they wererediscovered in the eighteenth century they were in very bad condition.
It has been only since the second half of the twentieth century, however, that important works ofrestoration and reconstruction have been carried out. These works, as said previously, have been
restored based on the original construction, a dry block structure, with reinforced concrete frames.
Besides the hypothetical advantages of this solution of reinforcement (and also the possible negative
consequences of the seismic behaviour and on the conservation of the stones due to the presence ofsalts in the concrete) such work has to be reconsidered, namely maintaining the authenticity andhistorical value of those exceptional buildings.
The insertion of reinforced concrete elements, even if not visible, certainly represents a significant
alteration in respect to the original conception; authenticity has been partially compromised.

Today, however, that belongs to the past, and tomorrow it will be part of the history; a period whenreinforced concrete was largely used, as for example in Bauphon, a mountain temple in Angkor
where huge reinforced concrete walls, begun decades ago to stabilize the soil, are still underconstruction.
The task today, considering the large damage that the earthquake has produced, is therefore to rethink our interventions in order to avoid further mistakes, balancing on the one hand the culturalvalue and on the other, safety requirements.
To fulfil this task it is necessary to proceed with precise steps providing a clear diagnosis before
taking any decision regarding definitive intervention.
These steps are:-to have a detailed survey of the damage and in particular of the deformations that have been
produced;-to carry out a mathematical model of the temples considering the seismic interaction of the dry
stone structure and of the reinforced concrete frames;-on the basis of this model to evaluate the safety levels that the present structure is able toprovide, even if deformed, in relation to probable further earthquakes;-

to evaluate the benefits of possible interventions considering their compatibility with thehistorical value of the buildings and the increased safety levels that is possible to achieve;VI.

if necessary, to test in-situ the proposed interventions.
Action Plan

Based on condition of Prambanan Temple Compound and another heritages after the earthquake of
27th May 2006, and so that restoration work is urgently implemented, restoration must be based oncomprehensive planning in order to counter unforeseen damage in the future.
According to the main policies of the Government of the Republic of Indonesia disaster response isdivided into three phases, i.e. emergency response, reconstruction and rehabilitation, and recovery.
But, in the Archaeological Heritage there are two phases of activities, i.e. emergency response andrecovery.
Emergency response will be implemented in the short term within three months (July, August, andSeptember), i.e.:
1. Emergency rescuing on the part of square and temple building comprising: documentation,
information gathering, dismantling (penurunan) consolidation and data collecting;
2. Square reconstruction for visitor control consists of: documentation, determination of borders
for visitors and fencing for visitors areas consisting of documentation, border determination,and fencing.
Recovery consists of middle term (1-5 years: 2007 – 2012) and long term (6-25 years: 20132038). The activities in this phase are:

1. Study and Research:a. Structural research (civil engineering, geology, conservation, geophysics, geography,
and archaeology);b. Architectural recovery (study of archaeology and architecture);c. Utilization (remaking of system and utilization)
2. Rehabilitation or reconstruction:a. Total restoration, activities will be carried out on those temples that exhibit extreme
damage;b. Partial restoration, activities will be carried out on the temple especially onarchitectural components
3. Utilizationa. To state zoningb. To control visitorsc. To prepare the facilities
Restoration planning of Prambanan Temple Compound after the earthquake also involves
financial planning, which is expected to take more money to recover the temple than before theearthquake.
Prambanan and Sewu temples have been seriously damaged. Previous restoration of those two
temples was completed in 1993.
As one of the World Cultural Heritages, it is under the responsibility of UNESCO, we must
work together to undertake the preservation of Prambanan Temple Compound. The fund of
USD 75,000 has been allocated by the World Monument Fund, through UNESCO to enable
the restoration of Prambanan and Sewu temples.
Based on the preliminary study it needs more than IDR 130,000,000,000 for the complete postearthquake recovery of the temple. The funding is collected from the National Budget,
Provincial Budget, Private Sector and International funds. To manage all programs of theplanned preservation of the Prambanan Temple Compound. A task force has been established,which is coordinated by the Directorate General of Historical and Archaeological Heritage,
Ministry of Culture and Tourism.





1. Emergency Rescue
a. Temple Square
1) Documentation
2) Information Gathering
3) Data Collecting
b. Temple Building
1) Documentation
2) To go down/Consolidation
3) Collecting
2. Square Control
a. Documentationb. Determination of the visitors borderc. Erecting fences

ACTIVITY

Table 2. Planning of Restoration Execution After Earthquake, re: Phase of Emergency Response

I. Emergency
Response

PHASE

Schedule of Activity
Short Term
MidLong
Term
Term
July
Aug Sept 2007 - 2012 2013 - 2038

APBN
APBD
PrivateInternational

FUND



1. Study/Researcha. Structural Repair
b. Architectural Recoveryc. Utilization
2. Rehabilitation/Reconstruction
a. Total Restoration
b. Partial Restoration
3. Utilizationa. Ordering of Zoningb. Control of Visitorsc. Ordering of facilities

ACTIVITY

Table 3. Planning of Restoration Execution After Earthquake, re: Phase of Recovery

II. Recovery

PHASE

Schedule of Activity
Short Term
Middle
Long
Term
Term
July Augt Sept 2007 - 2012 2013 - 2038

APBN
APBD
PrivateInternational

FUND

Government policy to combat earthquake damage consists of 2 phases of activities,
Emergency Response and Recovery. In the first phase, the activities are focused on actions
that have to be implemented promptly to minimize further damage.
This phase should be conducted within three months, that is:•

To identify, to register and to undertake documentation;•

To collect stone from the ruin and those in a dangerous position;•

To build temporary storage;•

To put a non permanent consolidation on dangerous structures;•

To erect signs and border lines in dangerous areas for visitors.

In the second phase, i.e. recovery phase the main focus is on rehabilitation andreconstruction activities to bring the temple back to the condition it was in before theearthquake. In this phase it is possible to carry out physical intervention aimed atprolonging the existence of the building and as risk preparedness for the future. The
phase of recovery will be conducted within five to ten years. The activities consist of:•

Research
The multidiscipline research on archaeological, structural, material, and environment
will be conducted on the site•

Restoration
Restoration activities will be applied based on the research above. It can be total orpartial restoration.

Based on an inspection by Prof. G. Croci. In the present situation, and in particular the lack ofknowledge concerning the role of the frame structures and their interaction with the dry stone
structure do not take any definitive measure.
Therefore, we can now only identify those urgent actions that need to be undertaken withdifferent targets.
These actions comprise two aspects:-

to eliminate local risks related to unstable stone blocks, ratna, fragments, etc. which
could fall down with obvious risks to people and workers;-

to reduce the risks of collapse which may involve relevant parts of the temple. Theserisks are mainly the Sewu temple where the building technique with small blocks(some of them are cube shaped and have insufficient overlap) is a big concern.

The urgent actions therefore relate to:-a general inspection and survey of damage and local possible detachments, in particularof stone blocks and fragments. For this purpose it is necessary to provide scaffolding
and, if that is the case, a crane to lift down pieces of stone; workers to stabilize theblocks and fragments are also required;-

to realize a provisional system of propping and countering the lateral deformations of
the temple of Sewu.

the provisional measures that we suggest, based on two interventions:-to build on the four terraces, at the base of the corners of the main central tower, aseries of props, partly inclined, to support the structure and prevent further horizontal
movement;

to realise two belts to horizontally stiffen the tower. The first belt will be at the level of theterraces utilizing the doors that cross the galleries allowing access from one terrace to theother. The second is the level immediately over the roof of the four galleries as shown in
the Figure. These belts can be made of steel or other suitable materialVII. Conclusion
Based on observations, the damage that can be identified on the Prambanan Temple Compoundis in various scales from low to high. Prompt restoration action is needed and needs to be done
carefully. The execution has to be based on comprehensive multi discipline researches.
Government policy towards the earthquake consists of 2 phases of activities, that of Emergency
Response, in which there are two activities: emergency rescue and square control, and the Phaseof Recovery, comprising three activities: study or research, rehabilitation and reconstruction,utilization.
Research of a restoration method on structural technology against earthquakes to maintain ourhigh heritage is very important. And execution of restoration must be based on comprehensiveplanning.
During the restoration, Prambanan Temple Compound can still be used for tourism, but visitor
accessibility to the safe area should be controlled.
Risk preparedness against disasters in the future can be achieved by comprehensive andintegrated activities within the framework of sustainable preservation.
Bibliography
Department of Education and Culture, Directorate General of Culture, Committee for the
Restoration of Wahana Temple, Rara Jonggrang Prambanan Temple, Yogyakarta, “Report on the
Restoration of Wahana Temple”, Jakarta, 1993
Directorate of Archaeological Heritage, Directorate of History and Archaeology, Department ofCulture and Tourism of the Republic of Indonesia, “Report on Preservation Heritages after the
Earthquake of 27th May 2006 at Yogyakarta and Central Java”, Jakarta, 2006

Central Java Archaeological Office, “Early Observation Report on Prambanan Temple Damage
after the Earthquake”, Klaten, 2006;
Soediman, “ Chandi Laradjonggrang at a Glance”, Kanisius, Yogyakarta, 1969
Prof. Eng. Giorgio Groci, “Technical Report, Survey on the Situation after the Earthquake of the27th of May, the Prambanan Compound, the Temple of Plaosan, the Temple of Sojiwan, theTamansari Complex (Water Castle), the Palace of the Present Sultan and Governor of
Yogyakarta, the Mataram Mosque and the Complex of the Royal Family Grave”, Roma, 2006.
Yogyakarta Archaeological Office, “Early Observation Report on Prambanan Temple Damage
after the Earthquake”, Yogyakarta, 2006;



Iran

Saeedeh HOSSEINI
Architect, Senior Expert
The Deputy Office for Preservation and Restoration,
Iranian Cultural Heritage and Tourism Organization (ICHTO)

Abstract
This report discusses the main problems concerning cultural heritage protection issues
in Iran, in particular those related to the category of the preservation of historical sites andmonuments. The causes of the problems can be classified and divided into the impacts ofwrong policies in management and difficulties in technical affairs.
Introduction
Iran is a wide country located in one of the most strategic regions of the ancient world,and has always played a role as a bridge between the old continent, Europe and the Persian
Gulf, where so many well-known ancient civilizations and historical events occurred. Its
powerful cultural and historical movements have never stopped, not even after the massive
destructions of foreign forces such as the Mongols and Arabs and the other invaders. Owing to
its powerful cultural roots and long historical background, all of its enemies were absorbed into
the Iranian community. In spite of these damages, Iran is still one of the richest countries in theworld regarding the field of cultural heritage.
On one hand, these historical monuments include various construction styles andmasonry such as: stone constructions, wooden structures, brick constructions and even rockarchitecture, scattered throughout the country. On the other hand, there are various types ofbuildings and urban spaces with different functions, like palaces, houses, caravanserais,
bazaars, mosques, and the like. Also, there are different climates inside the country andsubsequently, the different environmental affects have culminated in a wide variety of
traditional architecture in Iran. As a result, we need a wide range of various experts withspecific knowledge as well as specific equipment, in order to preserve all kinds of properties.
But unfortunately, the partial management system of the country and some of its
wrong policies prevent us achieving sustainable solutions and appropriate careers, concerning
the protection of our cultural heritage.

The lack of constancy in the management system
Each transformation in the governing system or cabinet in Iran, results in manychanges in management policies; because every new manager has new ideas and as aconsequence, the second level managers are being replaced and these new managers who are
not necessarily experienced in the field of their management, will cause significant changes in
the general policies of the operative body of their organizations. Experts as a matter of fact, arethe only constant unit in this system; however, sometimes, new managers change their duties
not especially related to their interests and experiences. All these replacements cause different
problems that can be categorized in two different levels: the level of management and the levelof the operation body of the organization, which indeed are experts.
In the management level, a new appointee to a post, who is not sure for how long hewill be in charge of the post, is only concerned with getting a brilliant resume, so that he cangain a more important post or present himself in the time of the next replacements, which is notnecessarily a negative point. The problem arises when in the time of the evaluation of amanager, quantity will be given the priority and quality is often forgotten. As a result, amanager tries to start numerous short-term important projects instead of long-term
conservation and preservation projects, so that he/she could terminate them sooner and add
fabulous issues to his management period resume by using numbers and statistics, illustrated
by programming tourist camps, landscape design, designing and printing of brochures (many ofwhich are full of false information). Sometimes, these activities proceed to the conservationand documentation process. On the other hand, if the manager decides to start a conservation
project, he would rather start the operative activities as soon as possible, although without
adequate research or accurate documentation of the site or the monument.
At the experts' level, also the cyclic change of policies has its own impacts. As
conservation affairs need considerable expertise, adequate research background and cyclic
consulting sessions (all of which are long term procedures) an expert in charge of a specificsite or field, needs enough constancy in his/her job in order to have a better focus on the matter.
Such replacements and changes of duties among experts, in the most optimistic view, if not
stopping the rhythm of the conservation process, certainly it slows it down. And the problem
becomes more complicated because of the lack of a kind of constant management plan in the
project monitoring process; because, if we are not able to establish a stable system ofmanagement, which is also not established in many other countries, we must at least create adefined procedure of documentation of the projects so that a new expert will be aware of theaccomplished activities and gathered information.

Most of the managers are not professional in the field of cultural heritage
Most managers in the Iranian governmental system are rarely chosen from experienced
experts who are talented in the related fields. These managers are not even well educated in thefield of management studies. These managers mostly gain some experiences during the time of
their management, but after some time, they are again replaced and must experience a new
field! The cultural heritage managers are mostly selected from the ex-managers ofmunicipalities, ministry of housing and urban design, ministry of transportation and roads andthe like. These managers are mostly not familiar with the cultural heritage category andsometimes they compare conservation and restoration projects with modern construction
projects.
The lack of coordination between the cultural heritage organization and othergovernmental organizations and ministries
One of the main duties of the Cultural Heritage and Tourism Organization is to define
buffer zones for historical monuments and sites in the framework of the Limits Law. There aresome restrictions that must be considered in these buffer zones, so that any land use changes orconstruction in these zones must face certain limitations, so that it does not harm the historicalvalues of the site or the monument; though, the lack of coordination among governmentalorganizations does not allow these rules to be considered and performed accurately.
The Ministry of Roads and Transportation, in its different construction plans, such as
roads, railways, airports, etc, the Ministry of Industries and Mines, in its plans for plants andfactories or mine extraction programs, the Ministry of Housing and Urban Design, in its plansof village and urban development, the Ministry of Energy, in selecting the location of dams or
power plants and the municipalities, in their plans for new urban constructions and renovations
must consider these rules. Owing to the fact that these governmental organizations andministries do not seriously consider the cultural heritage buffer zones’ rules, we must not
expect nongovernmental companies or even ordinary people to do so.
The most famous example of the mentioned issue in recent years was the case of
Jahannama tower in the historical city of Isfahan. Somewhere in the landscape zone of theNaqsh e Jahan square, which is a famous World Heritage Site, a high-rise building was being
built, damaging the landscape of the site. And finally after months of negotiations by UNESCO
authorities, and cultural NGOs, the former Iranian president decided to use his power to put an
end to the conflict and the owners of this high-rise building agreed to decrease the height of thebuilding. Now the question is: if what Iranian Cultural Heritage and Tourism Organization(ICHTO) approves as a law in order to keep the skyline of the historical square, why does
respecting this law need so much effort? What if Naqsh e Jahan square, like many otherexamples, was not a World Heritage Site? Were the efforts inside the country enough to stop

this cultural disaster? Naqsh-e-Jahan square is a well known World Heritage Site and even thepresident entered the negotiations, how many less famous historical sites are in the same
dangerous situation and we are not aware of it?
Another example, happening nationwide: fading historical urban texture and thepolicies of the municipalities to let the people renovate their buildings and build houses withmore floors, which to the owner means more profit. As a result, owners of historical buildings
are encouraged to do so too, in order to gain more benefits. Those whose houses were notregistered as a cultural heritage, succeeded in rebuilding their properties, but those whose
properties were registered in the list of National Historical Monuments, started complaining for
not being permitted to do so and ICHTO still have so many problems with these owners intrying to convince them to conserve these monuments instead of destroying them. Furthermore,in recent years the government has decided to renovate the defective urban texture, with noconsideration given to the differences between a defected urban texture and a historical urban
texture. As a consequence, the owners whose properties are located in the historical urban
textures abuse these rules to renovate their properties. Sometimes they are even permitted tobuild one additional floor (more than the others) to their buildings, because their houses arelocated in the so-called defected texture. Many of these new laws are to encourage residents inthis kind of urban texture to renovate their neighborhood.
These are only some of the problems that ICHTO is facing due to the lack of
coordination with other ministries and organizations. In order to decrease the conflicts between
different organizations, the Iranian government has started to merge those organizations withconflicting responsibilities. According to the mentioned policy in 2004 the Iranian Cultural
Heritage Organization (ICHO) and the Iranian Tourism Organization (ITO) were merged inorder to form a bigger and more powerful organization, which was named as the Iranian
Cultural Heritage and Tourism Organization (ICHTO). But, this solution not only failed tosolve the problems, but actually caused some new problems, such as concentration on the
tourism category and its benefits rather than the preservation of cultural heritages. The idea
behind this combination was letting the cultural heritage help to improve the tourism industry,
but the thing it is, cultural heritage is not necessarily a way of improving tourism.
As a matter of fact, cultural heritage itself is a national cultural treasure that must be
conserved and praised just because of its nature and identity. Looking at the cultural heritage
just as a tourist attraction is the most dangerous assumption and sometimes, the massive
tourism seriously damage historical sites. When a historical site is hosting a great number oftourists, tourist facilities are needed for them and sometimes they are so badly planned anddesigned that not only can they not reach the needs of the tourists, but also they are harmful tothe environment and landscape of the site. Besides, the number of tourists that a particular site
can host in each period of time must be defined so that sites do not face a tourist flood atparticular periods of the year. Is the historical value of a site, Persepolis for instance, purely an
attraction for the number of tourists visiting the site each year?
Thus, the Cultural Heritage Organization does not need to be joined to any otherorganization; instead, it needs to be believed as the conserver of the national treasures by thenation and the government. The fact that national treasures must be protected by powerfulsupervising laws, established by experienced and highly graduated managers and experts must
be understood by every individual of the Iranian nation; and if we are considering cultural
heritage as a source of income, at least we can do it from the correct path and plan a long-time
program for these national treasures and not look at them only as an instrument of making
money.
To ignore the cultural heritage as a national treasure
Iran, as a developing country, needs to define lots of infrastructural projects on its
path to reach sustainable development. Accordingly, both governmental and nongovernmentalorganizations and companies must pay special attention to the national treasures such as theenvironment and cultural heritages. Even if we do not care about what we have inherited from
our ancestors, it is our duty to preserve them for the next generations.
To ignore the environment as a background and basis of the cultural heritage
It is a suitable environment that leads man to create a relic; thus, the environment as
the natural bed of a cultural heritage monument has to be conserved as well, especially in thecase of the cultural landscape which cannot be separated from its natural background and theenvironment. This issue can be better illustrated by some examples.
During history all civilizations have been shaped near water resources. As the plateau
of Iran has a considerable shortage of water resources, especially in its central parts, which aremostly covered by deserts (Kavir), Iranians tried to adapt the situation so that they could create
their settlements. This led to form of architecture and urban design that is the most well known
sample of Iranian architecture. Kariz is the most important infrastructure item in shaping thisdesert civilization. Karizt is a grid of underground canals that conduct water from a water
source, which is normally located in higher areas and some times too far from the civilizationcore, to the place that a colony is being shaped. Nowadays, with the new water transfer
technologies Krariz is gradually being forgotten. Many of the canals that once used to be aliving part of Kariz now are being destroyed or sometimes sewage is directed through thesecanals. Kariz should not only be considered as a cultural heritage site, but also as a good clue

to recover old cultural sites, urban textures and their landscapes, for instance, historical
Persian style gardens and garden pattern cities.
Another example is the water distribution system in Isfahan, which was designed in
the Safavid period (17th century). This system used to conduct the water of Zayandeh Rood(the river that goes through the ancient city of Isfahan) by a well-organized grid of Madie (thetraditional name of such canals) into the agricultural and residential areas. Today, because of
the development plans and new land use programs, gardens and farms are being changed into
residential and commercial land by the owners. Of course, the most important reason for thiskind of land use change is the ever-increasing land value. Sometimes, increasing the land value,
reaches the point where the benefit of selling the land of a farm or garden is much more thanthe benefit of the agricultural activities there, so, the owner changes the land use and sells thefarm as a residential area! Without these gardens and farms the canals are vanishing little bylittle and maybe some day no trace of them will be found.
The problems concerning the preservation of religious heritage
The religious heritage is so important that ICCROM focused its 2003 forum on this
topic. A special problem that religious heritages face in Iran, is a phenomenon named Vaqf,
which is an Iranian-Islamic tradition. Vaqf is to present ones possessions, such as building,farm, money to a religious person or foundation for charity purposes. A usual kind of Vaqf is tospecify an amount of money to be spent for restoration or rebuilding of the tomb of a religious
person, which is a sacred place. Although, this tradition itself is a civilized phenomenon, theproblem is that there are certain religious foundations or even organizations in charge ofadministration of the Vaqf, which are not necessarily interested in conservation andpreservation topics. Some of these organizations are so rich that they allocate huge budgets to
many development activities and projects. Sometimes, these organizations or foundations
decide for the reconstruction operation of the tombs and holy shrines in order to add some newparts to them without consulting with the experts, and do them according to their own taste.
The most important example of the aforementioned organizations is Astan e Qods e
Razavi that governs the holy shrine of Imam Reza (the 8th Shiids holy leader) in Mashhad andits possessions. Imam Reza was killed in the 10th century and buried in a village where the cityof Mashhad is now located. Situated in northeast Iran, Mashhad is the second biggest city inthe country. Afterwards, the Shiites have presented different properties as Vaqf to the holyshrine of Imam Reza, the only Shiite Imam buried in Iran. Accordingly, the tomb has beendeveloped with chambers, courtyards and a great beautiful mosque which was built in the 16th
century near the tomb which was built by queen Goharshad, the wife of Shahrokh, one of the
Timurids’ kings. The great dome covers the tomb and both the great minarets that are coveredby gold. Astan e Qods e Razavi is a very powerful foundation and so rich that it even makesloans to the government. Unfortunately, this grand foundation does not pay sufficient attention
to government policies and has its own policies. The restoration, reconstruction anddevelopment projects that this foundation does, has not only destroyed many historical/culturalvalues of the holy shrine and Goharshad mosque, but has also destroyed a valuable part of thehistorical texture of the city around the shrine; just as in the development of the shrine and theways to access the shrine through four sides of the shrine. If Imam Reza were alive today, hewould not be happy with all this destruction and disturbance to the cultural values of a city.
These activities of the Astan e Qods e Razavi is becoming a pattern for other religious
foundations to commit such actions, as much as they can afford it, instead of being concernedwith cultural and historical values.
The specifications of Iranian archaic construction
Archaic architecture has shaped the most important type of Iranian traditionalarchitecture, which is mostly constructed with masonry materials. The construction materials in
the ancient world had always depended on local regional and environmental availability. The
main accessible material in the central Iran region is soil; thus, soil was the resource of almost
all of the major construction materials in the mentioned region, which appear as adobe, brickand different kinds of mortars made with clay. Using such materials, the architect has to avoid
tension stresses as much as possible, because these materials can only bear compression andhave to be designed so not to bear tension. With these materials, huge thick walls, arches anddomes are made. Although this construction was sometimes reinforced with wood, its capacity
to bear tension was not enough for horizontal forces. The other problem is thrust which
normally occurs in the walls located in the sides of arches. The traditional architecture used todesign and build a series of arches supporting each other so that each arc takes the thrust of theadjacent arch. Thus, in many cases to prevent destruction the ruined arches and domes have tobe rebuilt first. These issues have the following problem:
In some cases, field research and documentation of the relic which shows the original
shape and the height of the structure is needed, which takes much time and effort. Sometimes,
in order to repair the damage made by the thrust, some experts decide to use reinforced
concrete or steel beams inside the original structure of the building, which could be useful in astatic condition, but terribly harmful in dynamic conditions, and may cause serious damage tothe monument; besides, using these kinds of modern materials will have an irrevocable effecton the body of the monument.

Earthquakes as the most dangerous natural disaster in IranAs mentioned, the ancient civilizations have always developed near water resources,
and as rivers in Iran compared to the vast area of the plateau are very scarce and the few riversof central Iran are mostly dry, so residential centers are mostly formed near underground water
resources. There are some good natural rock beds for the flow of water; most of theunderground water resources are gathered in these places, which are also in areas having thehighest risk of earthquakes. Thus these civilizations, depending on water, have always been
forced to suffer earthquakes, while the most precious type of Iranian architecture is shaped in
the central Iran region, in places with a high risk of earthquakes. A good example of thesemasterpieces of architecture is in the ancient city of Bam, which was tragically destroyed by apowerful earthquake in January of 2004. Central Iran region’s architecture comprises massive
constructions as mentioned before, but is lacking tension strength and cannot resist horizontal
earthquake forces. Considering the high risk of earthquakes in this region we understand thehigh priority of a kind of complicated conservation for this kind of architecture against
earthquakes.
In order to determine an appropriate way for the conservation of this kind of structure,as the first step, we must take into consideration the ways that the ancient architects foundregarding this problem. The only solution is finding a way of cohesive behavior and to gain
this goal we must choose the suitable form and plan so that monuments can resist horizontal
forces as much as possible. Symmetrical plans, such as the rectangle, regular shapes, polygons
and best of all, a circular plan, with conical structure of the walls that helps the architects build
high rise walls such as at Gonbad e Qabus, which is one of the tallest examples of such
structures in the world. In the field of construction materials, different kinds of cohesive mortar
are also useful.
As an appropriate and acceptable modeling has not yet been done, we still cannot
judge them and their strength against different types of forces and without this insight; wecannot draw up a good plan for restoration of such constructions. Up to now, the only solution
is to complete the damaged parts of the constructions so that we can at least form its
symmetrical shape, but without an acceptable structure analysis any other solution must be
studied more precisely.
In the late 60s, a conservation movement was formed in the field of reinforcing
historical constructions, based on the wrong belief that without a good and stable structure, a
traditional construction cannot resist external forces. But the worst part was yet to come,because these experts believed in using modern materials such as reinforced concrete in therestoration of these constructions, believing in their good strength against different types oftension would help to save these monuments.
Ignoring the necessity of Iranian ancient architecture technology revival
One of the impacts of the modernist revolution was new methods of construction.
With new knowledge of construction engineering, it became possible to build high rises orsuspension bridges. At this time engineering development allowed massive construction andstructures; one of the most famous examples was the Eiffel tower. Iran was also affected bythis revolution at the beginning of the 20th century. New methods of construction were used by
Iranian architects to build great buildings, most of which are still used by governmentalorganizations and ministries.
But there was also a bad effect on traditional Iranian urbanism and architecture. At thesame time, Iran was facing a great number of immigrants from villages to the big cities thatwere in need of housing for this population. Because of the fast production of buildings in thisway, the historical methods were being forgotten. If this technology was intended for Iranianarchitecture to modernize itself step by step, it could be regarded as a revolution of Iranianarchitecture, but the thing is it was just a cliché. This new technology was little understood andwas even used by non-professionals to solve the housing problem in this situation of fast
population growth. Other shortages were completely ignored; things like non-compatibility of
the new housing with culture and climate. Now, decades after, we are on the road to perditionof Iranian architecture and it is architects themselves who are sacrificing Iranian architecture toreach so-called modern art and architecture.
To gain from the past, we must start with the procedure of modern architecture fromthe very moment it entered our culture, but this time we must view the modernism like an
instrument to be used in Iranian architecture and not let it influence our basic architecturalconcepts. While not rejecting the new technology, we must use it in the proper way. After all,
we are witnessing many traditional architects in different fields of construction andarchitectural decoration losing their position and sometimes being absorbed by this new
movement and few are employed in the field of conservation and restoration of historicalbuildings.
After some time, the Iranian Cultural Heritage Organization, facing a shortage ofmasters of conservation, decided to find them and train a next generation of traditional masons,masters and skilled workers. Because of the ancient way of training (from apprentice to master)with ever decreasing restoration activities, no new generation was trained; besides, because of
the few jobs available, some masters were not willing to train apprentices and face theconsequences of competing with them to find new jobs. So a higher education center (not auniversity) was founded in 1985 in order to organize these masters and gather the facilities forthem to train a new generation of educated masters, which in the new technical literature werecalled technicians. The field of study is called “Conservation and Restoration of Historical
Buildings and Urban Textures”. Before that, in the Iranian higher education system this field
only offered a Master title and mostly for the graduates of civil engineering and architecture.
At first glance, it seemed the best way possible to revive the inherited knowledge ofmasters but it did not take long before the original goal was lost. Those ‘technicians’ whograduated from the Higher Education Center were supposed to start practical conservation
activities and they had the opportunity to be employed in the Cultural Heritage Organization.
When they entered the body of the Organization and faced the differences between themselves
and white collar workers, many of them decided to continue their studies in order to gain ahigher education title and as a consequence, a better position in the Organization, which fromtheir point of view, was an official job. This was completely contrary with the goal that thesetechnicians were trained for.
The problem became more complicated when this Higher Education Center started tooffer this field of study as a B.Sc. degree. It was the first time that the Cultural Heritage
Organization was facing the phenomenon of “conservation and restoration of historicalbuildings and urban textures” with titles like a B.Sc. They were not engineers, they were notarchitects and they were not even technicians. Whatever they were, they were the production of
the Higher Education Centre of the Iranian Cultural Heritage Organization and theOrganization was responsible for them. Without the facilities to employ all of them as official
staff, many of them are now working in non-related fields and many are struggling to contract
with the Organization and we still have a shortage of technicians and masters who can handle
the practical job.
In the Deputy Office for Preservation and Conservation where I am working, forexample, while almost half of the official staff are graduates of the aforementioned Centre,
only one of them still remains a technician, and always has been willing to work on
conservation projects. Even when in the historical complex where our Office is situated, wewere in need of restoration he was the only person who started the project without hesitation.
Because, when he started his education, he did it just for his deep respect and love for thehistorical monuments that led him to his way. That is why he has never cared about hisacademic degree; despite he has always been accused of not having the ability to continue his
studies.

The lack of paying sufficient attention to the preparation of the documentation process
before any preservation activity
The problem will be better explained if illustrated by an example: A doctor in the very
first step of treatment tries to diagnose a disease, as it is said, "a disease is cured when it is
known". In order to achieve this, he has to do some medical tests and obviously, the use ofsome medical equipment, such as radiotherapy and MRI scanning could help him to do his job
better.
It is generally accepted that before starting any sort of preservation activities, weshould provide appropriate information and documentaries of our subject, such as surveys,
drawing of general maps and details, mechanical and chemical specific tests and the like.
Preparing the documentation process should be considered as the base of any other future
activity at historical sites and monuments; either it would be an abstract research project or an
operative activity such as renovation. Furthermore, an appropriate documentation process could
provide and keep the information, which is the main aim of the cultural heritage protection. If
the remains of historical monuments are known as their bodies, then the potential information
would be their soul, so we should explore and save this information as much as we can andconsider this fact as our main duty. To attend the operative preservation and restoration
activities without this process could be even more harmful for a historical building or site.
A comprehensive preservation process includes following steps:
1. Preparing documentation, Technical tests.
2. Pathology: to classify all kinds of damages and causes of them.
3. Assessment: the possible solutions concerning remove, reduction orcontrol the damages.
4. To integrate and evaluate the information and documentaries.
5. Presenting the optimum solutions and their details in the framework of
a comprehensive preservation and restoration plan.
6. Presenting a long-term program for preserving the historical property.
Unfortunately, those involved in a large number of preservation and renovation
activities in my country are not paying sufficient attention to the mentioned process. Actually,
the operative activities are more attractive for the management system; hence, more budgets
could be allocated to these sorts of activities.
Nowadays, so many new technologies such as 3d LASER Scanning and geomagnetic
surveying are used in the preparing documentation process. Recently, some companies haveintroduced such equipments to the Organization, but there is still some resistance among themanaging body of the Organization as they perhaps fear being seen to change their minds ormaybe its just old fashioned thinking. But changes always happen and this situation is no
exception. Nowadays, the experts of the Organization who have learned more about thesetechnologies encourage their bosses to use such facilities for the historical sites and gain theadvantages of them.
Archaeological excavations without foreseeing the preservation process for archaeologicaltrenches.
Again an example: A doctor sets out to dissect a dead body to find out the cause ofdeath or acquisition of some biological information. In such a case, he does not have to careabout the preservation of the body, because just getting more information is the object of thedissection. But, if the doctor carries out an operation on a living person, then his first duty
would be to save the patient's life.
In my opinion, what distinguishes a good archaeologist from a bad one is the sense of
responsibility in preserving the trenches as the bodies of a historical site after the excavations,
not just doing crude digging. Unfortunately, most Iranian archaeologists manage and performtheir excavations without considering even the urgent preservation principals after digging thehistorical sites and furthermore, they do not even bring their programs in line with thosebranches of the Organization, which is in charge of the preservation affairs.
Recently, an archaeologist who was the head of the excavation program in a Parthianperiod's graveyard, located in Yazd province, excavated all the ancient graves inside thecemetery, not leaving even one of them unexcavated as a sample for future researches of thesite, moreover she did not even provide appropriate and sufficient documents of her
excavations. In other words, so much valuable potential information has been lost as a result ofsuch selfish behavior.
Archaeologists are usually interested in analysis and work on the archaeologicalobjects that are found during the excavations rather than the architectural remains. Thus, mostof them collect these portable objects and leave the architectural parts of trenches that
culminate in future damages to the remains. When there are asked for such a subject, most ofthem point their finger at the experts of the Preservation and Restoration Office and accuse
them of carelessness in their responsibilities.
In some cases, recognition of the general information of a historical site, such as a
general map of an ancient city does not need any archaeological excavations. Instead of direct
excavations that cause the above mentioned problems, we could receive this generalinformation by using some new technologies such as GIS, geomagnetic surveying, geo
electrical surveying, infra red surveying and the like. In recent years, the use of these newtechnologies has been recommended to the archaeological and research centers of theOrganization. Some archaeological bases and research departments have started to use such
equipment, but most archaeologists still believe in traditional methods of excavations.
I would like to bring an example by pointing to the case of Takht e Soleiman World
Heritage Site, which is well known as an international level historical site in Iran. There is ahuge and deep thermal spring in the center of the remains of Takht e Soleiman complex thatappears as a small lake. The level of the lake is constantly rising as the result of a great build
up of sediment. The ancient remains are buried beneath the sediment. In the 1960s, German
and Iranian archaeologists started the excavation of some key parts of the huge Zoroastrians
fire temple, but the research programs were stopped as the result of the 1979 Revolution. 15
years after the revolution one of the Iranian members of the previous team, Mr. Mohammad
Mehryar, took over the archeological researches of the site and continued his studies with theleast volume of excavations inside the site, because he deeply believed that excavations should
be done on a small scale and new excavations must be limited to necessary ones. He also used
to cover the trenches in order to preserve them. He passed away in 2004 and consequently, ayoung archaeologist was assigned to continue his researches, but he chose a different way. He
excavated a wide area inside the site in just two archaeological seasons, which was almost
equal to the area excavated since the beginning of the archaeological activities in 1960s!
It is worth mentioning that Takht e Soleiman is located in a high area of the Alborz
mountain range, and is usually is covered by snow even in autumn, so the archaeologicaltrenches would be extremely damaged as a result of freezing weather. But the real disaster isthe fact that the new archaeology team continues its excavations full speed ahead without any
preservation activities in its program. Now, they are continuing their digging on an axis that
could be studied by analyzing aerial photos and it seems that their only motive to do so is tofind new objects even at the cost of damaging the architectural body of a unique monument.
When one of our colleagues asked the head of the archaeological team whether in his
opinion the massive volume of excavation left without any conservation operation would resultin damage to the monument or not, He simply answered: "I am afraid if conservators have notprogressed as much as the archaeologists……!"
He could be right, if he had used modern technologies, such as geomagnetic surveying,
3D LASER scanning, x ray, GIS and the like in his archaeological activities; but he is not evenacquainted with the basics of such methods.

To use such technologies, not only helps us keep the body of an ancient site byavoiding unnecessary excavations, but also could culminate in gaining some valuable general
information, which could be used as the basis of long term management plans for the site.
Fortunately, nowadays the use of this equipment and methods is increasing among theOrganization's related units and research centers.
The lack of comprehensive specific instructions in the field of preservation
In spite of the fact that most preservation activities in Iran are restricted in urgent
preservation operations, there are no approved comprehensive specific instructions for suchoperations. As a result, everyone who is charge of such activities have their own way of facinga preservation case. For example, in the case of roof insulation for historical buildings, inparticular those covered by a dome and arches, there is still no agreement among the experts if
we should use bitumen or obey the traditional method of using mud and chopped straw(Kahgel). As a matter of fact, we are not permitted to undertake restoration activities as a trial
and error process.
Variety of the Iranian traditional architecture’s forms
Traditional Iranian architecture has a wide variety of architectural styles due the wide
area of the country, its long background of civilization and history, and different climates andcultures, all of which has culminated in a wide range and various architectural styles scatteredin every part of the country.
Many restrictions make the architect use specific types of material; for example lackof wood does not let the architect think of a wooden structure in central Iran or a warm climate
makes the architect think of tall walls in order to produce more shadow and sometimes theintrovert culture leads the architect to design inner courtyards.
As a result, we need a wide range of various experts with specific knowledge for eachsort of traditional construction and specific equipment as well, to support and preserve allkinds of historical monuments accurately.
Incompatible Construction materials
Costs have always been an important factor in urban economy; therefore, the architect
always looks for a way to use the domestic construction material. For example, in mountainous
areas he uses rocks and in the dessert tries to use clay or bricks. Also gypsum could be
mentioned as a key material in Iranian architecture, which wondrously is available almost allover Iran and with different preparations and combinations can be used in any climate and withany type of material. That is why in particular cities that we come across have different colorsof houses and neighborhoods. All of these are just because of the specific color of the soil orother material available in a specific region.
To use some incompatible materials such as cement, in some preservation andrenovation activities for historical buildings could be harmful, because their chemical andmechanical specifications are totally different from the original materials. In addition, to use
cement as a mortar for restoring the traditional brick constructions, not only does not let us toreturn to the original in order to correct our previous operations, but also causes serious
damage by keeping the moisture inside the body of the original construction, which are notprotected against wetness. For example, filling the joints between the rows of a brick wall withcement changes the path of the moisture from the joint into the surface of the bricks and as aconsequence, some scurf will cover the façade of the wall that could damage the construction
little by little.
ClimateAnother key factor in the case of the preservation of historical monuments is theclimate of the region. There are 4 major types of climates in Iran, as mentioned in thefollowing:•

In the warm and humid climate of the northern coast of the Persian Gulf forexample, we observe flat roofs made of wood with balconies on both inside andoutside façades. Different types of window to let the air flow through the houseand materials such as mud and gypsum to act as insulation.

•

In the central Iran region which has a warm and dry climate we have acompletely different architecture. Vaults, copula, tall walls and ceilings and in
the case of urban design, we see narrow allies for instance. Material is mostly
brick and mud mortar with gypsum and the roofs are covered by different kindsof domes and arches.

•

In rainy temperate areas between the northern side of the Alborz mountain range
and the southern coast of the Caspian Sea, gable roofs with different kinds ofmaterials such as metal, wood or bricks are used in order to resist heavy rains.

•

In the cold mountainous areas, houses have as few, windows as possible in orderto save energy, with low ceilings so that the volume space in need of heating
would be decreased.

Those aforementioned characteristics combining with culture and the period in whicha monument is created are the factors that affect the architecture and make different types ofarchitecture in Iran. That is why each city has its own character and face.

When we understand that we are facing such a variety of architectural styles in Iran, it
becomes more clear how complicated the conservation could be. And unfortunately, those partsof the government dealing with the building and renovating affairs in the cities, not only are
not considering these architectural-historical values, but most of their designs for construction
or renovation do not even consider the different climates and cultural specifications of thedifferent regions.
As we already have examples of Iranian ancient architecture that considers humans,
nature, is energy saving and environmentally friendly, it is not too much to expect new urban
designers, who enjoy modern facilities, just to follow their ancestors and consider theseessential factors in renovating and constructing new places for cities. As all these projects aredesigned, accomplished and monitored by a different ministry and organizations, we must not
expect just one organization to be responsible for all these conservations of historical values ofurban textures and urban design. This is a long-term process and needs to be understood byevery part of the government and also needs good monitoring by the cultural heritageorganization. And this organization must have the authority to do so, so that it can terminate
any project, that is disturbing cultural and historical values of the cities or any individualmonument.
Conservation basic theories
There are masters in the field of conservation and restoration, whose theories arestudied and used in any historical site and we owe them a lot in the field of restoration andeven the primary polices of funding an organization in charge of cultural heritage. But we must
not hesitate to criticize any technical action, no matter who the person responsible for the
project is; no matter he/she is a university student or the greatest professor ever.
The necessity of a systemic information exchange centre
There is not a defined and well-organized system of gaining and distributing
information and up to date technologies among the experts. Most of the experts are not awareof what is going on in international academies, seminars, assemblies and any other scientificevent through the world. With the ever-progressing new methods of conservation and even new
theories in this field, we need a well-organized information technology system in order to beaware of the latest academic results, although there are a few experts who always look for thelatest news and information in the field of historical and cultural heritage preservation. There is
no way to organize this information and all the new academic advantages that the experts learn
from many sources such as the World Wide Web, personal communications, taking part inseminars, etc. are limited to themselves and often their specific duties do not allow an
opportunity to use their knowledge in the specified field.
A new scientific academic result is useful when it is reflected in prescriptions andtechnical codes. Therefore, a central core consisting of experts is needed in order to gather all
the information of any related scientific event and help other experts to have easy access to any
useful information. For this reason, a kind of periodical publisher is needed, so that all theinformation could be gathered, integrated and distributed in this periodical magazine or alike.
This core of information must also be in contact with the experts so that they can gather theirinformation and let others access the information gained by any individual in the organization.
Obviously, in this way, we also need to exchange our points of view with the international
specific organizations and research centers in order to learn more about similar experiences andthe last instructions in the mentioned fields to improve our knowledge and skills.

Malaysia
Adnan JUSOHHeritage Officer
Department of National Heritage

GUA TELUK KELAWAR (GTK), AS A CENTRE OF
RESEARCH, ANALYSIS AND PRESERVATION OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITESAND REMAINS

1.0

INTRODUCTION

The main tasks of the Department of National Heritage (DNH) besides dealing with heritage entities
are to preserve, conserve and restore the essential icons of Malaysian Heritages. As well to
implement the formulation of related acts, collection of documentation, research, preservation anddevelopment of heritage, efficiently and in an orderly manner. It places emphasizes on many aspects
including cultural, natural and underwater heritage. National legacy is a slice of memories of alifestyle of a people that reflect their civilization, so it needs to ensure such memories remain for
future generations. In Malaysia, the protection of heritage resources is governed by federal
legislation, under the National Heritage Act 2005.
No fewer than 200 potential archaeological sites have been listed throughout the country.
The list includes both West and East Malaysia. The potential sites listed comprise the pre-historicera (Paleolithic, Neolithic and Metal Age), proto historic era (defined as the period of‘Indianization’, circa 1BC to 1200 AD) and the historical era (14th century onwards). To realize thevision and the mission, Malaysia, in the 9th Malaysia Plan (Malaysia’s 5 years major economy
blueprint), plans a draft of systematic archaeological excavation throughout the country. Principally,
all sites (mostly archaeological ones) that have their own value or criteria of ‘heritage’ will be
guarded under the DNH

2.0

GTK AS A HERITAGE AND ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITE

One of the sites that could be elaborated on is GTK (Gulf Bat Cave). This site is situated at Bukit
Kepala Gajah limestone massif around 4 kilometers from Lenggong, Perak, Malaysia. GPS
reading’s show the location of this site situated at latitude 5º 07' 04" North and longitude 100º 58'

07" East.

The cave is accessed through Kampung Lahar and is about four kilometers from

Lenggong-Grid road. The walk from the closest vehicular access takes approximately 10 minutes
through a rubber plantation, an orchard and scrub land. GTK is located on the foothills; a rockshelter with a floor measuring 32 metres long by 16-20 metres wide. Rises and declines of groundwater in the order of several metres of the old water table should account for the cave height.
Fluctuations are seasononal, it descends during the dry season. Groundwater occurs preferentiallyalong the bedding and along joint directions in the limestone bedrock. This has resulted in theformation of the rock shelter.
Based on radiocarbon dating taken from various levels in the cave, the average rate of soil
formation in GTK was probably 0.17 mm/year. For the same period, i.e., the early Holocene, theaverage rate for GTK would have been higher at 2.08 mm/year. The difference could be due to thelocation of GTK at the foothills, where it was more exposed to winds and sheet wash which allowed
a lower rate of soil formation.
2.1

Excavation

GTK has been excavated since 1990 by the Center of Archaeological Research Malaysia,
located at the University of Science of Malaysia (USM).
2.2

Findings

The oval shaped unifacial tool found here had its prototype dated 74,000 years ago and was
discovered in the nearby site of Kota Tampan. Associated with these stone tools in GTK
were riverine shells, animal bones, human remains and pottery shards dating back 6000
years.
The skeleton
In March 2004, excavations revealed one burial dated to about 8,300 years ago. A
female skeleton was found together with mortuary artifacts such as stone tools, foodshells and various meats. The skeleton was found in a tight foetal position, its bones
extremely fragile, poorly preserved and in parts crushed beyond recognition.
However the skeleton partially damaged by a rockfall was excavated, examined,
conserved and measured in order to extract data such as age, height, sex and race.
The post-cranial skull bones were very fragil. Only parts of the face bones were
preserved – part of the brow ridge, zygomatic arch bone and the palate. The palateis long and narrow in appearance (dolichurany). Approximately less than 20% of
the post-cranial bones were preserved, including large limb bones both upper andlower. At the upper limbs, only parts of the humerus, radius, ulna and scapula were
preserved while the right acetabulum of the pelvis, the left fibula and calcaneous of
the lower limbs were visible.
ShellsMore than 2,019 pieces of shells were recovered from pit 9, 10 and 11 at trench JZ3.
The vertical distribution shows that there were an increase in pit 10 and 11 which
revealed more than 78% of the total shells found. This sudden increase in reverine
shell (Brotia costula/spinoza) and the significant reduction in marine shell (Batissa
violacea) should be noted when attempting to delineate the burial area. More than
60.6% of the shells were scattered in quadrant 1 of trench J and JZ3(A) the area
where the skeleton was found.

Animal Bones
A total of 350.1 gm of animal bones including lizard, rat, primate and reptile wererecovered from this burial site.
Stone Tools
More than 80% of the stone tools excavated had been placed around the skeleton in
the area of Trench J and JZ3. The tools were largely limestone flake tools. Threepebble tools, one of quartzite and two of limestone shaped into chopping tools; thequartzite chopper was bifacial flaked. The pebble tools had been placed at the head
and feet of the skeleton.

2.3

Dating

The dating for GTK is based on the results obtained from Gua Badak C, which is also
located in the foothills, in the same area of GTK and Gua Harimau. Ros Fatihah and Yeap(2002) dated the age of Gua Badak C by the uranium series method using two sections of astalagmite. Gua Badak C is about 52.2 ± 9.5 ka and 46.5 ± 15.5 ka. At the latest dating, thecaves at the foothills of Lenggong emerged around 8,000 years ago.

3.0

ISSUES

Most countries in the world are facing many issues and problems regarding the preservation andconservation of their heritage, especially archaeological sites.

Such issues are similar to those in

Malaysia and sometimes they have sensitive issues that need to be dealt with. There are certain
issues relating to our heritage preservation and conservation;
3.1

QuarryQuarry activities will destroy the heritage site especially limestone caves. Althoughquarry activities can help our economic situation, at the same time such activities
will destroy the heritage sites especially archaeological sites and remains. For
example the quarry activities have destroyed Gua Badak (Lenggong Valley), thecave site where rock paintings were found a few years ago. These activities havealso destroyed many cave sites at Kinta Valley, Ipoh, and Perak such as Gua
Khantan, Gunung Rapat, Gunung Keroh, Gunung Karang Besar, Gunung Karang
Kecil, etc.

3.2

Guano’s
Guano’s activities will also destroy archeological data by digging up whole areas
which obviously will harm the cultural layer of historic stratigraphy in the cave site.
Gua Kajang, Gua Ular and Gua Ngaum (located near GTK) have already been
disturbed by these activities. Fortunately, GTK is undisturbed as yet and isprotected from these guano collectors as the site has already been excavated andconserved by archeologists from the Archaeological Research Center, University
Science of Malaysia (USM).

3.3

Vandalism
Vandalism is a major cause of destruction of the beauty of the cave wall. Somevisitors have an interest in making their own memorable sketches such as theirname or number on the cave wall which spoils the natural view of the cave. Mostof the caves which have old paintings such as Gua Kelawar (located in the districtof Sungai Siput, Perak), Gua Badak and Gua Tambun (located in the Kinta Valley,
Perak) have been destroyed by irresponsible visitors. For example, Gua Kajang
which is located near GTK has been totally covered by new paintings.

4.0

PRESERVATION AND CONSERVATION

Overall the task of preservation and conservation of archaeological sites and remains in Malaysia
are directly under the responsibility of the following two institutions:
1)

Goverment Agencies

2)

Learning Institutions/Universities

One of the agencies involved in taking care of archaeological sites in Malaysia is the
Department of Museums Malaysia. State museums always cooporate with the Department ofMuseums Malaysia in taking care of all the archaeological sites in the whole country, to maintain all
heritage sites. However, the task since 31 March 2006, is under the Department of National
Heritage (DNH).
In Malaysia, there are three institutions/Universities that are directly involved inpreservation and conservation of archaeological sites, they are the National University of Malaysia(UKM), University of Malaya and the Archaeological Research Center, University Science of
Malaysia (USM). These institutions are playing an important role in equiping Malaysia withprofessional manpower and excellent archaeologists to preserve and conserve our heritage sites.
These institutions always undertake research and excavate all the potential site to collect data in thearchaeological perspective. These institutions always deal with the Department of Museum
Malaysia to undertake in-depth research and excavate potential sites.
Research carried out by the Department of National Heritage (DNH), ArchaeologicalResearch Center and University Science of Malaysia (USM) at GTK are:
4.1

Preservation and Conservation
Preservation and conservation of our heritage as archaeological sites and remains isin the hands of the people. Everyone should be proud of it and take their part toensure that our heritages are safe for the next generation. Conservation means anyaction taken to protect data relating our heritage and conservation of artifacts,
ecofacts, monuments and so on. To maintain the artifacts proper environmental
control, fumigation, physical protection of the artifacts as well as repair, therestoration of damaged works back to their original condition is essential.
Regarding GTK, USM has taken action to preserve and conserve the humanskeleton now at the Archaeological Research Center, University Science of
Malaysia (USM). The fragile condition of the skull, mandible and teeth meant that
preservation had to be under special humidity control in the laboratory at theArchaeological Research Center, University Science of Malaysia (USM). This
skeleton is now under 24 hour air-conditioning at a constant temperature of 20
degrees Celcius and at relative humidity control of between 45% - 55%. Otherfindings such as stone tools, shells, pottery shards and animal bones were also
conserved to ensure all artifacts were maintained and safe. In fact, GTK is always
kept clean for visitors and students to carry out research and practical studies for tendays or three weeks every semester.
4.2

Research Programme
Until now, the Archaeological Research Center, University Science of Malaysia(USM) still carries out their research at GTK by excavation. At Lenggong Valley,
USM has provided a hostel for USM students involved in fieldwork. They will be
exposed to the practical side of archaeology such as fieldwork or surveys,
excavations, writing reports, analysis and interpretation. The student can apply boththeory and practical experience with new technological approaches and modern
equipment. Overall, the research steps at GTK site are as below:
SurveyResearch

Practical
Field Work

Excavation

Activities
Analysis Data

ReportAccording to the flow research, USM also published many articles about GTK in
local journals such as Jurnal Arkeologi Malaysia, PURBA, Museum Monograph asresearch activities from an archaeological perspective.

GTK has also held

discussions in archaeological seminars, forums etc.
4.3

National Heritage Act 2005
The implementation of the National Heritage Act 2005 is to guide and preserve theheritage sites in our country.

The government genuinely ensures our heritage

especially the historical and archaeological sites as a legacy for our future
generations. The act was implemented to provide the conservation and preservationof National Heritages, natural heritages, tangible and intangible cultural heritages,
underwater cultural heritages, and treasure trove and other related matters.
Under the National Heritage Act 2005, archaeological relic means(a) Any archaeological deposit; or(b) Any artifact, remains or material evidence associated with anarchaeological deposit, in any part of Malaysia be it fifty or more years old;“site” includes any area, place, zone, natural heritage, monument orbuilding attached to land, archaeological reserve and any land with building,garden, tree or archaeological reserve; “Heritage site” means a site
designated as a heritage site under section 24.
•

Section 86 (National Heritage);(1) No person shall excavate any land for the purpose of discovering an object
unless he holds a license approved by the Commissioner(2) Any person who contravenes subsection (1) commits an offence and shallupon conviction be liable to imprisonment for a term not exceeding five years
or to a fine not exceeding fifty thousand ringgit or both.
Based on the statement of the National Heritage Act 2005 in Section 86,
all heritage sites especially archeological sites are absolutely protected.

•

Section 112. Offences in respect of heritage sites(1) No person shall, without the approval in writing of the Commissioner –(a) dig, construct, excavate, build, plant trees, quarry, irrigate, burn lime ordeposit earth or refuse, on or in the heritage site or conservation area;(b) demolish, disturb, obstruct, modify, mark, pull down or remove any
monument in any heritage site;(c) erect any building or structure abutting upon a monument in any heritage
site;(d) destroy the relationship of a building and its environment that is
incompatible with the character of the neighborhood in any heritage site;(e) clear any area or interfere with, destroy or remove any tree, plantundergrowth, weed, grass or vegetation in any heritage site; or(f) Undertake any activities or actions that would likely cause damage to theadjacent and surrounding land which have been registered as a heritage site.
(2) Any person who, without lawful authority, contravenes subsection (1) shallbe guilty of an offence and shall on conviction be liable to imprisonment for aterm not exceeding five years or to a fine not exceeding fifty thousand ringgit or
both.
•

Section 113. Offences in respect of heritage object
Any person who destroys, damages, disfigures, disposes of or alters a tangible
cultural heritage, without a permit issued by the Commissioner commits anoffence and shall on conviction be liable to imprisonment for a term notexceeding five years or to a fine not exceeding fifty thousand ringgit or both.

•

Section 114. Offences in respect of National Heritage(1) No person shall, without the written approval of the Commissioner, transfer,demolish, remove, alter, renovate, export, add to deal with any National
Heritage except in cases of urgent and immediate necessity for the safety of
persons or property.
(2) Any person who contravenes subsection (1) commits an offence and shallon conviction be liable to imprisonment for a term not exceeding five years or
to a fine not exceeding fifty thousand ringgit or both.



•

Section 118. General Penalty(1) Any person who commits an offence under this Act or any regulations madeunder this Act where no penalty is expressly provided shall on conviction beliable to a fine not exceeding fifty thousand ringgit or to imprisonment for aterm not exceeding five years or both, and for a second or subsequent offence
he shall be liable to a fine not exceeding one hundred ringgit or to imprisonment
for a term not exceeding ten years or both.
(2) Where the offence committed resulted in damage to or the demolition or
destruction of a heritage item, the court may order the person to pay, in addition
to any penalty that may be imposed under (1), the costs of the repair, restoration
or reconstruction of the heritage item.
In general, the implementation of the National Heritage Act 2005 is anattempt to preserve and conserve our heritage such as artifacts, monuments andarchaeological sites. The National Heritage Act 2005 also targets the preservation of
antiquities and archaeological sites and control of the export of antiquities. Apartfrom that, the Department of National Heritage (DNH) has registered all potentialsites of archaeological interest as a record known as the National Heritage Register(Daftar Warisan Kebangsaan). In future, the Department of National Heritage (DNH)
will provide all the data concerning our heritage including arts, history, culture,
festivals, folklore and archaeological sites in Malaysia as general information source.
The public, tourists, students and researchers can access all data easily.
4.4

Blueprint To Develop Heritage Sites
RM-9 was a long-term programme (five years) undertaken by our goverment todevelop more structures and facilities to improve the social life of our people. It’s a
blueprint to provide the infra-structure, hospitals, education, health, defence, culture
programmes, research and development, etc. All agencies are required to deliver
their services to ensure the aim of our goverment will be reached.

Accordingly,

under RM-9, the Department of National Heritage also has a blueprint to develop
Lenggong Valley as a Heritage Valley. This programme was a future plan designed
to develop all the archaeological sites in Lenggong Valley as a world heritage
standard. All the archaeological sites will be protected in one zone to maintainevidence, as well as being a regional concept towards the development of wholeareas of cultural importance. These sites such as GTK, Gua Gunung Runtuh, Lawin,
Bukit Jawa and Gua Harimau did not exist as preserved sites and were isolated
before, now, however, the plan to develop all the sites in one whole area is a greatchance. And it will give more advantage to local communities to increase theirincome by selling their products such as handicrafts, local food, domestic tourism
etc. As well as the caves, mountains, hills, rivers, lakes, parks, gardens, culture andall that is environmentally natural provides an asset for the holistic development at
Lenggong Valley.

State
Governt(Perak)Federl(DHM)

RM-9– to develop
LenggValley as
heritage site

USM

Local
Institution(Land
Office)District
Local(Lenggon

The Department of National Heritage receives co-operative assistance fromagencies particularly State Government, local municipal governments, local
institutions, the land office and the important institution is the ArchaeologicalResearch Center, University Science of Malaysia (USM) which was the pioneer of
research at Lenggong Valley. Through research and excavation by USM, in the
Lenggong Valley there are archaeological sites such as Kota Tampan (dating back
74,000 yrs), Bukit Jawa (200,000 – 100,000 yrs), Bukit Bunuh (40,000 yrs), Lawin,
Gua Gunung Runtuh (10,000 yrs), Gua Badak, Gua Batu Tukang (2000 yrs), Gua
Dayak, Gua Harimau (4000 yrs) and GTK (8000 yrs). All sites are now under the
Department of National Heritage which proposes to register the sites under the
National Heritage Act 2005 later this year.

5.0

CONCLUSIONThe main focus of establishing the Department of National Heritage (DNH) was to take positive
action to preserve and conserve our national heritage sites. However, at the same time all Malaysian
peoples should be responsible and take part in the preservation and conservation of archaeologicalsites and remains, as they are our cultural heritage. GTK at Lenggong Valley is a real example ofwhere archaeologists fulfill their responsibilities to expose our heritage by research, analysis andpreservation of archaeological sites and remains.

REFERENCES
National Heritage Act 2005
Mokhtar Saidin. 2005. Cave formations of sites with skeletal remains in Lenggong, Perak. Dlm.
Zuraina Majid. 2005. The Perak Man and other prehistoric skeletons of Malaysia. Pnyt.
Pulau Pinang: Universiti Sains Malaysia. Hlm. 119-130.
Steven Chia Ming Soon. 1995. Prehistoric pottery sources and technology in Peninsular Malaysia
based on compositional and morphological studies. In. Monograph Department of Museum
and Antiquity Malaysia.
Teuku Jacob & Agus Soepriyo. 2005. A palaeonthrological study of the Gua Gunung Runtuh. In.
Zuraina Majid. 2005. The Perak Man and other prehistoric skeletons of Malaysia. Pnyt.
Pulau Pinang: Universiti Sains Malaysia. Pg. 33-43.
Zulkornian Hassan & Steven Chia Ming Soon. 2005. Gua Harimau, a prehistoric cemetery inLenggong, Perak. In. Zuraina Majid.

2005.

The Perak Man and other prehistoricskeletons of Malaysia. Pnyt. Pulau Pinang: Universiti Sains Malaysia. Pg. 363 – 382.
Zuraina Majid.

The excavation and analyses of Perak Man buried in Gua Gunung Runtuh,

Lenggong, Perak. In. Zuraina Majid.

2005.

The Perak Man and other prehistoricskeletons of Malaysia. Pnyt. Pulau Pinang: Universiti Sains Malaysia. Pg. 1-43.
Zuraina Majid at al. A skeleton from Gua Teluk Kelawar, Lenggong Dated 8,400 ± 40 bp. In.
Zuraina Majid. 2005. The Perak Man and other prehistoric skeletons of Malaysia. Pnyt.
Pulau Pinang: Universiti Sains Malaysia. Pg. 345-361.

Zuraina Majid. 2003. Arkeologi di Malaysia. Universiti Sains Malaysia, Pulau Pinang: Pusat
Penyelidikan Arkeologi Negara.

GTK burial site
Ground map showing the location of GTK.

Location of GTK skeleton in trench JZ3 (A)



GKT
skeleton

GTK in situ in the foetal position, buried with stone tools, faunal remains and shellsStone tools at GTK

Guano activities

Vandalism by irresponsible visitors

Excavation at GTKMaldives

Ahmed ZAMEER
Assistant Research Officer
National Centre for Linguistic and Historical Research

Problems and Need for Cultural Heritage Protection and Restoration Activities in theMaldives-- Mainly as concerns archaeological sites and remains.
The Maldives is a group of 1190 small, low-lying coral islands situated in the Indian Ocean. Of
these islands, some 200 are inhabited. The group’s total area, including land and sea, is about
90,000 sq km. Since the islands are small and low-lying, no island is more than a few feetabove sea level. The topic of this paper is the problems and needs for cultural heritage
protection and restoration activities in the Maldives, mainly as relates to archaeological sites.
Cultural heritage encompasses the values, beliefs, practices, institutions, monuments etc. of an
entire group of people.
The National Council for Linguistic and Historical Research, where I work in the Heritage
Department, is acutely aware of the need for cultural heritage protection and restoration, and of
the numerous problems associated with this arduous task. Today the term “Cultural Heritage”
has undergone a change. Once it encompassed the monumental remains of cultures. Now theconcept includes new categories, such as the intangible, ethnographic or industrial heritage.
Today, currently living cultures, as well as cultures of the past, are equally vital to the heritageof a nation. In today’s high-tech world, the documentary and digital heritage is rapidly
becoming part of the world’s cultural heritage. In most nations, including the developing
nations, cultural and educational resources are being produced and accessed in digital form,
rather than on paper. The need to preserve the intangible cultures, as well as the tangible, isvery great. For a developing third world country like Maldives, the problems associated with
cultural heritage protection and restoration are immense. For an island nation like Maldives,
where there is more sea than land, underwater heritage is also extremely important.
This paper deals more with archaeological sites and remains, which are an integral part of any
nation’s cultural heritage. Archaeological sites are associated with ideas or beliefs of a pastcivilization. In Maldives, with the conversion to Islam there was no total destruction of
Buddhist temples. Many in the capital Male’ would have been destroyed, but the sites all over
the archipelago were merely covered up and abandoned. Later some were excavated andinvestigated, but no restoration or preservation work was ever undertaken. This has resulted in
the loss or theft of important artifacts.
As the islands of the Maldives are far flung and isolated, the archaeological sites are also on
different islands, and access to them is somewhat difficult. As the vast spans of ocean separate
one island from another, transport between them is difficult and expensive. Archaeologicalremains exist on most islands. Archaeological excavations and other evidence illustrate the factthat Maldives has been populated for more than two thousand years. In Maldives there are no
mountains or hills. The islands are generally very flat, no more than 3 or 4 ft above sea level.
However, on several islands there are hemispherical mounds about 15 – 30 ft in height.
Research points to the fact that Buddhism existed in the islands since its arrival during the third
century BC. The mounds are what remain of the monasteries and temples built during the 1000
years or so in which Buddhism flourished in the Maldives. Most of the monasteries wereconstructed on large islands.
The first reference to archaeological sites in the Maldives was made in 1835. Mr. H. C. P Bellof the Ceylon Civil Service, who was stationed at Colombo in 1879, visited Maldives in 1879
and suggested that an archaeological survey would establish that Buddhism had flourishedthere. Later, in 1920 and 1922, Mr. Bell carried out some excavations, which established that
there were many Buddhist archaeological sites in the Maldives, dating back to pre-Islamictimes.
In Maldives, there are two types of archaeological sites: those that are on particular islands andthose about which nothing is known except their existence. The main problem we face today isthat resources available in the field of archaeology are very scarce. There is no skilled
manpower, materials or financing with which to carry out excavations scientifically. The
terrain and the climatic conditions of the Maldives are adverse factors when excavated sites are
kept exposed.
There are 128 known archaeological sites on 91 of the islands. Among these, some areconsidered to be sites of the pre-Islamic period. Earlier excavations were carried out by
amateur Maldivian teams on the islands of Fuah Mulaku, Thoddoo, Ariyadhu and Kin’bidhoo.
These excavations were not scientifically conducted and resulted in extensive and irreparable
damage to the sites. The ancient archaeological site of Kaashidhoo Kuruhinna Tharaagan’du is
the only scientifically investigated archaeological site in the Maldives. Kaashidhoo is a large
island, situated in Male’ atoll, a few miles north of the Capital, Male’. The navigation teams
that carried out the excavations did not bother to preserve the place.

Foreign archaeologists, such as the well-known explorer Thor Heyerdahl and Professor Egil
Mikkelsen of the University of Oslo, conducted excavations on different islands of theMaldives. These excavations disclosed structures built about 400 years before the advent ofIslam in the 12 th Century. Members of the Staff of the National Council for Linguistic andHistorical Research always worked with these foreigners in the excavation work.
Maldives being a group of islands, with more water than land within the country’s borders,
underwater archaeology is immensely important. More or less the same techniques could beapplied to the conditions of working underwater. In Maldives there are 48 known shipwrecks.
By finding more about the wrecks, more light would be shed on navigation in the Maldives andin the Indian Ocean as a whole. Historical wrecks, like vessels, aircraft and such underwater
objects, constitute the underwater cultural heritage. There are also submerged cities, andhuman objects like underwater cave paintings. This unique part of the heritage should beprotected from treasure seekers and looters who disregard all archaeological methods ofpreservation.
Other than archaeological sites and remains there are other historical and cultural monumentsthat are in urgent need of protection and restoration. The ancient mosques of Maldives,tombstones, monuments and artifacts in the National Museum are all part of our cultural
heritage that need to be preserved for all time.
The early history of the Maldives will come to light with proper excavation of the ancientarchaeological sites found on different islands. Preservation and conservation are serious
problems, due to lack of professional expertise. Cultural heritage protection is still a new andyoung discipline in the Maldives. We still have no qualified archaeologists or conservators. As
a result of awareness programs conducted by the NCLHR, the populace of the Maldives isgradually waking up to the fact that it is of vital importance to preserve our cultural heritage asa legacy for future generations. Only then can we understand our past. It is of the utmost
importance that the future learn from the past.

Micronesia

Jason N LEBEHN

Historic Preservation Specialist
Department of Land & Natural Resources

Problems and needs for cultural heritage protection in the Federated States of Micronesia(mainly concerning archaeological sites and remains)

The Federated States of Micronesia consists of four states: Pohnpei, Yap, Chuuk, and Kosrae.
The FSM comprises the Eastern and Western Caroline Islands and its total land area is just
270.8 square miles stretched over more than one million square miles of the Western Pacific
Ocean.
Pohnpei is the capital of FSM and the largest and highest among all the state islands. This
classic high volcanic island is well known for its historical site, Nanmadol, a vast stone city on
a manmade island.
Yap is a high island lying the farthest to the western side of the FSM states. It is known for its
dancing grounds and stone monies.
Chuuk is situated between Yap and Pohnpei state.

It is best known for the under waterarchaeological sites of WWII sunken vessels.
Kosrae, the island of the sleeping lady, is located farthest east and closest to the equator of all
the states. It is known for its Lelu ruins, similar to the Nanmadol structures in Pohnpei state.
It is true that the FSM is culturally and linguistically Micronesian, but each Island state has its
own distinct rich culture and languages with different customs and traditions.

European,Japanese and American cultures have strongly influenced these cultures and provide a common
thread throughout all of them. Because of these influences, more problems and the needs for
cultural heritages protection increased
Like most countries, development may be the most common thread among all the problems in
the FSM. Since most people from the FSM are now highly influenced by foreign cultures,clearing of land for building modern houses near or within an archaeological site does notbother them. Even the government sometimes doesn’t care, building a recreational facility for
the FSM games is more important to them. Sometimes political and financial issues are a
problem, the government may build a facility for a financial source like apartments, or maybe
lease land on which a historically significant heritage exists.
Another major problem is natural causes, erosion or natural disasters and of course over-growntrees will naturally demolish or deform the physical characteristics of sites if not carefully
protected.

Sometimes visitors are the problem, they sometimes remove or misplace any

removable remains or artifacts to where they please. Sometimes the institutes or researchers
who took artifacts outside for detailed analysis create problems, some never return them.
The true major problem of protecting the archaeological sites in the FSM from my own
personal point of view is the lack of work effort and building capacity between the agencies
and landowners. For example, if someone does not have enough land and needs more planting
space it is easy to get (for an archaeological site, the agencies must consult the landowners forinvestigation and try their best to convince the landowner otherwise). Poor legislation on theprotection of cultural heritages is a definite problem. The government must determine a way toprotect all the historical sites for the benefits of youth or younger generations. These problems
are just among the few problems encountered at this stage in the FSM.

Ever since theintroduction of foreign cultures into the FSM, money which is power and the main source ofliving today has totally wrecked some of our pride and heritages. Poor management and poor
public awareness within the state causes even more damage to our cultural heritages.
The need of all the states of the FSM is basically, more support and assistance from theknowledgeable countries on financial issues, field methodologies and protection program areas.
The FSM is an under or non-developed country which has a vast variety of cultural heritages
that must be recognized locally, regionally and nationally. Most archeological sites in the FSM
need to be restored, rehabilitated and most important, preserved and protected.
Since I am from the State of Pohnpei, the rest of the report will be based on the problems andneeds of Pohnpei State, which I strongly believe is similar to the rest of the FSM states.
Pohnpei State has one of the most outstanding archaeological sites in the FSM, Nan Madol
Ruins. This monumental complex is now on the U.S. National Registry list of Historical Places
and National Landmarks. Hopefully by the end of this fiscal year, it will be a grandfather tothe Pohnpei state registry of historical places. Like most of the archaeological sites throughout
the FSM, it is owned by several land shareholders. The demand of each landowner varies whenit comes to access the site and fees for entering each land property. For the government to beable to protect the site, they must somehow provide for the demands of each landowner. Theseissues not only create problems for the government to protect the area but create problems andgreat disputes among the landowners. The site was recently being prepared for the government
to help maintain it but it was not able to maintain the full integrity of the site. Overgrown trees
have caused the interior wall of the most intact structure, Nan Douwas to collapse.

Thestructure might be possible to restore but more funding and manpower is needed for a careful
investigation and restoration of the collapsed sections. This is the same at most of the similararchitectural structures, such as Lelu of Kosrae State.
A tentative list of potential archaeological sites were submitted by all the states of FSM to theWorld Heritage list, World Parks and State registry of Historical places for nomination andregistration. Owing to poor legislation and upgrading of criteria for registries such important
progression is difficult. Working through the system is complicated and must be thoroughly
explained to all involved agencies for clearer and smoother flow.
Another problem is lack of manpower and skills of the responsible agencies. Like for instance,
Pohnpei state, only one field surveyor is available and management needs to be improved forbetter preservation and protection of sites. Sending trainees or hiring professional expertise to
do more intense training requires a lot of funding of which we have a limited supply.
Public needs and demands are important too but create problems as well. Problems of building
houses for shelter and farming land for food for the people must be solved. My own thinking isthat if a family or person has no choice but to destroy or disfigure an archaeological site forsuch purposes, it might be better for the government to somehow find a replacement of public
land or property for use.
Tourism is one of the major contributors of economics for Pohnpei State, tourist andresearchers are welcome to visit the sites. But because people have different personalities,
abuse and removal of remains have disturbed the physical characteristics of the site.
Researchers may be a problem if taking artifacts away for further analysis and never return itor probably keep or sell it or maybe dismantle the site just to find what they need and neverbother to restore to its most original state, which I believe won’t happen but just a minor
concern.
There are other problems concerning traditional heritages and oral histories of the FSM. All
the states have a unique cultural and traditional heritage. Nowadays, the older generations or
historical informants are passing away and need to be interviewed in regard to locating historicsites.

Enough of problems, I think its best to go to the needs now. Need for all the states of FSM is
simple, more money to run the show or go back to the past when outside influences were notintroduced. My own personal belief, the protection of cultural heritage within the states needs
help from any available source from any nation who is willing to support it.
FSM is a very small nation but rich in cultural Heritages compared to some other countries but
has a vast selection of rich cultural heritages, which I’d like to share with anybody anytime, itwould be my pleasure.

Mongolia

Batbold NATSAG
Archaeologist
Mongolian Academy of Sciences
Institute of Archaeology
Department of Bronze, Early Iron Age and Khunnu

Institute of Archaeology
The Mongolian Institute of Archaeology is the main institute which runs primarilyarchaeological research and the safeguarding of archaeological properties and findings. Thisinstitue was established in 2002 as an independent Institute. Our institute is under the authorityof the Mongolian Academy of Sciences, there are 16 institutes.
Our institute has been running research works in the fields of the Palaeolithic, mezolithic andneolithic ages, Bronze and early Iron Ages, Khunnu and ancient states period, Mongolian
dynasties period, Paleoanthropological and paleozoology research and Restoration ofarchaeological findings. Archaeological research started in Mongolia at the end of the 19th
century. One of the earliest, long-term joint Mongolian-Russian expeditions was established in
1920. Since the 1990s, our research cooperation has broadened. Various scientific institutions
from other countries such as Russia, Korea, USA, Japan, Germany, France, Turkey, Belgium
and Italy have been motivated to undertake archaeological research with us.
Every year our institute conducts over 10 joint archeological research projects. Generally each
expedition has one conservator from the financial supporter country for immediate
conservation of the findings. Conservators from Mongolia do not have the chance to be
involved on the site excavation. Many archaeological artifacts are found by joint research
expeditions. There have been more than 20.000 archeological findings from the Palaeolithic
Age. Archaeological findings include stone, leather, wood, iron, bronze, ceramics, silver andgold artefacts etc. These findings are brought to our institute. We generally take photographs,
carry out documentation and some cleaning and some restoration of archaeological findings. .
Some objects are sent to the Center of Mongolian Cultural Heritage for further conservation
treatment.
Because our institute doen’t yet have a good laboratory we send samples to some foreigncountries for dating and material analysis.

Cultural heritage of Mongolia and archaeological survey
The broad land of Mongolia has a history and a culture that have been built up over the courseof several thousand years of human habitation, and is regarded as one of the cradles ofcivilization.
Research of Palaeolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic Ages:
The Mongolian-Russian-American joint Palaeolithic expedition has unearthed evidence thatproves that about 750.000 – 800.000 (seven hundred fifty thousand to eight hundred
thousand) years ago early hominoids were living in the present Mongolian territory.
Stone tools: Many stone tools have been found in Mongolia. Early Man fashioned stone tools.
As he began to acquire finer skills in the working of stone, he made not only weapons but also
all kinds of jewelry, implements and stone monuments, and began to learn how to construct
villages and towns.

Palaeolithic (HOIT TSENHER AGUY CAVE) petroglyphs: Mongolia isrich in rock paintings that constitute archaeological relics of ancient man's
multifaceted primitive, social and cultural life. By the style and manner ofdrawing, chronologically these petroglyphs pertain to different historicalperiods.
In 1952 a geographer O.Namnandorj was the first to discover ancientdrawings in the Hoit Tsenher Aguy Cave of the Manhan Sum in Hovd Aimag.
Later, academician A.P.Okladnikov made an independent study and publishedseveral scientific articles where he suggests that those petroglyphs related to
the Palaeolithic period, a notion, which the overwhelming majority of scholars
and researchers have come to support. The Hoit Tsenher Aguy Cave is situated
25 km to the west of Manhan Sum centre and is a limestone cave. Its innerheight is nearly 15 m, length is 30 m and width is almost 40 m. There areseveral ancient drawings on the rear wall in the northern part of the cave.
There are many types of animals, wood and a number of dots drawn on thebrighter wall of the cave. The male animals may be recognized by the way they
are drawn standing still and by the way a male deer, for example, is drawn
with big horns. There are also elephants, ostriches, wild goats and bison drawn
on the ceiling in the corners of the cave. It is very interesting that there aremany dots above the ostrich. Similarly, there is a two-hump camel drawn inprofile. Thus scientists have established that a tradition of cave painting ofanimals and different figures originated in the Upper Palaeolithic period.
Many cave paintings such as in the Von de Gom, Lyasko, Castillio, ThreeBrother Cave, montinyak, Combarelle, Nio and Altamir found in Western
Europe, France and Spain have been studied in depth. Scientists now consider
that cave painting, which is a most ancient classical relic of primitive art as
originating in Western Europe is no longer valid because relics from the
Palaeolithic period are being found in Eastern Europe, the Near East, Siberia
and Central Asia.
Scientists have also established that the Hoit Tsenher Aguy Cave paintings
are similar to the petroglyphs pertaining to the Western European Palaeolithic
period. A number of dots above the animals in the Hoit Tsenher Aguy cave
paintings are similar to the petroglyphs in the western European Palaeolithic
period. A number of dots above the animals in the Hoit Tsenher Aguy cave
paintings denoting the number of animals is a characteristic feature of
Palaeolithic period art. Trees drawn in the Hoit Tsenher Aguy cave paintings
are also similar to those Palaeolithic period paintings found in Western
European caves such as Castillio and Nio.
There is a good reason to attribute these petroglyphs to the Upper
Palaeolithic period because apart from deer, wild sheep, camels and bison
depicted on the cave paintings in Hoit Tsenher Aguy cave which exist evennow, there are tigers, elephants and ostrich which once inhabited ancient
Mongolia but later disappeared.
Research of Bronze and Early Iron Ages:
The Mongolian-Russian-American "Altai" expedition team discovered substantial rock art sites
known as "Tsagaan salaa and Baga-Oigor”; these sites are of cultural significance because theyshow how artistic values are very influential in understanding ancient culture, particularly
Bronze Age culture in Western Mongolia and Altai regions.

Slab graves: Also known as "square graves" are generally constructed of fourslabs of stone as an open box, with deer stone; the dead body is buried 1-2
meters beneath the ground. Such graves date back to the Bronze and Iron Ages
(12-3 centuries B.C.) and spread from the Altai ridges to the Mongolian
eastern plateau, from Baikal Lake to the Gov areas. Square graves are locatedon low hilltops, passes in groups of 2-3 and usually are located at the foothills,
in valleys and plateaus at tens or dozens at a time. Excavations of the squaregraves have been carried out in the basins of Herlen, Tuul, Onon, Hurh andOrhon rivers as well as in the Mongolian eastern plateau. Similarly,
excavations were made in the Baikal Lake areas. Researchers divide the square
graves into following four categories:
Σ.with high stone statues in the four corners;
Τ.with low flat stone walls;
Υ. with four disc-type walls;
Φ. with high walls.
Excavations of square graves typically reveal bones of wild and domestic animals, pottery
fragments, decorative bronze buttons, beads, and ornamental items made of gold or semiprecious stones.

Burial mounds: The Central Asian nomadic people created ceremonial andcultural relics such as burial mounds. A burial mound consists of a round circle
made of stones in the center, a round or square frame made of upright stones
and 10-150 stone surrounding piles. They are located on flat plateaus, in theriver valleys, at the foothills, on the hilltops and mountain passes. In central
and western parts of Mongolia impressive burial mounds are widely found,however, in the eastern part there are very few. Archaeological excavations of
the big burial mounds are in the initial stage but there is no doubt that they
have to be studied scientifically.
The excavations of the ancient graves in Southern Baikal, Tuva, Southern Siberia, and Central
Asia reveal that larger graves belong mostly to the Early Bronze and Iron age. Some scholars
make an interesting suggestion that ancient graves are not only archaeological relics but may
also constitute artefacts of ancient architecture and astronomy.
Deer stone: The nomadic herdsmen of those times constructed stone mounds and stone-flagged
graves of great size, and used great skill in the beautiful execution of carved “deer stones”. The“deer stones” were originally created in the Bronze and Early Iron ages by the tribes inhabiting
the territory of Mongolia, Baikal Lake and Tuva Altai Mountain areas. “Deer stones” areerected mainly one by one on plateaus, in valleys, at foothills and on small hilltops andcomprise of up to 20 stones at a time as a composition of burial mounds or memorialconstruction. The “deer stones” are between one and four meters high. The four sides of a long
oblong stone are nicely trimmed and the total surface is divided vertically into three bands. Allaround the stone in the upper section are images of the sun and moon, and in the middle section
are many deer, leaping and flying. The lower section is decorated with carvings of knives,
swords, bows and quivers, battle axes, hooks, mirrors and so on.

In fact “deer stones” are the most ancient anthropomorphic monumental sculpture. To make a“deer stone” it requires drawing, craftsmanship and carving skill as well as painstaking efforts,
hard labour, time and workmanship. “Deer stones” are erected and located at specially selected
locations, surrounded by beautiful nature, as burial mounds or memorial constructions intended
for the public observation. Judging by size, form, substance and intention they are remarkablemonumental sculptural works. Scientists of these stone monuments estimate that they range inage from the second millennium to the third century BC.
Until now over 500 “deer stones” have been found of which about 450 are on the territory ofMongolia and the rest are found in the southern Baikal, Tuva and in the Russian Altai areas. A
few stones with deer drawings on them very similar to the “deer stones” have been found in
Kazakhstan, Central Asian states, Orenburg province, the Caucasus, Black Sea, Bulgaria andElbe. Scientists consider that “deer stones” were not intended for transportation nor were
movable to one place or another. They were created by warriors who strictly respected theircountry's traditions and left behind them on-site relics. The fact that ancient relics of “deerstones” are still found in the territory of Mongolia confirms that these relics first appeared in
the middle of the Bronze Age in the central part of Mongolia, in the Early Iron Age they spreadto Central Asia and further to the Caucasus, Black Sea, Bulgaria and Elbe. They were notcreated by resident settlers but by nomads reflecting their historical, social, demographic andintellectual development and representing relics of Mongolia's ancient history and culture.
Petroglyphs: Mongolia is home to many thousands of carved and painted rock images,
typically depicting men and animals in hunting scenes. The petroglyphs are classicallyinterpreted as having a ritual function, as elements of a thanksgiving ceremony or as a call ofanimals to the hunt; series of dots placed next to certain animal figures appear to represent the
number of animals of the same species. Petroglyphs originating in the Palaeolithic age spreadwidely during the Early Bronze and Iron age and became common in Mongolia. It is with goodreason that scholars refer to Mongolia as an “infinite stock” of petroglyphic drawings. The
people of that period cut stones to portray such animals as wild goat, deer, roe deer, wild ram,fox, wolf and domestic animals like horses, cattle, camels and hunters, and armed warriors as
well. Though real animal pictures prevail in them, a number of stylized pictures of deer withbird-like mouths, large round eyes, beautiful spiral antlers can also be seen. This “patterndesign” of deer and other animals was wide spread in the steppes arts of Asia and Europe
during the Early Iron age. Numerous archaeological relics of the Bronze age like deermonuments, petroglyphic drawings, bronze knives with engravings of wild ram and goat heads,
golden clips show that primitive art “animal pattern design” spread in Central Asia, particularly
in Mongolia during the Bronze age. The art relics created through “animal pattern design” areimportant artefacts and are evidence ofeconomic and cultural relations during the Early

Bronze and Iron age in Asia and Europe.

Research of Ancient states period
The Hunnu period is also one of the subject areas attracting study in Mongolian archaeology.
The Mongolia-France joint project "The First Nomadic Empire" team has been successfully
excavating Hunnu tombs in the Central Mongolia since 2000.
The Institute of Archaeology, Mongolian and Korean National Museum archaeologists haveaccomplished their goal of organizing the annual "Mon-Sol" project since 1997. The objectivesof the "Mon-Sol" project are to explore the interactions between both nations' culture andgenealogy.
The hunnus are people who established their statehood first from among the Central asiannomadic peoples and played an important role in history. Since the indigenous territory of
Hunnus stretched from Baikal Lake in the north to the Gov in the south and from the Hyangan
mountains in the east to the Altai mountain range in the west, there are numerous
archaeological graves, settlement remains and petroglyphic drawings left. There are over 2500
graves of both noblemen and laymen in 50 places such as Aimags as Arhangai, Uvurhangai,
Tuv, Bulgan, Huvsgul, Uvs, Hovd, Gov-Altai, Dundgov, Hentii and Selenge. The Hunnu
graves are in their tens when few and in over two-hundred when many. The grave of a layman
has a stone barrier of 5 to 13 meters and the body is placed inside a wooden coffin or stone
enclosures to a depth of 1-7 m underground. The clothes, weapons, decorations and utensils of
the dead person are also placed in the grave. The grave of a hunnu nobleman is bigger than thatof a layman and required more efforts to prepare the site. Graves of Hunnu noblemen are foundin places like the Noyon mountain in Tuv Aimag, Duurlig and Bor Bulag in Hentii Aimag. The
grave of nobleman has a square stone barrier of 14x14 to 50x50m. The barrier has on its south
side an opening of up to 22,5 m long and the body is kept in a wooden coffin inside double
timber enclosures to a depth of up to 14 m underground. The clothes, decorations, weapons,
utensils and other possessions of the dead noble are also placed in the grave.

Turkic monument: The Turkic people emerged on the political arena of
Middle Asia, Kazakhstan, Southern Siberia and Central Asia by establishing
their kingdoms twice in the 6 to 7 th centuries.
The first Turkic khaganate existed from 552 to 630 and the second
khaganate from 682-745. There are, therefore, quite a number of historicalrelics of the Turkic period. These include tomb graves of noblemen, altars,
shining monuments, statue-stones, zel stones, rock scripts and petroglyphic
drawings. A large group of statues was found in the eastern part of the countryfrom the Turk period. Known locally as "man-stones", such statues have been
attributed to Turkic and Mongol peoples of the Middle Ages. Their precise
function is unknown, but it is possible that these statues originally served as
funeral monuments or as supports to ancestor-worship traditions. Statue-stones
are relics erected at the sites of memorial complexes of noblemen, stone fences
and ancient graves. They can also be found erected separately. Most of thestatue-stones were cut to portray a man's head, face, eyes, nose, mouth, ears,
beards and arms in his sleeves, utensils and weapons. Most of the statue-stones
have broad faces, a narrow beard, earrings and a glass in his right hand and aloose left arm. They are portrayed with narrow hide belts with spots and with
fire-generating devises in its bag on the west and a knife and sword in front.
Some of the statue-stones were cut to show the details of person's peculiarities
so that one could recognize him; others were cut to show a man's head and facein general.
Stone fences: The other important memorial relic relating to the Turkic period
is stone fences. One may often come across square fences of flat stones erectedon their sides and fences with stone floors. Stone fences are found in singles
and in sets. The fences usually have statue-stones and “zel stones” on the eastor south of them.
Square fences are widely spread in the central and western parts of Mongolia and researchers
usually relate them to the 6 to 7 th centuries. Square fences, statue-stones, zel stones are also
found in the eastern part of the country, for instance, in Hentii Aimag. Some of them wereexcavated and studied by H.Perlee who made an interesting suggestion in that those memorials
in the eastern part of the country might belong to the Kidans.
The Mongolian-Turkish joint project has been undertaking a successful study in the Orkhon
River Valley, World Heritage Site.
Research of Mongolian Dynasties period:
Research of an ancient town site: It has become a truism widespread in many places that,
because the Mongols adopted a nomadic pastoral economy, they did not build towns or villages.
And yet we know from archaeological research and from written documents those peoples ofMongol origin were establishing towns about 2000 years ago and that they were erecting
buildings of a very distinctive architecture. Archaeological evidence of more than 200 ancient
towns has so far been discovered on Mongolian territory.

Kharakhorum: The 13th-century capital of the Mongol Empire. The city was built in 1220 on
the orders of Genghis Khan and was founded on the site of a city previously occupied during
the Uighur period. Around the city was a large square wall, with gates in the middle. Within
the city were separate districts occupied by artisans and craftsmen, traders, administrators andprivate citizens. Because the Khans of Mongolia in those days honored all religious faiths, atotal of 12 worshipping places where Christian, Buddhist and Islam believers actively held
services exist. We know from archaeological research that Karakorum was a great centre formetalwork and other handicrafts. The city had an iron and steel foundry well advanced for its
time.
Excavation of this site was started in 1890 by a Mongolian-Russian archaeologists’ joint
expedition. Evidence of other early Mongolian cities of this time is still being discovered andresearched. Many artefacts have been unearthed. Since 1999, a Mongolian and Germanarchaeologists joint expedition has been carrying out archaeological excavations and they
discovered one king’s palace, four round ovens used for the baking of roof-tiles, bricks andornamental construction materials, traces of khanz heating systems, which run under the floorsof the houses and traces of an iron smithy and site of casting of precious metals.
Mongolian-German archaeological institutes have managed the joint "Kharkhorum" projectsince 1999. The project is exploring the ancient capital of Mongolia and conducting
archaeological excavations as well as geomagnetic geological surveys.
Mongolian-Japanese joint project "Newcentury" has been effectively undertaking

archaeological excavations in the "Aurag" ruin of Genghis Khan's period.

Mongolian statue-stones: Over recent years about 60 Mongolian statue-stones
have been found on Mongolia's territory mainly in the eastern region.
By their design, shape, clothing (headdress, garments, belts, footwear,
ornaments, etc.) experts claim that the statue-stones are of Mongolian origin
and date back to the 13-14th centuries.
Dr. D.Bayar, researcher at the Institute of History, Academy of Sciences
made a study on the statue- stones for his Ph.D. (History) in 1991
substantiating the above version which is a widely shared view held by
scientists and researchers in a number of foreign countries.
Earlier it was thought that statue-stones found in Central Asia andMongolia related to the Turkic period.

Turkic relics found in Mongolia date back to the 7-8th centuries. Their
pattern is entirely different. While Turkic statue-stones are situated in an
upright position, the Mongolian statue-stones are in a sitting position.
Statue-stones of such type are found in the Shiliin Gol province of Inner Mongolia, The
People's Republic of China, which proves that statue-stones are of Mongolian origin. The factthat similar statue-stones attributable to the medieval history of Mongolia exist on Cheju Islandof South Korea requires further in-depth study.

Mongolian graves: Mongolian graves can be identified by the oval-shapestone dam on their surface. The dam is usually 175-320 cm long and 400-75
cm wide, and the construction stones are laid down thickly. Mongolian graves
can be found from 2-3 at a time to more than 20, mainly on the mountainslopes, hilltops, mountain passes and along the river helix.
Inside the Mongolian graves of 13-15 th centuries the man is buried with his head to the northalong with his possessions like bow and arrows, quiver, saddle, knife, gold and bronze
engraved belt, gold and precious stone decorations, earrings, bronze mirror etc. However,Mongolian great khan's graves and other noble persons graves have not as yet been found.
Monasteries: From the 16 th century Buddhism spread in Mongolia, and Buddhists started tobuild monasteries and temples. At the beginning of the 20th century there were more than 700
temples and monasteries in Mongolia. Every one of these had its own particularities and all
were exceptional examples of oriental architecture. The buildings are made of wood, brick andstone, and the main wooden props are set in stone foundations. There were highly specialized
religious schools in operation at that time training architects, artists and sculptors.

Fig. #1 001

Fig. #1 002

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Fig. #1 004

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Fig. #1 006

Fig. #1 007

Fig. #1 008

Fig. #1 009

Fig. #1 010

Fig. #1 012

Fig. #1 013

Fig. #1 014

Fig. #1 015

Fig. #1 016

Fig. #1 017

Fig. #1 018

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NepalSaraswati SINGH
Chief
Monument Conservation & Supervision office
Department of Archaeology

EXCAVATION ACTIVITIES IN NEPAL WITH SPECIAL
REFERENCE TO RAMAGRAMA STUPA

Introduction: The Kingdom of Nepal is a small country geographically situated between two large countries– China on its north while India is to the south, east & west. Geographically it lies between thelatitude 26 0 22' to 30 0 27 'n and longitude 80 0 4' to 88 0 12 ' east. The Kingdom covers an area of
147,181 sq km. (56827 sq. miles).
Himalayas,

Trans

Himalayas,

It is divided into four topographical zones, the great

MiddleHimalayas & Tarai or hot tropical flatland.
The highest zone is the great Himalayas innorthern Nepal. Eight of the 14 highest
mountains in the world including Mt.
Everest (8848 m.) are located in Nepal.
The Tarai, generally flat and fertile
lowland is the southernmost topographic
zone of Nepal. Most of this area comprises
the northern extreme of the Gangatic plainof India. The majority of excavatedarchaeological sites are located in thiszone.
Nepal has a population of 25 million. The
Nepalese indigenous population comprises
two major groups-The Indo -Nepalese
whose ancestors migrated to the country
from the south and the Tibeto Nepalese
whose ancestors entered Nepal from the north. The majority of the population practiceHinduism and Buddhism. Buddha the founder of Buddhism was born at Lumbini in present day
Nepal to the southwest of the capital city, Kathmandu.

As other nations of the world, Nepal is also rich in tangible and intangible cultural Heritages. It
is a home to and equally famous for ethnic diversity due to the geographical topography of thecountry. Numerous communities live there and are quite different one from other. Therefore,
the culture produced by them has made Nepal rich in ancient monuments as well. There areeight ancient Monument Sites listed in as World Heritages by UNESCO. Nepal is also rich inarchaeological sites. Many archaeological sites are scattered throughout the country ranging
from the pre-historic to historic period.

The Majority of the ancient excavated archaeological sites are related to Buddha and his life.
Among them are Lumbini, Kapilvastu and Ramgrama (or Devdaha-the natal town of Mayadevi,
the Mother of Buddha).

Excavated cultural heritage in Nepal
The history of excavation is little over a century old in Nepal. After the discovery of an
Ashokan pillar by some unknown person in unknown circumstances at Lumbini, the firstexcavation, although not regarded as a scientific one, was conducted by Khadga Shumser in
1896. The result was of great importance as the Lumbini; the birthplace of lord Buddha wasdiscovered there.
The second so called scientific excavation was conducted by A. Fuhrer at Sagarhawa in
1898/99. Dr. Fuhrer was recruited by ASI as an archaeologist from the English government ofIndia to supervise the excavation work conducted and funded by the Nepalese Government; but
it turned out to be more devastating than expected. The site was recorded by P.C. Mukherjee
the following year, who also undertook reconnaissance around the area and discovered thetown of Kapilvastu in Tilaurakot mound.
The real scientific and well-documented excavation was done or {started} by P.C. Mukharjee
in Nepal in 1899. After Mukharjee, Lumbini was further excavated by Keshar Shumser in
1932-1938 but it was a more simple dig and included the preservation of the Mayadevi Temple.
The temple of Mayadevi, which we see now in Lumbini was and is the prototype of this project.
After 1960 the major excavation works resumed in Nepal. Of them Devala Mitra worked in
Kapilvastu, Kodan and Lumbini but her result was more somewhat negative evidence.

Immediately after her negative result, The Nepal government started to dig in Lumbini and it
was the first scientific excavation conducted by the government of Nepal.
During the 1970s, Risso University took great pains to dig in Tilaurakot. They worked foralmost a decade and established the antiquity of Tilaurakot mound from NBP to the Neolithic
period. Their photographic and drawing report is still the landmark report to study about
Tilaurakot.
Side by side the DOA was also excavating in Lumbini and Tilaurakot during the 1970s and1980s, which resulted in many things from Lumbini and Tilaurakot. Many stupas were openedin Lumbini and two entrance gates (East and West) in Kapilvastu.
Later the Japan Buddhist Foundation started to work on the conservation of Mayadevi temple
at Lumbini in 1992, which led to the discovery of a marker stone. The marker stone was placedby some unknown people on the spot where Lord Buddha first trod the earth. The veneration of
the spot was being paid by the people from the very early phase of Buddha's life. It was a great
discovery and is now another landmark of Lumbini, after the great stone pillar erected by
Ashoka.
During the 1990s another breakthrough in the archaeologicalhistory of Nepal was the

excavation of pre-historic caves in the trans – Himalayan region of Mustang. Humanoccupation in some caves was found to be as old as three thousand years old.
Around the turn of the century Ramagrama Stupa was put to the excavation spade, a dig which
the writer is going to present in more detail here.

A Brief Introduction of Ramagrama
Lord Buddha went into Nirvana at Kushinagar at the age of eighty. He was cremated there andhis bodily relics were divided into eight parts and were distributed to eight claimant states andethnic groups. The recipients were:
Bulis of Alakappa

Mallas of Kushinagar

Mallas of Pava

The King of Magadha

Brahmins of Bethdwipa

Shakyas of Kapilvastu

Lichhavis of Vaishali

Koliyas of RamagramaRamagrama was populated then by the Koliyans. Since they received one part of the relics, theold king of Ramgrama, as mentioned in old Buddhist scriptures and written about by Chinese
pilgrims, built the stupa containing the relics of the Lord.
After building the Stupas containing the relics of Buddha, these sites became the center ofpilgrimage and devotion.
Emperor Ashoka visited those sites along with the Ramagrama stupa in the third century before
Christ. Then came Fa-Hsian and Hieun Tsiang from China. Ho-Che also from China was thelast pilgrim to make a pilgrimage to those especially eight Dhatu stupas.
After that, Ramagrama went into oblivion and in 1896 Dr. Hoey visited the stupa but did not
speculate it as being Ramagrama.
Bhichhu Shakyananda in 1964/65 speculated that mound was of Ramagrama and later weight
was added to the speculation by B.K. Rijal. Rijal was an archaeologist. Therefore, it was
accepted by the government and academic circles as well.

In 1998, the Nepal Government, started to excavated the mound and found the tantalizing resultof three phases of stupa evolution. The core of the stupa remains to be opened. The evolution
phase gives the convincing evolution history of the stupa. There are three distinctive phases ofthe stupa already recorded. They are from Mauryan Sunga/Kushana and the Gupta period. The
stupa was abandoned in the 6/7 th century.

Location:
All Buddhist literatures mention
Devdaha to the east of Lumbini.
Fa-Hian,thefamoustraveller in the 5thChinesecentury AD

visited the Ramagrama Stupa after
walking five Yojan east of Lumbini
garden.

Hieun-Tsiang,

anotherfamous Chinese traveller, came toRamagrama after walking morethan 200 Li towards the east from
Lumbini in the 7 th century AD.
Both distances, 5 yogan or 200 li equals 40 miles approx.
The site is located in 83 0 41' 05" east and 27 0 29' 55" north at the height of 107 m from MSL. It
lies south of the headquarters of Nawal Parasi District at a distance of 4.5.km. Nawalparasi isabout 250 k.m. South-west of Kathmandu. It is about 75 km east of Lumbini.

Need for the excavation
The main aim of the excavation was to detect the mound supposed to be stupa by some scholars
and merely a heap of bricks due to the collapse of some buildings by others. Six seasons of full
excavation revealed the site through the historical period of Mouryans to Gupta. Since thecenter is still waiting to be exposed, the antiquity may go well before Mouryans.

Excavation activities and findings of Ramagram Stupa
Mud Stupa (At the Center)
Although no actual evidence as yet, the excavator has speculated that a mud stupa at the core of
the mound because it is such a huge construction would not have been created just for the fun.
There should be some sort of important object of veneration inside it, which could be the mud
stupa with the content of something important. That can be nothing but the relics of Lord
Buddha!
From the study of the currently exposed structures, the mud structure has been conjectured to
be about 20 m in diameter and less than three meters in height. This guess is judged on thecontemporary Stupa of Vaishali in India.

Brick structure of circular plan
The mud structure (if any) wascovered by a huge brick structure
outside. The bricks are the largest in
size from the area and measure
7x26/27x40/41 cm. The thickness ofthe structure should not be less than 4
meters and diameter of this structure
exceeds

36.5

meters.

Veryfew

portions of it could be exposed. The
height of the in-situ structure isrecorded up to 115 cm only. There are
only 15 courses of bricks in - situ andone more on top of it in circularalignment. This phase of structure temple of Lumbini is attributed to the Mouryan period, witha comparative study of Mayadavi temple in Lumbini.

Cruciform structure
A structure on the cruciform plan has been erected on top of the first phase circular base. The
four extended parts of this structure are almost aligned to the edge of the circular structure
below, and four corners go beyond the circular alignment. The height of this structure, from thestudy, shows it to be nearly 7 m high with walls decorated with pilasters and carved bricks. The
carvings on the bricks from this structure are not of the molded type but have been cut before
firing. The design of the cuttings is also simpler. The motifs are more geometric than the floral
designs. All dorsal and ventral corners are decorated with the carved pilasters. The area of thisstructure measures on average 37 meters north to south and the same length east to west.

Octagonal structure:
Above the cruciform structure is raised another decorative structure in octagonal form. The
walls of this structure are also decorated as in the lower structure. The height exceeds little
over a meter only. All eight corners of the octagon are adorned with carved bricks and fivepilasters are erected in between two corners. The size of this structure is 24 meters in diameterand each of the eight arms measures 10.25 in length. There is a nice pathway created in
between the edge of the cruciform structure and the base of this octagon wall. The area wasafterwards paved with brick concrete and grit in order to arrest the rain percolation inside thestructure.

Above this structure rises the brick dome of the stupa. We do not know exactly how big andhow high this dome structure is. Some more clearance on top of the mound is necessary inorder to know this. The dome should be not less than 7.5 m in diameter and at least threemeters in height from the top of the octagonal structure. If the dome was a truncated shape likein Kushinagar then the height could go up more than that. The Chinese travellers have written
the height of the stupa to be of 100 chi or nearly 85 ft. nearly. Besides, the main stupa, four
locations have been noticed with subsurfacial structural remains. Out of those four remains two
are distinctively the monastic complex. Two need more data. We conjecture that they are also amonastic complex.
Monastic complex next to stupa:
1. Size 13.5x13.5 m
2. 2.40 m wide rooms no dividing walls: noticed because of its organic nature; it wasrotted.
2. Bricks 2 sizes: 6x19x30, 6x23x36cm (shows two distinctive phases)
3. As many as 32 courses of bricks are left, in-situ.
4. Stupa at the courtyard. 115x115 cm: 6 courses of bricks left, brick size 5x19x29cm
reused ones: rests on top of flood level.
5. No tiles at all found, showing the roof also to be made of organic materials.

Monastic No. II
1. Only Partially opened. Brick sizes-5x26x37, 5x20x32cm
2. Almost to the size of monastery no. 1.

Praying Platform
1. Size 8x17 m: middle portion measures 4x4.5 m and is found raised half a meter higher.
2. Central raised portion aligns to the center of the main stupa and is linked to a paved
street. The platform is 25 cm higher than its surroundings.
3. The thickness of the wall is 80-85 cm, brick size is 4x20x34cm, 18 courses of bricks
are left in situ.

Antiquities and small finds:
Three remarkable terracotta heads are retrieved from the excavation. Two of the figures arefemale and one belongs to a man. All of them were found from the disturbed layer of stupa.
Thus none of them were in their original context. Fortunately the face parts of them all are safe
but the polish has gone due to the acidic content of the deposits. Those are considered as themasterpiece on the terracotta molding found at Ramgram. It can be assumed to be the art
creation of Gupta. The lower lips are heavily protruding outwards, the relic of the nose isnoticeably high with a flat top; the ears are pierced with big holes for heavy ornaments. The
hair is curly.

Carved Stone Pieces:
Many pieces of carved stones were found at the Eastern part of the Stupa. Such quality of stone
was not found in Nepal. Therefore, it is speculated to have been imported from India.

During the life of more than two thousand years the stupa and the surroundings of Ramagrama
have gone through many changes. The stupa evolved for nearly thousand years since its
creation in the 4/5 th century. Then, the area seems to have been discarded as a religious placeand became overgrown with trees and became part of the forest. The monasteries werediscarded, the stupa was deserted and both types of structure started to crumble. Floods
covered the area and the architectural structures were buried.
We do not know exactly the cause of its abandonment. But some sign of vandalism isnoticeable. Not only vandalism, the act of treasure hunting also went on and incidents ofcrimes followed in the area. All these things went on until the 1 st half of the 20 th century. Thenagain the area is found to be occupied by the people and Dr. Hoey then rediscovered the place
as an archaeological site in 1898.
The whole aim of the excavation was envisaged so as not to harm any structures. Therefore,
any cutting operation was planned to remove only debris collected in the due course of time.
Maximum care has been taken not to fell any tree until and unless it is really necessary to cut
them out. The fully-grown trees where the trenches have had to be laid were shifted to thegarden area to the south of the stupa.

The original bricks are saved in order to reuse them in future restoration and conservation, forwhich they are buried safely and can be taken out when deemed necessary.
Most of the baulks are not cleared out, instead left in-situ. If some archaeologists want to
restudy the particular stratigraphy he/she can do so just by cutting them before clearing thegrass deposit of the refilled trenches.
Research is a continual process. There are many things to be done. There are more questions
added on the information of the site than the results it gave within the study period of six
season's digging.
A few questions still needing answers are:•Is there really a mud stupa at the core of the mound or not?
There is hope.

•

Is it not possible to retrieve the tangible evidence of Ramagrama in the form of
inscription or seals?
Ashoka had left inscription there, according to a Chinese traveller.

•

Where was the city of Lanmo the Chinese Pilgrims visited before they arrived at the
stupa from west?
Could it be Punditpur?

•

Can we not collect indirect evidence, like in Kushinagara, from the concentration of
the four monastic complexes in all directions of the stupa?
It is possible that those sites could throw light on Ramagrama stupa
because if the stupa were of lesser value there would not be so many
monastic complexes although small in scale.

Conclusion:
Although the effort of six season's digging did not yield any tangible evidence in the form of
inscriptions and seals in Ramagrama, the following achievements were accomplished:•

Merely a heap of bricks turned out to be a nicely decorated stupa evolved through thehistorical period of different phases (Mouryan to Gupta).

•

Previously there was controversy about the mound itself whether it was a stupa
mound or a heap of bricks formed due to a collapsed building. It is confirmed now as
a stupa mound surrounded by at least four monastic complexes. They are in different
directions and different distances showing the stupa as one of great importance.

•

The distal and directional location as mentioned by the Chinese travellers totally fits
this stupa. There are no other prominent stupas between Lumbini in the west and theriver Narayani to the east, Sivalik range on the north and most of Kushinagar of India
in the south. Therefore, the claim that the stupa could be Ranagrama fits.

•

A new find of an archaeological site of Punditpur of equal size and depth of time
contemporary to Tilaurkot is adding more weight to this stupa to be Ramagrama
because both the Chinese travellers Fa-Hian and Hieun Tsiang did arrive at the stupa
from the west at a small distance from Lanmo (their Ramagrama city). Both of themmentioned the stupa to the southeast of Ramagrama (Lanmo) city.

New Zealand
Joanna Kate WYLIE
Archaeologist
New Zealand Historic Places Trust

Problems and needs for cultural heritage protection and restoration activities in
New Zealand (archaeological sites and remains)“Cultural heritage is irreplaceable…The conservation of heritage places associated with ourancestors, cultures or past allows people to experience in a small way a taste of how past
generations lived and to develop a greater understanding of our history and culture” [NZHPT
2004:2].
Introduction
Aotearoa New Zealand has a relatively short archaeological record as one of the lastlandmasses to be inhabited by humans, but contains a diverse range of archaeological sites
dating from initial Polynesian settlement more than 600-700 years ago. There are currently
over 58 000 recorded archaeological sites in New Zealand, and previously unrecorded sites
continue to be found. Pre-1900 A.D. archaeological sites have legislative protection under theHistoric Places Act 1993, which is administered by the New Zealand Historic Places Trust(NZHPT), but authorities (consents) can be granted to permit the damage, modification or
destruction of archaeological sites under controlled conditions. There has been a marked rise in
the number of authorities received by the New Zealand Historic Places Trust over recent years,
particularly in coastal New Zealand, and this trend reflects the increased rate of development
throughout New Zealand. Current major threats to archaeological sites include residential
housing subdivisions, roading and infrastructure works (e.g. wastewater reticulation) and theoil and gas industry. Archaeological sites are also under threat from natural processes, notably
coastal erosion, and the protection and restoration of New Zealand’s archaeological resource isbecoming increasingly recognised as a critical issue.
Archaeological Sites in New Zealand
Recent data from the New Zealand Archaeological Association’s (NZAA) Site Recording
Scheme indicates that there are now more than 58 000 recorded archaeological sites in New

Zealand [Darmody 2006: 68]. 1 Approximately 80 percent of all recorded sites are locatedwithin the North Island, with particular concentrations in Northland, Auckland, HaurakiCoromandel and the Bay of Plenty [Darmody 2006: 68]. The remainder are located in the South
Island (approximately 18.5 percent), notably in the Otago/ Central Otago region, and the
Offshore Islands (approximately 1.5 percent) [Darmody 2006: 68]. Those areas with thegreatest concentration of archaeological sites reflect not only the density of past humanoccupation, but also the completeness of archaeological survey coverage. Large parts of New
Zealand have not been systematically surveyed and there are many as yet unrecorded
archaeological sites, as indicated by the ongoing addition of new records into the Site
Recording Scheme. More than 1100 new records were added in the year ending 31 March 2006
alone [Darmody 2006: 68].

Figure 1: Map of New Zealand
Copyright: Lonely Planet[URL:www.lonelyplanet.com/ma
pshells/australasia/new_zealand/
new_zealand.htm]

1

Data provided for year ending 31 March 2006. The New Zealand Archaeological Association was firstestablished in 1954, and is a charitable organisation that seeks to promote and protect New Zealand’sarchaeological sites.

Archaeological sites in New Zealand can be categorised into two main types: prehistoric Maorisites and historic sites. Prehistoric Maori sites relate to the occupation and settlement of New
Zealand prior to the arrival of Europeans. New Zealand’s first inhabitants arrived from East
Polynesia, bringing with them the dog, rat and cultigens such as taro, kumara and paper
mulberry, but there is considerable debate as to when these people first arrived [Irwin 2006].
Radiocarbon testing of Pacific rat bone from cave deposits indicated that human occupation
may have initially occurred as early as 50 B.C.–150 A.D., but most archaeological researchers
agree that human arrival dates to 1250-1300 A.D. [Higham and Jones 2004: 229, 232].
Approximately 84 percent of all recorded archaeological sites relate to the prehistoric Maorioccupation of New Zealand, and site types range from occupation sites such as kainga(villages) and pa (defended settlements), to shell midden (‘rubbish dumps’), horticultural
remains, rock art and umu (Maori ovens) (see Figure 2).

Figure 2: Example of a prehistoric Maori site: half-sectioned umu
Photo: Jo Wylie, 2001
The remaining 16 percent of recorded archaeological sites relate to the historic occupation of
New Zealand following European settlement. Initial European settlement in New Zealand ismarked by the arrival of sealers and whalers in the late 18 th century, and there wereapproximately 2000 non-Maori living in New Zealand by 1839 [Phillips 2006]. Large numbersof Europeans immigrated to New Zealand during the 1840s, and by 1852 the non-Maori
population totalled approximately 28 000 [Phillips 2006]. New Zealand’s first immigrants
came from England, Ireland, Scotland and France (to a lesser degree), and later arrived fromother European and non-European countries such as Germany, Dalmatia and China.
Archaeological evidence of New Zealand’s historic occupation includes the remains of historicindustries such as gold mining and whaling (see Figure 3); shipwrecks; early towns and citiessuch as the Macetown Chinese settlement in Central Otago; and military sites associated with
the New Zealand Wars (c. 1845 – 1872) (see Figure 4).

Figure 3: Remains of try works at Oashore Whaling Station, Mahia Peninsula
Photo: Jo Wylie, 2005

Figure 4: Lower Redoubt, Te Porere Redoubts
Photo: NZHPT Photographic Collection: AR 2262, T. Hosking, 1970



A Resource Under Threat
Concerns were raised over the future of New Zealand’s archaeological resource as early as the
1960s, when archaeologist Roger Green wrote of the need to preserve archaeological sites inlight of growing threats; namely industrial development, urban expansion, afforestation,mechanised agriculture, quarrying and road construction [Walton and O’Keeffe 2006: 266-267].
The National Historic Places Trust (now the New Zealand Historic Places Trust) produced
Green’s text in pamphlet form, and the NZHPT continue to produce and distribute a pamphleton the protection of archaeological sites.
Archaeological sites have come under increasing pressure over the intervening years sinceGreen’s 1963 paper, with Walton and O’Keeffe [2004: 272] noting that there has been“…wholesale destruction of the archaeological record” in particular areas of New Zealand.
Threats to archaeological sites remain largely unchanged from those originally identified by
Green. The demand for coastal property continues to rise, particularly in the Coromandel, Bay
of Plenty, and Northland, all of which are areas originally favoured by Maori for occupationand settlement. Approximately 30 percent of the authority applications (312 in total) received
by the NZHPT during the 2006 financial year were for residential subdivision development/house construction. Infrastructure works (e.g. roading, wastewater systems) and industrial
activities (e.g. mining, forestry) also continue to cause irreversible damage to thearchaeological record, accounting for approximately 21 and 22 percent of the total authorities
received respectively (Figure 4). The oil and gas industry has emerged as a particular threat
over recent years, specifically in the Taranaki region (Figure 5).

Figure 4: Martha Mine, Waihi, CoromandelPhoto: Jo Wylie, 2006

Figure 5: Installation of gas pipeline, Tikorangi, New Plymouth
Photo: Jo Wylie, 2006
The adverse effects of natural processes on archaeological sites are now also more clearly
understood, and recent studies such as the multi-agency Southland Coastal Heritage Inventory
Project (SCHIP) have revealed the significant impact of coastal erosion in particular. As statedby Walton [2006: 38]:
“Coastal erosion threatens a significant loss of archaeological sites as throughout
prehistory people have tended to congregate at the coast and shell middens, the mostcommon remains, tend to be found in largest numbers near the source of theshellfish”.
Results from Stage 1 of the SCHIP fieldwork indicatedthat coastal erosion was the predominant reason why
87 of the 157 previously recorded sites could not be
relocated [Jacomb and Walter 2005]. A similar project
has recently been initiated along the Coromandel
coastline, and various observations have been madeabout the effects of erosion in other parts of coastal
New Zealand. Prickett [2005:54] notes for example
that an annual average loss of 38 centimetres has been
calculated along exposed sections of the Taranaki
coastline, and states that almost half of Ruatoki Pa in
North Taranaki has eroded into the sea over the
past 30 years [Prickett 2005: 48]. Walton (2006)



Figure 6: Eroding midden, Queen
Elizabeth Park, Paekakariki
Photo: Jo Wylie, 2006

similarly found that dunes along a stretch of the Kapiti coastline adjoining Queen Elizabeth
Park had significantly eroded since archaeological survey data was first collated in 1998, andstates that it is probable that a considerable amount of archaeological evidence has now
disappeared because of the continual retreat of the shoreline [Walton 2006: 37] (Figure 6).
Quantitative data on the destruction of archaeological sites has further been provided by
specific landscape/ regional studies, such as those undertaken by Prickett (1985), Ross andFoster (1996) and Phillips and Allen (2006). Prickett’s (1985) comparison of site condition as
inferred from 1950s aerial photographs and based on recent observations revealed that at least
55 of the 95 sites in the study had been damaged by bulldozing for farm activities, and that 28of the 95 sites had suffered “substantial major damage” [Walton and O’Keeffe 2004: 272].
Ross and Foster (1996) assessed the condition of 229 known sites in the Auckland area, andfound that almost all sites in their sample had suffered some damage [Walton and O’Keeffe
2004: 272]. 24 percent had been largely destroyed, and 14 percent were completed destroyed[Walton and O’Keeffe 2004: 272].
Phillips and Allen’s (2006) assessment of archaeological sites in the Waihou River Valley on
the Hauraki Plains found that nearly 75 percent of the known pre-European Maoriarchaeological sites have been severely damaged or destroyed. Archaeological survey data andhistorical records (Maori Land Court books) indicate that there were over 238 Maori
settlements along the flats adjoining the Waihou River and its eastern tributaries, but only 66
sites remain unaffected today [Phillips and Allen 2006: 82, 91]. The primary causes of this sitedamage/destruction were identified as flood protection works, farming activities such as thecreation of drainage systems, and building construction [Phillips and Allen 2006: 91].
Quantitative site damage data is now also becoming available as a result of the NZAA’s Site
Recording Scheme Upgrade Project, which involves the upgrade of information on alreadyrecorded sites. In the Tauranga district for example, an area of high development pressure, 46of the 175 (26 percent) visited sites had been destroyed, and the fieldworkers were unable torelocate a further 81 (46 percent) sites [Walton and O’Keeffe 2004: 272].

How can our sites be protected?
New Zealand’s archaeological sites remain under considerable threat as industry anddevelopment continues to expand, particular in coastal areas, and the protection of this resource
is becoming of increasing concern to the archaeological community. As stated by Walton and

O’Keeffe [2004: 272], site destruction “remains the fundamental challenge for management of
the archaeological heritage”.
The current aim of archaeological heritage management in New Zealand is to save those sitesthat can be saved, and fully investigate and record those that cannot [Walton and O’Keeffe
2004: 273]. This latter outcome is provided for in legislation under the Historic Places
Amendment Act 2006 (the ‘HPA’). This legislation was first introduced in New Zealand in
1975, in the form of the Historic Places Amendment Act 1975, and has subsequently undergone
several amendments, the most recent taking force on 1 August 2006. The fundamental purposeof the HPA is to “promote the identification, protection, preservation and conservation of thehistorical and cultural heritage of New Zealand”.
The protection of New Zealand’s historic heritage from inappropriate use, subdivision ordevelopment is now also a matter of ‘national importance’ under the Resource Management
Amendment Act 2003 (RMA). Local authorities (Regional and District Councils) are charged
with the responsibility of protecting historic heritage within their respective regions or districts,
and this involves the identification of heritage places, management of adverse effects on theseplaces, and promotion of protection of heritage values in keeping with conservation principles[NZHPT 2004: 14]. Recognition of the importance of New Zealand’s archaeological heritage
varies between local authorities however; some councils have little regard for archaeologicalsites, whilst others are more proactive in their approach. A case in point is the Auckland
Regional Council, which employs specialist archaeological staff and maintains its own cultural
heritage inventory.
The archaeological provisions of the HPA (Part 1) focus specifically on the protection of New
Zealand’s archaeological resource, and state that any person wishing to modify, damage ordestroy an archaeological sites/ sites must apply for an authority from the NZHPT. 2 The
NZHPT may either grant an authority in whole or part, or decline an authority. Modification,
damage or destruction of archaeological sites without an authority from the NZHPT is
unauthorised, and constitutes an offence under the HPA. Any person who commits such an
offence is liable for a criminal conviction and fine of up to $40 000 for damage or modification,
or up to $100 000 for site destruction.

2

An archaeological site’ is defined in the HPA as any place in New Zealand that was either associated with humanactivity prior to 1900 A.D., or is the site of a wreck of any vessel where that wreck occurred before 1900 A.D.,
and is/ may be able to provide evidence relating to the history of New Zealand through investigation byarchaeological methods”.

Challis [1995: 175] describes the authority provisions of the HPA as a consent process, and it
is correct that most authority applications received by the Trust are granted in whole/ part, withconditions attached. 252 authorities were granted/ granted in part during the 2006 financial
year, and four were declined. Authority conditions vary depending on the nature of the
proposed activity, and the impact that it will have on archaeological sites(s), but always
provide mitigation against adverse effects. Standard mitigation conditions include therequirement for archaeological monitoring, recording and investigation (where appropriate). A
detailed investigation will generally be required if a site is to be totally destroyed by the
proposed activity.
Whilst the archaeological provisions of the HPA allow for the damage or destruction ofarchaeological sites, albeit in a controlled fashion, the authority process does provide the
NZHPT with the opportunity to assess a site at the time that it is under threat, and allow a lessdamaging outcome to be negotiated than would otherwise be possible [Challis 1995: 175]. Thisis evidenced by a recent authority granted for the construction of an apartment/ retail complex
in central Wellington (New Zealand’s capital city), where the project archaeologist
encountered significant archaeological remains during monitoring of the preliminary
earthworks. The NZHPT consequently reviewed the conditions of the authority and required
the authority holder to undertake a detailed archaeological investigation. This investigation
resulted in the discovery of three fragile punga (wooden) structures associated with the former
occupation of Te Aro Pa, a recorded archaeological site, which are now to be preserved in-situ
after lengthy negotiations between the authority holder, NZHPT, City Council and Wellington
Tenths Trust (representing Maori interests).
Other positive heritage outcomes negotiated as part of the authority process include the setting
aside or ‘reserving’ of particular sites within a larger development, or the restoration ofarchaeological sites as mitigation against destruction of other remains. The Trust recently
granted an authority for example for the partial demolition of a dry-stone wall in Manukau,
Auckland, on the condition that the stone was re-used to restore in situ sections of the wall on aneighbouring property.
Development plans can often be too far developed to allow for positive heritage outcomes aspart of the authority process however, and the NZHPT therefore advocates for archaeologicalinput as early as possible during the initial planning process, particularly with large-scalecommercial or residential developments. Prickett [2005: 59] comments that it is usually too lateto save sites when a project has reached the proposal stage, which is why professionalarchaeological input during the initial planning phase is imperative for ensuring the best
heritage outcomes. Early archaeological input means that recommendations can be made such

as the relocation of a building platform or rerouting of a roadway to avoid archaeological sites,
before the finalisation of plans and drawings. Such recommendations prevent the oftenimpossible situation whereby the NZHPT and the authority process is seen to be the‘ambulance at the bottom of the cliff’, particularly in the eyes of Maori.
Heritage orders and covenants are further heritage protection mechanisms available within theframework of the Historic Places Amendment Act 2006. Section 5 of the HPA enables the
NZHPT to give notice of the requirement for a heritage order in accordance with the Resource
Management Act). Heritage orders provide protection for heritage under immediate threat, buthave inherent risks and should only be used when site protection is not available by any othermeans [McLean 2006: 4(5)]. They are therefore of little relevance to pre-1900 A.D.
archaeological sites which are already afforded protection under the archaeological provisionsof the HPA, but may be a potential tool for at-risk sites that post date 1900 A.D.
Heritage covenants are a more commonly utilised protection mechanism, and are a critical toolfor ensuring long-term heritage protection [www.historic.org.nz]. A covenant is signed
between the landowner and the NZHPT, and permanently attaches to the land title, placing
conditions or restrictions on its use, meaning that any subsequent landowner is also bound by
the document [www.historic.org.nz]. Breach of a covenant is an also an offence under the HPA.
The NZHPT has currently entered into more than 80 covenants with private property owners,
most of which relate to built heritage, but covenants have also been signed for selectedarchaeological sites. Covenanted archaeological sites include several Maori rock art sites andfive Maori pa. Archaeological sites can also be protected by open space covenants under the
Queen Elizabeth II National Trust Act 1977, or through covenants applied under theConservation Act 1987 [NZHPT 2004: 4].
Two further mechanisms under the HPA that can assist with the protection of New Zealand’sarchaeological resource are registration and gazettal. Registration is a process of identificationof significant heritage places, but the scheduling of registered sites by the local authorities intheir District/ Regional Plans makes those sites subject to the rules or codes attached to theseplans, thereby affording them additional protection beyond the archaeological provisions of the
HPA.
Gazettal is an important tool for enabling the protection of New Zealand’s 20 th century
archaeological heritage, which does not currently fit the legislative definition of anarchaeological site. Examples of this at-risk heritage include New Zealand’s World War II
military fortifications, and industrial remains such as gold mining landscapes. Gazettal is aprocess whereby a post-1900 A.D. archaeological site can be declared as an ‘archaeologicalsite’ as defined in the Act by notification in the Gazette and by public notice, if it is “a sitethat is or may be able, through investigation by archaeological methods, to provide significant
evidence relating to the historical and cultural heritage of New Zealand” [Historic Places
Amendment Act 2006]. Gazettal then affords that site protection under the archaeologicalprovisions of the Act, meaning that it would be unlawful to damage, modify or destroy agazetted archaeological site without an authority from the NZHPT. An historic stonewall andbush tramway complex are the only two post-1900 A.D. archaeological sites to have beengazetted by the NZHPT, but a comprehensive programme of gazettal has been identified as apriority responsibility in the NZHPT’s Statement of Intent for 2006-2009 (see Figure 7).

Another very effective tool in ensuring
protection of archaeological sites is to havethem set aside as a reserve for public benefit.
This

is

primarily

achieved

under

the

Reserves Act 1977, although archaeologicalsites can also be reserved under otherlegislation such as the Conservation Act
1987 and Te Ture Whenua Maori Act 1993.
There are eight categories of reserve under
the Reserves Act 1977, but the most relevant
category for the purposes of this paper is‘historic reserves’. Historic reserves are
established in order to ensure the long-term
protection and preservation of places, objects
and natural features of cultural, historic,
educational, archaeological or other special
Figure 7: Gazetted archaeological site: theinterest (Reserves Act 1977).

Makatote Tramway, Tongariro National Park
Photo: Department of Conservation

Some of New Zealand’s most significant

Tongariro/Taupo Conservancy, 2005

historic archaeological sites are protected
within historic reserves, including numerous

military sites associated with the New Zealand Wars, such as Ruapekapeka Pa, Omata Stockade
and the Te Porere, which is a combination of historic reserve and Maori reserve (under the Te
Ture Whenua Maori Act 1993). A number of prehistoric Maori archaeological sites are also
managed as historic reserves, including a several important pa sites, rock art complexes, andsignificant archaeological landscapes such as the Raoul Island East Polynesian archaeologicallandscape. Historic reserves are primarily administered and managed by the Department ofConservation, but other parties including the NZHPT and local authorities (Regional andDistrict Councils) can also be vested with this responsibility, as is the case with Te Porere,
which is the responsibility of the NZHPT.
A case study illustrating the effectiveness of reserves as a protection mechanism forarchaeological sites is that of the Otatara Pa Historic Reserve, which is managed by the
Department of Conservation. Otatara Pa is an extensive defensive and settlement complex, andarchaeological features include two pa (Otatara proper and Hikurangi) and numerous pits,
house sites and terraces [Wylie 2004]. Otatara is one of New Zealand’s earliest and mostremarkable extant pa sites, and has been registered by the NZHPT as a Category I historicplace in recognition of its national importance. Otatara Pa was first set aside as an historic
reserve in 1972, but the reserve boundaries did not fully encompass the extent of the Otatara pa
complex, which covers an area of approximately 44 hectares [Wylie 2004]. A proposed
subdivision of land adjoining the historic reserve in 2001 threatened to impact upon thearchaeological integrity of the Otatara Pa complex, but the Department of Conservation
negotiated the purchase of a number of the proposed subdivision lots, and more than nine
hectares of land has now been added to the Otatara Pa Historic Reserve since 2003
(Department of Conservation 2005: 64).

Barriers to site protection
Whilst the preceding section outlined the various protection mechanisms available,archaeological sites continue to be damaged and destroyed, and several barriers to site
protection can be identified.
“The basis for all site protection programmes is the identification and recording ofsites” [Challis 1995: 173].
One of the primary barriers to site protection has been the inadequacy of the NZAA Site
Recording Scheme (New Zealand’s national inventory of archaeological sites) as a tool forplanning /resource management processes. The Site Recording Scheme was originally createdas a special interest database, but has been increasingly utilised as a planning tool following
the introduction of the Resource Management Act 1991 and the amended Historic Places Act in
1993, particularly by local authorities [www.nzarchaeology.org]. Some local authorities use thedata to create alert layers on their planning maps or in their GIS systems for example, whichallows them to inform landowners (and potential land purchasers) of the likelihood ofarchaeological sites being located on their land. The use of the Site Recording Scheme within astatutory and regulatory context has highlighted inadequacies with the data however, including
a lack of national coverage and variability in the quality/ level of data for particular sites[www.nzarchaeology.org; NZHPT 2004: 39]. Some site record forms were found to haveminimal detail, and inaccurate location information [NZHPT 2004: 39].
The NZAA recognised that accurate and current information was vital to the long-term
protection of New Zealand’s archaeological sites, and launched the Site Recording Scheme
Upgrade Project in 1999 to address the inadequacies inherent in the data. As previously
mentioned, the Upgrade Project involves the upgrading of information held on recorded
archaeological sites, with a particular focus on location information (e.g. grid references) andsite condition and threats, and fieldwork has been partly funded by each of the participating
local authorities [www.nzarchaeology.org]. Upgrade fieldwork is now well underway across
New Zealand, with 67 of the 86 local authorities having either completed the Upgrade Projectin their respective regions/districts, or committed to participating in the project [Walter 2006:71]. Eight local authorities have refused to participate however, and a further 10 have notresponded to communication from the NZAA [Walter 2006: 70].
Whilst the Site Recording Scheme Upgrade Project will correct inaccuracies with the existing
data, further archaeological surveys are needed to resolve the issues surrounding the lack ofnational survey coverage, as noted by Prickett [2005: 58]. Some areas of New Zealand areeither unrecorded or significantly under-recorded, and in other areas there has been a bias
towards particular site types. There has been a focus on pa in the Taranaki region for example,
to the detriment to other less visually impressive sites such as horticultural remains and kainga(undefended villages) [Prickett 2005: 48]. Additional archaeological survey work has generally
been hindered by resourcing constraints, namely a lack of time and money, and surveys andassessments have primarily been undertaken within a resource management archaeology
framework only. Recent projects such as the aforementioned Southland Coastal Heritage
Inventory Project are helping to fill the gaps in our survey knowledge however, and it is hopedthat similar projects will continue elsewhere across New Zealand. Predictive modelling canhowever provide information about the likelihood of archaeological sites in the absence of any
archaeological survey data, and has recently been used within the Waipoua Forest in Northland,
where the dense vegetation impedes total survey coverage.
A further barrier to site protection in New Zealand is a lack of awareness and understanding
about the archaeological resource. There have been considerable achievements andadvancements in New Zealand archaeology since the establishment of the NZAA in 1954, but
Wilson and O’Keeffe [2004: 280] contend that the discipline still occupies a “relatively
precarious and marginal position in New Zealand”. Many New Zealanders still associatearchaeology with overseas sites such as the buried cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum, or theancient remnants of South American civilisations such as Machu Picchu, and believe that New
Zealand is too young to have its own archaeological history. It could be argued that many New
Zealanders wouldn’t even be aware of the types of archaeological sites found within New
Zealand, let alone understand the effects that certain activities can have on archaeological sites,
and thus it is not surprising that unauthorised damage is still occurring throughout the country.
The NZHPT, NZAA and other organisations such as the Department of Conservation all havean important role to play in educating New Zealanders about the importance of archaeology,
and the NZHPT’s Statement of Intent for 2006-2009 identifies the increasing of New
Zealanders’ understanding of their heritage and its importance to both cultural and national
identity as a priority issue. It does appears though that public attitudes towards archaeology
may be changing, albeit slowly. The NZHPT’s range of archaeological brochures has beenwell-received, and recent open days during excavations for the Wellington Inner City Bypass
and Lawrence Chinese Camp Redevelopment in Central Otago (Figure 8) proved very popular,
but a recent television series on archaeology couldn’t even make it to prime-time viewing.
Key stakeholder groups also need to be
educated

about

Zealand’s

archaeologicalgroupslocal

includetheimportance

of

New

resource.

These

authorities,

forestry

companies, major industry leaders, special
interest bodies such as the New ZealandFederated Farmers and even the Department ofConservation, who have the role of managing
both natural and cultural heritage on publicconservation land (Conservation Act 1987). A
Figure 8: Educating school children
about the Lawrence Chinese Camp
excavations
Photo: Rick McGovern-Wilson, 2005

recentworkshopandsubsequent

training

session undertaken between representatives of
the NZHPT and Department of Conservation
revealed that there is still a lack of appreciation

for archaeological values, and that these are often overshadowed by competing natural orrecreational values. The most critical of these stakeholder groups however are local authorities,
given their increased responsibilities towards historic heritage with the passing of the Resource
Management Amendment Act 2003. Local authorities can be said to have a variable attitude
towards archaeology; selected Councils are quite pro-heritage whilst archaeology barely
features on the radars of others. The NZHPT recognises that understanding and appreciation ofthe need for archaeological site protection can be improved through education however, andregularly undertakes training workshops.
Another commonly cited barrier to the protection and restoration of New Zealand’sarchaeological heritage is a lack of resourcing, even within the public sphere, and decisions
often need to be made as to which sites require priority attention. This is evidenced forexample by the Department of Conservation’s ongoing development project at Otatara Pa,
which has received targeted funding as one of the Department’s national icon sites.
A lack of resources is of particular concern to archaeological sites within private ownership.
Some protection measures such as the fencing of pa to prevent stock damage may require little
financial input, whilst others such as the conservation of wooden structures may be beyond thereach of private individuals. Assistance has recently become available however through the
NZHPT’s National Heritage Preservation Incentive Fund (NHPIF), which can provide private
individuals with up to 50 percent of the required funds to enable the protection or restoration ofheritage places. There are conditions of eligibility such as the requirement for a site to beregistered by the NZHPT as a Category I historic place, or to meet the criteria for Category I
registration, but the NHPIF is still a valuable resource for the protection and restoration ofcultural heritage places in private ownership. Funds have recently been allocated to assist withthe preservation of an historic wooden slab whare in the Wairarapa, and the conservation of thethree punga structures associated with the historic occupation of Te Aro Pa, Wellington.
Restoration of archaeological sites
Restoration is defined as “returning a place to a known earlier form by the introduction of newor similar materials…usually where a place has been damaged” [Jones, Harlow and Gosling
2002: 8]. Restoration has not been widely utilised in New Zealand, and has generally only
occurred in the past as mitigation against site damage. This is evidenced by the restoration
work undertaken at the Te Porere Redoubts during the 1960s – 1970s in response to concerns
about the deteriorating condition of the earthworks as a result of both natural processes(slumping), and cultural processes (people walking along the top of the earthwork features).
Reconstruction was undertaken on the earthworks of the both lower and upper redoubts, butthere was a particular focus on the upper redoubt, which has been estimated as being 80 percent
reconstructed [Ritchie and Barr 1994: 18] (Figure 9). Earthwork features were similarly
restored at Tauwhare Pa in the Bay of Plenty in 1990, but to a lesser extent than at Te Porere[Department of Conservation 2000].

Figure 9: Restoration works to repair walls of upper redoubt, Te Porere Redoubts, 1977
Photo: NZHPT Photographic Collection: AR 3842, 1977
Whilst previous restoration works at Te Porere and Tauwhare Pa have largely stood the test oftime, there has been a shift in attitude and ethics about restoration over recent years, with Joneset al. [2002: 55] noting that it is generally opposed by the ICOMOS charters, such as theInternational Charter on Archaeological Heritage Management, Article 7. Restoration can still
have an important role to play within an archaeological heritage management framework
however, particularly with regards to public education and advocacy, but should only beundertaken in accordance with sound conservation principles.
The value of restoration in aiding public interpretation of archaeology has been recently
recognised by the Lawrence Chinese Camp Charitable Trust and Queen’s Redoubt Trust. The
former group owns the historic Chinese Camp at Lawrence in Central Otago, and intends toredevelop the site as part of major heritage tourism development, as illustrated by the concept
plan below (Figure 10). This redevelopment will involve the reconstruction of part of theformer camp, and archaeological investigations are currently underway, which will guide therestoration work and assure authenticity [Jacomb, McGovern-Wilson and Walter 2005: 20].
The Queen’s Redoubt Trust is similarly seeking to create a major educational and visitor
attraction at the Queen’s Redoubt, an important New Zealand Wars site in the Waikato region,and is also utilising restoration as a means of achieving this goal (www.queensredoubt.co.nz).

Figure 10: Lawrence Chinese CampRedevelopment Concept Plan
Copyright: Lawrence Chinese Camp
Charitable TrustWhilst archaeological site restoration is an effective tool for heritage education and advocacy,
it can require a significant investment of financial and human resources, which is aconsiderable barrier, particularly for private individuals, community groups and charitableorganisations. A case in point is the Queen’s Redoubt Trust, which was only able to purchase
the Queen’s Redoubt property after five years of fundraising and negotiations.

Concluding Remarks
New Zealand’s archaeological heritage is rich and diverse, but recent studies have shown that it
is also at risk from a wide range of threats, ranging from rapidly expanding industrial andresidential development to natural processes such as coastal erosion. Preservation of ourarchaeological sites for future generations has consequently become a matter of national
importance, and there are a number of mechanisms and tools available by which this can beachieved. These include heritage covenants, reserving of land, and funding assistance for thepreservation of archaeological sites in private ownership. The various mechanisms and tools
each have their own limitations, but the biggest barrier of all against the protection ofarchaeological sites is New Zealanders’ lack of understanding and appreciation of their own
cultural heritage. Heritage education and advocacy is therefore of paramount importance, andrecent developments are being made in this regard, including increased media exposure ofarchaeology. Major restoration projects such as those underway at the Lawrence Chinese Campand Queen’s Redoubt will also play an integral role in educating the public about the importantof New Zealand’s archaeological heritage.

Bibliography:
Challis, A. (1995). ‘Current Directions and Issues in Archaeological Site Protection’. In
Archaeology in New Zealand, Volume 38(3) 169-190.
Darmody, R. (2006). ‘NZAA Site Recording Scheme File Co-ordinators Report’. In
Archaeology In New Zealand, Volume 49(2): 67-68.
Department of Conservation (2000). ‘Tauwhare Pa Scenic Reserve, Ohope: Conservation Plan’.
Department of Conservation (2005). Department of Conservation Annual Report: For the YearEnding 30 June 2005.



Higham, T. and M. Jones (2004). ‘Chronology and Settlement’. In L. Furey and S. Holdaway(eds), Change Through Time: 50 Years of New Zealand Archaeology, pages 215-234. New
Zealand Archaeological Association Monograph 26.
Irwin, G. ‘Pacific Migrations’, Te Ara – the Encyclopedia of New Zealand, updated 9 June
2006.
URL: http://www.TeAra.govt.nz/NewZealanders/MaoriNewZealanders/PacificMigrations/en
Jacomb, C., R. McGovern-Wilson and R. Walter (2005). ‘Gold New World’. In New Zealand
Heritage, Issue 99:18-21.
Jacomb, C. and R. Walter (2005). ‘Southland Coastal Heritage Inventory Project, Stage 1:
Waiparau Head to Omaui’. Unpublished report by Southern Pacific Archaeological Research.
Jones, K., D. Harlow and R. Gosling (2002). ‘Caring for Archaeological Sites: New Zealand
Guidelines’. Draft for Discussion.
McLean. R. (2006). ‘Draft Statutory Advocacy Manual’. Internal NZHPT document.
NZHPT (2004). Heritage Management Guidelines for Resource Management Practitioners.
NZHPT (2006). Statement of Intent: 2006-2009.
Phillips, C. and H. Allen (2006). ‘Damage Assessment of Waihou River Sites’. In Archaeology
in New Zealand, Volume 49(2): 82-93.
Phillips, J. ‘History of Immigration’, Te Ara – the Encyclopedia of New Zealand, updated 9
June 2006.
URL: http://www.TeAra.govt.nz/NewZealanders/NewZealandPeoples/HistoryOfImmigration/enPrickett (2005). ‘The Taranaki Archaeological Landscape – Past, Present and Future’. In
Archaeology in New Zealand, Volume 48(1): 45-60.
Ritchie, N. and C. Barr (1994). ‘Te Porere Management Plan: Draft’. Department ofConservation, Hamilton.
Walter, L. (2006). ‘NZAA Site Recording Scheme Upgrade Project Coordinator’s Report. In
Archaeology in New Zealand, Volume 49(2): 70-71.

Walton, T. and M. O’Keeffe (2004). Archaeological Heritage Management. In L. Furey and S.
Holdaway (eds), Change Through Time: 50 Years of New Zealand Archaeology, pages 263-282.
New Zealand Archaeological Association Monograph 26.
Walton (2006). ‘On the Beach: Monitoring the Coastal Middens of Queen Elizabeth Park.’ In
Archaeology in New Zealand, Volume 49(1): 29-39.
Wylie, J. (2004). ‘Otatara – Proposed Review of Registration’. Unpublished Report for the
NZHPT.

Websites:
New Zealand Historic Places Trust website.
URL: www.historic.org.nz
New Zealand Archaeological Association website.
URL: www.nzarchaeology.org
Department of Conservation website:
URL: www.doc.govt.nz

Pakistan

Tahir SAEED

Assistant Director
Department of Archaeology & Museum

PROBLEMS AND NEEDS FOR CULTURAL HERITAGE PROTECTION AND
RESTORATION ACTIVITIES IN PAKISTAN

Pakistan is one of the fortunate countries of the world in that it has one of theoldest socio-political backgrounds traceable to the Old Stone Age. The existence of this Stone
Age has been estimated at two million years ago on the soil of Pakistan. The areas of thisearliest Palaeolithic culture has been located in the Potwar Plateau of Punjab, which appears tohave been the earliest home of Homo Erectus and Homo Habilis outside Africa, roughly in thetime range of the first Glacial and Interglacial phases of the Pleistocene Age. Though theiractual remains have not so far been found in these areas, the crude stone tools used by them fortheir livelihood, and termed as Pre-Soan tools by anthropologists and archaeologists have beenfound in abundance. These hominids roamed about here for many thousands of years, andtowards the end of the Ice Age they were showing progress towards life in settled communities
and a culture called Mesolithic. Then with the advent of agriculture, the stone tools becamerefined as Neolithic specimens.
The beginning of organized social living and division of labour comes
dramatically to our knowledge at Mehrgarh in Kacchi Plain, south of the Bolan Pass in
Balochistan.

Some low and high cultural mounds were recognized as the abodes of thisprehistoric community, and have been scientifically excavated during the past three decades.
The discovery of an organized community life in the 7 th millennium BC on the soil of Pakistan
is of immense significance, as very few ancient places in the word have shown such remote
cultural antiquity.
The traits of early agricultural economy so introduced and developed continue
during the following two millennia the traces of which have been discovered in different areasof Pakistan. The distribution of these sites spreading over almost the whole of Pakistan, showsthat the dissemination of this prehistoric culture was a uniform phenomenon throughout, whichdeveloped later on into the Chalcolithic era when the change over from stone, copper andbronze took place in the 4 th millennium BC.
From the mosaics of these nascent agrarian cultures emerges in full bloom theBronze Age phenomenon of an organized society over the vast regions embracing the plains of
the Punjab and Sindh, which has been named the Indus Civilization.

Today, through theconstant and consistent efforts of archaeologists we have gathered information about thiscivilization that flourished for well over one thousand years.
After flourishing for about one thousand years (Ca.2750 to 1750 BC) thiscivilization declined. The causes of this decline and eventual fall have been postulated bymany researchers and eminent scholars. However, between the fall of the Indus Civilizationand the advent of the historic period, there is a gap in our knowledge, which has been partiallyfilled by the discovery of the so-called “Gandhara Grave Culture” in the areas of Swat, Dir andPeshawar Valleys and later on at Hathial in Taxila. This culture has spanned the gap between
the two periods of the Bronze and Iron Age and is so named because it presents a pattern ofliving in the Gandhara regions as evidenced by the distribution of the graves spread over alarge area.
The dawn of the historic period in ancient Pakistan relates to the Aachmenian
times. One of the important habitations of this period was located at Taxila. Today, the area
where this ancient city was located is called Bhir Mound. It has been regarded as a classic
landmark of those remote days. Later, the Macedonian invasion led by Alexander the Great in
326 BC is likewise a great event, which served as a catalyst in the process of cultural fusion of
East and West in the northern parts of the subcontinent. The impetus given to Buddhists by theMauryan Emperor, Asoka, and the artistic impulses emanating from the Bactrian Greeks inCentral Asia led to the fruition of the Gandhara Art under the patronage of the Kushanas andtheir successors.
The period from the 1 st century AD to the 4 th Century AD is a remarkable period
in the history of Pakistan when the sculptural art becomes a handmaiden to spiritual zeal. The
decline of the Graeco-Buddhist culture in ancient Pakistan resulted in the revival of
Brahmanism, though Buddhism continued in a much weaker form and its sculptural art
degenerated to Tantric iconography, often in the medium of bronze or brass groups belonging
to the 9 th and 10 th Centuries AD. The Hindu Temples of the Salt Range areas, especially the
Malot Temple are built in four-square Kashmiri style. Similarly a group of Hindu temple at
Ketas, southern and northern Kafir Kot at Bilot in Dera Ismail Khan are noteworthy examplesof this religious art.



Although the first impulse of Islam was actually felt in the north-westernregions of the sub-continent almost immediately after its stabilization in the Arabian peninsula
under the caliphate of the first and second pious Caliphs, its real impact of far-reaching effectbecame evident a little later when the sea-port of Debul was attacked and reduced by anenergetic young Arab General, Muhammad Bin Qasim by the close of the first Century Hijra(711-12 AD). With this political change, the socio-religious pattern of the local society was
also changed. The next wave of Islamic culture which came from Central Asia to this part ofthe subcontinent was initiated through the military excursion of Sebuktegin and later by his sonand successor Mahmud of Ghaznin in the later decades of the 10 th – 11 th Century AD.
The early decades of the 16 th Century witnessed yet another political change inthe subcontinent, and brought a new religious power to the scene. The progenitor of thisdynasty as called by modern historians, the Mughal Empire, was Zahir-uddin – Muhammad
Babur.

The rule of this imperial power lasted for well over three hundred years when it

declined and fell. The Imperial Mughals introduced a much refined and sophisticated sociocultural pattern into society. The way of life so introduced was a happy assimilation of Iranianand local traits and traditions. Indeed Lahore and Thatta are the two celebrated cities where
the most sumptuous representation of Islamic architecture of the grand Mughals is found insuch abundance.
In the high mountains of northern Pakistan, in the adjoining Hindukush, thewestern Himalayas, and Karakorum, some of the world’s largest rock art is spread along thebanks of the Upper Indus. Petroglyphs of unique diversity and abundance cover cliffs, rockfaces, and boulders accompanying the Indus river from Indus-Kohistan to Baltistan andreaching as far as Ladakh and Tibet. Rock art sites do not only follow the routes along theIndus itself, but also grace important mountain passes and valleys of the Indus tributaries
including the Gilgit river up to Yasin and the Hunza valley. A main cluster, however, occurs
between Shatial in Indus-Kohistan and Raikot Bridge extending over more than 100 km. The
heart of this complex lies at the foot of Nanga Parbat (8,125 m) around Chilas and Thalpan in
the Diamer District. So far, more than 50,000 rock carvings and 5,000 inscriptions have been
discovered ranging from the Epipalaeolithic or Neolithic (7 th /6th millennium BC) to the comingof Islam (16 th century AD). Their tremendous diversity not only allows insight into the historyof various peoples with different social-cultural and political traditions as well as religious
beliefs but also discloses the strategic importance of the region. These high mountain areas
have been, at all times, a crossroads of important trade routes connecting China and Central
Asia with the Indo-Pakistan subcontinent. Meandering through the gorges of the Indus, its
tributaries, and across high mountain passes, the trails are part of a highly frequented branch of
the legendary Silk Road which commences in the most ancient Chinese imperial city of Chang‘an and extends as far as Northern India, while passing by emporia and Buddhist centres suchas Dunhuang in the Gansu Province as well as Turfan, Khotan and Kashgar in the Tarim basin.
The systematic research on the rock art province began in 1978 after the
opening of the 751 km long Karakorum Highway, the main traffic route between the People’s
Republic of China and the Islamic Republic of Pakistan. Prof. Karl Jettmar, who realized thesignificance of the rock carvings for the previously unknown cultural history of this vast region,
initiated a joint German-Pakistan project together with Prof. Ahmad Hasan Dani of Islamabad
and Field researches were started in 1980. The project was established as a research project atthe Heidelberg Academy of Sciences and Humanities in 1984 and since then for proper
protection and preservation of these marvellous specimens of the past, systematic
documentation and publication of rock art galleries is being carried out in close collaboration
with the Department of Archaeology and Museums.
The Department of Archaeology and Museums, heir of the Archaeological
Survey of India, has been preserving these historical and archaeological sites as well asmonuments in its charge under the Annual Repair and Special Repair Programmes. The
Department of Archaeology and Museums being the sole custodian of the nation’s cultural
heritage is carrying out regular restoration works on the sites and monuments under thedevelopment projects since 1970.
The Department of Archaeology & Museums has so for protected 393
Archaeological Sites and monuments (category I, II &III) under the legal framework known as
the Antiquities Act, 1975. Out of these 393 protected sites/monuments seven importantArchaeological sites and historic monuments belonging to Pakistan have been inscribed on theWorld Heritage List by UNESCO which include; the highly prized Proto-historic metropolitansite of the Indus Valley Civilization known as Moenjodaro, the group of highly important
Islamic period monuments in the World’s largest necropolis at Makli Hills, Thatta, the famous
Lahore Fort which houses highly prized and unique monuments like Shish Mahal, Naulakha,
Diwan-e-khas, etc, the Royal Mughal Pleasure Garden of Shalimar at Lahore, the uniquemilitary fort at Rohtas in district Jhelum built by Sher Shah Suri, the great warrior king who
dethroned Humayun of the Mughal dynasty, the Taxila Valley containing three city sites of theearliest historic period of Pakistan, Buddhist sanctuaries (Stupas, monasteries, temples, etc.),
and the huge Buddhist monastery at Takht-I-Bahi in Mardan district.
The main source of funding for proper preservation, conservation, protection
and restoration of these sites and monuments under the charge of the Department ofArchaeology and Museums is the Federal Government of Pakistan. However, the Departmentof Archaeology and Museums has also been getting financial as well as technical assistancefrom UNESCO, UNDP, ICCROM, ICOMOS, and sympathetic countries like the USA, Japan,
Korea, Thailand, Germany, Norway, Italy and The Netherlands etc.
The aim of conservation of a monument or site is to protect it from further
decay, thus giving it a new lease of life. Its primary objective is to ‘preserve’ the original
features as far as possible so that the authenticity of the monument is not impaired. Ancientmonuments and archaeological sites / remains in Pakistan have suffered from a variety of
causes. The natural causes are numerous and varied, for instance, thick vegetation, heavy
rainfall, floods and changes in river courses etc. etc. Thus conservation of a monument or
ancient site only once in many years is not enough.

It needs continuous vigilance.

Thisvigilance comes under ‘Annual Repairs’. It implies regular jungle-clearance, resetting of loose
bricks on the top of walls, removing of tree-roots and arranging proper rainwater drainage fromthe site or monument. Another major cause of decay is action of salt-penetration. The saltladen air penetrates into the surface and wears out the structural material. Besides the naturalforces, human vandalism is also one of the causes of damage to the ancient sites/remains.
Similarly, brick and stone quarrying for building purposes had always been a great cause ofdestruction to the ancient monuments.

There are reasons to believe that the pre-historiccollegiate building at Moenjodaro (2500-1500 BC) was quarried by the builders of the nearby
Stupa in historic times. The ruins of Harappa (Indus Valley Civilization Site) were destroyedby the Lahore-Multan Railway line as well as the construction of Pucca houses in a nearby
village of the same name. The causes of damage due to human vandalism however, could be
easily prevented by fencing the archaeological sites/remains and controlling the entry byadmission tickets and posting guards, as well as fixing notice boards at important points.
To meet the causes of destruction by natural agents some broad principles ofpreservation have been laid down. These principles aim at the archaeological site or monument
being preserved without disfigurement or alteration of its character. The maintenance andrestoration works is to be carried out in a proper and attractive manner.

A complete

examination of ancient remains is to be made before starting the work and much care andpatience must be devoted to the conservation work. In the conservation of ancient monuments
the causes of dilapidation like wilful damage, disintegration of mortar or displacement ofmasonry, under-mining of foundations, bulging masonry, out of plumb walls and settlement offoundations has its own remedy. All these remedies have made the preservation of ancientsites or monuments a highly intricate process. It is completely different in form and spirit fromthe repairs of modern buildings.

Maximum effort is made to employ the techniques andmaterial used by its original builders. This has made the preservation / protection of ancientmonuments a work of a highly technical nature.
sometimes entails its restoration.



The preservation of cultural property

In Pakistan, monuments of the Muslim period are more adept to restoration.
These are in a better state of preservation and therefore, respond readily to treatment.
Moreover, the architecture of these monuments is based on arches, vaults and domes. Thesemonuments are also embellished with carvings, tiled wall murals and floor mosaics ingeometrical and floral patterns.

Although these decorations, as well as structures havesuccessfully resisted the destructive effect of the atmosphere, cracks in their arches or domes
have created alarming conditions, involving dismantling and restoration to ensure theirstructural stability. Therefore, memorable restoration work has been done on importantmonuments of historical and architectural importance.

In principal, monuments like the

Alamgiri Gate of Lahore Fort, the Famous Shalamar Garden, Jehangir’s Mausoleum,
Shishmahal and many other conservation and restoration works for structural stability,
improvement of ornamentation and face lifting, have been carried out successfully by the
Department of Archaeology & Museums. As a result of these efforts these edifices have been
restored to their previous grace and magnificence.
The preservation/conservation of archaeological sites and historical monuments
however, remains a challenging task. Besides the vagaries of time and human neglect there aremany other factors that cause deterioration. Human vandalism has also played a significant
role in damaging the archaeological sites / ancient remains or monuments. Unfortunately,
during the British rule, adequate attention was not paid to the preservation of monuments inareas that now constitute Pakistan. Handicapped by the problems of ludicrously inadequate
funds, dearth of building materials and skilled labour and trained personnel, it is only naturalfor the Department of Archaeology to assign priorities to the monuments on its charge.
The preservation measures generally involve two types of work: (i) annual
repair which includes protection from human vandalism, eradication of wild growth, regularcleaning and dusting, provision of historical notice boards etc. and (ii) special measurescomprising conservation, restoration where necessary, development of gardens etc. Normally
maintenance is carried out on all Category-I sites and monuments and also on importantmonuments/sites of Category – II.

As regards special measures including conservation,

restoration and development, the funds allocated to the Department are utilized on Category – I
monuments in the following order of priority: a)

National Monuments
This category includes such monuments as are of national importanceand serve as venues for State Guests and VIPs. Special allocations forthe repair of these monuments are secured through the Development

Budget. When it is not possible, specific funds are obtained through thenormal budget.
b)

Monuments/

archaeological

sites

that

are

historicallyandarchitecturally important.
Even in Category – I, some of the monuments or sites/remains are more
important than others either from the historical point of view or onarchitectural considerations. Specific funds for the preservation of thesemonuments are obtained through the normal yearly budget. If this is notpossible, efforts are made to meet their immediate requirements from thefunds provided for special repairs.
c)Monuments/ archaeological sites that are historically importantand of local significance.
The repair work on these monuments or sites is carried out from thelump sum provision for special repairs in the normal budget of the
Department.

The cultural relics play a very vital role and provide the virtual foundations foradvancement in corporate life of any nation. It is a known fact that achievements are acquired
after prolonged struggles with nature and environment. They manifest the store of creative
intelligence, initiative, perseverance and integrity that have gone into the making of aparticular national character. Pakistan has been very fortunate in this respect. Our ancient landhas been an important primeval stage for the grand and grim drama of man’s first endeavours,
his integral rise, his phenomenal fall and his great resilience, which kept the stream of humanlife in action in spite of all the obstructions and intermittent incidents of lapses.
Over the past several years, the Department of Archaeology and Museums havesuccessfully carried out preservation and restoration works at a number of archaeologicalsites/monuments such as; Jehangir’s Tomb, Lahore, Noor Jehan’s Tomb, Lahore Rohtas Fort,
Jhelum, Asif Khan’s tomb, Lahore Tomb of Shaikh Ali, Gujrat, Baoli at Jandiala Sher Khan,
Sheikhupura, Hiran Minar and Tank, Sheikhupura, the archaeological remains at Harappa etc.
etc. Besides consociation / restoration works have also been carried out at the following sites
by the Department of Archaeology and Museums for their proper preservation, protection andpresentation: -

1. Ghulam Nabi Kalhora’s Tomb, Hyderabad.
2. Archaeological Site at Mansura.
3. Shah Baharo’s Tomb, Larkana.
4. Chaukhandi Tombs, Karachi.
5. Fortificaiton wall of Hyderabad Fort, Hyderabad.
6. Ghulam Shah’s Tomb, Hyderabad.
7. Kot Diji Fort, Kot Diji.
8. Umerkot Fort, Umerkot.
9. Makli Hill Monuments, Thatta.
10. Tomb of Lal Mohra Sharif.
11. Archaeological Site of Sirkap, Taxila.
12. Archaeological Site of Chirtop, Taxila
13. Archaeological Site of Mohra Moradu, Taxila
14. Archaeological Site of Jaulian, Taxila
15. Shingardara Stupa, Swat.
16. Butkara Site, Swat.
17. Udegram Site, Swat.
18. Jamal Garhi Site, Mardan District.
19. Nimogram Site, Swat.
20. Mankiyala Stupa, District Rawalpindi.

In the words of Sir John Marshal “no known preservation is suitable for allstones or for all kinds of decay; and no patent solutions on the market are as efficacious as they
are claimed to be”. It is therefore essential that each monument must be preserved according to
its condition based on case-by-case demand. The main factors causing deterioration of stone
built monuments in Pakistan can be classified as under: TEMPERATURE
Considerable differences between day and night temperatures are common intropical areas and the alternation between day and night temperatures affects the remains. Sincestone is a bad conductor of heat the forces thus set up are further aggravated by shaded areas
and between surfaces of interior layers. This causes flaking to take place and to some extent
granulation. This problem of flaking can be observed on the monuments of the 2 nd and 3 rdgroup at Makli Hill Monuments, Thatta.

The role of temperature as an agent of decay is for the most part indirect. It
reacts on the humidity in the pores of the rock, and the solubility of salts and gases influences
the rate of chemical reaction and promotes hydrolysis.
WINDWind borne particles are very harmful for the surface of any building and they
are very dangerous when they are large. For example the velocity of the wind at historicalmonuments of Thatta is very high and this strong wind acts as a sand blaster on the exposed
surfaces. Here limestone has been used for the construction of the monuments, and iron in thelimestone is rusted by the humidity and then eroded by the strong wind causing problems ofpitting which can be observed very easily. The high velocity of the wind itself is very
dangerous to structures like, pagodas, towers, canopies etc. At Makli Hills Monuments, Thatta(in the third group of monuments) some stone canopies have been found collapsed due to thehigh velocity of the wind.
LIGHT
Natural light is also injurious to ancient remains as well as the historicalmonuments, because it aids harmful chemical reactions. The light rays discolour pigment that
does not have the ability to reflect the light in wavelength. The energy is thereby observed andthis can break chemical bonds in materials and cause them to change. The clear sign of decay
can be observed on the walls towards the east and west of the historical monuments at Makli
Hills, Thatta.
HUMIDITY
Humidity and temperature are closely related. The conditions of very hightemperature and humidity along with the presence of light encourage the growth of organisms
such as bacteria, mould, fungi and algae or plants like lichens and mosses. A thick layer ofblack coating can be observed for instance on most of the monuments in Makli Hill Thatta,
which is due to growth of the above mentioned micro-organisms and plants on the surface.
POLLUTION
Sulphur dioxide is the most important pollution problem in stone decay. In fact
dark deposits and black scabs observed on the surface of most of the stone built monuments in
Makli Hill Thatta is mainly composed of calcium sulphate, which is formed by the reaction
between sulphur dioxide and calcium carbonate of the limestone. The chief sources of thispollution are domestic coal fires and industrial furnaces. Although the acid gases are mostconcentrated in cities and industrial areas, they are readily carried by air currents and cause
damage at considerable distances from the source of pollution.
When these acidic gases react with rain or moisture sulphuric acid is formed,
which is responsible for the bluish smoke typical of sulphur dioxide emission. It is observedthat the formation of both oxides of sulphur (sulphur dioxide SO2 and sulphur trioxide SO3)
unlike carbon dioxide the ratio, of SO2 is not influenced by the amount of oxygen present
during the combustion process even if there is an excess of oxygen sulphur dioxide is still themost abundant form. The amount of SO3 produced depends in large on temperature andfluctuates between I and 10% of the total sulphur oxides, SO 3 . This term is used to denote themixture of SO 2 emitted into the atmosphere. Evidence available from continuous measurementsof acid aerosols and SO 2 in the atmosphere indicates the predominance in the air of sulphur
dioxide over SO 3 .
The small amount of SO 3 generally produced during combustion usuallydepends on both the equilibrium conditions for the reaction and the kinetics of the reaction.
However, the combustion processes do not have sufficient time to reach equilibrium and thus
the process becomes kinetically limited. The reaction proceeds very slowly at a relatively low
temperature (200 C for instance) but the rate increases at high temperature, due to the reaction
rate factor. On the other hand at low temperature the amount of SO 3 in the equilibrium state ishigher than equilibrium and kinetics conditions produce two opposite effects during
combustion and the resulting amount of SO 3 formed is very low. At high temperatures thereaction quickly reaches the equilibrium state because of the high rate, but in the productmixture very little SO 3 is formed. At low temperatures the reaction proceeds so slowly thatequilibrium can never be reached.
LIGHTNING
Lightning is the natural means of equalising electrical potential of the earth andatmosphere. When in certain atmospheric conditions, the potential difference builds up
sufficiently a high voltage discharge takes place involving currents of up to 160,000 ampere fora few milliseconds. The discharge is usually in the form of a double flash with 60% of the totalenergy dissipated in a flash from atmosphere to earth and 40% in the reverse direction.
Lightning has a tendency to strike the tops of all tall buildings standing above ground level.
When there is substantial electrical resistance in the path between the point of striking and themass of the earth, damage will generally be caused. It is nearly all dissipated as heat, and any
moisture present becomes an explosive force of steam. This steam is what splits and shattersstones and has caused most such cracks which can be observed on the stone members of themonuments & remains at Makli Hills, Thatta.



RAIN
Rain is always damaging to archaeological sites/remains and monuments. Rainassisted by wind, causes general erosion of the surface. This erosion is accelerated in a heavily
polluted atmosphere. The great concentration of dissolved acid gases and signs of erosion by
the rain can be observed on historical sites/ monuments.
ACID EROSION
Carbon dioxide does not attack archeologically remains directly, except incertain limestone, but in combination with atmospheric water it forms carbonic acid.
CO 2 +H2 O = H 2 CO 3
CO 2 is only slightly soluble so the solution is very dilute, and carbonic acid is
one of the weaker acids. The action with limestone and other forms of calcium carbonate is:

CaCO 3 +H 2 CO 3 = Ca( HCO 3 )2 (calcium bicarbonate).
Calcium bicarbonate is highly soluble in water and washes away almost
immediately upon formation without a tendency to form crystals. There is a similar reaction
with the magnesium carbonate found in magnesium limestone.
MgCO 3 +H 2 CO 3 = Mg(HCO 3 )2 (soluble magnesium bicarbonate)
The setting action of lime mortar (and, to a certain extent, of Portland cement)
is its combination with atmospheric CO2 to form another variety of calcium carbonate: mortar
and concrete are therefore subject to the same eroding effects as limestone.
Ca (OH) 2 (Slaked lime) + CO 2 = CaCO 3 H 2 O (Crystalline)
Sulphur dioxide also acts in combination with water, forming first, sulphurous
acid.
SO2 +H 2 O=H2SO 3This becomes oxidised further in the air, forming sulphuric acid.
2H 2 SO3 +O 2 = 2H 2 SO4Sulphuric acid is much more aggressive than carbonic acid; but it is the result of
the chemical reaction, rather than the fierce reaction itself which makes this a quicker agent oferosion than CO 2.
CaCO 3 + H 2 SO4 = CaSO 4 (calcium sulphate) + H 2 O + CO 2 .
Calcium sulphate in weak solution (it is not highly soluble) is not dangerous,
but because of surface evaporation it will readily take up one of several crystalline forms
within the pores of the stone: the most common form is CaSO 4 .2H 2 O, or gypsum.
The crystalline form occupies much more space than the simple solution anddamage takes place because of this expansion within the pore structure of the stone. It istherefore somewhat akin to frost damage and materials resistant to frost will also be resistant tosulphate damage for much the same reason.
Reaction with magnesium carbonate is similar.
MgCO 3 + H 2 SO4 = MgSO 4 + H 2 O + CO 2
The main difference is that magnesium sulphate crystals are larger than calcium
sulphate ones and the risk of damage is therefore worse: for this reason dolomites and othermagnesium limestones are less durable in polluted atmospheres. The sulphate resistance of
limestone is very variable and this is one of the properties distinguishing a good from an
indifferent stone. Although silica, the main constituent of sandstone, is not attacked bycarbonic or sulphuric acid, calcareous sandstones have calcium carbonate as a matrix and so
are subject to erosion in the same way as limestone and lime mortar. Other sandstones such as
the excellent Darley Dale are not attacked, but they collect soot in their pores; this is almost
impossible to wash out and so the highly corrosive hydrofluoric acid, which will dissolve silica
or grit blasting in some form, has to be used for cleaning sandstones.
Burnt clay products, bricks, tiles and terra-cotta, are rarely affected by the
crystallisation of soluble salts, but Fletton bricks, which themselves contain considerable
amounts of sulphates, and have a bad pore structure, are a notable exception. Good sand-limebricks are rarely affected; neither are most slates, but some are more susceptible and can suffer
serious decay.
Sulphuric acid and carbonic acid attack lead and other metal roofs, and in 100
years about one third of the thickness of a 71b/per sq.ft. lead roof may be dissolved (forming
lead sulphate and carbonate). Lead carbonate is also produced by the attack of acetic acid: thisacid (found most commonly in vinegar) is found in various kinds of timber, particularly, with

tannic acid in oak, and the vapour can attack lead roofs from below. It is also produced bymoss and lichen and where these reside picturesquely on a tiled roof above a lead gutter thelead can be perforated rapidly by the drip of this acid.
Although it has been assumed above that SO 2 works on limestone in the form ofsulphuric acid, there is evidence to show that it can work directly as a gas and that its action inthis form may be more serious than as a liquid. Further research is necessary into the relative
effects of these acids both in their free state and in solution.
Other aggressive acids are produced by industry; they are generally diluted
rapidly and it is only in the immediate neighbourhood of their point of propagation that theycall for special protective measures, but they increase the erosive effect of rainwater over amuch larger area. It may not be possible, because of aesthetic considerations, to build thechimney of the heating plant in an historic building sufficiently high to dilute any possible
damaging products of combustion sufficiently to avoid affecting the building. For this reason
choice of the fuel to be used is important as it can have a direct effect on the life of thearchaeological remains.
The maintenance of archaeological sites/remains is a subject that tends to fall
between many disciplines. The architect may be concerned only with major repairs and theaesthetics of preservation, the maintenance staff act only when something breaks down, thecleaners come into direct contact with incipient problems.
It is most desirable to provide adequate access to the internal structure of roofs
by means of walkways and to the whole of a building externally over roofs and along gutters.
Such provision is a good investment because it allows routine checks to be easy and effective.
It is good housekeeping to maintain all concealed spaces in good order and decorated, simply
because this encourages a high standard of preventive maintenance. For the same reason, it isgood policy to provide fixed electric lighting within roof spaces, particularly for viewing theunderside of gutters where this is possible.
Animals, including man, can damage buildings by urinating and defecating.
Dogs can cause the decay of brickwork at street level and cats are said to damage zinc roofingor galvanised surfaces. Rats cause damage by building nests, which encourages rot andprovides a likely spot for the start of a fire, and by gnawing at electric wires. Their entry is best
prevented by trapped gullies, balloons over vent-pipes and properly protected airbricks etc.
Combined rainwater and soil systems give rats many opportunities for climbing up untappedrainwater down pipes and entering a roof space via a gutter. Birds, particularly pigeons, and toa lesser extent starlings and jackdaws, damage and disfigure buildings. Their droppings blockroof rainwater outlets and cause grass and other vegetation to grow in gutters and in re-entrants
on sloping roofs, and the bodies of pigeons frequently block drain outlets and down pipes.
Pigeons also like nesting in stairs and turrets of historic buildings, and it is necessary to wage
constant warfare to keep them out. If they win entry they build up so much mess and rubbishthat it is a major task to get rid of it- and so unpleasant that workmen have refused to tackle thejob owing to the lice and filth that have to be faced. The dirt birds introduce, like rats nests,
leads to beetle infestation, particularly the Longhorn beetle. These kinds of problems are
currently being faced at the most of the archaeological sites/monuments at the sites of Taxila,
Makli Hill Monuments, Thatta and at some other sites. However, efforts are being made by the
Department of Archaeology and Muse4ms to overcome these problems by adopting concretemeasures.
Ingress of birds can be prevented by keeping all glazing in good order andproviding self-closing doors to all spaces: simple weights on pulleys are best for doors not in
frequent use. Roosting and nesting of birds can be prevented by netting, spikes, and sticky bird
repellents applied to the masonry- but there is a danger of the latter staining the stone. Highvoltage wires have been tried but these are difficult to maintain in practice as when a sitting
bird receives a shock it rises and instinctively defecates neatly onto the wires thus tending tocreate a short-circuit. So in practice the device is found to need too much maintenance itself. A
simpler method that often works is the fixing of nylon thread.
Bacteria and lichens cause the decay of building materials by producing acids
that react chemically with the structural material. Examples of this are sulphate-producing
bacteria that grow on stone, and lichens and mosses, which produce acids that attack lead andlow-silica glass. This problem is being faced at some of the monuments at Makli Hill, Thatta.
Damage and decay caused by leaving the growth of vegetation unchecked is not
at all rare. Ivy, wallflowers, and wisteria damage buildings if allowed to grow freely. Ivy
drives a built-headed root into crumbling masonry and causes disintegration, although it is not
so harmful to sound wall-pointed masonry. On buildings proper, rather than garden walls, ivy
must be kept in check; when it is cut the stem should be treated with a “brushwood” weedkiller so as to poison the roots and prevent it sprouting again. The growth of vegetation
indicates that the pointing is perished. The wall in this case is to be re-pointed as soon as is
feasible.
Some kinds of wall-cladding plants, such as Ampelopsis Veitchii, Hydrangea
Peliolaries, and Hedera Canaiensis, do not damage masonry directly but must none the less be
kept away from eaves and gutters to avoid blockages.

The roots of trees and bushes can find their way into rainwater drains causing
blockages and local ground dampness. In extreme cases rainwater drains are broken by roots
and the leaking water can cause the sandy types of soil to wash away from below foundations.
Conversely in clay soils there is the well-known fact that trees, particularly poplars, candamage foundations by excessive withdrawal of ground moisture in summer resulting infoundation movement and subsequent cracking of walls and partitions.
Algae, moss and lichen all grow on brick and stone masonry. If the material isadequately frost-resistant no harm need come but there is an added risk due to the dampness,and the clogging of pores. These growths can be removed from roofs by spraying with tar-wash
etc. using horticultural equipment.
Ashes or cinders usually contain sulphates. If they are placed against a wall,sulphate attack can ensue, leading to bulging and decaying of the internal plaster and thedisintegration of cementation matter in mortars. The effects of gradual, inevitable decay should
not be neglected. Tiles falling off because of nails rusting, flashings coming loose because of
mortar decaying, and lead creeping and cracking, because of thermal movement, are examples,and all can have serious effects.

The greatest part of the pollution of the atmosphere arises from the burning of
fuel, in boilers, furnaces, domestic fires and in internal combustion engines. There are threeprincipal categories of pollutant; first, grit and dust (emitted mostly from industrial chimneys),secondly, smoke or finely divided solids, which coagulate to form soot, and thirdly, gases, thetwo most important of these being carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) and sulphur dioxide (SO 2 ). The
monuments of Thatta, Kalhora Monuments at Khudabad, Sindh and Shahdara Monuments
Complex at Lahore are facing these problems.
Carbon dioxide occurs naturally, being given off by all living organisms as aby-product of respiration, as well as being a by-product of artificial combustion of fuel, theamount of dissolved un-dissociated CO 2 is fairly constant at about 0. mg/litre, but the amountof dissociated CO 2 may very widely from place to place.

Sulphur dioxide occurs almost

entirely as a man-made by-product, it is produced when fuels are burnt in proportion to thesulphur content of the fuel. The density of emission of SO 2 and of soot, the other major manmade air pollutant, varies widely according to locality.
The effect of air-borne vibrations can be exaggerated. It is extremely difficult to
get any positive proof on a theoretical basis of what damage may or may not occur. Groundtransmitted traffic vibration, particularly that from heavy diesel vehicles, is becoming more andmore regarded as a serious problem. But the airborne and ground-transmitted energy input issmall and it is difficult to get instruments that are sufficiently sensitive to prove that damage
occurs and it is even more difficult to identify the damage itself. However, it is also difficult toprove that damage does not occur. The practical difficulties of measurement to the required
high degree of accuracy (taking into account variable weather, seasonal changes and different
temperatures) over a sufficiently long period are however considerable.
In Pakistan, The conservation and restoration problems of the archaeologicalsites and remains are no doubt enormous. At present, seven important archaeological sites andhistoric monuments belonging to Pakistan have been inscribed on the World Heritage List, by
UNESCO, which include the highly prized Prot-historic metropolitan site of the Indus Valley
Civilization known as Moenjodaro, the group of highly important Islamic period monuments inthe World’s largest necropolis at Makli Hills, Thatta, the famous Lahore Fort which houses
highly prized and unique monuments like Shish Mahal, Naulakha, Diwan-e-Khas, etc., theRoyal Mughal pleasure Garden of Shalimar at Lahore, the unique military fort at Rohtas indistrict Jhelum built by Sher Suri the great warrior kind who dethroned Humayun of the
Mughal dynasty, the Taxila Valley containing three city sites of the earliest historic period ofPakistan, Buddhist sanctuaries (Stupas, monasteries, temples, etc.), and the huge Buddhist
monastery at Takht-e-Bahi District Mardan.
As regards their proper protection it is worth mentioning that different kinds ofmonuments and sites have different kinds of conservation problems. For instance thepreservation of Moenjodaro is a challenge for the entire world. The problems at Moenjodaro
are unique and difficult to overcome through ordinary means. The most alarming problems are
the rising water table, hazardous salts rising into the standing structures through capillaryaction and from the atmosphere, improper & insufficient drainage systems, etc. The generous
assistance of UNESCO and sympathetic countries have greatly helped in overcoming the
problems, but despite serious efforts at national and international levels the elimination of the
problems are nowhere in sight. The UNESCO Campaign for Safeguarding Moenjodaro iscomplete. Sufficient funds are still available and efforts are still continuing to make somebreakthrough in finding a viable solution to the serious problems. Recently, experts from
UNESCO have visited Pakistan and discussed the problems and possible solutions with theconcerned authorities. The site can be saved from atmospheric adverse conditions and thermal
effects by restoring a congenial atmosphere in and around the site.
The problems of the remains/monuments at Makli Hills, Thatta are no lessalarming. Located on top of the Makli hillocks, the Makli monuments comprising both stone
and brick buildings are exposed to different kinds of threats.

The area encompassing themonuments is so vast that it is virtually not possible to isolate them from the intrusion of thelocal people and their stray animals. There are also some mausoleums of saintly people greatly
venerated by the people throughout the country. The annual functions at different mausoleums
attended by thousands of people mostly unmindful of the importance of the monuments locatedthere, erect camps, light fires and prepare food within the monuments. The animals wonder
here and there and cannot be controlled due to the lack a barrier to the huge site. Thus man andanimal greatly damage these prized monuments. The strong wind containing dust particles
erode the surfaces of both stone and brick buildings at an alarming pace. People interested in
the highly intricate carvings on the stones manage to take the carved slabs for decoration in
their houses.
droppings.

The birds, especially the tits and pigeons harm the buildings due to their

It is not easy to combat these problems.

The Department of Archaeology &Museums is making efforts to erect barbed wire fencing to control the free passage of animaland people.

Efforts are also being made to control the religious processions within theprotected zone to save the monuments from further damage. A plantation has been planned tobreak the velocity of the strong wind containing dust particles and slats, but due to lack ofwater the plan cannot be successfully and usefully implemented. The monuments visibly suffer
more due to disturbed micro and macroclimatic set-up around these structures. The need forrestoration of congenial atmosphere for better preservations and maintenances of thesemonuments is greater than anything else. The main hurdle in the conservation and preservation
measures is the huge funds involved and technical know how.
The conservation of Lahore Fort is a difficult task. The unique monuments are
suffering from different problems of various degrees. The unique and highly prized Shish
Mahal in particular was suffering from unique problems, which have been solved with the startof UNESCO-NORAD Funded Project. Both national and international experts have studied
the conservation problems and its restoration work is in progress. However, the problem ofhigh humidity inside the monuments with very thick walls has also added to the difficulties of
the conservators and managers of the site. Shalimar Garden is also under threat both from thevisitors and the hazard of the rising water table around the prized monument. A few years ago
the unique hydraulic system of the Mughal Period was damaged but it is now being restored.
Similarly, Rohtas Fort is heavily encroached from inside and a complete village
is housed in it. The Department of Archaeology & Museums have tried to restrict further
expansion of the village by demarcating the limits of the village.

Wild growth, makes it

difficult to approach to the site, the nearby Kahan river, etc. are problems too difficult to count.
Congenial climatic conditions are also necessary for the proper preservation and maintenanceof the huge edifice that has been of paramount military importance since the medieval Islamic
period. Huge funds are however needed to overcome all these problems.

The problems at the archaeological remains of Taxila are also complex. The
wild growths are virtually uncontrollable.

Recently, a workshop under the auspices of

UNESCO thoroughly debated all possible remedies to the problems of eliminating the wild
growths that are virtually threatening the structures and came to the logical conclusion that theuse of toxic chemicals for eradication of the shrubs will further harm the structures and also
pollute the atmosphere. The experts at the workshop recommended that the traditional methods
for eradicating the problems are the best remedial measures, which should be continued.
During the past years, a stadium was constructed on the World Heritage site of Bhir Mound at
Taxila. The decision was resented at all levels and strongly opposed by the custodians ofcultural heritage. The wrong has now been made good by reversing the decision. The micro
and macroclimate of the valley has been disturbed at a rapid pace, which has also adversely
affected the monuments. The need for restoration of the original climatic conditions has now
become very necessary under the current circumstances.
The World Heritage Buddhist site of Takht-e-Bahi, District Mardan, NWFP ispreserved but

the problems of conservation are even bigger.

The site is not easily

approachable and water cannot be easily made available at the site and the conservationmaterial is carried to the site with great difficulty. The poor drainage system has been harming
the standing structure. Similarly, the restoration of the suitable micro and macro climaticconditions is also the needs of the time for better preservation and maintenance of the cultural
relics in their original environments.

Huge funds are needed to overcome the problems.

Proper analysis of stones used as binding material as well as that used for antiquities apart frommortar is needed. On the basis of scientific research proper consolidates need to be applied so
as to protect the site from disintegration. With the financial and technical assistance of theGovernment of Japan a project for the proper preservation and restoration of the site is ongoing.

Republic of Korea

CHANG Eunjeong
CuratorCollection Management Dept. of National Museum of Korea

The Development and Problems of Korean archaeological Research
The development of archaeological research in Korea; Activities
Archaeological research in the Korean Peninsula began in the early 1900s. It continued somethirty years or so until the country came under the rule of Japanese imperialism until the 1945
Liberation of Korea. However, the excavation in 1946 of an ancient tomb at Geongju by
National Museum of Korea is regarded in general as the first Korean archaeological research
project. It was a typical tomb of the upper classes in the ancient Shilla period and had many
valuable artifacts in it (fig.1). It was named by Hou-Chong and a ‘Chong’ means an ancientlarge scale tomb.
This research was notable not only because it was the first archaeological excavation but also
because of a cast bronze vessel (fig.2) from the tomb. The vessel has a sentence composed of
sixteen Chinese characters in the bottom. The sentence was interpreted as ‘King Jangsoo
produced the vessel in memory of the Great King Gwanggaeto’ in 415 A.D.

Fig. 1. The drawing shows the arrangement of artifacts when they were discovered in
Hou-Chong.

There were three kingdoms in ancient Korea, called Goguryeo, Baekje, and Shilla. They weresometimes in conflict with one another, but collaborated occasionally as they expanded theirterritories. The Great King Gwanggaeto was a monarch in the most prosperous area of
Goguryeo and King Jangsoo was his son who succeeded to the throne after his father’s death in
413 A.D.

Fig. 2. A cast bronze vessel from the tomb of Shilla, Hou-Chong, Gyeongju, Gyeongbuk.
Accordingly, the sentence shows the direct relevance of the vessel and Great King
Gwanggaeto of Goguryeo as it includes his actual name. Furthermore, the style of characters issimilar to those on the tombstone of Great King Gwanggaeto. Therefore, it is assumed that thevessel was produced in Goguryeo. It seems to have been introduced into Shilla from Goguryeo
and then buried in the Shilla tomb for some reason. Therefore, this bronze vessel has beenthought of as an important artifact that shows the relationship between Goguryeo and Shilla inancient Korea. The name of the tomb, "Ho-U", was also derived from two characters carved in
the vessel.
Since that first excavation, the National Museum of Korea have continued excavating many
prehistoric sites and ancient tombs such as Amsadong settlement site at Seoul (1971~1977),
Songguk-ri settlement site at Buyeo (1975~1978, 1985~1987, 1992~1996), Joyang-dong site atGeongju (1977~1982), Choong-do site at Chuncheon (1980~1983), Daho-ri site at Changwon(1988~1998), Shinchang-dong site at Gwangju (1992~1998), and so on. It was not until these
excavations that many archaeological items came to be valued for their historical meaning. The
National Museum of Korea had been the unchallenged leader in archaeological activities in
Korea for sixty years, especially until the mid-1990s when overseas researches began.

Fig. 3. Archaeological Sites excavated by the National Museum of Korea.
[left] Songguk-ri site, Buyeo, Chungnam, It is a Bronze Age town. [right] Daho-ri site,
Changwon, Gyeongnam. It is a group of tombs in the Proto-Three Kingdoms period.

On the other hand, the educational department of archaeology at universities began to beestablished formally in the 1960s with Seoul National University at the head. Actually, almost
no one was formally educated in archaeology within Korea until then. The National Museum of
Korea alone conducted most of the archaeological researches. However, as archaeologicalexperts were trained systematically in universities, it has come to produce some young andenthusiastic archaeologists. And they have played an active part in Korean archaeology sincethe 1970s.

Fig. 4. The Frequency of Excavation in South Korea by Research Institution
In the 1970s, large-scale engineering works such as building dams or apartment-complexes
started as a part of Korea’s economic development and national land development. Therefore,
it was necessary to excavate historical ruins urgently as they would be destroyed throughconstruction activities. As a result, the number of excavations has increased constantly. Moreuniversities came to participate in archaeological researches, and some students extended theirresearch into Korean archaeological study. They gradually took the lead in the archaeologicalresearch of Korea until the 1990s (fig.4). The frequency and scale of investigations haveincreased rapidly since the 1990s. This was created by the spread of land development
throughout the country, which was influenced by the local self-government system set up in the
mid-1990s. Furthermore, most construction works were forced to conduct archaeologicalsurveys before starting construction by the Cultural Properties Protection Law revised in 1999.
That has produced more demand for urgent excavations by engineering works (fig.5). However,
the existing institutions to conduct investigations were not capable of satisfying all thedemands of research. Consequently, a Research Corporation that specializes in archaeologicalinvestigations was established in the mid-1990s, and currently the number of investigations
undertaken by the Research Corporation is more than thirty.

Fig. 5. The Frequency of Excavation in South Korea Since the 1960s
The Research Corporation has the advantage of having professional staff and an organizationthat can concentrate on researches all through the year. And so, the Research Corporation has
the capability to conduct long term and grand scale researches throughout the year. Even
though maybe controversial to question their role, they are certainly getting more and more of
the most important archaeological research opportunities in Korea at present. Of course, they
have contributed greatly to the preservation of historical remains and have developedarchaeological activities.
Consequently, it was possible to obtain much more archaeological data from remains and to
broaden the province of archaeological research. In other words, the growth of excavations inboth quantity and scale has indeed accumulated enormous information about ruins and artifacts,and has improved on the methods to investigate and analyze them.
Many local archaeological societies have also been organized, and they have exchanged
information with one another and have tried actively to explain and interpret archaeologicalfacts. This trend made archaeological researches diverse in the field and in methodology ofstudy compared with those of the past when most studies were focused simply on typology andchronology. Thus, objects and several types of relics, either a housing site or a tomb, all things
are important including organic material, site of production such as a kiln or a furnace or awide scope settlement site, a large group of houses, waterways, rice fields, tombs and soon. And the range of time and space in archaeological research has been extended.

Diversity of methodology: scientific research method
The purpose of archaeological research is to understand the human behavior of the past fromthe material available, thus one has determine above all the position of archaeological material
in time and space. One of the most common items found at ancient excavations is pottery. It
has been thought that pottery was used popularly in most times and regions, and that different
peoples used different styles of pottery. That is, as styles change over time, the pottery hasbeen used to estimate dates and for this reason archaeologists are concerned with pottery ingeneral. It is also thought possible to trace the movement or exchanges of peoples acrossregions by the pottery they left behind.
Before the 1990s, Korean archaeological research had the tendency to focus on typology andto explain ruins and artifacts by diffusionism. In many cases, pottery, strictly speaking the styleof pottery is used as important for analysis purposes. However, as several scientific methods
have been aggressively applied in many archaeological researches recently, the concern andmethod of research has become various and systemic from ‘in the field’ to ‘the laboratory’.

Among the scientific research methods, a dating method is utilized in general. There are twokinds of dating methods used in archaeological research. One is relative dating, and the other isabsolute dating. Relative dating is the method used to identify the temporal relationship among
the archaeological materials excavated, which is used in chronology by and large. Absolute
dating is the method used to give the specific date of the material being studied. In Korea,
since Radiocarbon Dating (C14 Dating) was introduced in the early 1960s at first, absolute
dating methods such as Potassium-Argon Dating (K-Ar Dating) and Thermoluminescene
Dating (TL Dating) have been applied to determine the age of remains.
Radiocarbon Dating (C14 Dating), which measures the change in C14 content, was the very
first absolute dating method to be developed. Organic material that was once living can bedated to when it died by the amount of carbon-14 left within it. So the radiocarbon test detects
more carbon-14 in more recent objects and less in older objects. Since this method wasintroduced, it has been used at various sites, contributing greatly to establishing prehistoric
Korean chronology. Only foreign research institutes conducted this dating method until the mid
1990s, but Seoul National University introduced AMS in the late 1990's, and most C14 Datingis conduced by the University.
Thermoluminescence tests can be used to date pottery by detecting radioactive materials in
the object and measuring minute amounts of light given off by them. Ruins composed of clay
can be dated through magnetic dating. Over time the Earth's magnetic north has been moving.
When clay is baked, an imprint of the Earth's magnetic field is locked into it. As long as theclay has not been moved scientists can determine when it was baked by measuring thedifference between the magnetic imprint in the clay and known past locations of the Earth's
magnetic poles.
Another method of estimating the absolute age is Dendrochronology, which estimates the ageof wooden objects through the growth rings. If a tree is cut, its growth rings are visible. For
each year that has passed, the tree's cross-section has another ring. Whether it had been a goodyear for the tree or bad, is visible in the rings. Narrow growth rings can mean a drought. By
matching a pattern of growth rings in a wooden object with trees that are still living in the area

where the object was made, it is possible to come up with a very accurate date for the object.
However, this method is not applied so much in Korea.

Another example of applying a scientific method in archaeological research is the site
investigation method. Site investigation used in Korea is Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR),
Electrical Resistivity, and Geomagnetic Survey.
The GPR is a geophysical method that uses high frequency electromagnetic waves and pulses
to discover the existence and size of features. Energy is propagated downward into the groundand is reflected back to the surface from boundaries at which electrical property contrasts areplaced. This is used to identify the distribution of almost all areas of an archaeological site,
including burial grounds, kilns and buildings. It is also used to produce digital images ofartifacts. This method was introduced in Korea in the early 1990s and has been actively used toacquire subsurface information before starting an excavation.
Electrical Resistivity Method injects electricity into the surface of the earth and measures theresistance volume of material to the flow of electrical currents to find features. Using thechanged electric potential this method can be used to measure the specific resistance at almost
all archaeological sites. It was introduced in Korea in the early 1990s together with GPR andhas been utilized in excavations when looking for underground features.
Geomagnetic Survey as a nondestructive experimental feasibility study conducted using amagnetomer to find buried cultural objects such as pottery and iron. A magnetic anomaly map
reveals several anomalous points in the 1st and 4th quadrants of the survey site, from where
pottery and their fragments were confirmed. Six points out of seven points correlating withmagnetic anomalies are found containing earthenware, a magnetically uncorrelated location
produced earthenware made of unbaked clay. Shallower excavation deposits may explain this.

Fig. 6. Archaeological Research Using GPR in Bunwon-ri, Gwangju, Gyeonggi-do
Since the early 1980's in Korea, the materials from ruins was started to be analyzed and alarge amount of information to explain and interpret the material has been obtained. There areseveral methods that analyze the material's properties and structure chemicophysically then it isapplied to archaeological interpretation. The method includes microscope analysis, chemical
analysis, heat analysis and radiography. These methods are applied to analyze many types ofartifacts, such as stone implements, metallic goods, and pottery.

There has been relatively large amount of analysis methods carried out on pottery. The
scientific analysis of pottery and earthenware involves the observation of mineral composition,
chemical substance, firing temperature and microstructure, and the purpose is to study the
manufacturing techniques. The provenance of pottery can be determined based on traceelements on the basis of the geological characteristics of the excavated site. Similarly, thematerial analysis of metal artifacts is revealed to study the substances, structures and solidity inorder to examine the ancient art of metallurgy and manufacturing techniques.
One other analysis method of the materials from ruins is the analysis of organic material suchas pollen analysis, plant opal phytolith analysis, and analysis of residual fatty acid and so on.
These are conducted through scientific investigation and also based on the results of scientificexperiments. By analyzing animal bones, fish bones, shells and bird remains found on the site,
the livelihood of people living in those times could be reconstructed. In addition, examining
fossilized plant materials and detecting ancient pollen can obtain scientific evidence to explain
past environments. Thanks to the analysis, it is possible to determine when rice farming in
Korea began and whether carbonized rice is wild or cultivated. Recently, the method is being
conducted to analyze plant opal phytoliths and microfossils from plants. Furthermore,
information on the dietary life of those times is being investigated by analyzing the fatty acids
that remain in features or on artifacts.
Problems: Preservation and Information Management
To preserve historical remains is to clarify the worth or importance of objects in a sense. On
that point, archaeological researches, especially excavations, can be recognized as the
beginning of the preservation of cultural remains.
As many researchers in the archaeological field have endeavored to find methods for the
successful preservation of historical remains, Korean archaeological research has developed
constantly over the last sixty years in quality as well as in quantity since the National Museumof Korea began to excavate Hou-Chong in 1946. In the last decade, the number ofarchaeological researches has grown 1.5 times that of ten years ago (fig.5).
We have tried to classify the type of excavation into three types, called ‘excavation forstudy’, ‘excavation for repair’, and ‘urgent excavation’. ‘Excavation for study’ is to make aplan and select the place to be excavated for the purpose of making a study. In this case,
universities or tax-paid institutes (national or public institutes) conduct the researches in most
instances at their own expense. Therefore, the scale of research is not so large and the time towork on it quite short. However, no real need to hurry to meet the closing day of excavation, as
the place investigated will just remain as it is.

‘Excavation for repair’ is conducted in the case of repairing a government-controlled
historical relic. This is similar to ‘excavation for study’ in that the remains investigated will
not disappear after finishing the research.
‘Urgent excavation’ has a connection with construction or engineering work. As above, it isconducted on historical ruins that are faced with destruction due planned construction. In thiscase, it can be decided whether to continue the construction according to schedule or not after
research. Except for particular instances where it is concluded to preserve the site, mostconstruction continues as planned. In the case of preservation, the original schedule forconstruction has to be revised.
It is easy to guess that the number of urgent excavations has increased rapidly recently(fig.7). These latest excavations have been undertaken by demand relevant to the nationwide
scale of engineering work. Accordingly, it means quite a few ruins are faced with destruction
after excavation. From this point of view, how to preserve historical remains has become an
important issue.

Fig. 7. The Frequency of Excavation in South Korea by Research Type
Preservation can be classified into various methods in accordance with the degree ofintervention. Of them, reconstruction is the most active method. Reconstruction involves
recreating the original features of the relics that have no remains left.

In general,

reconstruction is carried out for the cultural heritages that were destroyed by war or fire in thepast. Reconstruction of Suwon Hwaseong is one example. Suwon Hwaseong was built as partof city planning by King Jeongjo in 1796 as a walled city 5,600m in entire length. But the walland gate pavilion were left in a damaged condition due to the Korean War and reckless cityenlargement. \Maintenance and reconstruction projects had been carried out from 1974 till
1978. It is a typical example of what happened when central government took charge after the
1960s. In comparison with others, it was much easier to design the reconstruction because of
the abundance of direct historical materials, for example the report of Hwaseong Fortress in10volumes. The report has all detailed records of the process of the construction including
many drawings of the structure.
Reconstruction of Bulguksa, one of the most famous historical temples, is another example.
The premier Kim Daeseong founded the Bulguksa at the time of the Shilla dynasty. It was the
typical national temple with 80 buildings and excellent stone structures such as Dabo and the
Seokga pagoda. But time passed, it remained in a ruined state without any majestic features ofthe past, only a few structures like Daewoongjeon (main shrine) were left. Because there weremany structures lost at Bulguksa, the excavation was carried out to collect any available
evidence in 1969, and the design for reconstruction was drawn up based on the excavatedremains. Therefore, the significance of the Bulguksa reconstruction is the adoption of ascientific approach such as the excavations and using archaeological evidence. The design ofthe reconstruction was set with reference to the excavated materials, historical literatures andthe study of other existing buildings.
However, it is a rare to reconstruct a site, especially a prehistoric site. One instance though is
the reconstruction of the Amsa-dong prehistoric site (fig.8). Amsa-dong prehistoric site is
located on the outskirts of the Han-river. It came to light when a piece of pottery with a patternof the Korean Neolithic period was found following the great flood of 1925. The result of the
excavation confirmed it was a prehistoric relic. In 1979, it was designated as a historical site
and the regional government office of Seoul reconstructed the Amsa-dong Pre Historical site
based on the excavated materials. The principle of selection of the habitation site was thecondition of preservation and traditional signification. The structure of the top portion was tobe estimated and designed based on the excavated materials. 8 dugout huts were reconstructed
externally and others were reconstructed for observation inside. In comparison with other cases,
it was reconstructed on the original site as the concept of a field museum to educate people
without removal of the relics from the site to the museum. In general, it is common to cover itback under the earth after recording all necessity facts, but it is left at the original site to help
the people understand.

Fig. 8. Reconstruction of the prehistorical site, Amsa-dong, Seoul
However, reconstruction of cultural remains is a very special case, even though thepreservation is decided after urgent excavation. To transfer some important part of the remains

after finishing the research has been one of the next best methods used for preservation. It has
been exhibited at a museum or other places. But it is also exceptional when compared to theamount of excavations being conducted these days.
That is to say, except for several cases of preservation or reconstruction, the ruins disappear
and remains just as data or information. Therefore, it is the most important thing, I think, tomanage well any information obtained from the ruins, and even though the remains will bepreserved or reconstructed.
There is a great amount of information produced from archaeological sites every year. There
are so various types of information such as records relevant to research; materials analyzed,
maps, photographs, and so on. Some of them are digitalized others are not. The management of
information has to be updated on preparing researches as well as the systematic preparation of
all courses. A great deal of information obtained can be applied usefully when it is managed
efficiently and synthetically. For that, various scientific plans and effort have to be conducted
through all research courses. Furthermore, it is necessary to establish an efficient data basesystem.
Recently, the geographic survey of cultural relics conducted by the Cultural Heritage
Excavation Management Division, which aims to build the database of cultural remains
scattered nationwide, is one desirable instance.
The Division is making progress to produce the data base management system for materials
excavated including artifacts and sites by an Institution, especially Research Corporations.
These are very encouraging changes for archaeological information management. Now
archaeological information management is getting to be a more important method for historical
heritage preservation.

SamoaSoonaalofa Sina AH POE
Senior Museum/Archives Officer
Ministry of Education Sports & Culture

Current Status and Issues on the protection of Heritage Sites, the Museum and the
National Archives of Samoa

Introduction
This report aims to provide in three parts, the current status and issues concerning theprotection of cultural heritage in Samoa. Cultural heritage of Samoa can be classified as
different areas such as heritage sites of religious or cultural significance, archaeological sites,
building remains, historical buildings, collections of artefacts in the National Museum andgovernment and public records that are stored in the National Archives.
The protection of most heritage sites in Samoa has been carried out by owners of land in whichsites are located. This protection and maintenance is carried out primarily for the purpose of
tourism and simply to keep family surroundings clean.
The Museum of Samoa was established in May 1999 with a very small collection of artefacts
donated to the government of Samoa from the Pacific Islands who participated in the 6 th
Festival of Pacific Arts held in Samoa in 1996. From then on, the museum has received atremendous amount of artefacts and historical digital photographs from local and overseas
donors.
The National Archives of Samoa is not yet accessible by the public. However, there are tworooms located in different areas that store historical files and public records of the governmentof Samoa. Not all historical files are sorted, thus the reason why it is not accessible to the
public. Meanwhile, a legislation bill has been drafted and awaits approval, and two records
management guidelines have also been drafted and are now ready for consultation.



1.0

Current Status and Issues on the Protection of Heritage Sites in Samoa

Most heritage sites in Samoa are located on private lands; therefore they are maintained andprotected by families or the land owners. However, in general there are many institutions thatare involved in the care of heritage sites in Samoa. The Ministry of Natural Resources,
Environment & Meteorology initiated and established the Heritage Coordinating Committee
comprising of representatives from other Government and Non-Governmental Organisations
and Institutions to plan the protection and management of sites including historical buildings.
At the moment, the Samoa Heritage Coordinating Committee is in the process of preparing a
Tentative List for the UNESCO World Nomination List of Heritage Sites. Samoa ratified theWorld Heritage Convention in 2001.
The Cultural Heritage of Samoa can be grouped as the following categories:
1.1

Natural Sites with Legendary Background
These sites make up the majority of popular sites in Samoa, such as lava tube
caves where the Goddess of War or the Dwarf People used to live, rocks or
mountains that are ancient heroes turned to stone, pools created by spirits etc.
Their importance comes not only from their natural beauty, but also from thetraditional, poetical interpretation of these phenomena by the people of Samoa.

Paia Dwarves Cave Entrance, SAVAI’I
1.2

Ancient Structures and Village Remains
Samoan ancient structures, such as the star mounds and the Tia Seu Mound, are
not well known, and even less is known about their former meaning or use.
Other ancient structures include the ruins of the Worship House of the Octopus,and a large stone fortress at Luatuanuu. These structures are far from present
settlements, they are in the hills and not maintained for tourist access.

Pulemeli Mound, Palauli, SAVAI’I.

In the 1960s/1970s, archaeological surveys were conducted by researchers from
Auckland and the Hawaii Bishop Museum. The oldest known village remains(1000BC) were found at Mulifanua (West Upolu), also decorated Lapita Pottery.
This discovery also did not lead to the creation of a site to visit, or even a
signboard explaining the importance of the place.
1.3

Graves and Monuments
The graves of important chiefs or legendary heroes are often well maintained bytheir descendants or villages; others are forgotten in former settlements, whichwere abandoned. Many ancient settlements were inland, while the more recent
custom after the arrival of the missionaries was to settle near the seashore. Afterthe cyclones 1990/1991, and the improvement of inland roads, people are now
shifting inland again. This change of settlement patterns can cause structures tobecome abandoned, neglected or destroyed by new land use.

Virgin’s Grave, SAVAI’I

There are also several monuments from

colonial and historical events, e.g. the Cyclone 1889 Monument, the Monumentof the Raising of the German Flag 1900, the Independence Monument 1962 etc.
The government is responsible for looking after the graves and monuments at
the Mulinuu peninsula, and one of our most famous tourist attractions, the graveof author Robert Louis Stevenson (“Treasure Island”, “Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde”),
on Mount Vaea.
1.4

Historical Buildings
As Samoan traditional houses are made of wood and thatch, which has to be
renewed periodically, there are not many “old” traditional houses on the islands.
However, the art of building is still alive, with several schools, institutions andchief’s families owning their traditional Meeting or Guest House.
Historical European style buildings include churches, colonial office buildings,
other structures like the Clock Tower, and private homes. The Government has
now started a programme to preserve old colonial buildings in Government
ownership. Privately owned houses or churches are not under any control or
regulations issued by the state.

Court House, (formerly known as the Old Government Building & currently
occupied by the Ministry of Courts & Administration and the Museum of
Samoa), Tamaligi, APIA

1.5

Administration of Cultural Heritage Sites
Presently, for sites on customary land, the village or family owning that landhas complete rights. Decisions on the use of the land will be made by the
Village Council of Chiefs, or by the extended family and their chiefs. There isno national legislation or policy on the management of heritage sites. Manysites are still well maintained, because people appreciate and cherish thelegends and history of their village and family. Also, some sites such as theSacred Forest of the Tuifiti, have certain taboos and rules of behaviour, lest thespirit inhabiting the place might get angry.

Avao Bible Translation Site.

Commemoration Landmark where
Missionary John Williams first arrived
and was received in Samoa, Sapapali’i,
SAVAI’I

The above two sites are prime examples of heritage sites maintained andprotected by villagers and the church.
Tourists visiting village and family owned sites are often asked for a small
entrance fee, which is used for development programmes in the village or forfamily income, and for the maintenance of the site. However, there are othersites that have lost their meaning to the people owning the land. Often, thesesites are neglected, or may be threatened by developments or souvenir hunters,
especially those from outside the village settlements. The government cannot
step in if a site on private property is threatened, by using legal instruments,
except for the Environment Act, which generally protects Samoan Environment(= “the physical features of the surroundings of human beings, including theland, water, atmosphere, climate, sound, odours, tastes, the biological featuresof animals and plants, and the social features of aesthetics.”)
In June 2001, ratification of the World Heritage Convention has also given a
new impact to the protection of Heritage Sites.



1.1

IssuesSince the maintenance and the protection of many heritage sites in Samoa are carried out
through a traditional system, the need for legal protection is not necessary a high priority.
Private land owners, villagers and churches play a crucial part in maintaining and protecting
heritage sites, their first hand protection has saved and prolonged the life and existence of theseimportant historical sites.
The heritage sites of Samoa should be protected for future generations. Meanwhile, these
heritage sites are also tourist attractions and accordingly should be well managed. This is whenlegal protection is required to protect both custodians of sites and tourists. The Ministry of
Natural Resource, Environment & Meteorology in conjunction with the Heritage Coordinating
Committee devised a Cultural Heritage Site Policy in 2001.
In summary, it is very important to note that village and family support is crucial in protecting
heritage sites. The Government cannot maintain or guard these sites without the involvement oftraditional owners, therefore these owners have to be respected and involved in the decision
making process as the rightful custodians of these places.
2.0

Current Status of the Museum of Samoa
2.1

The Project
The museum was officially opened on 27 th May 1999. The Culture Division of
the Ministry of Education, Sports and Culture is responsible for thedevelopment and the operation of the Museum of Samoa. There are three
relatively small rooms in which the heritage and artefacts of Samoa aredisplayed. One room is dedicated to displaying artefacts that were donated to
the government of Samoa from participating pacific islands countries at the 6th
Pacific Festival of Arts in 1996. These very artefacts were used to officiallyopen the Museum of Samoa in 1999. From then on, the museum has received
many donated items as well as historical photographs both from local andoverseas residents and organisations.
The museum of Samoa is currently operated on a daily basis by two staff
members and a temporary assistant from Monday – Friday, 12.00 noon – 3.30
pm. The same staff members are also working on developing the National
Archives project. This structure has not changed since its establishment in 1999.

Museum of Samoa, Cabinet Room & Pacific Room
2.2

MissionThe museum of Samoa is committed to preserving the country’s heritage bycollecting and displaying objects that provide information for Samoans andvisitors about the life, culture, history and the environment of Samoa and thePacific.

2.3

The Building
The museum of Samoa is housed in three small rooms in an old historicalbuilding from the 1900s. The building was first built by the Germans and was
originally used as a court and administration building. The British/New ZealandOccupation Force occupied the same building when they took over Samoa fromthe Germans. When Samoa gained independence in 1962, the first Samoan
Prime Minister and his cabinet occupied the building and governed Samoa fromthere until 1993 when they shifted to the new government building. In addition,
the front door of this building was where the ‘Black Saturday’ occurred (Tupua
Tamasese Lealofi III who was the Mau movement leader was shot in 1929).
These historical events have made this building a very important witness to thehistory of Samoa, therefore the building is considered a unique and a significant
artefact in itself.
2.4 Collection:
The museum has some historical antiques in its collection, such as Lapita
pottery, stone adze heads, the original Cabinet table and historical emblems.

Information is also provided through examples of Samoan artefacts andhistorical pictures such as:
Historical photographs by .Rev George Brown and Otto Tetens
History timeline with illustrating photographs
Carvings such as weapons produced by young Samoans in culture
workshops
Carvings and tales of Samoan legends
Kava Ceremony and medical plants
Siapo (bark cloth) and its production
The tattoo
Producing fine mats
Birds of Samoa
Fishing methods and Sea life
Traditional clothes and Miss Samoa dresses
Artefacts from other Pacific people, donated during the Arts Festival in
Apia.

Showcases of Artefacts, Pacific Room, Museum of Samoa
2.5

Current Status
The condition of the museum building poses threats to the safety of staff as wellas the collection. The entire building needs to be restored to ensure that safety
procedures can be carried out for the staff and the optimum controlledenvironment provided for the preservation of the collection. Because it is a veryold building, the museum has constantly demanded the spending of a large
amount of money to enable upgrade and repair work. The power supply isinterrupted every now and then, which also interrupts the air-conditioned
environment of the museum. Other parts of the building are deteriorating,introducing even more threats to the collection in the way of termites and otherpests.
There is currently not enough storage and exhibition space to house and display
the existing collections so some items and special exhibitions had to be held
elsewhere under poor conditions and out of direct control of the museum staff.
The museum does not have the capacity to provide much comfort for visitor
groups of more than 30 people e.g. school classes.
The collection at the moment requires specific and controlled conditions as
many items are made from perishable materials such as; bark cloth, fibre andpandanus. The required conditions are currently not being met and therefore thecollections are at risk.
2.6

Development Plans
Considering the status of the museum, the only ongoing development plans weare able to implement involves keeping the museum open on a daily basis,
upgrading permanent displays and exhibitions; as well as monitoring thebuilding for pests and repair work.
Future development plans prioritises the following areas;
2.6.1

New Museum Building
Owing to the structural deficiencies of the museum building, Samoa’s
climatic conditions and potential natural disasters such as cyclones, tidal
waves, earthquakes and fires, the museum staff have raised their concern
by drafting a tentative museum concept which proposes for the buildingof a new museum building. The new building should provide;
1.

Safe Storage: Conditions away from sea level and flooding areas,

concrete walls and floor (to reduce fire risk and insect damage tocollections) cyclone proof building structure, security- watched premises,
fire alarm system, cyclone shutters2.

Controlled Environment. At least some display areas and storage

space with air-conditioning/humidity control, Insulated roof, all entrancepoints (doors/windows) can be closed securely without gaps, No direct
sunlight on displays, No building entrance points facing directly onto aroad to reduce dust and air pollutants
3.

Access for Visitors: Situated at a place easy to reach by public

transport, wheelchair accessible, and visitor parking spaces available
4.

Visitor Facilities:

Reception area with bag lockers toilet facilities, museum shop, museum
café area with large space for introduction of group visits, and kids'
activity area.
5.
display

Museum Office: Museum office with desks for computers,
preparationtables,documentation

andfilingfacilities,

communications, tools and equipment
2.7

Environmental Factor affecting the museum
As mentioned earlier, Samoa’s climatic condition is a critical matter thatmust be addressed if a new building is to be built.

2.8

Economical Factor affecting the museum
The museum is currently under-funded as is evident from the current
status of the building as mentioned in part 1.4. We do receive
operational costs from the government and 70% is spent on repair workfor the building, for example, repairing the roof, which leaks during
heavy rains, and upgrading of the electrical wiring. Lack of artefacts is
another factor.

2.9

Lack of historical artefacts
This lack of historical artefacts is more or less due to the fact that thecondition of the museum is unsuitable for the preservation of fragile
items. There have been cases where donors from overseas havecontacted the museum for the return of historical items. However, until
we build a new building we cannot accept fragile items without theappropriate environment and storage.



2.10

Public AwarenessSince the establishment of the museum, staff observations and visitor
records indicate that the number of foreign visitors to the museum ismuch higher than the locals (this is excluding school groups). This is ofcourse a crucial issue that the museum staff should research for future
development. Meanwhile, promotional materials are in production for
distribution to hotels, public places and transport agencies.

3.0

Current Status of the National Archives
The National Archives project is currently progressing well. Although the historicalarchival files are not yet accessible to the public, a legislation bill has been drafted and
we are awaiting its approval from the government. Two guideline documents (Code ofBest Practice & Common Administrative Retention Schedule) concerning thestrengthening of records management within government ministries have been drafted,
and are ready for stakeholder consultations. A proposal for funding to conduct technicaltraining and to procure archival standardised materials for use by government ministries
has been approved by the Public Sector Improvement Facility (PSIF).

Turkmenistan

Maksat HOJAMMAYEV
Researcher/Senior Scientific Worker
The State Historical-Cultural Reserve(NISA)

THE TURKMEN ARCHAEOLOGY TODAY
Introduction
There are so many archaeological sites and architectural monuments in Turkmenistan ofdifferent periods of history. Turkmen Government pays a great attention to the preservationand conservation of the national cultural heritage for the future generation. Nowadays in ourCountry there are eight State historical-cultural reserve. As a result of close cooperation with
UNESCO two State historical-cultural sites (“Ancient Merw ” in 1999, and “KunyaUrgench” in 2005) have been included to the World Heritage List of UNESCO for the last
six years. All necessary documents for the inscription to the World Heritage List of
UNESCO the State historical-cultural reserve “NISA” where I work have been fully
preparedand submitted to the World Heritage Centre of UNESCO for the further

consideration. Old Nisa is located on the territory that constitutes core of the Parthian States.
It was the land where the Parthian kings has started their conquests and turned small Parthia
into a huge empire of the ancient world that stretched from Indus to Euphrates.

An excursion to the history of “Nisa” (Mithradatkirt)
Yet there is not accurate data of the period of Construction. Archaeological final
informations let us to date the early Parthian period in between the middle of III century BC
and the middle of II century AD. In III century BC Achaemenid Empire had been ruinedwith the strikes of Alexander’s troops. During the period of Seleucids-the successors of
Alexander, three Independent states were established: they are Bactria, Khorezm and Parthia.
These countries were developing through pace along eventful historical way which had been
covered in the works of authors of antiquity. Among them Parthia that existed for about 600
years succeeded best and became a formidable opponent of Rome empire at the beginning of
I century AD.
It was that area where in 247 BC the tribe of Aparns (or Parni) having become a big unionof nomads, which inhabited Kara Kum desert (one of the biggest desert in the world) headedby their chief, whose name was Arsak, seized Parthau (Northen Parthia), Andragoras-the
Greek governor-general of that Seleucid satrapy was killed. Arsak announced himself to bethe king of Independent Parthia. Then he occupied Hyrcania (area situated near the CaspianSea), later on, the first capital of the Parthian Kingdom-Hecotompylos (the archaelogical site
Shahri-Kumis near the town of Damgan in Iran) began to spring up.

The first archaeological excavations in Old Nisa began in 1930.In 1946 there were
established YUTAKE-it means “South Turkmenistan Archaeological Complex Expedition”
by famous Russian archaeologist M.Y.Masson.
The fortress Old Nisa consist of two parts: The southern (or the central) & the Northerncomplex. In southern complex there are only Temples, the treasure of Parthian Kings is in
the northern complex. The fortress was build on a natural hill and a shape irregular pentagon.
The height of fortress walls stretched about 20m and 4m wide. Along the fortress walls
there are 43 rectangular towers.The main area of the site about 14hectars. It was the citadel
of Parthians.
But was an Old Nisa a dynastic sanctuary of Parthian Kings, the ceremonial center or the
residence of Kings? It’s not proved yet. Usually mud bricks were used as a main material of
the building structure. Only the columns were from burned bricks. Each building wasconnected to each other with caridors.

Big Quadrate Hall Quadrate

Reconstruction of Big Quadrate Hallby G.A.Pugachenkova

The first construction is “Big Quadrate Hall”. It is about 20m in span and with four
powerful four-bladed columns, adjoins the eastern “Tower” temple. The walls in interior are
decorated with semi-circle pilasters. At the height of three meters the second tier is situated,
where clay coloured sculptures (man’s & woman’s) standing between the columns in niche .
A great number of architectural decor elements were found here during excavations, such as:
ornamented plates, the pieces of clay sculpture, ceramic vessels, & etc.
The walls in some section were 4-5m thick. In southern part of the wall we began toreconstruct as an experiment. Some researchers determine this building as an edificedestined for ceremonial receptions. But another researcher thinks that this building justTemple.

Metope with a line’s head Metope with a line’s head

Head with helmet. Clay sculpture.

Statue of Goddess in marble

Fragment of murals with head of a woman or a young manStatue of Goddess in marble

Fragment of masculine portrait

The Round Temple presents a squarein plan, surrounded by caridors, aRound Hall 17m in diameter isinscribed in it. The walls werecovered with white plaster and also
was two storage and along the second
floor were situated mud sculptures ofGods and Goddess. The height of thisTemple reached to about 14-15m andwidth of walls were about 3-4m.

Reconstruction of Round Hall by G.A.Pugachenkova

The remains of Round Temple

The remains of Round Hall (Temple)

The northern architectural complex of Old Nisa consisted of a big Square House which wassurrounded by various house-hold buildings, in particular winestores, filled with Khums. It
was there when in 1948 archaeologists, excavating these chambers, discovered a lot ofuniquecollection of now famous Rythons-huge vessels in the shape Horns, made out of ivory andskillfully decorated with sculptural reliefs. Today these true masterpieces of Parthian art

belong to the National Museum of Turkmenistan. The general size of the building is 60x60m
and have 12 rooms in it.

Rython from Ivory.

The stone Base under the columns        

The Big Quadrate Hall (Reconstruction)

The remains of Big Quadrate Hall

Except of them there is also a Wine Vault (Madustan), where they used to keep their wine,
rice, wheat and etc. in big jugs (vessels, khums). During the excavations of Madustan there
were founded more than 2,5 thousand of such pieces with notes, so-called Ostraks with
Parthian inscription. They contain rich material for study of economics, history and cultureof that period. Due to those Ostraks archaeologists found out Parthian name of Old Nisa,“Mithradatkirt or Mithridatokert” the fortress of king Mithradates I (171-138 BC).



International archaeological expeditions in the remains of Old Nisa
Every year since 1990 two International archaeological expeditions work in Old Nisa. They
are: Turkmen-Russian expedition by leadership of famous Russian archaeologist Dr Victor
Pilipko and Turkmen-Italian archaeological expedition by leadership of Italian archaeologist
Dr Carlo Lippolis.

International Turkmen-Russian expedition by leadership offamous Russian archaeologist Dr Victor Pilipko

International Turkmen-Italian archaeological expeditionby leadership of Italian archaeologist Dr Carlo LippolisConservation of the buildings

The new laboratory, created in the “Nisa” park in 2005, as a result of joint project elaborated
between Ministry of Culture and TV and Radio Broadcasting of Turkmenistan together with
UNESCO Tehran Cluster Office and CRATerre-EAG. The laboratory helps to analyze thedifferences between ancient and modern bricks before conservation and restoration.
In our site we usually use the local methods of conservation. For example: adding the straw
into the soil from the excavations and water.

VietnamNGUYEN Viet Cuong
ExpertDivision of Relic and Monuments Management
Department of Cultural Heritage

Archaeology and conservation, restoration and reconstruction ofrelics and monuments in Vietnam

1. Objectives of Archaeological Research

In recent years, Archaeological research and excavations in Vietnam have attracted theattention of the public, and archaeological excavations are taking place more and morethroughout the country. Archaeological research is to be implemented following the objectives
below:-

Recognizing, researching archaeological sites, relics, monuments and antiquities
underground, and underwater to study all angles of natural and social life during thedifferent historic periods, in order to improve the natural and social life of the present.

-

Enriching the national cultural heritage treasures; supplementing documentary evidence,
and artefacts to the central and local museums in order to preserve, display and present
the national historic – cultural traditions, serving the demand of cultural enjoyment.

-

Supporting the conservation, restoration and reconstruction of relics and monuments.

2. Conservation, restoration
monuments in Vietnam

andreconstructionofrelicsand

In Vietnam, in order to meet the requirements of society on culture and to conserve special
cultural heritages inherited from former generations and to promote their cultural and historicvalues, it is very essential to conserve, restore and reconstruct relics and monuments.
Relics, monuments and cultural structures are just one part of material cultural heritages, andinclude communal houses in villages, temples, pagodas, shrines, citadels and ramparts, royaltombs, towers, ancient houses ... rich in materials such as brick, stone, wood, bamboo, leaf,
etc. ... However, the main reasons why those relics have deteriorated are as follows:-

Because of war with long periods of fighting foreign aggression, many cultural
structures of Vietnam have been destroyed.

-

As most of the relics and monuments are made of organic materials such as wood,bamboo, leaf; and furthermore being in a hot and humid climate with many insects,
relics and monuments are constantly exposed to threats-

Because relics and monuments have been restored incorrectly and do not follow
scientific regulation of relics restoration, some of relics and monuments have become
deformed.

Restoration and reconstruction of relics and monuments must be as close to the original form as
possible.
In order to restore and reconstruct relics sincerely and scientifically, we base our work on
many documentary sources such as the actual document referring to those relics, written
reports and literatures and in addition, the most indispensable information is archaeologicaldocuments. Recently, archaeology has made contributions with remarkable results to therestoration and reconstruction of relics in Vietnam, and archaeologists always takes the priorsteps when implementing these activities.

3. Some typical archaeological excavations supporting the restoration ofrelics in Vietnam
In this paper, I introduce results of some typical archaeological excavations that have been
contributing successfully to the conservation, restoration and reconstruction of relics in
Vietnam.

3.1. In 1996, in order to serve the conservation and restoration of Lam Kinh site, Thanh Hoa
province, the National Museum of Vietnamese History surveyed and excavated this site. So far,thousands of square meters have been surveyed and excavated, now the structure and relic’s
vestige is appearing, based on which the Lam Kinh vestige has been comprehended. This work
is ongoing.
The excavation and planning of the restoration at Lam Kinh site shows that the results ofarchaeology have real practical meaning.
Lam Kinh central area was the land of King Le Loi who led and won resistance war against
Minh aggression (China) in the early 15th century. As in other dynasties, in order to show

sincere respect to ancestors, the Kings of Le dynasty built many big temples, shrines and royal
tombs in the Lam Kinh area and considered it to be “the second capital” of Dai Viet, Le
dynasty after Thang Long – Ha Noi. However, from the historic documents, we only find somesketchy information written about Lam Kinh. Most vestiges on the land of Lam Kinh are
deteriorated now and it is difficult for us to imagine the overall aspect of ancient Lam Kinh.
Thanks to archaeology from 1996 to now, the horizontal surface of Lam Kinh has been outlined
fully, and we can comprehend the age; it is from the XV to XVII, and XVIII centuries.
Before, when planning about Lam Kinh, archaeologists only knew the main structures like thetriumphal arch, central palace, imperial temple, and now, so many structures have been
supplemented with full information and data. In 2002, archaeologists discovered many
structures in ruin in the 2 areas east and west of this vestige. Currently, research of these ruins
is still continuous.
From the above, it can be seen that, when setting a project of design, from 1995, archaeologicalresearch at this site has been of special importance. From that time to now, this site has been
excavated over a wide area. At present, restorations are still being carried out carefully in orderto determine the best method and facility for this important site.

3.2. From 1999 to now, archaeological research has intensified at Hue Ancient Capital – one of
the five World Heritages of Vietnam. Some excavations have been implemented here such as:
investigating and excavating Dien Tho palace, Duyet Thi Duong, Tu phuong Vo su tower,
Thieu Phuong garden, Truong lang relic, Truong sanh palace, An Dinh palace, Gia Long and
Minh Mang tomb… The relics researched have been restored and displayed.
The relics in Hue have suffered more than 100 years of neglect, relics have been degraded,some structures have collapsed. Besides, structures requiring restoration have too many
overlapping structure layers, thus, specifics and characteristics of each period, seen in eachlayer are decoded by research through archaeology. In fact, the archaeological work at theancient capital of Hue has been carried out on a large scale, systematically by a united plan forthe over 6 or 7 years. At first, the archaeological work was carried out along with therestoration. When permission for an archaeological investigation had been awarded, thearchaeologists’ research first paid attention to visual effects. When restored, most of the relics
here will have enough necessary scientific data and the quality of restoration will be highly
appreciated.
This is shown by the Royal Theatre at the site of the Ancient Capital of Hue, which has beenarchaeologically researched, as efficient documentation for restoration and reconstruction. The
Royal Theatre, which was constructed in 1826 by order of King Minh Mang, was a place wheretraditional arts performances and special festivals were held on the fortieth birthday of theKings, namely Minh Mang, Tu Duc, Khai Dinh… and whose major participants were civil andmilitary mandarins, princes, royal brothers…According to recorded history, at the time of
construction of the Royal Theatre, King Minh Mang ordered many other major architectural
works at this site, such as the Royal Gastronomic Place (serving food and drink to the King),
the Royal Physician Institute (making up prescriptions and healthcare for the King andmandarins), the Royal Care and Education School (for care and education of small princes). In
addition, there were also the Imperial Guard House, the Royal Seal Service and the RoyalInsignia Warehouse - which were respectively, accommodation for the Imperial Guards, theplaces where the Royal Seal and Insignia were kept for display on the occasions of Great
Festivals. However, at the end of the 1950s, many architectural works at this site wereseriously damaged. Until the beginning of the 1960s, the South Administration decided to
repair and improve the Royal Theatre by turning it into the National Musical College of Hue.
Almost all architectural works at this site were not existent. Together with the extension in area,changing the ground level to make it a yard and garden and the construction of temporary
houses as accommodation for teachers and students, vestiges of remaining foundations of theoriginal architectural works were buried underground.
In 2001, archaeologists surveyed and excavated on a 3,000 m 2 site together with a field survey,
many vestiges of major architectural foundations were found, and that efficiently contributed to
the restoration and reconstruction of the Royal Theatre site, and also clarified many related
historical, cultural and architectural issues.

3.3. From December 2003 to March 2004, the National Museum of Vietnamese History
excavated the Son Tay citadel, Son Tay town and Ha Tay province, which is 1000 m 2 in area.
Son Tay citadel located at this site was built during the dynasty of Nguyen (19 th century). The
surface of the citadel is square, the length of each side is about 330m, and its walls were builtof laterite. Almost all the residual wall has fallen down and is in a serious condition. Today
there remains only the ruins of the two gates of the South and the West, the North gate wasrestored in 1996 when the East gate was completely wiped down. Most of the architectural
structures on the land in the citadel have disappeared so that it is really difficult to redefine
those structures on the existing site. The excavation has been carried out to meet therequirements of the Project of preserving and restoring relics in the Son Tay citadel which is on
its way to being appraised including sites such as: Vong palace, flag tower, the East gate... The
purpose of the excavation is to provide knowledge on vestiges in the Son Tay citadel area,
which has been broken down in order to make a foundation for better conservation andrestoration. After 3 months of excavation, there appeared the vestige of the architectural
foundation of the East gate, Vong palace and several architectural vestiges around the centerarea of the citadel. The result has provided data on scale, structure and construction material of
the architecture in the Son Tay ancient citadel, efficiently serving the restoration andreconstruction. It is proved that the decision of making an archaeological excavation before theproject of designing/planning structures is finished, is completely right.

3.4. Over the past, conservation and restoration of Champa temples and towers has revealed
many problems that need solving. In fact, most of Champa cultural heritage in Vietnam that has
existed from hundreds to more than one thousand years has been seriously damaged. Most havebeen partially or completely broken. Here, I mention My Son, a Champa cultural heritage thatwas recognized as a World Cultural Heritage by UNESCO as an example of archaeologicalexcavations serving conservation and restoration.
Among the remaining Champa architectural structures in Vietnam, My Son towers were built
on land the full of obstacles and with difficult of access, at an early date, it has the mostdensely-distributed number of towers, the most beautiful carving and fine-art decoration. It was
built and restored over many historical periods, the longest lasting one in the Champa relicsites (the 7 th century to the 13 th). At present, most of My Son’s towers are in ruins, especiallythose that suffered during the war the consequences of which have not yet been overcome.
Some of the towers have been completely ruined, parts of the architecture and carving has beenbroken and is scattered everywhere. Parts of the architecture has been mixed up under the bad
conditions, which has not yet been assessed and evaluated. Therefore, it is necessary to
excavate it to make the vestiges and the architectural parts visible so as to evaluate the damageof each tower, and then make a plan for conserving this cultural heritage in the long term.
On carrying the Project of conservation and restoration of some towers of the My Son site, theVietnamese Institute of Archaeology excavated the F tower group of the My Son site in 2002,
2003. This is the tower that was seriously damaged in the war against America. The wall of the
F1 tower has cracked, architectural parts have been broken, the tower body has collapsed. The
F2 tower was damaged, the architectural parts broken and scattered everywhere. The F3 tower
was completely destroyed by a bomb. After the war, all the towers became ruins, the bases of
the towers were entirely buried, many positions on the towers’ body and objects have beenburied. In general, before excavation, the F tower is in ruins, seriously damaged and coveredby grass, and is difficult to recognize.
Another project at My Son - the Project of “Safeguarding My Son World Cultural Heritage Site
–Demonstration and training of in the application of international world heritage standards ofconservation at My Son G group of My Son” is included in the cooperation program of
UNESCO and the Italian and Vietnam group funded by the Italian government). There are 5
towers at the G tower group with different degrees of serious damage, all of them wereseriously damaged before restoration. In the two years 2004 and 2005, Vietnamese and Italianarchaeologists carried out the excavation here.
Of both excavations of Tower site F and Tower site G, the entire architectural works of theexisting Towers F1, F2, F3 and G1, G2, G3, G4, G5 were found clarifying the entire plan ofTower site F and Tower site G, even though not intact, the remains of such architectural works
have been clarified, thereby contributing reliable materials to research and the solutions forrestoration.
Excavated objects included are those made of stone, brick, terra-cotta, tiles of different kinds
and all are reliable evidences helping us to have relatively full awareness of these two towersites.
All the above proved that the study of archaeology will serve the research projects ofconservation, restoration and reconstruction of relics in Vietnam. Besides, there are still some
relics that are not in the restoration and conservation plan before the archaeological researchbecause their values have not been reasonably evaluated yet. When excavated, with theproposal of scientists, relics will be restored and locality conserved, for example, thearchaeological excavation of Thang Long imperial citadel relic at 18 Hoang Dieu, Hanoi. Thisconfirmed the leading role of archaeology.

4. Proposal
From the results of some remarkable excavations serving the conservation and restoration ofrelics in Vietnam as mentioned above, we will find that in the future it will be necessary to
make the projects of restoring and recovering be consistent as follows:
Research, surveys, archaeological excavation
relics, objects

Comparison, research, correction ofproject planning, conservation design, restoration and reconstruction.

This procedure shows that in order to conserve, restore and reconstruct a relic, it is necessary
to carry out n archaeological research first, then build the restoration project.
N.V.C



Lecturer Papers
1. Archaeology and Natural Science
SAWADA Masaaki
Chemical preservation and processing of unearthed wooden
articlesNISHIYAMA Yoichi
Lecturerpapers2.

Archaeology and Natural Science

SAWADA Masaaki
Professor
Graduate School of Globalizing Asia
University of Kokushikan

Introduction
When did the study of archaeology start and how was it developed? At the end of the 18 th
century, coins were chemically analyzed in Europe. At the end of the 19 th century in Japan,
many overseas researchers were invited to promote and develop education and industry. Oneof these foreign researchers was H. S. Munro, an American researcher, who was invited to
Kaisei School, the former University of Tokyo, as an authority in epigraphy.

He taught

Japanese students about chemical analysis of dotaku, bronze bell-shaped vessels, and gave
presentations on his results at an American academic conference in 1877. This means thatarcheometric studies in Japan were already established at the end of the 19 th century.
One study that shook up the field of archaeology in Japan was age determination, using
radiocarbon dating established by an American chemist Willard Frank Libby (1908 – 1980).
This method was first applied in Japan in 1951 at the University of Tokyo. At the time, a shellmound of the early Jomon Period was under excavation at Natsushima, an island off Yokosuka
City, Kanagawa. Based on the archeological knowledge of the time, this shell mound wasestimated as being 6,000 years old. However, the results of analyzing the earthenware using
this method revealed that it was 9,240 ± 500 years old. This result re-dated the beginning ofJapan’s Jomon Period to 3,000 years earlier than then believed, creating a major stir in thearcheological world. The use of the scientific approach to archeological studies seemed to startfrom a surprising finding in this manner.
Archaeometric studies were started on a major scale by Martin Aitken, who founded the“Research Laboratory for Archaeology and the History of Art” at Oxford University in 1958.
He was very active in research, publishing a regular newsletter, “Archaeometry” and holding
international symposiums. In Japan, two projects, “Study of relics and ancient cultural assets
using the scientific approach” and “Use of conservation science, humanity, and natural science
to analyze ancient cultural assets” were conducted between 1976 and 1982. These projects
were funded by science research grants from the Ministry of Cultural Affairs, and close to 350
researchers in archaeology and natural science were involved. In December 1983, the JapaneseSociety for Scientific Studies on Cultural Properties was set up.



They issued a journal,

“Archaeology and Natural Science” twice a year. In Asia, the Shanghai Museum in China
publishes a journal, “Sciences of Conservation and Archaeology,” which contains a range ofarticles on the analysis and conservation of archeological relics.

More recently, an“Archaeological Research Center” has been established in Beijing.
The following five subjects take up most archaeological research. Some of the research resultsin these segments are described below. First is the dating of remains and relics. At present,
many scientific techniques are being adopted. However, the most frequently used techniques
are radiocarbon dating and dendrochronology. Joint research for cross-checking using bothmethods is also proceeding. Second is the study of what, where, and how potteries, bronze
mirrors, bronze bell-shaped vessels, and so on are made of. This has been conducted for many
years.

In short, this is a study on material analysis, estimation of production areas, andclarification of production techniques. Third is studies related to the reconstruction of ancientliving environments.

This involves studying the living environment of early peoples byreconstructing ancient climatic conditions and the ecology of animals and plants. Fourth isR&D on conservation and restoration science technology for permanently preserving remains
and relics for subsequent generations, and the fifth comprises other forms of scientific study
that are not included in the above four segments—for example, studies on the exploration ofruins without unearthing them, and studies on measurement science using computers.

1. Age determination
When researching cultural assets, age determination of target relics is an important issue. In
the field of archaeology, dating is determined by comparing the style of the relic, which is arelative age. On the other hand, in measurements using a scientific approach, an absolute age
is given instead of relative age.
At present, radiocarbon dating is the most commonly used technique. Since the 1950s, it has
generated a mass of results. In the last 20 years, though, another method gaining significant
results is dendrochronology.
1.1 Radiocarbon ( 14 C) dating
Carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) in the air is fixed in plants by photosynthesis. Animals eat these plants,
and thus animals take in the carbon that was originally in the air as long as they live. Carbon
has three isotopes with different mass numbers. The generation speed of carbon with mass
number 14 ( 14 C) is constant under cosmic rays of a certain strength. After a living creature
dies, the concentration of 14 C in its remains declines as time passes due to radioactive decay.
The period required for the 14 C content to fall by half, i.e., its radioactive half-life, is fixed.

Accordingly, the date of each relic can be determined from the amount of radioactive 14 C
remaining in the relic.
1.2. Dendrochronology
A method which uses the fact that tree ring widths change with yearly variations in climate.
This method was established by the astronomer J.E. Douglass, who investigated climatechanges from the annual ring widths of trees to find the rotational period of sunspots.
The widths of annual rings of trees are governed by climatic conditions, and thus change
constantly. This characteristic can be utilized to create logs of variation patterns in annual ringwidth dating back as far as possible using trees with known felling dates. Timber of unknown
date and age is collated with the variation patterns to find the year in which it was felled. In
archaeological studies in Japan, Japanese cypress, Japanese cedar, and Japanese umbrella pine
are particularly useful for dendrochronology. At present, standard patterns going back to 912
B.C. for Japanese cypress, 1313 B.C. for Japanese cedar and back to 22 A.D. for Japaneseumbrella pine are available.
1.3 Thermoluminescence
Minerals such as quartz present in earthenware and tiles store a part of the energy of naturalradiation when they are exposed to cosmic rays, but this energy is emitted and gives off lightwhen the object is heated. This phenomenon is called thermoluminescence. When clay is fired,stored energy is emitted as thermoluminescence, after which the object starts to store naturalradiation again. Let’s say the intensity of the thermoluminescence corresponding to the total
amount of natural radiation received since it was fired is measured by heating a piece ofearthenware.

The same piece of earthenware is then irradiated with a known amount ofradiation, after which its thermoluminescence is measured to calculate the luminescence
efficiency specific to that earthenware. If the annual amount of natural radiation amount isalso identified, how many years that earthenware has been exposed to natural radiation can becalculated, i.e., the year that the earthenware was fired can be determined.

2. Materials, production areas, and techniques
In Japan, scientific studies of archaeological materials were started by Professor H.S. Munro
and Professor Morse, as described before.

In 1911, Nobumasa Koga analyzed coinsscientifically. In 1916, the committee for investigating the conservation method of the Horyuji
Mural Painting conducted scientific studies on it. To study the trading area of archeologicalrelics, the archeological approach is to compare types and styles of relics.

The scientificapproach is to compare materials, etc. of relics. In general, a scientific approach is used.
Taking earthenware as an example, a piece of unknown earthenware can be identified bycomparing the analytical results of unknown earthenware with the chemical composition ofearthenware excavated from kiln sites or those whose area of produce is already known. Or,
the sources of clay materials are investigated.
When identifying the area of production of metals, earthenware, tiles, and stoneware,
fluorescent X-ray analysis is the most commonly used technique. This is a non-destructive
method that also allows rapid analysis.

When X-rays are directed at a specimen whose

composition is unknown, the elements composing the specimen are excited, and secondary Xrays unique to each element present are generated.
fluorescent X-rays.

These secondary X-rays are called

The elements present in the specimen are identifiable based on the

wavelength and intensity of these secondary X-rays, and the amounts contained are thus
measurable. A non-destructive analysis method which only requires irradiation by X-rays isideal for investigating precious cultural asset specimens. Another method is the use of the ratioof stable isotopes (isotope abundance) of lead. This is determined by the production age oflead deposits. Each lead deposit area shows unique isotope abundance. In other words, thelead isotope abundance of cultural asset specimens, such as glaze containing lead in bronze
vessels and lead glasses, is identified, and then, using the fact that each mine has unique leadisotope abundance, the area of production of the specimen can be investigated by comparing
with the data for each mine. In the 1960s, researchers in the US attempted to find the area of
production of lead glass using measurements of isotope abundance of lead.
Bronze products are made of an alloy of copper and tin, but also contain lead. Since lead shows
segregation behavior, a casting technique may be identified by the distribution of lead in it.
Production techniques can also be identified using X-ray transmission photos of earthenware
and metal products. In particular, CT scanners provide valuable information.

3. Reconstruction studies of ancient environments
This is research into discovering the living environment and natural environment of ancientpeoples, as well as their habitat.

For example, if large quantities of dolphin bones are

excavated from one site, the research starts from ‘why’ this might be. Many results, even
including the eating habits and living environments of ancient peoples, have been achieved inthis area. Similar studies also produce some answers to questions such as whether bones camefrom a boar or a pig, and whether they were wild or domesticated. Scientific approaches areapplied in this area for measurements such as the isotopic ratios of carbon and nitrogen inanimal bones found at the site.
Diverse small and large holes are found during the excavation of some sites. These holes are
assumed to be post holes, food storage holes, animal catches, and so on. One recent piece ofresearch, however, revealed some holes to have been used as toilets. Soil analysis detectedundigested food particles such as seeds and coliform bacteria inside. These types of findings
enable the reconstruction of ancient environments and the eating habits of ancient peoples.
As studies continue to broaden, scrapes on excavated human bones can also be analyzed
scientifically to provide new findings.

We can now identify, using optical instruments,

different types of scrapes: whether human-induced, by stoneware, or by metal blades.
Although scrapes become faint over the years spent underground, they can now be identified indetail using a range of analytical methods. Rapidly-developing methods are being used in thisarea. In the past, ancient environments were reconstructed by analyzing pollen and DNA.
Now, foods such as seafood, meat, and fish can be identified by measuring the carbon andnitrogen isotopic ratios to find which type of food was most commonly eaten to estimate whatfoods ancient peoples survived on.
4. Conservation science
It is entirely logical to utilize traditional Japanese techniques to repair our cultural assets. It isalso logical to employ scientific knowledge. Natural science was first introduced in the area ofconservation and repair of cultural assets in the conservation of the Horyuji Mural Paintings.
Proposed by Tenshin Okakura (1862 – 1913), a survey committee was organized in 1916 toinvestigate paintings, emergency conservation methods, permanent conservation methods, andbasic conservation methods.
4.1 Approaches in conservation science studiesi) Materials analysis
To be able to investigate, conserve, and repair natural assets, it is important to know about thematerials that they are made of. However, we must remember not to damage them throughanalysis. Even though analysis samples can be taken from the target, they should preferably bevery small. Fluorescent X-ray analysis allows analysis of mainly inorganic specimens without
destroying them. It qualitatively and quantitatively analyzes the elemental composition of thespecimen. X-ray diffraction analysis can be used to identify crystal content (or compounds).
Other than these, radioactivation analysis and atomic absorption analysis can be used toqualitatively and quantitatively analyze trace amounts of specimens; high-frequency induced
plasma emission spectroscopy allows simultaneous measurement of multiple elements; infrared
spectroscopic analysis and ultraviolet-visible spectroscopic analysis are employed for
identifying organic substances such as fabrics, dyes, and lacquer; not to mention 3D spectral
fluorescence analysis and chromatography (GC, LC, TLC).

ii) Structural research
To be able to see through opaque parts of cultural assets, such as the internal structures of
Buddhist statues and design sketches of paintings, optical methods using infrared rays,
ultraviolet rays, X-rays, and γ-rays are effective. Infrared rays were first used in the field of
cultural assets in 1936 for investigating the patterns of Horyuji Mural Paintings by taking
infrared photographs. Infrared cameras are currently increasingly being used for making out
faded ink letters on wood strips and ancient writings, and for observing mural paintings andother artworks. The original shape of a rusted metal relic can be confirmed by taking X-ray
transmission photos. X-rays were discovered by W. K. Roentgen in Germany in 1895. Theserays have the characteristic of passing through solid objects, but leave traces on photographic
film in the same way as visible light rays. Whereas the wavelength of visible rays is 4000 to
8000 Å, that of X-ray is short at 0.1 to 0.001 Å. Rays with a short wavelength can passthrough solid objects, and the shorter the wavelength, the deeper they can penetrate. On theother hand, the penetrating force of X-rays fades as the atomic number of elements becomeslarger, the object density becomes larger, or the object becomes thicker. Neutron rays have thecharacteristic of not passing through elements that make up organic substances, such ashydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. Unlike X-rays, though, they can pass through heavy metals,
and thus can be used to view paper inside a metal container. Soon after the discovery of Xrays, experimental radiographic photos of paintings were taken. In Japan, radiographic X-ray
photos were first used in the field of cultural assets in 1935. A lacquered coffin excavatedfrom Abuyama Mound, Takatsuki City, Osaka, was investigated using X-rays. This was thefirst example of application of X-rays to cultural assets in Japan. However, the use of X-rays
became more common in the field of cultural assets only after the 1970s.
iii) Study of the conservation environment
Investigation of the environment where a cultural asset has been conserved up to now, andestablishment of environmental conditions for permanent conservation and management are an
important research issue. In the case of archeological relics, the major factors that have caused
damage to a relic can be identified by investigating the environment where it was buried.
These findings can also be of help in setting conditions for the storage and exhibition ofcultural assets, and for designing the ideal air-conditioning for an exhibition hall or storage
structure. The study of molds, microorganisms, and prevention of damage by insects are also
important research topics.
iv) Materials and techniques of conservation and restoration
Traditional materials and techniques have been utilized in the conservation and repair ofcultural assets. In particular, we often need to rely on traditional materials and techniques forrestoring arts and crafts and building structures. However, we also need to apply conservation
techniques and materials that utilize modern science to best effect on buried cultural assets
which have been physically and chemically changed and damaged already underground. For
example, to prevent the exfoliation of pigment from paintings, the traditional Japanesetechnique is the use of glues. At the same time, application of synthetic resin also has many
advantages. The features of both types should be used to maximize the advantages of each.
As a general concept, traditional techniques are techniques that have been handed down overtime for the conservation and repair of cultural assets. However, I believe that unique repair
technique, broadly recognized and handed down, can also be regarded as traditional techniquesand materials even if the history of their application is relatively short.
4.2 Conservation science for relics
In the conservation and repair of archeological specimens, we must avoid the temptation tosimply enjoy and admire antiques.

Accordingly, we must clearly record what kinds ofchemicals were used and which methods were used for repair. Only restoration techniques thatcan be announced to the public are applicable to the conservation and repair of cultural assets.
Basically, a record of conservation and repair (like a medical card) is created, and stored andmanaged together with the specimen.
Although today’s repair techniques are very advanced, it is unlikely that cultural assets can beconserved forever. At some point in the future, the conservation effect will be lost and retreatment will be needed. Accordingly, it is a general rule to use conservation materials whose
effects can be reversed any time.
i) Organic relics
Organic relics include wooden relics, lacquerware, woven fabrics, leather relics, and plantseeds.

Many ruins in Japan are humid, so wooden relics, which are the most commonly

excavated, are fragile, since they contain excessive moisture.

The study of one chemicaltreatment of these types of wooden materials started in the 1850s. It is a strengthening method
applied by injecting potassium alum into the wood, a technique developed by the Denmark
National Museum.

Other permanent conservation methods include the PEG (polyethylene

glycol) impregnation method, the vacuum freeze-drying method, the solvent and resin method,
the silicone resin method, and the higher alcohol method. Targets of conservation treatment
are not only wooden materials. Research and development of conservation treatment methods
for all kind of relics related to human living, including lacquerware, fabric products, stoneware,
earthenware, tiles, and metal products are required.

ii) Inorganic relics
Stoneware, earthenware, and tiles, all inorganic relics, can be conserved to some extent byhardening them with acrylic synthetic resin.

The most complicated and difficult relics toconserve are metal objects such as iron, copper, and bronze products.
When planning conservation treatment for metal products, it is necessary to confirm surveys
and measurements of the buried environment, surveys of the materials and structure of relics,
the degree of rusting and corrosion, and chloride levels. The conservation state of the relic, i.e.,the state of disease, is then diagnosed in detail for preparing a conservation treatment plan.
Chlorides contained in relics are causes of rusting, and thus their removal (desalination) is oneof the most important processes in conservation and treatment. Desalination methods include
the removal of chloride ions using alkali solution or lithium hydroxide alcohol solution. There
are also other special methods: desalinization by electrochemical means using electrolysis andreduction of rusted relics by baking it in a hydrogen and nitrogen atmosphere.
Fragile rusted relics are reinforced by injection with synthetic after which measures are applied
to protect the relic from water and air. The synthetic resin used in conservation of metallic
relics is nonaqueous acrylic emulsion.
4.3. Conservation science for ruinsi) Remains and gardens
Excavated sites are often refilled to conserve them. Those parts of the remains which are
difficult to return to the site for conservation are conserved indoors.

The best way is toconserve the entire remains without removing any of them in an exposed state. This will offer
hands-on or visual experience of history. It is also useful for social education.
(1) Habitation sites and kiln sites
Habitation sites and kiln sites are reinforced by injection with synthetic resin. However, in thelight of the weather resistance of synthetic resin and the structure of remains, it is not atpresent easy to conserve sites in an exposed state. Normally, even if the remains are hardenedwith synthetic resin, they are further covered to protect them from wind, rain, and UV rays.
More recently, the surface soil of remains can either be cured while preserving its permeability
to water, or made impermeable. The soil curing method is chosen based on the condition of thesite, the remains structure, and also the purpose of the exhibition.
(2) MoundsA typical example of a mound where comprehensive conservation measures have been taken isa conserved facility of the ancient Takamatsuzuka tomb in Nara Prefecture. To ensure nondestructive conservation, the site was kept in an environmental condition close to theconditions that prevailed inside the stone chamber before being excavated. In other words, aconservation control system was installed for maintaining the temperature and humidity (96%or higher) same as those at the time of excavation. Solutions for any problems related to the
dynamic structure of the stone chamber and prevention of bacterial and fungal infection are
also important.

In general, each mound has different environmental conditions and site

conditions, and thus treatment must be applied that is individually appropriate to each mound.
What we learned from the ancient Takamatsuzuka tomb was the need to set up an ideal
environment for permanent conservation instead of simply reproducing the environment before
the excavation and maintaining those conditions.
ii) Stone-built cultural assets
Stone-built cultural assets include stone Buddhist statues (rock-engraved Buddhist sculptures),stone pagodas, treasure pagodas, stone monuments, stone structures, scenic stones in gardens,
foundation stones at habitation sites, and stone chambers and caves within mounds.
Degradation factors are not usually single: multiple factors are organically combined.

In

particular, weathering by salts and fracturing by freezing and thawing are major causes. Whenwater containing salts evaporates from a rock, salts are deposited on the surface. Water thenenters the rock again, and more salts are deposited on the rock surface when the water dries.
Through repetition of this action, crystals damage the surface layer of the rock, and excessive
salt forms a crusty film on the rock surface. A film which looks hard at first glance would
appear to make the stone more robust. However, this film is fragile and falls apart easily. In
addition, the material under the hard film is often converted to soft clay and the rock collapses
faster and faster. If water accumulates in a degraded part or crack in the rock, the rock breaks
up when the water freezes. Buddhist sculptures engraved on rocks are also destroyed by plantroots. Continuous vibrations due to passing vehicles and damage by earthquakes are also
serious problems. Biodegradation such as by lichens and microorganisms also account for alarge percentage of deterioration, and thus conservation measures are needed.

Epoxy andacrylic synthetic resins have been used for reinforcing rocks, but nowadays, silicate ester
synthetic resin is more often employed.
4.4 Restoration techniques and international contributions
At present, research findings on conservation and restoration are broadly applied to cooperative
conservation projects for overseas cultural assets.

Restoration techniques often become abottleneck for cooperative projects since the state of social affairs, cultural values, philosophiesof conservation and restoration, and so on differ in each country.

Therefore, it is of key

importance to build mutual understanding and trust in the field of conservation technology.
With respect to international contributions, the “International Cooperation Promotion Law on
Protection of Overseas Cultural Assets” came into force this year. This law includes collectionof information on the conservation of cultural assets and personnel development schemes. In
1989, the Japanese government set up the “Japan Trust Fund for Conservation of Cultural
Assets” within UNESCO. We contributed to restoring the Angkor ruins in Cambodia and the
Moai stone statutes on Easter Island, Chile. Our international contributions also include thoseby universities and related research institutes throughout Japan, in addition to UNESCO. They
have raised funds in unique ways and cooperated in international conservation projects.
However, information was in the past not freely exchanged among these organizations andtheir activities remained isolated. For this reason, the “International Cooperative Consortiumfor Cultural Assets” was established as part of the law to ensure that related organizations can
exchange information more easily. In other words, the law aims to establish a project in which
information can be closely shared among the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Ministry of Cultural
Affairs, universities, and fund-raising private organizations.

This will lead to theestablishment of a system that can respond rapidly to overseas requests and promoteconservation and restoration projects for cultural assets by cooperation between relatedorganizations.

5. General Science (exploration of ruins and measurement science)
These are methods of exploring remains and relics buried underground without unearthingthem. Radio waves are transmitted to below the ground, and any point where the type of soil
differs or anything other than soil is detected, based on the strength of reflected waves
aboveground, including the refraction or attenuation of the radio waves, a difference inelectrical resistance due to soil type, or any faint magnetic anomaly. The results are thencomprehensively examined together with existing archeological information, and the remains
and relics are further explored to reveal characteristics of the site. Taking the Shimotakahashi
Kanga site in Tachiarai-cho, Fukuoka, as an example, underground radar was used to explore
unexcavated areas in the site where a building site had been confirmed in an adjacent area. The
result clearly confirmed the position of a pillar matching one in the excavated area. This meant
there may be no need to excavate the adjacent area. Application of exploration technology also
allows identification of whether a buried tomb has been damaged or remains intact.
In recent years, the exploration of cultural assets includes scientific survey approaches for
cultural asset specimens such as stone and wooden relics, in addition to ruins. A range of
methods including the use of computer graphics for image analysis and 3D measuring devicesfor differently-sized archeological relics, from large structures such as temples to small objects,
have also been studied.
(September 19, 2006)

Chemical Preservation and Processing of Unearthed Wooden Articles

NISHIYAMA Yoichi
Professor
Department of Literature
Nara University

1. Discovery and storage of unearthed wooden articles
Wooden cultural properties are destined for eventual demise through degradation, damage, anddecay from insects, fungi, and wear. Among cultural properties, wooden articles are
exceptionally prone to degradation, damage, and early demise due to their organic nature.
However, there are times when wooden articles are discovered in their original form from sites
which are five or ten thousand years old.
For wooden articles to retain their original form and remain stored in the earth for many
thousands of years without being destroyed, there is a need for several conditions to be met.
Those conditions include the following.
(1) The article is immersed in an ample supply of groundwater.
(2) The article is shielded from the air.
(3) The article is not exposed to sunlight.
(4) The article is buried where putrefactive bacteria cannot reproduce; namely,(5) The article is buried at in a depth of least 50 centimeters from the ground surface.
However, even though an unearthed wooden article may retain its original form, a microscopic
examination will reveal that such substances as cellulose and lignin have eluted from the woodmaterial, and the article is actually in a porous, sponge-like state. As such, it would be fragile,
and as it dries would be prone to shrinking, deformation, and loss of form.
Therefore, in an effort to maintain their original form, excavated wooden articles are usually
immersed in such media as water containing a preservative such as formalin. However,chemical processing and preservation is needed due to such reasons as the following.
(1) Degradation and damage proceed gradually, even when an article is immersed in watercontaining a preservative.
(2) For large scale wooden articles, or when there are a large number of articles, changing thewater becomes an enormously time-consuming and labor-intensive matter.
(3) Preserving articles in water makes them inconvenient to use for such purposes as museum
exhibits.

2. Chemical processing of unearthed wooden articles
Methods and materials for the preservation of wooden articles need to meet the following
criteria.
(1) The methods and materials must have a high degree of dimensional stability so that thedimensions of the wooden article remain unchanged.
(2) The methods and materials must be reversible, so that the article may be subjected to othermethods of processing as the technology of preservation improves.
(3) The methods and materials must not be harmful to the environment or to human health.
The following preservation methods are presently in use as they meet the criteria outlined
above.
(1) Polyethylene glycol impregnation
Taking advantage of the principles of osmotic pressure, the wooden article is impregnated withhigh molecular weight polyethylene glycol and allowed to harden. Starting with 20%
polyethylene glycol solution, the article is then sequentially immersed in, and impregnated with,
40%, 60%, and 80% solution, followed by 100% molten polyethylene glycol. The article ishardened at room temperature. As the final step, the surface polyethylene glycol is washed. An
impregnating tank capable of maintaining a temperature of 60 degrees Celsius is used.
(2) Higher alcohol method
The wooden article is immersed in methanol to replace the water with methanol. Cetyl alcohol
is added to gradually raise the concentration for impregnation, and the article is hardened atroom temperature. An impregnating tank capable of maintaining a temperature of 60 degrees
Celsius is used.
(3) Sugar alcohol method
The wooden article is immersed in a solution containing such substances as lactitol or mannitol.
The concentration of the solution is gradually raised to 80%. After impregnation, the article isremoved from the solution and allowed to crystallize and harden at a temperature of 50 degrees
Celsius. An impregnating tank capable of maintaining a temperature of 60 degrees Celsius is
used.
(4) Fatty acid ester method
The wooden article is immersed in ethanol to replace the water with ethanol. Fatty acid ester isadded to gradually raise the concentration for impregnation, and the article is hardened at room
temperature. An impregnating tank capable of maintaining a temperature of 60 degrees Celsius
is used.
(5) Vacuum freeze drying
The water within the wooden article is replaced with 40% to 60% tertiary butanol orpolyethylene glycol solution. The article is frozen at minus 40 degrees Celsius, and vacuumdried as the final step.
(6) Alcohol xylene resin method
The wooden article is immersed in ethanol to replace the water with ethanol. The article is thenimmersed in xylene, in increasingly higher concentrations, starting at 30% and working up
gradually, at 60%, 90%, and 100%. The article is then impregnated with a resin such as
dammar, and dried at room temperature.

3. Storage of preserved wooden articles
The chemical preservation and processing of unearthed wooden articles is performed upon
careful discernment of the type (tree species) and degree of degradation of the material. The
most appropriate method is selected, the prescribed process is followed, and plenty of time istaken to implement the process. However, current methods of preservation are not 100%
perfect, and there is a continuous need for constant improvement and research.
Meanwhile, although chemical processing methods may strengthen wooden articles, the fact
remains unchanged that these articles are fragile cultural properties. Maintaining the storage
environment in an appropriate state makes it possible to preserve these properties over a long
period. There is a need to store these articles in a clean, dust-free environment where there islittle change in temperature and humidity and no exposure to direct sunlight or ultraviolet
radiation.

Final Reports
by participants

Final Reports by ParticipantsCambodia
Tech SRUN

1 - Introduction
Cambodia is a country rich in cultural properties, such as: more than four hundred ofancient monuments, numerous art objects (made of wood, clay and sandstone), manyarchaeological sites (pre-historical and historical sites), tangible and intangible culture.
For more than 30 years, the cultural properties of Cambodia faced to a most dangerous
situation.

This is the biggest problem of Cambodian nationality. So now, the Cambodian

government has tried its best to create laws for protection, conservation and the establishmentof an Authority for the Protection and Management of Angkor and the Region of Siam Reap
(APSARA Authority = short form from Autorité pour la Protection du Site et l'Aménagement
de la Région d’Angkor / Siem Reap).
In order to protect all the national cultural heritage and world cultural heritage from thedestruction of war, vandalism, illegal export of art objects, looting of cultural properties, urban
development and natural disaster, etc., the ACCU created the training programme on thepreservation, restoration and management of cultural heritage and since 2000 this has takenplace in Nara, Japan.
I was very happy and grateful to have the opportunity to take part in the 7 th training
course on the preservation and restoration of cultural heritage in the Asia Pacific Region, 2006,
which is organized by the Cultural Heritage Protection Cooperation Office, Asia/Pacific
Cultural Centre for UNESCO (ACCU).

The objectives of this course are to help me andarchaeologists from the Asia /Pacific region to develop their knowledge of archaeologicalmethods by providing opportunities to learn the latest techniques regarding the investigation ofarchaeological sites, conservation science, and the preservation and restoration of historicbuildings.

The course was based on characteristics of Japanese archaeological sites andhistorical monuments.

2 - Comparison and Application to Archaeological Work
2.a-Archaeological Work in Cambodia

Unfortunately, in 1975, the Cambodian situation collapsed in Pol Pot regime and overone million people were killed, including many who had higher education. Thereafter,
Cambodia faced to civil war for a long time. Accordingly archaeological work has not beenable to develop because of Cambodians lack of human resources.

But right now,archaeological work is gradually increasing, step by step.
Recently, there are many international organizations which have researched, conserved
and restored parts of the ancient historical monument in Angkor archaeological park (world
heritage site).
The Department of Monuments and Archaeology 1, APSARA Authority, has the most
responsibility for the researching, conservation and restoration works in the World Heritage
Site.
Archaeological works in Cambodia are comprised of historical studies, surveying andmapping, excavation, classification and analysis of objects, and site reports. There are twokinds of archaeological work in Cambodia: research and rescue archaeology. Fifteen years ago,archaeological work in Cambodia was involved mainly with monument excavations and the1conservation of ancient monuments. Other archaeological sites, especially prehistoric sites orhistoric habitation areas, are very rarely considered for excavation. Moreover, it takes a lot oftime and a large budget to complete such archaeological research.
For the rescue archaeology, work is carried out on very important and specific cases,
such as the construction of Parvis (parking, restaurant, souvenir shop, toilet, resting place androads) which have a limited time frame, meaning small-scale excavations, less interpretation,and incomplete results.
As for artifact conservation, for archaeological excavations this is rarely performed.
This means that most art objects from excavations are not analyzed and furthermore, scientificand modern techniques are not applied during the conservation and restoration ofarchaeological work.
2.b-Archaeological Work in Japan
Japan has a vast variety of ancient historical monuments, and after the loss of many
valuable structures during World War II and some natural disasters, Japan has been very activein the preservation, protection and management of cultural properties and sites since then. In
fact, Japan is one of the richest countries with a lot of cultural heritage protection agencies, andan abundance of professional archaeologists and conservators.
Right now, we also know that many sites are registered under the UNESCO World
Heritage List, and the local registry of the Japanese Government. Archaeological research inJapan is at higher standard with regard to analysis and the interpretation of archaeological datausing modern technology. This point has helped Japan become one of the most improved
countries in archaeological work throughout the Asia / Pacific region, especially with theiroutstanding technology and methodology.
Among these many advantages, research, there are methods which are introduced in the
training course, such as surveying/ measuring methods by 3D digital archive system, and data
integration by GPS coordinates and GIS program for archaeological remains. Moreover, themodern technologies are applied in the archaeological work.
On the other hand, Japan has set a goal to accomplish its stated objective of improving
the knowledge of the science of conservation and reconstruction, and the management of
cultural properties in Asia/Pacific region. Thereafter, Japan has promoted a lot of international
cooperation for the protection of cultural properties in the world.

In order to rescue andpreserve the cultural properties from destruction, the training is a vital resource to work from.
It means that Japan has been taking care of all the former lights of civilization of each nation in
the Asia/Pacific region.

3 - Training Program
The training program is very important and relevant to me because I am supplied with a
lot of information relating to management methods for archaeological conservation,
dendrochronological dating methods and other new scientific dating methods.
The training course focuses on conservation, archaeological research methodology andanalytical methods of ancient remains, consisting of the following factors.
-Cultural heritage preservation and protection laws
-Preservation and management of archaeological sites-Archaeological sciences-Scientific dating in archaeology-Preservation techniques for wooden, metal and stone artifacts-Environmental Archaeology
Beside the above, the course also trains the participants the methodologies of rubbings,
drawing, and the identification of relics and artifacts. Also taught are how to use a Total
Station and drawing plane table for mapping sites.

4 – My impression
During the training course, I learned the following:
In the first week, the training course’s introduction of the cultural heritage preservation
protection law, by Mr. Ito, was very useful and informative for me. The lectures onconservation and utilization of heritage resources were also useful and informative to me. This
lecture is not provided a global point in my country. All of the lectures provided an outline ofguidelines that govern the funding, management, conservation and protection of culturalproperties from an international and national prospective.
In fact, the 15 participants presented their country reports with specific archaeologicalproblems and needs. It meant that we could share the good experiences among other countries.
In the second week, the training course was mainly concerned with introductions toarchaeological science, dating methods and dendrochronology. In addition, there were lectureson survey measuring for a 3D digital archive system for archaeological remains and data
integration with GIS and GPS. It is very constructive for me because these methods have notyet been applied in archaeological work in my country, and I did not know about these topics
before.
In the third week, the course trained the participants in the measuring, rubbing anddrawing of the pottery. Furthermore, the course showed how to use scientific preservation
treatments for wooden and metal cultural properties, and how to do the transcription ofstratigraphy. And also, there was an introduction of the development and utilization ofarchaeological sites thereon, practices not widely applied cultural properties in Cambodia.
In the four week, the course provided a vast amount of information on the introduction
to environmental archaeology, and after that was an on-site lecture at the Nara Imperial Palace
Site. In addition to lectures in the class room, the training course took us for three days of site
excursions for input. With careful observation, we visited the Shokichi Matsuki Memorial
Museum of Arts, Matsugase Daiba Site, Jomon Museum, Torihama Shell Midden, Fukui City
History Museum, Ichijodani Asakura Family Museum, Asakura Family site, Azuchi Castle,
Dotaku Museum and site.
After three-day excursion, I noticed that all the sites are well taken care of, and also there areexcellent exhibitions at the museums to help improve and expand my understanding ofarchaeological methods by observing archaeological research, preservation, reconstruction andsite management.
5 - Conclusion
The training course consisted of theoretical and practical work and on-site lectures atdifferent places in Japan which enlightened me and provided greater chance for enhancing myknowledge.
I strongly felt that the most important topics in the training course are the conservationof archaeological sites, reconstruction of historical monuments and management of the sites.
Because in Japan, the conservation, reconstruction and management of historical monuments
have been well conducted.
Moreover, the course also provided me with a clearer overview of the cultural heritage
fields of preservation and reconstruction, for a better understanding. So, in the future, thismodern knowledge and acquired skill will be effective in applications in my own developing
country (Cambodia). However, careful recommendations, suggestions and monitoring can be
successfully applied for a better understanding and experience for future archaeologists.
6 - Acknowledgement
I would like to thank the Cultural Heritage Protection Office Asia/Pacific Cultural
Centre for UNESCO Nara, the National Research Institute for Cultural Properties, the Ministryof Foreign Affairs of Japan, the Japanese National Commission for UNESCO, the Nara
Prefecture Government and Municipal Government of Nara and the international Centre forStudy of the Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Properties (ICCROM) for making a
difference in my career of work.

Above all, I would greatly like to thank and express my sincere dearest gratitude to Dr.
Yamamoto, Director of the training course and also all of the staff and tutors of the ACCU who
helped us a lot in everyday activities in Nara, and the lecturers, translators and the ICCROM
representative.
The opportunity afforded to me from this course has expanded my knowledge inscientific methodology and the conservation of archaeological sites, and also provided a vast
valuable experience both in working and living in Japan. And also, I would like to thank all ofparticipants especially my good friend Jason from Pohnpei, FSM. We helped and accompanied
each other with good communication and shared data, and definitely had a wonderfulexperience during the training course, and happily underwent training for a better, memorable
experience.

IndiaVasant Kumar SWARNKARINTRODUCTION
The objective of this report is to comment on how the ACCU Nara training course on‘Cultural Heritage Protection in the Asia-Pacific Region 2006 (11 th sep-11 th oct.06)’ can beapplied to my work, and to evaluate its relevance to the heritage protection and preservation
activities in India.
This training course was mainly conducted through lectures/presentations at the ACCU
Nara, National Research Institute for Cultural Properties, Nara (NRICPN), Nara University;
field visits and on site lectures were also arranged on heritage sites at Nara Imperial Palace Site
(Heijo palace), Matsugase Daiba Site, Torihama Shell Midden, Fukui City History Museum,
Ichijodani Asakura Family Museum, Shiga Prefecture Research Institute of Azuchi castle and
The Dotaku Museum (The Mysteries of Dotaku), to provide a clear understanding and practicalapplication of the methodologies presented during the class-room lectures. All subjects andtopics arranged were highly relevant and within the scope of the training course, and all thelectures delivered by specialists in each discipline. The presentations were very informative,
and it was interesting to observe the nature of different heritage sites of the Asia-PacificRegion, their related problems and solutions, the legislations of different countries and their
management practices.
On the basis of content, the lectures can be broadly categorized under the following
sub-headings: •Legislation and philosophical framework for the protection and preservation of cultural
heritage•

Archaeological and conservation science and analysis•

Recording and data integration of heritage.

•

Restoration, reconstruction and presentation of cultural heritage and site management

Legislation and Philosophical Framework for the Protection and Preservation ofCultural Heritage
The philosophical framework provided by various international charters andconventions presented during the training course are known and followed by professionals in
India who are engaged in the protection and preservation of the cultural heritage. However, as
indicated by professor Ito of the Japan Agency for Cultural Heritage, I understand that moreemphasis is paid in Japan to paragraph 3 of Article 7 of the 1990 Lausanne Charter, which iscontrary to paragraph 3 of Article 15 of the 1964 Venice Charter, where the reconstruction ofarchaeological remains is favoured rather than limiting the conservation work to a level that
ensures reinstatement of its original form.
The legal framework for the protection of cultural heritage in Japan is comprehensive
and the most important aspect is that the Japanese law on cultural heritage is administered by asingle agency, i.e., the Cultural Properties Protection Department of the Agency for Culturalaffairs. This law covers not only the tangible, but also the intangible cultural heritage andplaces of scenic beauty and natural heritage, since the natural and cultural heritage in Japan areinterwoven in an intimate manner. The steps taken for the protection and preservation of bothof these aspects of heritage under one law are commendable. As Dr. Gamini Wijesurya of
ICCROM has pointed out, the present approach in heritage preservation (natural and cultural)
is beginning to change from a compartmentalized to an amalgamated one. As culture andnature are related to each other, we can’t think about existence of a culture without considering
the nature. It is also interesting to learn that the protection of traditional techniques forconservation of cultural properties is covered under the Japanese law for the protection ofcultural properties. In India, the Archaeological Survey of India follows the traditional
techniques for the conservation and preservation of monuments but they are not covered in thelegal framework. I am surprised to learn of the practice in Japan of giving permission fordevelopment above archaeological remains after excavation and research. In my view thesesites should be declared as protected sites and should be preserved for future generations andfuture research.
In India, the Archaeological Survey of India is responsible for the protection andpreservation of the cultural heritage, with its long historical background of Acts, Rules andRegulations, as below:
The cultural renaissance of early nineteenth century witnessed enactment of the firstever antiquarian legislation in India, known as Bengal Regulation XIX of 1810. This was soon
followed by another piece of legislation called Madras Regulation VII of 1817. Both theseregulations vested the Government with a power to intervene whenever public buildings were
under threat of misuse. However, both the Acts were silent on the buildings under the private
ownership. Act XX of 1863 was therefore enacted to empower the Government to prevent
injury to and preserve buildings remarkable for their antiquity or for their historical or
architectural value.
The Indian Treasure Trove Act, 1878 (Act No. VI of 1878) was promulgated to protect
and preserve treasure found accidentally but having archaeological and historical value. This
Act was enacted to protect and preserve such treasures and their lawful disposal. In a landmark
development in 1886, James Burgess, the then Director General succeeded in prevailing upon
the Government to issue directions forbidding any person or agency to undertake excavation

without prior consent of the Archaeological Survey, and debarring officers from disposing of
antiquities found or acquired without the permission of the Government.
The preservation of the cultural heritage entered a new era when the Ancient
Monuments Preservation Act, 1904 (Act No. VII of 1904) was promulgated. This Act provided
effective preservation and authority over monuments particularly those which were under thecustody of individual or private ownership. As this Act has not been repealed, it is deemed to
be in force. Next was the Antiquities Export Control Act, 1947 (Act No. XXXI of 1947) and
the Rules thereto which provided regulation over the export of antiquities under a license
issued by the Director General, and empowering him to decide whether any article, object orthing is or is not an antiquity for the purpose of the act, and making his decision final.
In 1951, the Ancient and Historical Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains(Declaration of National Importance) Act, 1951 (No LXXI of 1951) was enacted.
Consequently, all the ancient and historical monuments and archaeological sites and remains
protected earlier under the Ancient Monuments Preservation Act, 1904 (Act No. VII of 1904)
were re-declared as monuments and archaeological sites of national importance under this Act.
Another four hundred and fifty monuments and sites of Part ‘B’ States were also added. Some
more monuments and archaeological sites were also declared as of national importance under
Section 126 of the States Reorganization Act, 1956.
In order to bring the Act on par with constitutional provisions, and provide better andeffective preservation to the archaeological wealth of the country, the Ancient Monuments andArchaeological Sites and Remains Act 1958 (No 24 of 1958) was enacted on 28 th August 1958.
This Act provides for the preservation of ancient and historical monuments and archaeologicalsites and remains of national importance, for the regulation of archaeological excavations, andfor the protection of sculptures, carvings and similar objects. Subsequently, the Ancient
Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains Rules 1959 were framed. The Act, alongwith the Rules came into effect from 15 October 1959. This Act repealed the Ancient andHistorical Monuments and Archaeological Sites and Remains (Declaration of National
Importance) Act, 1951.
The Antiquities and Art Treasures Act 1972 (No. 52 of 1972) is the latest Act, enacted
on 9 September 1972 for effective control over moveable cultural property consisting of
antiquities and art treasures. The Act aims to regulate the export trade in antiquities and art
treasures, to provide for the prevention of smuggling of, and fraudulent dealings in, antiquities,
to provide for the compulsory acquisition of antiquities and art treasures for preservation in
public places, and to provide for certain other matters connected therewith, or incidental or
ancillary thereto. This Act was also supplemented with the Antiquities and Art Treasure Rules
1973. The Act and Rules have been in effect from 5 April 1976. This legislation repealed the
Antiquities Export Control Act, 1947 (Act No. XXXI of 1947) But these strong legislative
measures do not cover natural sites and sites of scenic beauty or Natural Heritage, which aremaintained by the Ministry of Tourism, and some of them are under provincial forest
department or other responsible agencies.
For this reason it is important to reconsider revising the present legal framework in
India by giving emphasis to the above aspects discussed for Japanese law. The heritage
protection and preservation laws of other countries like Norway, where natural and cultural
heritage is covered under a single law, also need to be studied in this regard.

Archaeological and Conservation Science and Analysis
Relative dating (stratigraphy and typology) and absolute dating are widely used in India
for purposes of chronology. As Prof. Tsuneto Nagatomo of Nara University of Education has
stressed in his lecture, the above traditional methods sometimes may present problems in age
determination. For example similar typology may occur in totally different ages throughout
history. As such, the use of modern (scientific) methods is vital for dating. This will alsoenable a cross-check or sometimes complement the dates provided by traditional methods.
In India, Radiocarbon and TL dating have been carried out to date only on selected
samples. However, as Prof. Nagatomo stressed, more than two scientific dating methods arenecessary to acquire accurate dates to arrive at an acceptable result for a single archaeologicalcontext.
In India, the equipment related to Radiocarbon and TL dating are available at someinstitutions, but the leading organization for archaeological research, the Archaeological
Survey of India, doesn’t have its own laboratory for these kinds of scientific studies. Thesemethods are expensive, and sometimes it is difficult to pay heavy amounts for the dating ofmany samples belonging to different parts of the stratigraphy, and also there are limited
laboratories so that it takes a long time for the results. It is now required to establish a wellequipped laboratory within the organization for archaeological researches.
I am particularly impressed by the Dendrochronology developed in Japan by Dr.
Mitsutani of NABUNKEN. Since India posses a wealth of wooden heritage, it is interesting to
see whether this dating method could be used not only for age determination, but to study
previous/ ancient restoration, repair work or even additions/alterations carried out in the past,
which helps to understand the evolution and development of the structures. Since most of thetropical trees do not have an identifiable tree ring pattern (except for trees such as teak), this isa constraint in applying this technique in India.
Studies on material properties using chemical analysis have been conducted in India forpigment used in rock paintings and murals, earthen ceramics, glazed ware, and metal objects,
specially bronze sculptures etc. These studies have been carried out to know their composition,
source and casting technique in the case of metal objects. During this training course, Iobserved some rapid techniques (some of them are non-destructive) used to carry out similar
studies, specially using Fluorescent X-Ray analysis. Earlier there was no example in India ofsuch studies, but now some institutions have taken initiatives. It is also worthwhile to explore
the possibilities of carrying out joint research programs with countries like Japan, USA, andUK, where advanced facilities and expertise are available.
It was also interesting to learn, during the training course, how the living environment,
the eating habits of ancient people, and the environment of ancient Japan are reconstructed
through environmental archaeological research since in India there are only few examples ofsuch research, because in tropical environments, micro-organic remains do not survive longenough to conduct this type of studies. Few studies have been initiated to understand the floraand fauna, the environment and food habits of ancient man, identifying the class of animals,
and age and sex determinations of human skeletons found during the excavations, but detailed
study is required. The workshop on the analysis of animal and human bones during the training
provided solid potential for carrying out such research in my future work.
In Japan, methods of archaeological prospecting using radar survey, electric andmagnetic survey etc., are used to explore the site’s potential as well as to obtain anunderstanding of the site in order to proceed with excavation more accurately and efficiently.
This involves not only specialized equipment, but also the skill to interpret the prospecting
results, which are not available in India. But again it is worthwhile to explore the possibilities
for having joint projects with countries like Japan, to initiate such a program so that Indian
professionals will have the opportunities to learn and understand the importance of suchmethods.
This training course also provided me an opportunity to become familiar with thetechnique of the transcription of soil layers or sections of an excavated archaeological trench,
which can be kept as a scientific record or be exhibited in a museum so that scholars as well as
visitors can understand the deposit of the site. This is the most important thing that I learned
during this training program, and I will try to use it in my fieldwork.
In the subject of conservation science and analysis, the main emphasis during thetraining was on archaeological materials and artifacts. The training provided opportunity to
expose us to the multiple uses of X-ray diffraction in analyzing material composition anddeposits on stones, detecting corrosion and pigments, etc., that are essential for deciding theappropriate conservation treatment. It was also important to understand the use of X-ray
computerized topography (CT), with regard to the comprehensive 3D examination of theinterior of objects for their preservation. With regard to the conservation of waterlogged wood,
the training course provided the opportunity to learn about treatment methods such aspolyethylene glycol impregnation, sugar alcohol impregnation, higher alcohol treatment, andfreeze drying etc. Although waterlogged wood objects are not often found in excavations inIndia, however the recent commencement of underwater archaeological activities has provided

many challenges with regard to the conservation of waterlogged wooden materials especiallythose associated with shipwreck sites. Since equipment and proper training in relation to theabove treatments are not immediately available in India, it is important to explore thepossibilities of obtaining technical and financial support form countries like Japan that haveexperience in this field.

Heritage Recording and Data Integration
With regard to the subject of heritage recording, the main emphasis during the training
was how to preserve archaeological information from artifacts and other remains in ‘data form’using 3D digital archiving. This system allows the recording of measurements of all types ofarchaeological remains, the extraction of high precision data for research purposes, and easy
operation by non-specialists. Experts using plane table and Total Station survey also gave ademonstration to trainees and showed the uses of 3D scanner, GPS survey, satellite images andphotogrammetry. The Archaeological Survey of India recently has taken some initiatives forthe above kinds of documentation, but a large amount of work has to be done. Applications of
GIS and viewshed analysis are very important especially with regard to the heritage protection
activities in India, and this field has to be developed.

Site Management and the Restoration, Reconstruction, and Preservation ofCultural Heritage
During the training course the emphasis with regard to heritage management andcultural preservation was on excavated remains. The formal, and almost all on-site lectures,and site visits were aimed at illustrating the Japanese philosophy and approach behind thissubject. In the Japanese archeological context, almost all the monuments are constructed using
wood, which is a fragile material for preservation and only the postholes and the basements arefound during the excavations. Moreover, since most of these remains are found in awaterlogged condition, it is practically impossible to consolidate the ruins and expose them for
public viewing. Therefore the Japanese authorities adopting various methods to present suchfindings like:•

Consolidation and exposure of excavated remains under a shelter•

The reburial of exposed remains and reconstruction of only the base of the structure at thepresent ground level, which is about 60 to 100 centimeters above the actual remains



•

The reburial of exposed remains after curating the excavated fragile artifacts for proper
protection, and reconstructing features such as wells and drains etc. at the present ground
level

•

The reburial of excavated remains and filling with earth to raise the ground level andreconstruct the building with the superstructure on its original location.
The philosophy behind this approach is an interpretation of paragraph 3 of Article 7 of

the 1990 Lausanne Charter, where the reconstruction of archaeological remains is favoredrather than limiting their conservation to a level that ensures reinstatement of their form only.
However, in Indian contexts where most of the exposed monuments have either brick or stone
structure, such reconstruction is not essential. The Archaeological Survey of India has adopted
following principles for the preservation and conservation of cultural heritage:•

Broken or half decayed original work is of definitely more value than the smartest
looking and most perfect new work.

•

Every original member of the monument should be preserved intact, and the demolition
or reconstruction should be undertaken only if the structure cannot be otherwise
maintained.

•

Annual repairs are indispensable in case of archaeological monuments.

•

Hypothetical restoration can be done, if it is essential to the stability of the monument.

It is clear here that there is no place for such kind of reconstruction as done in Japan in
the principles and workings of the Archaeological Survey of India, which is responsible for theprotection and preservation of cultural heritage in India.
In the field of site information, the Japanese have developed a sound system of signage
and printed information (brochures/ pamphlets) that provide valuable information to help
visitors understand heritage sites. Since the Archaeological Survey of India is presently
developing a system of signage for its protected monuments and sites, the system of signage
graphics used in Japan will provide a useful guideline in this regard.
The museums visited during the field visits, especially the museum at Torihama Shell
Midden site, show the high level of presentation and display techniques adopted by Japanese
professionals. Such presentation and display techniques provide easy interpretation of heritage

sites, which is very much lacking in India. The museums in Japan not only the display of theartifacts and other information found from archaeological activities, but also show how
archaeologists carry out scientific work from excavation to site presentation. This helps tobuild up significant images of the role of the archaeologist among the public. In discussions
with other participants, I found that the public in many countries does not properly recognize
the work of the archaeologist. Therefore the display of models related to various steps inarchaeological activities, their working environment, the tools and equipment used for field
activities, transcribed soil layers etc., are good methods for projecting a significant image ofthe archaeologist. During the site visits I studied the archaeological research and publicawareness programs that are being carried out by different museums and ArchaeologicalResearch Centers. These programs (hands -on archaeology) are specially designed for children,
and will contribute greatly to an awareness of their heritage.
The training course provided a great chance to hear experts like Dr. Inaba and Mr.
Murakami on the burning topic of ‘Risk Preparedness for Cultural Heritage,’ specially relatedwith natural disasters like earthquakes. Their study was based on practical experience and I
think that each trainee got relevant and very important information for their work. India also
experiences many earthquakes, but no study has been carried out for such an important issue. It
will help me to work out plans for the cultural heritage located in seismic areas. A basic
overview was provided of the format in regard to site management, which is used for
management plans for sites in Japan. The discussion led by Dr. Gamini Wijesurya of ICCROM
with regard to the subject of ‘future tasks in the preservation of cultural heritage’ is highly
relevant for facing the future challenges of the profession. The identification of continuous
improvements as the major task and response is vital, and include the following points foraddressing heritage issues, as discussed by Dr. Wijesurya: revisit, research, react and result.
The presentation of Ms Patcharawee Tunprawat of SPAFA on the community-based
approach to the heritage was very impressive and valuable for me. A country like India has
many heritage sites which are closely related with the community or society. They are part ofthe people’s daily life and we can’t ignore this aspect. If we involve them in the protection andpreservation of cultural heritage, then we can manage these sites in better fashion and also help
to improve awareness among the masses.

Conclusion
The foregoing discussion clearly shows that this training course is highly relevant to theheritage protection and preservation activities in India and its application can be envisioned inseveral different approaches, depending on the available technical and financial resources.
Some of the techniques and methodologies can be applied immediately with available resources,
while in some cases we need joint collaboration with other countries like Japan who aredeveloped in this field. In other cases, feasibility studies need to be done in order to asses theirsustainable applicability.
Due to the limitation of the time frame of this training course, it was only possible toprovide a general introduction to various subjects and topics related to the course title.
However, aspects of the course would have been much more effective and interactive if
additional practical classes were arranged during the training, as in the case of 3D laser
scanning, dendrochronology, treatment of wooden objects and workshops on the analysis ofbones.
Informal discussion I had with my fellow participants revealed that most of thecountries in the Asia-pacific region require in-depth training on various aspects of researchmethodologies and analytical methods. Therefore, I would like to suggest to the ACCU toconsider holding separate training programs in the future on specific subjects such as dating
methods, archaeological science and analysis, conservation science and analysis, heritage
recording and data integration, site management and presentation, and museum set-up. Such aneffort will no doubt help to upgrade the heritage preservation activities in the region. At thesame time it is also important to upgrade the traditional techniques that are employed inheritage activities in the Asia-Pacific region, such as archaeological excavation, fielddocumentation, condition assessment, and detail documentation before, during and after
conservation. If the ACCU can also offer such courses, then training will be highly relevant
and can be directly applied in many of the participant countries.
It is important to mention that the reference material available in the reading room of
the ACCU Nara Office is not at all adequate for a regional center for UNESCO. Therefore, I
would like to suggest that a full fledged library related to all aspects of heritage protection andpreservation be established in the ACCU Nara Office and UNESCO, ICCROM, ICOMOS etc.
should be requested to support the ACCU Nara Office in this regard. I am sure that the
exposure of the participants to international literature (in addition to lectures, site visits etc.)
will contribute to expanding their horizons in heritage protection.
I wish to state my sincere thanks to ACCU Nara for inviting me as one of theparticipants for this training course. It enabled me to gain valuable exposure and experience inmodern research methodologies and analytical methods in relation to heritage preservation
practiced in Japan. This will no doubt contribute to my professional career. This training also
gave me the opportunity to interact with other heritage professionals in the Asia-Pacific region,
to discuss the course issues and to share the experience. I earnestly hope that the contacts wehave developed during this one-month training will help to build professional ties and culturallinks between the countries of the Asia-Pacific region. This training course also helped me toexperience and obtains insight into the rich Japanese culture and cultural heritage.

Acknowledgements
I would like to express my gratitude to the Government of Japan and related agencies
for their support to the ACCU Nara office in organizing this training course. I would like toexpress my heartfelt thanks to Mr. Yamamoto Tadanao, Director of the ACCU Nara, Mr.
Toshihiko Morimitsu, Mr. Tsutomu Yamashita, Mr. Atsushi Nagai, Ms. Yasuko Otani andother staff of the ACCU Nara office for the excellent and wonderful organization during thetraining course. I appreciated the excellent coordination and untiring efforts of Ms. Kamida
Ryo, Ms. Wakamia Yuko and Ms. Hata during all the activities. I must also thank all specialists
who shared their valuable thoughts in their lectures and during site visits. I am also thankful toall participants for their co-operation and the Hotel authorities for making my stay comfortable
in Japan. Finally I would like to express my special thanks to the Director General,
Archaeological Survey of India, for nominating me for this valuable training course.

Indonesia
Natsir Mohammad

1. Introduction
First of all, let me take this opportunity to thank you for the chance to participate in theTraining Course on the Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Heritage in the Asia - PacificRegion 2006: Research, Analysis and Preservation of Archaeological Sites and Remains.
The training was held from 11 September - 11 October, 2006 in Nara, Japan. It was jointly
organized by Bunkacho (Agency for Cultural Affairs in Japan); the Asia/Pacific Cultural
Centre for UNESCO (ACCU); the International Centre for the Study of the Preservation and
Restoration of Cultural Property (ICCROM); the National Research Institute for Cultural
Properties and Nara University. It was held in cooperation with Japan’s Ministry of Foreign
Affairs; the Japanese National Commission for UNESCO; Nara Prefectural Government andNara Municipal Government.
This report mainly focuses on how knowledge gained from this training can be applied when
considering problems and needs for the preservation and restoration of cultural heritage inIndonesia.

2. Problems and Needs for the Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Heritage
in Indonesia

My country report highlighted the preservation of the Prambanan Temple Compound after theearthquake of 27 th May 2006 as one of the important issues in Indonesia. After participating inthis course, I have learnt about many more issues, and hence in this final report I will extend
my coverage of these issues. I have also learnt many things which I can apply to the problems
and needs concerning the preservation and restoration cultural heritage in Indonesia.
Indonesia is one of the larger countries in the Asia - Pacific region; it is 1.9 million square
metres in area and has 17,508 islands and more than 400 ethnic groups. There are many various
cultural properties within Indonesia. The cultural heritage in Indonesia can be grouped basedon chronological period: Prehistoric, Hindu, Buddha, Islam, and Colonial. Prehistoric remains
include Meganthropus palaeo and Pithecanthropus erectus/Homo erectus in the Sangiranarchaeological site, cave paintings, stone megaliths, and artefacts. Remains from the Hindu andBuddhist periods include temples, gates, water castles, ancient towns. Examples of Islam
period remains are mosques, palaces, traditional houses and burials. Remains of the colonial
period include palaces, towns, stations, schools and offices. Underwater archaeological remains
are also found in Indonesia such as shipwrecks, ceramics and weaponry. More than 5000
tangible cultural heritage sites have been identified in Indonesia, and three are listed as world
cultural heritage sites: Borobudur Temple, Prambanan Temple Compound, and the early man
site in Sangiran.
There are also many important places of scenic beauty in Indonesia. These places of culturaland natural heritage are under threat however, from development. Indonesian law doesn’t
provide protection for cultural scenery. Preservation efforts for cultural heritage are being
conducted however, by the Indonesian government through protection, registration andidentification, conservation, and restoration works.
In general, problems of preservation in Indonesia are caused by both human and natural factors.
Examples of human factors that cause damage to cultural heritage sites include poorly planneddevelopment, illegal exploration of underwater archaeological remains, and the illegal
trafficking of artefacts.
An example of a natural factor causing damage to cultural heritage sites is the earthquake thatstruck Indonesia on 27 th May 2006. This earthquake caused the destruction of a lot of cultural
heritage, including the World Cultural Heritage site of Prambanan Temple Compound. Anotherproblem facing cultural heritage preservation is the physical deterioration of sites, but inIndonesia the methods and techniques of conservation science are still very limited.
Other main problems facing the preservation, utilization and development of cultural heritage
in Indonesia include a lack of professionals or skilled experts, limited equipment, a lack ofintegration between cultural resource management and urban planning, and limited financial
resources.

3. Application of the training course to my conservation work

The objective of this training course are to provide participants with a knowledge of recording
and analytical methods for archaeological features and relics; principles and methodologies ofpreservation of archaeological sites; development and utilization of archaeological sites; andopportunity to network with colleagues from the region and share experiences.
Highlights of the training courses, which were conducted through lectures, practical sessions
and on-site lectures, which are comparable can be applied to my conservation work, as anarchitect who works in archaeological field. Hence, how to apply the knowledge depends onthe character of the subject as based on our knowledge, and experience, and the field work andsituational condition between Japan and Indonesia.

•

Conservation and Utilization of Cultural Heritage Resources

Conservation and utilization of cultural heritage resources in Japan are more advanced. Thisefficacy has been achieved through dynamic protective legislation and grows from a wellestablished preservation system. In Indonesia, conservation and utilization of cultural heritage
resources represent two very important matters in the development of urban and rural areas.
The current preservation laws in Indonesia are recent, such as Cultural Property and Site Act
No. 5/1992, which refers to the former act during the Dutch Period, Monumenten Ordonantie
No. 238/1931. This Law mainly focuses on the preservation of objects and sites, but iscurrently being revised. Several things which can be proposed as additional items are theprotection of cultural scenery, an assessment system, and the categorization of the culturalproperties.
•

Risk Preparedness for Cultural Heritages

Risk preparedness for cultural heritages became an important issue after earthquake disaster
which struck the cultural cities of Yogyakarta and Klaten. This disaster damaged the cultural
heritage on a wide scale. The main measures have been conducted in two phases: theemergency responses and reconstruction/rehabilitation. The first phase was executed over a 3month period, and the second phase is now being conducted. This second phase emphasizes
restoration as way of maintaining physical continuity of monuments and sites in the disasterarea. Currently, methods and techniques of restoration are checked and designed carefully.
Japan is a country that has often experienced disaster, especially earthquakes. This experiencegave valuable Iessons in the face of disaster, and fostered risk preparedness in the managementof cultural heritage.
•

Recording Survey Methods for Archaeological Features and Relics

Recording survey methods for archaeological features and relics, as highlighted by Geographic
Information Systems "GIS", can be applied to cultural heritage in Indonesia. GIS has become
one of the most important systems in the preservation of spatial data. This system can be
integrated with a data base of cultural heritages in Indonesia, enhancing the accuracy of
positional location by utilizing Geographic Positioning System, elementary map attributes, andaerial photography. The positions of cultural heritage and sites throughout Indonesia can bemonitored quickly. This method also can be used for visualization, data manipulation, andspatial display according to the requirement. One constraint faced is the availability and costof aerial photography maps and equipment.
Another method of analysis which can be applied is 3D scanning and photogrammetry, so thatthe recording of data can be done digitally as fast as they are measured.
•

Development and Utilization of Archaeological sites

Development and utilization of archaeology sites in Indonesia has been conducted under
Cultural Property and Site Act No. 5/1992. Development and utilization of sites relate to theprinciple of preservation and the authenticity concept: authenticity of form, material,
technology of workmanship, and setting. The authenticity concept is applied to both past andliving heritage. Today the authenticity concept for living heritage is growing, especially forcolonial heritage in urban areas. After learning about the development and utilization ofarchaeological sites in Japan, an important value which can be proposed balanced aspects in
integrated preservation. That is, satisfying the conservation of physical heritage, as well as
maintaining academic and economic value. Development and utilization of cultural heritage
can be done creatively and wisely without lessening the important cultural value. The policy
and strategy of preservation should be conducted by paying attention to balance aspects.
•

Introduction to Archaeological Science

In my conservation work, identification of the original colour of remains through pigment
research could be applied in order to determine the original colour of cave paintings, traditional
houses, mosques, offices, schools, etc. Dendrochronology could also be applied to wooden
monuments in Indonesia. As we know, dating remains by scientific methods includes
radiometric and relative methods. Dating method by using more than one method will prove
better accuracy.
•

Introduction to Conservation Science

In Japan, preservation techniques for metal and wooden artefacts are highly developed. Thesemethods and techniques for most artefact are done by using modern equipment. On the other
hand, an important aspect which requires of looking after is the cultural value of the artefact.
The research, analysis and preservation of artefacts as done by the Nara University laboratory
would be very difficult to apply in Indonesia, as it would require professional expertise andequipment.
The transcription of stratigrapy at the excavation near Sadaiji station is very attractive,
considering how this activity represents my first experience of seeing the intake of the cultural
data layer at a site on a sheet which has been rubbed with resin.



•

Introduction to Environmental Archaeology

The highlight of environmental archaeology, in which artefacts used by humans, and animalbones and flora are correlated environmentally, were very interesting and useful. In lectures
exemplifying the evolution of the human skull, one typical example is a skull representing thereplica of Pithecanthropus Erectus coming from Sangiran Site, Indonesia. From my point ofview, this area has been well expanded in Indonesia, especially in regard to the Sangiran site.
•

On site Lectures

Much valuable knowledge was obtained particularly on the preservation and restoration ofcultural heritage at the Heijo Palace and Ichijodani sites. The restoration of woodenarchitecture is very important for further study through studied farther by comparison towooden architecture in Indonesia.
Restoration of cultural heritage can be executed completely or partially through comprehensive
research, giving broad consideration to various aspects. The concept of complete architectural
reconstruction of the main buildings at the Heijo Palace site, according to their original form is
one of the important points to note in this field study, considering that in Indonesia so far,efforts to reconstruct wooden monuments have been conducted only as far as the data whichhave been found.
Protection of the cultural heritage by the additional component of earthquake preparedness
generated great interest for further study. At the Former Imperial Building Audience Hall there
are additional components having a non-rigid character among the lower structure and building
pillars, representing a real example of risk preparedness. That building restoration requires
great expense was vividly felt when we have time to observe the process of restoration activity.

At the moment, restoration work of wooden architecture in Indonesia is being conducted at the“Old Palace of Sumbawa”. This restoration is being jointly conducted with the Japanese
government (Bunkacho and JACAM). I realized that as an architect who works in therestoration field, the study of wooden Japanese architecture through the course would give mevery valuable experience and Iessons for the development of restoration science in Indonesia.
In Japan, the concept of a site museum is very interesting, to be learned further. The concept of
joining preservation, restoration, gardening, development and utilization was vividly felt after
visiting some sites in the on-site lectures. There was much valuable knowledge that may be
useful as input in the preservation, development and utilization of sites in Indonesia, especiallyin the Muara Jambi and Majapahit Temples Compound.

4. Conclusion
In general, in this training course on preservation and restoration of cultural heritage,
participants have been provided with knowledge through lectures, practical training and on-site
lectures. And through this training, participants gained exposure to future issues in thepreservation of cultural heritage, especially in the Asia-Pacific region.
As known, Japan is a country with a rich cultural heritage, and it has succeeded in its
preservation, development and utilization. And we have learnt how to reach this efficacy
through the approach of enacting laws for the protection of cultural properties, methods andtechniques of preservation and restoration, and cultural resource management. Archaeologicalscience is highly developed in Japan. The progress of this preservation and restoration aresupported by the availability of professional experts, adequate equipment, financial support,
and public awareness of the importance of cultural heritage.
Finally, this training course is very important for enriching our knowledge, skill and attitude onpreservation and restoration of cultural heritage, and how to apply this knowledge in Indonesia.

5. Acknowledgements
I am sincerely grateful to the ACCU Cultural Heritage Protection Cooperation Office, theAgency for Cultural Affairs of Japan (Bunkacho) and ICCROM. I would like to express mythanks to the Director of the ACCU Nara Office, Mr. Yamamoto Tadanao, to Mr. Morimutsu
Toshihiko and to all the lecturers. Many thanks also to Mr. Yamashita, Mr. Nagai, Mrs. Hata
Chiyako, Ms. Wakamiya Yuko, Ms. Kamida Ryo, and all the ACCU staff for the excellent andwonderful organization during the whole period of the training course.
On the Indonesian side, I would like to thank the following institutions and people for theirsupport and kindness: UNESCO National Commission of Indonesia, Director General of
Historical and Archaeological, Director of Archaeological Heritage, Mr. Endjat Djaenuderajat,
Mrs. Roseri Rosdy Putri, Mr. Mardi Thesianto and all staff of the Sub Directorate of
Restoration.
I am also deeply grateful to all of the participants for sharing their experiences, for helping me
during the training course, and also for their friendship.
Domo Arigato gozaimashita.



Iran
Saeedeh HOSSEINIIntroduction
Depending on their climate, environment, potential talents, relationships and historicalexperience and events, different territories and nations have presented the world different
cultural heritages, all of which them belong to humanity and contain meanings and values, evenif we can not identify and understand them.
Nowadays, there are many organizations and foundations all over the world which are
studying and operating in the field of cultural heritage, and many universities are training
specialists related to both tangible and intangible heritage. We can summarize their activities in
the field of tangible heritage as the following four groups, which are definitely accompanied byarcheological activities.
Firstly: conserving cultural properties as the deposit of our ancestors for the future
generations.
Secondly: Making the best possible documentation for historical relics, so thatcomplete information about them can be classified as basic data for researchers and specialists.
Thirdly: Publishing new information which sometimes leads historians to new results
about the history and dating.
Finally: Presenting information on historical monuments for the people, especially theyounger generation, and furthermore, featuring and introducing the relics which are found in
the excavations.
In this training course I had meaningful opportunity to experience, learn and observe
cases relating to the above issues in Japan, which divide into the four themes bellow.
 The basic data: definitions and theories in the field of conservation, andclassification of damages which threat the cultural properties, and further,conservation problems in relation to settlements.
 The standard and latest archaeological methods for making documentation, dating
and analyzing the found relics.
 The preservation and conservation methods used in Japan and their guidelines.
 Visiting and observing some Japanese archaeological sites and museums as relevantto the set of issues are mentioned above.

During these programs, I could observe Japanese’s scientific and cultural benefits
accruing through study, and concentrate on their cultural values and needs.
This report explains briefly my inferences about the programs of the training course,
and also, my plans after finishing it.

_The basic data: definitions and theories in the field of conservation, and classification ofdamages which threat the cultural properties, and further, conservation problems in
relation to settlements.
The earliest lectures contained a lot of useful definition and theories, most of whichwere familiar to me, but I could not have classified them in their proper categories. Before
taking part in the course, I prepared a report about the problems of cultural properties in mycountry, and in that text, I mentioned that most Iranian experts are not aware of what is goingon in international academies, assemblies and other scientific events throughout the world.
Although there are a few who always look for the latest news, there is no system to organize
this information and make it accessible for other experts, hence, the basic data, were useful tome and I am going to introduce them in the department where I work in (the Deputy ofConservation and Restoration). Furthermore I came across a special format for ranking the
problems and threats of cultural heritage, and found out that my classification system for thecountry report (which was performed on Sep. 14) needs to be assessed again, because a special
more suitable and more complete format has been prepared for general problems already by the
ICCROM experts, and it is better to follow that, rather than local problems which may be
categorized separately. One example was seen in the case of risk preparedness for cultural
heritage, a part of the program’s topics about earthquakes, which are common in my country,with regards to management plans and also the experience about protecting removable culturalproperties. But in the field of Iranian cultural monuments and buildings, these problems arecompletely local, and so the solutions. The construction of Iranian historical monuments andbuildings is massive in most cases and does not contain any particular structure for reinforcing
against earthquakes. Therefore, considering the high risk of earthquakes in Iran, we canunderstand the high priority of comprehensive local and special conservation for this kind ofarchitecture.

_The standard and the latest archaeological methods, for making documentation, dating
and analyzing the found relics.
Editing contracts, and monitoring conservation and restoration projects, are some partsof an expert’s duties in my office, and often consultants recommend using the latest
technologies for surveying and dating the historical monuments and sites. The expert’s
shortage of information in such fields culminates in problems in editing the contracts andmonitoring the projects.
For example, in Iranian historical buildings, the main construction material is brick, andfor dating of this material, C14 is not an appropriate method and TL is the most accurate forbrick and tile. Consequently, having knowledge about these methods is necessary for me andmy colleagues.
The other related topic is the latest surveying methods (3D scanners and Photogrammetry),
which are new phenomena and we have limited experience with them in Iran. As a matter offact, in the case of domes, especially examples which contain ornamental decorations, using
the 3D scanners is the only accurate way for surveying inside and outside of the architecturalform; this also applies to “tomb towers” and “minars,” which are large cylinder-shaped
masonry constructions, and often contain decorative elements. But in Iran we have not yet
drawn up such a surveying project for them, and in planning this program, we need to convince
the managers about the useful results of these methods, so I asked the professor about
surveying of these monuments. He agreed about the difficult condition of field work in suchcases, which need extra accessories for moving the scanners around the monuments. The
largest one, Gonbad-e-Kavoos (11 th century), is more than 50 meters high and as a uniqueexample, needs to be surveyed as soon as possible.
The other subjects are cliff architecture monuments and especially bas-reliefs, most ofwhich lie out in unsuitable climatic conditions and are exposed to the danger of damaging or
rubbing. In such cases one of the solutions is molding and making replicas, which could evenbe installed in the same location. But a few groups of experts believe that such a process could
damage the relics because of the molding materials’ effects. If we have a digital 3D model, we
do not have to touch the relic for molding process. Although some other experts believe that we
do not know enough about the effect of lasers on the relics, it is better not to be an observer tomore serious damage, and sometimes in the field of cultural heritage conservation experts haveto integrate risk in professional decisions and their only choices may be Bad or Worse. As an
illustration, I mention the bas-relief of “Cyros the Great” in “Pasargad” (inscribed in the World
Heritage List).
One of the most general dangers which threaten cultural heritage monuments and sites
is the development of infrastructural facilities. My colleagues and I tried to write a proposal forthe former-manager of the cultural heritage organization, about the necessity of GIS forcultural heritage protection against development programs which ignore cultural values, and we
had tried to suggest a plan for buffer zones data. Afterward, the management system in theorganization changed and during the two recent years the plan has been abandoned;
furthermore, establishing the GIS system needs enough samples of its use to convince the new
management which is not yet so familiar with problems in the field of conservation andpreservation.
The other presentations in the course were manual systems for making documentationsuch as: plane table mapping and object drawing, which I believe both archeologists andconservators have to be skillful at, as basic methods for data collecting in spite of the new
survey techniques. Especially in training programs it is better to insist on these methods andmaking important use of them, to strengthen the relationship between the subject matter and theresearchers. I believe this not only as an expert but also as a teacher for the course of drawing.
The transcription method of soil layers in Japan, which was taught in the one day of field
work, was a new and unknown method of making documentation for me, and I will transfer it
to my colleagues and archaeology students.

_The cultural properties preservation and conservation methods used in Japan.
This part could be divided into irremovable and removable cultural properties. In bothcases, as the first step of conservation, we need to identify the subject and its problems.
Irremovable cultural properties are historical sites and monuments, which in theprevious topic have been discussed regarding their identification during the process of
surveying, but before any conservation work, knowledge about the subject is not complete
unless we know about all its materials. At Nara University, there was an opportunity to getfamiliar with some systems for analyzing the materials which can be used for paintings, coats
and mortars. In Iranian architecture, gypsum should be mentioned as a key material whichamazingly is available almost all over of country, and it used to be the basic material formaking mortar, under coat and the well-known decorative technique of stucco work.
Depending on the function, the traditional architects used to mix it with other kinds ofmaterials, to make it water resistant, sticky or reinforced. To use incompatible materials suchas cement in preservation activities could be harmful, because their chemical and physicalspecifications are totally different from the original construction, especially in brick buildings.
Furthermore, to use cement as mortar does not let us restore the original condition of thesubject. Revival of traditional processing of the mortars helps us to follow more scientific andperfect methods in the field of restoration and preservation. Although in a few cases experts try
to make this kind of mortars, their results are based on a trial and error process, not according
to analyzing experiments, and furthermore, depending on the climatic condition and function,there is a wide range of these traditional materials which need to be classified. In Nara
University, I talked professor Nishiyama about the case just mentioned and asked if it ispossible to use the laboratory systems of Nara University for such a kind of research, and heagreed to collaborate with us.
The category of removable cultural properties contains objects, bones and thedecorative and functional elements which used to act as part of an architectural body but are
not in their original location anymore. As an expert in charge of the preservation andrestoration of historical monuments, removable relic conservation is not an official duty for me,
but taking part in the sessions was useful and I am going to transfer the information to mycolleagues who work in these related fields.

_Visiting and observing some Japanese archaeological sites and museums as relevant tothe set of issues mentioned above.
“What is the use of excavating?” Are we just searching for new information about what
happened in the past? “Why do we conserve historical monuments?” For being proud about ourancestors? As a matter of fact, the subjects of archeology, and historical art and architecture,
could be helpful if the results influence society as the prime material for the creation of andinspiration for new needs.
During my observation of Japanese historical sites and museums I found out theJapanese try to introduce the latest information in the field of archaeology to the Japanesepeople, and they are successful in making them interested in their cultural heritage, in every
range of age and education, by using the latest technologies combined with fantastic
architecture and interior design. In the Jomon museum there is a corridor in which a few
objects are featured. As I passed there, the music and lights made me so impressed that I losttrack of the time and the location for a moment, and I wanted to repeat, passing through thatadorable atmosphere which made me walk gracefully and admire it, but we did not haveenough time.
In the excavated sites, after documentation using the methods which were mentioned
before, they cover all the remains and mark the walls columns and other important parts on thesurface, and they have their own special method for designing, landscaping and locating thevisitors’ facilities. It is worth mentioning that the arrangement and management of historicsites was introduced in lecture, and then we were able to visit different samples in sequence.
As a mater of fact, a conservation project is too complicated to be done by a limitedgroup of specialists, it is an everlasting process which needs the durable collaboration of allgroups of people to be carried out, and Japan’s society leads in this way by featuring andintroducing the results of archaeological activities both at the professional and general levels.

Malaysia
Adnan JUSOH

1.0 INTRODUCTION
Fist of all, I am greatly honored to have been invited to this important training course on‘Training Course on the Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Heritage in the Asia/PacificRegion 2006’ – Research, Analysis and Preservation of Archaeological Sites and Remains
from September 11, 2006 to October 11 2006 in ACCU Nara, Japan. Actually, now I am
working as a Heritage Officer at Department of National Heritage, Ministry of Culture, Artsand Heritage Malaysia for the last five years. Definitely, it is a great opportunity for me toattend this training course because it was interesting and very useful.
I was really interested in attending this training course because it is so relevant to myjob, particularly in regard to preserving and protecting our cultural heritage, problems whichworry me.

In order to integrate conservation awareness and concern in all archaeologicalactivities, I believe this training course will inspire a lot of participant to become more
professional, responsible, and more respectful of human beings and our cultural heritage.

2.0 CURRENT STATUS OF CULTURAL HERITAGE IN MALAYSIA
Basically, in my country our cultural heritage was protected under Antiquities Act 1976, whichis responsible to the Department of Museum and Antiquities. Generally, Antiquities Act 1976
included the Export Procedures 1976, Trades License 1976 and Excavation License 1979. Thisact provides a key role in setting the foundation for control and preservation of, and theresearch into, ancient and historical monuments, archaeological sites and remains, antiquities
and historical objects and regulates the dealing and export of antiquities, historical objects andrelated matters.
However, since March 30 2006, Antiquities Act 1976 was replaced by the new act
named ‘National Heritage Act 2005’. The main focus of National Heritage Act 2005 is toprovide for the conservation and preservation of the National Heritage, natural heritage,
tangible and intangible cultural heritage, underwater cultural heritage, treasure trove and for
related matters. This new act was responsible to a new department which is known as the‘Department of National Heritage’, also under the Ministry of Culture, Arts and Heritage
Malaysia. Actually, the main tasks of the Department of National Heritage besides dealing
with heritage matters are to preserve, conserve and restore the essential icons of Malaysian
heritage. Otherwise, establishing the new department is intended to implement the formulationof related acts, and to make the collection of documentation, research, preservation anddevelopment of heritage more efficiently and orderly. It gives emphases to many aspects
including cultural, natural and underwater heritage. National legacy is a collection of memoriesof the lifestyle of people that reflects their civilization, so it must be ensured and safeguarded
for future generations. In Malaysia, the protections of heritage resources are governed byfederal legislation, the National Heritage Act 2005.
Until now not less than 200 potential archaeological sites have been listed throughout
the country.

This includes both West and East Malaysia.

Principally, all sites (mostly

archaeological sites) which have their own value or criteria of ‘heritage’ will be protectedunder the guardian ship of the Department of National Heritage. The government seriously
ensures our heritage especially for historical and archaeological site, to remain as legacy for
our future generations. The act was implemented to provide the conservation and preservationof National Heritage; natural heritage, tangible and intangible cultural heritage, underwater
cultural heritage, treasure trove and for related matters for the government.
However, recently, my department has already been starting to collect all necessary
data and information about our cultural heritage, including tangible and intangible heritage.
Under the National Heritage Act 2005, tangible cultural heritage means areas, monuments andbuildings; intangible cultural heritage means any form of expressions, languages, lingual
utterances, sayings, musically produced tunes, notes, audible lyrics, songs, folks songs, oral
traditions, poetry, music, dances as produced by the performing arts, theatrical plays’ audible
compositions of sounds and music, martial arts, that may have existed or exist in relation to theheritage of Malaysia or any part of Malaysia or in relation to the heritage of a Malaysiancommunity.
Both tangible and intangible cultural heritage are selected by a Commissioner topropose to our Minister for declaration in the National Heritage Register. Fortunately, thefunction of the National Heritage Register was same as the existing database of our cultural
heritage data files. By the way, from time to time we have done very well and the progressing
more effectively. Hopefully in the future, the Department of National Heritage will provide allor most of the significant data about our cultural heritage, and general information that can beaccessible to the public, tourists, students and researchers easily and conveniently.

3.0 OVERVIEW OF ACCU NARA FOR UNESCO TRAINING
The one month training course in ACCU Nara was really enjoyable, and I have obtained quite a
lot of good perceptions of the people here in Japan. From my observations, the Japanesepeople are really aware and loving (civilized) of their important and most valuable cultural
heritage sites. The Japanese people are also aware of using the scientific approaches toward
the protection and preservation of their cultural heritage sites, which really provides thecountry with a greater vision. Impressively, they are also using the traditional methods incorrelation with not only the protection of tangible materials but also their intangible cultural
heritage. I personally believe it is a powerful vision, in the same way, it can also help mycountry in the promotion and improvement of conservation and protection work for our cultural
heritage, especially the archaeological site and remains.
From my own point of view, the Japanese people are well off knowing their history andcultural heritage; from early on, the Japanese have realized the importance of their cultural
heritage and the ways of dealing with various obstacles for better results, that is why they are
now known as one of the most developed countries in this regard in the world. But comparedto Japanese laws and methodology for protections, many improvements should be included into
the National Heritage Act 2005 for better performance, which is in the interest of the
Malaysian government in order for the act to be well presented to its people, and because of theimportance of the protection and preservation of its cultural heritage, since the complexity is
too great for their current level.
Actually, in my country we are still behind compared to the Japanese government inusing scientific approaches to protect and preserve our heritage sites; this is because we arefacing a lot of problems we need to take care of. Most of the problems can be identified, suchas the lack of funding for development or maintenance of heritage sites in the whole country.
Due to constraints on professional archaeologists in the country, to conduct the research andmake progress in the confirmation of archaeological sites significantly entails a lot of
responsibilities. My country has very limited and low level technologies for investigation andanalysis for a variety of methodologies, and lacks public educational awareness. And lastly, mycountry also lacks the professional expertise for dealing with issues related to the preservationof artifacts and relics. But since it is a very important task, in my department there are a few
staff members who try to conduct the program in preservation and collection of data regarding
the cultural heritage for the whole country effectively.

Sometimes our duty omits a few

procedures just because of the need to do the urgent activities in our department. That’s why
all the historical sites in Japan are still preserved and maintained, because of the combinationof scientific approach, modern techniques, expertise and high commitment by institutions, bothgovernmental and non-governmental, are involved in preserving the cultural heritage. At thesame time the Japanese people are also very proud, and have the awareness and fullcommitment to take care of their cultural heritage for the future generations.

4.0 BENEFITS ACQUIRED FROM THIS TRAINING COURSE
According to the training course, the fifteen participants attended this training course were not
only fifteen trainees but also representatives of their fifteen respective and different culturesand back-grounds. They brought with them many useful measures and typical experiences(including indigenous ones), in the protection and preservation of their cultural heritage. From
the discussion on tangible matters, we learned a lot from each other about their cultural
heritage sites and issues. Through our mutual relationship, our knowledge grew and was verymuch enriched in terms of protecting and preserving of our own respective cultural heritage
possessions. The latest methods and skills we learned from each other during this training
course will make us better able to look at the matters from very different perspectives anddimensions. We also have a lot of confidence in ourselves and feel capable to give out anddecide on the most effective solutions for the protection and preservation of cultural heritage inour own countries.

Before I joined this program, I really had just a lot of information and knowledge about
the cultural heritage, especially their methods, approaches, skill and technology. This programgave me some information about the archaeological methods such as C14, thermoluminescence
technique, dendrochronology, rubbing technique, recording survey methods for archaeologicalfeatures and relics which are very important in archaeological research. I was also exposed to
the latest techniques that can be used in archaeological research such as Ground Penetrating
Radar (GPR), Global Positioning System (GPS) and 3D Laser Scanning. I also learned about
the classification of archaeological relics, measuring and drawing. The important thing during
training course we have learned is the development and utilization of the archaeological sites.
From these lectures I have learned a lot of knowledge about the most applicable techniques inarchaeological research to upgrade the collecting of data.
In this course, all of the participants were involved in a work shop program such as theintroduction to conservation science work shop; the scientific preservation treatment for
cultural properties work shop (conservation science); and the transcription of stratigraphy.
These work shops were conducted by some experts such as professors in Nara University, andresearchers from Nara Research Institute of Cultural Properties National (NRICPN), who arevery experienced and knowledgeable in the preservation work and cultural heritage in Japan.
Definitely these programs are very useful to all the participants because we are exposed to new
methods and approaches in preserving and restoring our cultural heritage. At the same time,
we also practiced a few latest techniques such as plane table, rubbing, drawing the object orfinding from excavation, treatment of the features and relics such as wooden and bronze
artifacts, bone identification, dry screening, floating, choosing the sample for analysis, wherethese techniques are always used in archaeological research particularly at the field site.
From the study tour, I had the opportunity together with all the participants to visit
numerous cultural heritage sites in Japan, especially in Nara City, Fukui Prefecture and Shiga
Prefecture, where the course was mostly carried out, and enjoyed the blossoming environment
and the hospitality of the people of Japan. This program exposed me where to a few of famous
historical sites in Japan such as Matsugase Daiba Site, Torihama Shell Midden, Fukui City
History Museum, Ichijodani Asakura Family Museum, Shiga Prefectural Research Institute of
Azuchi Castle and The Dotaku Museum (The Mysteries of Dotaku). Also from the program, all
the participants have learned a lot of information about the significance of the cultural heritagethat we should be preserving. We are learning the preservation of precious monuments or
castles, how to arrange and manage the historical site, how to develop the archaeological site,
the principle of conservation and utilization of historical sites and how to attract the people tocome and visit these beautiful places, and take some information about historical sites for the
future generation. These entire things are very important to us in taking care of the cultural
heritage at in our countries soon.
From this training course, I also learned how important the database of cultural
heritages to our country. All the data about our cultural heritage must be completely collected
as documentation. From the database we can get information very quickly, accurately andeasily. Otherwise a natural disaster or something else may come and destroy our heritage site,
we still have all the data completely in our database. Actually, now my department is still in
the progress of building up our heritage register as a national database.
The participants could also get the latest information about the problems and needs
about the cultural heritage from many countries, especially in the Asia/Pacific region where
they are from. By the presentations of all the participant we were exposed to the current issues
and needs in their countries for preserving heritage sites. So, this training course was very
useful and gave some experience to us on how to preserve heritage sites, especiallyarchaeological sites and remains. In this training course all the participants were also exposed
through technical skills in fieldwork how to overcome the issues and problems by theprofessional perspective. By the way, this training course is most useful to all participants forthe application of knowledge and experience in preserving cultural heritage sites, especially inarchaeological sites and remains, and how to preserve the cultural heritage sites.
During the one- month training course at the ACCU Nara, I absolutely respect thehospitality and generosity of the Nara Prefecture, Fukui Prefecture and Shiga Prefecture,
because they are well-organized and managed institutions for the two long-term targets ofsustainable development and protection of precious values for the young generations.

All

Japanese people are well aware of what is needed by various countries, especially the countries
that were represented in this training, in terms of protection and preservation of cultural
heritage sites. The information provided by diverse site’s officials was consecutively in linewith what each participant wanted for the protection of their own respective cultural heritage
sites.

5.0 CONCLUSION
This program is very first-rate and gave benefits to all participants from all the different
countries.

By this program I really have obtained information, experience and knowledge

about cultural heritage especially the techniques, skills and approaches necessary for practicein my country. From mutual discussion with all the participants, I feel there are additional
benefits that will be relevant to activities that I will be working on, in terms of protecting andpreserving of cultural heritage sites especially archaeological sites and remains, and that mostof the valuable benefits I’ve learned from this training course will apply to my line of work.
Hopefully, I might be able to apply and utilize the knowledge and experiences digested fromthis program in my country, for the preservation and restoration of cultural heritage.

Overall, this training program totally satisfied me and most importantly, most relevant
for my job and country’s improvement, because I got to know some information and experience
concerning the protection and preservation of cultural heritage sites, especially archaeologicalsite and remains, in my country. Actually ACCU Nara Office organized this training program
very well, not only with the participants but also with various organizations that hosted most of
the visits and on-site lectures. The ACCU Nara staff was well-prepared and with so much richexperience not only in terms of the objectives of the program, but also they were well informedof each participant’s respective cultures. Lastly, I would like to extend my utmost gratitude to
the ACCU for UNESCO at Nara office in Japan and its staff for this training opportunity.
Arigato Gozaimas
Terima kasihMaldives
Ahmed ZAMEERIntroduction
I am Ahmed Zameer from Maldives and I work in the National Centre for Linguistic andHistorical Research. My centre mainly deals with the nation’s history and language. I work as
an Assistant Research Officer in the Heritage Section of my office. My responsibilities include
the conservation and preservation of historical sites and monuments and I also do research
work on those sites and monuments. First of all, I will take this chance to thank the
Asia/Pacific Cultural Centre for UNESCO for choosing me as one of the participants of thistraining program on the Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Heritage in the Asia - PacificRegion 2006: Research, Analysis and Preservation of Archaeological Sites and Remains. And
also, I would like to thank my Institute and its authorities for their support. The training washeld from 11 th September to 11 th October 2006. This training course was mainly based on
lectures and practicals, which were held at different places such as:

1. ACCU Building
2. NRICPN
3. Nara University
4. Fukui Prefecture
5. Shiga Prefecture

Problems and Needs for Cultural Heritage Protection and Restoration
activities in the Maldives.
The Maldives is a group of 1190 tiny low-lying coral islands situated in the Indian
Ocean. Of these islands about 200 are inhabited. The total area including land and sea is about
90,000 sq km. The islands are small and low-lying. No island is more than a few feet above sea
level. The topic of this paper is the problems and needs for cultural heritage protection andrestoration activities in the Maldives, mainly archaeological sites. Cultural heritage
encompasses the values, beliefs, practices, institutions, monuments, etc. of an entire group ofpeople.

The National Council for Linguistic and Historical Research where I work in the
Heritage Department is acutely aware of the need for cultural heritage protection andrestoration and of the numerous problems associated with this arduous task. Today the term‘‘Cultural Heritage’’ has undergone a change. Once it encompassed the monumental remains ofcultures. Now the concept of heritage includes new categories such as the intangible,
ethnographic, or industrial heritage. Today current living cultures as well as those of the past
are equally vital to the heritage of a nation. In today’s high-tech world, the documentary anddigital heritage is rapidly becoming part of the world’s cultural heritage. In most nations
including the developing nations, cultural and educational resources are being produced andaccessed in digital form rather than on paper. The need to preserve the intangible as well as thetangible cultures is very great and for a developing third world country like Maldives, theproblems associated with cultural heritage protection and restoration are immense. For anisland nation like Maldives, where there is more sea than land, underwater heritage is also
extremely important.
This paper deals more with archaeological sites and remains that are an integral part ofany nation’s cultural heritage. Archaeological sites are associated with ideas or beliefs of a pastcivilization. In Maldives, with the conversion to Islam there was no total destruction of
Buddhist temples. Many in the capital Male’ would have been destroyed, but the sites all over
the archipelago have been merely covered up and abandoned. Later some of the sites wereexcavated and investigated but no restoration or preservation work on them was everundertaken. This has resulted in the loss or theft of these important discoveries.
As the islands of the Maldives are far flung and isolated, the archaeological sites arealso on different islands and access to them is somewhat difficult. As the vast ocean separates
one island from another, transport between them is difficult and expensive. Archaeologicalremains exist on most islands. Archaeological excavations and other evidence illustrate the factthat Maldives has been populated for more than two thousand years. In Maldives there are no
mountains or hills. The islands are generally very flat, no more than 3 or 4 ft above sea-level.
However in several islands there are hemispherical mounds about 15 – 30 ft in height. Research
points to the fact that Buddhism has existed in the islands since its arrival during the mid third
century BC. The mounds are what remain of the monasteries and temples which were built
when Buddhism flourished in the Maldives for about 1000 years. Most of the monasteries had
been constructed on large islands.
The first reference to archaeological sites in the Maldives was made in 1835. Mr. H.C.P.
Bell, of the Ceylon Civil Service, stationed at Colombo in 1879, visited Maldives in 1879 andhe suggested that an archaeological survey would establish that Buddhism had flourished in theMaldives. Later in 1920 and 1922, Mr. Bell carried out some excavations, which establishedthat there were many Buddhist archaeological sites in the Maldives dating back to pre-Islamictimes.
In Maldives, there are two types of archaeological sites, namely those that are on
particular islands, and those sites about which nothing is known except their existence. The
main problem we face today is that resources available in the field of archaeology are very
scarce. There is no skilled manpower, materials or finances to carry out excavations
scientifically. The terrain and the climatic conditions of the Maldives are adverse factors whenthe excavated sites are kept exposed.
There are 128 known archaeological sites on 91 islands. Among them some areconsidered to be sites of the pre-Islamic period. Earlier excavations were carried out on theislands of Fuah Mulaku, Thoddoo, Ariyadhu and Kin’bidhoo by amateur Maldivian teams.
These excavations were not scientifically conducted and resulted in extensive and irreparable
damage to these sites. The ancient archaeological site of Kaashidhoo Kuruhinna Tharaagan’duis the only scientifically investigated archaeological site in the Maldives. Kaashidhoo is a large
island, situated in Male’ atoll, a few miles north of the Capital, Male’. The navigation teams
that carried out the excavations did not bother to preserve the place.
Foreign archaeologists such as the well-known explorer, Thor Heyerdahl, and Professor
Egil Mikkelsen of the University of Oslo conducted excavations on different islands of theMaldives. These excavations showed structures built about 400 years before the advent ofIslam in the 12 th century. Members of the staff of the National Council for Linguistic andHistorical Research always worked with these foreigners in the excavation work.
Maldives being a group of islands, with more water than land within the country’s
boundary, underwater archaeology is immensely important. More or less the same techniques
could be applied to the conditions of working underwater. In Maldives there are 48 known
shipwrecks. By finding more about the wrecks more light would be shed on navigation in theMaldives and in the Indian Ocean as a whole. Historical wrecks, like vessels, aircraft and such
underwater objects constitute the underwater cultural heritage. There are also submerged cities,
and human objects like underwater cave paintings. This unique part of heritage should beprotected from treasure seekers and looters who disregard any archaeological methods ofpreserving them.
Other than archaeological sites and remains there are other historical and culturalmonuments that need urgent protection and restoration. The ancient mosques of Maldives,tombstones, monuments and the artifacts in the National Museum are all part of our cultural
heritage that need to be preserved for all time.
The early history of the Maldives will come to light with the proper excavation of theancient archaeological sites found on different islands. Preservation and conservation areserious problems due to a lack of professional expertise. Cultural heritage protection is still a
new and young discipline in the Maldives. We still have no qualified archaeologists orconservators. As a result of awareness programs conducted by the NCLHR gradually the
populace of the Maldives is waking up to the fact that it is of vital importance to preserve ourcultural heritage as a legacy for future generations. Only then can we understand our past. It isof utmost importance for the future to learn from the past.

What I learned from this training
As I have mentioned earlier, this training course was mainly based on lectures andpractical work. From this training I have experienced the Japanese method of preservation andconservation and also archaeological excavation. We did exercises with the Japanese hi-techresources. This training program is a very valuable one for my field of conservation andresearch. Even though it’s mainly based on archaeology, I have learned new methods of artifact
conservation and preservation. It has also made me aware of the fact that Maldives still needs alot of technology and methods in this field. Though it’s a one month training program, I’ve
learned a lot of new ideas regarding the handling of historical artifacts. This information will
be very beneficial to our office in the field of excavating, preservating and conserving ourimportant artifacts. Although Maldives is lacking the necessary resources such as professionals
and finances to carry out the conservation and preservation of archaeological sites and artifacts,
the techniques and ideas I experienced and gained from this training can be used as a guideline
whenever I work on our artifacts.
Lectures and practical work during this training were very interesting and informative.
They will also be very beneficial for my future in this field. The lectures were given on:
1. Conservation And Utilization of Cultural Heritage Resources
2. Risk Preparedness for Cultural Heritages
3. Recording Survey Methods of Archaeological Features and Relics
4. Development and Utilization of Archaeological sites
5. Introduction to Archaeological Science
6. Introduction to Conservation Science
7. Introduction To Environmental Archaeology8. On site Lectures
The practical works were held on:
1. Rubbing methods
2. Drawing
3. Usage of GIS and GPS
4. Wood Identification
5. preservation of metal artifacts
6. preservation of wooden artifacts
7. Resin using conservation method

Field trip
Field trip was held for three days from 4 th to 6 th of October 2006. During the field trip
we visited important sites and museums of the Fukui and Shiga Prefectures, and we were given
on site lectures in those places. On the 4 th the first day of the field trip, we went to
1. Ohi town’s Shokichi Matsuki Memorial Museum of Art.
2. Jomon Museum
3. Torihama Shell Midden
On the 5 th, second day of the field trip, we went to
1. Fukui City History Museum
2. Yokokan Garden
3. Ichijodani Asakura Family Historical Museum
On the 6 th, third day of the field trip, we went to
1. Shiga Prefectural Research Institute of Azuchi Castle
2. Museum of Shiga Prefectural Research Institute of Azuchi Castle
3. Ancient site of Azuchi Castle (on the mountain top)
4. Dotaku Museum
During these visits we were given information about the history of these places and also
how these places are managed. Almost all of them are well-preserved and I would like to saythat the monuments are very well managed. The museums we visited are also well managed,
and the museum objects are well-preserved and protected. The buildings were mostly made ofwood and stone; some are preserved by traditional methods and some by modern methods.
From this field trip, I learned the value of preserving the artifacts of a nation.
In the Maldives also, most of the ancient buildings were made of wood and coral stones.
Maldivian mosques are good examples of this. After the advent of Islam in 1153 AD, mosques
were built everywhere in the country and are given a high priority. The main structure of eachmosque of those days was built by using wood. Almost all of them are important heritage
monuments of our nation, and we give a high importance to preserve these wooden and coralstone structures. We also have stone and metal artifacts such as statues and canons. But, as I
have mentioned in my country report, we find it difficult to preserve these artifacts because of
the lack of modern technology and professional manpower, and also because of various otherreasons. Fortunately, this training has taught me how to face these problems.

Conclusion
This training has been a successful experience due to the great effort of the ACCU staff.
I would like to thank Mr YAMAMOTO Tadano, the Director General of ACCU. Special thanks
also to Mr YAMASHITA Tsutomu, Ms Wakamiya Yuko, Ms Kamida Ryo and Ms HATA
Chiyako for their support throughout the training. All of the staff made our stay and training
very pleasant. I would like to thank all the instructors for the time and effort they gave us
during this training. I would also like thank all those lecturers, conservators and archaeologists
who sacrificed their time to give us knowledgeable information.
Mostly, this training program is very important for me in the effort to improve myknowledge, my skill and my attitude towards the preservation and restoration of cultural
heritage in my country. I will use my knowledge which I learned from this training to make thebest out of it, and to let others know how our important artifacts should be treated. I will use
my knowledge in my work and research as well. From this training, I have experienced andgained a lot of new ideas and methods which are most applicable and most important for thepreservation and conservation of artifacts. Thank you.



Micronesia
Jason N LEBEHNABSTRACT
Since the year 2000, the Asia/Pacific Culture Center for UNESCO (ACCU, Nara), in
partnership with Bunkacho (Agency for Cultural Affairs in Japan) and the International Center
for Study of Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Property (ICCROM), have beenorganizing courses on cultural heritage protection and inviting qualified Asia/ Pacific region
participants to Japan for a better and greater (global) vision. Each year, selected participantsfrom all over the Asia/Pacific region are welcomed to this most outstanding training in Japanfor sharing and exchanging of important ideas, needs, problems/issues, and potential solutions
including practical aspects of the latest technologies and methodologies in order to safeguard
the importance of cultural heritages within our region for future generations.
As for this year, there are total of 15 participants fromall the member countries (Cambodia, India, Malaysia,
Nepal, New Zealand, Pakistan, Republic of Korea, andVietnam)including

Micronesia,

Samoa,

Iran,

Turkmenistan, Mongolia, Indonesia and Maldives.
And since the duration of training is limited in respect
to the workload versus time, the group was assigned topresent their country reports mainly on the problems
and needs in research, analysis and preservation of archaeological sites and remains for group
discussions. The training was also conducted through lectures, Museum tours, Site visits anddemonstrations of Japanese methodologies and technologies, and actual hands-on works forfurther inputs.

I. INTRODUCTION
This report will be based mainly on the problems and needs for cultural heritage protection
within the Federated States of Micronesia, and how we can utilize the situation by enhancing
the knowledge of cultural heritage protection within the Asia/Pacific region throughout theperformance of the training. As presented in my earlier report (FSM country report), it seemsthat most of the countries share at least some or most of relevant problems and solutions as
indicated:•

Development•

Natural/Human Impacts•

Legislation•

Resource/Man power Constraints•

Ownership•

Visitors

These problems may vary in some degree, or may not be applicable to other countries due tomany factors such as the surroundings/environment, financial or technical support, availabilityof resources and management, or the problems encountered.
But Federated States of Micronesia is an underdeveloped country, seeking assistance andguidance in the form of any available resources such as this training. The opportunity is quite
a difficult task for me (as the country representative for this year’s training), to go through thewhole training while digesting as much knowledge and relevant elements from the program as
possible for better usage, and to relay to all four states of FSM. Within a very limited time andwith so much to be covered, I think my ability alone may not be enough to relay the full detailsof the whole training to all the states, but with the concrete support of the organizations,institutes and group and staff supports, I think I might be able to absorb some of the mosteffective elements that might be applicable for my country.

Of course, the training was

designed as an ongoing/continuous improvement operation throughout the Asia/Pacific region,
therefore

networking

andcommunication

among

the

group

colleagues

andinstitutes/organizations will be a very valuable source in the near future, for updates andfurther information.

II. TRAINING
The four weeks of training covers a lot for
the improvement and protection of cultural
heritages protection within the FSM andmany of the countries in the Asia/Pacificregion.

With the hospitality and proper

arrangement of training by the ACCU, Nara,
Japan, the group was able to meet the mainand be able to accomplish the main objective
and scope of work, with the training supportof organizations, institutes and staff, which are highly dedicated in the field of cultural heritage
protection for Asia/Pacific region throughout the course. The training was so well prepared by
ACCU Office that all the participants were able to meet some of the most important people in
the field from the major offices, enjoyed a very welcoming orientation and ceremony followedby an excellent reception. As promised by the ACCU, the training provides a free participantround trip tickets to and from Japan, good accommodations, and a decent allowance with an
extra free daily breakfast. Surprisingly, laptops plus USB drives can be borrowed, and there
was free daily internet access, and three days of field trips (fully accommodated by the office).
I believe that the training covers the two most effective perspectives in enlightening andpreparation for learning and doing cultural heritage protection: theoretical (lectures) andtechnical presentation using Japanese resources, and technologies and methodologies incorrelation with the other countries (Asia/Pacific region).
So, the training basically is designed for the participants in sharing and experiencing new ideas
and different approaches among the countries.
11 th of September -11 of October 9, 2006.
A. Country Reports and Discussions
Power point presentations were performed by each participant mainly on the needs andproblems of cultural heritage protection of his/her country for group discussions.

Many

different issues and needs were brought up for discussion among the group, for proper
solutions and possibility of fixing such problems. Valuable recommendations and comments
were shared among the group, but definite solutions were impossible due to the serious
problems encountered and presented by cultural diversity, and financial and technicalconstraints.
B. Lectures and Hands on Work
The training lectures and institute visits provided the groupwith an enormous knowledge of the Japanese ways ofrecording, analytical methods, principles, methodologies,
preservations, development, conservation, risk preparedness,management and the utilization of their archaeological sites.
While at the institutes/university, we were fortunate to beable to observe and actually do some of the surveying andpreservation methodologies. The concepts of surveying andpreservation in Japan were similar to those of FSM in a sense,
but

more

advanced.

The

Japanesetechnology

andmethodology in most of the work is all relevant within the
FSM, but some parts of the Asia/Pacific region havedifficulties due to financial/ technical constraints and poor
academic/ training opportunities. Such needs are irrelevant
for now, since it requires greater attention from our leaders and organizations that are willingto tackle such obstacles, especially for financial and technical constraints.
There were some useful methodologies which are highly relevant to FSM now, because they
are a lot simpler in acquiring the methods, and only require very cheap/ affordable gadgets ortools to perform the task. For example, doing simple site surveying with a cheap drawing table,measuring tapes and hand-held GPS instead of using a $75,000 dollar cost Total Station; ordrawing relics or artifacts by using simple drawing tools and the wet rubbing method instead ofa probable $1,000,000 cost scanning machine, hardware and software.
As of now, the methods which will also be newly
introduced to my country are the identification andpreservationof

culturalheritageespecially

for

the

conservators and curating staffs in the preservation ofwooden/metal artifacts, and the collection of raw outcropsof sites for the museum cross section displays.

C. Museum and On-Site Lectures
The group was scheduled for some on-site and museum visits to do some of the best (popular/
well performed methodologies and actions) to help promote the sites in Japan heritages forbetter preservation and conservation of valuable sites.

All the museums visited wereeducationally well dedicated and presented and most envying for a small country like the FSM
country because artifacts and relics or remains are well treated and preserved with an
outstanding museum to take care of.
As for the site visits, these were by far the most excellent treat experienced among all theactivities. I liked the sites so much I think the restoration work in Japan is goes too far,
especially with the historical reconstructions of structures. I think a digital reconstruction ormodel of a structure is helpful in terms of elaborating and presenting to the people. The actual
structure need not be tampered with and can stay in its originally discovered state. I also thinkthat all the sites should have foreign language explanations for better interpretation andpresentation of the sites, because most of the sites I visited during my stay here in Japan do notseem to have much information and resources for foreign visitors, especially for tourist fromabroad.

Schedule
2 nd -6th of October, 2006
1. Matsugase Daiba Site
2. Torihhama Shell Midden
3. Fukui City History Museum
4. Ichijodani Asakura Family Museum
5. Shiga Prefectural Research Institute of Azuchi Castle
6. The Dotaku Museum (The Mysteries of Dataku)

III. EVALUATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
After a month of observation and evaluation during the training, I would have to strongly
recommend that each participant be responsible for extracting what is most relevant to his/hercountry, to be shared and applied within their country. As stated by Dr. Inaba, “The training
does not provide recipes or solutions for each country but it is up to the participant to help
conserve culture and promotes diversity in his/her perspective in relation with the countries
needs and problems (more of a guide than solving problem).”I think the duration of training is too short for the understanding and sharing of such enormousand serious ideas or issues among a vast diversity of cultural perspectives. It would be better if
the training is an ongoing course among the same group, for better understanding,communication and networking. The training also encourages the participants to work together
in groups and be able to share ideas or thoughts, and the swapping of valuable knowledge andskills is very effective.
The methodologies introduced during the training will be transmitted to my government after
the course for more solid input from this representative.

I will try and convince mygovernment to look into the 3-D scanning principles and some of the equipment introduced,
which really can make a difference among all the valuable methodologies and site evaluations,in correlation with the FSM methodologies and technologies.

IV. CONCLUSION
This training is very useful for people of the Asia/Pacific region because it provides knowledgeof vast diversity, and the sharing of different approaches and solutions. It is also important foreach participant to use the relevant methods within his/her country.

The training must berecognized throughout the Asia/Pacific region and should increase the number of training
participants and also extend the time period for a better chance of success.

V. ACKNOWDELGEMENT
I would very much like to thank the ACCU Office and all the staff and tutors in this training
for their outstanding assistance and support throughout the entire training. I would not belearning and enjoying while here in Japan without them. I would also like to relay my sincere
thanks to all the wonderful lecturers and people who spent all their time teaching and worrying
about us by managing to coping with such a radical group such as me. THANK YOU ALL
FOR ALL THE HOSPITALITY AND GENEROUSTY HERE IN JAPAN, LIFE IN JAPAN IS
MUCH EASIER AND CONFORTABLE WITH ALL YOUR HELP, SUPPORT AND
ASSITANCE. This course is probably one of my most memorable and exciting training
experiences ever, you guys/gals are the best! I would to extend my sincere thanks to the HotelManager and staff especially my Japanese mamma.
Also like pretty much to thanks to the following Organizations/ Institutes:



•

Department of Land & Natural Resources, Pohnpei State Government•

Division of Historic Preservation, Tourism and Parks, Pohnpei State Government•

FSM Historic Preservation and Archives, FSM Government.

•

ACCU Nara-Cultural Heritage Protection Cooperation Office•

Bunkacho (Agency for Cultural Affairs in Japan),•

ACCU (Asia/Pacific Cultural Centre for UNESCO)•ICCROM.

•

Japan's Ministry of Foreign Affairs•

Japanese National Commission for UNESCO•

Nara Prefectural Government•

Nara Municipal Government

I would also thank my friends in Japan for their recognition and family-like treatment….Mr and Mrs Kataoka, Mr Nagai, Mr Yamashida, Ms Wurana and Sain for all thewelcoming parties, Ms Inaba and Mr Hiroshi and everybody for making me feeling like I
am at home. I might miss some very good friends already just writing this report but I
promise I will send e-mail message to every one with and add. PEACE OUT!!!!
KALANGAN AND THANK YOU VERY MUCH!!!!

Mongolia
Batbold NATSAG

The training course on Cultural Heritage Protection in the Asia/Pacific Region 2006 –“Research, Analysis and Preservation of Archaeological Sites and remains” presented
information on archaeological research, analysis and preservation of archaeological sites andremains, organized by Central Heritage Protection Cooperation Office, Asia/Pacific Cultural
Centre for UNESCO (ACCU) from 11 September to 11 October, 2006. The training course,
attended by representatives of 15 countries, provided an opportunity for the study ofarchaeological methods employed in Japan and for comparisons to be made by the participating
Asia/Pacific countries. The course enabled participants to learn from Japanese heritage
professionals and to share their own experiences.
ACCU was able to organize the following training:-Conservation and Utilization of Cultural Heritage Resources-Risk Preparedness for Cultural Heritages-Recording Survey Methods of Archaeological Features and Relics-Development and Management of Archaeological Sites-Introduction to Archaeological Science-Introduction to Scientific Dating Methods-Introduction to Conservation Science-Introduction to Environmental Archaeology-Workshops: Classification of Archaeological Relics /Measuring and Drawing/: Recording of Archaeological Features: Conservation Science-On-site lectures (3 day study tour)
The training provided me with a lot of insights concerningarchaeological excavation,

exploration, conservation, heritage management and analysis of various excavated objects.
From this training I learned that a lot of things are still to be improved in my country. I will
share all of these experiences with experts in the Institute Archaeology in Mongolia, and try toconvince them to follow some of the techniques to achieve better research results. I will also
apply the research methods that I learnt during the training period in my own work.
By being involved in this training I have learnt much about the World Heritage Convention
from Mr. Wijesuriya and think that it is compulsory to do much more promotional work about
the advantages to public. For example: to include the subject of World Heritage in everyschool’s curriculum, to publicize through public media, the Internet, to introduce school
children to local cultural and historical heritage and in them concern over their protection. As
for Mongolia, the work of protecting the monuments is still lacking.
Currently the Institute of Archeology has been doing intensive registration work of the culturalmonuments within the area of Mongolia and recording them on the map. Although the culturalmonuments are countless in number, at present only 500 of them have been registered so far.
Mongolia joined the UNESCO Convention concerning the Protection of the World Cultural andnatural Heritage of 1972, and has thus thoroughly been working to implement it.
As a result of historical and political factors our country joined this convention later. Even
though active registration work of own country’s heritage was not conducted at the time from1995 there has been the close collaboration with UNESCO and the other related professionalorganizations. Because of having insufficient knowledge and experience in that field we haveapplied to some member countries like Japan, Germany, Turkey etc. for cooperation, as a result
we have had perceptible progress in protecting the archeological and historical finds andmonuments. As a result, the valley of the Orkhon river, having numerous monuments, wasregistered on the World heritage list in 2004. The Orkhon Valley Cultural Landscape, which isthe birthplace of the Central Asian nomads, occupies 121,967 hectare in area and is amarvelous site containing and abundance of archeological, historical and cultural heritage andmonuments documenting the nomadic lifestyle especially of the Central Asian nomads, and theorigins of the region’s urban civilization.
We have made a list of the historical and cultural heritage to be registered with the World
heritage recently, and have been working on processing the nomination of historical andcultural monuments of Chinggis Khaan, Hoid Tsenher Cave, the rock drawings of Tsagaan
Salaa river to be included in the World heritage, and are going to present it to the World
Heritage Committee.
Also the lesson of “Risk Preparedness for Cultural Heritage” taught by Dr. Inaba, and Mr.
Murakami was very interesting. The main factors behind the destruction, erosion, defects of
those monuments in the open air are divided into 2 main groups:
1. the natural adverse effects
2. the adverse effects due to human actions
A main feature of archeological monuments of Mongolia is their being located ineither the

open air of the steppe, or under the ground, across all seasonal periods. Almost every
monument is made of stone. The monuments located in the conditions mentioned above whichare made of stone, mud or raw bricks, have eroded due to natural causes including temperature
variation, the wind, sun, chemical elements, or organic elements of animal or plant origin.
We should take into account the weather conditions of the country, which has long winters,
short cool summers, many sunny days, few showers, in addition to considering the temperature
variation of the air and the soil, for the protection of those monuments. In my opinion one of
the simplest and easiest ways of protecting them from natural phenomena is to effect a building
to keep them away from the sun, wind, rain, the birds and the animals, to remove all thoseplants which might harm them, to install a lighting rod, and if damaged, to take steps to restore
them using chemical treatments and to make regular checks.
It is regrettable to see that there have been many cases of destruction of valuable heritage andmonuments from tribal civilization because of internal conflicts, battles between the tribes andthe different ethnic groups in Mongolia.
As a result of disruptive years during the establishment of Socialism, many ancient culturalmonuments and the monasteries were knocked down, ruined, and the valuable items which they
contained were completely destroyed, plundered or looted. Scholars are still not able to locate
valuable cultural objects, and other items whose owners are unclear and which have been taken
across our borders, and spread to many European countries as well.
Until the present day these cases of illegal excavation work on ancient burial sites, monuments,
tombs, the ruins of monasteries, and settlement, and their destruction, and looting, and taking
valuable findings across the borders in secret, or painting or scribbling on them, havecontinued to exist.
Therefore it is compulsory to implement these actions immediately:-

Consider the historical and cultural monuments as the priority in state management.

-

Implement the provisions of the law on the protection of the cultural heritage to somedegrees.

-Take sites of historical important events under state or local protection.

-

To excavate the complete range of monuments which are under the threat of companies’
operations and make public the scientific facts and data.

- Combat illegal actions (destroying the historical and cultural sites, stealing etc) and takecountermeasures.
-

In case of establishing any industry, building, mining, or the maintenance work of any
road, inform the Authority of the Archeology in advance and if the site is proved tocontain the archeological findings, start the actions and after completing thepreservation related activities.



-

On the national scale of Mongolia, register all the archeological sites and monuments.
Every local prefecture should perform the inspection work in the range of its own area
and introduce the archeological sites and monuments to the school children so they will
be willing to protect the sites.

-

Set a protection zone for historical and cultural sites, employ watchmen or guards andnot allow cattle to enter the zone.

-

Expand the local museums and provide them with professional staff.

-

Prepare well-trained and qualified staff.

In the field of restoring archeological monuments our institute is lacking in experience,
because of a deficiency of professional repairers, a lack of specially equipped laboratories or
special facilities, or the lack of funds to establish such laboratories Our Institute has cooperated
with 10 countries and every year performs collaborative research work. With their assistanceand encouragement, we hope to establish a laboratory with the latest modern facilities.
We visited Nara University and it was really interesting to do the practice work of researching
and restoring the wooden or metal objects under the supervision of Professor Nishiyama, and it
would be possible to use some of the methods for wooden objects in practice in our own
country.
During the training course we traveled 3 days, visiting some museums, and getting acquainted
with archeological monuments. The Jomon museum that was dedicated to children was
fabulous. As for my country, the promotion of archeological monuments and the other findings
to the public is at an unsatisfactory level.
Overall, this training was quite interesting and inspiring. The course furnished me withcomprehensive knowledge in the various fields of archaeology. The management of the
training was very good. All the participants were very cooperative and friendly. I had many
chances to interact with each participant during the training. I also visited various temples in
Nara and enjoyed the architectural design and sculptures of various periods. I also had
opportunities to understand the people, culture, religion, geography, history and the daily lifeof Japan.
Finally, I would like to express my gratitude to Mr Yamamoto Tadano, director of ACCU in
Nara for providing me with such a great opportunity to participate in this training course. I
would also like to thank all the staff members of the ACCU Nara for having been with us andfor supporting for our theoretical and practical trainings.

NepalSaraswati SINGH

Introduction
The training course on the Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Heritage in the AsiaPacific region gave information on archaeological research and analytical methods of ancientremains. This report is presented as a requirement of the course, and evaluates the relevance of
this training programme to my work and how it can be applied in Nepal for the preservationand conservation of archaeological sites.
Excavation is the means of acquiring tangible evidence to make history in any country.
Therefore archaeology is known as a most essential discipline and in Nepal, where the firstarchaeological research was undertaken in 1896. Nepal is known for its rich archaeologicalmaterials from the pre-historical and historical period. Many exciting remains and ruins havebeen discovered, yet much work still has to be done. After the establishment of the Departmentof Archaeology (DOA) in 1953, the work of research has continued at different potential sites.
There are more than 15 sites excavated, and among them most of the important excavation
reports have already been published. Many exciting remains and ruins have been discoveredfrom the excavation. A published excavation report explains about the contemporary socioeconomic cultural history of the country.
My report concentrates mainly on archaeological research and excavation activities in andaround Lumbini, Kapilvastu and Ramgram. In fact all three of these places are famous for
Buddhist occupation. Many Buddhist sites are situated in this region. Lumbini is the place
where Lord Buddha was born in 563 B.C.; Kapilvastu was the hometown of Lord Buddha,
where he spent his first 29 years of life with his family, Ramagram is believed to be the sitewith the relic stupa of Lord Buddha. Many excavations have been undertaken at these sites
since 1997. The excavation work has continued for 6 consecutive seasons and still is notcompleted yet. So it was felt that further excavation activities should be conducted along withpreservation activities to expose all the possible tangible historical evidences. Many people
especially interested in history and academic activities are very eager to know about the
popular Buddhist period history, as well as the architecture of that period. The enhanced
excavation activities in this area will certainly help to know in depth more about the Lord
Buddha’s era and about the Buddhism, the architecture of the period, and much more.

Since the establishment of DOA, it has been involved in different research activities in the
excavation and preservation of archaeological sites within the Lumbini and Kapilvastu area.
Many sites have been excavated and preserved around this area. Among them, investigation of
the fortification wall of the Tilaurakot was started before last year and is still on-going and is
expected to be continued for few more years till its completion. There are other important sites
excavated and preserved by the DOA with partnership and assistance from other foreign
institution, including Japan RISSO University and Japan Buddhist Federation. These efforts
should be continued as there are believed to be many other important archaeological sitesaround these areas from which the scholars and other interested people will be able to learn
many important facts about Lord Buddha from the period of his birth. Furthermore, it is feltthat if these efforts for further excavation and preservation will continue, it will become amajor resource for the development of cultural tourism in Nepal.
My Views of the Training course
I have been working in the Department of Archaeology/Nepal since 1994 as Museum Officer
and have had the opportunities to participate in various excavation activities, including thepreservation and protection of historical monuments, museum design, as well as supervisory
activities. I have been faced with many problems regardingarchaeological research andexcavation methods, etc., on archaeological sites since the start of my involvement in these
activities. This training has helped me to understand and get knowledge of the various subject
matter, methods, and much more on preservation, excavation and conservation procedures andhas helped me to solve most of my concerns/queries about it.
This training will definitely help me in my practical work when I go back to my job. I sincerely
express my gratitude to the organizer of the ACCU Nara training course on Preservation and
Restoration of Cultural Heritage in the Asia Pacific region 2006, Research, Analysis andPreservation of Archaeological sites and Remains, for providing me with such an important
opportunity to gain knowledge during the period of the training course, which has helped me infurther strengthening my knowledge, which can be utilized in the new directions in my job andin my future career. The course is further relevant to me as Nepal is one of the ancientcountries already with 8 world heritage sites, where it is felt more conservation andpreservation activities are required. Further, Nepal has many historical places mainly around
Kathmandu Valley and other parts of the country with the potential of finding historical andpre-historical relics, where excavation work is still to be done.

Further, this training course, which began on 11 th September, 2006 at the ACCU Office, Nara,with 15 participants from different countries in the Asia-Pacific region has provided us an
opportunity to exchange views and ideas with the participants from different countries.
I found the introductory session with all the participants, to be very interesting. I attended afirst lecture about the training course, the objectives and routine programme of training course.
Then we were also given a brief synopsis of the history of Japan including its pre-historic andhistoric cultural chronology. All the lectures are interesting and gave us knowledge about
various techniques and technology followed by the Japanese archaeologist for scientificresearch in the fields of archaeological exploration, excavation and restoration. I also learn
about the cultural heritage preservation andprotection laws adopted in Japan. I had an

opportunity to learned about Japanese Ancient Monument Preservation Act which is importantfor me to compare with a similar act in my country. I also became familiar with excellently
protected monuments and archaeological sites in Japan.
I was impressed with the lecture about conservation and utilization of cultural heritage
resources by Dr. Gamini Wijesuriya of ICCROM (Rome). I also got acquainted with thedifferent International charters recommendations and conventions regarding the guidelines forheritage conservation in the various part of the world, and how ICCROM and other
International Organization are carrying out a significant role in cultural heritage preservationand protection.
The country paper presentation session was also interesting and helped me to understanddifferent archaeological activities including heritage preservation activities of different
countries, along with the cultural, geographical as well as historical development of therespective countries. I also acquired basic knowledge of archaeological sites, major research
problems and issues for preservation and conservation in the Asia-Pacific region. The remarks
made by Dr. Wijesuriya on the country papers were also inspiring and informative for me.
The management programme for careful research, excavation and preservation of themonuments was very inspiring. The lecture on archaeology and natural science provided a
detailed information about the relationship of archaeology to other sciences. The risk
management of cultural assets, the scientific dating methods i.e. C14 and thermoluminescence(TL), was also very beneficial. Data integration using GIS and GPS, and photogrammetry is
also a new technology in the field of archaeological research and conservation. The workshop
on scientific preservation techniques for artifacts was very beneficial. All the participants
conducted the microscopic analysis of wood species and 3D laser scanning. I found that thisnew technology is widely used by archaeologists in Japan, but these methods are not used inmy country and so they are new to me. I also enjoyed the lecture on

environmentalarchaeology and paleoparasitology, which are also new subjects of research for me.
Besides the lectures, we visited many temples and shrines in Nara. The maintenance of the sites
is excellent and reflects the awareness of the Japanese people regarding cultural property. We
really must appreciate the Japanese people and the Japanese government for their good
maintenance and love for their cultural property. The three days’ study tour to the various
archaeological sites and museums arranged by ACCU office was also informative andinteresting. We visited Matsugasa Daiba (the battery fortification) situated in Fukui City,
which was very interesting. After that we visited Mikata-cho Jomon museum and Torihama
Shell Midden site. We had an opportunity to view different perspectives on Jomon Period
people. The museum display was also very organized and interesting. We visited Fukui City
museum and Ichijodani Asakura clan ruins, situated in Fukui City, also a new experience forme as this is the first time I have seen a reconstructed conjectural architectural town built overruins. On the third day of the study tour we visited Azuchi Castle archaeological site andAzuchi Archaeological Museum, Dotaku museum and Kabutoyama burial mound. All of theseare good examples of the protection of cultural properties in Japan and were impressive.

Archaeological Problems in Nepal
Archaeology is a subject which is related to the digging of past human activities and theiranalysis for reconstruction of the history of humankind on the basis of material remains usedby them. Therefore archaeological research plays a most significant role for acquiring materials
related to the people and their societies of the past. With the limited resources, the Departmentof Archaeology has conducted several archaeological activities all over the country and has
acquired satisfactory results within a period of three decades. All the results of research havebeen published through the journal Ancient Nepal and other publications concerned witharchaeology. However, a detailed archaeological survey has yet to be carried out. The
Department of Archaeology is getting some assistance from different international agencies forthe exploration, excavation and preservation of archaeological sites and monuments withtechnical and financial support, which has helped to enhance the sites and monuments andretain their historic values. The Japan Buddhist Foundation is among them. They have done
remarkable job at Mayadevi temple of Lumbini. It is felt that although we have been
conducting a variety of research in the field of archaeology in Nepal, the level of research yetneeds to be developed as extensively as I have witnessed in Japan.

1) Resource Constraints(a) Human Resource Constraints:
A limited number of experts are available for conservation, excavation, and preservation, andowing to the vast scale of archaeological sites and monuments the work of conservation andpreservation is not done adequately. We are still dependent on other countries for training
courses. However, in Japan many training institutes are established in every prefecture wheremuch skilled manpower is produced every year, yet owing to the vast number of archaeologicalsites and monuments the work of conservation and preservation is not done adequately in the
country.
(b) Financial constraints:
Despite having a very high potential as a country for the preservation and its conservation of
the historically important places, the Nepalese government can ony allocate less than 1% of
total budget, which is always inadequate to meet the challenges of archaeological activities in
the country. Nepal being among least developed countries, the government has many otherpriority areas, mainly fulfilling basic necessities of the people, and its scarce resources can not
be invested in the conservation sector. Nevertheless, the Department of Archaeology has given
top priority for archaeological activities and has taken many steps in the preservation of several
monumental sites and excavated many archaeological sites with its limited resources.
Assistance from the donor agencies/foreign governments in this field will definitely help forenhancing further activities in this area.
2) Old Technology
The Department of Archaeology still uses traditional technology for conducting research,
excavation, preservation and protection, etc. In the field of technology we have a very few
scientific instruments and skilled manpower to use modern equipment. So we need modern
technology and instruments for further development. Without those facilities a country cannot
develop in the field of archaeology, which is most important for constructing the history of thecountry, and also important for developing tourism.
3)Public Awareness
Public awareness is one of the most important factors for the protection of cultural properties.
Due to the lack of adequate advocacy, and limited awareness programme, people do not take

serious interest about cultural properties in Nepal, which causes vandalism, theft and otherthreats to the cultural property. Even educated people have limited knowledge about important
cultural properties. Therefore the Department of Archaeology is vigorously making efforts tocampaign publicly to preserve and protect monuments and archaeological sites in partnershipwith local authorities.

4) Lack of Proper Lab facility
Archaeologist need to apply different new scientific methods to analyse the materials andresults retrieved from archaeological findings. Nepal lacks proper labs for the analysis of
excavated objects. We usually send samples abroad for lab analysis, which takes a long timeand delays publication of the final report and the cost of lab analysis is quite high, therefore it
is not possible for us to bear the expenses of the test with a limited budget. Due to this fact weare still depending on traditional methods for analyzing artifacts, dating, etc. I found in Japanthey applied scientific methods and advanced instruments for their archaeological research.
Therefore the results are more accurate and reliable.

Application and utilization of this training course in my country:
This training course has enhanced my knowledge both theoretically and practical. The practicaltraining carried out during this training course will immensely help me to apply thesetechniques in my country for the proper preservation of the cultural heritage of Nepal. At
present, due to financial constraints, our laboratories are not well equipped with modern
equipment like in Japan, therefore conventional methods are being applied for the preservation
and restoration of the cultural heritage of my country. However, this training course has greatly
increased my knowledge and understanding of conservation problems and other matters. I haveobtained a number of good ideas and now look forward to sharing them with my colleagues in
Nepal, and applying them to achieve better results. This training course has provided me an
excellent opportunity to meet a number of internationally known scholars, researchers as wellas conservation experts, and to share with them important issues pertaining to conservation
and related problems for the preservation of the cultural heritage. This exchange of views has
been found very productive and now I am in a position to address these problems in morescientific way.
The methods and techniques being applied by the Japanese experts for the preservation ofwooden artifacts are excellent. The application of these methods in Nepal will provide a newlease of life for wooden architecture. However, some methods and techniques being used inJapan for the preservation of metal and iron objects, such as X-Rays and othermodernmachines, are highly costly, therefore it is not possible to apply the same methods in mycountry. However, the knowledge and experience gained during this training course has given
me an advantage in utilizing these techniques in my future research work.
The visit to the different cultural heritage sites and museums in Fukui and Shiga Prefectures
has proved quite interesting for understanding the cultural heritage of Japan on one hand, andfor learning the conservation techniques being applied by Japanese experts on the other.
Besides, during this visit we had the chance to visit a number of museums. During this visit I
enhanced my knowledge about the development of Museology in Japan. I have learnt about thedifferent techniques for the display of the objects, lighting systems in the museums, audiovideo presentations, educational activities of the museum staff and other matters relating to thefield of Museology. Although our museums are not very advanced like in Japan, the different
techniques and methods which I have observed during the visit will help me to develop themuseums on modern lines in Nepal.

Conclusion
On the whole the training programme was extremely effective, relevant and impressive. We
could acquire a considerable amount of knowledge and experience from the training course,
mainly on the processes of conservation, protection, heritage planning, management andvarious archaeological techniques. The site visits to different ancient sites in Japan gave me
great opportunity to enhance my knowledge in cultural preservation/conservation and related
issues. An opportunity to learn from Japanese experts and exchange ideas on archaeologicaland conservation issues with professionals from different countries has been very beneficial tome.
I would like to sincerely thank Bunkacho (Agency for cultural Affairs in Japan); theAsia/Pacific Cultural Centre for UNESCO (ACCU); the International Centre for the study of
the Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Property(ICCROM); and the National ResearchInstitute for Cultural Properties, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan; the Japanese
National Commission for UNESCO; Nara Prefectural Government and Nara Municipal
Government for providing me the opportunity to participate in the course. I would also like tothank Mr Yamamoto Tadanao, Director of ACCU, especially Mr Toshihiko Morimitsu, MrTsutomu Yamashita, Mr Atsushi Nagai and Ms Yasuko Otani for their outstanding
coordination during the training. Thanks also go to Ms Hata, Ms Kamida and Ms Wakamiya.
I would also like to thank the Government of Nepal, Mr Jal Krishna Shrestha, Joint Secretary,
Ministry of Culture, Tourism and civil Aviation and Mr Kosh Prashad Acharya, Director
General of the Department of Archaeology for nominating me to the course.
I would like to once again thank ACCU and ICCROM for this great opportunity, and I also
would like to thank the staff of ACCU office, Nara for their co-operation and help.

New Zealand
Joanna Kate WYLIEThe 2006 Asia-Pacific Cultural Centre for UNESCO (ACCU) training course on the research,
analysis and preservation of archaeological remains has provided me with invaluable knowledge
and practical experience which I will be able to apply to my position as Assistant Archaeologist for
the New Zealand Historic Places Trust (NZHPT). The course lectures, practical lessons and site
visits provided many opportunities to make comparisons with current archaeological practice in
New Zealand, and consider new approaches which could be applied in my country. This report will
focus however on several particular aspects of the training which I found to be of most relevance tomy position within the heritage management field, notably the country presentations, theconservation science session, and the lectures, discussions and field trips illustrating thedevelopment and utilisation of archaeological sites.
Whilst the course programme provided an in-depth knowledge of the current status of cultural
heritage protection in Japan, the presentation of country reports during the first week of the
training programme afforded an excellent opportunity to gain an understanding of cultural heritage
protection activities in the wider Asia-Pacific region, and make comparisons to the New Zealandsituation. It was very interesting to note that whilst we came from countries with a diverse range ofcultural heritage from temples to prehistoric rock shelters, the problems currently being faced interms of cultural heritage protection were almost universal. These included development pressures,
resource constraints, natural threats such as erosion, a lack of public awareness about heritage
resources, and an inadequate legislative framework.
I found discussions on the latter point of particular relevance as New Zealand’s cultural heritagelegislation is often under the spotlight, and because I am currently part of an internal NZHPT
working party that is examining the archaeological provisions of the Historic Places Act 1993 (“theHPA”), focusing of what works, what doesn’t work, and how might the legislation be improved? I
was very interested to note for example that Malaysia’s newly introduced National Heritage Act
2005 defines an ‘archaeological relic’ as any archaeological deposit that is fifty or more years old
in any part of Malaysia (the HPA definition of an archaeological site has a requirement for the site
to be pre-1900 AD), and that Samoa currently has no specific legislation concerning cultural
heritage protection. It was a great benefit to gain knowledge about the specific workings of cultural
heritage protection legislation in other countries within the Asia-Pacific region, and compare thisto the New Zealand legislation. This knowledge will help me to make an important contribution to
working party.

Another related aspect of the country reports session of particular relevance to current
archaeological practice in New Zealand was the discussion on ‘rescue archaeology’ (also referred
to as ‘mitigation archaeology’). As mentioned in my country report and presentation, mostarchaeological excavations undertaken in New Zealand are done as ‘rescue archaeology’. I was
therefore most interested to learn about how this type of archaeology operated in other Asia-Pacificcountries, compare this to the New Zealand situation, and see what might be improved upon. I
noted for example that the situation in Korea appeared to be very similar to New Zealand, withrescue archaeology accounting for the majority of excavations undertaken, but that the use of
mechanical excavators on excavation sites (to speed the process of excavation) would not occur inIndia.
The field trip to the excavation of archaeological remains at the northern end of the Heijo Palacesite during the third week of the training programme also afforded an excellent opportunity to see
rescue archaeology in action, and learn about the Japanese process. I was interested to learn thatprivate individuals can apply for funding support should they undertake an activity such as house
construction which would result in the requirement for an archaeological excavation, as this issomething that has been discussed within the New Zealand context, but is not currently available.

Figure 1:
Archaeological excavation in northern part of former Heijo Palace site
Photo: Jo Wylie, Sept 28 2006



Another aspect of the training programme that I found to be of particular relevance to New Zealandarchaeology was the conservation science session during week three of the training programme,
especially the session on wood conservation. Wooden artefacts and structural remains are
sometimes found within New Zealand archaeological sites, generally in wetland/swampy contexts,
and pose immediate conservation needs. This has been illustrated recently by the discovery of threefragile punga (wooden) structures associated with the former occupation of Te Aro Pa, a recorded
archaeological site in Wellington city, and the unearthing of two wooden waka (canoes) at separate
locations in the Wellington region, one of which I was involved with in my role at the NZHPT.
Conservation work is generally not undertaken by archaeologists themselves however as New
Zealand has specialist conservators, and thus the session on wood conservation provided me
valuable knowledge of an area that I have not previously had the opportunity to learn about. Thisknowledge will assist me with any future situations that I may be involved with where wooden
remains are found.

Figure 2:
Remains of stern section of waka (Maori canoe), Wellington
Photo: Emma Brooks, NZHPT, Sept 15 2006
I found the most valuable and relevant aspect of the training programme to be the lectures,
discussions and various field trips that focused on the development and utilisation ofarchaeological sites. The development and utilisation of archaeological sites is a key focus ofheritage management in New Zealand, and is undertaken by various organisations, including the
New Zealand Historic Places Trust, Department of Conservation, local authorities and selectedcharitable trusts. There are currently several archaeological site development projects underway inNew Zealand, such as the Lawrence Chinese Camp Redevelopment Project, Otatara Pa
development and work at the Queen’s Redoubt in Pokeno, and I have had the opportunity to be
directly involved with this area of work through my position at the NZHPT. I consequently found itvery useful to learn how Japanese sites are developed and utilised, and experience such sites
first-hand. This provided me with the opportunity to assess a range of different approaches from insitu preservation and display of archaeological remains to reburial of archaeological remains withfull-scale above surface reconstruction, and compare these to current approaches in New Zealand.
It also provided important information about the problems that can be associated with the various
methods.
The major point of difference between the Japanese and New Zealand approaches to site
development and utilisation would be the reconstruction of archaeological structures and remains.
Numerous examples of reconstruction were observed during the training programme such as theformer Imperial Audience Hall at the Heijo Palace site, Matsugase Daiba site and the town area of
Ichijodani, but New Zealand in contrast has relatively few examples of site reconstruction. Current
archaeological practice in New Zealand closely adheres to the guidance provided by ICOMOS
charters which are generally in opposition to reconstruction, and follows the principle of minimal
intervention wherever possible. I appreciate the difficulties associated however with theapplication of such international charters to Japan’s cultural heritage given the dominance ofwooden structures as highlighted by Mr Takase, and understand the social reasons behindreconstruction, such as when public money has been used to purchase a site with no above groundremains. Whilst New Zealand does not currently have comparable examples of reconstruction, it isbeing proposed as part of the Lawrence Chinese Camp Redevelopment Project, and I therefore
found the site visit to Ichijodani of particular interest as an example of similar project at thecompletion stage. The various examples of site reconstruction also highlighted and reinforced theneed for thorough historical and archaeological research in order to create the most accurate
reconstruction possible.

Figure 3:
Reconstructed townspeople’s houses,
Ichijodani
Photo: Jo Wylie, Oct 5 2006



In contrast to the aforementioned examples of reconstruction, visits to the Azuchi Castle and the
Asukura Mansion site at Ichijodani revealed an alternative approach to the development andutilisation of archaeological sites, and one that I found to be more relevant to current
archaeological practice in New Zealand. These sites chose to adhere to the policy of minimal
intervention, undertaking only limited restoration work, and one of the benefits of such an
approach is the sense of history and authenticity that is gained when observing what could be
described as ‘ruins’ as opposed to a reconstruction.
Another aspect of the training on the development and utilisation of archaeological sites I foundespecially relevant was observation and understanding of the tension that can occur when trying tobalance visitor needs with site preservation and integrity. This is a problem faced by many cultural
heritage sites in New Zealand, especially those managed by the Department of Conservation which
may also fulfil a recreational role. I found this issue to be particularly well highlighted by the field
trip to Azuchi Castle, where there were several examples of the conflict between competing values.
The height of the stone wall at the front of the castle entrance had been reduced to provide better
visibility from outside for example, whilst the structure of the original stone steps had beenretained, despite visitor complaints that they were difficult to climb. A further case in point was thedamage being caused to the stone walling of the tower site so that visitors could observe thecommanding view provided from this height.

Figure 4:
Walking along the stone walling of the Azuchi Castle tower site to viewing area
Photo: Jo Wylie, Oct 6 2006

One way in which visitor /public education needs can be met whilst preserving a site’s integrity
however is through the physical separation of the visitor experience from the site. This was wellexemplified by the Torihama Shell Midden site where a museum and education centre has been
located away from the site itself given the inappropriateness of creating an open air type exhibitionsite on such an important cultural heritage site. This is certainly an approach that has applicability
to the New Zealand context, and I understand that the creation of a separate visitor education
centre has been proposed for the development programme currently underway at Otatara Pa,
Napier, one of New Zealand’s most important cultural heritage sites.
As noted above, the lectures, discussions and field trips related to the development and utilisationof archaeological sites further provided me with the opportunity to learn about the issues
associated with the various methods of site presentation from in situ preservation to full-scalereconstruction. I observed for example the problems that can occur with the former method, suchas mould and mildew growth as seen within the Excavation Site Exhibition Hall of the Heijo
Palace site. I also learnt that coastal sites such as the Matsugase Daiba site are vulnerable to thesame natural threats as faced by New Zealand’s coastal sites such as wind erosion, and requireparticular attention regarding maintenance and restoration works. This was highlighted by the soil
subsidence that has occurred to part of the earthwork features at the Matsugase Daiba site,
resulting in the exposure of the covering placed between the original excavated surface andintroduced material.

Figure 5:
Mould growth on remains at the Excavation Site Exhibition Hall, Heijo Palace site
Photo: Jo Wylie, Oct 3 2006

This year’s ACCU training course on the research, analysis and preservation of archaeologicalremains has been of great benefit to my professional development as an archaeologist. It has
provided me with the opportunity to learn about the most recent developments and trends
concerning the research, analysis and preservation of archaeological remains, both in Japan and thewider Asia-Pacific region through engagement with the other course participants. The entire course
programme was of relevance to New Zealand archaeology, but I found the aspects of the
programme that focused on heritage management such as heritage legislation and the development
and utilisation of archaeological sites to be most relevant to my position at the New Zealand
Historic Places Trust. I gained a great deal of knowledge about heritage management in the broader
Asia-Pacific context which I will be able to apply to my role, and I look forward to sharing thisknowledge with my colleagues and associates upon my return to New Zealand. I also look forward
to continued communication and information-sharing with all the course participants, and would
like to extend my sincere thanks to everyone at ACCU for making the 2006 training course such aworthwhile and rewarding experience.

Pakistan
Tahir SAEED

Introduction:
This final report is submitted after attending

the 7 th training course on Cultural

Heritage Protection in the Asia/Pacific region, 2006 (Research, Analysis and Preservation ofArchaeological Sites and Remains) held at Asia/Pacific Cultural Centre for UNESCO, Nara,
Japan from 11 th September to 11 th October, 2006. In this report it will be discussed as how best
to apply the knowledge gained from this training course to the problems and needs for theproper conservation and restoration of cultural heritage of my country. This report also
evaluates and comments on the training course mainly on its curriculum that included lectures,practical field work, on-site training/lectures as well as participant’s presentations anddiscussions. Further how the different modern techniques which are in practice in Japan andlearned during this training course can be applied best in my country for future research workand conservation needs is an integral part of this report.
The cultural heritage of Pakistan is rich and varied dating back to one and a half million
years from now which consists of: Pre, Proto and Historic period archaeological sites /monuments (Ca. 10000 BC – 326 BC), Buddhist settlements (3 rd Cent. BC – 6 th Century AD),
Hindu Temples, Sikh period Havelies, British period monuments, Muslim period forts, palaces,
gardens, inns, stepped wells, minarets, mosques, tombs and graveyards (7 th Cent. AD – 19 thCent. AD). These specimens of the past are for all generations of mankind therefore, we arebound to the best of our ability to preserve them in the full richness of authenticity and pass onthem to our successors
The ancient sites / monuments in Pakistan have suffered a lot from a variety of causes.
The natural causes are numerous and varied, for instance, thick vegetation, heavy rainfall,
floods and change in river courses, etc. Another major cause of decay is the action of saltpenetration. The salt-laden air penetrates into the surface and wears out the structural material.
Besides, natural forces, human vandalism is also one of the common causes of damage to theancient sites and remains. Handicapped by the problems of inadequate funds, a dearth ofbuilding material as well as skilled labour and trained personnel, it is but natural for the
Department of Archaeology and Museums, Government of Pakistan to assign the priorities tothese monuments / sites in its charge.

The Training Course Summery:
The training course on Cultural Heritage Protection was divided into three curricula
which included: a series of lectures arranged at the Asia / Pacific Cultural Centre for UNESCO(ACCU), the National Research Institute for Cultural Properties (NRICPN), and Nara
University; practical training, workshops; an on-site lecture series including a 3-day study tour
to Fukui and Shiga Prefectures, and participants’ presentations and discussions. During thelecture series a number of important issues on the management, preservation, conservation andrestoration of cultural heritage, and different techniques/methods as how to preserve different
kind of monuments/ sites, were discussed at length. The lectures given by the Japanese experts,
specialists and scholars were found very informative and relevant to the preservation andrestoration of cultural properties. The presentations, mainly concentrating on the Japaneseexperience, included the legal system for protection of cultural heritage, traditional methods ofwood conservation, scientific applications and case studies of historical sites and monuments.
The supplementary material provided during the training course was found very helpful andvaluable for in-depth study.

Week 1: (11 th September to 18 th September)
The lecture delivered by Dr. Masayoshi Ito on “Conservation and Utilization of cultural
Heritage Resources” (cases in Japan) was very useful for understand in the legal framework forthe protection of cultural heritage in Japan. The history of the enactment of the Law forProtection of Cultural Properties in Japan, the system and category of cultural properties inJapan, the preservation system for historical sites, and the preservation and management ofhistoric sites were described in detail by him. After the enactment of the “Law for theProtection of Cultural Properties, 1950” Japan has enacted a number of different revisions oflaws such as: Intangible Cultural Properties and Folk Materials (1954), Folk Cultural
Properties, Groups of Historic Buildings, Selected Conservation Techniques (1975), System ofRegistered Cultural Properties (1996), and the Cultural Scenery (2004), which is an exemplarymodel for the other courtiers.
In Pakistan, for the proper preservation and protection of the cultural heritage, an act
named “Antiquities Act of 1975” provides the legal protection and under this Act 392
archaeological sites and monuments have been declared as “Protected Antiquities” out of
which 7 are inscribed on the World Heritage List of UNESCO. However, there is a great need
to formulate a number of pieces of legislation in the same manner as Japan, such as its Law forProtection of Folk Art Materials, Law for Protection of Groups of Historic Buildings, Law forConservation

Techniques, Law for Cultural Scenery / Environment, etc., for proper

preservation of the cultural heritage of Pakistan. Accordingly the present Antiquities Act can
not meet with the current

challenges being faced by the Department of Archaeology andMuseums, which is solely responsible for the proper protection of the cultural heritage ofPakistan.
The lecture on “Risk Preparedness for Cultural Heritage” by Dr Inaba and Mr.
Murakami was an excellent presentation based on the experience of the Great Hanshin
Earthquake in Japan. This lecture provided me an excellent opportunity to learn and develop anunderstanding about the need for risk management of cultural assets. The major causes ofdamage to cultural assets can be classified as: typhoons and earthquakes, fire and lighting, war
and crime, un-intentional destruction by development works, etc. The Disaster-prevention for
cultural assets involves creating a plan that links, in a series, emergency actions to initiate
preventive measures. This lecture enhanced my knowledge about risk preparedness for cultural
heritage in the event of natural disasters.
Presently there are no specific operational guidelines to meet such kinds of problems in
my Department.

Therefore I have learnt a lot from this presentation.

I hope that theconsiderable knowledge gained during this lecture will be very much beneficial for the proper
preservation of cultural heritage of Pakistan in the future. Specifically, on the basis of theexperiences of the Great Hanshin earthquake in Japan, as explained by Dr Inaba and Mr.
Murakami, my Department will now be able to start working on the core issues of risk
management, which is needed because the earthquake of 8 October, 2005 in my country also
caused huge destruction, including damage to the cultural heritage.
Another important presentation was made by Dr. Gamini Wijesuriya, on the topic of“Conservation and Utilization of Cultural Heritage Resources”. He highlighted the need forConservation Planning, Heritage Management Planning, and an Integrated Approach for proper
preservation of the cultural heritage of mankind. In Pakistan, the preservation measuresgenerally involve two types of works, viz, annual repairs which include protection from humanvandalism, eradication of wild growth, regular cleaning, dusting etc., and special measurescomprising conservation, restoration, development of gardens etc. Normally maintenance iscarried out on all category-I sites and monuments. The factors which need to be considered forproper conservation work as learnt during this lecture were found very helpful forunderstanding the needs and for adopting a strategic planning model for proper conservation
work in my country in future.

During the last two days of the first week of the training course, all fifteen participants
gave their presentations. The two-day session was coordinated by Dr. Gamini Wijesuriya. All
the participants gave their presentations for about 15 minutes on the “Problems and Needs for
Cultural Heritage Protection and Restoration Activities,” which were followed by short
discussions. This session enabled the participants to understand the conservation problems ineach others countries. The participants also shared their ideas with each other on conservationand other related issues pertaining to their counties. The expert views/observations of Dr.
Wijesuriya on the different issues relating to the cultural properties of the different countries
made the two-day presentation session very fruitful and beneficial.

Week 2: (19th September to 24 th September)
During the second week of the training course different methods of age determinationof cultural relics, such as radiocarbon C14, dendrochronology, thermo luminescence etc., werelearnt from the lectures delivered by Prof. Sawada and Prof. Nagatomo. In particular, thelecture on “Introduction to Dendrochronology” by Dr. Mitsutani was quite interesting. In Japan,
the dendrochronological method for the analysis of ancient wooden cultural properties has been
applied for many years to a wide range of subject matter, which includes archaeologicalartifacts, building components, wooden sculptures, works of art and handicrafts. The Japaneseexperts have succeeded in creating master chronologies for two species: 912 BC to 2000 AD
for hinoki and 1313 BC to 2000 AD for the sugi tree. As compared to Japan, there are not very
many wooden archaeological monuments in Pakistan. Despite this fact there has been great
difficulty in investigating the conservation problems and the treatment of the woodenarchitecture in Pakistan, especially located in Swat and other parts of the northern areas of thecountry.
Since no proper methods for investigation, research and conservation techniques havebeen developed so far by the Department of Archaeology and Museums, the condition of thisarchitectural heritage is gradually deteriorating. The method of dendrochronology as an
identification system is presently not in practice in the Department of Archaeology andMuseums (Pakistan) but this system could be applied in determining the different conservation
problems of timber strength, age and species. The start of the dendrochronology technique as
learnt during this training course for preservation of wooden architecture/artifacts in mycountry will provide a new lease for these monuments.
Dr. Kiguchi delivered a lecture on “Recording Survey Methods of Archaeological
Features and Relics,” and all the participants carried out practical field work by applyingdifferent techniques as learnt from the lecture of Dr. Kiguchi and the demonstration made byhim. These exercises include; survey mapping with a plane table and alidade, use of GPS(Global Positioning System), 3D laser scanning, photogrammetry with digital cameras and GIS(Geographical Information System). The use of the latest technical knowledge andsophisticated equipment is very important for the investigations and surveys in the field ofarchaeology.
In the Department of Archaeology (Pakistan), we are using the conventional methods ofmapping (with a plane table and alidade). However, recently the Excavation and Exploration
Branch of the Department based at Karachi has started the use of GPS for their archeologicalinvestigations/research work. Despite this, our Department is not yet fully equipped with GPS
and other equipment required for 3D laser scanning, photogrammetry with digital cameras due
to non-availability of funds. Similarly, GIS, which is a good method for visualizing,manipulating, analyzing and displaying spatial data in digital format is also not in practice due
to a paucity of funds. However, the techniques learnt during the 3-day practical work will bevery helpful in my future research work in my country.

Week 3 : (25 th September to 1 st October)
A workshop on “Classification of Archeological Relics/Measuring of Drawing &Rubbing” was arranged on 25 th September under the guidance of Mr. Nishiguchi, NRICPN. All
the participants of the training course carried out practical work of drawing pottery as well asworking rubbings of artifacts. In Japan, the techniques used for measuring, drawing andrubbing are quite similar to the techniques currently being used in my country. These methods
are not only simple but also easy to apply during the archaeological researches/investigations
to get the exact form of the carvings on artifacts.
A very informative lecture on “Introduction to Conservation Science & Workshop:
Scientific Preservation Treatment for Cultural Properties” was delivered by Prof. Nishiyama at
Nara University on 26th September. During this lecture different chemical preservation methods
for unearthed wooden artifacts were learnt which are presently in practice in Japan. The
preservation method includes the use of different chemicals, such as polyethylene glycol
impregnation, higher alcohol method, sugar alcohol method, fatty acid ester method, vacuum
freeze drying and alcohol xylene resin method.
Similarly, different preservation techniques for metal artifacts which are currently inpractice in Japan were also learnt, such as desalination method (removal of chloride ions), BTAtreatment (neutralizing chloride ions), resin impregnation (reinforces fragile iron and bronze
objects), rust removal method, bonding or patching (bonding of broken pieces of iron or
bronze). All the participants carried out experiments of X-Ray diffraction and PEG
impregnation method in the laboratory of Nara University on 26 th and 27 th September under theguidance of Prof. Nishiyama. The X-Ray diffraction method is useful in the identification of
the elements containing in the artifacts. The PEG impregnation method is also very useful forthe identification and treatment of wooden artifacts.
In Pakistan, unfortunately our laboratories are not well equipped with modern scientificequipment and machines as compared to Japan. However a number of different chemicals arebeing used for the restoration/preservation of metal artifacts. The chemicals like PEG
impregnation, vacuum freeze drying, xylene resin method, desalinating method, BTA treatment,
resin impregnation and X-ray diffraction methods are also not in practice as these are highly
costly. However, I am confident that the methods and techniques learnt in Japan by using theselatest scientific machines and equipment for the identification and preservation of wooden andmetal artifacts will be greatly helpful in my future research work for the preservation of thecultural heritage of Pakistan.
On 28 th September, an on-site workshop on “(Conservation Science): Transcription ofStratigraphy” was held under the supervision of Prof. Nishiyama. All the participants
participated actively in the excavation work at the Heijo Capital and Palace site. Participationin the actual excavation work provided me an excellent opportunity to learn the excavation
techniques being used in Japan. The use of epoxy resin on the surface of the excavated remains
for analysis of the complete stratigraphy (soil layers) of the site was new for me. This method
is not in practice presently in our country. However, this method was found to be very good,and can be applied for obtaining significant results. The technique learnt during this exercise
has helped me to understand the importance of stratigraphy which will be applied for theproper preservation of the cultural heritage of my country.
Dr Kenkichi Ono’s lecture entitled “Development and Utilization for ArchaeologicalSites” was found very instructive in which he provided in-depth information relevant to the
topic of his discussion. The “utilization factor” in the proper preservation of the cultural
heritage was discussed comprehensively by him.



Week 4 : (1 st October to 8 th October)
The lecture by Dr Matsui Akira on “Introduction to Environmental Archeology and
Survey Workshop” was found very interesting and informative, and was illustrated with thehelp of skeletons of humans as well as animals discovered during archaeological excavations inJapan. He highlighted the necessity of soil screening tests during excavation, as the soil
contains a number of micro artifacts like shells, fish bones, animal bones, potsherds etc. which
can provide a lot of important information about the environment. During this lecture basic
information regarding comparative morphology and ecology of mammalian bones(osteology)
was provided, which enhanced my knowledge about the identification of different bones
discovered from the archeological excavation.
Unfortunately,atpresent

there

are

no

Environmental

Archeologists

or

Zooarchaeologists in the Department of Archaeology, (Pakistan). As a result the importantfield of environmental archaeology is being neglected. However, after acquiring basic andfundamental knowledge about Zooarchaeology I am of the opinion that this field of study
should be given top priority, and immediate steps need to be taken in our country so that theobjective of proper preservation of cultural heritage can be achieved. Since Japan is alreadywell ahead in this field, cooperation between the Department of Archeology and Museums(Pakistan) and NRICPN (Japan) can improve the research facilities in Pakistan.
The visit to the Heijo Palace Site on 3 rd October was very informative for understanding
and learning about the conservation techniques and traditional methods applied at the site.
Before this study-visit a lecture was delivered by Dr Takase Yoichi. He described the history of
the maintenance/conservation carried out at the Palace Site before and after the World War II.
The visit to the former Audience Hall, Heijo Palace Site, Nara (8 th Century AD) was very
interesting and helped me learn the necessity of re-construction work which is being carried out
at the Palace Site. The method of using steel or timber for reinforcement for structural stability
against earthquakes was found very appealing. Besides, the use of traditional and modern
methods side by side for proper analysis, examination and their application for re-construction
work was found adequate and appropriate during the visit.
In Pakistan most of the ancient sites/ monuments are constructed with bricks (baked or
un-baked) and stones. However, this kind of total re-construction is not in practice in mycountry as the Venice Charter prohibits this kind of re-constructions/interventions. Therefore
minimum intervention is carried out during the conservation process and traditional
methods/techniques are applied to conserve the site/monument. However, in Japan wood has
been commonly used in the construction of the ancient monuments. Therefore the concept ofre-construction of ancient monuments in Japan is totally different from Pakistan. On the one
hand it is good to preserve the cultural heritage for our future generations, but on the other it isfeared that general visitors may obtain the wrong impression about its originality. Therefore
utmost care is required while considering the total re-construction of a monument.
Despite the fact that these techniques and methods are not in practice in my county, theknowledge gained during the visit of the Heijo Palace has found very valuable. The
methodology being applied in Japan for re-contruction work has helped me to understand thenecessity of proper protection of the cultural heritage. This learning will be useful inaddressing future challenges in the field of preservation of cultural heritage of Pakistan.

Visit to Fukui Prefecture and Shiga Prefecture from 4 th – 6 th October, 2006
The most important and inclusive part of our training course was the visit to theimportant cultural heritage sites and different museums in Fukui and Shiga Prefectures. During
this visit participants were given on-site lectures by the experts of the concerned
institutions/heritage sites/museums in detail. The important heritage sites and museums visited
were: Shokichi Mastsuki Memorial Museum of Art at Ohi-Town, the Matsugase Daiba (theBattery Fortification Site), Torihama Shell Midden Site, Fukui City Historical Museum,
Ichijodani Asakura Family Museum, in Fukui Prefecture and Shiga Prefectural

Research

Institute of Azuchi Castle (Site & Museum), the Dotaku Museum (the Mysteries of Dotaku) in
Shiga Prefecture, respectively.
The visit to these important cultural sites has broaden the horizon of my knowledge by
giving an opportunity to look and understand about the rich cultural heritage of Japan and theconservation methods/techniques being applied by the Japanese experts for its preservation andprotection. It was a good experience to learn how the conservation techniques are being appliedby the Shiga Prefectural Research Institute of Azuchi, for the preservation of Azuchi Castle.
Besides, from the visit to different museums, such as, the Museum of Art in Ohi-Town, theFukui City Historical Museum, the Asakura Family Museum, and the Azuchi Castle Museum, I
have learnt a lot about the development of museology in Japan.
It was a very good opportunity for me to learn the latest methods and techniquesapplied by Japanese experts and researchers for the proper display of artifacts/relics and theirpreservation in these museums. The involvement of the local community in the establishmentof local museums, and support from the local government in this regard, were inspiring for me.
It was also learnt with great interest that museums in Japan provide opportunities for schoolchildren to get involved: participate in their different activities and gain education andknowledge through their visits to the museums.

Though the museums in my country are not well developed, the visit to these museums
has helped me to learn a lot from different points of view regarding display techniques, lighting
systems, informative descriptions about the exhibits, three dimensional views of objects, audiovideo systems, educational programmes for school children, arrangements for permanent andspecial exhibitions etc., etc. The knowledge and observations obtained through this visit willcertainly help me to apply the latest techniques in the development of our museums in Pakistan.
The last lecture of this training course given by Ms. Tunprawat on “Future Issues in the
Preservation of Cultural Heritage” was an excellent presentation in the context of involvementof local communities in the preservation of cultural heritage. In Pakistan, the local
communities as well as the local and provincial governments are not much involved in the
promotion and preservation of cultural heritage of the country is in the case of Japan. However,the presentation by Ms. Tunprawat has shown a new approach to the involvement of the local
community in the preservation of cultural heritage, which enhanced my knowledge andimproved my understanding about this important issue.

CONCLUSION:
The training course on Cultural Heritage Protection, 2006 has provided me an excellent
opportunity to gain in–depth knowledge about the Japanese cultural heritage and its
preservation /protection with the help of both traditional and modern methods. The methods
and techniques for the preservation of cultural heritage learnt during this training course at
ACCU, Nara, Japan will help me immensely in meeting the future challenges in the field of
cultural heritage protection in Pakistan. During the training course, apart from the theoreticalstudies, visits to different historical sites and monuments helped me a lot in understanding bothtraditional and modern techniques for proper preservation of cultural heritage in Japan.
This training course has provided me with a wealth of technical information which I
look forward to utilizing in my future research work. Besides, this training course afforded me
an opportunity to meet with a number of international

conservators, scientists, experts, andsite managers. This training course has also helped me to meet, exchange views with andestablish new contacts among the participants who came from the different countries of the
Asia-Pacific region and gathered at ACCU, Nara, Japan.

I hope the contacts established between the ACCU, Nara and the participants, as wellas among the participants themselves, will continue in the future. During the visit of different
museums of Japan I have learnt the latest methods and techniques applied by Japanese experts
for the proper display of artifacts/relics and their preservation in the museums. By visitingthese museums I have learnt about the development of Museology in Japan and thesetechniques will be applied in my country in the future.
After attending this useful training course in Japan, apart from acquainting myself with
the Japanese culture and customs, I have enhanced my technical and professional knowledge inthe field of archaeology, which will certainly help me to serve in the Department ofArchaeology and Museums in a more effective and creative way for the proper preservation of
the cultural heritage of Pakistan.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS:
I want to express my sincere gratitude to the Agency for Cultural Affairs in Japan(Bunkacho), the Asia/Pacific Cultural Centre for UNESCO (ACCU), the International Centre
for the Study of the Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Property (ICCROM), the National
Research Institute for Cultural Properties (NRICPN), Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Japan, theJapanese National Commission for UNESCO, Nara Prefectural Government and Nara
Municipal Government for organizing this training course successfully and extending
traditional Japanese hospitality and generosity.
I am grateful to all the organizers of this training course who not only arranged thistraining course successfully but also looked after all the participants during our stay in Japan. I
wish to thank all of them, particularly Mr Toshihiko Morimitsu, Director, Programme
Operation Department, Mr Atsushi Nagai, Mr Tsutomu Yamashita, Ms Yasuko Otani, Ms
Chiyako Hata, Ms Yuko Wakamiya, Ms Ryo Kamida and all other staff of ACCU, Nara. All ofthem have worked excellent during this training course and deserve appreciations.
I am also thankful to Dr Fazal Dad Kakar, Director General, Department ofArchaeology and Museums, Government of Pakistan, Ministry of Culture, Islamabad forproviding me an opportunity to attend this useful training course and represent my country.

Republic of Korea
CHANG Eunjeong

The management of cultural heritage and relationship with public
Introduction

The subject matter of the Training Course on the Preservation and Restoration of Cultural
Heritage in the Asia-Pacific Region 2006 is composed of four broad components, in myopinion. The first involves mutual understanding of the activities and the social circumstances
related to preserving the cultural heritage in other countries. It served as an incentive for me tomake contact with different cultures for the first time besides the East-Asian cultures I havefelt familiar with, and to get a new angle on them.
The second component was an introduction to various methods which have been
conducted in Japan to preserve the cultural heritage, which constituted the greatest part of thewhole course. This component can be further subdivided into three subjects. One was thearrangement and management system for cultural property under the legal framework. Anotherwas the application of scientific methodology to archaeological research and conservation. All
lecturers tried eagerly to introduce the scientific methods such as various dating techniques,
used to analyze archaeological items, and the technical methods employed in research,arrangement, and conservation. Most of all I was struck by the constant efforts to interpret thearchaeological materials, which are not only the basic traditional objects such as pottery,stoneware, and metal, but also newer topics such as the bones of humans and animals, seeds,
insects, and parasites. These methods are providing us with much more information about thelife of past human beings.

The last subject is how to manage and utilize archaeologicalresearch materials by establishing database management systems such as GIS which turns data
into information. This section was practical, and was conducted in the form of workshops andlectures. And it was above all an interesting experience to meet with instances of theapplication of digital technology throughout the archaeological research.
The third component of the subject matter in this course was case studies introduced in
the lecture room and on site, which showed the variety of cultural heritage that Japan has
researched, conserved, restored, reconstructed, and managed. It had a tendency to concentrate
on reconstructed buildings, so the topic of reconstruction has been one of the important issues
for all members throughout course. We visited quite a few historic places during four days of
on-site lectures, and this gave me many ideas for presenting archaeological sites to the public.

On the other hand, it was also a pleasure to visit privately on the weekends, some cultural
heritage sites and museums that are well-organized.
The fourth component was the very significant opportunity to think over the preservation
cultural heritage itself. That is to say, we asked ourselves many fundamental questions, such as
what is the cultural heritage, or what should we preserve from the cultural heritage, or how we
can manage the cultural heritage, or what is the meaning of preservation, or by which means,
and then we tried to find answers through sharing the participants’ real instances andexperience. It helped us apply the perspectives and new ideas related to the themes in thiscourse. I think it was quite a good approach.
In conclusion, I obtained several key concepts in terms of cultural heritage preservationfrom this course. There are many other important concepts as a matter of course, but I’d like tomention only three, which are the management, the public, and cooperation.

Management
There are a few necessary requirements for managing cultural heritage efficiently. First, it isnecessary to establish a legal framework. At the same time, an executive body to enforce thelaw consistently is also essential. The legal system sometimes means a series of processes. The
desirable legal system can organize all processes of activities to preserve cultural heritage andrestrict unlawful acts of destruction of cultural properties. The activities in the processes don’t
include only things such as excavation, conservation, restoration, and reconstruction but also
ones such as maintenance, exhibition, and cultural heritage education. In each activity one
should perform one’s role faithfully, and activities should be well-organized with respect toone another when they are conducted continuously.
It is also important, I think, to manage the many forms of materials related to the cultural
heritage, as well as the heritage itself. As excavations, caused by development recently
increase in number, materials such as plans, section drawings, photographs, artifact drawings,
and field notes grow more and more in volume. This means that as the number of rescue
excavations increases, many more archaeological sites themselves are faced with thecircumstance of being destroyed. Accordingly, it is possible to say that archaeologicalmaterials produced from excavations are all that remains. That is the reason why we have to
pay attention to managing them.
Korea has a basic law on cultural heritage management, which is called the Law for theProtection of Cultural Properties. This law has the authority to manage activities related to thecultural heritage in Korea. To manage them means the authorities have the power to regulate,to permit, and to punish in detail. And what is more, both the designation and registration ofcultural property is another primary system governed by the law. On the other hand, forenforcement of the law, a Cultural Property Committee, composed of eminent experts invarious fields, is organized. And the committee actually decides on all important cases such as
excavation, restoration, reconstruction, designation, and registration of cultural property.
Korea has two central government organizations relevant to the management of culturalproperties, which are Ministry of Culture and Tourism of the Republic of Korea (MCT) and the
Cultural Heritage Administration (CHA). The MCT, one of the central government agencies,
handles affairs in the areas of culture, the arts, religion, tourism, sports, media and overseas
public relations. It deals with broad areas, and is not only limited to cultural heritage.
Compared with it, the CHA was established to perform administrative work connectedwith the cultural heritage, and was elevated to the level of administration from its former
position as a bureau of the MCT. The CHA’s responsibilities as officially declared are topreserve and maintain the cultural heritage in its original condition, to cultivate tourism
resources through promoting the value of cultural properties, and to increase people’s
enjoyment of the cultural heritage and public awareness of Korean traditional culture in theworld.
They each also have several subsidiary organizations, and National Museum of Korea(NMK) and National Institute of Cultural Heritage (NRICH) being representatives, respectively.
The basic responsibilities of the NMK are to keep and arrange cultural properties, to conserve
them, to conduct research on the cultural heritage, to show the materials through exhibitions,and thus to educate the public about the cultural properties. It has recently placed emphasis on
its relationship to the people, so various activities are organized with a view towards education,even exhibitions. It also performs functions related to museums and galleries in Korea
according the Law of Museums and Galleries. Accordingly registering and supporting them hasrecently become another important responsibility of the NMK.
The NRICH focuses on the research and conservation of the cultural heritage as its basic
responsibility. Therefore, it has performed archaeological excavation, publishing works such as
an archaeological dictionary, research on the historical record, restoration of the cultural
heritage, and so on. On the other hand, with respect to the objects being conserved, there is adifference between the NMK and the NRICH.

That is, whereas the NMK conducts thecollection of objects even in the case of monuments, the NRICH has continued to conserve
cultural monuments as they stand at their original locations, or even to reconstruct them.
These organizations take charge of separate parts of the process of managing culturalproperty. The excavation processing system of Korea can be taken as an example. In Korea,
field survey and rescue excavation if needed should be conducted before development,
according to the Law for the Protection of Cultural Properties. In such cases, the expense of theresearch is charged to the developer. To start an excavation, a research organization has tosubmit an application along with an excavation plan, and get permission from the CHA. Then,
it is determined whether the site is to be preserved or not, after finishing the excavation in thecase of a rescue excavation. If it is decided to be preserved, the plans for development should
be revised. And the site can be designated as a historic site by either the central or local
government, if it is recognized that the site has specific important value to be preserved. The
research organization should hand in the report of excavation in two years. Otherwise, it ispossible to put a restraint on the organization, or take some other measures. The CHA isauthorized to permit establishing a research organization and conducting excavation, throughthe Cultural Properties Committee. It also deals with matters related to decisions for thepreservation of a site and for designation as cultural property.
On the other hand, all artifacts from excavation come into national possession basically,
and the central government has the authority and responsibility for managing them.
Accordingly, after completing all relevant legal procedures, the NMK is charged with keeping
them in general. From that point on excavated artifacts, meaning movable cultural properties,
are registered as collections of the NMK and managed under the NMK’s own system, having
separate categories and representing a new operating system compared with what they were
under before. In contrast, the management of the site or the monument remains charged toother bodies, the CHA or NRICH. So a process of dividing the artifacts from site begins, and itis hard to convey all information about them from the excavation to the museum in most cases.
Especially, as the number of rescue excavations has increased rapidly and most of them havebeen conducted by non-public research cooperation, the management of large amounts of
information from excavations becomes the most important issue. How can we manage the data
efficiently, faithfully? Sometimes even research cooperation themselves are not able to manage
data sufficiently. So there is a very urgent need to establish an integrated management system
for all information from historical sites by a governmental organization. The endeavor toestablish a database system for applying GIS is very inspiring for Korea, I think, even though it
is but partly completed now.

PublicManagement for preserving the cultural heritage is an activity that mostly happens in a formal
sphere.

More important and continuous activities related to cultural heritage happen in

informal spheres. That is the reason why we should have an interest in our relationship with the
public. The public can become our best partner or an opposing power for preserving cultural
heritage. And every activity for preserving cultural heritage needs a considerable budget, whichmeans it is essential for the people to agree on spending the funds. Therefore, we have to do
our best to make them understand the value and meaning of cultural heritage, and have them
participate in the activities for preservation.

In this regard, museums can provide a good example for doing such things. The NMK
has performed various public activities such as exhibition and education. We organize manykinds of programs for different group such as children, students, adults, the elderly, foreigners,
and the handicapped. We have also a specific program in which we visit a local area, forexample a small village far away from town, for which we are equipped with some exhibitionsof replicas and things such as rubbing implements. And our most popular program is a handson museum called the Children’s Museum of the National Museum of Korea. It is anarchaeological museum where children can see, touch, and feel the past through hands-on
activities. The same sizes and shapes of the items displayed at the museum are available forchildren to touch and experience.
However, as I mentioned before, I feel the situation is still insufficient because mostactivities of museums have a tendency to be divided from sites, even though we have otherprograms such as on-site lectures. One point that was deeply impressed on my mind in thiscourse is the relation between the archaeological field site and the museum. Manyarchaeological sites have their own museum or are utilized as on-site museums. Moreover, theprocess of a reconstruction or an excavation is open to the public on a large scale and is being
utilized as a chance for education. An experience in one museum was also very impressive forme, which allow people to touch some artifacts such as a stone coffin that had finished withconservation treatment. And it also made me think to see that an archaeological research
institute such as Kashihara has its own museum and organizes good exhibitions with artifacts
they have excavated. On the other hand, I’m sure that the concept of community archaeology
is very useful issue.

International Cooperation
Most countries in the Asia-Pacific region suffer from an insufficiency of funds and experts forpreserving the cultural heritage. Moreover, religious problems and political conflicts, natural
disasters, lack of awareness on the part of people caused by poverty are also very serious
problems that we have. It is impossible to find perfect solutions to them right now, because wehave different kinds of problems with different backgrounds.

Therefore it is essential tocooperate with one another, and share our information and experience. The importance ofinternational networking is the most invaluable lesson learned from this course for me.
In closing, I’d like to express my appreciation to all of the lecturers in this course, the nicestaff of the ACCU, and the other participants.

SAMOA
Soonaalofa Sina AH POE

1.0

INTRODUCTION
This report is written as a requirement for the completion of the course. It contains fourparts focusing on relevant aspects of the training course that can be applied for thepreservation and management of Samoa’s heritage sites and cultural heritage stored at
the Museum and Archives.
The first part is the evaluation of the course on the effectiveness of teaching methods.
The second part focuses on selected topics that can be applied to improve thepreservation condition of cultural heritage of Samoa in the Museum and Archives, aswell as managing the preservation of heritage sites. The third part contains a briefsummary of an observation task on the relevance and the feasibility of adopting highlevel technology, costly equipment and advanced research techniques and methods forthe preservation and restoration of cultural heritage in Samoa. The fourth part looks at
bridging the gaps which separate the level of preservation and restoration between
Samoa and fourteen other countries represented at the training course.
The training course was delivered using the following methods, lectures, presentations
and discussions, practical trainings and on-sites lectures.

2.0

EVALUATION OF THE TRAINING COURSE
The training course took place over four weeks and it comprised many different topics
concerning the preservation and restoration of archaeological sites, relics and remains.
Methods used to deliver this course range from lectures, workshop, on-site lectures aswell as presentations and discussions.
The teaching methods proved to be effective and interactive. Theoretical written
information was conveyed and opportunities were available for hands-on practicalexperiences with several preservation and conservation methods. Opportunities fordiscussions and questions also proved to be effective.

The overall outcome of the training course was beneficial for me. I have acquired a vast
amount of knowledge and information on methodologies and processes for thepreservation, restoration and management of archaeological sites and remains. However,there is no doubt about the fact that some of the methodologies and processes learned
from the course cannot be applied to my own country due to limited access to resources,finances and professionals. Nevertheless, irrelevant methodologies and processes will
not be fully ignored but will be archived for future reference.
One most important outcomes of this training course is the establishment of a networkand the sharing of experiences amongst professionals from fifteen different countries.

3.0

RELEVANT ASPECTS OF THE TRAINING COURSE
This part of the report focuses only on selected topics that are not only relevant, but canbe applied to improve the preservation of Samoa’s cultural heritage in the Museum &Archives as well as the management of heritage sites.
It was evident from the lectures and practical exercises and on-site visits that key
resources for achieving an advanced level of development are access to humanresources and finances. Japan’s level of development in the preservation and restorationof cultural heritage is far more advanced. In contrast, Samoa’s level of development isstill in its juvenile stages. Considering Samoa’s underdeveloped economic status, suchhigh levels of technology and preservation methodologies as used in Japan cannot beapplied. However, there have been a number of basic and cost effective concepts thatcan be applied to the current plans and activities of preserving Samoa’s cultural
heritage in the Museum and Archives as well as heritage sites.
The key resources that differentiate the level of development between Japan, other
Asian countries and Samoa are considered ‘gaps’. Bridging these gaps is discussed inpart 5.0.

3.1

Risk Preparedness
Risk preparedness is a crucial process that all cultural heritage institutions
should be prepared for. There is no doubt that every country is more or lessaffected by disasters of any kind whether from natural forces or humaninterference. Much was learned from experiences of the great Hanshin
Earthquake, which affected the Kobe Prefecture. From Mr Murakami’s
experience with the Kobe earthquake, risk preparedness should consider thefollowing;

To have a network of experts and professionals

Having preventive measures is better that responseThat preventive methods is maintenanceDocumentation is very importantRescue teams should be aware of resources

Heritage can help reduce risk from disaster

Heritage being an aid during disasters proves to be true. For instance, a category
4 cyclone struck Samoa in 1991 and families and villagers in the village of
Falealupo, in the Island of Savaii, sought shelter under an ancient rockconstruction that is now an official Samoan Heritage Site and a tourist attraction.
They were able to use this structure as home until there were able to recoverfrom the emotional experience of losing their homes, and resources wereavailable to rebuilt their homes.
Much was learned from several case studies on risk preparedness.
3.2

Methodologies for the Classification of Unearthed Artefacts and Relics:
Measuring, Drawing & Rubbing
Learning about the different methodologies that can be used for theclassification of archaeological relics was very useful. The methods introduced
during this session prove to be cost effective and suitable for adoption by
Samoa. Skills and knowledge required to implement such process are notnecessarily those of a trained expert, but can easily be done by any museum or
heritage professional by following instructions.

3.3

Chemical Preservation and Processing of Wooden Artefacts
Common artefacts that can be found in Samoa at an archaeological site or in themuseum range from wooden artefacts, pieces of potteries, stone and bone tools.

The Museum of Samoa is currently not engaged in implementing any chemicalpreservation process due to the lack of resources and finances. Also the museum
has not encountered a situation where such action is needed. However, thedifferent processes introduced by Professor Yoichi Nishiyama also prove to becost effective and easy to carry out. It was crucial to learn that in the absence ofsuch processes, the true forms of unearthed artefacts will not be restored.
Therefore, such methods will be referred to when required.
3.4

Conservation and Management of Historic Sites & Remains
On-site lectures that took place in museums and on archaeological sites weremeaningful in my experience as many conservation and management ideas wereobtained. I was excited at witnessing well-reconstructed sites and theconservation and maintenance plans that are carried out. Again, the preservationof cultural heritage in Samoa cannot be carried out the same as in Japan, butsuch observation provokes ideas and ways to improve Samoa’s situation by theeffective use of locally available resources.

4.0

OBSERVATION
A realisation dawned on me early on during the training course that some aspects of thecourse cannot be applied in my country due to the lack or resources and finances. For abrief I was disappointed, but that was dealt with quickly by deciding to makeobservations on the relevance and the feasibility of adopting high technology, costly
equipment and advanced researches and methods for the preservation and restoration ofcultural heritage in Samoa. Coming from a small island nation such as Samoa with very
basic resources and the lack of trained professionals makes this experience a
worthwhile observation.
My observations concluded with the belief that the resources used for the preservation
and restoration of cultural heritage in Japan are not necessarily suitable for the needs of
Samoa. Only a small percentage of what was learned in this training course can be
adopted, but to reach a satisfactory level of preservation development requires
maximum awareness and effective use of locally available resources. My observation ofthis training course was a worthwhile experience.



5.0

BRIDGING THE GAP
The presentation of country reports provided a clear insight into each participating
country’s status of preservation and restoration. These presentations revealed gaps thatdifferentiate the level of development in the preservation of cultural heritage between
the Asia and the Pacific Regions. Out of the fifteen participants, only three
representatives were from the Pacific Region, Samoa, Federated States of Micronesia
and New Zealand. Small island nations such as Samoa and the FSM have minor issues
concerning their efforts to raise awareness of the importance of preservation andrestoration of archaeological sites and remains, whereas some Asian countries are
dealing with major and serious issues like earthquakes, tsunami and war. Such issues
have maximum effect on the survival of cultural heritage.
There are many gaps that should be bridged, but I would only like to touch base withsome that differentiate the preservation and restoration development levels between the
Asia region and a small island nations in the Pacific region such as Samoa.
5.1

Resources:
As already mentioned, the lack of human resources and finances are consideredas draw backs in the preservation and restoration of cultural heritage in Samoa.
This gap was identified when comparing to other Asian countries and the statusof preservation and restoration development. Ideas provoked from attending thistraining course to bridge this gap, should be that heritage professionals andofficials in Samoa identify preservation and restoration needs of cultural
heritage. An initial step to obtain resources to fulfil such needs should be sought
within Samoa before seeking assistance from outside experts. It is also
recommended that local resources are used effectively.

5.2

Professionals:
The lack of trained professionals in the cultural heritage field is another gap,
which needs to be bridged. A country’s cultural heritage cannot possibly
manage by one or two trained professionals. Although there are experienced
officials working in the cultural heritage field in Samoa, there is a need formore trained professionals. Attending this training course has convinced me that
there is a difference between working as a trained professional and an untrainedofficial. Asian countries have access to many local and overseas professionals
and experts.
5.3

Awareness
The lack of awareness is another contributing factor to the vast difference
between the levels of preservation and restoration developments between Japanand Samoa. The two countries are incomparable, but Samoa can benefit bylearning from Japan and other developed countries preservation and restorations
experiences. Samoa should also be cautious on considering only what is suitable
to address local needs. As mentioned in some lectures and case studies, raisingawareness is crucial in the preservation and restoration process. Such implies
that experts and communities will be able to understand and gain mutual respect
in order to work together on maintaining and preserving cultural heritage.

5.4

Training Needs
Different training needs between Asia and the Pacific regions were evident fromthe country reports and presentations. As stated earlier, a small island nationsuch as Samoa has minor issues concerning the preservation and restoration ofcultural heritage compared with of Indonesia and other Asian countries. In fact,
Asian countries have monuments and ancient structures that are more thanthousands years old, therefore their preservation and restoration plans have long
been established. In contrast, Samoa as a small island nation in the Pacific does
not have monuments or large ancient structures, but only heritage and religious
sites and other small historical structures, which date back several hundredyears.
It is therefore recommended that there be a separate training course, whichcaters for specific training needs of small island nations in the Pacific region
excluding New Zealand and Australia. Using Samoa’s current status as an
example, a training need would be for the identification and the effective
utilisation of local resources.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
On behalf of the Ministry of Education Sports & Culture and my country Samoa, I would liketo acknowledge the organisers of this training course for 2006; the Agency for Cultural Affairs
in Japan, Asia/Pacific Cultural Centre for UNESCO (ACCU) Office in Nara, the International
Centre for the Study of the Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Property (ICCROM), theNational Research Institute for Cultural Properties, Japan’s Ministry of Foreign Affairs, theJapanese National Commission for UNESCO, Nara Prefectural Government and Nara
Municipal Government.
I would also like to convey my humble appreciation for inviting me to participate at this monthlong training course. Much has been learned and valuable experiences were gained. A
professional network has been established and we will continue to exchange our experiencesfrom our professions and assist each other when necessary.
This training course was a colourful gathering of professionals from fifteen different countries,
an experience of tremendous value in which significant observations and assessments weremade for the safeguarding of cultural heritage in Samoa.
Special thanks are extended to the ACCU Office, the Director, Professor Tadanao Yamamoto,
Mr Toshihiko Morimitsu, Mr Tsutomu Yamashita, Mr Atsushi Nagai, Ms Yasuko Otani andstaff for your warmth and hospitality shown during our stay in Japan. Thank you for your time,patience and, courtesy. To our two special tutors who made our stay more comfortable, thankyou so much for your patience and your efforts to attend to our individual requests.

Turkmenistan
Maksat HOJAMMAYEV

I. Organizers
The training Course on Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Heritage in the Asia-PacificRegion 2006 was organized jointly by Bunkacho (Agency for Cultural Affairs in Japan); theAsia/Pacific Cultural Centre for UNESCO (ACCU); the International Centre for the Study of
the Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Property (ICCROM); and the National ResearchInstitute for Cultural Properties.
It is in cooperation with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan; the Japanese National
Commission for UNESCO; Nara Prefectural Government and Nara Municipal Government, andwas held from 11 September (Monday) to 11 October (Wednesday), 2006.
A total of 15 participants from all the member countries of UNESCO were selected for thisyear’s training course. These people are engaged directly in the excavation of archaeologicalsites, and the preservation, restoration and development of archaeological features. They are
from:Cambodia, India, Malaysia, Nepal, New Zealand, Pakistan, Republic of Korea, Vietnam,
Micronesia, Samoa, Iran, Turkmenistan, Mongolia, Indonesia and Maldives.

II. Acknowledgements
First of all I would like to express my gratitude to the organizers of this very useful training
course. It is a great honour for me because I am the first participant of this Training Course
from Turkmenistan, and I believe that I will not be the last participant either. I hope that ACCU
will invite other experts from the conservation and restoration field from my country in thenear future.
It is very pleasant for me to be in Japan and take part in this training course where I could
have an opportunity to share experiences with my colleagues from different countries of theworld.



While staying in the friendly country of Japan for one month I have made a lot of friends. I
am deeply grateful to all the lecturers and to those who assisted us during the training course.
And of course, particular thanks to: UNESCO, ICCROM and others for funding and organizing
this training course and more particularly, Mr.YAMAMOTO Tadanao, Director of ACCU andalso the staff of ACCU whose names are too many to be mentioned here. Finally I hope that all
participants will continue communication, and share their experiences about the protection ofcultural heritage in the future. I express my best regards to all of the participants for helping
me during this training course. I also sincerely wish for ACCU to continue and improve thisfruitful training course and collaboration in the future.
III. Introduction
There are so many archaeological sites and architectural monuments in Turkmenistan fromdifferent periods in history. The Turkmen Government pays great attention to the preservationand conservation of the national cultural heritage for the future generations. We havelegislation titled the “Protection of historical-cultural monuments of Turkmenistan” which
was adopted in 1992.
Nowadays in our country there are eight State historical-cultural reserves, which have beencreated to protect the most significant sites and monuments in Turkmenistan.
They are:
1. Ancient Merw
2. Kunya-Urgench
3. Old Nisa
4. Abiverd
5. Ancient Dehistan
6. Gokdepe Fortress
7. Sarahs
8. AtamuratAs a result of close cooperation with UNESCO, two State historical-cultural reserves in
Turkmenistan (“Ancient Merw” in 1999 and “Kunya-Urgench” in 2005) have been included in
the World Heritage List of UNESCO in the last six years. All necessary documents for the
inscription of the State historical-cultural reserve NISA to the World Heritage List of
UNESCO have been fully prepared and submitted to the World Heritage Center of UNESCO
for the further consideration.

IV. The problems and needs of conservation & restoration of mud brick structures after
excavation
The conservation and restoration of mud brick structures are one of the main problems allover the world. The protection of mud structures from rain and snow is very difficult in
Turkmenistan. After each rainfall some mud brick walls crack and we have to make some
repair work to the walls. After each excavation some conservation and restoration works must
be done in future. This situation shows that mud structure preservation is one of the main
problems. Every year experts from UNESCO come to our country and together with their
Turkmen colleagues elaborate new approaches the conservation of mud brick structures.
A new laboratory was created in “Ancient Merw ” and also in the “Nisa” park in 2005, as aresult of a joint project elaborated between the Ministry of Culture and TV and Radio
Broadcasting of Turkmenistan together with UNESCO Tehran Cluster Office and CRATerreEAG. The laboratory helps to analyze the differences between ancient and modern bricks
before conservation and restoration.
We tried various methods of conservation, but they did not give good results and we decided
to use the local methods of conservation. For example:•

adding the straw into the soil from the excavations and water.

The soil for conservation of a certain architectural structure should be selected fromexcavation spoil heaps of the same construction. Following the CRATerre expert’s advice theplaster for conservation may be prepared also by:•mixing clay with cow dung (like it is done in the Ukraine) to give more viscosity to theplaster:In this case the plastering cover of walls keeps its protective function longer and does notcrack.

Laboratory activities

Nowadays in the territory of Turkmenistan six international archaeological expeditions are in
progress. Their aim is not only to excavate, but to protect and conserve ancient architectural
remains, restore artefacts for museum collections, and prepare an archaeological plan of thesite.
In 2006 an excavation and preliminary geophysical survey using an electromagnetometer andmagnetometer has been completed for most of the area of the citadel Old Nisa, inside thefortification walls. The survey has been carried out by experts of the University in Siena (Italy)
in collaboration with the “Centro Scavi di Torino”.

The use of electromagnetometer side by side with a magnetometer will give the possibility ofmore precise data, therefore allowing a more accurate map of the area. The final objective is to
produce two maps for the investigated area, one related to the electric conductibility and thesecond related to the magnetic one; these data will help to identify the anomalous zones andtherefore future archaeological objectives.

V. Workshops
During this training course, cultural heritage professionals gave very useful lectures about:•

Conservation and Utilization of Cultural Heritage Resources•

Risk Preparedness for Cultural Heritage•

Recording Survey Methods of Archaeological Features and Relics•

Development and Management of Archaeological Sites•

Introduction to Archaeological Science•

Introduction to Scientific Dating Methods•

Introduction to Conservation Science•

Introduction to Environmental Archaeology

The introduction to Japan’s cultural heritage protection systems and presentation of theconservation of wooden architectural heritage in Japan by qualified professors was very usefulfor understanding of the general history of cultural heritage properties in Japan.
And we also had an opportunity to take part in practical training on:•

Classification of Archaeological Relics•

Measuring and Drawing•

Rubbing•

Recording of Archaeological Features

In Nara at the National Research Institute for Cultural Properties, Mr.Kiguchi Hiroshi taught
us the usage of Geographical Information System (GIS) and Global Positioning System (GPS).
I am sure that I will apply these experiences in my country.

VI. Study Tour
During the course (from 4 to 6 October) the participants had an opportunity to visit somevery popular historic heritage sites and museums of the Fukui and Shiga Prefectures of Japan.
Japan is one of those countries that is well equipped with modern technology and technicalknowledge. The study tour was very well organized by qualified staff of ACCU under thesupervision of Mr.Toshihiko MORIMITSU. The trip was conducted by bus.
1. Matsusugase Daiba Site
2. Torihama Shell Midden
3. Fukui City History Museum
4. Ichijodani Asakura Family Museum
5. Shiga Prefectural Research Institute of Azuchi Castle
6. The Dotaku Museum (The Mysteries of Dotaku)

During the study tour, I saw the Japanese experiences of development and management ofarchaeological sites and relics. And of course it gave me more ideas to develop thearchaeological sites in Turkmenistan as tourist attractions.

VII. Conclusions and recommendations
As for the conclusion I would like to mention that it will be very useful to add some lectures
to the training course about how to preserve mud brick structures if it is possible in near future.
It will be very helpful knowledge for those participants who have mud architecture in theircountries and who are more engaged in that field.

VietnamNGUYEN Viet Cuong

CONSERVATION OF THE THANG LONG IMPERIAL CITADEL SITE AT 18 HOANG
DIEU, HA NOI:

I. Acknowledgements
My sincere thanks go to Mr YAMAMOTO Tadanao – Director of ACCU, Mr
MORIMITSU Toshihiko – Director, Programme Operation Department of ACCU and all staff
members of ACCU for availing me of this opportunity to visit Nara, Japan, to attend thetraining course on preservation and restoration of cultural heritage in the Asia – PacificRegion 2006: Research, Analysis and Preservation of Archaeological Sites and Remains, aswell as helping me during the time I was in Japan.
My first impression was of the enthusiastic and careful approach of the work of ACCU
members. Since before this training course started, when I was still in Viet Nam I had received
very good information about the training course 2006 that ACCU sent to me. And during thetraining course, we received the ACCU’s enthusiastic support, the course schedule,
photocopies of lecturers’ papers, on-site lectures, etc., so we all had full information andmaterials. I feel that this training course was well-organized and its program was designed very
thoughtfully, embracing a wide range of problems related to the management and preservationof historic sites in Japan with reference to international concepts and experiences.
I would like to thank all the lecturers who provided us with their experience, knowledge
and issues on theory and practice on the preservation of Japanese archaeological and historicalsites, and artifacts. It will be useful resource for me to apply to my job.
I also wish to thank the Vietnam National Commission for UNESCO and Mr. Dang Van
Bai – general Director of Department of Cultural Heritage, Ministry of Culture and Information
for approving my attendance at this course.
During one month in Nara, useful lectures and practical workshops helped me get more
new knowledge on the management, conservation and promotion of historical sites in general,archaeological sites in particular. However, in this final report I only present partly what I havegained from this training course with regard to the conservation of archaeological sites in Viet

Nam, with a focus on the conservation of the Thang Long Imperial Citadel site at 18 Hoang
Dieu, Hanoi.

II. Introducing the value of the Thang Long Citadel site

From December 2002, the Vietnamese government has allowed archaeologists to
excavate the site at which it intends to build the National Assembly House and the new Ba
Dinh Conference Hall at 18 Hoang Dieu, Hanoi. Archaeologists have excavated on a large
scale (about 19,000m 2 ) and gained important results. Many architectural remains and millions
of artifacts have been found.
This site is the place where the history and culture of Thang Long – Hanoi and Vietnam
have gathered over 13 centuries (from the 7 th century up to now).
This is the first time in Hanoi, as well as the first time in Vietnamese ancientarchitectural history, of finding a complex of structures with high value, especially the
structure of the ancient Thang Long Imperial Citadel.
There are many senior international delegations which have visited the site and gained
high appreciation of the cultural-history value of the Thang Long Imperial Citadel at 18 Hoang
Dieu, Hanoi, such as French President Jacques Chirac, Former Japanese Prime Minister
Junichiro Koizumi, the UNESCO general Director, etc.

III. Preservation of the Thang Long Citadel site and its artifacts

1. Preservation of the site
In July 2006, Vietnamese Government assigned the Ministry of Culture andInformation the task of collaborating with relevant organizations and being responsible for the
proposal of methodology in the field of conservation of Thang Long Citadel site at 18 Hoang
Dieu, Hanoi.
Since the excavation, the Ministry of Culture and Information has paid more attention
to the collection and extracting of great ideas from the scientists, and to public relations
regarding methods of conservation for Thang Long Citadel site. The Ministry of Culture andInformation has proposed three methods, as follows:



-

Method 1: Preserve all of the excavated areas (19,000m ² ) and building an open
air museum.

-

Method 2: Select for maintenance some areas with very important and typicalarchitectural structures and objects to conserve, together with artifact
exhibitions, leaving the rest to be covered with sand.

-

Method 3: Cover of all the excavated area with sand (most scientists do notagree with this method and probably such a methodology or approach will not
be used).

Based on our analysis and estimation of Vietnam’s conditions regarding techniques andbudget at the moment, most scientists agree to choose Method 2. The Ministry of Culture andInformation will suggest some areas needing selection for conservation and building an open
air museum. The decision on how large the scale, whether the entire 9,000 m 2 having valuableremains will be conserved, or less than 9,000 m 2 , will depend on the government budget. The
other excavated areas, after recording and documenting (describing, measuring, drawing,taking photos and filming…) will be covered with sand and soil for growing lawns or grass,
restoring the landscape to make the site become a cultural-historical park.
With the above proposal, in the future we have many things to do at the Thang Long
Imperial Citadel site.
During the ACCU training course, the lecture of Mr. TAKASE Yoichi on “The history,
Maintenance, and Restoration of Heijo Palace from Past to Present” helped me tounderstand very well about all the maintenance methods devised by the Nara National Cultural
Properties Research Institute, as follows:1.

Covering the whole area, including building platforms, with lawns or grass
similar to the restoration practices during the Taisho era.

2.

Building sheds covering excavated remains for visitor observation.

3.

Construction of full-sized models of buildings on the same location where
they were reburied.

This precious experience in maintaining and restoring the Heijo Palace give me newideas on the conservation of Thang Long Citadel site at 18 Hoang Dieu, Hanoi.
The lecture of Mr. Kiguchi on “principles of 3D scanning survey and application” isvery useful, if Thang Long Citadel is done with this technique it will help to introduce thisexcavation to visitors and researchers enable them to fully understand about Thang Long
Citadel site.

We also were introduced to the transcription of stratigraphy by Prof. Nishiyama; thistechnique is not difficult but it is quite new for me. In my own point of view, displaying
cultural layers for an archaeological site with transcription of stratigraphy will promote goodunderstanding for visitors.
During the 3 day field trip to Fukui and Shiga prefectures I had the opportunity to visit
various excavated sites with very good protection and preservation of their remarks, also givingme good examples of post excavation preservation.
Through participants’ reports in the training course, 15 participants from 15 different
countries presented a lot of experience on management and preservation of cultural heritage ineach country. Their problems and needs in the protection of archaeological sites in such a way
as to accord with actual conditions of their countries were very useful for me.

2. Preservation of artifacts
The quantity of artifacts in this excavation is estimated to be in the millions, including
bricks, tiles and architectural decorative materials, stones, ceramics, iron, wood.
During the training course, I was provided with basic information on the conservationof artifacts of various materials. The lecture of Prof. Nishiyama on the preservation of wooden
and iron artifacts with practical training at Nara University’s laboratory helped me obtain new
knowledge on the preservation of these easily-damaged artifacts with both traditional andmodern preservation techniques.
If all the artifacts of Thang Long Imperial Citadel site are preserved carefully like that,
I believe that we will have success in the conservation of Thang Long Citadel artifacts to keep
for future generations.

3. Some work that has been done to conserve Thang Long Citadel site at 18
Hoang Dieu, Hanoi
We have been collaborating with national and international experts step by step tostudy, research, scientifically document, protect and conserve the site and artifacts, as follows:-

Giving priority to protect and conserve excavated architectural structures andartifacts, and limit bad effects on them;-

Studying the value of excavated architectural structures and artifacts;-

Building temporary storage and installing equipment to protect excavatedartifacts;



-

Scientifically conserving special artifacts such as human and animal bones,
iron and wooden artifacts;-

Documenting and classifying excavated architectural structures and artifacts;-

Entering data of excavated remains into computers to support research anduse them in future;-

Building temporary roofs to cover excavated areas.

4. Advantages and disadvantages of conservation of Thang Long Citadel site at 18
Hoang Dieu, Hanoi
a. The Thang Long Imperial Citadel site at 18 Hoang Dieu, Hanoi is closely related to the
Hanoi ancient capital and other surrounding historic sites and may become World Cultural
Heritage in future. People support the conservation of Thang Long Citadel site because thiswork meets the need of people who want to see impression of the thousand year history of
Hanoi.
b. Since excavating the site, many international experts have visited, researched and attended
conferences on the conservation of the Thang Long Citadel site. The Japanese government has
been sending experts to Hanoi to collaborate with us in conserving the site and training
technical staff.
c. Some disadvantages and problems of open air conservation of the Thang Long Citadel site:
Firstly, the architectural remains of Thang Long Citadel all lie from the depth of 1m to
4m, in adverse environmental conditions which easily deform and destroy the remains andartifacts such as high humidity, moss and mould, horizontal water penetration, andunderground water.
Secondly, at present Vietnam lacks experience in the conservation of open air
archaeological sites.
Thirdly, the Thang Long Citadel site located in the Ba Dinh political centre of Hanoi
city. The conservation solution has to carefully consider not only the technique professional
skills, but also the political, historical, cultural, natural, environmental and security
requirements.

IV. Conclusions

The ACCU training course offered many experiences and methods to apply topreserving archaeological and historic sites. I have tried to select some of the methodologies
and techniques in order to apply them to my job, along with information about the Japanesesystem of management and preservation of cultural heritage as well, and share this experience
with other professionals working in the fields of management and conservation ofarchaeological sites.
For conservation of Thang Long Imperial Citadel, it will take us many years to do all
the above work. Our need at the moment is to rapidly train a group of technical staff andspecialists on management, protection and preservation of Thang Long Imperial Citadel at 18
Hoang Dieu, Hanoi. And I hope we will have other opportunities to learn more experience fromJapanese experts in the fields of research, analysis and conservation of archaeological sites andremains.
I feel that the one month training course at the ACCU office reached a successful
conclusion. I hope that the contacts we have developed during this training course will help tobuild professional ties and cultural links between the countries of the Asia – Pacific region.
Once again, I would like to thank ACCU for giving me a good chance to attend this usefultraining course.

N.V.C



Appendix A.

List of Participants

Appendix B.

List of Lecturers

Appendix C.

List of Interpreter and Tutors

Appendix D.

List of Staff Members, ACCU Nara

Appendix

Appendix

A. List of Participants
Cambodia
Tech SRUN
Archaeologist
Department of Monument and Archaeology㸇
Monument and Archaeology Apsara Authority
Angkor Conservation, Compound Siem Reap Province
Tel: (+855) 63-760-079 Fax: (+855) 63-760-079
apsara.dma@online.com.kh
India
Vasant Kumar SWARNKAR
Deputy Superintending Archaeologist
Archaeological Survey of India
Red-Fort Delhi 110006
Tel: (+91) 11-23269466 Fax: (+91) 11-23269410
vasant@archaeologist.com

Indonesia
Natsir Mohammad
Head of section for monitoring & evaluation of restoration
Directorate of Archaeological Heritage
Jl. Jenderal Sudirmam, Kompleks Depdiknas, Gedung E, Lt, XI
Tel: (+62) 21-5725512 Fax: (+62) 21-5725512
Nasir-baru@yahoo.co.jp

Iran
Saeedeh HOSSEINI
Senior Expert in restoration and design in monument and texture
The Deputy Office for Preservation and Restoration, Iranian Cultural Heritage
and Tourism Organization
Masoudieh Historical Complex, Ekbatan Ave, Baharestan Square, Teheran
Tel: (+98) 21-33111137 Fax: (+98) 21-33953003
Saeedehoo@yahoo.com

Malaysia
Adnan JUSOHHeritage Officer
Department of National Heritage
Tingkat 13 & 14, Wisma Kwsg, Jalan KG. Attap,
50520 Kuala Lumpur
Tel: (+60) 3-2260-3179 Fax: (+60) 3-2260-6099
adnan@jma.gov.myMaldives
Ahmed ZAMEER
Assistant Research Officer
National Centre for Linguistic and Historical Research
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Tel: (+960) 3323206 Fax: (+960) 3326796
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Jason N LEBEHN
Historic Preservation Specialist'HSDUWPHQWRI/DQG 1DWXUDO5HVRXUFHV
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Batbold NATSAG
Archaeologist
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Nepal
Saraswati SINGH
Chief, Monument Conservation & Supervision Office'HSDUWPHQWRI$UFKDHRORJ\ 
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Joanna Kate WYLIE
Archaeologist
New Zealand Historic Places Trust$QWULP+RXVH%RXOFRWW6WUHHW32%R[:HOOLQJWRQ
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MZ\OLH#KLVWRULFRUJQ]Pakistan
Tahir SAEED
Assistant Director
Department of Archaeology & Museum, Government of Pakistan,
1st &2nd Floor, Bock#2, Plot#4,
G-7 Markaz, Sitara Market, Islamabad
Tel: (+92) 51-9206236 Fax: (+92) 51-2201592
doampak@hotmail.com

Republic of Korea
CHANG Eunjeong
CuratorCollection Management Department
National Museum of Korea
168-6 Yongsan-dong 6ga, Yongsan-gu, Seoul 140-026
Tel: (+82) 2-2077-9379 Fax: (+82) 2-2077-9419
anarchi2@museum.go.kr

Samoa
Soonaalofa Sina AH POE
Senior Museum & Archives Officer
Ministry of Education Sports & Culture
P.O.Box 1869 Malifa, Apia
Tel: (+685) 32354 Fax: (+685) 21917
s.ahpoe@mesc.gov.ws

Turkmenistan
Maksat HOJAMMAYEV
Researcher/Senior Scientific Worker
The State Historical-Cultural Reserve(NISA)
1, Gundogar Street, Ashgabat 744000
Tel: (+993) 12-43-16-28 Fax: (+993) 12-35-05-16
monument@online.tm

VietnamNGUYEN Viet Cuong
Expert, Division of Relic and Monuments Management
Department of Cultural Heritage
51-53 Ngo Quyen Street, Hoan Kiem District, Hanoi
Tel: (+84) 4-943-4443 Fax: (+84) 4-943-9929
nchdvn@hn.vnn.vn

B. List of Lecturers
Lecturers from Abroad:
Gamini WIJESURIYA
Project Manager
International Centre for the Study of the Preservation and Restoration of Cultural
Property (ICCROM)
Via di San Michele 13, I-00153 Rome, Italy
Office Phone: (+39) 06585-53388 Office Fax: (+39) 06585-53349
E-mail:kn@iccrom.org
Patcharawee TUNPRAWAT
Researcher
Southeast Asian Ministers of Education Organization’s Regional Centre for Archaeology
and Fine Arts (SEAMEO-SPAFA)
81/1 Si-Ayutthaya Rd. Dusit, Samsen, Bangkok 10300 Thailand
Office Phone: (+66) 22804022 Office Fax: (+66) 22804030
E-mail:patchy@seameo-spafa.org

Lecturers from Japan:
ITO Masayoshi
Specialist for Cultural Properties
Agency for Cultural Affairs, Japan
2-5-1 Marunouchi, Chiyoda, Tokyo 100-8959
Office Phone: (+81) 3-5253-4111
INABA Nobuko
Section Head
Project Planning and Coordination Section
Japan Centre for International Cooperation in Conservation
National Research Institute for Cultural Properties, Tokyo
13-43 Ueno-koen, Taito-ku, Tokyo 110-8713
Office Phone: (+81) 3-3823-2150 Office Fax: (+81) 3-3823-4867
E-mail:ninaba@tobunken.go.jp
MURAKAMI Yasumichi
Hyogo Prefectural Board of Education
5-10-1 Shimoyamatedori Chuoku Kobe 650-8567
Office Phone: (+81) 78-341-7711 Office Fax: (+81) 78-362-3927
E-mail:yasumichi-murakami@pref.hyogo.jp
SAWADA Masaaki
Professor
University of Kokushikan, Graduate School of Globalizing Asia
1-1-1, Hirobakama, Machida Tokyo, 195-8550
Office Phone& Office Fax: (+81) 42-736-8195
E-mail: masakis@kokushikan.ac.jp
MITSUTANI Takumi
Section Head
Dating Section, Centre for Archaeological Operations
National Research Institute for Cultural Properties, Nara
2-9-1 Nijo-cho, Nara 630-8577
Office Phone: (+81) 742-30-6845 Office Fax: (+81) 742-30-6856
takumi@nabunken.go.jp

NAGATOMO Tsuneto
Professor
Archaeological Science, Division of Comprehensive Education
Nara University of Education
Takabatake-cho, Nara 630-8528
Office Phone& Office Fax: (+81) 742-27-9188
nagatomo@nara-edu.ac.jp
KIGUCHI Hiroshi
Pasco Corporation
Okinawa Branch, Eastern Japan District Division
4-21-1 Nishizaki-cho, Itoman, Okinawa 901-0300
Office Phone: (+81) 98-840-3466 Office Fax: (+81) 98-995-4250
E-mail: hiroshi_kiguchi@pasco.co.jp
http://www.pasco.co.jp/global/english
NISHIGUCHI Toshiki
Section HeadNational Research Institute for Cultural Properties, Nara
2-9-1 Nijo-cho, Nara, 630-8577
Office Phone: (+81) 742-30-6834 Office Fax: (+81) 742-30-6830
30 Nobori-oji-cho, Nara 630-8501
NISHIYAMA Yoichi
Professor, Department of Study of Cultural Properties
Nara University
1500 Misasagi-cho, Nara 631-8502
Office Phone: (+81) 742-44-1251 Office Fax: (+81) 742-41-0650
ONO Kenkichi
Senior Specialist for Cultural Properties
Agency for Cultural Affairs, Japan
2-5-1 Marunouchi, Chiyoda, Tokyo 100-8959
Office Phone: (+81) 3-5253-4111
MATSUI Akira
Section Head, Artifacts Research Methodology Section
National Research Institute for Cultural Properties, Nara
2-9-1 Nijo-cho, Nara, 630-8577
Office Phone: (+81) 742-30-6851 Office Fax: (+81) 742-30-6856
herald@nabunken.go.jp
TAKASE YoichiManager
Department of Cultural Heritage
National Research Institute for Cultural Properties, Nara
2-9-1 Nijo-cho, Nara, 630-8577
Office Phone: (+81) 742-30-6810 Office Fax: (+81) 742-30-6841
NAKAJIMA Yoshiharu
Researcher
Site and Garden Research Section, Department of Cultural Heritage
National Research Institute for Cultural Properties, Nara
2-9-1 Nijo-cho, Nara 630-8577
Office Phone: (+81) 742-30-6812 Office Fax: (+81) 742-30-6811

On-site Lecturers:
KAWASHIMA Kiyohito
Ohi-town Historical Materials Museum
Seiwa ohi-cho ohi-gun Fukui 919-2104
Office Phone: (+81) 770-77-2820 Office Fax: (+81) 770-77-2821
KOJIMA Hideaki
CuratorMikata-cho Jomon Museum
122-12-1 Torihama, Wakasa-cho, Mikatakaminaka-gun, Fukui 919-1331
Office Phone: (+81) 770-45-2270 Office Fax: (+81) 770-45-3270
MATSUMURA Tomoya
CuratorFukui City History Museum and Yokokan
3-12-1 Houei Fukui City
Office Phone: (+81) 776-21-0489 Office Fax: (+81) 776-21-1489
MIZUNO Kazuo
Deputy Director
Ichijodani Asakura Family Site Museum
4-10 Abaka-cho, Fukui 910-2152
Office Phone: (+81) 776-41-2301 Office Fax: (+81) 776-41-2494
KONDO Shigeru
Director
Shiga Prefectural Research Institute of Azuchi Castle
6678 Shimotoyoura, Azuchi-cho, Gamou-gun, Shiga 521-1311
Office Phone: (+81) 748-46-6144 Office Fax: (+81) 748-46-6145
HANADA Masahiro
Curator
Educational Board of Yasu City
2400 Nishikawara Yasu City Shiga
Office Phone: (+81) 77-589-6436

C. List of Interpreter and Tutors
HATA Chiyako (Interpreter)
Training Coordinator
JICE Osaka
Ibaraki-Daidoseimei Bldg. 2F
5-10 Nishi-ekimae-cho, Ibaraki, Osaka 567-0032
KAMIDA Ryo
Graduate Researcher
Master’s Program in World Heritage Studies, Tsukuba University
WAKAMIYA Yuko
Graduate Researcher
KUROSAWA Ayako
Interpreter

D. List of Staff Members, ACCU Nara
YAMAMOTO Tadanao, Director
nara@accu.or.jp
TARODA, Akinori, Deputy Director
taroda@accu.or.jp
MORIMITSU Toshihiko, Director of Programme Operation Department
morimitsu@accu.or.jp
YOSHIDA Nobuhiko, Chief, Planning & Coordination Division
yoshida@accu.or.jp
NAGAI Atsushi, Chief, International Training Section
nagai@accu.or.jp
YAMASHITA Tsutomu, Chief, International Cooperation Section
yamashita@accu.or.jp
OTANI Yasuko, training course assistantotani@accu.or.jp

Cultural Heritage Protection Cooperation Office,Asia/Pacific Cultural Centre for UNESCO (ACCU)
757 Horen-cho, Nara 630-8113
Office Phone: (+81) 742-20-5001 Office Fax: (+81) 742-20-5701
nara@accu.or.jp
http://www.nara.accu.or.jp/(Staff involved in the Training Course)Group Photo at the closing ceremony (11 October, 2006)

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