Towards a
Pollution-Free
PlanetBackground report

unenvironment.org/assembly© United Nations Environment Programme, 2017
Published in September 2017
ISBN No:
Job No:978-92-807-3669-4
DTI/2130/PA

This document provides background information to the report of the Executive Director of the United Nations Environment Programme to the 3rd
session of the United Nations Environment Assembly “Towards a Pollution-Free Planet”.
This report has benefited from the oversight of the following individuals in UN Environment: Erik Solheim, Executive Director; Ibrahim Thiaw,
Deputy Executive Director; Elliott Harris, Director, New York Office; Ligia Noronha, Director, Economy Division; Jacqueline McGlade, Director,
Science Division; Mette Wilkie, Director, Ecosystems Division; Elizabeth Mrema, Director, Law Division; Jian Liu, Chief Scientist; Michele Candotti,
Director, Policy and Strategy Division; Naysán Sahba, Director, Communication Division; Jorge Laguna-Celis, Secretary, Governance Affairs Office;Iyad Abumoghli, Director, West Asia Office; Juliette Biao, Director, Africa Office; Jan Dusik, Director, Europe Office; Leo Heileman, Director, Latin
America and the Caribbean Office; Fatou Ndoye, Director a.i., North America Office; Dechen Tsering, Director, Asia and the Pacific Office.
Coordinating team: Ligia Noronha, Jacqueline McGlade, Tessa Goverse, Fanny Demassieux
Contributors: UN Environment: Ines Abdelrazek, Joana Akrofi, Keith Alverson, Wondwosen Asnake, Jacqueline Alvarez, Sandra Averous, Butch
Bacani, Sylvia Bankobeza, Sam Barratt, Juan Bello, Patricia Beneke, Elisabeth Bernhardt, Matthew Billot, Ulf Bjornholm, Pierre Boileau, Oli Brown,
Jillian Campbell, Garrette Clark, Tim Christophersen, Ludgarde Coppens, Stuart Crane, Christopher Cox, Nicolien Delange, Angeline Djampou, Jacob
Duer, Habib El-Habr, Hilary French, Valentin Foltescu, Francesco Gaetani, Curt Garrigan, Dany Ghafary, Silvia Giada, Gabriel Grimsditch, Abdul-Majeid
Haddad, Seraphine Haeussling, Achim Halpaap, Joakim Harlin, Bettina Heller, Kevin Helps, Mijke Hertoghs, Jiří Hlaváček, Shunichi Honda, Jason
Jabbour, Maaike Jansen, Rob de Jong, Alexander Juras, Maarten Kappelle, Angela Kariuki, Tim Kasten, Sean Khan, Joy Kim, Brenda Koekkoek,
Dianna Kopansky, Arnold Kreilhuber, Hartwig Kremer, Pushpam Kumar, Birguy Lamizana, Erick Litswa, Samantha Le Royal, James Lomax, Isabelle
Louis, Monica Macdevette, Llorenc Mila i Canals, Maria Manguiat, Tomas Marques, Tomkeen Mobegi, Abdelmenam Mohamed, Anja von Moltke,
Masato Motoki, Richard Munang, Jane Muriithi, Iyngararasan Mylvakanam, Kakuko Nagatani-Yoshida, Desiree Narvaez, Andreas Obrecht, Martina
Otto, Zitouni Ould-Dada, Lena Perenius, Jordi Pon, Mahesh Pradhan, Rula Qalyoubi, Pierre Quiblier, Hala Razian, Audrey Ringler, Barbara Ruis,
Heidi Savelli, Charles Sebukeera, Gemma Shepherd, Subratta Sinha, Soraya Smaoun, Steven Stone, Djaheezah Subratty, Lisa Svensson, Muralee
Thummarukudy, Eisaku Toda, Elisa Tonda, Victor Tsang, Mia Turner, Frank Turyatunga, Eric Usher, Kaisa Uusimaa, Robert Wabunoha, Dirk Wagener,
Emilia Wahlstrom, Jaime Webbe, Clarice Wilson, Edoardo Zandri, Laetitia Zobel, Jinhua Zhang, Ying Zhang; Food and Agriculture Organization of
the United Nations: Renata Clarke, Thomas Hammond; Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights: Benjamin Schachter;
Secretariat of the Barcelona Convention/Mediterranean Action Plan: Gaetano Leone, Tatjana Hema; Secretariat of the Basel, Rotterdam, andStockholm Conventions: Carlos-Martin-Novella, Tatiana Terekhova; Secretariat of the Cartagena Convention: Christophe Corbin; Secretariat of
the Climate and Clean Air Coalition: Helena Molin-Valdes; Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity: Robert Hoft; Secretariat of theMontreal Protocol: Tina Birmpili, Executive Secretary; UN Environment World Conservation Monitoring Centre: Lisa Ingwall-King, Corli Pretorius,
Will Simonson; United Nations Children’s Fund: Jose Gesti Canuto Alex Heikens, Nicholas Rees, Hayalnesh Tarekegn; United Nations Development
Programme: Natalia Linou, Tim Scott, Douglas Webb, Sophie Huikiri; United Nations Economic Commission for Europe: Ella Behlyarova, Kristof
Doucot, Krzysztof Olendrzynski; Carolin Sanz Noriega; United Nations Institute for Training and Research: Jorge Ocana, Oliver Wooton
Experts involved in the preparation of the sixth Global Environment Outlook:
Giovanna Armiento, Simon Birkett, Colin Butler, Phil Dickerson, Nicolai Dronin, Paul Ekins, Mark Elder, Cristina Guerreiro, Linda Godfrey, Ania
Grobicki, Joyeeta Gupta, Andres Guhl, Peter Harris, Jeremy Hills, Terry Keating, Gavin Mudd, John Muthama, Jacob Park, Atilio Savino, Joni
Seager, Peter Stoett; and also Andrew Farmer, Richard Füller, Renat Perelet, Meriel Watts, Douglas Weir
An early draft of this report has been made public and has benefited from the comments and reviews from many Member States, private andpublic sector organisations as well as non-governmental organizations.
Citation
United Nations Environment Programme (2017) Towards a Pollution-Free Planet Background Report. United Nations Environment Programme,
Nairobi, Kenya.

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Towards a Pollution-Free Planet

Table ofContents

Executive summary

06

Introduction

10

1 Evidence of a polluted planet: The science, impacts and economic costs

14

1.1 Air pollution

14

1.2 Land and soil pollution

17

1.3 Freshwater pollution

21

1.4 Marine and coastal pollution

24

1.5 Cross-cutting sources of pollution

27

1.5.1 Chemicals

27

1.5.2 Waste

29

1.6 Costs of pollution

32

2 A ddressing pollution: Governance frameworks, challenges and opportunities
in the context of the 2030 Agenda

34

2.1 G
 lobal and regional environmental agreements and national regulations

34

2.2 A
 ctual and potential benefits of addressing pollution

40

2.3 C
 hallenges and gaps

43

2.4 The sustainable development goals: an opportunity to accelerate pollution action

44

2.5 M
 ultiple stakeholders and multi-level engagement: central to improved environmental
governance47

03

Towards a Pollution-Free Planet

3 Transitioning to a pollution-free planet
3.1 Targeted priority interventions

49
50

3.1.1 Interventions targeting “hard-hitting” pollutants

50

3.1.2 Interventions targeting key pollution areas51

3.2 Transformative actions to shift the economy

54

3.2.1 Building circularity and resource efficiency into production processes, supply chainsand key economic sectors

54

3.2.2 Incentivizing and redirecting finance and investments to less-polluting economic activities

55

3.2.3 Adopting ecosystem-based approaches and solutions to mitigate and manage pollution

58

3.2.4 Promoting green technologies to mitigate and manage pollution

59

3.2.5 Integrating policies to tackle pollution: The example of city-level actions

60

3.2.6 Incentivizing responsible consumption and lifestyles choices

62

3.3 Enablers

63

3.3.1 Balancing evidence-based decision-making and precautionary approaches

63

3.3.2 Improving environmental governance64

3.3.3 Economic instruments

66

3.3.4 Education for change

67

3.3.5 Cooperation and partnerships

69

4 Conclusion

70

Annexes71

Annex 1: Comparison of the magnitude and severity of four measures of pollution

71

Annex 2: Air, water, land and soil, freshwater and marine pollution – from sources to impacts
on human health and ecosystems

72

Annex 3: The costs of pollution – global and regional

75

Annex 4: How pollution is reflected in various multilateral frameworks and environmental
agreements

79

Annex 5: Regional multilateral environmental agreements, initiatives and networks

86

Annex 6: Analysis of the linkages between addressing pollution types and implementing
Sustainable Development Goal targets

93

Annex 7: Cleaner technologies: impacts, benefits and limitations

97

Annex 8: Multi-stakeholder partnerships and platforms

99

References

106

Treaties and Conventions

122

Further information

123

04

Towards a
Pollution-Free
PlanetBackground reportTowards a Pollution-Free Planet

Executive
summary

Pollution today is pervasive and persistent. While the world has achieved significant
economic growth over the past few decades, it has been accompanied by large
amounts of pollution, with significant impacts on human health and ecosystems
and the ways in which some of the major Earth system processes, such as theclimate, are functioning. Though some forms of pollution have been reduced astechnologies and management strategies have advanced, approximately 19 million
premature deaths are estimated to occur annually as a result of the way societies
use natural resources and impact the environment to support production andconsumption. If consumption and production patterns continue as they are, thelinear economic model of “take-make-dispose” will seriously burden an alreadypolluted planet, affecting current and future generations.

Pollution is not a new phenomenon; it is largely controllable and often avoidable, but
considerably neglected. Better knowledge, alternative consumption and production models, aswell as innovative technological solutions now mean that many countries, cities, and businesses
are successfully tackling serious pollution issues. Encouragingly, more governments, industries
and citizens are moving towards sustainable materials management, greater resource efficiency,
less environmentally damaging chemistry, clean technologies, and circular economies, as partof a more comprehensive transformation towards a sustainable economy. Trade can lead togreater environmental burdens in countries that extract and produce resources, as such activities
generate waste and emissions. But trade can also provide solutions in terms of improved
environmental goods and services. However, the capacity to adequately tackle pollution varies
hugely across regions, social groups and genders.
Pollution can have negative impacts and disproportionate burdens on women and men, andparticularly on the poor and the vulnerable such as the elderly, children and the disabled,
affecting their rights to health, water, food, life, housing and development. Many toxic dumpsites
are located in poor areas, leading to environmental injustice. Pollution has significant economic
costs from the point of view of health, productivity losses, health-care costs and ecosystemdamages. These costs, already substantial, are expected to rise over time, not only because of
the direct effect of pollution on health, but also the impact of weakened livelihoods, as well as thelonger-term impact on ecosystem services, that in turn affect local communities, societies andeconomies. While a better understanding of the economic costs of pollution can inform decisionmaking and support more effective policies, the human costs of pollution are even more critical.

06

Towards a Pollution-Free Planet

Pollution poses a direct threat to respecting, protecting and promoting human rights and genderequality, international human rights obligations related to health, life, food and water, safeguardinga healthy and sustainable environment for present and future generations, and achieving the 2030
Agenda’s pledge to “leave no one behind”.
Responses by governments, business and citizens to pollution exist, but they remain limitedin scope and scale. Global and regional environmental agreements provide a partial framework,
but there are many gaps. For example, some agreements are target-based, some are timebound, while others cover compliance-related actions, monitoring and reporting. Many countries
have adopted national policy and legal frameworks to implement these agreements as wellas addressing other pollution issues, but to date there are no legally binding agreements thatsystematically address pollution in all its forms. Voluntary initiatives and global alliances – on
topics such as fuel efficiency improvements, cleaner air and lead in paint – have addressedsome of the more urgent issues, yet much more remains to be done to control and prevent
pollution.

Figure 2
Figure 1: Examples of impacts on human health and ecosystems

Example Of Impacts On Human Health And Ecosystems

Air pollution

Marine and coastal pollution• 6.5 million people die annually as a result of poor air quality including 4.3 million
due to household air pollution• 3.5 billion people depend on oceans as a source of food yet oceans are used aswaste and waste water dumps• Lower respiratory infections: 52 million years lost or lived with disability annually
due to household or ambient air pollution, including second-hand tobacco smoke• Close to 500 "dead zones", regions that have too little oxygen to support marineorganisms, including commercial species• Chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases: 32 million years life lost or lived eachyear with disability because of household air pollution and workers’ exposure• 4.8 to 12.7 million tonnes of plastic waste enters the ocean every year frominadequate waste management• Ground level ozone pollution is estimated to reduce staple crop yields up to 26 per cent by 2030

Freshwater pollution

Chemicals• 58 per cent of diarrhoeal disease due to lack of access to clean water andsanitation and a major source of child mortality• Over 100,000 die annually from exposure to asbestos• 57 million years of life lost or lived with disability annually due to poor water,
sanitation, hygiene and agricultural practices• Children poisoned by mercury and lead develop problems in their nervous anddigestive systems and kidney damage• Over 80 per cent of the world's wastewater is released to the environment
without treatment

Land/Soil pollution• Lead in paint affects children’s intellectual ability• Many impacts of chemicals such as endocrine disruptors and developmental
neurotoxicants and long-term exposure to pesticides on human health andwell-being and biodiversity and ecosystems are still to be fully assessed

Waste• Open waste dumps and burning impacts lives, health and livelihoods and affectsoil chemistry and nutrition• 50 biggest active dump sites affect the lives of 64 million people, including theirhealth and loss of lives and property when collapses occur• Excessive exposure and inappropriate use of pesticides affects health of all men, women and children• 2 billion people are without access to solid waste management and 3 billion lackaccess to controlled waste disposal facilities• Stockpiles of obsolete chemicals pose a threat to people's health and theenvironment

Sources: Avnery et al. 2011; European Environment Agency 2013; Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations 2016b; Jambeck et al.
2015, Prüss-Ustun et al 2016; Shepherd et al. 2017; United Nations Environment Programme 2016a and b; United Nations Environment Programme
and International Solid Waste Association 2015; World Health Organisation 200807

Towards a Pollution-Free Planet

Challenges and gaps limit the effectiveness of current actions. The key gaps are:(i) implementation, (ii) knowledge, (iii) infrastructure, (iv) limited financial and industry leadership,(v) pricing and fiscal, and (vi) behavioural. Existing international environmental agreements andthe 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development present significant opportunities to accelerateactions to tackle pollution and improve the well-being of humans and ecosystems. Theinternational framework for the Sustainable Development Goals encourages synergies between
Goal 3 and its associated target to “substantially reduce the number of deaths and illnesses fromhazardous chemicals and air, water and soil pollution and contamination”, and others such as thetargets for climate change, air quality, nutrient pollution and marine debris.
“Towards a pollution-free planet” is about encouraging a synergetic mix of actions and a wholesystem, multi-beneficial policymaking approach that builds directly on existing internationallyagreed environmental goals, including those relating to climate change, disaster and risk reduction
and the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, with its numerous pollution-reducing targets.
Transitioning to a pollution-free world can drive innovation and social equity throughout theeconomy, by seeing pollution prevention and regulation compliance as an opportunity to clean up
everyone’s environment, create new jobs, improve economic productivity and protect the rights ofthis and future generations. A pollution-free planet is by far and away the best insurance for thesurvival and well-being of current and future generations of humans and ecosystems.
To advance this goal, this report has the following five overarching messages:
1. A
 global compact on pollution would make prevention a priority for all. It would also encourage
policymakers to integrate prevention into national and local planning, development processes,
poverty reduction strategies and national accounts;
2. E
 nvironmental governance needs to be strengthened at all levels – with targeted action
on “hard-hitting” pollutants through risk assessments and enhanced implementation ofenvironmental legislation (including multilateral environmental agreements) and othermeasures;3. S ustainable consumption and production, through improved resource efficiency and lifestylechanges, should be promoted; waste reduction and management must be prioritized;
4. Investment in cleaner production and consumption will help to counter pollution, alongsideincreased funding for pollution monitoring, infrastructure, management and control;
5. M
 ulti-stakeholder partnerships and collaboration are vital for the innovation, knowledgesharing and transdisciplinary research needed to develop technological and ecosystem-based
solutions.
This report suggests a framework for actions on pollution, centred on a dual track of actions that
Member States and other stakeholders may wish to consider to curb pollution around the world.
This framework proposes the following:•08

Targeted interventions, based on risk assessments and scientific evidence of impacts, toaddress “hard-hitting” pollutants as well as areas of pollution (air, water, marine and coastal,land/soil), including cross-cutting categories (chemicals, waste)Towards a Pollution-Free Planet•

System-wide transformations to shift the economy toward greater resource efficiency andequity, circularity and sustainable consumption and production, and improved ecosystem
resilience to support cleaner and more sustainable development

The dual track of actions is guided and underpinned by the two other elements of the framework:•

Five principles drawn from the Rio Declaration and the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable
Development: universality, sustainability, integration, precaution and inclusiveness.

•

Enablers, or broader supporting actions, that aim to shift incentives, correct market and policy
failures and address some of the gaps and issues that make pollution so pervasive andpersistent.

This report is a call to act towards a pollution-free planet.

09

Towards a Pollution-Free Planet

Introduction

The health of people and the planet iscentral to the attainment of sustainable
development. The 2030 Agenda for
Sustainable Development embodies thisin its commitment to “ensure that all
human beings can enjoy prosperous andfulfilling lives and that economic, social andtechnological progress occurs in harmony
with nature” (United Nations 2015a). Healthis the outcome of many factors, including
access to basic sanitation, clean water,
good nutrition, a clean environment andsafe products (Prüss-Ustün et al. 2016;
United Nations Environment Programme
2016a; Commission on Pollution and Health2017). Pollution puts at risk the possibility ofachieving these outcomes and hence healthand well-being.
Pollution touches all parts of the planet. It isaffecting our health through the food we eat,
the water we drink and the air we breathe.
Approximately 19 million premature deaths
are estimated to occur annually as a result of
the way we use natural resources and impact
the environment to support global production
and consumption (Ramaswami et al. 2016).
Even in the most remote areas of the polar
ice caps, the deep abyssal ocean and highmountains, pollutants such as heavy metals
and persistent organic pollutants can befound in plants and animals (Jamieson et al.
2017).
The World Health Organization has estimatedthat nearly a quarter of all deaths worldwide,10

amounting to 12.6 million people in 2012, aredue to environmental causes, with at least
8.2 million attributable to non-communicable
environmental causes, and more than threequarters in just three regions (Figure 2) (PrüssUstün et al. 2016). Low- and middle-income
countries bear the brunt of pollution-related
illnesses, with a disproportionate impact onchildren.
Pollution can take many forms, ranging fromorganic compounds and other chemical
substances to different types of energy. The
severity of a pollutant for human health andecosystems is based on its chemical nature,

Pollution is not a newphenomenon. Nor is action
to counter it. A substantial
framework of international
conventions and nationallaws has been constructed
to tackle some of theharms and worst excesses.
Notable successes include
the ongoing repair of theozone layer and the phasingout of numerous banned
pesticides and chemicals.

Towards a Pollution-Free Planet

Figure 1

Figure 2: Number of deaths attributable to environmental factors in 2012 by World Health Organization region

World HealthOrganizationof deathsfactors
attributable
toWorld
the environment,by region,
Numberof deaths
attributable tomap
environmental
in 2012 byHealth Organization
region 2012

847 000
Américas854 000

Eastern
Mediterranean

1.4 million
Europe2.2 million
Africa3.5 million

Western Pacific

3.8 million

South-East Asia

Source: Prüss-Ustün et al. 2016

quantity or concentration and persistence.
The specific harm caused by different
pollutants depends not only on theenvironment it is in (air, water or soil) but
also the mix of other pollutants that arepresent and the actual exposure (European
Environment Agency 2013).
Some types of pollution are easily noticed,
such as certain forms of contaminated water,poor air quality, industrial waste, litter, light,
heat and noise. Others are less visible, forexample the presence of pesticides in food,mercury in fish, excess nutrients in the sea
and lakes, endocrine-disrupting chemicals in
drinking water, and other micro-pollutants infresh and marine water. Some, such as thosecoming from abandoned industrial sites,

armed conflict zones, nuclear power stations,pesticide stockpiles and waste landfills,
form part of a longer-term legacy (PureEarth 2017).
The sources and types of pollution are highly
diverse (Figure 3), as are the solutions todeal with them. For example, hazardous
chemicals in paints, cleaning compounds,
dyes, electronic products, and manyother household substances can become
pollutants if not managed correctly. Highly
hazardous chemicals, such as mercury,ammonium, ozone, and perchloric acid,used in a range of industries, are toxic andreactive and some have the potential tocause cancer, birth defects, induce genetic
damage, cause miscarriage, injury or death11Figure 3
Towards a Pollution-Free Planet

Figure 3: Major sources of today’s pollution

Major sources o f to d a y ’ s p o llu tio nAgriculture and foodLand-based farming, food and agro-industry, fisheries and aquaculture

EnergyCombustion plants, fossil fuels, biomass, nuclear, domestic solid fuel heating

Industrial

Chemicals, mineral extractives, forestry and paper products, cement

Manufacturing

Information technology, home electronics, construction and home-building products, batteries,
textiles, apparel, footwear, and luxury goods, pharmaceuticals (for example antibiotics)

Services

Retail, hospitality and tourism, hospitals and health-care services

Transport

Automobiles, fuel use and supply, engine emissions, road (tyres, surface), shipping, aviation, urban

Waste

Improper management of municipal solid waste (which includes e-waste, plastics, food waste, organic
waste and open burning), industrial waste (which includes e-waste, construction and demolition waste),hazardous waste (which includes e-waste), sewerage effluents, landfills (leachates)from relatively small exposures if released
into the environment (Diamond et al. 2015).
Ecosystem functions are put at risk as well
(Diamond et al. 2015; Steffen et al. 2015).
There are also many emerging and novel
products, such as some therapeutic drugs andnanomaterials, for which data on potential
pollution effects are sparse.
Market demand on one side of the planet
is often satisfied by labour, production,and natural resources originating from
halfway across the globe. Fossil fuels
now account for 50 per cent of the global
trade volume. Research finds that tradeleads to a redistribution of environmental
burden towards countries that extract andproduce resources (International Resource
Panel 2015a). As such, the environmental
impacts and pollution generated by global
consumption habits are disassociated fromthose most impacted locally. Trade patterns,
policies and agreements can play a crucialrole in internalizing some of the environmental

12

and social costs of production in order tominimize pollution at a global scale.
Pollution can have a particularly
disproportionate and negative effect on thepoor, the disadvantaged, the marginalized,
indigenous peoples, the disabled and thevulnerable, due to their general healthstatus, potential higher exposures andreduced resilience to social, environmental
and economic risks. Pollution poses a
direct threat to respecting, protecting andpromoting human rights and gender equality,international human rights obligations related
to health, life, food and water, safeguardinga healthy and sustainable environment for
present and future generations and achieving
the 2030 Agenda’s pledge to “leave no one
behind”.
Solutions to help remove pollutants anddetoxify our environment exist around theworld. These need to be expanded, shared,
and scaled up in order to avoid riskingTowards a Pollution-Free Planet

further exposure of humans and ecosystems
to current and future pollution as well as
increasing the costs of clean up. Improved
risk assessment of new pollution sources isalso urgently needed.
In Part 1 of this report, the evidence on
pollution is presented. Part 2 discusses

ongoing responses, challenges to effective
actions, and the opportunities that existing
multilateral environmental agreements andthe Sustainable Development Goals provide
to reduce pollution. Part 3 concludes witha global framework for actions to tackle
pollution head-on and move towards a
pollution-free planet.

13

Towards a Pollution-Free Planet1

14

Evidence of a polluted
planet: The science,
impacts andeconomiccosts

The latest global and regional environmental
assessments give an indication of themagnitude of current pollution issues (United
Nations Environment Programme 2016a-g;
United Nations Environment Programme
2012a). For example, air quality is a problem
in nearly all regions; water pollution is a major
cause of death of children under five yearsof age; nutrient over-enrichment of land andwater is causing shifts in ecosystems andloss of biodiversity; plastics in the ocean ison the rise and there is still no acceptable“storage or disposal option” for processing ofolder-generation nuclear fuel. Pollution is evenaffecting the way in which some major Earthsystem processes, such as the climate, arefunctioning (Diamond et al. 2015; Steffen et al.
2015).

1.1 Air pollution

Significant improvements in themeasurement of atmospheric precipitation
chemistry make it possible to understandhow atmospheric pollutants contribute to
ecosystem acidification and eutrophication,

Air pollution is the world’s single greatest
environmental risk to health. Some 6.5 million
people across the world die prematurely every
year from exposure to outdoor and indoor air
pollution (Prüss-Ustün et al. 2016), and nine

air pollution and loss of biodiversity (Vetet al. 2014). Similarly there have been great
strides in global Earth observation andmonitoring systems for air quality, ocean
acidification, forest decline, detection ofmarine oil spills and pollution from minetailings, as well programmes to track theuse of agrochemicals and the occurrenceof eutrophication and harmful algal
blooms (Group on Earth Observations
2017; Global Forest Watch 2017; Global
Ocean Acidification Observing Network2017) (Annex 1). However, significant data
gaps continue to prevent us from having acomprehensive picture of the magnitude ofpollution across regions.

Towards a Pollution-Free Planetout of ten people breathe outdoor air polluted
beyond acceptable World Health Organization
guidelines levels (World Health Organization
2016a).
Air pollution disproportionately affects themost vulnerable, including those with mental
disabilities (Oudin et al. 2016) and young
children (World Health Organization 2017a).
Approximately 2 billion children live in areas
where outdoor air pollution exceeds theguidelines, and 300 million in areas where
outdoor air pollution is at least six times
higher (United Nations Children's Fund 2016).
Some 570,000 children under age five die from
respiratory infections, such as pneumonia,
attributable to indoor and outdoor air pollution,and second-hand smoke each year (World
Health Organization 2017b). Lower respiratory

infections account for 51 million years lost or
lived with disability per year due to ambientand household pollution, and second hand
tobacco smoke (Prüss-Ustün et al. 2016).
In addition to the impact on human health,other air pollutants cause climate change andaffect ecosystems, such as short-lived climate
pollutants including black carbon and groundlevel ozone (World Health Organization 2015)(Figure 4).
The main sources of outdoor air pollution are
fossil fuel emissions from coal burning for
power and heat, transport, industrial furnaces,
brick kilns, agriculture, domestic solid fuelheating, and the unregulated burning of wastematerials such as plastics and batteriesin open pits and incinerators (Figure 5).
Other important sources include wildfires

Figure 4: Air pollution from sources to impacts

A i r p o l l utio n fr o m s o ur ces to impacts

CausesN AT URAL SOURCE S

Volcanoes, wildfires, dust
storms, sea salt spray

SOURCE S RE L AT E D TO HUM AN ACT IV IT IE S

Power plants, industry, households, transport (exhaust fumes
and non-exhaust pollutants), agriculture, waste treatment

SO 2

Emissions

DIF F ER ENTPO LLUTANTS

Dispersion andconcentration

PM

BC

Hm

PRIM ARY POL LUTANTS

Nitrogen and sulfur oxides, primary particulate matter, carbon monoxide,
black carbon, ammonia, volatile organic compounds, heavy metals
PM

Formation

NO 3

CHEM ICALT RA NSFO RM AT IO N

O3SE CONDARY POL LUTANTS

Secondary particulate matter, ozone, sulphuric acid, nitric acid

IMPACTS O F WEAT HE R
A ND TO PO GRA PHY

FACTORS INFLUE NCINGDISPE RSION AND CONCE NT RAT ION
Volume/location of emissions, fixed/point of mobile source, lifetime inatmosphere, weather, capacity to contribute to secondary pollution, topography

Exposure
E FFE CTS ON
HU M AN HE ALT H

Breathing disorders, cardiovasculardiseases, cancer, heart and lungdiseases, impairment of neurologicaldevelopment and immune system

ECOLOGICAL EFFECT

Acidification and eutrophication of waterand soil, crop damage, climate change(both warming and cooling effects),
reduced visibility, impaired photosynthesis,
reduced plant growth, toxicity build-up
in food chain

E COSYST E M
SE RV ICE S IMPACT E D

Water and air purification, reduction of plantbiomass, altered climate regulation throughcarbon sequestration, altered nutrient
cycling, changes in ecosystems productivity

15

Towards a Pollution-Free Planet

Figure 5: Sources of some key air pollutants

Sulfurdioxide>99%

Nitrogenoxides

2.5

>99%

85%

Carbonmonoxide92%

energyenergyenergyenergyPower

Industry

Transport

Buildings

coal, oil, gas,bioenergy
and waste

process
emissionsExhaust, brakeand tyre androad wear,

compounds
66%

energyAmmonia3%

energyFuel supply Non-energy
transport andof fossil fuels

Agriculture,solvents andwaste

Source: IEA analysis based on IIASA data.
Source: International Energy Agency 2016

and the burning of peatlands, both of which
generate haze, sand and dust storms, as well
as desertification, which often results fromland degradation, including deforestation
and wetland drainage (Youssouf et al.
2014, Morman and Plumlee 2013) (Box 1).
Particulate matter (PM2.5 and PM10) affects
more people than any other air pollutant;levels of PM2.5 have remained largely constantdespite efforts to tackle the problem, but PM10

has been decreasing in some cities (Sacks
et al. 2011; United Nations Environment
Programme 2016c). Climate change is also
modifying weather patterns, affecting thelevels and occurrence of pollutants andairborne allergens, such as ozone and pollen,
and in some cases exposing people to higher
concentrations over longer periods than inprevious decades (Albertine et al. 2014; Fioreet al. 2012; Selin et al. 2009).

Box 1: The impact of fires on air quality: An example from Alaska
Alaska’s 2004 wildfire season was the worst on record, largely because of unusually warm and dry weather. Throughout
central Alaska and Canada’s Yukon Territory, more than 11 million acres burned, an area equivalent to the states of New
Hampshire and Massachusetts combined.
As forests and the underlying peat layer burn, they emit visible pollution in the form of smoke, soot, and ash. But thefires also generate other harmful pollution. Fires emit carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons, plus nitrogen oxides, all ofwhich, along with sunlight, are needed to make ozone. Unlike ozone in the stratosphere, which protects us from ultraviolet
radiation, high levels of ozone in the troposphere, closer to ground level, can injure or destroy living tissue. Although theingredients for ozone can be found in urban pollution, pollutants from fires might cause a significant increase in ozone
levels, even far downwind from the fires.
From June to August, the fires produced approximately 30 teragrams of carbon monoxide (1 teragram is about 2.2 billion
pounds), roughly equal to all the human-generated carbon monoxide for the entire continental United States during thesame period. The NASA study estimated that the boost in carbon monoxide and other fire-emitted pollutants increased
ground-level ozone by up to 25 per cent in the northern continental United States, and by up to 10 percent in Europe.
(Beltler 2006).

16

Towards a Pollution-Free Planet

Indoor air pollution accounts for 4.3 million
deaths, 18 per cent of ischaemic heartdisease and 33 per cent of all lower
respiratory infections globally (United Nations
Environment Programme and Climate andClean Air Coalition 2016). It in particularaffects women, children, the sick and elderly,
and those in low-income groups, as they areoften exposed to high levels of pollutantsfrom cooking and heating (Figure 6).

productivity of wheat, soybean and maize by
up to 26 per cent by 2030, imposing costs of
between $17 billion and $35 billion (Avnery
et al. 2011). Methane emissions, a precursorof ground-level ozone, are contributing to thisincrease through uncontrolled releases into
the atmosphere, mainly from livestock, poor
management of landfills, leakages from gas
production and transport, and release frommelting permafrosts.

One other key pollutant, ground-levelozone, is responsible for an estimated150,000 premature deaths every year (Limet al. 2012). It is particularly dangerous forchildren, the elderly, and people with lung or
cardiovascular disease. It reduces the abilityof plants to absorb carbon dioxide, altering
growth, thereby damaging ecosystems andtheir functions, as well as the health andproductivity of crops. Over the past 100 years
there has been a threefold increase in groundlevel ozone concentrations in the northernhemisphere. Under current climate change
projections, increases in ozone could reduce

1.2 Land and soil pollution
Land and soil pollution is largely the
product of poor agricultural practices,
inefficient irrigation, improper solid waste
management – including unsafe storage ofobsolete stockpiles of hazardous chemicals
and nuclear waste – and a range of industrial,
military and extractive activities. Leachates
from mismanaged landfills and uncontrolled
dumping of waste from households, industrial
plants and mine tailings can contain heavy
metals, such as mercury and arsenic, as wellas organic compounds and pharmaceuticals,

Figure 6: The use of open fire for cooking and heating causes a number of respiratory diseases and other health effects

Household air pollution

Health impacts
Smoke released
contributes to outdoor
air pollution

CO
CO2
And
others...

Soot particles
PM2.5 and RM10

BenzeneRespiratory diseases
Acute lower respiratory
infections (ALRI) in
young children(pneumonia)
Chronic obstructive
pulmonary disease(COPD, breathingproblems
Lung cancer
AsthmaOther health effects
Heart
diseases/problems
Cataract (blindness)

Kerosene
Lamp

Burns from fire/flame
Poisoning form
ingesting fuels

Open fire forcooking and heating
Source: World Health Organization 2011a17

Towards a Pollution-Free Planet

including antibiotics and microorganisms(Wellington et al. 2013). Pollutants easily
degrade land, soils and the underlying aquifers
and are hard to remove. Thus humans andwildlife living near former industrial sites
and some reclaimed lands are at potential
risk of continued exposure to pollution if
sites are not decontaminated properly. Landand soil pollution is an increasing concern
with the growth in demand for land for foodproduction, housing and nature conservation,
against a limited supply.
Although many high-income countries haverobust programmes to identify, assess
and remediate soil contamination, theproblem persists with significant economic
implications (European Environment
Agency 2014; Pure Earth 2017). Many lowand middle-income countries lack basic

information about the location, severity andpotential risks of “pollution hotspots”. Without
such information, it is difficult to prioritize
challenges, allocate resources and implement(often very costly) solutions to protect
drinking water supplies and farmland.
The primary pollutants of concern in landand soil include heavy metals such as lead,
mercury, arsenic, cadmium and chromium,persistent organic pollutants and otherpesticides, and pharmaceuticals, such as
antibiotics used for livestock management.
These degrade soil biodiversity and functioning,and can reduce agricultural productivity, thus
negatively impacting livelihoods, disease
control and food security. They can also cause
a variety of non-communicable diseases, andeven death in humans and wildlife (Tóth et al.
2016) (Figure 7).

Figure 7: Land and soil pollution – from sources to impacts on human health and ecosystems

La nd/s oil pollu ti o n fro m s o u rc es to i m p a c t s

CausesN AT U R AL SO U RCE S

SOU RCE S RE L ATE D TO H U M AN ACTI VITI E S

Soil geochemistry, geology,
salt, landslides

Land-based farming, industry, extractives, waste,
wastewater, transport, energy production

Hm

Emissions

DIF F ER ENTPO LLU TA NTS

Formation

C HEMIC A L
T R A NSF O R M AT IO N

Dispersion andconcentration

P RI M ARY P OL LU TANTS

Heavy metals, pesticides, plastic debris and litter, pharmaceuticals

SE CON DARY P OL LU TANTS
Fumaric and phthalic acids

IMPACTS O F WEAT HER
A ND TO PO GR A PHY

FACTORS I N F LU E N CI N G
DI SP E RSI ON AN D CON CE NTRATI ON
Leaching, soil composition, extreme weather events e.g. flooding, desertification

ExposureE F F E CTS ON
H U M AN H E ALT H

Neurological development, harmful
effects on the nervous, digestive andimmune systems, lungs and kidneys,
cancer, sterility and other reproductive
disorders, immunity suppression,increased antimicrobial resistance18

ECOLOGICAL EFFECT

Toxicity build-up in food chains,disappearance of bees, other insects andbutterflies, reptiles, birds and mammals,
congested alimentary systems leading to
starvation, toxicity build up in fodder andprey, soil microbial populations developing
new resistant forms.

E COSYSTE M
SE RVI CE S I M PACTE D

Reduction of available food due tocontamination, control of pests andvectors, reduction in productivity andcycling of nutrients, distorted predator
prey dynamics, productivity of soil andlivestock.

Towards a Pollution-Free Planet

Toxic heavy metal pollution is a publichealth risk, especially for children andpregnant women (World Health Organization
2011b). Sources of heavy metal pollution
include a variety of industrial, household
and agricultural activities, such as mining
and smelting operations, preparation of
nuclear fuels and electroplating (chromium,cadmium), coal and other fuel burning,
pigment and dye production, chemical
production, leather tanning, informal recyclingof lead-acid batteries and electronic waste,
poor incineration of hospital waste, andmismanagement of household and industrial
waste. Heavy metals can become highly
concentrated through ion exchange or
precipitation into soils and lie dormant. As
they do not decay, they pose a different kindof challenge for remediation. Some plants
and microorganisms can be used to help
remove heavy metals such as mercury, forexample in the treatment of mining tailings;
the vegetation is then incinerated with gas
treatment to recover the heavy metals.
Some heavy metals are necessary forhumans in minute amounts, while others
are carcinogenic or toxic, affecting thecentral nervous system (mercury, lead,arsenic), the kidneys and liver (mercury,
lead, cadmium, copper), skin, bones andteeth (nickel, cadmium, copper, chromium).
Although the specific impacts vary bypollutant and exposure pathway, these oftencause developmental impairment and noncommunicable diseases. Once released
into the environment, these metals do notbiodegrade and can jeopardize ecological andhuman health for generations.
Lead is one of the most harmful heavy metals,
especially to young children, because it canbuild up in the body over time and cause
severe, long-term effects. Exposures once
thought acceptable are now known to beharmful; no safe exposure level has been
identified. Blood lead concentrations as low as
below 5 µg/dL may be associated, especiallyin children, with reduced intelligence quotient(IQ), reduced cognitive abilities, dyslexia,
behavioural disorders and hearing problems,and may also cause delayed puberty (UnitedStates National Toxicology Program 2012;
World Health Organization 2010). Absorbed
lead is stored in bone but can be mobilizedback into blood during pregnancy, becominga renewed source of exposure for the motherand the fetus. In lead-exposed women there
is secretion of small amounts of lead into
breast milk, further exposing infants (Ettinger
et al 2007; Ettinger et al. 2014). The Institutefor Health Metrics and Evaluation (IHME)
has estimated that in 2013 lead exposure
accounted for 853,000 deaths due to longterm effects on health, with the highest burden
in low- and middle-income countries. The
Institute also estimated that lead exposure
accounted for 9.3 per cent of the global
burden of idiopathic intellectual disability,
4 per cent of the global burden of ischaemic
heart disease and 6.6 per cent of the global
burden of stroke (Institute for Health Metrics
and Evaluation 2016).
The world’s best-known heavy metal
poisoning incident occurred with mercury in
Minamata, Japan, during the 1950s and 1960s(Yorifuji, Tsuda and Harada 2013). Exposure
to mercury is linked to liver and brain damage
at high doses, and is a particular threat tothe brain development of fetuses and young
children (Grandjean 2013). Mercury occurs inwater, air and soil, but childhood exposure is
generally the result of industrial releases, suchas in artisanal and small-scale gold mining(Gibb and O’Leary 2014). The forthcoming
Lancet Commission report on pollution andhealth estimates that in 2016, 16.7 million
people, (65 per cent in Africa) are exposed
to mercury in artisanal and small-scale gold
mining, with an average of 2.96 disability
adjusted life years (Commission on Pollution
and Health 2017). Mercury bioaccumulates
and magnifies in fish and shellfish, and isthus a source of dietary exposure to humans.
Other heavy metals of note in terms of human
exposure include beryllium and arsenic.
Beryllium is used in the nuclear weaponsindustry and chronic beryllium disease has
been diagnosed in workers, despite exposurelevels being below recommended guidelines(Michaels and Monforton 2013). The major

19

Towards a Pollution-Free Planet

issue with beryllium is that secondary users
and recyclers do not generally have theexpertise, resources or knowledge to preventthe disease in neighbouring communities andworkers (Michaels and Monforton 2013).
Globally, estimates indicate that at least
1 million people are unintentionally poisoned
every year by excessive exposure andinappropriate use of pesticides, with healtheffects on all (United Nations Environment
Programme 2013a, Jeyaratnam 1990,
Thundiyil et al. 2008). The main driver for theuse of synthetic chemical pesticides is the
reduction of the negative impacts of pests,
such as insects, diseases and weeds, on crop
yields, estimated in the 1990s to account for
40 per cent of the world’s losses (Chandler
et al. 2011). Since then, the intensive use ofpesticides, alongside improved management
practices, has helped increase crop yields
by nearly 70 per cent in Europe and 100 per
cent in the United States. However, their use
has also created an almost universal humanand environmental exposure to agriculturalchemicals and side effects, with well-reported
effects among those experiencing acuteexposure (Caravanos et al. 2016; Jeyaratnam
1990; Thundiyil et al. 2008; Sharov et al. 2016;
Task Force on Systemic Pesticides 2014).
Unsustainable lifestyles and consumption
patterns, agricultural subsidies, and the
expansion of monocultures are helping todrive the use of agricultural chemicals andpesticides. This poses risks to ecosystemservices such as litter breakdown and nutrient
cycling, food production, genetic diversity,
biological pest control, and pollination. A
recent example of this is the use of a group of
insecticides, known as neonicotinoids, whichhave been linked to losses of bee colonies invarious countries. That research prompted
the European Union to restrict the use of threeforms of neonicotinoids in 2013 (European
Commission 2017). Pending further treatment,
residual agrochemicals on food products canalso directly expose people through their diet.
The effects of chronic pesticide exposure
vary considerably among women, men and20children. Prolonged low-level exposure topesticides may induce chronic effects inchildren, including birth defects, asthma,
cancer and neurological alterations (Bouchard
et al. 2011; Eskenazi et al. 2014; Raanan
et al. 2015; Roberts and Karr 2012). The
number of women working as pesticide
applicators varies, but in some countries,
women make up 85 per cent or more of thepesticide applicators on commercial farms
and plantations, often working while pregnant
or breastfeeding (Watts 2013a). Women are
also uniquely exposed to pesticides evenwhen they do not directly apply them. In
Pakistan, where cotton is picked by women, asurvey found that 100 per cent of the womenpicking cotton 3-15 days after pesticides
had been sprayed suffered acute pesticide
poisoning symptoms (Tahir and Anwar 2012).
In Chile, in 1997, of the 120 reported pesticide
poisonings, 110 were women, nearly all
employed in the flower industry (Wesseling
et al. 1998). Other routes of exposure notgenerally taken into account in exposure
assessments include weeding and thinning
sprayed crops, picking tea leaves, washing out
pesticide containers, or washing pesticidecontaminated clothing (United Nations
Environment Programme 2016i; Watts 2010).
Pesticide exposure can cause lifelong harmand increase the risk of preterm births, birthdefects, childhood mortality, reduced sperm
function and a range of adult diseases.
Adverse effects can also be carried in
the womb. Women generally have higher
percentages of body fat, which means thatthey carry more lipophilic pesticides and for
longer periods, resulting in greater internal
exposure and more bioaccumulation (Liewet al. 2014; Arrebola et al. 2015). This isespecially true for indigenous populations in
the Arctic (Arctic Monitoring and Assessment
Programme 2015).
Some scientists have identified a connection
between pesticides and breast cancer rates(Schinasi and Leon 2014; Liew et al. 2014).
While the importance of pesticides andbreast cancer is not widely accepted among
public health experts, a number of studies

Towards a Pollution-Free Planetsuggest that some classes of pesticides(such as organochlorines) may be more
carcinogenic to breast tissue than others(Høyer et al. 1998). It is also known thatwomen’s higher levels of hormonally sensitive
tissue make them more vulnerable to theeffects of endocrine-disrupting substances,with pregnant and breastfeeding women atparticular risk, as well as children exposed
at a time when they are developmentallyvulnerable (Watts 2007; Watts 2013b).
The rise of antimicrobial resistance asa result of overuse and improper use of
antimicrobials, including antibiotics used infood production, is now a globally significant
issue. A major concern is that this may
cause rapid changes to the microbial
composition of soil, freshwater and biota,
and drive the development of multistrain

microbial resistance worldwide (Hardell et al.
2003; Food and Agriculture Organization of
the United Nations 2016a, United Nations
Environment Programme 2017c).

1.3 Freshwater pollution
Freshwater bodies are heavily affected bypollution, particularly by a range of nutrients,
agrochemicals and pathogens from untreatedwastewater, and heavy metals from mining(Caravanos et al. 2016) and industrial
effluents (Figure 8). Polluted water is also
more likely to host disease vectors, such as
cholera-causing Vibrio and parasitic wormtransmitted schistosomiasis, also known
as bilharzia. The main impacts are changes
to habitats and ecosystems, especiallywetlands; the loss of aquatic biodiversity;changes in species composition, ecosystem

Figure 8: Water pollution – from sources to impacts on human health and ecosystems

F r es hw a t er pol l u t i on f rom sourc es to impacts

HC

CausesN AT URA L SOU R CE S

Geology, flooding, landslides, storm surges

SOU R CE S R E L AT E D TO H U M AN ACT I VIT I E S

Agriculture, hazardous, industrial and municipal
solid waste, pharmaceuticals, wastewater.

Hm

Emissions

D IF F ERENTP OLLUTANTS

Formation

C HEM ICA L
T R ANSF OR M ATIO N

Dispersion andconcentration

NO3

EDC

P R I M ARY P O L LUTANTS

Nitrates, phosphates, heavy metals, pesticides,
endocrine disrupting chemicals, pharmaceuticals

SE CON DARY P OL LU TA NTS

Cocktail effects e.g. relating to leachates from landfills
and air emissions in waters with primary pollutants

IMPACTS OF BIOTA, GEOLOGY,C LIM AT E, WEAT HER A NDTOP OG R APHY

FACTOR S I N FLUE N CI N G
DI SP E R SI ON A N D CO N CE NT R AT I O NTopography and run-off, climate and weather, biotic,
and physicochemical composition of water, geology

Exposure
EFFECTS ON
H UM AN H EALT H

Impairment of neurological functions due
to harmful algal bloom and development(e.g. blue baby syndrome), heart andkidney diseases, cancer, sterility andother reproductive disorders, increased
antimicrobial resistance

ECOLOGICAL EFFECT

Eutrophication, harmful algal bloom
such as blue-green algae changing
habitats, toxicity, reduction in
population size of species suchas frogs, feminization of fish

E CO SYST E M
SE RVI CE S I MPACT E DProvisioning services (e.g. productivity of food,coral reefs, flucial stocks and species and fishstocks), habitat or supporting services (e.g.
changes to species distributions and functions,widespread population impacts affecting
habitats and maintenance of genetic diversity)

21

Towards a Pollution-Free Planet

functioning and service provision, including
water quality improvement (Steffen et al.
2015); the spread of waterborne diseases;changes in the productivity of food chains;and contamination and blockage of drainage
by plastics and other improperly managed
solid waste. The increasing presence ofpharmaceuticals, antimicrobials and new
micro-pollutants in water are also emerging
concerns (Hardell et al. 2003).

the fishing industry and people’s livelihoods.
Improved sanitation is helping to counteract
these trends (Figure 9), although untreatedsewage continues to be discharged into
the environment (Figure 10). Wastewater
management is therefore of basic importanceto environmental sustainability, and toensuring access to clean water for all (United
Nations World Water Assessment Programme
2017; UN-Water 2016).

Over 80 per cent of the world's wastewater isreleased to the environment without treatment(United Nations World Water Assessment
Programme 2017). Globally, 58 per cent of
diarrhoeal disease – a major driver of childmortality – is due to a lack of access to cleanwater and sanitation (Prüss-Ustün et al. 2016;
United Nations Environment programme
2016j). Every year, 57 million years of life arelost or lived with disability due to poor water,
sanitation, hygiene and agricultural practices(Prüss-Ustün et al. 2016).

Nutrient pollution (nitrates and phosphates)
caused by the over-application of
agrochemicals continues to pose a significant
threat to biodiversity and ecosystem services
globally. Such pollution is projected tocontinue rising beyond 2020, with growthconcentrated in Asia, South and Central
America, and sub-Saharan Africa. Highincome countries, for instance in Europe,
also suffer from freshwater pollution such as
high nitrate levels in drinking water. Between
10 per cent and 20 per cent of all groundwater
monitoring stations in the European Union
have registered nitrate levels that exceed
the 50 mg/l limit (European Environment
Agency 2015). Although a natural process,eutrophication can be accelerated byexcessive nutrient loading from point andnon-point sources, leading to increasingalgal growth in receiving environments
and the development of oxygen-depleted

In Latin America, Africa and Asia, severe
pathogenic pollution was found in one thirdof all rivers, putting at risk people’s healthand endangering the use of river water for
irrigation, industry and other purposes. Severeorganic pollution, found in one seventh of allrivers, and severe and moderate salinity, foundin one tenth, further threaten food security,

Figure 9: Proportion of population using improved sanitation facilities in 2015

Source: World Health Organization/ United Nations Children’s Fund 201522

Towards a Pollution-Free Planet

Figure 10: Trends in organic pollution (measured as biological oxygen demand concentrations) in rivers between
1990-1992 and 2008-2010

Source: UNEP2016jzones. Nutrient pollution is one of the mostpervasive water quality issues on a global
scale, interfering with many human wateruses and causing major shifts of species inecosystems.
Heavy metals and pollutants from oil and gas
exploration and oil sands can accumulate
in groundwater, lakes and reservoirs,
contaminate aquifers with potentiallyexplosive methane levels, and pollute streams
receiving water discharges and downstream
communities following dam removal. The
extraction of oil from sand in western Canada
has resulted in a trillion litres of waste stored
in tailing ponds (Environmental Defence2017); this is likely to continue to grow eachyear. Evidence of contamination of waterfrom fracking for shale gas production isunder consideration in various parts of theworld (Olmstead et al. 2013). In Europe
following different positions being taken,
a number of conditions and provisions on
the protection of human health and the
avoidance of environmental risks have been
proposed (German Advisory Council on theEnvironment 2013).

Arsenic in drinking water can come fromgeological processes and mining. The
best-documented case of wide-scale
geogenic arsenic poisoning comes from
Bangladesh, where bore holes for drinking
water were not tested (World HealthOrganization 2016b). In Bangladesh today,
25 per cent of households drink watercontaminated with arsenic at levels above
the World Health Organization guideline
value of 10 parts per billion (Pathey 2015).
Other contaminants that can be foundin streams and freshwater systems
include plastics, ingredients of personalcare products, pharmaceuticals, insect
repellents, stimulants, fire retardants andsurfactants, non-ionic detergent metabolites,
perfluorinated compounds and nanomaterials(Osborn et al. 2011). Particular concerns forthe health of both people and freshwaterorganisms include potential bioaccumulation,
endocrine disruption, sex reversal in fishes
and molluscs, and carcinogenic effects arisingfrom some of these pollutants (Kolpin 2002;
World Health Organization and United Nations
Environment Programme 2013).

23

Towards a Pollution-Free Planet

1.4 Marine and coastal pollution
Oceans and coastal waters receive alarge percentage of their waste andpollutants – including plastic debris, nutrients,
oil, heavy metals and radioactive waste – fromland-based sources (Jambeck et al. 2015;
Joint Group of Experts on the Scientific
Aspects of Marine Environment Protection2016). The rest comes from the shipping
industry, fisheries and other sea-basedsources.
Nutrient loads into coastal areas rose by
between 10 per cent and 80 per cent between
1970 and 2000, increasing eutrophication andhypoxia, hindering tourism, and negatively
impacting economic livelihoods. The
associated harmful algal blooms can cause
acute poisoning as well as liver and colorectal

cancers (Davis et al. 2009, O’Neil et al. 2012).
At least 500 dead zones have been recordedin coastal areas around the world (Shepherd
et al. 2017). These are having an impact
on fishing communities (Rochman et al.
2013) and the productivity of fish stocks.
Aquaculture can also be a significant sourceof pollution, because of outflows of nutrientrich waters, the risk of disease transmission
from captive to wild stock, and, in some cases,
the use of antibiotics (Figure 11).
The number of large oil spills (greater than
700 tonnes) from tankers annually, hasbeen decreasing, with the average numberof large oil spills now at 1.7 per year since2010 (International Tanker Owners Pollution
Federation Limited 2017). However, oil fromspills nearshore can have locally devastating
impacts on the environment, with the clean-up

Figure 11: Marine and coastal pollution– from sources to impacts on human health and ecosystems

Mar ine and c o a sta l p o l l u ti o n f r o m so u r ces t o imp a ct s

CausesN AT URA L SOUR C E SStorm surges, climate change,
landslides, floods

SO U R C E S R E L AT E D TO H U M AN ACT I V IT I E S

Land-based farming, food and agro-industry, fisheries and aquaculture,
oil and energy sector, waste, wastewater, packaging sector, extractives,
pharmaceuticals

NO 3

Emissions

DIFFERENTPOLLUTANTS

Formation

CHEM ICAL
TRANSFORM ATION

Dispersion andconcentration

Hm

EDC

P R I M ARY P O LLU TANTS

Nitrates and phosphates, heavy metals (from mining and seabed
extractives industries), lead, booster biocides, pesticides, endocrinedisrupting chemicals, pharmaceuticals, waste and plastics

SE C O N DARY P O LLU TA NTS

Chemical cocktail effects surrounding marine extraction and oil drilling sites

IM PACTS OF COASTALENGINEERING, MARINE BIOTA,
WEATHER, CLIM ATE AND
TOPOG RAPHY

FACTO R S I N FLU E N C I N G
D I SP E R S I O N A N D C O N C E NT R AT I O N
Storm surges, climate change ref.ocean and coastal circulation, geology
and coastal erosion, marine biota e.g. macrophytes and coral reefs

ExposureE F F E CTS ON
HUM AN HE ALT H

Impairment of neurologicaldevelopment,noxious fumes, skindisorders, heart, kidney disease,cancer, sterility and other reproductive
disorders, hormonal disruption

24

ECOLOGICAL EFFECTS

Eutrophication, harmful algal blooms,
toxicity, impact on seabird populations
and other species, disappearance ofalgae, corals, invertebrates and fish
species, feminization of fish, thyroid
disorders in whales and other mammals,
disruption to local food chainsE C O SYST E M
SE RV I C E S I MPACT E DProvisioning services (e.g. productivity of food, benthic
fauna shellfish, fish stocks and coral reefs), habitat or
supporting services (e.g. impairment of physicalstructures, widespread population impacts, affecting
habitats and maintenance of genetic diversity), controlof pests and vectors, changed predator prey dynamics

Towards a Pollution-Free Planet

introducing further chemicals into the ocean.
Radioactive waste leaked into the ocean is
also an important source of pollution, as
evidenced by the UN Scientific Committee on
the Effects of Atomic Radiation (UNSCEAR)
in light of the events in Fukushima (United
Nations Scientific Committee on the Effectsof Atomic Radiation 2017). Currently there
are no legal instruments to control leakage ofradioactive materials into the oceans.
Although the concentration of somechemicals that have been banned for over
20 years is declining, the same trend is notseen in the most recently regulated chemicals,such as mercury. This is a concern, as itmeans that high levels of mercury persist in
the environment, and that humans and wildlife
who rely on fish resources for their sourceof protein continue to be exposed (Island
Sustainability Alliance CIS Inc et al. 2013).
Some studies show that, if current pollution
and deposition rates continue, mercury levelsin the global environment could double by

the year 2050; one study has demonstrated aclear correlation with the build-up of mercury
in seafood (Sunderland and Mason 2007;
Straub 2009).
Booster biocides, introduced as a substitutefor tributyltin, are broad-spectrum antifoulants, which – together with persistantorganic pollutants – can disrupt local
marine habitats such as coral reefs andseagrass beds, and disturb organisms at
the base of the food chain. Just as withmany other pesticides, they are persistentand pervasive (Price and Readman 2013).
Records of persistent organic pollutants
found in beached plastic pellets in relation
to modelling of the distribution of plastic
debris in the ocean (Figure 12) indicate that
this form of pollution reaches all large marine
ecosystems; such research raises concerns
for ecosystem health, as well as the health ofthe more than 3.5 billion people who dependon the ocean as their main source of food
(Food and Agriculture Organization of the

Figure 12: Marine and coastal pollution risks in large marine ecosystemsa) Nutrient risk: The nutrient risk indicator takes into
account both the amount of nutrients discharged fromland, by rivers to each large marine ecosystem, andthe extent to which these added nutrients will lead toharmful algal growth. b) Persistent organic pollutants
risk: Global distribution and hotspots show thatpolychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) have spread aroundthe global oceans, including to remote areas. c) Floating
plastic debris risk based on the amount of plastic debris
per unit area of each large marine ecosystem estimatedfrom models. This map is for plastic pieces of about
5 mm diameter and bigger. Estimated distribution ofsmaller plastic particles is similar.
Sources: United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization (2016); Van Cauwenberghe and Janssen 2014; Intergovernmental
Oceanographic Commission of the United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization and United Nations Environment
Programme 2016.

25

Towards a Pollution-Free Planet

United Nations 2016b; Béné et al. 2015).
Persistent organic pollutants have long been
known to accumulate in the tissues of marine
mammals, birds and other species, causing
problems for the human populations that
depend on them as their main food source.
This is especially true for indigenous peoples,such as those living in the circumpolar regionof the Arctic, where marine organisms are thetraditional source of food.
Marine litter and debris can cause physicalharm to marine life through entanglement,
ghost fishing, and ingestion; it can also act as
a carrier for persistent bio-accumulative andtoxic substances. Marine litter can provide
habitats for microbial communities; act asa potential vector for disease; and transportinvasive alien species across the ocean (Zarfl
and Matthies 2010).
Three quarters of marine litter is now
composed of plastic (United Nations
Environment Programme and International
Solid Waste Association 2015). According
to the latest estimates, between 4.8 million
tonnes and 12.7 million tonnes of plastic
waste enter the ocean every year due toinadequate waste management (Jambeck
et al. 2015).
Between 1.15 million tonnes and 2.41 million
tonnes of the plastic waste that enters theocean every year is carried by rivers, with threequarters of the deposits occurring between
May and October. The top 20 rivers feeding
into the seas, mostly located in Asia, accountfor 67 per cent of the global total (Lebreton
et al. 2017).
The Mediterranean Action Plan/Barcelona
Convention, adopted in 2013, outlines legallybinding measures to prevent and reduce
marine litter. Concerted action has proveneffective in the region. Between 2003 and2013, pollutant loads showed a consistent
reduction of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons(98 per cent), mercury emissions (94 percent) and the heavy metals lead (81 per cent),
zinc (89 per cent) and chrome (88 per cent)(United Nations Environment Programme /26

Mediterranean Action Plan 2015). A recent
report on plastics indicates that replacing
plastic with metal or paper alternatives would
have significant negative environmental
impacts; a more effective approach to
reducing the presence and impacts of plastic
in the environment is to improve plastics
recovery, strengthen the environmental
performance of the plastics supply chain,and boost efficient consumption practices(Trucost 2016).
Plastic debris – which fragments into
pieces of less than 5 mm but does notbiodegrade in the marine environment –can now be found in all the world's oceans
and seas, even in remote areas such as
deep trenches and uninhabited islands in
the Pacific Ocean far from human contact(Simcock and Kamara 2016; Joint Group ofExperts on the Scientific Aspects of Marine
Environment Protection 2015). Researchon the physical and toxicological effects of
microplastics provides evidence of trophic
transfer in planktonic food chains as wellas the direct uptake of microplastics bymarine invertebrates (Zarfl and Matthies
2010; Wright et al. 2013). Ingestion of
microplastics by fish has been shown tocause physiological stress, liver cancer, andendocrine dysfunction, affecting female
fertility and the growth of reproductive tissue
in male fish. These effects are thought tobe caused by the plastic itself (physicalcomponents and chemical ingredients)
as well as from chemical pollutants thatabsorb into the plastic from the surrounding
seawater. Under laboratory conditions, nanosize microplastics have been shown to crosscell membranes, resulting in tissue damage(Secretariat of the Convention on Biological
Diversity 2016).
The impacts of ocean acidification are mostvisible on marine species with calcareous
skeletons, such as corals and plankton;
these form the base of many marine foodwebs. Coral reefs are therefore particularly
vulnerable to ocean acidification, nutrientsand other forms of pollution (Wilkinson
et al. 2017). These changes are threatening

Towards a Pollution-Free Planet

marine ecosystems and fisheries globally;
they are also likely to have a major impact
on tourism and the protein source of morethan 275 million people (Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations 2016b;
Béné et al. 2015).
One potential source of pollution is deepsea mining. Such activities are still in the
exploration phase. An area of roughly
1.5 million km2 is currently nder contract
with the International Seabed Authority, withmining expected to begin in about two years.
Recent research warns in particular about
the plumes that mining in the deep sea would
create. These plumes consist of sedimentre-suspensions containing, among otherthings, heavy metal particles. They could
travel for hundreds of kilometers, smotheringmarine ecosystems in their path. Scientificknowledge is still limited on the impacts ofdeep sea mining on deep sea ecosystems,
but scientists are increasingly calling for a
precautionary approach (Boetius et al. 2017).

1.5 Cross-cutting sources of pollution
1.5.1 Chemicals
Following industrial disasters such as
the gas leak in Bhopal, India; mercury
exposure in Minamata, Japan; and cadmium
poisoning in Itai-Itai, Japan, public concern
over pollution has resulted in numerous
chemicals and heavy metals being identified
as of serious concerns to public health.
While chemicals have benefits for humansociety, they also have significant harmful
impacts. The impacts of chemicals on
people and other living organisms vary fromcell mutagenesis to neurological damage,damage to reproduction and development,
metabolic effects, immunotoxicity,
pulmonary inflammation and the emergenceof antibiotic-resistant bacteria. Over100,000 people die annually from exposure toasbestos, and lead in paint is known to affectchildren’s IQ (United Nations Environment
Programme 2016a). Children poisoned bymercury and lead also develop problems
in their nervous and digestive systems

and kidney damage. While the full range ofimpacts of every chemical has yet to be fully
assessed, long-term exposure to certain
categories of substances such as endocrine
disruptors,developmental neurotoxicantspesticides are known to be deleterious toenvironmental and human health (PrüssUstün et al. 2016; United Nations Environment
programme 2016a; European Environment
Agency 2013). With so many new chemicals
and materials continuously being designed
and released on the market, it is importantthat we adequately manage chemicals
over their entire life cycle – from extraction,
production, formulation and use, throughto final disposal. Very little is known about
their behaviour when they are released into
the environment, for example, when they aretransported by water or air; how they bioaccumulate in the environment; or how theyultimately affect biodiversity and ecosystems(European Environment Agency 2013).
One of the challenges in dealing withchemicals is the gap in publically accessible
data and consumer information on chemical
performance and safety throughout different
supply chains. This type of information is
also lacking on the chemical compositionof products, articles waste streams andresidues. This is especially true in somedeveloping and transition economies,
due to the absence of national legislation,a lack of access to information on theenvironmental and health effects of handling
toxic chemicals,lack of funding, and poor
technological and human resources. All ofthese effects combined mean that suchcountries are potentially more vulnerable
to, and disproportionally affected by,toxic hazards. Multilateral environmental
agreements and key global and regional
processes such as the Strategic Approach
to International Chemicals Management(SAICM) can play a vital role in improving
this situation.
Of the tens of thousands of chemicals on themarket, relatively few have been thoroughly
evaluated to determine whether they mightcause adverse effects on human health27

Towards a Pollution-Free Planet

and the environment (Strempel et al. 2012)
chemicals regulation, over 145,000 chemical(Figure 13). Moreover, the assessment of
substances have been preregistered. A reset
the health risk of chemical substancesof the United States chemical inventory
focuses primarily on the effects of individualis expected to give an estimate of thesubstances for determining the doses ofnumber of chemicals in commerce as
toxicological concern, and have a limited
being between 14,000 and 15,000. In Juneability to evaluate the combined impact
2017, the International Council of Chemistryof chemical mixtures (United Nations
Associations Global Product Strategy
Environment Programme 2013a; United
Chemicals Portal provided access to data for
Nations Environment Programme 2013b).
over 4,500 chemicals (International Council of
The European Union Registration, Evaluation,
Chemistry Associations 2017).
Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals(REACH) legislation requires companies to
Major routes of human and environmental
identify and manage the risks linked to the
exposure to pollutants are through food andsubstances they manufacture. However,water intake (for example pesticide residues),
this legislation focuses only on individual
through exposure to toxic chemicals in thesubstances, disregarding the effects ofworkplace, and from specific consumer
Figure13
combined exposure to mixtures of chemical
products found in some detergents, textiles,
and physical agents (Sarigiannis and Hansen
cosmetics, construction materials and2012). To date, under the pre-registration
furniture (United Nations Environment
requirement of the European Union’s
Programme 2016a; Ke et al 2015). Food

Figure 13: Testing of chemicals and data gaps

Te s t i n g of c hem i c a l s a nd d a t a g a ps

2,660 chemicals with measured data
2,200

1,100
220

95,000industrial chemicals

ACUTE AQUATICTOXICITY

BIO-CONCENTRATIONFACTORS

BIODEGRADATION
HALF-LIVES

Note: Out of a set of 95,000 industrial chemicals, 2,200 had data on acute aquatic toxicity, 1,000 on the extent to which they build up in theenvironment (bio-concentration factors), and 220 on how long it takes them to break down (biodegradation half-lives)
Source: Strempel et al. 201228

Towards a Pollution-Free Planet

safety is intimately linked to the quality ofthe environment, where food is produced,
and then further down the chain in foodprocessing, washing, and preparation. The
joint Food and Agriculture Organization of theUnited Nations/World Health Organizationcommittee on food additives carries out foodsafety risk assessments on food additives,contaminants and residues of veterinary
drugs residues.

While deliberate attacks on oil facilities
and industrial environmental emergencies
may capture the headlines (Khoshnaw andAdamson 2017), the influence of conflicts
and insecurity on the management of waste
and chemicals, and their impact on air quality,
soil and water remains largely undocumented(Weir 2017). Improvements in military
guidelines and conduct could help reducethe most severe incidents, while remotemonitoring could provide early warnings ofserious pollution hazards as well as informemergency humanitarian responses.

Releases of ionizing radiation and exposureof workers from nuclear and coal power
generation, (McBride et al. 1978) and thematerials needed for solar energy remain aconcern (United Nations Scientific Committee
on the Effects of Atomic Radiation 2017).
Most of the exposure risks for occupational
cancer are preventable. About 125 million
people in the world are exposed to asbestos
at the workplace. According to World
Health Organization estimates, more than
107,000 people die each year from asbestosrelated lung cancer, mesothelioma andasbestosis resulting from occupational
exposures. One in three deaths fromoccupational cancer is caused by asbestos(Prüss-Ustün 2016).

1.5.2 Waste
Waste generation nearly doubled between
1970 and 2000 (United Nations Environment
Programme and International Solid Waste
Association 2015) and continues to grow.
There is a clear relationship between
municipal solid waste per capita andnational income levels (Figure 14).
The total volume of urban waste in2010 – made up of municipal solid waste
including food waste, commercial andindustrial waste, and construction and

Figure 14: Waste generation by income level
1 000
CanadaMSW generation per capita (kg/yr)

800

United States
Switzerland
Denmark
Ireland

Malta

600
Bulgaria

BhutanChile

Belgium Norway

400

Burundi2000Armenia

Benin

Ghana

Swaziland

Gabon
Namibia

1 000

Low

Iceland

Kazakhstan

Uzbekistan
Pakistan
Philippines

200

Japan

Slovakia

Georgia

10 000Lower-middle

Upper-middle

100 000High

GNI per capita (USD)

Source: United Nations Environment Programme and International Solid Waste Association 201529

Towards a Pollution-Free Planet

demolition waste but excluding agricultural,
forestry, mining and quarrying wastes – wasestimated at 7 billion to 10 billion tonnes(United Nations Environment Programme andInternational Solid Waste Association 2015).
Disasters such as earthquakes and industrial
accidents contributed between 1 million and
30 million tons of disaster waste per incident(United Nations Environment Programme andInternational Solid Waste Association 2015).
Industrial and hazardous waste generationis shifting from the developed to emerging
economies, which are often poorly preparedto safely manage these waste streams.
Overall, it is estimated that at least 2 billion
people worldwide lack access to solid waste
collection (United Nations Environment
Programme and International Solid Waste
Association 2015).
The best approach to deal with waste is not tocreate it, not least because of the premature
deaths caused by the way we produce andconsume natural resources (Ramaswami
et al. 2016). It is also important to review andintroduce modern, environmentally soundtechnologies for the chemical destructionof waste, waste-based energy systems, andwaste recycling. Waste recycling should
avoid recycling of waste containing persistentorganic pollutants and other hazardous
chemicals to avoid their appearance in
new products. So far, there is evidence of
persistent organic pollutants and brominatedflame retardants that appear in new products,
including products for children, manufacturedout of recycled materials with toxic chemicals
still present (International Persistent Organic
Pollutants Elimination Network 2015).
Dumpsites around the world are sources ofcomplex pollution mixtures, with emissionsof gases such as methane, electronic waste,other hazardous waste and leachate ofheavy metals all mixed together (Caravanos
et al. 2016). They are home to an estimated
15 million informal waste pickers, who
scavenge for food and recyclables (Binion
and Gutberlet 2012). Such activity diverts
between 20 per cent and 30 per cent ofmunicipal solid waste to recycling at little tono cost to business or government; however,
the waste pickers are highly exposured tochemical hazards and face significant risk ofphysical injury. It is estimated that 50 of thebiggest active dumpsites affect the lives of
64 million people, including their health andloss of lives and property when landslides andcollapses occur (United Nations Environment
Programme and International Solid Waste
Association 2015). Poor people are especiallyvulnerable as the dumpsites are often
surrounded by informal settlements (Table 1).
In developing countries, the priority is tophase out open dumping, waste burningand uncontrolled waste disposal, but there
is also a need to focus on the reductionof waste at source; this can serve as thefoundation from which countries can drive
prevention, reuse, recycling and recovery.
Waste reduction at source can be achieved

Table 1: Human impacts of recent events at dumpsites

Event

Year

Human impact

Landslide in Shenzhen, China, triggered bycollapse of a construction waste disposal site

2015

at least 69 people were killed

Poor waste management at dumpsites

First seven months of 2016

750 deaths

Waste landslide at Koshe landfill in Addis
Ababa, Ethiopia

2017

at least 115 people were killed

90 metre dump collapse in Colombo, Sri
Lanka

2017

145 houses buried and 32 people
killedSources: Yang et al 2016, United Nations Environment Programme and International Solid Waste Association 2015; and newspaper articles(Maasho 2017, Aneez and Sirilal 2017)30

Towards a Pollution-Free Planet

through city cleaning, waste segregation, andthe collection and safe disposal of waste tosanitary engineered landfills, subject to certain
compliance requirements. Waste reduction
at source also has the potential to promoteresource and materials management as partof the transformation towards a sustainableeconomy.
Waste is especially of concern to small islandstates. These countries, very often tourist
destinations and ports of call for international
shipping, must address the increased
waste flows generated by such activities, inaddition to the often already complex waste
management issues they face (United Nations
Environment Program and International Solid
Waste Association 2015). Given their climate
vulnerability, limited land space and oftenlimited institutional capacity for pollution
management, a weather-related event canquickly lead to flooding. Unmanaged wastethen becomes a health and ecosystem
hazard. The lack of waste management incoastal areas and tourist destinations overallalso leads directly to inputs of trash andplastic into the ocean.
Mining generates one of the world's largest
waste streams, often containing highconcentrations of compounds that haveserious effects on ecosystems and humans.
The annual global production of mine waste
is estimated to approach 100 billion tonnes,
with about 90 per cent of this being waste
rock and the rest tailings (data updated fromMudd and Boger 2013). Artisanal small-scale
gold mining has been identified as the largest
anthropogenic source of mercury, accounting

for 37 per cent of the total anthropogenic
mercury emissions to the global atmosphere.
Besides the use of mercury, this sector isalso closely linked to deforestation, landdegradation and increased social, economy
and health problems. Because operations
are often located on riverbanks, it isestimated that 50 per cent of the mercury
released by artisanal gold mining into
terrestrial systems is discharged directly
into water streams (Kocman et al. 2017). As
such mines are often outside national waste
control regimes, official data on their waste
volumes is limited.
It is estimated that global generation ofelectrical and electronic equipment (e-waste)
amounted to 41.8 million metric tons in 2014;
this is forecast to rise to 50 million metric tons
in 2018, an annual growth of between 4 percent and 5 per cent (Box 2). Only a limited
number of countries have national electronic
waste legislation and an official take-backsystem. Out of the estimated 41.8 million
metric tons, only 6.5 million tons were
estimated to have been collected by official
take-back systems and other collection
mechanisms (Baldé et al. 2015).
Food waste globally has been estimated to
be as high as one third of all food producedfor human consumption – nearly 1.3 billion
tons (Food and Agriculture Organization of theUnited Nations 2011). Of this, countries in thedeveloped world waste as much food as is
produced in all of sub-Saharan Africa, roughly
230 million tons. The problem for humanhealth and ecosystems from food waste
lies in the spoilage, the ecosystem impacts

Box 2: Impacts of e-waste
E-waste contains hazardous materials such as heavy metals (including cadmium, chromium, mercury and lead) andchemicals (such as brominated flame retardants and chlorofluorocarbons). E-waste management is of grave concern indeveloping countries, where recycling and treatment infrastructure is limited and the legal and institutional capacity is lessstringent. Illegal and illicit transboundary movements of e-waste and trade in second-hand products have complicated thee-waste issue in destination countries. In particular, unsound management and burning of e-waste, often exposes people
to harmful substances (including dioxins, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and heavy metals) (Swedish Environmental
Protection Agency 2011), with serious health consequences such as altered thyroid function, reduced lung function, birthdefects, reduced childhood growth, negative mental health outcomes, impaired cognitive development, cytotoxicity andgene toxicity (Baldé et al. 2015 2013). Hazardous substances such as lead and mercury may leak from discarded andillegally dumped e-waste into surface and groundwater.

31

Towards a Pollution-Free Planetcaused by insect pests and rodents feeding
off this waste, and resources (fertilizers,
pesticides, energy) used to produce andsupply that is never eaten. Aflatoxins, toxic
fungal metabolites, increasingly occurring in
staple crops, are contaminating food supplies
throughout the world. If eaten, they canhave toxic effects on humans and livestock.
Ingestion of low levels of aflatoxins over along period has been implicated in primaryliver cancer, chronic hepatitis, jaundice,cirrhosis and impaired nutrient conversion.
Aflatoxins may also play a role in otherconditions, such as kwashiorkor, an outcomeof childhood malnutrition. Aflatoxins can beremoved through moisture control of grain
stores; however in many developing countries,
climate controlled storage facilities are often
not available.
There is still no acceptable “storage or
disposal option” for the radioactive
waste generated from the processingof older-generation nuclear fuel (United
Nations Scientific Committee on the
Effects of Atomic Radiation 2017; European
Commission Joint Research Centre andEuropean Academies’ Science Advisory
Council 2014). Medical wastes such ascobalt 60 used in radioactive imaging(X-rays and so on) all end up in the same
waste stream as spent fuel rods. Poorly
managed nuclear waste could remain in theenvironment for millennia, posing a longterm threat to humans. Major disasters,such as those with the nuclear power plants
in Chernobyl and Fukushima, have varying
impacts depending on the emission profileand geography.

1.6 Costs of pollution
Pollution has significant economic costs
as a result from impacts on human health,productivity losses, health-care costs
and ecosystem damages. A review of theliterature illustrates the enormous scale ofthe economic impact of pollution (Table 2,Annex 3). Many of these economic costs
are unacknowledged, unaccounted, nonmonetised and remain outside the domain ofevaluation of public policies.
In 2013, the global welfare costs associatedwith air pollution were estimated at about$5.11 trillion (World Bank and Institutefor Health Metrics and Evaluation 2016).
The welfare costs of mortality related to
outdoor air pollution were estimated atabout $3 trillion, and $2 trillion from indoor
air pollution. Mortality costs from outdoor
air pollution are projected to rise to about$25 trillion by 2060 in the absence of more
stringent measures (Organisation for
Economic Co-operation and Development
2016a).

Table 2: Summary of some of the costs of pollution based on the literature

Pollution

Costs(2015 billion US$)% of Gross Domestic
Product

Indoor and outdoor air pollution

5 322

7.2

Chemicals (volatile organic compounds, lead, mercury)

480

0.4

General waste

216

0.3

Land degradation and desertification in Africa (42 countries)

127

12.3

Land degradation in Asia (46 countries) at 2013 priceNot available

6.6

Note: see Annex 3 for more details on assumptions, methods and sources
Sources: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (2016), World Bank and Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation(2016), United Nations Environment Programme and Principles for Responsible Investment Association (2010), Economics of Land
Degradation and United Nations Environment Programme (2015), Economics of Land Degradation andUnited Nations Environment Programme (2017)32

Towards a Pollution-Free Planet

Declining water quality also has a wide
range of economic impacts, including
those related to human health, ecosystem
health, agricultural and fisheries productivity,
and recreational uses. With regards tohuman health, the welfare cost of mortality
from unsafe water is remarkable in many
developing countries. In Africa, mortality
costs from unsafe water (calculated using
the value of statistical life) is estimated at$252 billion (costs are expressed in 2015
prices), an equivalent of 4 per cent of grossdomestic product (Organisation for Economic
Co-operation and Development 2016b). In
2004, losses due to inadequate water andsanitation services in developing countries
were estimated at $260 billion a year. This isequal to 10 per cent of the gross domestic
product of some poor countries.
The Lancet Commission on Pollution and
Health estimates that the costs of low
productivity from pollution-related diseases
are between 1.3 per cent and 1.9 per centof gross domestic product in low-income
countries; between 0.61 per cent and 0.82 percent in low-middle income countries; andaround $53 billion in 2015 in high and upper
middle-income countries (Commission on
Pollution and Health 2017).
These are conservative estimates, given that
not all pollutants and waste are included.
Even given the limitations of the research
described, it is clear that inadequate attention
to pollution can lead to substantial economic
costs. The evidence of the physical andeconomic cost of pollution presented here,
though just indicative of the scale of pollution
impacts, provides a clear-cut case for
immediate action.

While a better understanding of the staggering
economic costs of pollution can inform
evidence-based decision-making and support
more effective policies, the human costsof pollution are even more critical. The
United Nations has appointed two Special
Rapporteurs, the UN Special Rapporteuron the implications for human rights of theenvironmentally sound management anddisposal of hazardous substances andwastes, and the UN Special Rapporteur onhuman rights and the environment.
The role of the UN Special Rapporteur onhuman rights and chemicals is to provide
up-to-date information on the adverse impactof the improper management and disposalof hazardous substances and wastes on thefull enjoyment of human rights. This includes
the human rights implications of waste
recycling programmes and the transfer ofpolluting industries, industrial activities andtechnologies from one country to another.
The Rapporteur also investigates trends ine-waste and the dismantling of ships, andprovides support to victims of human rights
violations relating to the environmentallysound management and disposal ofhazardous substances and wastes (United
Nations Human Rights Office of the HighCommissioner 2017). The work of the Special
Rapporteur reveals that it is possible toprevent much of the human suffering causedby pollution, which disproportionately affects
people and communities that are alreadyvulnerable.

33

Towards a Pollution-Free Planet

2

Addressing pollution:
Governance frameworks,
challenges andopportunities in
the context ofthe 2030 Agenda

The first Principles of both the 1972
Stockholm and 1992 Rio Declarations focus
on the human right to a safe and clean
environment. The Stockholm Declaration
describes “the fundamental right to freedom,
equality and adequate conditions of life, inan environment of a quality…”, while the Rio
Declaration states that humans “are entitledto a healthy and productive life in harmony
with nature” (United Nations 1972 and1992). These declarations, have together
with other principles informed many national
constitutions over the past three decades.
At the same time, voluntary environmental
initiatives have supported more formal
environmental agreements, resulting inprogress in some areas. But even more robust
governance frameworks are required tobring us closer to a pollution-free planet. The
Sustainable Development Goals provide an
opportunity to accelerate the implementationof targeted and time-bound actions on
pollution, which have been hitherto limited
and inadequate.

34

2.1 G
 lobal and regional
environmental agreements
and national regulations
Multilateral environmental agreements and UN
resolutions provide a governance framework
for targeted and time-bound actions, whilesome also include compliance-related actions,monitoring and reporting. Such agreements
and resolutions also enable the exchangeof resources and information as well as thesharing of technologies and best practices
for controlled international trade; they also
promote international partnerships to address
pollution, including among non-state actors.
A number of multilateral environmental
agreements address different types ofpollution. For example, the implementation of
the Paris Agreement on climate change will bea major step forward in tackling air pollution,
as the root causes of global warming andair pollution largely overlap. Addressing
short-lived climate pollutants could avoid

Towards a Pollution-Free PlanetBox 3: Reduction of sulphur in air emissions in Europe and Asia
The Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution was established in 1979 and has been particularly successful
in connecting scientific evidence with policy options. The greatest success, following the 1985 Sulphur Protocol andsubsequent protocols, has been the reduction in acidification, or “acid rain”, which was causing significant damage tosoils, lakes and streams and the built environment, including historic buildings and cultural monuments. Abatement
measures – such as flue gas desulphurization and the development of low-sulphur fuels – have led to a total reductionof about 80 per cent of sulphur emissions since 1990 (Maas and Grennfelt 2016). As a result, freshwater and terrestrial
ecosystems are now recovering and the critical loads are being exceeded only in limited parts of Europe.
The Asia-Pacific Clean Air Partnership provides an example of positive action. The Partnership has provided a platform
for countries to share air quality management experiences, good practices and lessons learned. A number of transportmeasures have been applied in Asia, with many countries in the region adopting European standards or similar forvehicles and fuels regulation (Afghanistan, Brunei, Iran, Nepal, Singapore, Republic of Korea, Thailand). For example, somecountries have introduced requirements for reduced sulphur content in diesel fuel; others have replaced two-stroke engine
motorcycles and tricycles with four-stroke alternatives that rely on less-polluting gaseous fuel. Megacities in countries
such as China, Japan, Republic of Korea and Singapore havetaken action. Positive options include introducing sustainabletransport options such as rail and electric vehicles usage have significantly alleviated air quality (United Nations
Environment Programme 2015a).

as much as 0.5°C of warming and prevent
2.4 million premature deaths from air pollution(United Nations Environment Programme andWorld Meteorological Organization 2011).
Specific air pollution-related agreements, suchas the Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution, provide additional
protocols to address transboundary issues,
such as acid rain (Box 3).
With regards to chemicals and waste, existing
multilateral environmental agreements enableactions notably in relation to ozone-depleting
substances, persistent organic pollutants,
certain hazardous industrial chemicals andpesticides in international trade, of hazardousand household waste, and more recently
mercury, with the entry into force of the
Minamata Convention on 16 August 2017
(Annex 4). Such legally binding approaches
at the global level are essential to addressing
the most critical and complex pollution
challenges. Several of the multilateralenvironmental agreements enjoy universal
or near universal ratification. A clear successstory is that of the Montreal Protocol and its
Multilateral Fund. As of June 2017, the Fund
had provided roughly $3.7 billion to more than
140 countries to phase out ozone-depleting
substances, with lasting influence oninnovation, technology transfer, strengtheningof environmental governance, and training ofcustoms officers and technicians.
Global conventions provide a legal framework
for international governance of seas and theocean, prevention of pollution from ships,
as well as dumping at sea, and are often
complemented by regional agreements andconventions on specific seas (Annex 5).
Freshwater pollution is mostly addressedby regional agreements looking at specifictransboundary water basins, while landand soil pollution is indirectly addressed by
the United Nations Convention to Combat
Desertification and chemicals and waste
conventions and processes.
The Convention on Biological Diversity’s
Aichi Biodiversity Targets call for a decreasein pollution and demands specific actions
on excess nutrients. Most of the otherenvironmental agreements at the regional or
global level have an indirect impact on various
pollution areas, but many areas remain
unaddressed.
Annexes 4 and 5 provide a summary of themandates of global and regional agreementson pollution. The potential of global andregional environmental agreements to achieve
their objectives related to pollution is not

35

Towards a Pollution-Free Planetnecessarily fully utilized due to various factors,
including the lack of capacity and financial
resources to assist parties and stakeholders.
Whereas global and regional environmental
initiatives such as the Strategic Approach toInternational Chemicals Management canhelp to safely manage some of the mostpolluting substances, some other pollutants
are not covered. Some pollutants do not havesubstitutes or alternatives, while others are
too pervasive.
In some regions, ministerial environmentand health forums support integrated
action to tackle environmental risks
affecting health. Their integrative role offers
significant opportunities for upscaled
and impactful results and exchange ofexperiences within and across regions.
Formal legal agreements are often
complemented by non-legally binding
policy frameworks and initiatives, suchas the Strategic Approach to International
Chemicals Management (SAICM) (United
Nations Environment Programme 2017d),
the Climate and Clean Air Coalition, and
the Global Programme of Action for theProtection of the Marine Environment fromLand-based Activities (GPA).
However, global and regional agreements
cover only a part of the pollution governancelandscape. Most countries have adopted
national policy and legal frameworks to
respond to these agreements and to addresssome of the other pollution issues.
Today, a majority of UN Member Statesrecognize environmental rights. As of 2015,
over 100 countries guaranteed their citizens
a right to a healthy environment, with the
majority of countries building this into theirnational constitutions (Figure 15) (data
updated from Boyd 2012). Although nointernational agreement explicitly recognizes
the right to a healthy environment, national
constitutions have played a vital role at theforefront of human rights and environmental
protection. The majority of constitutional
environmental rights include substantive,
procedural, and emerging rights, such as
the right to health and food, while others
refer to policy-based, reciprocal-duty, andmiscellaneous provisions.
Figure 15 indicates countries that recognize
the right to a healthy environment, either
through their national constitutions, legal
frameworks, or ratification of regional or otheragreements. Also shown are the few countries
that do not recognize this right. However,in some of these countries, subnational
governments recognize rights to a healthy
environment. UN Environment, in collaboration

Figure 15: Map of countries that recognize the right to a healthy environment as of 2015

Source: updated from Boyd D.R. 201236

Towards a Pollution-Free Planetwith the UN Special Rapporteur on Human
Rights and the Environment and the UN Officeof the High Commissioner for Human Rights,
works to assist countries to operationalize
and implement these rights, which make adifference to people’s lives.
Progress can also be tracked in some specificareas of pollution. By 2015, 109 Member
States had adopted air quality standards;
73 had a specific air quality policy, act or rules(Figure 16); and 104 had vehicle emission
standards (Figure 17) (United Nations
Environment Programme, 2016k).
Legislation, regulations, and standards
for chemicals and waste management
are diverse and complex. Some countries

Figure 3

have more than 100 instruments covering
imports and exports, product standards,
occupational exposure limits, bans andrestrictions, registration schemes, framework
legislation, and so on (United Nations
Institute for Training and Research 2012). To
date, 167 countries have national legislation
addressing the issues covered by the Basel
Convention, 142 of which have specificchemicals or waste legislation. As of 2017,
65 countries had legally binding controls on
lead in paint. In water pollution management,
41 per cent of 130 countries surveyed in 2012indicated that they had fully implemented,
started or advanced implementation of
integrated water resources management
plans or the equivalent (United Nations
Economic and Social Council 2017).

Figure 17: Ongoing actions taken by countries to address air pollution
Where is the world in taking action to improve air quality?

Non-solid
fuels access
Cook/heating
stoves
Vehicle emission
standards
Fuel sulfur
content

Public transport

Industrial energy
efficiency
Clean production
incentives

Wasteburning
Laws andregulations
Air quality
standards
0

No. of Countries

193

Countries that have implemented policies and activities
Countries that are in the process of implementing policies and activities
Countries that have yet to adopt or implement activities
Data were not available

Source: United Nations Environment Programme 2016k37

Towards a Pollution-Free Planet

Figure 16: Air quality laws and regulations

Source: United Nations Environment Programme 2016k

However, implementation, compliance andenforcement remain a great challenge,
especially in developing countries, due
to factors such as a lack of institutional
capacity, absence of interministerial
coordination, and the limited availability of
information, training and national guidancematerials on how to enforce relevant
laws. High-income countries also face
enforcement problems. For instance, thetransboundary movement of hazardous
waste, which is regulated by the Basel
Convention, is often not properly controlled,
and resulting in large amounts of hazardous
waste being exported in an unregulatedmanner to developing countries. Up to90 per cent of e-waste is illegally dumped
after being declared “second-hand goods”(United Nations Environment Programand International Solid Waste
Association 2015).
Voluntary initiatives and global alliances
have been instrumental in driving improved
responses (Box 4) aand faster actions,as seen in the case of fuel efficiency
improvements and cleaner air (Boxes 5 and
6). These strategic initiatives help leverageand motivate key stakeholders to deliver onplanned outcomes.

Box 4: Strategic Approach to International Chemicals Management: A voluntary, non-binding approach
The Strategic Approach to International Chemicals Management (SAICM) is an international, voluntary, and non-binding
approach to achieving the goal of protecting human health and the environment from the harmful effects of chemicals
by 2020. Its global approach covers all agricultural and industrial chemicals throughout their life cycle. It addresses
significant health and environmental harms caused by chemical exposure and is the only global forum in which the fullrange of known and newly discovered health and environmental concerns associated with the chemical life cycle can be
identified, assessed and addressed. It aims to support the development of an overall, preventive chemicals management
system in every country; it also aims to address a set of emerging policy issues including, among others, chemicals in
products (United Nations Environment Programme 2015b) electronics, nanomaterials, lead in paint, endocrine-disrupting
chemicals, environmentally persistent pharmaceutical pollutants, perfluorinated chemicals, and the transition to safer
alternatives to highly hazardous pesticides (Watts 2015). Significant progress has been achieved in the areas of risk
reduction, governance, capacity building and technical cooperation. Less progress has been measured in the areas ofknowledge and information, and few data are available to assess progress related to illegal international traffic. The
ongoing multi-stakeholder process on sound management of chemicals and waste beyond 2020 offers opportunities toagree on measurable goals and actions that contribute to achieving the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development in thearea of chemicals and waste management.

38

Towards a Pollution-Free PlanetBox 5: Eliminating lead in fuels and paint through partnerships
Over the course of ten years, the Partnership for Clean Fuels and Vehicles – a public-private partnership formed by UN
Environment – supported more than 80 countries. Governments, the oil and auto industries, and civil society have worked
together to support a global shift to unleaded fuels. To date, only three countries still use small amounts of leaded fuels, all ofwhich are set to stop by the end of 2017. This massive shift prevents an estimated 1.2 million premature deaths every year.
Studies have shown that blood lead levels drop dramatically in countries that ban leaded petrol. It also has a positive impact
on children’s intellectual ability (Tsai and Hatfield 2011).

Figure 18: The use of unleaded petrol in 2002 (left) and today (right)
Now that lead in automobile fuels has been almost completely phased out, decorative paint is one of the largest sources of
exposure to lead. Although global regulation on white lead paint started as early as 1921, decorative paint containing lead isstill sold in many developing countries. They are used in homes and schools, on furniture and toys, exposing children to thisdangerous neuro-toxic pollutant. As of April 2017, regulation on lead paint is in place in 65 countries. The Lead Paint Allianceis working towards the goal of having regulation in place in all countries by 2020. Countries that introduced new regulations
include India, Kenya, Nepal, the Philippines, Sri Lanka, Tanzania and Thailand. Many paint manufacturers, including AkzoNobel
and PPG Industry, the two largest global companies in the sector, have committed to phasing out lead paint. However, there areconcerns that voluntary labelling and certification efforts by industry are insufficient, and that government action on lead paintlaws may be required.

39

Towards a Pollution-Free PlanetBox 6: Climate and Clean Air Coalition: A voluntary partnership model
Established in 2012, the Climate and Clean Air Coalition (CCAC) is a voluntary partnership of governments, the private
sector, civil society and other stakeholders committed to “achieve concrete and substantial action to accelerate efforts to
reduce short-lived climate pollutants”. Concerted global action to reduce these pollutants has the potential to prevent an
estimated 2.4 million premature deaths annually from outdoor air pollution, significantly reduce the estimated 4.3 million
deaths and other health impacts from indoor air pollution, and avoid more than 52 million tons of crop losses annually,
while reducing the near-term warming of up to 0.5° Celsius by 2050.
The membership has grown from 7 to 115 partners including 53 countries, 17 intergovernmental organizations and
45 nongovernmental organizations. The Coalition combines strong science, high-level political will, and partnershipleadership, with a range of cost-effective measures to reduce emissions, commitments by partners to implement actions
at home and a Trust Fund to finance some initial collective activities. This is delivered through 11 initiatives targetingtransformational change in household energy, cooling, bricks production, oil and gas production, agriculture, transport,solid waste, and national/local planning. A Scientific Advisory Panel keeps the Coalition abreast of new scientificdevelopments on short-lived climate pollutants to better inform policies.

2.2 A
 ctual and potential benefitsof addressing pollution
Limited and inadequate as current responses
may be, it is evident that tackling pollution has
already brought multiple benefits. Projections
indicate that further actions have the potential
to enhance health and well-being and theeconomy. Many case studies already point
to the multiple benefits of tackling pollution(Table 3). Two success stories in particularshow what can be achieved: the healing of
the ozone layer (Box 7) and the phasing out oflead in fuel (Box 5).
Traditional pollution control that relies on
end-of-pipe technologies has been shown to
reduce polluting substances, such as in thecase of sulphur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogenoxides (NOx). However, these technologies
also require materials and energy upfront,
and, as a consequence, may increase
environmental impacts (International
Resource Panel 2017a). Resource efficiency
over the whole production-consumption
system can generate products which are
identical or have the same functionality
as when using traditional technologies
and processes, while also reducing
critical emissions and mitigating resource
requirements and environmental impacts
in the upstream processes (International
Resource Panel 2017b).
Moving to less-polluting and nature-based
technologies also offers economic and40

employment opportunities. Renewable energy
provided jobs for 9.8 million people worldwide
in 2016, compared to 5.7 million in 2012
(International Renewable Agency 2013 and2017). Waste recycling and reuse also offers
the chance to convert waste into economic
opportunities, including jobs. The scope andextent of these opportunities depends on theavailability of the secondary materials market,
which can be local (compost), national orregional (glass, fertilizers) or global (ferrous
and non-ferrous materials), depending on
the material recovered (United Nations
Environment Programme and International
Solid Waste Association 2015). As secondary
materials replace virgin materials (forexample phosphate from fertilizer nutrient
recovery) they reduce the resource andenvironmental footprint of growth, but they
can also have income and job impacts on
primary exporting countries. Thus, careful
and inclusive transition planning is required
for those affected by these transformations(United Nations Environment Programme
2017b). Environmental technologies that
help to control and prevent pollution also
bring tremendous trade and investment
opportunities. It is estimated that the global
market for environmental goods and services
reached $866 billion in 2011, and is expected
to rise to $1.9 trillion by 2020 (Bucher et al.
2014).
Innovation in the chemicals sector opens
up new ways to use existing resources atlower cost or more productively throughTowards a Pollution-Free Planet

Table 3: Selected examples of multiple benefits of tackling pollution

Pollution area

Intervention

Benefits of interventions

Air pollution

Regulation

United States Environmental Protection Agency regulations issued between
2004 and 2014 to limit air pollution generated benefits of between $157 billion
and $777 billion (2010 prices). Costs of implementation were estimated tobe between $37 billion and $44 billion. This is a clear indication that benefits
outweighed costs by a ratio of at least 4 to 1 (World Bank and Institute for Health
Metrics and Evaluation 2016).

Air pollution
reduction

The health welfare benefits of reducing air pollution in China in the period 2015
to 2025 were estimated at $125 billion (2015 prices). (Sun et al. 2016)

Shipping emissions

A review of the health impacts of shipping emissions found that on-time (2020)
implementation of a global low-sulphur fuel cap for shipping would prevent some
200,000 premature deaths due to a reduction in toxic fumes, mainly in coastal
communities in the developing world (Seas at Risk 2016).

Freshwater

Access to clean
drinking water andsanitation

Access to improved drinking water can yield substantial welfare gains to many
developing countries. The World Health Organization (2012) estimates thebenefits of avoided mortality from universal access to improved drinking water
to be $3 billion per year (2015 prices) for sub-Saharan Africa, Asia (East, South,
South-East and West), Latin America and the Caribbean. The benefits of waterpollution control amounted to 7.4 billion (2015 prices). This includes avertedmortality from unsafe drinking water, externality effects from agriculture, andother costs.

Chemicals
and waste

Strengthened
governanceof chemicals
management

In Uganda, the benefits of strengthening the governance of chemicals
management for the agriculture sector are estimated to be $1.98 billion overthe period 2011 to 2025. Crop yield gains are estimated at 20 per cent in thecultivated areas concerned (Kateregga 2010).

Reduction of global
mercury emissions

If global mercury emissions could be reduced by 50 per cent to 60 per centbefore 2020, the resulting prevention of water and fish contamination, andexposures to pregnant women and children, could reap global economic benefitsof between $2.2 billion and $2.7 billion in 2020 (Sundseth et al. 2010).

Box 7: Healing the ozone layer
The ozone treaties (The Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer and the Montreal Protocol on Substancesthat Deplete the Ozone Layer) have ensured that to date more than 99 per cent of the historic baseline levels of
consumption and production of harmful ozone-depleting substances have been phased out. Through the Multilateral Fund,nearly $3.7 billion has been allocated to developing countries. As a result, the ozone layer is healing; it is expected to berestored by the middle of the century.
Health impacts: Up to two million cases of skin cancer may be prevented each year by 2030 (Van Dijk, Van Staalduinen
and Van der Sluijs 2013). Further, 283 million cases of skin cancer (including 8.3 cases of melanoma) will have been
avoided, 1.6 million deaths from skin cancer prevented and 46 million cases of cataracts prevented for those born
between 1890 and 2100 in the United States alone (United States Environmental Protection Agency 2015).
Economic impacts: The phase-out of ozone-depleting substances has avoided reductions in agricultural and fishery yields.
During the period 1987 to 2060, $460 billion worth of damage to agriculture, fisheries and materials such as plastic andwood will have been avoided (United Nations Environment Programme 2012b).
Climate change impacts: International action to protect the ozone layer averted 135 billion tons of carbon dioxide
equivalent emissions between 1990 to 2010 (Molina et al. 2009). In October 2016, the Parties to the Montreal Protocol
adopted the Kigali Amendment, in which they agreed to phase down hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs). These measures are
expected to avoid up to O.5°C of global warming by the end of the century, while continuing to protect the ozone layer.
Ecosystem impacts: Averting dangerous climate change and reducing the exposure of wildlife and plants to ultraviolet
light will also have enormous benefits for ecosystem functioning.

41

Towards a Pollution-Free Planet

the development of safer alternatives tothe hazardous chemicals currently used inindustry, and the supply of new chemical
resources (United Nations Environment
Programme 2013a). Forecasts indicatethat total savings across industry fromgreen chemistry developments could reach$65.5 billion, and that it represents a market
opportunity worth approximately $100 billion
by 2020 (Pike Research 2012).

contribute to more than 570,000 additional
premature deaths, mostly in coastal
communities (International Maritime
Organization 2016).
•

Scenarios developed by the Organisation
for Economic Co-operation andDevelopment (OECD) suggest thatspecific measures to further reuse
nutrients in agriculture and reduce both
domestic and agricultural dischargesof nitrogen and phosphorus could bringsignificant benefits. By 2050, nitrogenand phosphorus surpluses in agriculture
could be almost 20 per cent less than in abaseline scenario, the effluent of nutrientsin wastewater could fall by nearly 35 per
cent, total nutrient loads to rivers could
be reduced by nearly 40 per cent for
nitrogen and 15 per cent for phosphorus
compared to baseline. These would
require a combination of measures onnutrients: 1) an increase in fertilizer use
efficiency, 2) higher nutrient efficiencies
in livestock production, 3) using animal
manure instead of synthetic nitrogenand phosphorus fertilizers in countries
with a fertilizer-dominated arable system,4) investments in sewage systems
that separately collect urine from otherwastewater in household, and 5) recycling
treated wastewater back into agriculture
to significantly reduce wastewater nutrient
flows and fertilizer use (Organisation for
Economic Co-operation and Development2012).

•

Well-planned and appropriate ecosystem
restoration, compared to the loss of
ecosystem services, may provide
benefit-cost ratios of 3:75 in return on
investments, as well as an internal rateof return of between 7 per cent and79 per cent, depending on the ecosystem
restored and its economic context (Kumar2017). Thus, in many cases ecosystem
restoration can provide some of the mostprofitable public investments including
generation of jobs directly and indirectly
related to an improved environment andhealth. Ecological restoration can further

Various scenarios, projections and stories ofsuccess highlight the opportunity, added value
and multiple benefits of accelerating action to
tackle pollution:
•

•

42

Under its “Clean Air Scenario”, theInternational Energy Agency projects thatan increase of 7 per cent in total clean
energy investment for the period 20122040 could prevent 1.7 million premature
deaths from outdoor air pollution and1.6 million deaths from household
pollution in 2040 compared to thebaseline scenario. Investments focus onadvanced pollution control technologies,
mostly to comply with stricter vehicle
emissions standards, witha more rapidtransformation of the energy sector, as
well as stronger efforts to improve energy
efficiency. Under the scenario, most people
in urban areas gain access to efficient
cookstoves by 2030, and in rural areas
by 2040. As a result, the share of India’s
population exposed to air with a highconcentration of fine particulate matter
could fall to less than 20 per cent in 2040,
down from more than 60 per cent today.
In China, this figure shrinks from well overhalf to below one quarter, and in Indonesia
and South Africa it falls to almost zero(International Energy Agency 2016).
The Finnish Meteorological Instituteconcluded a study on “Health Impacts
Associated with Delay of MARPOL Global
Sulphur Standards”, which shows that afive-year delay (from 2020 to 2025) in theimplementation of global sulphur limits
in ships by the International Maritime
Organization (IMO) and its parties would

Towards a Pollution-Free Planet

act as an engine of economic growth
and a source of green employment (Kumar2017).

2.3 C
 hallenges and gaps

result in them being treated as dumping
grounds.
•

Knowledge gaps continue to hinder
effective action on pollution, despite
the fact that access to pollutionrelated information has improved
dramatically alongside advancements
in information technology and thecontinual implementation of pollutant
release and transfer registers (PRTRs)
by countries throughout the world. Thereis a need, however, for much greaterawareness of information on the sourcesof pollution, the pathways of exposure,and the impacts and solutions. Emerging
issues and new research findings on theimpacts on health and ecosystems need
to be taken into account. There is also
insufficient information disclosure, anda limited understanding of pollution’ssocial, health and gender dimensions.
Without broader public awareness,the socio-political pressure needed toprevent and mitigate pollution will not
follow. Information disclosure and greaterawareness will enable the developmentof more effective interventions, support
meaningful and effective participation,and empower the public to play a role inensuring that government institutions andthe regulated community and businessmeet their legal obligations and strengthen
implementation.

•

Infrastructure gaps exist with regards
to monitoring pollution, collecting anddisposing of waste, treating wastewater,
facilitating recycling and improving foodstorage, among other areas. Major formsof pollution exist due to the absence ofinfrastructure such as monitoring systems,
wastewater and sewage treatment plants,
controlled waste collection, reception anddisposal, facilities for recycling and foodstorage, etc. This lack of infrastructure
not only prevents better practice, butalso enhances hazards associated with
pollution, such as waste dump collapses,
flooding of sewage water or water runoffthat leads to mobilization of dangerous

Despite current actions and environmental
governance frameworks, the problem ofpollution persists and remains pervasive.
New pollution issues continue to emerge forwhich responses have yet to be developed.
While successful responses to the pollution
challenge exist, their scope, scale andeffectiveness are still limited. Evidence of thecontinuing trends and impacts of pollution
demonstrates the tenacity of the problem.
Many multilateral environmental agreements
are not as effective as they could be for lackof institutional capacity or resources. Butother challenges and gaps are limiting theefficacy of current actions on pollution; theyalso point to a neglect of pollution issues.
The following key gaps help to explain why
pollution is still an issue:•

Implementation gaps are due toa lack of resources; inadequate
administrative, financial, institutional
and technical capacity; and the absenceof interministerial coordination andpolitical will. Absence of interministerial
coordination is a key reason why action
does not happen. Many sectors contributeto pollution, and action will only follow if
there is interministerial coordination anda greater consciousness with regards
to pollution and its social and economic
impacts. In many countries, there is afocus on economic development andraising livelihood standards at the expenseof pollution prevention. Informationon the costs of inaction to society, theeconomy and the health of individuals
and highlighting the benefits of action are
therefore key to informing public policy.
The absence of enforceable rights on theenvironment within a country’s border (forexample in villages, indigenous lands),
and beyond the borders (for example in
the oceans, atmosphere and open lands)

43

Towards a Pollution-Free Planet

chemicals from storage or remobilizationof chemicals already in the environment,
e.g. pesticides, or disease outbreaks
after natural disasters. Investing ininfrastructure improvements is key toaddressing pollution.a••

Leadership gaps by development banks,finance institutions, and industry, ininsufficiently making pollution avoidanceand control central to their decisionmaking, are also hindering progresson the pollution reduction and control
front. This gap is especially evident
with regards to requirements related topollution information disclosure, due
diligence, pollution prevention approaches,internalization of pollution costs, and green
financing. Improved assessments andreporting of pollution exposure risks andinternalization of environmental costs ofactivities and products are key to cleaner
production and consumption investment
decisions. The integration of theeconomic costs of pollution into productpricing would incentivize companies
and consumers to make more informed
choices and would create pressure
on producers to reduce their pollution
footprint and adopt better practices.
Mispricing, and the invisibility of
ecosystem values and externalizationof pollution costs result in wastage andover-use; the treatment of ecosystems as
dumps and sinks for waste; and choices
made without full knowledge of what isbeing consumed or traded off. Subsidies
for, for example, energy, water, electricity
and commodity crops, also result in
wastage and overuse. Lack of valuationof ecosystem goods and services,such as those from oceans, rivers,land, wetlands, and others result in thea44

treatment of these ecosystems as dumps
and sinks for waste. Externality caused
by upstream actions are often difficult
to include in compliance downstream.
Plastics in the oceans is a case in point:
the environmental costs of producing andusing plastics are not internalized, suchthat a lack of actions upstream in the value
chain has downstream impacts throughrivers and streams that open into the sea.
One of the key barriers to change is thefact that the economic costs of pollution
are not integrated in policy and decisionmaking. This results in choices that are
made without full knowledge of the tradeoffs.
•

There is insufficient recognition bydifferent actors that producer andconsumer choices have pollutionconsequences. Such choices – even in
the presence of pollution policies andregulations – can be made out of habit,
a feeling that one person or firm cannot
make a difference, a free-rider problem,
peer pressure or the lack thereof, social
norms and practices, short termism,
and even the absence of information on
products and alternative affordable options(United Nations Environment Programme
2017a).

2.4 The sustainable development
goals: an opportunity toaccelerate pollution action
The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable
Development offers a great opportunity toenhance and accelerate action to tackle
pollution. Pollution prevention, control
and reduction will also create multiple
opportunities for achieving the Sustainable
Development Goals in a mutually beneficial
manner.

An ongoing evaluation of the Independent Evaluation Group, “Towards a Clean World for all – World Bank Group’s
Support to Pollution Management”, to be released later this year, will provide further insight into how to address
pollution challenges.

Towards a Pollution-Free Planet

Every pollution area described under Part 1 isaddressed by one or more targets. Addressing
pollution helps to reduce poverty (Goal 1), as
it improves health and worker productivity andwork days. Addressing pollution also protects
the poor, as these are often most exposed
to pollution for lack of options in where theywork, live or how they cook or what they eat or
drink. Addressing pollution also contributes topoverty alleviation by supporting Target 15.9
on “integrating ecosystem and biodiversity
values into national and local planning,development processes, poverty reduction
strategies and accounts”. Addressing
pollution in all its forms helps to fight hunger
and ensure the provision of safe food year
round (Target 2.1), as it tackles the foodsafety issues of irrigation with untreatedwastewater or sewage as well as the growingof food on contaminated soil. In all actions
against pollution, it is also important to ensure
women’s equal participation, decision-making
and access to opportunities and resources(Goal 5). In this respect, the provision ofclean water (Goal 6) and energy (Goal 7) also
reduces the domestic burden of women to
carry water and their exposure to indoor air
pollution from cooking activities.
Under Goal 3 on health and well-being, one
target (Target 3.9) is central, requiring thatby 2030 we “substantially reduce the numberof deaths and illnesses from hazardous
chemicals and air, water and soil pollution
and contamination”. Human health andthe environment are compromised by themismanagement of chemicals and waste,
which form a fundamental obstacle to theachievement of sustainable development.
This is strongly linked to how we produce
and consume (Goal 12) and our ability to
reduce resource degradation, pollution andwaste. Indeed, environmental impacts andpollution cannot be effectively mitigatedunless raw material inputs into production
and consumption systems are decreased,since the magnitude of what goes into
these systems determines the final waste
and emissions released to the environment(United Nations Environment Assembly of
the United Nations Environment Programme2016). One key approach is the decoupling of
economic and human activity from resourceuse (Goal 8) through enhanced resource
efficiency (European Environment
Agency 2016).
Other goals and related targets that are
essential to reduce and prevent pollution,such as Target 6.3 under Goal 6, whichaims to improve water quality by reducing
pollution, eliminating dumping and minimizing
the release of hazardous chemicals andmaterials. Not only could it significantly
reduce the number of deaths from diarrhoeal
diseases; it could also provide incentives formore innovative water resource management
practices, including recycling and safe reuse.
Target 14.1 already addresses pollution
explicitly by requesting “the prevention andsignificant reduction of all kinds of marine
pollution, in particular from land-based
activities, including marine debris and nutrient
pollution”.
Clean household energy (Goal 7) and accessto affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern
energy can cut air pollution indoors, which
will particularly benefit women and children.
Sustainable transport, waste management,
buildings and industry (Goal 11 on inclusive,
safe, resilient and sustainable cities andsettlements) will lead to cleaner air in cities.
Those policies could prevent more than six
million deaths each year due to air pollution
and mitigate climate change and its impacts(Goal 13).
Another group of Sustainable Development
Goals is instrumental in enabling the effective
implementation of actions to address various
forms of pollution. Goal 16 provides themomentum for good governance, publicaccess to environmental information,
public participation and access to justicefor all in environmental matters. Goal 17
is an enabler for achieving all Sustainable
Development Goals and focuses on means of
implementation, such as finance, technology,
capacity development, global partnerships
and policy coherence. Goal 4 promotes
quality education so that people acquire the45

Towards a Pollution-Free Planet

knowledge and skills needed to promotesustainable development and sustainable
lifestyles (Target 4.7).
A fundamental principle of the 2030 Agenda
is to “leave no one behind”. In the context
of pollution, this means that no group orcommunity is made to bear a disproportionate
share of the harmful effects of pollution.
Sustainable development is not possible
without a healthy population. Goal 10 – theinequality goal – includes the specifictarget: “By 2030, empower and promote thesocial, economic and political inclusion ofall, irrespective of age, sex, disability, race,
ethnicity, origin, religion or economic or otherstatus” (Target 10.2).
All Sustainable Development Goals areinterlinked and indivisible. While there
is ample scope for synergies between
progress towards the goals and reducing
pollution, there is also a potential for conflict.
For example, achieving targets related
to economic growth, industrialization,
infrastructure, agricultural development andTable 3urbanization, could be at odds with movement
towards a pollution-free planet. A case in point
is Target 2.3, which aims to double agricultural
productivity by 2030. This may result inincreased air, land and freshwater pollution,
in a business-as-usual scenario, whereas
Target 8.4 endeavours to decouple economic
growth from environmental degradation.
Modelling studies suggest that sustainableconsumption and production (Goal 12)
policies are the most effective in reducing
trade-offs (Obersteiner et al. 2016).
Figure 19 visualizes how addressing pollution
supports the achievement of the Sustainable
Development Goals. Annex 6 provides adetailed mapping of the specific targets thatare benefiting from addressing pollution; italso explores in a preliminary way how theinternational environmental governancelandscape is currently set up to address
pollution.
The 2030 Agenda also provides business with
an opportunity to respond to the Sustainable
Development Goals and act on pollution. In

Figure 19: Acting on pollution for the Sustainable Development Goals
A c t i n g o n p o l l ut i o n f o r t he S u s t a i n a b l e D e v el o p m en t G o a l s

46

Cleaner environments improve healthand worker productivity and work days

Growing food on non-contaminatedsoils helps to fight hunger and ensure
the provision of safe food round

Actions on pollution substantially reduce
the number of deaths and illnesses fromhazardous chemicals and air, water andsoil pollution and contamination

A clean environment enables quality
education and education enables
acquisition of knowledge and skills needed
to promote sustainable development andsustainable lifestyles

Pollution reduction as well as
equality, for example throughreduced burden of fetching cleanwater, cleaner indoor air quality andbetter health enable gender equality

Better managed freshwater ecosystems
and cleaner water significantly reduce
the number of deaths from diarrhoeal
diseasesAccess to affordable, reliable,
sustainable and modern energy can
cut air pollution indoors, which will
particularly benefit women and children

Reduced exposure to pollution
leads to improved health andwell-being of workers and therefore
increased productivity andeconomic growth

Pollution avoidance through adoptionof green technologies and ecosystem
based solutions fosters innovationand sustainability in industry andinfrastructural sectors

Pollution governance and actions canensure that no group or community ismade to bear a disproportionate shareof the harmful effects of pollution

Sustainable transport, waste
management, buildings andindustry lead to cleaner air in cities

Resource efficiency and circularity
in materials and input use reduce
pollution and waste and contributeto sustainable consumption andproduction

Clean energy and low carbon policies
reduce air pollution and mitigate climatechange impact at the same time

Action on marine pollution reduces
potential bioaccumulation of toxic
substances as well as habitat
destruction, and help maintainhealthy fisheries and ecosystems

Integrating ecosystem and biodiversity
values into development plans andpoverty reduction strategies supports
better land management and avoids
pollution

Good "pollution-related" governancereduces environmental burdens andinjustices and can enhance availabilityof 'saved' resources for the underserved

Global partnerships to address
pollution can have positive
implications to health, jobs, worker
productivity, planet and well-being

Towards a Pollution-Free Planet

its 2017 report, the Business and Sustainable
Development Commission proposes tobusiness leaders an alternative to businessas usual, in the form of a business strategy inline with the Sustainable Development Goals(Business and Sustainable Development
Commission 2017). The report shows thelinkages between business needs and theglobal goals. It identifies at least $12 trillion
in opportunities, of which the 60 biggest arein food and agriculture, cities, energy andmaterials, and health and well-being. At least
23 of these opportunities can deliver on
pollution avoidance, reduction, mitigation andrehabilitation.

technical and financial assistance. There
are several benefits of having the global
and regional environmental agreements
work together, and more synergisticallywith other initiatives. Supporting voluntary
initiatives such as the Global Programmeof Action for the Protection of the Marine
Environment from Land-based Activities,
the Climate and Clean Air Coalition, theBatumi Action for Cleaner Air, the Global
Alliance for Clean Cookstoves, the Global
Partnership on Marine Litter, the Global
Partnership on Nutrient Management,
the Global Wastewater Partnership, theLead Paint Alliance, Partnership for Clean
Fuels and Vehicles, the Global Mercury
Partnership, the Partnership for Action
on the Green Economy, Principles for
Sustainable Insurance, and so on can
provide the integrating, catalytic, andscaling up power of partnerships andinitiatives for layered actions and next
steps.

2.5 M
 ultiple stakeholders andmulti-level engagement:
central to improved
environmental governance
Strengthening and building on multilateralenvironmental agreements will require greater
multi-level and multi-actor involvement,
coordination and policy coherence, acrossglobal, regional, national, subnational andlocal levels. Improving environmental
governance calls for the following:••

Strengthening the science-policy-society
interface: Bringing knowledge flows
into policy requires a rigorous political
economy analysis, a systemic monitoring
system that includes both indicators andtargets, including on resource footprints
of production and consumption (Giljum
et al. 2015); taking science to various
communities; incorporating traditional,
business, and other knowledge intoscience; and bringing all of this combined
knowledge into policy formulation.
Supplementing and complementing legal
agreements and conventions with more
outcome-based and voluntary initiatives:
International and regional agreements
require national implementation, which inturn requires appropriate infrastructure,
capacity, local partners and direct•

Engaging diverse actors and stakeholders:
To protect the environment and humanhealth, use resources in a sustainable
way, and combat pollution, we will needcommitments and action from all partsof society: governments (national, subnational and local), business and industry,
civil society, the academic and scientificcommunity, youth groups, farmers andthe individual consumer. Involving diverse
actors early in the discussions enhances
the understanding of the problem andthe viability of proposed solutions. It may
also make it easier to attract the supportof parties who might otherwise show
reluctance.

•

Engaging industry and the business
community in solutions: One of the key
reasons for the success of the Montreal
Protocol was that relevant industrial
sectors showed leadership and assisted
the transition through new technologies
and improved practices. The transition
brought significant investment in theinnovative redesigning of products andequipment to use greener chemicals.

47

Towards a Pollution-Free Planet

Such investment has stimulated more
efficient production processes, including
with regard to energy efficiency.
•

48

Integrating innovations in production
systems with social considerations,competitiveness and employment:
Increases in resource efficiency along thewhole production and consumption chain
are necessary to reduce pollution and its
environmental impacts on a system-widebasis. Changing production systems
involves converting existing production
facilities and training personnel in newtechnologies and processes while retaining
existing jobs. Thus, the protection of theenvironment goes hand in hand with social
development and economic growth.

Pollution cannot be resolved solely throughglobal and regional multilateral agreements,
even with better coordination and synergies.
The problem of pollution is closely connectedwith behavioural and technology choices,
production and consumption practices,
industrial processes and pricing policies,
financial and business sector orientation, andsocial norms that are centred on a culture of
consumerism and irresponsibility with regards
to the environment and impacts on people's
health.

Towards a Pollution-Free Planet

3

Transitioning
to a pollutionfree planet

Transitioning towards a pollution-free planet
seeks to eliminate the waste, hazardous
pollutants, and pollution of air, waterand land that emanates from man-madeactivity and that degrades ecosystems
and impacts human health and welfare ofliving species. Research on global material
flows and material and environmental
footprint indicators, indicates that the levelof development and well-being in wealthy
industrial countries has been achieved largely
through highly resource-intensive patternsof consumption and production, which are
not sustainable, even less replicable to otherparts of the world (International Resource
Panel 2016a). Instead, transitioning to apollution-free planet with development andwell-being for all needs innovation, targeted
and time-bound action (with focus on themost urgent and ‘hard hitting’ pollutants’and polluted areas), as well as a longer
term system wide shift in the economy to
be low carbon, circular and less toxic while
reducing the overall use of resources. Thistransition can only take place if preventive
and curative actions are accompanied bysystem-wide enablers, based on opportunity
and innovations.

This section proposes a framework foractions that Member States and otherstakeholders may wish to consider tocurb pollution around the world. It seeks
to reinforce integration and coherencein the way society responds to social,environmental and economic challenges
related to pollution. It fully recognizes
that what already has been achieved bygovernments and stakeholders needs to bebuilt upon and can be reproduced in othercountries and settings through experiencesharing, support and the adoption of goodpractices.
The framework is centered on a dual track ofactions:•

Targeted interventions, based on risk
assessments and scientific evidenceof impacts, to address: i. ‘hard-hitting’pollutants; ii. Areas of pollution (air, water,
marine and coastal, land/soil) including thecross-cutting categories of chemicals andwaste. They can be both based on global
and regional environmental agreements, ordirect action beyond these to address themost pressing problems.

49

Towards a Pollution-Free Planet•(iv) Precautionary approaches are essential
for guiding change, as so much isstill unknown. These ensure not justresponsibility but stewardship by different
societal actors (precautionary).

Both targeted interventions as well astransformative actions need to be supported
by system-wide enablers, that aim to shift
incentives, correct market and policy failures
and address some of the gaps and issues thatmake pollution so pervasive and persistent, toavoid and reduce pollution in the medium andthe long term.

(v) Multiple benefits of action on pollution
require integrated policies and crossministerial approaches (integrative).
Innovation, collaboration, and leadershipare central to tackling pollution, especiallycross media, transboundary, and legacy
pollution, in an effective and impactfulmanner.

The Rio Principles and the 2030 Agenda
for Sustainable Development guide thisframework for actions.

3.1 Targeted priority interventions

The five principles that underpin the
proposed global action agenda – universality,
inclusiveness, sustainability, precautionary
and integration – respectively imply that:(i) Everyone in society is responsible fortaking action towards a pollution-freeplanet (universality). While national
governments have a clear role in enablingand guiding actions and including pollution
management into development agendas,
states and local authorities, communities,businesses, multi-stakeholder partnerships
and citizens have a clear responsibility toact.
(ii) Access for all to environmental
information and data, regulatory
frameworks, education and public
participation, land and resource rights
are key to effective actions and enhanced
access to justice in environmental matters(inclusiveness)(iii) Multiple and long-term risks to humanhealth and well-being, especially towomen, children and vulnerable groups,
ecosystem health and future generations
require a preventive approach while50

accelerating mitigation efforts using
polluter pays approaches (sustainability)

In parallel, there is a critical need forsystem-wide transformations to preventand control pollution, toward greater
resource efficiency and equity, circularity
and sustainable consumption andproduction, and improved ecosystem
resilience to support cleaner and moresustainable development

3.1.1 Interventions targeting “hard-hitting”
pollutants
The evidence in Part 1 highlights a numberof hard hitting pollutants and those thathave crossed exposure thresholds (wherethese have been established). Part 2 showsthat – despite the existence of international
agreements and other initiatives – important
gaps remain in addressing pollution. Targetedinterventions are needed to eliminate or
reduce risks posed by these pollutants.
Table 4 gives an overview of the maincategories of these hard-hitting pollutants
based on what could be done to reduce theirrisk to human health and ecosystems. Possiblenear-term interventions to address priority
areas mostly at a global and multilateral level
have been identified where:
1.	Relevant multilateral environmental
agreements exist, but where
implementation and enforcement need to
be strengthened and scaled up in thosecountries party to them through enhanced
expertise and support
2.	Scientific evidence exists to reduce
pollution risks, but policy action at all levels
are requiredTowards a Pollution-Free Planet

3.	Emerging scientific evidence concerning
human health and the environment
warrants a greater understanding of thenature and magnitude of risks.
3.1.2 Interventions targeting key pollution
areas
In addition to targeting specific hazardous
substances, many interventions can help
tackle or prevent particular forms ofpollution at all levels. Many of these forms ofpollution are already covered by multilateralenvironmental agreements or otherinitiatives, while others are new and basedon emerging knowledge. Fifty examples offocused and actionable policy options areprovided below. They target specific formsof pollution mostly at a national or regional
level, although they also take into accountthe transboundary aspects of pollution.
Many of these interventions are applicable
across one or more of the pollution areas.
Many forms of pollution are interlinked asthey cross these areas. For example, theissue of nutrient pollution from land-based
runoff is a significant aspect of pollution that
affects freshwater and marine environments.
Plastics often originate on land or upstream
and find their way to the coastal and marine
environment through rivers, waterways, andstreams. It is thus important to use river
basin or ecosystem approaches to control
and manage pollution flows as pollution
crosses boundaries.

Table 4

Table 4: Types of action required per pollutant categories, based on scientific evidence

Types of action required per pollutant categories, based on sc ientific evidence

Chemicals/Pollutants

Scientific evidence

Objective/Focus of Action• Persistent Organic Pollutants under Stockholm
Convention (e.g. PCB-polycholorobyphenyl, PBDEsPolybrominated dyphenil ethers,
DDT-dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane, Endosulfan).
• Ozone depleting substances under the Montreal Protocol• Mercury.(Minamata Convention)• Asbestos (ILO Convention)

International pollution reduction action
already agreed (mainly throughmultilateral environmental agreements• Need to scale up implementation action (through, forexample, identification of alternatives, financing,strengthening institutional and technical capacity,
compliance assistance teams and industry support)• For countries that are Parties to these multilateralenvironmental agreements, ensure full
implementation and compliance with the Basel,
Rotterdam and Stockholm conventions, the Aarhus
Protocol on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs)
under the United Nations Economic Commission for
Europe Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air
Pollution and the Minamata Convention on Mercury• Highly hazardous pesticides• Phosphorus and nitrogen• Lead• Other heavy metals (cadmium, arsenic, chromium)• Environmentally persistent pharmaceutical pollutants• Chemicals included under the Rotterdam Convention• Selected solvents (for example. trichloroethylene)• P/VC (vinyl chloride/polyvinyl chloride)• Certain fluorinated compounds (for example PFAS)• Selected flame retardants• PM2.5 – PM10 (particulate matter)• Black carbon• Sulfur dioxide• Nitrogen oxides

Scientific evidence exists to advance risk
reduction action• Enforce emission and release standards if in place,establish standards if none exist• Apply best available techniques and best
environmental practices• Identify and promulgate further appropriate risk
reduction-measures at the national and possiblyinternational level (Measures may include bans,
restriction, standards, labelling, economic incentives)
including full implementation of the Globally Harmonized
System for Classification and Labelling of Chemicals (GHS)• Improve resource efficiency and sustainability inproduction methods to increase recycling and reuse ofmaterial where feasible and in accordance withinternational, regional and national requirements(catalysts, solvents etc.)• Implementation of the Aarhus Protocol on Heavy Metals• Strengthening of multilateral processes that complement
multilateral environmental agreements or catalyse
actions. e.g., the Strategic Approach for International
Chemicals Management (SAICM), the Climate and Clean
Air Coalition (CCAC), the Climate Technology Centre andNetwork (CTCN), the Global Programme of Action for theProtection of the Marine Environment from Land-Based
Activities (GPA), the 10-Year Framework of Programmesof Action on Sustainable Consumption and Production(10YFP), Lead Paint Alliance among others• Endocrine-disrupting chemicals• Nanotechnology• Neonicotinoids• Certain pharmaceuticals, such as antibiotics

Emerging scientific evidence concerning
risk to human health and environment• Need to scale up research and knowledge-sharing tobetter understand nature and magnitude of risks inparticular in developing countries• Apply precautionary approach51

Towards a Pollution-Free Planet

Air pollution
1. D evelop air quality policies and strategies atthe subnational, national and regional levels tocomply with World Health Organization air quality
guidelines
2. Invest in air quality monitoring networks,
assessment systems, institutional capacity
and information disclosure to the wider public
in order to address gaps in capacity, data,
information and awareness
3. R educe emissions from major industrial andmanufacturing sources
4. A
 dopt and enforce advanced vehicles emissions
standards
5. Develop and adopt electric and hybrid vehicles
6. P rovide access to public transport and nonmotorized transport infrastructure in cities
7. Increase investment in renewable energy andenergy efficiency
8. Improve access to clean cooking fuels and green
technologies for residential heating
9. P rotect and restore ecosystems to avoid erosion,
fires and dust storms
10. Reduce emissions of ammonium and methanefrom agriculture
11. Designate and expand green spaces in urban
areas
12. Enhance climate change activities ofGovernments and businesses to better tackle
local and regional pollution

Water pollution
13. Increase treatment, recycling and reuse ofwastewater to reduce the amount of untreatedwastewater discharged into freshwater bodies byat least 50 per cent by 2030
14. Adopt and enforce national guidelines for
freshwater ecosystem management to protect
and restore wetlands and other natural systems
that contribute to water purification
15. Establish, improve and harmonize (in situ) water52

quality and quantity (flow) monitoring systems insurface water and groundwater
16. Define national and water-body standards
to provide an ongoing picture of the qualityof available water resources and to identify
opportunities and risks in relation to human andecosystem health17. Improve data collection and sharing, build
capacity for data quality assurance and control
and make information on water quality freely
available to the public
18. Provide safe drinking water and access tosanitation for all by 2030
Land/soil pollution
19. Adopt agroecological practices and integrated
pest management and establish guidelines forthe reduction and efficient use of fertilizers andenvironmentally friendly pesticides in agriculture
20. Reduce point-source pollutants, such as heavy
metals from industry, and diffuse pollutants
including pesticides and inefficiently used
fertilizers in agriculture
21. Reduce the use of antimicrobials, including
antibiotics in the livestock sector, to avoid
unintended releases into the environment andfood chain, and increase public awareness andinternational collaboration on research andproduct development
22. Invest in building the knowledge of all those
associated with the design, construction,
operation and closure of tailings dams
23. Remediate contaminated sites
24. Invest in long-term environmental monitoring
following industrial closures

Marine and coastal pollution
25. Do not discharge untreated wastewater andreduce excess nutrient runoff from agricultural
systems into the marine environment
26. Restore and conserve coastal ecosystems
and wetlands to reduce the amount ofexcess nutrients and other pollutants suchas heavy metals entering coastal and marine
environments

Towards a Pollution-Free Planet

27. Prevent and reduce marine litter, including
microplastics, and harmonize monitoring andassessment methodologies to facilitate theadoption of reduction targets
28. Reduce or phase out the use of certain types ofplastic (e.g. microbeads, packaging, single-use
plastics) and promote their recovery
29. Develop efficient governance frameworks andstrategies for the prevention and minimizationof the generation of marine plastic litter, inparticular from land-based sources, and makeproducers more responsible for the sustainable
design, recovery, recycling and environmentallysound disposal of their products
30. Regulate the leaking of radioactive waste into
the ocean
31. Establish waste collection systems in coastal
areas and monitor programmes for marine litterto inform upstream interventions

Chemicals and waste
32. Adopt sound chemicals management andadvance sustainable chemistry within businessapproaches, policies and practices
33. Improve the enforcement of existing
regulations on the transboundary movementof hazardous waste, in particular toxic waste
streams from developed to developing
countries
34. Increase efforts to deploy locally safe, effective,
affordable and environmentally soundalternatives to chemicals of concern, including
DDT (dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane), PCBs
(polychlorinated biphenyls), asbestos, lead andmercury
35. Accelerate the implementation of the Basel,
Rotterdam and Stockholm conventions, theMinamata Convention and the Strategic
Approach to International Chemicals
Management in a coordinated manner at thenational level
36. Establish and strengthen pollutant release andtransfer registers (PRTRs) to measure progress
and provide baseline data on chemical
emissions37. Provide reliable and effective consumer
information on the impacts of consumer
products throughout their life cycles
38. Introduce eco-labelling schemes
39. Introduce producer responsibility schemes tocollect, treat and safely recycle waste fromproduction and consumption
40. Improve knowledge relating to chemicals in
products throughout their life cycle (production,use, consumption and disposal)
41. Extend product lives
42. Reduce exposure to lead from battery recycling,
pottery, ammunition, paint and contaminatedsites
43. Phase out mercury use in a number of
specific products by 2020 and manufacturing
processes by 2025, and phase down use indental amalgams and mining
44. Phase out the production and use of asbestos
and ensure its sound disposal
45. Accelerate efforts to eliminate PCBs
(polychlorinated biphenyls) to meet the
Stockholm Convention deadlines for phasingout the substances by 2025 and disposing ofthem completely by 2028
46. Increase publicly available information andmonitor data on the presence of chemicals in
the environment, in humans and in pollution
hotspots
47. Minimize the generation of waste, and improveits collection, separation, reuse, recycling,
recovery and final disposal through policy
frameworks and regulations at the national andsubnational levels
48. Eliminate uncontrolled dumping and open
burning of waste
49. Increase material and energy recovery of waste,
including through recycling
50. Reduce food waste throughout value chains,
including at the consumer level53

Towards a Pollution-Free Planet

3.2 Transformative actions to shift
the economy(v)	Integrating policies to tackle pollution, witha specific emphasis on city-level action

Transitioning to a pollution-free world
requires placing a high priority on policies
and actions that promote and enable aradical decoupling of economic growthfrom natural resource consumption andenvironmental impacts (International
Resource Panel 2015a). This can beachieved through reuse, recycling, andremanufacturing, all key strategies for
reducing both greenhouse gas emissions
and other environmental and resourcepressures (International Resource Panel
2015b).The transition can also drive
innovations in the economy, as regulatorycompliance can be an opportunity rather thana cost. Innovations can draw on a fusion oftechnologies – digital, biological, informationand connectivity technologies (Schwab2016) – to not only clean the environment,
but also to drive economic productivity
and create jobs. In order for this to happen,
production and supply chains must be madecleaner; products and services must be
designed to be reusable, durable, recoverable
and recyclable; and new business models
must be developed while creating goodand best practice platforms. Leadership,policy certainty and investments in talent
are critical to incentivizing innovations(Nidumolu et al. 2009).

(vi)	Incentivizing responsible consumption andlifestyles choices

Key actions required to achieve system-wide,long-term change include the following:(i)	Building circularity into production
processes and supply chains and key
economic sectors(ii)	Incentivizing and redirecting finance andinvestments to less-polluting and cleaner
economic activities(iii)	Adopting ecosystem-based approaches
and solutions to mitigate and manage
pollution(iv) Promoting green technologies to mitigate
and manage pollution

54

To truly achieve a pollution-free planet, asystem would need to be put in place totrack pollution over time and assess theeffectiveness of the above actions.
3.2.1 Building circularity and resource
efficiency into production processes,
supply chains and key economic sectors
Production and supply chains need to become
circular and responsible, and focused on the
3 Rs – reduce, reuse, recycle. Where waste
is produced, it is regarded as a resource, aninvestment and an employment opportunity.
This involves the use of life-cycle thinking
across the value chain to ensure the efficientuse of natural resources in ways that prevent
pollution and strengthen the economy.
Seeking to remove toxic chemicals fromreused materials has to be part of this circularapproach.
Systemic changes aiming at preventing
pollution require a complete life-cycle
approach. The transition must be underpinned
by greatly increased knowledge and data
about the current state of natural resourcesin the environment, trends, as well as theiruse at different levels of society. A thoroughanalysis can assist policymakers in identifying
both the most important challenges, suchas the prevention of problem shifting, or
new pollution from substitutes, as well as
opportunities for effective regulatory, fiscal,
social or technical policy interventions. Thisimplies the need for a systemic monitoring
system that includes both indicators andtargets, including on resource footprints ofproduction and consumption.
The use of life-cycle approaches in theregulation of toxic chemicals is key, as the
hotspots can be delineated and targeted
for regulation. Gathering data to identify
substances that pose a risk based on knownTowards a Pollution-Free PlanetBox 8: Life cycle management to address pollution and improve production chains in industries: The example of a
Ugandan organic produce cooperative
Rural Community in Development (RUCID), a cooperative in Uganda that produces organic dried fruits and fruit juices,adopted Life Cycle Management concepts, which resulted in the cooperative making systemic changes in their production
chain, in relation for example to their resources and waste, relationships with their suppliers. They were supported by aconducive policy environment that backs organic agriculture. Applying the Life Cycle Management approach led them toadopt new technical solutions, including increased fuel efficiency in their boilers, which had been identified as a hotspot;
replacing fuelwood with biogas produced from their own waste (with significant increase in efficiency and product quality);
and turning waste streams into new market opportunities (for example producing pineapple suckers from the crowns,
instead of wasting them). They reported a 25 per cent increase in revenue in the first year after applying the new approach.
More info: http://www.lifecycleinitiative.org/case-study-rucid-fruit-juices-and-sun-dried-fruit-crisps/

intrinsic properties through watch lists is
another way to improve regulation. The lack ofknowledge on how chemicals spread globally
through the use and recycling of everyday
products such as textiles, toys and electronics
is an obstacle for resource efficiency anda pollution risk. While individual producers
can decide to adopt such an approach,transformative change can only materialize if
individual companies’ efforts are supported
by an enabling environment (Schwab 2016).
For example, nine countries in the European
Union and the Asia-Pacific region (Japan’sSound Material Cycle Policy is one example),have set targets with indicator frameworks forresource efficiency (Straub 2009;
Japan 2013).
In order to incentivize life-cycle and circularapproaches to material and product flows,
the costs of pollution must be integrated into
production and supply chains.
Although all economic sectors need to revisit
their production and supply chain processes,
four sectors are provided here as examples of
the changes required:-- Food and agriculture systems-- Extractives/mining sector-- Terrestrial transportation-- Building and constructionb

Table 5 provides examples of measures thatcan be taken at every stage of the production
or supply chain of any given sector in order toprevent, better manage, and reduce pollution.
3.2.2 Incentivizing and redirecting financeand investments to less-polluting
economic activities
Financial regulators and institutions havean important role to play in preventing andmitigating pollution and reducing its negative
impacts. They can do this in the following ways:•

Internalizing the costs of pollution in
financial decisions: Pollution impacts
that were previously considered byfinancial institutions to be externalities
are becoming more material.b A range
of environmental risk analysis tools andtechniques are already being developed,
including the use of “environmental
scenario risk analysis”, which theninfluence financial flows. The primary focus
of innovation in this market has been at thefirm level, however there are also examples
of innovation being driven at the industrial
sector level, often in response to new
regulations on environmental and social
risk management. Policies that implementa price signal that steadily increases at thepace of decoupling successes moves thediscussion to net costs, innovation and

Financial institutions have been addressing environmental sources of risk for many years through compliancewith regulation, voluntary industry policies and products such as environmental pollution liability insurance (alsoknown as environmental impairment liability insurance). But these impacts have always previously been consideredexternalities.

55

CHANGING
SUPPLY-CHAINS/ENABLINGSYSTEMIC CHANGE

INCENTIVIZINGSUSTAINABLE
CONSUMPTION

56

CLEANERPRODUCTION• Develop national road maps for only electric vehicles – all new
vehicles to be added should be electric as from 2030. By 2050
the complete global fleet should be electric.
• As technologies further develop and become cheaper, heavy
duty transport, trucks, and aircraft need to switch to electricity• Adopt cleaner vehicle emission standards of Euro 6 level• Adopt cleaner fuels standards, including eliminating leaded
petrol and introducing low sulfur fuels of not more than 50
parts per million (aiming ultimately at 10 parts per million)• All large cities should have effective, safe, friendly to all(including women and children), and reasonably priced masstransit and/or public transport systems• Countries and cities should adopt policies for active transport(walking and cycling)that will result in all new roads to be built and existing roads
being upgraded to include facilities for active transport• Cities should introduce clean bus fleets• Urban mobility systems need to maximize shared vehicle trips.
New approaches to urban planning will be required to achieve
this• Cities need to developed integrated mobility plans thatcombine public transport with active transport and electrictransport, this can include zoning

The extractives/materials/mining sector needs to lower its
overall footprint and ensure that best standards and practice
becomes normal practice:• Minimize waste, reduce pollution of air, soil and water andreduce resource use during production• Address resource scarcity and stranded assets by providing
more accurate scenarios on demand and supply that areecologically viable and integrate societal needs andconstraints• Promote best available technology in the production chain
including for methane pollution reduction, water use andtailings• Reduce, and where feasible, eliminate mercury use in artisanaland small-scale gold mining• Ensure safe management of chemicals (notably cyanide) thatare produced, transported and used for the recovery of ores,
and on mill tailings and leach solutions• Support investment and research into new mineral extraction
technologies to maximize efficiency and reduce theconsumption of water and minimize waste and ensure safetyof tailings storage facilities and waste disposal methodologies• Engage with and hold companies accountable to internalize
environmental risks and costs related to depletion of
ecosystems, biodiversity loss, soil erosion and degradation,
and water pollution through indicators, mitigation hierarchy andmonitoring systems• Increase connection between governments and industries tomanage coexistence of extractive and other land uses andmake informed decisions and trade-offs.
• Work with government to manage and redirect revenues fromextractive activities towards sustainable development andenvironmental services• Encourage further transparency and access to information on
environmental and social risks and impacts to reduce
asymmetries of information and have an integrated approach
along the whole value chain• Increase recycling rate of minerals and availability of
information and data on recycle material availability• Enhance coherence between market-based standards, due
diligence processes and certification schemes with legislation
and regulation in both countries of production and countries ofconsumption to ensure environmental responsibility fromsource to destination (e.g. “conflict minerals”.)

Incentivizing the uptake of more sustainable, climate-smart andagroecological production systems and technologies at the farmand landscape levels• Recalibrate current subsidies to reward good/sustainableagricultural practices on farm rather than perpetuating bad• Adopt the integrated landscape approach/management that
follows the principles of ecosystem management, sustainable
land and water use, reduced footprint and buildings resilienceand increasing diversity of farming systems• Apply the principle of minimum harm in using pesticides,
managing pests, weeds, and disease and good on farmchemical input management including the use of personal
protective equipment, storage and disposal of containers• Develop more integrated strategies and transformative roadmaps, as well as enabling conditions for specific innovations
towards more sustainable food systems at national and local
level• Engage and hold food manufacturers and producers
accountable to produce more sustainable products, reduce
losses along supply chains, reduce post-harvest losses andfood waste in the entire food chain from farm to fork
• Adopt a polluter-pays approach to pesticides and chemicalfertilizers to level the playing field by internalizing the costs ofpollution• Promote more sustainable consumption of food througheducation around healthy, more nutritious and diverse diets,
consumption of locally grown foods and the reduction of foodwaste

Transport sector

Extractives (liquid (oil), gaseousand solid/mineral reserves)

Food and agriculture systems

Examples of actions to prevent, better manage and reduc e pollution in key economic sectors

Table 5• Support mainstreaming of sustainable buildings throughindustry initiatives and networks, as well as incentives such as
green mortgages, leases, etc.
• Raise awareness of resource and energy efficiency to influence
consumer behaviour and decisions on lifestyle choices,
including buildings and appliances• Promote use of certification systems, as an approach toaddress sources of indoor pollutants, such as Heating,
Ventilation and Air-Conditioning (HVAC) systems andparticulates from toxic or chemicals in building materials, suchas plaster, paint, construction compounds and plastics• Support development of life-cycle approaches and databases
for building and construction related products• Engage stakeholders (designers, contractors, suppliers,
governments, end users and SMEs) to strengthen
environmental standards for building products andconstruction processes• Enhance decision-making on housing choices, including fromconsumers as well as through government housing strategies
to enable integrated approaches at urban level (land use,
infrastructure, transport, waste, district energy, etc.)

In all countries, minimize the environmental impact ofconstruction and operation of buildings through application oflife-cycle approaches and sustainable building policies.• As
technologies further develop and become cheaper, heavy dutytransport, trucks, and aircraft need to switch to electricity• Apply resource efficiency and energy efficiency as guiding
principles in policies, building design and in operations andmaintenance• Reduce toxicity of building materials and on-site construction
processes, including demolition and management ofconstruction waste• Upscale use of recycled building materials and resource
recovery programmes

Buildings and construction
sectors

Towards a Pollution-Free Planet

Table 5: Examples of actions to prevent, better manage and reduce pollution in key economic sectors

Towards a Pollution-Free Planet

investment rather than just price and fears
of losses. By explicitly linking price rises
to efficiency gains, the political discoursearound the effects of the policies andaction broadens.
••

Requiring the disclosure of costs andrisks of pollution: Enhanced reporting on
environmental and social impacts enables
more responsible portfolio choices byinvestors. Increased disclosure can bevoluntary, but decision-makers have a keyrole to play in levelling the playing field
through mandatory requirements.
Creating incentives for reorienting
financing away from companies andactivities that pollute and towards
greener technologies (United Nations
Environment Programme 2017b):
Financial institutions can refrain (“divest”)
from any further investment or lending
to companies or activities identified ashighly polluting. They also have the option
to maintain at least part of their funding
to these activities but use it as leverage
to engage with the companies to explore
means of reducing their impact by, forexample, adopting environmentally
sustainable production methods, suchas renewable energy, water-efficientirrigation and waste prevention, reuse
and recycling.
•

Rewarding risk reduction strategies:
Insurance pricing can reward risk
reduction efforts from companies,
private and public sector investors,
local authorities or individuals. As risk
managers, insurers also help communities
understand, prevent and reduce risk
through risk research and analytics,
catastrophe risk models, and loss
prevention measures. There are many
examples of insurance industry initiatives
on pollution and climate change (Box 9).

Box 9: Examples of actions by insurers on pollution
Examples of innovative insurance industry initiatives on pollution and climate change include the following:
Since 2009, the Brazilian insurer, SulAmérica has encouraged the use of water-based paints in its accredited auto shops torepaint damaged vehicles. In 2013, it launched its responsible disposal programme for its home and business insurance
clients. In partnership with Ecoassist Serviços Sustentáveis, the programme provides services to collect, separate andrecycle home appliances, consumer electronics and furniture. Since the start of the programme, 76 collections have been
made in 19 cities of seven states. About 2,300 items have been collected, totalling 9.2 tons of waste, which have been
disposed of in an environmentally responsible way.
Allianz offers tailor-made insurance products for large-scale renewable energy projects, green building insurance, andadvisory services to cover facilities or offices that have been built or refurbished to be more resource efficient. For retailclients, examples include special discounts on car insurance for drivers with fuel-efficient vehicles, property insurance
for roof-mounted solar panels, and investment products that allow customers to invest their money in funds that support
sustainable development.
In May 2015, AXA became the first global financial institution to divest from companies most exposed to coal-related
activities, amounting to €500 million. It also committed to tripling its green investments to more than €3 billion by 2020,
mainly in clean technology, green infrastructure and green bonds. In November 2015, Allianz announced that it wouldstop financing coal-based business models, affecting investments worth about €4 billion, and committed to double its
wind power investments to €4 billion. Moreover, in April 2017, AXA became the first global insurer to disengage fromunderwriting insurance for coal-intensive businesses.
Munich Re, the world’s largest reinsurer, has dealt with renewable energy risks for more than 20 years. To extend its
competence, Munich Re established Green Tech Solutions Corporate Insurance Partner to pool expert resources andknow-how, offering insurance solutions for photovoltaics, solar thermal power, wind energy, LED technology, and energy
efficiency projects to cater to stakeholder needs across the renewable energy value chain. Munich Re also offers green
property insurance products that enable entities such as schools and municipalities that suffer a loss to rebuild according
to the LEED® Green Building certification. Furthermore, Munich Re has joined forces with Impact Hub Munich to supportsocial entrepreneurs and initiatives such as Hawa Dawa (“air medicine”), which aims to empower citizens, organizations
and cities to work towards cleaner and healthier air through a bottom-up air quality monitoring technique that provides
remote, real-time and in situ air quality data, anytime, anywhere.
All these insurers are signatories to the Principles for Sustainable Insurance (PSI), a global sustainability framework andinitiative developed by UN Environment’s Finance Initiative and endorsed by the United Nations Secretary-General andinsurance executives.

57

Towards a Pollution-Free Planet•

Addressing market distortions andeconomic signals: Multiple pricemisalignments occur through our
economies, from energy to water to food,conveying only partial information about
actual scarcity values or full costs tohuman health through pollution or otherexternalities. Until prices are aligned andreflect full costs, new investment vehicles
for green finance face an uphill struggle,
overcoming the distortions in underlying
economic signals. Fiscal policy options
exist to address these market failures, andare discussed in the “Enablers” section(Section 3.3).

Innovative financing
Public-private partnerships can be aneffective way to catalyse investment
in cleaner technologies and to support
innovation. In Chile, Cleaner Production
Voluntary Agreements have been signedwith 10 industrial sectors, and more than
1,200 companies have participated intheir application. The Government of Chileprovides 70 per cent of the funding to cover
the sustainability assessment of the sector,
internal audit, technical assistance, training,certification, impact studies and the overall
coordination of the agreements. Privatecompanies cover the remaining 30 per cent of
the costs involved.
In complex situations, tailor-made solutions
need to be developed that analyse the root
causes of the pollution problem, the levers
for action. An example of this is the approachto landscape management in Indonesia(Box 10).
Crowd funding has also emerged as a new
financing model. Instead of relying on wealthy
individuals and institutional investors making
large financial commitments, it seeks small
financial commitments from a large numberof people. An example is SunFunder (www.
sunfunder.com), which aims to crowdfund
solar installations for the 1.3 billion people
who live without electricity, a shift that cansignificantly reduce household air pollution.

58

Box 10: The Tropical Landscapes Finance Facility,
Indonesia
In October 2016, the Indonesian Government and key
partners launched an initiative to provide access to longterm finance for projects and companies that stimulate
green growth and improve rural livelihoods. The TropicalLandscapes Finance Facility will leverage public funding
to provide access to long-term finance at affordable
rates to support smallholder producers and other land
users’ investment in sustainable Indonesian landscapes.
The Facility aims to provide a mix of loans and grants todrive renewable energy production, reduce deforestationand forest degradation, and restore degraded lands(International Institute for Sustainable Development
2016).

In 2014, the Ocean Cleanup (The Ocean
Cleanup 2014) – which supports thedevelopment of advanced technologies torid the world’s oceans of plastic – launcheda crowdfunding campaign that successfully
mobilized 38,000 backers from 160 countries,
raising over $2 million in 100 days.
3.2.3 Adopting ecosystem-based approaches
and solutions to mitigate and manage
pollution
Ecosystems play a vital role in reducing
quantities of pollutants in air, water and soil.
Pollution-regulating services provided byecosystems greatly alleviate the harmful
effects of pollution on human health.
Managing and restoring ecosystems canconsequently enhance the provision ofpollution regulation across rural as wellas urban landscapes. Efficient agriculture
techniques, organic farming, and integrated
landscape management can significantly
reduce pesticide and nutrient run-off into
groundwater and surface water, and limit
ammonia emissions.
Green infrastructure can be used to great
effect in urban areas to improve air quality.
Examples include vegetative barriers, suchashedges, and green or “living” walls androofs. Low-level, dense vegetation structures
such as hedges, which form dense barriers,
are particularly effective at reducing the flowof pollution from streets to curbwalks andTowards a Pollution-Free Planet

adjacent properties. Morocco, for example,
has been successful in building a greenbelt
of trees around Ouarzazate and greening
the surrounding drylands using treatedwastewater and clean energy for irrigation.

entirely. Cleaner lighting, for example,
offers great environment and healthbenefits (see Box 12). Some of theseemerging technologies include those forclean energy, industry, health, transport,
waste management and agriculture.
For example, a recent project in Nepal
replacing traditional brick kilns that hadcollapsed in the 2015 earthquake withmore efficient kilns reduced particulatematter emissions by 60 per cent andreduced coal consumption by up to 50 per
cent when compared to traditional kilns(Climate and Clean Air Coalition 2016).
Biotechnology is being used for cleaningoil-contaminated environments using
bacteria or fungi for decontamination.
Drone technology helps to monitor crops,
leading to substantial reductions in the useof resources, particularly fertilizers andwater. However, some green technologies
can also involve trade-offs, as seen withgreen energy, between reduced carbon
emissions but increased material use(International Resource Panel 2016b).
Hence the need to address product design
and material use early in the developmentof these technologies.

Natural and artificial wetlands serve as natural
water filters (Box 11). The diverse plants andmicroorganisms that occur in natural wetlands
have the potential to: i) remove between 20 per
cent and 60 per cent of metal pollutants; ii)
retain 80 per cent to 90 per cent of sedimentfrom run-off; and iii) eliminate 70 per cent to
90 per cent of nitrogen from the water flowing
through them. Artificial wetlands can have
similar pollution-retention capacities and are
frequently used to treat municipal or industrial
greywater, wastewater and stormwater run-off.
Phytoremediation (Gratão et al. 2005) uses
plants to restore soils contaminated by heavy
metals, such as those found in mine dumps
and polluted industrial sites. It involves
the absorption of heavy metals in the soilby the plant roots, stems and leaves. The
heavy metals can then be removed from theenvironment through harvesting.
3.2.4 Promoting green technologies tomitigate and manage pollution
Three categories of technological solutions
serve to address pollution:•

Pollution prevention and reduction
technologies are more energy/resource
efficient and create less pollution in theirlife cycle than those they replace. They
may also eliminate the source of pollution•

Recycling technologies recover valuable
materials from waste or wastewater,
preventing pollution of the environment
and avoiding the use of new materials.
In the area of water treatment, newtechnologies are being used to transform
wastewater into drinking water and asource of energy. A level playing field forenvironmental standards and a sustainablebusiness model are required for recycling

Box 11: Wastewater treatment with constructed wetlands: An example from China
Constructed wetlands are an emerging, environmentally friendly engineering system employed in China. They require
lower investment and operation costs while providing higher treatment efficiency and more ecosystem services thanconventional wastewater treatment methods. Introduced to China in 1987, constructed wetlands systems used for
wastewater treatment have rapidly increased in number, particularly since the late 1990s. Although the number of such
systems in operation is still relatively small, their development has accelerated in recent years. However, land availability,
institutional limitations, and public education will be ongoing challenges for the further development of this technology.
Although there are still economic and social concerns related to the effective use of constructed wetlands, their strong
performance and environmental benefits – not only for wastewater treatment, but also for other ecosystem services,
especially in the preservation of biodiversity – make them increasingly attractive and practical for further use (Liu et al.
2009; Yang et al. 2008, Zhang et al. 2009).

59

Towards a Pollution-Free PlanetBox 12: Cleaner lighting
A switch to electric lighting is the most promising pathway to eliminating the risks associated with fuel-based lightsources, while also contributing to climate change mitigation (United Nations Environment Programme 2014a). Improved
lighting technologies for use by women and children will yield particularly significant health benefits by significantly
reducing indoor air pollution. These include improved illumination in health-care facilities, and safe and efficient lighting
systems distributed and promoted where housing is dense and poorly defended from fire, also potentially making urban
spaces safer for women. The potential savings and benefits estimated for 120 developing countries and emerging
economies, if they were to transition from fuel-based lighting (kerosene and candles) to solar-powered lanterns, are up to
120 million barrels of kerosene a year and 1.31 million tons of candles a year. This would be equivalent to 42 million tons
a year of carbon dioxide and $17 billion a year of residential revenue savings (United Nations Environment Programme
2014b). However, it must also be remembered that these lanterns also contain hazardous chemicals, and the extent towhich they can be recycled is as yet not known.

markets to expand and increase resource
recovery, environmental and healthprotection, efficient resource use. In theabsence of a recycling market, materials
will be exported to countries with low
environmental standards for re-export tothe originating countries.
•

Pollution tracking, treatment, andcontrol technologies to monitor pollutant
emissions and releases. Such smartsensoring technologies can track theuse of dangerous substances, such as
mercury, so it is known where it is used,
how much and how, and where it goes.
This is relevant for all such chemicals andimportant for trade policy and use.

Technology information, diffusion, trade andtransfer
Overcoming the challenges of pollution
technology information, diffusion and transfer
requires putting in place supporting policies,
providing technology users with the choices
they need, and reducing risks for investment.
There is also a need for information on whatworks and what does not, costs and benefits,
and the potential to use local solutions basedon local knowledge. Although technologicaland ecosystem-based solutions exist toaddress many pollution problems, information
about the cost-benefits and successes
and failures in deploying technologies
arnot always available to decision makers,
particularly those in developing countries.
The challenge is how to diffuse thesetechnologies more widely through some form

60

of open commons, while also encouraging
solutions based on local or traditional
knowledge. A parallel challenge is how tomake the technologies more affordable toeveryone and compatible with development
goals and national environmental, socioeconomic, and cultural priorities. Mechanisms
to support developing countries with issuesof technology transfer are, as a consequence,part of many multilateral environmental
agreements.
Best Available Techniques (BAT) and Best
Environmental Practices (BEP) also need tobe more systematically defined, as is done bysome multilateral environmental agreements,
such as the Stockholm Convention or the
Oslo and Paris (OSPAR) Convention. Best
Available Techniques and Best Environmental
Practices evolve over time in the light oftechnological advances, economic and social
factors, and changes in scientific knowledge
and understanding. Developing countries
also have the opportunity to harness thepotential of North-South and South-South
collaboration in order to stimulate technology
transfer and long-term domestic economic
growth.
3.2.5 Integrating policies to tackle pollution:
The example of city-level actions
Local governments are key players in themove towards a pollution-free world. Cities,
which have both a high concentration ofemission sources and a high density ofpeople, feel keenly the impacts of pollution.
At the same time, cities can benefit fromefficiencies related to density and economies

Towards a Pollution-Free Planetof scale. While local context and culture
shape the solutions and actions that local
governments can take, there are a numberof concerns that are common to all citiesof the world. Irrespective of their level ofdevelopment, most cities are contributing
to and experiencing increasing episodesof air pollution that exceed World HealthOrganization standards for air quality. These
come from transport, industry or open wasteburning. The non-urban and transboundary
share of air pollution in cities cannot be
underestimated. Another common concern
is groundwater, soil and air pollution fromdifferent types of waste.

of cities around the world. Others linkback to traditions, such as repair shops,
while others are longer-term in nature andrequire more planning and resources, suchas turning landfills into powerhouses, ormoving towards a circular economy. Whateach entails in terms of data gathering andanalysis, strengthening of institutional andenforcement capacity is determined by the
local context.
While local governments have authority to
act over some matters, they are dependent
on their national frameworks and support
systems. Coherence across the national,
regional and city levels is key to policy
effectiveness. Cities need the capacity andresources to implement relevant policies
effectively. For example, they must be able
to issue building permits that enforce
national building codes that harness

Figure 20 shows a number of solutions foraddressing pollution from waste. Some arequick wins and easy to implement, such as
the ban on single-use plastic bags, which
is being applied in an increasing number

Figure 5
Figure 20: Examples of integrated city-level solutions to address pollution from waste streams
Examples of city-level solutions to ad dress pollution from waste streams
Examples of integrated city-level solutions to address pollution from waste streams

REDUCEORGANIC WASTE• Reducing food waste• Composting facilities

CONSTRUCTION AND DEMOLITION WASTE• Design for deconstruction and material mining

E-WASTE• Design for longevity, reuse of parts• Take-back obligation for producers• Formal recycling facilities for metal mining

END OF LIFE VEHICLES• Take-back obligation for producers

REUSE

RECYCLEDISPOSE• City-Region strategies towards
a circular economy• Repair and upcycling shops• Sharing schemes• Volume-based waste disposal fees
• Sustainable public procurement• Economic incentives towards
zero-waste• Ban on single-use plastic bags
and containers• Waste collection system• Recycling facilities – increase
in recycling rates• Deposit schemes for plastic,
glass bottles and paper• Ban on open landfills• Ban on open burning• Waste to energy

61

Towards a Pollution-Free Planet

energy and resource efficiency potentials.
National urban policies help shape city
planning, the urban-rural nexus, and urban
design. Cities’ compactness allows theirservices to be concentrated and shared,
which reduces the environmental impact
per capita.

by extending their use through design,
maintenance and upgrades, and (3) byrecovering broken products through repair,refurbishment or remanufacturing.
•

Providing product sustainability
information (for example, throughlabelling or consumer campaigns) toenable and encourage consumers todrive sustainability through the products
they buy, and the way they (re)use,
recycle or discard them. Insights into
purchasing behaviour indicate a growinginterest in products that are considerateof the environment and social concerns(Grocery Manufacturers Association andDeloitte 2009). In some sectors, certified
production has grown considerably. For
instance, the global market share ofcertified coffee increased from 15 percent in 2008 to 40 per cent in 2016 (Potts
et al. 2014). Guidelines for providing
product sustainability information havebeen developed to support companies,
governments and organizations to drive
transformative change in this area, and tohelp prevent greenwashing and consumer
confusion (United Nations Environment
Programme and International Trade
Centre 2017).

•

Sharing-economy initiatives, such as
vehicle-sharing models, are other examples
of how companies and individuals
are trying to adopt more sustainableconsumption practices. For thesecompanies, consumer needs are met (andquality of life enhanced) in creative waysthat do not depend on the ownership of
the physical infrastructure. Transformative
shifts introduce resource efficiency andeco-innovation to companies’ businessstrategies.

3.2.6 Incentivizing responsible consumption
and lifestyles choices
As the middle class expands, incomes rise,
and aspirational messaging and advertisingcontinue to promote consumerism, current
consumption patterns will increasingly
lead to resource constraints and increased
pollution. All parts of society have a roleto play in encouraging more responsible
consumption. Governments need to invest in
infrastructures, such as new public services
to enable increased and sustainable mobility,
and instruments, for example, to regulate
advertising of some especially polluting
products. Governments must also use
public procurement to enhance the market
for more sustainable goods and services.
Businesses have to systematically integratesustainability into core business strategies
and develop innovative solutions to meet
consumer needs through more resource
efficient and cleaner production. Educators informal and non-formal education sectors, civilsociety organizations, community groups andconsumer associations can equip students
and the general public about sustainableconsumption, so that they can integrate it
into their daily lives and future professions.
International organizations can facilitatesynergies and scale up impacts. Global policy
frameworks like the 10-Year Framework ofProgrammes on Sustainable Consumption
and Production offer platforms to bring these
initiatives and partners together. Examplesof powerful game changers include thefollowing:•

62

Extending product lifespans to reduce therates at which we consume resources andproduce waste. This can be done (1) bysimply using products such as telephones
and computers for a longer time, (2)A movement towards a pollution-free planet
from the consumption side will requirechanges in collective and individual mindsets,values and behaviours, alongside changes inpolicies and regulations. As Wangari Mathai
famously said: “It’s the little things citizens dothat will make a difference”.

Towards a Pollution-Free Planet

3.3 Enablers

diseases and ecosystem impacts involve
many stages of causality. The causal chain
can be affected by many interdependent, cocausal risk factors.

Enablers are crucial to creating incentives,
correcting market and policy failures, andaddressing gaps and other issues. Enablers
facilitate transformative actions that can drivea preventive pollution agenda. They addresssome of the key issues that make pollution so
pervasive and persistent.

The question of when there is sufficientevidence to justify action cannot be answeredby science alone. The strength of theevidence depends on the costs of being
wrong with actions or inactions, including
their impacts on different age groups andgenders; the various risks to current andfuture generations; costs and benefits for theagents of the activities that pose potential
threats to health; and the availability offeasible alternatives. Waiting for very strong
evidence before acting means missing
opportunities to act preventively and avert
future harm through more precautionary
approaches.

3.3.1 Balancing evidence-based decisionmaking and precautionary approaches
Providing timely scientific and empiricalinformation in an accessible manner topolicymakers is at the heart of strengthening
the science-policy interface. An analysis ofnine major pollution areas has shown that
there is a considerable time lag between theestablishment of the science on pollution
issues and policy action – let alone the firstsigns of harm reduction (Figure 21) (United
Nations 2015b). These time lags, which
are often caused by economic, social andlegal factors, need to be addressed to avoid
unnecessary costs and harm to human wellbeing and the environment. Further researchis also needed to identify the environmental
and pollution impacts of resource use andmanagement; such information can informtargeted policy actions.

In tackling pollution, the boundaries ofknowledge are continuously changing.
Expanding and sharing knowledge throughopen access systems as a policy measure
will help to enhance the exchange of evidence
and experiences under real-life conditions.
Decisions can be made on overall policies,
but also on specific projects. Environmental,
health and human rights impact assessments
can be powerful tools in the analysis of
selected projects, plans, programmes orpolicies (Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development 2017b).

The key challenge in dealing with pollution isthat processes leading to health risks, chronic

Figure 21: Time lags in years between science and policy for selected environmental issues
Science: Early warning toscientific confidence causality

MercuryG

Asbestos

Policy Action: National

Acid Rain
Tobacco

Policy Action: Regional

DDT
Policy Action: Global

Climate Change
PCB

G2

Lead

Impact/Harm reduction

Ozone Layer
0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

Source: United Nations 2015b

63

Towards a Pollution-Free Planet

3.3.2 Improving environmental governance
The environmental rule of law as well as soundand effective institutions make it possible forsocieties to respond to pollution in a way that
respects fundamental rights and principles
of justice and fairness, including for future
generations and across national borders.
The challenge is not necessarily to create
new regulatory measures, but to improvetheir effectiveness using knowledge,
experience, technologies and tools thatare already available. Corruption can be amajor deterrent for good pollution-related
governance. Polluters may bribe corrupt
regimes, administrations or individual officials
to encourage them to turn a blind eye on
illegal activities. Corruption can lead to aloss of revenue from uncollected fines, orto an inability to prevent or stop pollution.
Integrating behavioural insights in the formal
rules and practices that govern publicorganizations is a way to improve public
policies (Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development 2017c).
Enhancing regulatory, enforcement andjudiciary capacity
The implementation of measures under themultilateral environmental agreements andother forums often remains a challenge, very
often due to the lack of proper regulatory
and enforcement capacity and contradictory
policies. Building capacity and skills, and asense of urgency is essential and needs tobe a continuing process that must be rooted
in an understanding of the legal basis for
implementation and enforcement.
Institutional changes are required to equip theentire enforcement chain, including customs,
police, prosecutors and judiciaries worldwide
to effectively deal with environmental casesand strengthen the overall institutionallandscape to combat pollution. Today there
are over 1,200 environmental courts ortribunals in 44 countries at the national, stateor provincial level, with some 20 additionalcountries discussing or planning to establish

64

similar courts or tribunals (Pring et al. 2016).
With or without the existence of these specificcourts, what is critical is for judiciaries,
prosecutors, and so on, to be trained in being
able to deal with environmental cases and takethem seriously. Effective institutions can leadto potentially significant novel approaches
in dealing with pollution. Recently a court inIndia granted the Ganges and Yamuna Rivers
the same legal rights as a person in orderto deal with the massive pollution affecting
these rivers. This followed a decision by theGovernment of New Zealand to grant the samerights to its Whanganui river.
Regulatory and public policy innovations
Several innovations can be used to improve
regulatory functioning and public policy
for pollution management. Experimental
research is ongoing in some developing
countries to assess whether setting up
information feedback loops between industry
and government can help improve regulatory
functioning through a reduction in costs
to both and improvements in efficiency(Harvard University 2017). This must be done
carefully, however, to avoid regulatory capture.
Regulations should ultimately be basedon open, participatory processes that are
informed by the best possible scientific data.
Strengthened national registration processes
can be based on producer disclosure, as is
the case in many developed economies. The
use of life-cycle approaches in the regulationof toxic chemicals is key as it allows hotspots
to be identified and targeted for regulation.
Gathering data to identify substancesthat pose a risk based on known intrinsic
properties through watch lists is another way
to improve regulation.
Mainstreaming preventive approaches
The adoption of measures to prevent pollution
is fundamental to the long-term transition
to a pollution-free planet. Such measuresrequire information on exposure to pollutants
and mixtures of pollutants in all media as
well as in workplaces and households.

Towards a Pollution-Free Planet

Prevention as an approach to pollution islinked to poverty and human rights, genderas well as protection of vulnerable groups.
Mainstreaming such approaches requires the
support of the World Bank group as well as
financial regulators, through the introductionof environmental risk and pollution stresstesting during financial decision-making (G20
Green Finance Study Group (2017)).
Active citizen participation through effective
environmental information systems based ondata gathering, monitoring and open accessTo be able to tackle pollution effectively,
governments need an informed citizenry
that has easy access to justice. Citizens
must also be able to participate in decisionmaking and in protecting human health andenvironment from pollution. All citizens,
including children, have the right to know,
engage, and participate. Governments canensure public access to information andprotect fundamental freedoms in accordancewith national legislation and international
agreements (Target 16.10) and in line with
Principle 10 of the Rio Declaration and theBali Guidelines for the Development of
National Legislation on Access to Information,
Public Participation and Access to Justice inEnvironmental Matters.
Effective public participation can only beensured through transparent and effective
environmental information systems anddisclosure based on data gathering,monitoring and open access to information
on emissions to air, land and water andin products known to the public throughportals on pollutants being discharged,
publishing standards, air and water monitoring
systems, and permit systems of discharging
wastewater or effluent, noise pollution
permissible levels and so on. Open data andcitizen science, such as in the role of waterand air quality monitoring or the measurementof biological indicators such as bird or frog
counts, also have a promising role to play.
Local authorities must also publish relevant
information, such as in the case of air

pollution, to all areas that are affected,
so that the affected public can take thenecessary measures to protect themselves.
Information disclosure from the regulatorycommunity is also needed for public
supervision of compliance by industries
and public institutions. In this context, theAarhus Convention is highly relevant; theConvention is the world’s widest-reaching
set of regulations guaranteeing citizens
access to information, participation rights andaccess to justice in environmental matters,with an innovative civil society engagement
mechanism to support its work.
Pollutant release and transfer registers(PRTRs) are powerful tools that facilitate
citizen participation by providing easy andopen access to data and information onemissions and other waste management
activities (including pollution prevention
activities) involving toxic chemicals in theircommunities. Such registers empower
the public to make informed decisions on
the consequences of such activities tohuman health and the environment, and to
take action. The registers have also been
demonstrated to be very effective tools toassess the impact of green technologies
and other pollution prevention measures
implemented by industrial facilities (DeVito et
al 2015; Ransom et al 2015) (Box 13).
The Pollutant Release and Transfer Register(PRTR) in Japan and Public Disclosure ofIndustrial Pollution (PROPER) in Indonesia
also estimate releases of pollution and reporton them publically. Pollutant release andtransfer registers also serve as a mechanism
to foster pollution prevention, and bring aboutchange within and among industries. In
recent years the Organisation for Economic
Co-operation and Development (OECD) has
been promoting the harmonization of theseregisters (Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development 2017a).
Cultivating a culture of compliance by all
To ensure effective implementation,compliance and enforcement, efforts should

65

Towards a Pollution-Free PlanetBox 13: Pollutant release and transfer registers in the United States: Toxics release inventory
In the United States, data from the Toxics Release Inventory was instrumental in the enactment of the Clean Air Act
Amendments in 1990 and the Pollution Prevention Act of 1990. In recognizing the potential of the inventory to be a
powerful pollution-prevention tool, the authors of the Pollution Prevention Act expanded the information required to bereported by facilities under the previously established inventory reporting requirements to include information specificto pollution prevention and preferred waste management techniques. Toxics Release Inventory data were also used
to identify priority pollutants as part of the establishment of effluent guidelines for the pharmaceutical sector. It wasalso used to assess the impact of pollution-prevention practices implemented by United States facilities between 1991
and 2012 (Ransom et al. 2015). The results of this analysis indicated that these facilities prevented between 5 billionand 14 billion pounds of toxic releases in aggregate. Many successful voluntary initiatives between the United States
Environmental Protection Agency and industry to reduce pollution have been based on the Toxics Release Inventory
dataset. Two notable examples are the 33/50 Program, and the Resource Conservation Act National Partnership forEnvironmental Priorities (United States Environment Protection Agency 1999).

be made to strengthen the capacity ofenforcement agencies to implement andenforce laws and regulations through various
innovative mechanisms. Efforts should also
be made to engage private corporates andcitizens, and encourage voluntary compliance.
Building a strong compliance culture
within institutions, the private sector andcommunities is essential to ensuring effective
compliance and enforcement. This can beachieved through information and education
programmes based on sound science that
explain how change behaviour can protect theenvironment; education of industry and thecommunity about the benefits of environmental
regulation and its compatibility with economic
growth; and the provision of support to help
businesses comply with their legal obligations,recognizing that this is the most cost-effectivemeans of promoting compliance.
3.3.3 Economic instruments
The cost of pollution to national economies
is often neglected. Pollutants are emitted

without an appropriate price, while theenvironmental cost of economic activity
is largely ignored. The following economic
instruments could be deployed to correct thissituation.
Proper pricing of resources
Pricing resources properly through fiscal
policies not only reduces environmental
damage but can also generate substantial
domestic public revenues. Removing
fossil fuel subsidies altogether would raise$2.9 trillion annually, while reducing global
carbon emissions by more than 20 per centand premature deaths from air pollution
by 55 per cent (Coady et al. 2015). Theserevenues can be used for different purposes;
for example they can be allocated to thegeneral budget to support investments inclean technologies, natural capital andsocial infrastructure, as illustrated in thecase below (Box 14).

Box 14: Fossil fuel subsidy reform in Indonesia
In late 2014 and early 2015, the Government of Indonesia initiated a range of reforms to gasoline and diesel subsidies. A newsocial assistance scheme was introduced alongside the reforms to compensate for the impact of the higher energy prices.
The fuel subsidy reforms resulted in savings of 211.3 trillion Indonesian Rupiah (Iskandarsyah 2016), which has allowed anincrease in investments in social welfare and basic infrastructure (e.g. food security, connectivity, maritime, public transport
infrastructure in Jakarta) through increased budgets for ministries, state-owned enterprises and transfers to regions andvillages.
These fossil fuel subsidy reforms are expected to result in a decline in energy consumption and fuel switching which isestimated to reduce carbon dioxide emissions by over 9 per cent relative to the 2030 baseline (Asian Development Bank2015). If higher prices cause a reduction in the growth of vehicle ownership and an increase in the supply of higher-quality
fuels, local air pollution is also expected to decline, which could have major health impacts given worsening urban air
quality (Global Subsidies Initiative and International Institute for Sustainable Development 2012).

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Towards a Pollution-Free Planet

Fiscal incentives to stimulate systemic andbehavioural changes to prevent and reduce
pollution

polluting industries need to be rolled backin favour of financial support for clean andsustainable approaches.

Through pricing measures and incentives,
introducing toxicity of a compound into thelevy for example, fiscal policies can shiftconsumer and producer behaviour towards
a more sustainable path, and help to reduce
pollution, improve health and address global
challenges such as climate change, or nutrient
overload. Removal of fossil fuel subsidies is
estimated to reduce global carbon dioxide
emissions by more than 20 per cent andpremature air pollution related deaths by
55 per cent and a carbon tax in China could
reduce carbon dioxide emissions by 30 per
cent by 2030 and save 4 million lives by
discouraging coal use. (Parry et al.2016) Fiscal
incentives should be implemented alongsideother policies including regulatory measures,such as emission standards, and information
tools, such as labelling and communication
campaigns. Combined, this complementarymix of policies and incentives can effectively
stimulate the systemic and behaviouralchanges.

Pollution charges and fees

The case studies below provide examples of
how such successful policy mixes work inpractice (Boxes 15 and 16).
New taxation schemes that put more burden
on resource use and pollution and favour
sustainable production as well as re-use,
repair and recycling need to be significantly
extended, while subsidies that benefit

Charges and fees are required tooperationalize polluter-pays approaches andmake pollution control central to decisionmaking. Pollution charges are fees basedon the quantity of pollutants discharged
into the environment, while user charges
can be levied, for example, to collect and/or
dispose of waste, or treat polluted water andsoils. Funds collected in this way can thenbe placed in a clean country or city fund toaddress improvements to environment andhealth linkages, and to offset some of thecosts of pollution.
3.3.4 Education for change
Education is critical if patterns of development
are to shift towards more sustainable, cleaner
practices; it is also a fundamental humanright, and essential for the exercise of all
human rights. Education promotes individual
freedom and empowerment as well as
generating important development benefits.
Notably the Convention on the Rights of theChild contains specific language on education
related to the environment. Education willthus enable the actualization of the rightsof the child in order to promote future
engagement on pollution, environment andclimate change matters.

Box 15: Reducing plastic bag litter in Ireland
In Ireland, a levy on plastic bags has led to a reduction in plastic bag use from an estimated 328 bags per capita before
the introduction of the levy in 2002 to 14 bags per capita in 2012. The levy was introduced at a rate of $0.20 (EUR 0.15)
per plastic bag and increased to $0.31 (EUR 0.22) in 2007. After its introduction, the distribution of bags in retail outlets
dropped by 90 per cent and there has been a significant reduction in plastic bag litter. This reduction has also had an
impact on the marine environment and coastal pollution. Results from beach surveys indicate a reduction in the numberof plastic bags found on beaches from a mean high of 17.7 per 500 meters in 2000 to a mean of 5.5 bags per 500 metersin 2002 (Marine Litter in European Seas – Social Awareness and Co-Responsibility 2017). Revenues from the levy areearmarked to an environment fund which is used to cover the administrative costs of the levy, support waste management,
recycling centres, litter clean-up and other environmental initiatives (Lyons 2013). The introduction of the levy waspreceded by stakeholder consultations and an extensive national publicity campaign which helped overcome resistanceto the levy among the public and retailers (Withana et al. 2014).

67

Towards a Pollution-Free PlanetBox 16: Environmental taxes in Chile (Chile 2013)
Chile faces several environmental problems relating to climate change, atmospheric pollution, congestion and motor
vehicle pollution. To help address these challenges, the Government of Chile adopted a General Tax Reform Bill in
September 2014, which introduced three new green taxes. The taxes are expected to raise over $170 million annually, withrevenues allocated to the general budget.
• A carbon dioxide tax of $5/ton on emissions from stationary sources with boilers or turbines (with an aggregatedcapacity of 50 MW or more). The tax targets large facilities (food processing, refinery, and the electricity sector)
and covers approximately 40 per cent of the country’s carbon emissions. Small plants and those operating on nonconventional renewable energy (biomass) are exempt from the tax.
• A tax on local pollutantsc from stationary sources, which takes into account local air quality factors, the social costs ofeach pollutant and population density in the municipality in which the facility is located.
• A one-time tax on new light and mid-size vehicles which takes into account the vehicle’s urban performance andnitrogen oxide emissions.
The tax on local pollutants which varies by pollutant and municipality (local authority district) is an innovative mechanism
designed to reflect local conditions. The tax rates were deliberately introduced at a low level to increase their political andpublic acceptance. The necessary monitoring, measurement, recording and verification of emissions for taxes is ensured
by the use of the Chilean single window Pollutant Release and Transfer Register (Leighton 2015).

In particular, lifelong learning on pollution can
encourage changes in knowledge, attitudes
and practices and empower learners to effectchange. As the subject of education is quite
specific in terms of its aims to change daily
habits not only in childhood but at any age,
traditional teaching will not be sufficient; itwill have to become more innovative andrenewable. Discovery and experiential learning
are essential to raising people’s awarenessof personal responsibilities of our common
future. Those who are exposed directly tothe impacts of pollution have demonstrably
different perspectives on the issue. In a
study carried out in Shanghai, parents of
hospitalized children perceived pollution
as a much worse problem than care-givers
in the general community (Wang et al.
2015). Likewise a study on haze in Malaysia
revealed higher levels of knowledge, andof participation in actions to address haze,
among those who regularly practised outdoor
sports compared to the general population(De Pretto et al. 2015). In both cases, thegroups that saw, first-hand, the impacts ofpollution were more able to participate infinding a solution. Education seeks to buildc68

the same effect without the damaging direct
exposure to pollution.
Experience-based education on pollution cantake many forms. In India, significant positive
results in terms of changing knowledge andpractices were achieved through water andair quality monitoring projects for school-age
children (Alexandar and Poyyamoli 2014).
In China, a key aspect of plans to reduce
air pollution includes offering training anddegree programmes in green engineering andrenewable energy. Within UN Environment, a
massive open online course on nutrient andwastewater management provides an open
learning opportunity for learners seeking tounderstand the links between land-based
activities and water pollution. Additional
examples can be found throughout theworld through an analysis of education forsustainable development approaches andmethodologies.
Gender-responsive access to knowledge
and education on pollution can be a driverof change. Studies show that women, when
informed, are more likely to act on sustainable

Local pollutants concerned: Particulate Matter (PM), Nitrogen Oxide (NOx) and Sulphur dioxide (SO2)

Towards a Pollution-Free Planet

consumption than their male peers (United
Nations Environment Programme 2016h).
Providing courses and training are not the only
links between education and pollution. In fact,
both the public and private sector regularly
turn to universities as centres of innovationin pollution reduction technologies andsources of important research. Such researchand innovation tend to be cross-disciplinary
involving students and faculties fromprogrammes ranging from environmental
sciences to economics to engineering anddesign.
The UN Environment Global Universities
Partnership on Environment andSustainability, a network of over 800 higher
education institutions, supports members
as they directly tackle pollution reduction.
Building an understanding of pollutionprevention approaches, recognizing bestpractices, and providing a platform foruniversities to network and share theirexperiences ensures that students are able
to live sustainable, low-pollution lifestyles
on campus.
3.3.5 Cooperation and partnerships
Cooperation between countries, cities andgroups can help bring to the fore successstories and opportunities to share knowledge,
experiences of what did and did not workin countries, key sectors, and regions.
Cooperation and partnerships can reduce
asymmetries of information and capacity;leverage actors and actions where they are
most needed; highlight the multiple benefits ofactions; and shift focus from the global to the
local, or vice versa. Partnerships also connectbusinesses and other stakeholder groups
on pollution issues in different parts of theworld, North-South, South-South, and NorthSouth-South. They can enhance the capacity
to deliver, measure and monitor change, byengaging key stakeholders in the design andplanning of initiatives.
Partnerships with business can helptransform markets in line with the Sustainable

Development Goals and act on pollution (seePart 2). As pollution actions can help achievethese goals, key strategic partnerships
can be built around action on pollution.
Voluntary initiatives include the Climate andClean Air Coalition, the Global Partnershipon Marine Litter, the Global Partnership on
Nutrient Management, the Global Wastewater
Partnership, the Lead Paint Alliance, thePartnership for Clean Fuels and Vehicles,
the Global Mercury Partnership, the Global
Alliance towards alternatives to DDT, andPrinciples for Sustainable Insurance, among
others. These parternships can provide theintegrating, catalytic, and scaling up power
needed to drive layered actions and next
steps, and to strengthen compliance with
global and regional environmental
agreements (Annex 8).
Truly transdisciplinary research partnerships
are needed to bridge the social, economic,
political and environmental domains. There isa need for more disaggregated data to better
understand the different health impacts ofsome pollutants on women, men, children
and the elderly. There is very little researchon how such impacts are shaped by socialand occupational roles, and how they varyacross political and economic contexts andover time. It is therefore important to carry out
research on pollution and health taking into
account the regional and national contexts,
gender dimensions, economic vulnerability
and geospatial differences. There is alsoa need to better understand the economic
costs of pollution’s impacts on health andproductivity.
Finally, and importantly, partnerships canhelp bridge financial resources and technicalknowledge gaps. Depending on the natureof the cooperation, knowledge can beshared about successful and failed policies
and solutions, enabling countries leapfrog
in terms of knowledge, technological andnature-based solutions. Many innovative
partnerships can be developed aroundresearch and development of alternative
products, new product designs andsustainable solutions.

69

Towards a Pollution-Free Planet

4

Conclusion

The environment is the resource basethat sustains both economic and social
development. While pollution affects all ofus, it has a particularly negative impacts on
women, children, the elderly, workers, thesick and people living in low-income areas.
As a consequence, pollution constitutes
a significant impediment to achieving
sustainable development and ensuring thatno one is left behind. A pollution-free planet
would protect and restore the ecosystems
that we rely on for our food, water, air andlivelihoods, thus helping to improve humanwell-being and prosperity, especially forthe poor and the disadvantaged. Pollution
is to a large extent socially constructed.
Transitioning to a pollution-free planet is not
only possible; it is an imperative. Eliminating
pollution would be the best insurance policy
for future generations, as it would improve theintegrity of the ecosystems they will need tosurvive.
A successful transition towards a pollutionfree planet requires political leadership, high-70level champions and commitments, as wellas action at the local level. To achieve highlevel political commitment in key economic
sectors, there is a need to go beyond theenvironmental ministries and to include
other relevant ministries such as finance,
agriculture, industry, urban, transport, energy
and health. There is also a need to engage
local government, civil society organizations,business leaders, industries, trade unions andcitizens at large. Reporting on the progressthat comes from acting on pollution – whether
through voluntary measures or formallaws – is a crucial step in this transition.
Encouragingly, more governments, industries
and citizens are moving towards sustainable
materials management and a circular
economy, with greater resource efficiency,
sustainable chemistry, and clean technologies
as part of the transition towards a green
economy (SITRA 2017). Across the world,
there remain enormous differences in thecapacity to tackle pollution effectively. No one
must be left behind. This report is a call toaction towards a pollution-free planet for all.

Towards a Pollution-Free Planet

Annexes

Annex 1: Comparison of the magnitude and severity of four measures of pollution
The latest global environmental assessments
give an indication of the magnitude of current
pollution issues. Four proxy indicators
stand out as indicative of the similarities
and differences that exist worldwide. Fine
particulate matter, and hence air quality,
remains a problem in nearly all regions;the same is true of fertilizer consumption,

which can lead to nutrient over-enrichmentof ecosystems. The declining availability of
renewable water is a problem in Central andWest Asia as well as North Africa. The levelof reporting on the chemicals and waste
conventions has also been mapped as a proxy
for action on chemicals and waste.

71

Towards a Pollution-Free Planet

Annex 2: Air, water, land and soil, freshwater and marine pollution – fromsources to impacts on human health and ecosystems

72

Air

Human impact

Ecological effect

Ecosystem services
impacted

Fine particulate matter(PM2.5, 10) containing
sulphates, nitrates, ammonia,
sodium chloride, polycyclicaromatic hydrocarbons,organic carbon, mineral dust,
and water

Breathing disorders
Cardiovascular disease
CancerLoss of visibility
Impaired photosynthesis

Changes in productivity

Black carbon - a specific typeof fine particulate produced
from energy production andincomplete combustion

Breathing disorders
Cardiovascular disease(World Health Organization
2017b)
CancerAlbedo reduction and thus
further contribution toclimate change
Impaired photosynthesis

CoolingChanges in productivity

Nitrogen oxides emissions
from transport, energy
production

Lung irritation

Acidification
Eutrophication

Altered nutrient cycling;increased system losses

Ammonium emissions fromagriculture

Lung irritation

Eutrophication

Reduced food provisioning;
increased net primary
productivity

Sulphur dioxide

Premature deaths
Damage to buildings

Acidification

Loss of biodiversity

Ground level ozone

Impaired immune system;
breathing disorders,cardiovascular effects,
some reproductive anddevelopment effects (World
Health Organization 2017b)

Reduced plant growth;
increased plant susceptibility
to stress

Reduced plant biomass andnet primary productivity;
altered climate regulation
through carbon sequestration

Heavy metals, including leadand mercury, from transport,
energy production, industrial
sources, contaminatedsites, extractives industry,
unregulated burning of waste

Neurological development,
harmful effects on the
nervous, digestive andimmune systems, lungs
and kidneys (World HealthOrganization 2015)

Toxicity build-up in foodchainsReduction of available food
due to contamination

Benzene - used in petroleum
products including motor
fuels and in other chemicalsolvents

Range of acute and long term
adverse health effects anddiseases, including cancer
and aplastic anaemia (World
Health Organization 2017b)

High acute toxic effect onterrestrial plants and someaquatic life (World healthOrganization 2017a)

Potential reduction of plantbiomass, long term reductionof marine populations inpolluted areas

Towards a Pollution-Free Planet

Land and soils

Human impact

Ecological effect

Ecosystem services
impacted

Heavy metals fromsedimentary andaerosolization processes,
transport, energy production,industrial sources,
contaminated sites,
extractives industry

Neurological development,
harmful effects on the
nervous, digestive andimmune systems, lungs andkidneys

Toxicity build-up in foodchainsReduction of available food
due to contamination

Pesticides

Cancer; sterility and otherreproductive disorders

Disappearance of bees,
other insects and butterflies,
reptiles, birds and mammals

Control of pests, vectors

Plastic debris and litter

Various leachates causing
potential harmful effects

Congested alimentary
systems, leading to
starvation. Toxicity build-up
in fodder and prey

Reduction in productivity andcycling of nutrients
Distorted predator prey
dynamics

Pharmaceuticals from use ofantibiotics in livestock

Increased antimicrobial
resistance

Soil microbial populations
developing new resistantforms

Provisioning services
Productivity of soil andlivestock

Freshwater

Human health

Ecosystem

Ecosystem services

Nutrients (nitrates andphosphates)

Impairment of neurological
functions due to harmful
algal blooms, anddevelopment, e.g. blue baby
syndrome

Eutrophication, harmful
algal blooms such as bluegreen algae (cyanobacteria),changing habitats

Provisioning services:
Productivity of coral reefs
and fish stocks
Habitat or supporting
services: changes to species
distributions and functions

Heavy metals

Impairment of neurologicaldevelopment, heart, kidneydisease

Toxicity

Provisioning services:
Productivity of food and fishstocksPesticides

Cancer; sterility and otherreproductive disorders

Reduction in population sizeof species such as frogs

Control of pests, vectors

Endocrine disrupting
chemicals

Hormonal disruption

Feminization of fish

Habitat or supporting
services: Widespread
population impacts, affecting
habitats and maintenance ofgenetic diversity

Pharmaceuticals

Increased antimicrobial
resistance

Reproductive disorders offish

Provisioning services:
Productivity of fish and stock

Waste, building debris andplastics

Consumption related

Reduced alimentaryfunctioning; mortality
related to entanglement andingestion of fish

Provisioning services:
Productivity of fluvial stocks
and species
Habitat or supporting
services73

Towards a Pollution-Free Planet

MarineHuman health

Ecosystem

Ecosystem services

Nutrients (nitrates andphosphates)

Impairment of neurologicaldevelopment, cancers due toharmful algal blooms

Eutrophication, harmful algal
bloomsProvisioning services:
Productivity of coral reefs
and fish stocks

Oil

Noxious fumes; skindisorders

Disruption to local foodchainsProvisioning services:
Accumulation of various
chemicals, productivity ofbenthic fauna, shellfish andfish stocks
Habitat or supporting
services: Impairment ofphysical structures

Heavy metals e.g. frommining and seabed extractive
industries(Royal Society 2017)

Impairment of neurologicaldevelopment, heart, kidneydisease

Toxicity; impact on seabird
populations

Provisioning services:
Productivity of food and fishstocksHabitat or Supporting
Services: widespread
population impacts

Booster biocides

Cancer; sterility and otherreproductive disorders

Disappearance of algae,
corals, invertebrates and fish
species

Control of pests, vectors

Pesticides

Cancer; sterility and otherreproductive disorders

Impacts on seabird
populations and otherspecies

Changed predator prey
dynamics

Endocrine disrupting
chemicals

Hormonal disruption

Feminization of fish, thyroid
disorders in whales and othermammals

Habitat or supporting
services: Widespread
population impacts, affecting
habitats and maintenance ofgenetic diversity

Pharmaceuticals

Increased antimicrobial
resistance

Reproductive disorders offish

Provisioning services:
Productivity of fish and stock

Waste, debris and plastics

Consumption related

Reduced alimentaryfunctioning; mortality
related to entanglement andingestion

Provisioning services:
Productivity of aquatic
stocks and species
Habitat or supporting
services: Widespread
population impacts

Disruption to migratory
patterns, spawning andecholocation systems

Provisioning services:
productivity of aquaticorganisms
Habitat or supporting
services: changes in trophic
dynamics

Light, heat and noise74

Towards a Pollution-Free Planet

Annex 3: The costs of pollution – global and regional

Different valuation techniques are used toassess the monetary costs of mortality andmorbidity to establish unit values. These
include a cost-of-illness approach and direct
monetary valuation techniques such as statedpreference (SP) or revealed preference (RP)methods to assess the willingness-to-pay(WTP) to reduce environmental risks.
The welfare-based approach is typically more
appropriate for evaluating the full economic
costs of premature mortality, which include
the loss of various valuable things to anindividual apart from their paychecks, such as
consumption, leisure, good health, and simply
being alive. This value is reflected in thewillingness to pay (WTP), which captures themarginal trade-offs that individuals are willingto make to reduce their chances of dying.
The value of statistical life (VSL) represents
the sum of many individuals’ willingness topay for marginal reductions in their mortality
risks. It is not the value of any single person’slife or death, nor does it represent a society’s
judgment as to what that value should be.
The willingness-to-pay approach is best suited
for analyses of economic welfare, and it
has become the standard approach in highincome countries for valuing mortality risks
associated with pollution. The welfare costsof mortality reported were estimated using thewillingness-to-pay approach, using the valueof statistical life. However, willingness-to-pay
studies are still lacking in many parts of theworld. As such, it is practical to implement a
welfare-based approach by adjusting some“base VSL” from the original context, wheredata are available.
The welfare costs of mortality reported, were
estimated using the WTP approach using
the value of statistical life. However, WTP
studies are still lacking in many parts of theworld, as such it is practical to implement a
welfare-based approach by adjusting some“base VSL” from the original context wheredata is available. The value of statistical life
for countries where original studies were notavailable was estimated based on 2005 OECD
VSL base value. The reference VSL value wasadjusted for differences in per capita grossdomestic product, with an income elasticityof 1.2 with a range of 1.0 to 1.4 for sensitivity
analysis for low- and middle-income
countries. For high-income countries, a central
value of 0.8 is assumed, with a range from 0.6
to 1.0 for sensitivity analysis.
Mortality costs from outdoor air pollution are
projected to rise to about US$ 25 trillion by
2060 in absence of more stringent measures.
At regional and national scale, China’s welfare
costs from mortality were the highest at
nearly US$ 1 trillion followed by European
OECD countries with a combined total of
US$ 730 billion. In Africa, welfare costs ofpremature deaths were estimated at over
US$ 450 billion representing 7.9 per cent ofGross Domestic Product, with a larger share
attributed to indoor than outdoor air pollution.
In South and South-East Asia, India had thehighest share of welfare costs from mortalityof about US$ 220 billion out of a combined
total of US$ 380 billion (2015 prices)(Organisation for Economic Co-operation andDevelopment 2016a).
Hazardous chemicals and E-waste further
exacerbate pollution impacts. It is estimatedthat the world generated 41.8 million
metric tons of e-waste in 2014 withE-waste
generation forecast to increase to 50 Mt by
2018. Through better e-waste management
strategies and standards, countries can curb
potential health problems, lower greenhousegas emissions and also provide economic
incentives for recovering valuable metals
from redundant, or end-of-life electronics
devices. The Costs of Inaction on the Sound
Management of Chemicals report estimates
total health-related pesticide costs forsmallholders in sub-Saharan Africa from2005-2020 at US$ 90 billion, assuming a

75

Towards a Pollution-Free Planet

continued scenario of inadequate capacity forpesticides management in this region (United
Nations Environment Programme 2013).

E-waste is a relatively new but rapidly growing
cause of land, water and air pollution in many
developing countries.

Table 1: Global costs of pollution

76

Nature ofimpact

Method used

Assumptions

Costs (2015 % of GDP
billion US$)

SourceIndoor andoutdoor air
pollution

Value of statistical life
(VSL)

Estimated based on
2005 OECD VSL basevalue. For low- andmiddle-income countries,
a central value of 1.2 isassumed, with a range
from 1.0 to 1.4 forsensitivity analysis. For
high-income countries,
a central value of 0.8 isassumed, with a range
from 0.6 to 1.0 for
sensitivity analysis.

5 322

7.2

Organisation for
Economic Cooperation andDevelopment(2016a). WorldBank and Institutefor Health Metrics
and Evaluation(2016).

Chemicals(Volatileorganic
compounds(VOCs),,
mercury)

External costs wereapplied to data on
releases of NOx,
SOx, volatile organic
compounds, particulatematter and mercury
based on the IPCC
business as usual
scenario, which includes
the probable trajectoryof future quantities of arange of pollutants.

Other heavy metals
with potentially toxic
effects, such as arsenic,
cadmium and lead, were
excluded due to lack ofglobal data.

480.4

0.4

United Nations
Environment
Programme
and Principles
for Responsible
Investment
Association(2010).

General waste

To value external costs
for general waste and thepollutants
analysed, studies use
objective techniquesthat rely on observable
environmental changes
and market prices.

The study assumedthat
damage values per unitof waste and pollution
wouldincrease in line withpopulation and wealth(measured asGDP inpurchasing power parity
per capita).

216

0.3

United Nations
Environment
Programme
and Principles
for Responsible
Investment
Association(2010).

(Welfare costs ofmortality and morbidity)

Outdoor andindoor air
pollution

South andSouth-East
Asia

974,000 deaths fromoutdoor air pollution
in 2010
1,177,000 deaths fromindoor air pollution in2013

On site and off site
impacts

Off-site and on-site
loss in productivity
including decline inecosystem services

Land
Degradationand soilpollution

Land
Degradation

542,855 deaths in2013 from unsafe
water

Water
Pollution

Asia

700,000 deaths fromindoor and outdoor air
pollution

Air Pollution

AfricaPhysical impacts

Natureof impact

Region(Welfare costs ofmortality)

Value of Statistical
Life (VSL)

Replacement Costs,
Productivity Lossthrough Nutrient Loss

Replacement costs
approach
Productivity loss
approach(Welfare costs ofmortality)

Value of Statistical
Life (VSL)(Welfare costs ofmortality)

Value of Statistical
Life (VSL)

Method used

Estimated based on 2005 OECD VSL basevalue. Adjusted for differences in per capita
GDP with an income elasticity of 1.2 with arange of 1.0 to 1.4 for sensitivity analysis
for low- and middle-income countries. For
high-income countries, a central value of 0.8
is assumed, with a range from 0.6 to 1.0 for
sensitivity analysis.

A continental level empirical analysis ofarable and permanent cropland area of 487
million hectares cultivated with more than
127 crop types, which account for 87.43% of
the total arable and permanent cropland in
Asia, across 44 countries and 2 provinces ofChina over a span of 13 years (2018-2030).
Total annual aggregate crop production
loss due to top soil loss induced soil NPK
depletion amounts about 1.31 billion tons
or close to 53% of the annual total crop
production in the region. The corresponding
value of this annual loss at the weighted
average crop prices amounts close to732.7 billion USD.

The present value of the cost of inaction
measured in terms of the value of cereal
crops loss due to soil erosion induced
nutrient depletion over the next 15 years(2016–30) is about 4.6 trillion PPP USD, withan annual value of 286 billion Purchasing
Power Parity (PPP) USD (127 billion USD/
year at 2011 constant dollar), which isequivalent to about 12.3% of the GDP of the
42 countries

Estimated based on 2005 OECD VSL basevalue as described above.

Estimated based on 2005 OECD VSL basevalue. Adjusted for differences in per capita
GDP with an income elasticity of 1, andadjusted for post-2005 income growth andinflation. Only economic costs of mortality
were included.

Assumptions

797

127

252.5

450

Welfare costs ofmortality

Costs (2015billion US$)

0.2

6.6

12.3

4.3

7.9

% of GDP

Organisation for
Economic Cooperation andDevelopment (2016a).

Economics of Land
Degradation andUnited Nations
Environment
Programme (2017)
Forthcoming

Economics of Land
Degradation andUnited Nations
Environment
Programme (2015).

Organisation for
Economic Cooperation andDevelopment (2016b).

Organisation for
Economic Cooperation andDevelopment (2016b).

SourceTowards a Pollution-Free Planet

Table 2: Regional costs of pollution

77

78

Outdoor andIndoor air
pollution

Outdoor air
pollution

Outdoor air
pollution

Indoor air
pollution

Outdoor andindoor air
pollution

East Asia &the PacificNorth America(USA only)

OECD Europe

WHO
European
RegionEuropeCombined
Total

164,231 deaths in2010

229,000 deaths in in2010

101,000 deaths in2010

1,147,000 deaths fromindoor air pollution in2013
905,000 deaths fromoutdoor air in 2010
(China only)

Physical impacts(Welfare costs ofmortality)

Value of Statistical
Life (VSL)(Welfare costs ofmortality)

Value of Statistical
Life (VSL)(Welfare costs ofmortality)

Value of Statistical
Life (VSL)(Welfare costs ofmortality)

Value of Statistical
Life (VSL)

Method used

Estimated based on 2005 OECD VSL basevalue. Adjusted for differences in per capita
GDP with an income elasticity of 1.2 with arange of 1.0 to 1.4 for sensitivity analysis
for low- and middle-income countries. For
high-income countries, a central value of 0.8
is assumed, with a range from 0.6 to 1.0 for
sensitivity analysis.

Estimated based on 2005 OECD VSL basevalue. Adjusted for differences in per capita
GDP with an income elasticity of 1.2 with arange of 1.0 to 1.4 for sensitivity analysis
for low- and middle-income countries. For
high-income countries, a central value of 0.8
is assumed, with a range from 0.6 to 1.0 for
sensitivity analysis.

Estimated based on 2005 OECD VSL basevalue. Adjusted for differences in per capita
GDP with an income elasticity of 1.2 with arange of 1.0 to 1.4 for sensitivity analysis
for low- and middle-income countries. For
high-income countries, a central value of 0.8
is assumed, with a range from 0.6 to 1.0 for
sensitivity analysis.

Only included countries for which data wasavailable during the study period.

Assumptions

1 029

299

730

400

1849

Costs (2015billion US$)

3.6

1.5

2.1

3.4

0.09

% of GDP

World HealthOrganization, Regional
Office for Europe
and Organisation
for Economic Cooperation andDevelopment (2015).

Organisation for
Economic Cooperation andDevelopment (2016a).

Organisation for
Economic Cooperation andDevelopment (2016a).

World Bank andInstitute for Health
Metrics and Evaluation(2016).

SourceNotes: * Where a range of values is given, only lower bound estimates are included in calculating the total benefits through out all the tables
a The costs of pollution intervention have been converted to US$ 2015 prices assumed a linear trend continues from the year of estimationb Estimated costs are likely to be sensitive to the different methodologies, data and assumptions usedc Costs are expressed as a percentage of the 2015 GDP obtained from the World Bank (2017) database, http://databank.worldbank.org/data/download/GDP.pdf
d The values were adjusted for changes in inflation using OECD Indices available at: http://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=MEI_PRICESe Other impacts of air pollution for example, impacts on agricultural production, biodiversity and ecosystem services are not included or inadequately represented. A synthesis of studies
by OECD (2008) indicate that the health impacts represent a very large proportion of the total costs of air and water pollution – often in excess of 90%, https://www.oecd.org/environment/
ministerial/40501169.pdf

Natureof impact

RegionTowards a Pollution-Free Planet

Table 2: Regional costs of pollution (continued)

Towards a Pollution-Free Planet

Annex 4: How pollution is reflected in various multilateral frameworks andenvironmental agreements
Multilateral environmental agreements
and related initiatives and frameworks
form the overarching international legal
basis that supports governments and otherstakeholders in addressing environmental
issues and sustainable development. They
play a critical role in the analysis of linkages
between pollution, human well-being andthe environment and are a tool-set thathelps to achieve international and national
environmental objectives. Environmentalpressures such as air pollution, contaminationof water and soil with hazardous chemicals
and waste, uncontrolled waste generationand disposal, and ecosystem disruption
have both direct and indirect effects which
can be felt immediately as well as over the
medium to long term in the achievement of
the agreements’ goals, as well the goals ofother international and national environmental
initiatives.
International environmental principles anddeclarations
The Declaration of the United Nations
Conference on the Human Environment(Stockholm Declaration (1972) was thefirst instrument to recognize the impact ofpollution in water, air, earth and living beings.
Principle 6 of the Declaration proclaims thatthe just struggle of the peoples of all countries
against pollution should be supported.
Principle 7 calls on states to take all possible
steps to prevent pollution of the seas bysubstances that are liable to create hazards
to human health, to harm living resources
and marine life, to damage amenities or tointerfere with other legitimate uses of thesea. Principle 22 provides that states shallcooperate to develop further the internationallaw regarding liability and compensation for
the victims of pollution
and other environmental damage causedby activities within the jurisdiction orcontrol of such States to areas beyond
their jurisdiction.

Principle 13 of the Rio Declaration on
Environment and Development (1992)
added that states shall develop national law
regarding liability and compensation for thevictims of pollution and other environmental
damage. States shall also cooperate in an
expeditious and more determined manner todevelop further international law regarding
liability and compensation for adverse effects
of environmental damage caused by activities
within their jurisdiction or control to areas
beyond their jurisdiction. Principle 16 calls
upon national authorities to endeavor topromote the internalization of environmental
costs and the use of economic instruments,
taking into account the approach that thepolluter should, in principle, bear the cost ofpollution, with due regard to the public interest
and without distorting international trade andinvestment.
The principles envisaged in the Stockholm
Declaration and Rio Declaration havesubsequently been reflected in various
multilateral environmental agreements.
Key global multilateral environmental
agreements, initiatives and frameworks
The United Nations Recommendations on
the Transport of Dangerous Goods (1956)
establishes principles for all aspects ofclassification, packaging, testing, and labellingof dangerous goods. The recommendations
are presented in the form of “Model
Regulations on the Transport of Dangerous
Goods” that present a basic scheme ofprovisions that allow uniform developmentof national and international regulations
governing the various modes of transport; yetthey remain flexible enough to accommodate
any special requirements that might have to
be met. The recommendations have beenused for determining classes of wastes underthe Basel Convention and in developing the
Globally Harmonised System of Classificationand Labelling of Chemicals (GHS).

79

Towards a Pollution-Free Planet

The Ramsar Convention on Wetlands ofInternational Importance especially as
Waterfowl Habitat (1971) provides measures
for the conservation and wise use of
wetlands. According to the Article 3 of theConvention each Contracting Party shallarrange to be informed at the earliest possible
time if the ecological character of any wetland
in its territory and included in the List haschanged, is changing or is likely to change
as the result of technological developments,
pollution or other human interference. The
4th Strategic Plan of the Convention for theperiod 2016-2024 highlights that wetlands
play a key role in economic activity linked totransportation, food production, water risk
management, pollution control, fishing andhunting, leisure and the provision of ecologicalinfrastructure.
The Convention on the Prevention of Marine
Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other
Matter (London Dumping Convention) (1971)
aims to control and prevent pollution of
the sea by the dumping of waste and othermatter that is liable to create hazards tomarine life.
The Convention on International Trade inEndangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora(1973) seeks to regulate international tradein endangered animals and plants and theirproducts. It does not specifically provide forpollution control in its articles. However, its
objectives to reduce pressures on wildlife
would include reduction of pressures resulting
from habitat loss and pollution. E.g. theimpact of pollution on sea turtle populations
and their habitat has been recognized by
the Conference of the Parties through the
adoption of “The Guidelines for evaluating
marine turtle ranching proposals submitted
pursuant to Resolution Conf. 11.16 (rev.
COP15)”. CITES works closely with the
INTERPOL Pollution Crime Working Groupto tackle pollution crime.
The International Convention for thePrevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL)(1973) aims to eliminate pollution of the sea
by oil and other toxic substances which might80

be discharged during normal operations, or
released accidentally as a result of collisions
or stranding of ships. The Convention, further,seeks to regulate the handling of substancesthat would present a major hazard to either
marine resources or human health or cause
serious harm to amenities or other legitimate
uses of the sea.
The Convention on the Prevention of Marine
Pollution from Land-Based Sources (1974)
obligates Parties to eliminate, if necessary bystages, pollution of the maritime area fromland-based sources and strictly limit pollutionof the maritime area from land-based sources.
The Barcelona Convention for the Protectionof the Mediterranean Sea against Pollution(1976) and its Protocols seeks to protect
the maritime waters of the Mediterranean
Sea from substances that could harm theliving resources, cause hazards to humanhealth, and impair quality of seawater.
Seven Protocols addressing specificaspects of Mediterranean environmental
conservation processes have been adopted
since 1976:•

Dumping Protocol: Protocol for
the Prevention of Pollution in the
Mediterranean Sea by Dumping from
Ships and Aircraft (1976) amended as
Protocol for the Prevention and Eliminationof Pollution in the Mediterranean Sea
by Dumping from Ships and Aircraft orIncineration at Sea (1995)•

Prevention and Emergency Protocol:
Protocol Concerning Cooperation in
Preventing Pollution from Ships and,in Cases of Emergency, Combating
Pollution of the Mediterranean Sea (2002),
which replaced the Protocol Concerning
Cooperation in Combating Pollutionof the Mediterranean Sea by Oil andother Harmful Substances in Cases ofEmergency (1976).

•

LBS Protocol: Protocol for the Protectionof the Mediterranean Sea against Pollution
from Land-Based Sources (1980)

Towards a Pollution-Free Planet•

The Land-based Sources and Activities
Protocol: Protocol for the Protection of theMediterranean Sea against Pollution fromLand-Based Sources and Activities (1996)•

Specially Protected Area and Biodiversity
Protocol: Protocol Concerning SpeciallyProtected Areas and Biological Diversity in
the Mediterranean (1995)•

Offshore Protocol: Protocol for theProtection of the Mediterranean Sea
against Pollution Resulting from
Exploration and Exploitation of theContinental Shelf and the Seabed and its
Subsoil (1994)•

Hazardous Wastes Protocol: Protocolon the Prevention of Pollution of theMediterranean Sea by Transboundary
Movements of Hazardous Wastes andtheir Disposal (1996)•

Integrated Coastal Zone Management
Protocol: Protocol on Integrated Coastal
Zone Management in the Mediterranean(2008)The International Convention for the Safetyof Life at Sea (SOLAS) (1980) specifies
minimum standards for the construction,equipment, and operation of ships, compatible
with their safety. The Convention’s Chapter VII- Carriage of dangerous goods covers
construction and equipment of ships carrying
dangerous liquid chemicals in bulk andrequires chemical tankers to comply with theInternational Bulk Chemical Code (IBC Code).
The United Nations Convention on the Law of
the Sea (UNCLOS) (1982) provides the legal
framework for international governance ofseas and oceans. Article 194 of the UNCLOS
prescribes measures to prevent, reduce andcontrol pollution of the marine environment,
taking into consideration international rules
and national laws. The Convention seeks tocontrol pollution from land-based sources
pollution from seabed activities subject tonational jurisdiction, pollution from activities
in the Area, pollution from dumping, pollution

from vessels and pollution from or through theatmosphere
The Convention on the Conservation ofMigratory Species of Wild Animals (1983)
seeks to conserve migratory species by
ensuring that Contracting Parties take thenecessary action, individually and collectively,
to avoid species becoming endangered. It
does not specifically provide for pollution
control in its articles. However, its objectives
have been expanded to include reduction of
the impact of pollution on migratory species.
Based on the reports on Management ofMarine Debris (UNEP/CMS/COP11, Inf. 27,
28 and 29) the Conference of Parties in 2014
adopted Resolution 11.10 on Managementof Marine Debris encouraging Parties toimplement monitoring processes in order
to assess the cumulative environmental
impacts of pollution on migratory species
and take relevant actions. The Strategic Planfor Migratory Species 2015-2023 defines its
Target 7: Multiple anthropogenic pressures
have been reduced to levels that are not
detrimental to the conservation of migratory
species or to the functioning, integrity,
ecological connectivity and resilience of theirhabitats. The pressures concerned may include
those relating to climate change, renewableenergy developments, power lines, by-catch,underwater noise, ship strikes, poisoning,
pollution, disease, invasive species, illegal andunsustainable take and marine debris.
The Vienna Convention for the Protectionof the Ozone Layer (1985) and the Montreal
Protocol on Substances that Deplete the
Ozone Layer (1987) seeks to protect humanhealth and the environment against adverse
effects resulting or likely to result from humanactivities which modify or are likely to modify
the ozone layer.
The Montreal Protocol was designed toreduce the production and consumption,
as well abundance of ozone depleting
substances in the atmosphere. The protectionof the ozone layer would result in reduced
production, import, and export of ozonedepleting substances.

81

Towards a Pollution-Free Planet

The Kigali Amendment to the Montreal
Protocol on Substances that Deplete
the Ozone Layer (2016) (not yet in force)
commits Parties to cut the production andconsumption of hydrofluorocarbons by
more than 80 percent from 2019-2047 andthereafter.
The International Code of Conduct on
Pesticide Management (1985) is theframework on pesticide management for
all public and private entities engaged in, or
associated with, production, regulation andmanagement of pesticides. The new Codeof Conduct on Pesticide Management, which
was approved by the FAO Conference in2013 and recognized by the WHO Executive
Board in January 2014, provides standardsof conduct that serve as a point of reference
in relation to sound pesticide life cycle
management practices, in particular forgovernment authorities and the pesticideindustry. The Code of Conduct is supported bytechnical guidelines that are developed by the
Panel of Experts on Pesticide Management.
The Basel Convention on the Control ofTransboundary Movements of Hazardous
Wastes and Their Disposal (1989) was
adopted to protect human health and theenvironment against the adverse effects ofhazardous wastes. Parties have committed
to protect, by strict control, human healthand the environment against adverse effects
which may result from the generation andmanagement of hazardous wastes and otherwastes. Each party shall take the appropriate
measures to ensure that persons involvedin the management of hazardous wastes
or other wastes within it take such steps as
are necessary to prevent pollution due tohazardous wastes and other wastes arisingfrom such management and, if such pollution
occurs, to minimize the consequences thereof
for human health and the environment; parties
shall undertake to review periodically thepossibilities for the reduction of the amountand/or the pollution potential of hazardous
wastes and other wastes which are exported
to other states, in particular to developing
countries.

82

The preamble to Basel Convention Protocol
on Liability and Compensation for Damage
Resulting from Transboundary Movements ofHazardous Wastes and their Disposal (1999)
provide that states shall develop internationaland national legal instruments regarding
liability and compensation for the victims ofpollution and other environmental damage.
The International Labour Organization
Chemicals Convention (1990) (No. 170)
specially addresses the protection ofworkers from harmful effects of chemicals
at the workplace. Because of the tri-partite
composition of the International Labour
Organization, under whose jurisdiction theConvention was negotiated, it includes
obligations for governments, suppliers,
employers and workers regarding the safe
management and handling of chemicals. This
ranges from developing coherent policies tothe establishment of information exchangemechanisms.
The Convention on Oil Pollution
Preparedness, Response and Co-operation(OPRC) (1990) aims to facilitate international
cooperation and mutual assistance inpreparing for and responding to major oil
pollution incidents that threaten the marine
environment and coastlines, and to encouragecountries to develop and maintain thecapability to respond to major oil pollution
emergencies involving ships, offshore units,
seaports, and oil handling facilities. The
Convention, which entered into 1995, currently
has 108 Parties. In 2000, the Protocol on
Preparedness, Response and Co-operation
to pollution Incidents by Hazardous andNoxious Substances (OPRC-HNS Protocol)
was adopted, extending the scope of theConvention to hazardous and noxious
substances.
The UN Economic Commission for Europe
Espoo Convention on Environmental Impact
Assessment in a Transboundary Context(1991). According to the Article 2 (1) the
Parties shall, either individually or jointly,
take all appropriate and effective measures
to prevent, reduce and control significant

Towards a Pollution-Free Planet

adverse transboundary environmental impact
from proposed activities. Through Decision
II/14 on the amendment to the Convention,
which entered into force on 26 August 2014,
the Meeting of the Parties decided to allow
Member States of the United Nations situatedoutside the UN Economic Commission for
Europe region to become Parties to theConvention.
The Convention on Biological Diversity(1992) does not specifically mention pollution
in their articles. However, it provides thatconservation and sustainable use of biologicaldiversity is of critical importance for meetingthe food, health and other needs of the world
population. The Strategic Plan for Biodiversity
2011-2020, including the Aichi Biodiversity
Targets, adopted at the Tenth Meeting of theConference of the Parties under decision X/2,
called for a decrease in pollution as one of thedirect pressures on biodiversity.
Aichi Biodiversity Target 8 provides thatby 2020, pollution, including from excess
nutrients, has been brought to levels that are
not detrimental to ecosystem function andbiodiversity.
The Cartagena Biosafety Protocol (2000)
aims to protect biological diversity and humanhealth from the potential risks arising fromthe import and export of living modified
organisms. The Protocol addresses the needto protect human health and the environment
from the possible adverse effects of the
products of modern biotechnology.
The Nagoya-Kuala Lumpur Supplementary
Protocol on Liability and Redress to the
Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety (2010)
contributes to the conservation andsustainable use of biological diversity byproviding international rules and procedures
for liability and redress relating to living
modified organisms.
The United Nations Framework Convention
on Climate Change (1992) presents theframework to tackle "adverse effects ofclimate change" (Article 1), which meanschanges in the physical environment orbiota resulting from climate change whichhave significant deleterious effects on thecomposition, resilience or productivity ofnatural and managed ecosystems or on theoperation of socio-economic systems or
on human health and welfare. The ultimate
objective of this Convention according
Article 2 and any related legal instrumentsthat the Conference of the Parties may adopt(Kyoto Protocol for Climate Change, 1997
and Paris Agreement (2015) is to achieve, in
accordance with the relevant provisions of theConvention, stabilization of greenhouse gas
concentrations in the atmosphere at a levelthat would prevent dangerous anthropogenic
interference with the climate system. Sucha level should be achieved within a timeframe sufficient to allow ecosystems toadapt naturally to climate change, to ensurethat food production is not threatened
and to enable economic development toproceed in a sustainable manner. The goalof the Marrakech Declaration for Health,Environment and Climate Change is to reduce
pollution-related deaths by promoting better
management of environmental and climate
risks to health.
The UN Economic Commission for Europe
Convention on the Protection and Useof Transboundary Watercourses andInternational Lakes (Water Convention)(1992) aims to protect and ensure thequantity, quality and sustainable use of transboundary water resources by facilitating
cooperation. It provides an intergovernmental
platform for Parties to prevent, control andreduce pollution of waters causing or likely
to cause transboundary impact. Measurestaken under the convention shall not directly
or indirectly result in a transfer of pollution
to other parts of the environment. Initiallynegotiated as a regional instrument, it turned
into a universally available legal framework fortrans-boundary water cooperation, following
the entry into force of amendment in February
2013, opening it to all UN Member States.
The Protocol on Water and Health (1999)
seeks to protect human health and wellbeing by better water management, including83

Towards a Pollution-Free Planet

the protection of water ecosystems, and by
preventing, controlling and reducing waterrelated diseases. The Protocol is the firstinternational agreement of its kind adopted
to attain an adequate supply of safe drinking
water and adequate sanitation for everyone,and effectively protect water.
The Protocol on Civil Liability andCompensation for Damage Caused by
the Transboundary Effects of Industrial
Accidents on Transboundary Waters (2003)
establishes international civil liability for all
damages caused on humans, transboundarywaters and the environment.
The International Convention on Civil
Liability for Oil Pollution Damage (CLC)(1992) was adopted to ensure that adequate
compensation is available to persons who
suffer oil pollution damage resulting frommaritime casualties involving oil-carrying
ships. It places liability for such damageon the owner of the ship from which thepolluting oil escaped or was discharged. It
covers pollution damage resulting from spillsof persistent oils suffered in the territory,
including the territorial sea, of a State Party to
the Convention.
The United Nations Convention to Combat
Desertification (UNCCD) (1994) requires
parties to combat desertification andmitigate the effects of drought. According
to the Convention “land degradation” means
reduction or loss, in arid, semi-arid anddry sub-humid areas, of the biological or
economic productivity and complexity ofrainfed cropland, irrigated cropland, or range,
pasture, forest and woodlands resulting fromland uses or from a process or combinationof processes, including processes arisingfrom human activities and habitation patterns.
Under the regional implementation Annex
V, the Desertification Convention provides
guidelines and arrangements for the effective
implementation of the Convention in the
country parties of the Central and Eastern
European region, which are affected byunsustainable exploitation of water resources
leading to serious environmental damage,84

including chemical pollution, salinizationand exhaustion of aquifers as well as forest
coverage losses due to climatic factors,
consequences of air pollution and frequent
wildfires. The 10-year strategic plan andframework to enhance the implementationof the Convention (2008–2018) took theseconcerns into consideration.
The Convention on the Law of the Nonnavigational Uses of International
Watercourses (1997) commits WatercourseStates to, individually and, where appropriate,jointly, prevent, reduce and control thepollution of an international watercoursethat may cause significant harm to otherwatercourse States or to their environment,
including harm to human health, to the use of
the waters for any beneficial purpose or to theliving resources of the watercourse.
The Joint Convention on the Safety of
Spent Fuel Management and on the Safetyof Radioactive Waste Management (1997)
applies to spent fuel and radioactive waste
resulting from civilian nuclear reactors andapplications and from military or defense
programmes if and when such materials aretransferred permanently to and managed
within exclusively civilian programmes, orwhen declared as spent fuel or radioactive
waste for the purpose of the Convention by
the Contracting Party. The Convention also
applies to planned and controlled releases
into the environment of liquid or gaseousradioactive materials from regulated nuclear
facilities.
The Rotterdam Convention on Prior Informed
Consent Procedure for Certain Hazardous
Chemicals and Pesticides in International
Trade (1998) does not specifically mention
pollution in its articles. However, thesubstances it controls are those likely tocause pollution and harm human healthand the environment. It seeks to promoteshared responsibility and cooperative efforts
among Parties in the international trade ofhazardous chemicals in order to protect
human health and the environment frompotential harm. It also seeks to contribute toTowards a Pollution-Free Planet

the environmentally sound management ofthese chemicals when their use is permitted
by facilitating information exchange about
their characteristics, potential dangers, safe
handling and use by providing for a national
decision-making process on their import andexport and by disseminating these decisions
to Parties.

production, use, trade, release and storage of
persistent organic pollutants.

The UN Economic Commission for Europe
Aarhus Convention on Access to Information,
Public Participation in Decision Making andAccess to Justice in Environmental Matters(1998). In order to contribute to the protectionof the right of every person of present andfuture generations to live in an environment
adequate to his or her health and well-being,
each Party shall guarantee the rights ofaccess to information, public participationin decision-making, and access to justicein environmental matters in accordancewith the provisions of this Convention(Article 1). Pursuant to Decision IV/5 of 2011
on accession to the Convention by non-UN
Economic Commission for Europe member
states, all UN Member States are encouraged
to accede to the Convention). Under theConvention the Kyiv Protocol on Pollutant
Release and Transfer Registers (2009) was
adopted. The objective of this Protocol is toenhance public access to information throughthe establishment of coherent, integrated,nationwide pollutant release and transfer
registers in accordance with the provisionsof this Protocol, which could facilitate public
participation in environmental decisionmaking as well as contribute to the prevention
and reduction of pollution of the environment.
All UN Member States can join the Protocol,
including those which have not ratified the
Aarhus Convention and those which are notmembers of the UN Economic Commission
for Europe.

The Strategic Approach to International
Chemicals Management (SAICM), adopted
by the First International Conference on
Chemicals Management on 6 February 2006,
is a policy framework to promote chemicalsafety around the world. The objective ofStrategic Approach is to achieve soundmanagement of chemicals throughout theirlife cycle so that by 2020, chemicals areproduced and used in ways that minimize
adverse impacts on human health and theenvironment. The “2020 goal” was adopted
by the World Summit on Sustainable
Development in 2002 as part of theJohannesburg Plan of Implementation. The
Strategic Approach is not legally binding.

The Stockholm Convention on Persistent
Organic Pollutants (2001), reaffirming
Principle 16 of the Rio Declaration, seeks toprotect human health and the environment
from persistent organic pollutants. The
Convention calls upon Member States
to restrict and ultimately eliminate theInternational Health Regulations (IHR) (2005)
are meant to help the international community
prevent and respond to public health risks
and emergencies that can have devastating
impacts on human health and economies.

The Bali Declaration on Waste Managementfor Human Health and Livelihood (2008)
reaffirms the commitment, of parties to theBasel Convention and from other states, tothe principles and purposes of the Basel
Convention, including the fundamental
objective to protect, by strict control, humanhealth and the environment against theadverse effects resulting from the generation,transboundary movement and managementof hazardous wastes and other wastes.
The objective of the Minamata Convention on
Mercury (2013) is to protect the human healthand the environment from the adverse effectsof mercury and mercury compounds. Its
preamble recognizes the substantial lessonsof Minamata Disease, in particular the serious
health and environmental effects resulting
from the mercury pollution, and the need toensure proper management of mercury andthe prevention of such events in the future.

85

Towards a Pollution-Free Planet

Annex 5: Regional multilateral environmental agreements, initiatives andnetworks
Regional multilateral environmental
agreements, initiatives and networks are alsosignificant platforms for enhancing synergies
and cooperation in tackling global pollution
issues at the local level, while benefitingfrom the localized knowledge bases thatcannot be easily accessed at the global level.
For example, the Pan-European Strategic
Framework on Greening the Economy
provides a platform for a coordinated regional
approach to a green and inclusive economy,
operationalized by the Batumi Initiative on
Green Economy (BIG-E) at present comprising
115 commitments to actions by 25 countries
and 12 organizations.
The degree of focus on the various types andelements of pollution varies from one region
to another, but across all the five regions,water and air pollution are given a greater
focus. The various regional agreements,
networks and initiatives have establishedor are in the process of establishingdatabases, tools and joint actions taking
into consideration the different sectoral andregional experience, cultural and politicalpractices and challenges as regards pollution
control. The available data reflects in detailthe character and focus of the particularregion, including policy and regulatory gaps.
The Global Atmospheric Pollution Forum, forinstance, relies on data from Africa, Asia andLatin America and the Caribbean to support
the development of solutions to air pollutionrelated problems and promote effective
cooperation among nations at the regional,
hemispheric and global scales.
The European Environment and Health
Process (EHP) and its Ministerial Conference
provide a unique intersectoral policy platformthat brings together the environment andhealth sectors and partners to shape policies
and actions to reduce the adverse healthimpact of environmental threats througheffective environmental health interventions.
The latest conference held in Ostrava, Czech

86

Republic with a strong political commitment(Ostrava Declaration) accompanied by
a compendium of meaningful actions toprotect the health and well-being of European
citizens and the environment they live
in. The Environment and Health Processenhances synergies and cooperation and an
important platform to tackle the causes andconsequences of pollution.
There is need for additional resources or
efforts to enhance the capacity of weakregional initiatives, specifically in Africa,
Asia and Latin America and the Caribbean.
There is also a need to further develop joint
initiatives – on topics such as environment andhealth, environment and water, environment
and agriculture – or to integrate them into theconcept of the green or circular economy.
Africa1. African Ministerial Conference on theEnvironment (AMCEN) (established 1985)
2. Air Pollution Information Network
for Africa (APINA) (1997) (networkof scientists, policy makers andprivate sector and non-governmentalorganisations from Africa)
3. Harare Resolution on Prevention
and Control of Regional Air Pollution
in Southern Africa and its Likely
Transboundary Effects (1998)
4. Dakar Declaration on the Phasing-out of
Leaded Gasoline in Sub-Saharan Africa(2001)
5. The Maputo Declaration on thePrevention and Control of Regional Air
Pollution in southern Africa and its likely
Transboundary Effects. (2003)
6. Health Strategy of the African Union(2006)

Towards a Pollution-Free Planet

7. Regional Policy Framework on Air
Pollution (2008)
8. Algiers Declaration on Health Research in
Africa (2008)
9. Ouagadougou Declaration on Waste
Management for Human Health andLivelihood (2008)
10. Southern African Development
Community (SADC) Regional Policy
Framework on Air Pollution (Lusaka
Agreement 2008)
11. Eastern Africa Regional Framework
Agreement on Air Pollution (Nairobi
Agreement 2008)
12. West and Central Africa Regional
Framework Agreement on Air Pollution(Abidjan Agreement-2009)
13. 13. North African Framework Agreement
on Air Pollution
14. Southern Africa Development Community
Protocol on Regional Air Quality andAtmospheric Emissions
15. Libreville Declaration on Health andEnvironment in Africa (2008) recognizes
the need for further research to increase
understanding of the vulnerability ofhumans to environmental risk factors,
particularly in Africa. It calls uponcountries to develop or update national,
subregional and regional frameworks
in order to address more effectively theissue of environmental impacts
on health.

18. Bamako Convention on the Ban of
the Import into Africa and the Controlof Transboundary Movement andManagement of Hazardous Wastes within
Africa (1991).
19. Convention for Cooperation in
the Protection, Management andDevelopment of the Marine and Coastal
Environment of the Atlantic Coast of theWest, Central and Southern Africa Region(Abidjan Convention) and the Additional
Protocol to the Abidjan Convention
Concerning Cooperation in the Protection
and Development of Marine and Coastal
Environment from Land-based Sourcesand Activities in the Western, Central andSouthern African Region (LSBA Protocol- 2012) Convention for the Protection,
Management and Development of the
Marine and Coastal Environment of
the Eastern African Region (Nairobi
Convention) and its Protocol Concerning
Co-operation in Combating Marine
Pollution in Cases of Emergency in the
Eastern African Region
20. Regional Convention for the Conservationof the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden
Environmen (Jeddah Convention) andProtocol Concerning the Conservation of
Biological Diversity and the Establishmentof Network of Protected Areas in the Red
Sea and Gulf of Aden (2005), Protocol
Concerning the Protection of the Marine
Environment from Land-Based Activities
in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden (2005),
and Protocol Concerning TechnicalCooperation to Borrow and Transfer
Experts, Technicians, Equipment andMaterials in Cases of Emergency (2009).

16. West, Central and Southern Africa Region
Regional Contingency Plans and other
Means of Preventing and Combatting
Pollution Incidents (2011)

Asia

17. The African Convention on theConservation of Nature and Natural
Resources (2003).

2. ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary
Haze Pollution (2002)

1. The Association of Southeast Asian
Nations (ASEAN) (1967)87

Towards a Pollution-Free Planet

3. Central Asian International Environmental
Forumof environmental management andsustainable development.

4. Intergovernmental Networks on Regional
Air Pollution in Asia and the Pacific Region

18. The Convention to Ban the importation
into Forum Island Countries of Hazardous
and Radioactive Wastes and to Control
the Transboundary Movement ofHazardous wastes within the South
Pacific Region (Waigaini Convention)(1995 ) objectively seeks to reduce andeliminate transboundary movementsof hazardous and radioactive waste, tominimize the production of hazardousand toxic wastes in the Pacific region
and to ensure that disposal of wastes
in the Convention area is completed in
an environmentally sound manner. The
Convention applies the strict controlsof the Basel Convention to the South
Pacific area, and ensures that hazardous
waste cannot travel from New Zealand orAustralia to another Pacific country, or to
Antarctica.

5. The Acid Deposition Monitoring Network
for East Asia (EANET) (1998)
6. Joint Forum on Atmospheric Environment
in Asia and the Pacific
7. Asia-Pacific Regional Forum on Healthand Environment
8. The Asia Pacific Clean Air Partnership(APCAP)
9. Climate and Clean Air Coalition to Reduce
Short-Lived Climate Pollutants (CCAC)
10. Clean Air Asia’s Integrated Programme for
Better Air Quality in Asia (IBAQ)
11. Asian Co-benefits Partnership (ACP)
12. The Long-range Transboundary Air
Pollutants in North East Asia (LTP)
13. The Northeast Asian Subregional
Programme for Environmental
Cooperation (NEASPEC)
14. Framework Convention on Environmental
Protection for Sustainable Development(Central Asia) (2006)

88

19. Kuwait Regional Convention for
Cooperation on the Protection of the
Marine Environment from Pollution (1978)and Protocol concerning Regional Cooperation in Combating Pollution by Oil
and other Harmful Substances in Cases ofEmergency (1978).
20. The Action Plan for the South Asian Seas
Programme (1995)

15. The Convention on Conservation of Naturein the South Pacific (Apia Convention)

21. Action Plan for the Protection andSustainable Development of the Marine
and Coastal Areas of the East AsianRegion (1994).

16. Malé Declaration on Control andPrevention of Air Pollution and Its Likely
Transboundary Effects for South Asia
(1998)

22. The Action Plan for the Protection,
Management and Development of the
Marine and Coastal Environment of theNorthwest Pacific Region (1994)

17. Regional Environmental Centre forCentral Asia (CAREC) (1998) creates
opportunities to attract to Central Asia theadvanced knowledge, best international
practices and technologies in the field

Europe and North America
1. European Environment and Health
Ministerial Board (EHMB)

Towards a Pollution-Free Planet

2. The Barcelona Convention for theProtection of the Mediterranean Sea
against Pollution (1976) and its Protocols
seeks to protect the maritime waters of
the Mediterranean Sea from substancesthat could harm the living resources,cause hazards to human health, andimpair quality of seawater.
Seven Protocols addressing specificaspects of Mediterranean environmental
conservation processes have been
adopted since 1976:••

Dumping Protocol: Protocol for
the Prevention of Pollution in the
Mediterranean Sea by Dumping from
Ships and Aircraft (1976) amended
as Protocol for the Prevention
and Elimination of Pollution in the
Mediterranean Sea by Dumping from
Ships and Aircraft or Incineration at
Sea (1995)
Prevention and Emergency Protocol:
Protocol Concerning Cooperation in
Preventing Pollution from Ships and,in Cases of Emergency, Combating
Pollution of the Mediterranean Sea(2002), which replaced the Protocol
Concerning Cooperation in Combating
Pollution of the Mediterranean Sea by
Oil and other Harmful Substances inCases of Emergency (1976).

•

Land-based Sources Protocol: Protocol
for the Protection of the Mediterranean
Sea against Pollution from Land-Based
Sources (1980)•

The Land-based Sources and Activities
Protocol: Protocol for the Protectionof the Mediterranean Sea against
Pollution from Land-Based Sourcesand Activities (1996)•

Specially Protected Area andBiodiversity Protocol: Protocol
Concerning Specially Protected
Areas and Biological Diversity in the
Mediterranean (1995)•

Offshore Protocol: Protocol for theProtection of the Mediterranean Sea
against Pollution Resulting from
Exploration and Exploitation of theContinental Shelf and the Seabed and
its Subsoil (1994)•

Hazardous Wastes Protocol: Protocolon the Prevention of Pollution of theMediterranean Sea by Transboundary
Movements of Hazardous Wastes andtheir Disposal (1996)•

Integrated Coastal Zone Management
Protocol: Protocol on Integrated
Coastal Zone Management in the
Mediterranean (2008)

3. Batumi Action for Cleaner Air (2016–2021) hosted by the United Nations
Economic Commission for Europe: avoluntary initiative supporting countries’
efforts in improving air quality andprotecting public health and ecosystems.
108 commitments have been submitted
by 27 countries and 4 organizations.
4. European Agreement concerning theInternational Carriage of Dangerous
Goods by Road (ADR) (1968).
5. The United Nations Economic
Commission for Europe Convention on
Long-range Trans-boundary Air Pollution(1979) and its Protocols :a) Protocol on Long-term Financingof the Cooperative Programme for
Monitoring and Evaluation of the Longrange Transmission of Air Pollutants in
Europe (EMEP) (1984);b) Protocol on Reduction of Sulphur
Emissions or their Transboundary
Fluxes by 30% (1985);c) Protocol on Control of Emissionsof Nitrogen Oxides or their
Transboundary Fluxes (1988);

89

Towards a Pollution-Free Planetd) Protocol on Control of Emissions ofVolatile Organic Compounds or their
Transboundary Fluxes (1991)

Impact Assessment (1991) and theProtocol on Strategic Environmental
Assessment (2003).

e) Protocol to the Convention on longrange Transboundary air pollution
concerning the further reductions ofSulphur Emissions (1994).

11. Alpine Convention (1991) and its
Protocols encourage parties to adhere to
the basic principles of all the activities notharmful to humans, animals and plants
and their habitats.

f)Protocol on Persistent Organic
Pollutants (1998)g) Protocol to the Convention on longrange Transboundary air pollution on
Heavy Metals (1998)h) Protocol to Abate Acidification,
Eutrophication and Ground-level
Ozone (1999).
i)

Protocol to the Convention on longrange Transboundary air pollution toabate acidification, eutrophication andground-level ozone (1999)

6. The United Nations Economic
Commission for Europe Convention on
the Transboundary Effects of Industrial
Accidents (1992).
7. Helsinki Convention on the Protection of
the Marine Environment of the Baltic Sea
Area (1992).
8. The United Nations Economic
Commission for Europe Aarhus
Convention on Access to Information,
Public Participation in Decision Making
and Access to Justice in Environmental
Matters (1998) and the Kyiv Protocol on
Pollutant Release and Transfer Registers(2009) (All UN Member States can join the
Protocol).
9. Convention for the Protection of the
Marine Environment of the North-East
Atlantic, “OSPAR Convention” - (1992)
10. The UN Economic Commission for Europe
Espoo Convention on Environmental

90

12. Bern Convention on the Conservation ofEuropean Wildlife and Natural Habitats(1979).
13. River Basin Conventions (Danube (1994),
Elbe (1990), Oder (1996), Rhine (1999))
seek to ensure that surface waters andgroundwater within river basins aremanaged and used sustainably andequitably; improve water quality andreduce hazardous pollution to ensure thathuman health and the aquatic ecosystemof the waters are not threatened byhazardous substances.
14. Agreement for cooperation in dealing
with pollution of the North Sea by oil
and other harmful substances (Bonn
Agreement) (1983) is applicablewhenever the presence or the prospective
presence of oil or other harmful
substances polluting or threatening topollute the North Sea presents a grave
and imminent danger to the coastor related interests of one or more
Contracting Parties.
15. The Convention on the Protectionof the Black Sea Against Pollution(Bucharest Convention) and its Protocol
on Protection of the Black Sea Marine
Environment Against Pollution fromLand Based Sources (1992), Protocol
on Cooperation in Combating Pollutionof the Black Sea Marine Environment
by Oil and other Harmful Substances in
Emergency Situations; and Protocol on
the Protection of the Black Sea Marine
Environment Against Pollution ~by
DumpingTowards a Pollution-Free Planet

16. Framework Convention for the Protectionof the Marine Environment of the CaspianSea (Tehran Convention) and the Protocol
Concerning Regional Preparedness,
Response and Co-operation in Combating
Oil Pollution Incidents (2011), and theProtocol for the Protection of the CaspianSea against Pollution from Land-based
Sources and Activities (2012).
Latin America and the Caribbean
1. The Forum of Ministers of Environment of
Latin America and the Caribbean
2. Regional Action Plan forIntergovernmental Cooperation on Air
Pollution for Latin America and the
Caribbean (2014)
3. Regional Intergovernmental Network on
Atmospheric Pollution of Latin America
and the Caribbean
4. Regional Agreement on theTransboundary Movement of Hazardous
Wastes (1992) (not yet in force)
5. Convention for the Protection andDevelopment of the Marine Environment
in the Wider Caribbean Region(Cartagena Convention) (1983) calls on
Parties to take appropriate measures tocontrol pollution of the wider Caribbean
Sea region from land based sources,
ships, dumping, sea bed activities, andairborne sources. It covers the marine
environment of the Gulf of Mexico, theCaribbean Sea and the areas of theAtlantic Ocean and is complimented by
the following protocols:a) The Protocol Concerning Co-operationin Combating Oil Spills in the Wider
Caribbean Region (1983).
b) The Protocol Concerning SpeciallyProtected Areas and Wildlife (SPAW)
in the Wider Caribbean Region (1990).

c) The Protocol Concerning Pollution
from Land-Based Sources andActivities (1999)
6. Convention for the Protection of the
Marine Environment and Coastal Areaof the South-East Pacific (1981) (Lima
Convention) obligates Parties to takemeasures to prevent, reduce and control
pollution of the marine environment andcoastal area of the South-East Pacificand to ensure appropriate environmental
management of natural resources.
7. Convention for Cooperation in theProtection and Sustainable Developmentof the Marine and Coastal Environmentof the Northeast Pacific (Antigua
Convention) and Plan of Action for theProtection and Sustainable Developmentof the Marine and Coastal Environment of
the North-East Pacific
The Antarctic Treaty System
1. Protocol on Environmental Protection to
the Antarctic Treaty (1991)
2. Convention for the Conservation of
Antarctic Seals (1972)
3. Convention on the Conservation of
Antarctic Marine Living Resources (1980)(CCAMLR)
4. The Antarctic Treaty Consultative Meeting(ATCM) adopts Measures, Decisions
and Resolutions for implementing theprinciples of the Antarctic Treaty andthe Environment Protocol and provide
regulations and guidelines for the
management of the Antarctic Treaty
area. The Decisions address internalorganizational matters of the meeting.
The Resolutions are not legally binding onContracting Parties but they can provide
guidance on the implementation of the
Antarctic Treaty system. The Measures,once approved, are legally binding on theConsultative Parties.

91

Towards a Pollution-Free Planet

5. The Committee for Environmental
Protection (CEP) provides advice
and formulate recommendations to
the Parties in connection with theimplementation of the Environment
Protocol Protocol(German Environment
Agency 2016).

5. Protection of the Arctic Marine
Environment (PAME) mandated toaddress policy and non-emergency
pollution prevention and control measures
for the protection of the Arctic marine
environment from both land and seabased sources

The Arctic Council

6. Sustainable Development Working
Group (SDWG) incorporates activities toprevent and control disease and injuries
by monitoring the impact of pollution andclimate change on health and Sustainable
Development of the people living in the
Arctic

1. Arctic Contaminants Action Program(ACAP) mandated to prevent adverse
effects from, reduce, and ultimately
eliminate pollution of the Arctic
environment.
2. Arctic Monitoring and Assessment
Programme (AMAP) mandated to provide
reliable and sufficient information on
the status of, and threats to, the Arctic
environment, including scientific advice
on actions to be taken to support Arctic
governments in their efforts to takeremedial and preventive actions relating tocontaminants
3. Conservation of Arctic Flora and Fauna(CAFF) mandated to develop common
responses on issues of importance for theArctic ecosystem, including responses onconservation opportunities and politicalcommitments.
4. Emergency Prevention, Preparedness andResponse (EPPR) mandated to contributeto the protection of the Arctic environment
from the threat or impact that may result
from an accidental release of pollutants orradionuclides.

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Towards a Pollution-Free Planet

Annex 6: Analysis of the linkages between addressing pollution types andimplementing Sustainable Development Goal targets
The figures below map out how addressing
pollution through multilateral environmental
agreements and other international initiatives
contributes to achieving Sustainable

Development Goal targets. The logos in thecentre provide an indication of the institutions
that play a key role in tackling that type ofpollution.

Air pollution
2.4 By 2030, ensure sustainable foodproduction systems and implement
resilient agricultural practices that
increase productivity and production,that help maintain ecosystems, thatstrengthen capacity for adaptation toclimate change, extreme weather,drought, flooding and other disasters
and that progressively improve land andsoil quality

1.5 By 2030, build the resilience of thepoor and those in vulnerable situations
and reduce their exposure andvulnerability to climate-related
extreme events and other economic,
social and environmental shocks anddisasters

ODS -Protection against UV radiation

15.5 Take urgent and significant action
to reduce the degradation of natural
habitats, halt the loss of biodiversity
and, by 2020, protect and prevent theextinction of threatened species

POPs pesticides

Waste - CH4 emissions

14.1 By 2025, prevent and significantly
reduce marine pollution of all kinds, inparticular from land-based activities,
including marine debris and nutrient
pollution
14.3 Minimize and address the impactsof ocean acidification, including
through enhanced scientificcooperation at all levels

Healthy ecosystems help
to mitigate the spreadand impact of pollution byboth sequestering andeliminating certain typesof air, water and soil
pollution

ROTTERDAM

Mercury

ADDRESSINGCONVENTION

Preventing “dangerous”
human interferencewith the climate system

Pollution reduced
Sound management ofchemicals to minimize
adverse impacts on theenvironment and humanhealth.

3.4 reduce premature mortality from
non-communicable diseases
3.9 reduce the number of deaths andillnesses from hazardous chemicals andair pollution and contamination

6.3 By 2030, improve water quality by
reducing pollution, eliminating
dumping and minimizing release ofhazardous chemicals and materials,
halving the proportion of untreatedwastewater and substantially increasing
recycling and safe reuse globally
6.5 By 2030, implement integrated
water resources management at alllevels, including through transboundary
cooperation as appropriate
6.a By 2030, expand international
cooperation and capacity-building
support to developing countries inwater- and sanitation-related activities
and programmes, including water
harvesting, desalination, water
efficiency, wastewater treatment,
recycling and reuse technologies andprogrammes, including water
harvesting, desalination, water
efficiency, wastewater treatment,
recycling and reuse technologies

AIR POLLUTION
13.2 Integrate climate change
measures into national policies,
strategies and planning
13.3 Improve education,awareness-raising and human andinstitutional capacity on climatechange mitigation, adaptation, impact
reduction and early warning
13.a Implement the commitment
undertaken by developed-country
parties to the United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate
Change to a goal of mobilizing jointly$100 billion annually by 2020 from all
sources to address the needs ofdeveloping countries in the context ofmeaningful mitigation actions andtransparency on implementation andfully operationalize the Green Climate
Fund through its capitalization as soon
as possible

Kyoto Protocol
The Paris Agreement

carbon stocks - reduce pollution Sustainable Production and Consumption
Reduced anthropogenic pressures

12.1 Implement the 10-Year Frameworkof Programmes on Sustainable
Consumption and Production
Patterns, all countries taking action,with developed countries taking thelead, taking into account thedevelopment and capabilities ofdeveloping countries
12.2 By 2030, achieve the sustainable
management and efficient use ofnatural resources
12.4 By 2020, achieve theenvironmentally sound managementof chemicals and all wastes
throughout their life cycle, in
accordance with agreed internationalframeworks, and significantly reduce
their release to air, water and soil inorder to minimize their adverse impacts
on human health and the environment
12.5 By 2030, substantially reduce
waste generation through prevention,
reduction, recycling and reuse
12.6 Encourage companies, especiallylarge and transnational companies, toadopt sustainable practices and tointegrate sustainability information into
their reporting cycle
12.c Rationalize inefficient fossil-fuelsubsidies that encourage wasteful
consumption by removing market
distortions, in accordance with national
circumstances, including byrestructuring taxation and phasing out
those harmful subsidies, where they
exist, to reflect their environmental
impacts, taking fully into account the
specific needs and conditions ofdeveloping countries and minimizing
the possible adverse impacts on theirdevelopment in a manner that protects
the poor and the affected communities

Utilizing cleaner and moreresource-efficientapproaches that minimize
wastes and pollutants canbring about economic
opportunities and better
quality of life for
consumers and producers
alike

7.1 By 2030, ensure universal access toaffordable, reliable and modern energy
services
7.2 By 2030, increase substantially theshare of renewable energy in the
global energy mix
7.3 By 2030, double the global rate of
improvement in energy efficiency
7.b By 2030, expand infrastructure andupgrade technology for supplying
modern and sustainable energy
services for all in developing countries,
in particular least developed countries,
small island developing States andlandlocked developing countries, inaccordance with their respective
programmes of support

8.4 Improve progressively global
resource efficiency in consumption
and production and endeavour todecouple economic growth fromenvironmental degradation

11.2 By 2030, provide access to safe,
affordable, accessible andsustainable transport systems for all,improving road safety, notably by
expanding public transport, with special
attention to the needs of those invulnerable situations, women, children,
persons with disabilities and older
persons
11.6 By 2030, reduce the adverse percapita environmental impact of cities,
including by paying special attention to
air quality and municipal and otherwaste management

9.1 Develop quality, reliable,
sustainable and resilient
infrastructure, including regional andtrans-border infrastructure, to support
economic development and humanwell-being, with a focus on affordable
and equitable access for all
9.2 Promote inclusive and sustainableindustrialization and, by 2030,
significantly raise industry’s share of
employment and gross domestic
product, in line with national
circumstances, and double its share in
least developed countries
9.4 By 2030, upgrade infrastructure andretrofit industries to make themsustainable, with increased
resource-use efficiency and greater
adoption of clean andenvironmentally sound technologies
and industrial processes, with allcountries taking action in accordancewith their respective capabilities
9.a Facilitate sustainable and resilient
infrastructure development indeveloping countries throughenhanced financial, technological andtechnical support to African countries,
least developed countries, landlocked
developing countries and small island
developing States

Direct Action

Protect

Reduce emissions, Best practice

Resilience, adaptation

93

Towards a Pollution-Free Planet

Land and soil pollution

1.4 By 2030, ensure that all men andwomen, in particular the poor and thevulnerable, have equal rights toeconomic resources, as well as access tobasic services, ownership and control
over land and other forms of property,
inheritance, natural resources,
appropriate new technology andfinancial services, including
microfinance
1.5 By 2030, build the resilience of thepoor and those in vulnerable situations
and reduce their exposure andvulnerability to climate-related extreme
events and other economic, social andenvironmental shocks and disasters

15.1 By 2020, ensure the conservation,
restoration and sustainable use ofterrestrial and inland freshwater
ecosystems and their services, inparticular forests, wetlands, mountains
and drylands, in line with obligations
under international agreements
15.2 By 2020, promote theimplementation of sustainable
management of all types of forests,
halt deforestation, restore degraded
forests and substantially increaseafforestation and reforestation globally
15.3 By 2030, combat desertification,
restore degraded land and soil,
including land affected bydesertification, drought and floods, andstrive to achieve a landdegradation-neutral world
15.5 Take urgent and significant action
to reduce the degradation of natural
habitats, halt the loss of biodiversity
and, by 2020, protect and prevent theextinction of threatened species
15.6 Promote fair and equitable
sharing of the benefits arising fromthe utilization of genetic resources andpromote appropriate access to such
resources, as internationally agreed
15.9 By 2020, integrate ecosystem andbiodiversity values into national andlocal planning, development processes,
poverty reduction strategies andaccounts
15.a Mobilize and significantly increasefinancial resources from all sources toconserve and sustainably use
biodiversity and ecosystems

2.1 By 2030, end hunger and ensure
access by all people, in particular thepoor and people in vulnerable
situations, including infants, to safe,
nutritious and sufficient food all year
round
2.2 By 2030, end all forms of
malnutrition, including achieving, by2025, the internationally agreed targets
on stunting and wasting in children
under 5 years of age, and address thenutritional needs of adolescent girls,
pregnant and lactating women andolder persons
2.3 By 2030, double the agricultural
productivity and incomes ofsmall-scale food producers, inparticular women, indigenous peoples,family farmers, pastoralists and fishers,
including through secure and equal
access to land, other productive
resources and inputs, knowledge,
financial services, markets andopportunities for value addition andnon-farm employment.
2.4 By 2030, ensure sustainable foodproduction systems and implement
resilient agricultural practices that
increase productivity and production,that help maintain ecosystems, thatstrengthen capacity for adaptation toclimate change, extreme weather,drought, flooding and other disasters
and that progressively improve landand soil quality

ODS -Protection against UV radiation
3.9 By 2030, substantially reduce thenumber of deaths and illnesses fromhazardous chemicals and air, water andsoil pollution and contamination

14.1 By 2025, prevent and significantly
reduce marine pollution of all kinds, inparticular from land-based activities,
including marine debris and nutrient
pollution
14.5 By 2020, conserve at least 10 per
cent of coastal and marine areas,consistent with national andinternational law and based on the best
available scientific information

POPs pesticides

Waste - CH4 emissions
Healthy ecosystems help
to mitigate the spreadand impact of pollution byboth sequestering andeliminating certain typesof air, water and soil
pollution

Mercury

ADDRESSINGROTTERDAM

CONVENTION

Preventing “dangerous”
human interferencewith the climate system

Pollution reduced

13.1 Strengthen resilience andadaptive capacity to climate-related
hazards and natural disasters in all
countries
13.2 Integrate climate change
measures into national policies,
strategies and planning
13.3 Improve education,awareness-raising and human andinstitutional capacity on climatechange mitigation, adaptation, impact
reduction and early warning

Sound management ofchemicals to minimize
adverse impacts on theenvironment and humanhealth.

LAND/SOIL POLLUTION
Kyoto Protocol
The Paris Agreement

carbon stocks - reduce pollution Sustainable Production and Consumption
Reduced anthropogenic pressures

12.4 By 2020, achieve theenvironmentally sound managementof chemicals and all wastes
throughout their life cycle, in
accordance with agreed internationalframeworks, and significantly reduce
their release to air, water and soil inorder to minimize their adverse impacts
on human health and the environment

94

5.a Undertake reforms to give womenequal rights to economic resources, aswell as access to ownership andcontrol over land and other forms ofproperty, financial services, inheritanceand natural resources, in accordancewith national laws

Utilizing cleaner and moreresource-efficientapproaches that minimize
wastes and pollutants canbring about economic
opportunities and better
quality of life for
consumers and producers
alike

11.5 By 2030, significantly reduce thenumber of deaths and the number ofpeople affected and substantiallydecrease the direct economic losses
relative to global gross domestic
product caused by disasters, including
water-related disasters, with a focus onprotecting the poor and people invulnerable situations
11.7 By 2030, provide universal accessto safe, inclusive and accessible, green
and public spaces, in particular for
women and children, older persons andpersons with disabilities
11.a Support positive economic, socialand environmental links between
urban, peri-urban and rural areas bystrengthening national and regional
development planning

8.1 Sustain per capita economic
growth in accordance with national
circumstances and, in particular, at least
7 per cent gross domestic productgrowth per annum in the least
developed countries
8.3 Promote development-oriented
policies that support productive
activities, decent job creation,
entrepreneurship, creativity andinnovation, and encourage theformalization and growth of micro-,small- and medium-sized enterprises,
including through access to financial
services
8.4 Improve progressively, through2030, global resource efficiency inconsumption and production andendeavour to decouple economic
growth from environmental
degradation, in accordance with the
10-Year Framework of Programmes on
Sustainable Consumption and
Production, with developed countries
taking the lead
8.9 By 2030, devise and implement
policies to promote sustainable
tourism that creates jobs and promotes
local culture and products

Direct Action

Protect

Reduce emissions, Best practice

Resilience, adaptation

6.1 By 2030, achieve universal andequitable access to safe and affordable
drinking water for all
6.3 By 2030, improve water quality by
reducing pollution, eliminating
dumping and minimizing release ofhazardous chemicals and materials,
halving the proportion of untreatedwastewater and substantially increasing
recycling and safe reuse globally
6.4 By 2030, substantially increasewater-use efficiency across all sectors
and ensure sustainable withdrawals
and supply of freshwater to address
water scarcity and substantially reduce
the number of people suffering fromwater scarcity
6.5 By 2030, implement integrated
water resources management at alllevels, including through transboundary
cooperation as appropriate
6.6 By 2020, protect and restore
water-related ecosystems, including
mountains, forests, wetlands, rivers,
aquifers and lakes
6.a By 2030, expand international
cooperation and capacity-building
support to developing countries inwater- and sanitation-related activities
and programmes, including water
harvesting, desalination, water
efficiency, wastewater treatment,
recycling and reuse technologies andprogrammes, including water
harvesting, desalination, water
efficiency, wastewater treatment,
recycling and reuse technologies
6.b Support and strengthen theparticipation of local communities in
improving water and sanitation
management

Towards a Pollution-Free Planet

Freshwater pollution

15.1 By 2020, ensure the conservation,
restoration and sustainable use ofterrestrial and inland freshwater
ecosystems and their services, inparticular forests, wetlands, mountains
and drylands, in line with obligations
under international agreements
15.2 By 2020, promote theimplementation of sustainable
management of all types of forests,
halt deforestation, restore degraded
forests and substantially increaseafforestation and reforestation globally
15.3 By 2030, combat desertification,
restore degraded land and soil,
including land affected bydesertification, drought and floods, andstrive to achieve a landdegradation-neutral world
15.4 By 2030, ensure the conservationof mountain ecosystems, including
their biodiversity, in order to enhancetheir capacity to provide benefits thatare essential for sustainable
development
15.5 Take urgent and significant action
to reduce the degradation of natural
habitats, halt the loss of biodiversity
and, by 2020, protect and prevent theextinction of threatened species

16.5 Substantially reduce corruption
and bribery in all their forms
16.6 Develop effective, accountable andtransparent institutions at all levels

2.1 By 2030, end hunger and ensure
access by all people, in particular thepoor and people in vulnerable
situations, including infants, to safe,
nutritious and sufficient food all yearround
2.3 By 2030, double the agricultural
productivity and incomes of small-scale
food producers, in particular women,
indigenous peoples, family farmers,
pastoralists and fishers, including
through secure and equal access toland, other productive resources andinputs, knowledge, financial services,markets and opportunities for value
addition and non-farm employment
2.4 By 2030, ensure sustainable foodproduction systems and implement
resilient agricultural practices that
increase productivity and production,that help maintain ecosystems, thatstrengthen capacity for adaptation toclimate change, extreme weather,drought, flooding and other disasters
and that progressively improve land andsoil quality

1.1 By 2030, eradicate extreme
poverty for all people everywhere,
currently measured as people living on
less than $1.25 a day
1.2 By 2030, reduce at least by half the
proportion of men, women and childrenof all ages living in poverty in all its
dimensions according to national
definitions
1.4 By 2030, ensure that all men andwomen, in particular the poor and thevulnerable, have equal rights toeconomic resources, as well as accessto basic services, ownership andcontrol over land and other forms ofproperty, inheritance, natural resources,
appropriate new technology andfinancial services, including
microfinance

ODS -Protection against UV radiation

POPs pesticides

Waste - CH4 emissions
14.1 By 2025, prevent and significantly
reduce marine pollution of all kinds, inparticular from land-based activities,
including marine debris and nutrient
pollution
14.2 By 2020, sustainably manage andprotect marine and coastal ecosystems
to avoid significant adverse impacts,
including by strengthening theirresilience, and take action for theirrestoration in order to achieve healthy
and productive oceans

Healthy ecosystems help
to mitigate the spreadand impact of pollution byboth sequestering andeliminating certain typesof air, water and soil
pollution

Mercury

ADDRESSINGROTTERDAM

CONVENTION

Preventing “dangerous”
human interferencewith the climate system

FRESHWATER POLLUTION

13.1 Strengthen resilience andadaptive capacity to climate-related
hazards and natural disasters
Kyoto Protocol
The Paris Agreement

11.1 By 2030, ensure access for all toadequate, safe and affordable housing
and basic services and upgrade slums
11.3 By 2030, enhance inclusive andsustainable urbanization andcapacity for participatory, integrated
and sustainable human settlement
planning and management in all
countries
11.6 By 2030, reduce the adverse percapita environmental impact of cities,
including by paying special attention to
air quality and municipal and otherwaste management
11.7 By 2030, provide universal accessto safe, inclusive and accessible, green
and public spaces, in particular for
women and children, older persons andpersons with disabilities

4.7 By 2030, ensure that all learners
acquire the knowledge and skills
needed to promote sustainable
development, including, among others,
through education for sustainable
development and sustainable lifestyles,
human rights, gender equality,
promotion of a culture of peace andnon-violence, global citizenship andappreciation of cultural diversity and ofculture’s contribution to sustainable
development

Pollution reduced
Sound management ofchemicals to minimize
adverse impacts on theenvironment and humanhealth.

12.1 Implement the 10-Year
Framework of Programmes on
Sustainable Consumption and
Production Patterns, all countries
taking action, with developed countries
taking the lead, taking into account thedevelopment and capabilities ofdeveloping countries
12.2 By 2030, achieve the sustainable
management and efficient use ofnatural resources
12.3 By 2030, halve per capita global
food waste at the retail and consumer
levels and reduce food losses alongproduction and supply chains, including
post-harvest losses
12.4 By 2020, achieve theenvironmentally sound managementof chemicals and all wastes
throughout their life cycle, in
accordance with agreed internationalframeworks, and significantly reduce
their release to air, water and soil inorder to minimize their adverse impacts
on human health and the environment
12.5 By 2030, substantially reduce
waste generation through prevention,
reduction, recycling and reuse

3.1 By 2030, reduce the global
maternal mortality ratio to less than 70
per 100,000 live births
3.2 By 2030, end preventable deathsof newborns and children under 5
years of age, with all countries aiming
to reduce neonatal mortality to at least
as low as 12 per 1,000 live births andunder-5 mortality to at least as low as 25
per 1,000 live births
3.3 By 2030, end the epidemics of AIDS,
tuberculosis, malaria and neglected
tropical diseases and combat hepatitis,
water-borne diseases and othercommunicable diseases
3.8 Achieve universal health coverage,
including financial risk protection,access to quality essential
health-care services and access to safe,
effective, quality and affordable
essential medicines and vaccines for all
3.9 By 2030, substantially reduce thenumber of deaths and illnesses fromhazardous chemicals and air,water and soil pollution andcontamination

carbon stocks - reduce pollution Sustainable Production and Consumption
Reduced anthropogenic pressures

10.1 By 2030, progressively achieve andsustain income growth of the bottom
40 per cent of the population at a rate
higher than the national average

Utilizing cleaner and moreresource-efficientapproaches that minimize
wastes and pollutants canbring about economic
opportunities and better
quality of life for
consumers and producers
alike

9.1 Develop quality, reliable,
sustainable and resilient
infrastructure, including regional andtrans-border infrastructure, to support
economic development and humanwell-being, with a focus on affordable
and equitable access for all
9.2 Promote inclusive and sustainableindustrialization and, by 2030,
significantly raise industry’s share of
employment and gross domestic
product, in line with national
circumstances, and double its share in
least developed countries
9.4 By 2030, upgrade infrastructure andretrofit industries to make themsustainable, with increased
resource-use efficiency and greater
adoption of clean andenvironmentally sound technologies
and industrial processes, with allcountries taking action in accordancewith their respective capabilities

8.1 Sustain per capita economic
growth in accordance with national
circumstances and, in particular, at least
7 per cent gross domestic productgrowth per annum in the least
developed countries
8.2 Achieve higher levels of economic
productivity through diversification,technological upgrading andinnovation, including through a focus
on high-value added andlabour-intensive sectors
8.4 Improve progressively, through2030, global resource efficiency inconsumption and production andendeavour to decouple economic
growth from environmental
degradation, in accordance with the
10-Year Framework of Programmes on
Sustainable Consumption and
Production, with developed countries
taking the lead
8.5 By 2030, achieve full andproductive employment and decent
work for all women and men, including
for young people and persons withdisabilities, and equal pay for work ofequal value
8.8 Protect labour rights and promote
safe and secure working
environments for all workers,
including migrant workers, in particular
women migrants, and those in
precarious employment
8.9 By 2030, devise and implement
policies to promote sustainable
tourism that creates jobs and promotes
local culture and products

Direct Action

Protect

Reduce emissions, Best practice

Resilience, adaptation

6.1 By 2030, achieve universal andequitable access to safe and affordable
drinking water for all
6.2 By 2030, achieve access toadequate and equitable sanitationand hygiene for all and end open
defecation, paying special attention to
the needs of women and girls and thosein vulnerable situations
6.3 By 2030, improve water quality by
reducing pollution, eliminating
dumping and minimizing release ofhazardous chemicals and materials,
halving the proportion of untreatedwastewater and substantially increasing
recycling and safe reuse globally
6.4 By 2030, substantially increasewater-use efficiency across all sectors
and ensure sustainable withdrawals
and supply of freshwater to address
water scarcity and substantially reduce
the number of people suffering fromwater scarcity
6.5 By 2030, implement integrated
water resources management at alllevels, including through transboundary
cooperation as appropriate
6.6 By 2020, protect and restore
water-related ecosystems, including
mountains, forests, wetlands, rivers,
aquifers and lakes
6.a By 2030, expand international
cooperation and capacity-building
support to developing countries inwater- and sanitation-related activities
and programmes, including water
harvesting, desalination, water
efficiency, wastewater treatment,
recycling and reuse technologies
6.b Support and strengthen theparticipation of local communities in
improving water and sanitation
management

7.1 By 2030, ensure universal access toaffordable, reliable and modern energy
services
7.2 By 2030, increase substantially theshare of renewable energy in the
global energy mix
7.3 By 2030, double the global rate of
improvement in energy efficiency

95

Towards a Pollution-Free Planet

Marine and coastal pollution

15.1 By 2020, ensure the conservation,
restoration and sustainable use ofterrestrial and inland freshwater
ecosystems and their services, inparticular forests, wetlands, mountains
and drylands, in line with obligations
under international agreements
15.3 By 2030, combat desertification,
restore degraded land and soil,
including land affected bydesertification, drought and floods,
and strive to achieve a landdegradation-neutral world
15.5 Take urgent and significant action
to reduce the degradation of natural
habitats, halt the loss of biodiversity
and, by 2020, protect and prevent theextinction of threatened species

14.1 By 2025, prevent and significantly
reduce marine pollution of all kinds,
in particular from land-based activities,
including marine debris and nutrient
pollution
14.2 By 2020, sustainably manage andprotect marine and coastal
ecosystems to avoid significant adverse
impacts, including by strengthening
their resilience, and take action for theirrestoration in order to achieve healthy
and productive oceans
14.3 Minimize and address the impactsof ocean acidification, including
through enhanced scientificcooperation at all levels
14.4 By 2020, effectively regulate
harvesting and end overfishing, illegal,
unreported and unregulated fishing anddestructive fishing practices andimplement science-based management
plans, in order to restore fish stocks inthe shortest time feasible, at least tolevels that can produce maximum
sustainable yield as determined by their
biological characteristics
14.7 By 2030, increase the economic
benefits to small island developing
States and least developed countries
from the sustainable use of marine
resources, including through sustainable
management of fisheries, aquaculture
and tourism
14.a Increase scientific knowledge,
develop research capacity and transfer
marine technology, taking into accountthe Intergovernmental Oceanographic
Commission Criteria and Guidelines on
the Transfer of Marine Technology, inorder to improve ocean health and toenhance the contribution of marine
biodiversity to the development ofdeveloping countries, in particular small
island developing States and least
developed countries
14.c Enhance the conservation andsustainable use of oceans and theirresources by implementing
international law as reflected in the
United Nations Convention on the Lawof the Sea, which provides the legal
framework for the conservation andsustainable use of oceans and theirresources, as recalled in paragraph 158
of “The future we want”

ODS -Protection against UV radiation

POPs pesticides

Waste - CH4 emissions
Healthy ecosystems help
to mitigate the spreadand impact of pollution byboth sequestering andeliminating certain typesof air, water and soil
pollution

Mercury

ADDRESSING

Sound management ofchemicals to minimize
adverse impacts on theenvironment and humanhealth.

MARINE AND COASTALPOLLUTION
Kyoto Protocol
The Paris Agreement

carbon stocks - reduce pollution Sustainable Production and Consumption
Reduced anthropogenic pressures

Utilizing cleaner and moreresource-efficientapproaches that minimize
wastes and pollutants canbring about economic
opportunities and better
quality of life for
consumers and producers
alike

12.1 Implement the 10-Year
Framework of Programmes on
Sustainable Consumption and
Production Patterns, all countries
taking action, with developed countries
taking the lead, taking into account thedevelopment and capabilities ofdeveloping countries
12.2 By 2030, achieve the sustainable
management and efficient use ofnatural resources
12.4 By 2020, achieve theenvironmentally sound managementof chemicals and all wastes
throughout their life cycle, in
accordance with agreed internationalframeworks, and significantly reduce
their release to air, water and soil inorder to minimize their adverse impacts
on human health and the environment
12.5 By 2030, substantially reduce
waste generation through prevention,
reduction, recycling and reuse
12.8 By 2030, ensure that people
everywhere have the relevant
information and awareness forsustainable development andlifestyles in harmony with nature
12.b Develop and implement tools tomonitor sustainable development
impacts for sustainable tourism thatcreates jobs and promotes local culture
and products

3.3 By 2030, end the epidemics of AIDS,
tuberculosis, malaria and neglected
tropical diseases and combat hepatitis,
water-borne diseases and othercommunicable diseases
3.9 By 2030, substantially reduce thenumber of deaths and illnesses fromhazardous chemicals and air,water and soil pollution andcontamination

ROTTERDAM

CONVENTION

Preventing “dangerous”
human interferencewith the climate system

Pollution reduced

13.2 Integrate climate change measures
into national policies, strategies andplanning

96

2.1 By 2030, end hunger and ensure
access by all people, in particular thepoor and people in vulnerable
situations, including infants, to safe,
nutritious and sufficient food all year
round
2.2 By 2030, end all forms of
malnutrition, including achieving, by2025, the internationally agreed targets
on stunting and wasting in children
under 5 years of age, and address thenutritional needs of adolescent girls,
pregnant and lactating women andolder persons
2.3 By 2030, double the agricultural
productivity and incomes ofsmall-scale food producers, in particular
women, indigenous peoples, family
farmers, pastoralists and fishers,
including through secure and equal
access to land, other productive
resources and inputs, knowledge,
financial services, markets andopportunities for value addition andnon-farm employment

1.4 By 2030, ensure that all men andwomen, in particular the poor and thevulnerable, have equal rights toeconomic resources, as well as access tobasic services, ownership and control
over land and other forms of property,
inheritance, natural resources,
appropriate new technology andfinancial services, including
microfinance
1.5 By 2030, build the resilience of thepoor and those in vulnerable situations
and reduce their exposure andvulnerability to climate-related extreme
events and other economic, social andenvironmental shocks and disasters

6.2 By 2030, achieve access to adequate
and equitable sanitation and hygiene for
all and end open defecation, paying
special attention to the needs ofwomen and girls and those invulnerable situations
6.3 By 2030, improve water quality by
reducing pollution, eliminating
dumping and minimizing release ofhazardous chemicals and materials,
halving the proportion of untreatedwastewater and substantially increasing
recycling and safe reuse globally
6.5 By 2030, implement integrated
water resources management at alllevels, including through transboundary
cooperation as appropriate
6.6 By 2020, protect and restore
water-related ecosystems, including
mountains, forests, wetlands, rivers,
aquifers and lakes

8.4 Improve progressively, through2030, global resource efficiency inconsumption and production andendeavour to decouple economic
growth from environmental
degradation, in accordance with the
10-Year Framework of Programmes on
Sustainable Consumption and
Production, with developed countries
taking the lead
8.9 By 2030, devise and implement
policies to promote sustainable
tourism that creates jobs and promotes
local culture and products

9.4 By 2030, upgrade infrastructure andretrofit industries to make themsustainable, with increased
resource-use efficiency and greater
adoption of clean and environmentallysound technologies and industrial
processes, with all countries taking
action in accordance with theirrespective capabilities

11.6 By 2030, reduce the adverse percapita environmental impact of cities,
including by paying special attention to
air quality and municipal and otherwaste management

Direct Action

Protect

Reduce emissions, Best practice

Resilience, adaptation

Towards a Pollution-Free Planet

Annex 7: Cleaner technologies: impacts, benefits and limitations

The list below provides some examples ofcleaner technologies, and of some of theirimpacts and benefits and limitations.
Type of
Pollution

SourceTechnologies toPrevent Pollution

Impacts/Benefits

Limitations

Air Pollution

Road Transport• Clean petrol/ diesel
vehicles technologies(including filters)

Reduce carbon dioxide
emissions, fine particles
and other pollutants,
therefore resulting in
improved human health• Most clean vehicles
technologies depend on
clean fuels• Improved fertilizer(nutrient) and manure
management (including
field application andstorage)• Encourages efficient useof fertilizer• Restrict agriculture
residue burning• Encourages efficientploughing after harvesting• When mismanaged,
emissions from field
spread manure has thepotential to pollute air,land, and water resources
through deposition.

• Electric cars
Agriculture

Energyproduction anddistribution

Renewable energy sources
include wind energy,
geothermal energy, solar
energy, and hydropower• Handling manure as asolid versus a liquid helps
to decrease emissions.

• Little to no global
greenhouse gas
emissions, improved
public health andenvironmental quality,
increase gender equality• A vast and inexhaustible
energy supply

Freshwater
Pollution• Electric vehicles still have
limited range• Investment in goodploughing machine has
relatively high cost
• Biomass plants raise
concerns about air
emissions and water use
similar to fossil fuel plants• Materials and metal
requirements may be
exacerbated

Industrial waste

Adsorption process(treatment and removal oforganic contaminants in
wastewater treatment)

Simple design and caninvolve low investment interms of both initial costand land requiredHigh operational costs

Domestic
wastewaterand sewage• Anaerobic wastewater
treatment, advanced
tertiary treatment(membrane filtration,ozonation)• Less waste produced than
aerobic treatment• Production of odours;
does not remove
ammonia-nitrogen;Temperature must be
maintained year-round.

• Constructed wetlands/
green infrastructure• Small-scale decentralized
systems; biodigestors;
septic tanks; composting
toilets; duckweed lagoons

Agriculturalrunoff and Waste

Integrated pest
management, efficientfertilizer use (improved
nutrient use efficiency),
enhanced productformulations, erosion
control, livestock waste
management and treatment• Methane produced asenergy source• Relatively low-labor andlow-energy• Simple, durable and easy
to maintain• Clean and low-cost energy
alternatives to fuelwood• Improved indoor air quality• Proper wastewater
treatment can provide
water for agriculture(reusability)• Need for preliminary
treatment of wastewater;
may require relatively large
land area• Not attractive on large
scale; challenge in linking
markets with productions
sites. For example for
ecosanWhen mismanaged, has thepotential to pollute air, land,
and water resources• Nutrient recovery frommanures• Cost savings for farmers

97Towards a Pollution-Free Planet

Type of
Pollution

SourceTechnologies toPrevent Pollution

Impacts/Benefits

Limitations

Freshwater
Pollution(continued)

Radioactive
Waste

Multinational repositories

Since some countries arelimited in area, or haveunfavourable geology,
multinational repositories
can help in safer
management of radioactive
waste.

For the time being, many
countries would not accept
nuclear waste from othercountries under theirnational laws.

Land Pollution

Agriculturalactivities

Agroecology; minimum
or zero tillage for soil
structure and health;organic and permaculture;
agroforestry; pastureand grass-fed livestock
systems; alternate wetting
and drying in rice; reversion
back to mixed (crop andlivestock) farming systems
ensuring nutrient recycling
on-farm (crops and pasture
consumed by livestock andnitrogen returned to theground through manure andother organic matter• Reduces pollution

Domestic waste
water andsewageStorm water filters(see freshwater pollution)

Reduces pollution andprevents flooding

Large-scale oilspillsNew generation trawler torecover oil spills

100% recyclable and lightweight

Plastic waste• Redesign of products• Possibility of harmful
atmospheric emissions;costly and requires large
volumes to generateenergyMarinePollution• Washing machine filters• Recovery/recycling andconversion to otherproducts• Innovations in alternative
materials• Ocean cleanup (forexample with long floating
barriers)• Nutrient recovery frommanures• Cost savings for farmers• Closing the material loop
and increase recyclabilityof products, for example
turning fishing gear into
carpets• Preventing synthetic fibres• Oceans clean up prevents
by-catch of unwanted fish
and other marine species.
Designed for large-scale
deployments

Agriculturalrunoff and Waste

98

Integrated pest
management, efficientfertilizer use (improved
nutrient use efficiency)
and enhanced productformulations; erosion
control, livestock waste
management and treatment

Proper wastewater
treatment will result inwater for agriculture(reusability); nutrient
recovery from manures;
cost savings for farmers

Construction andmaintenance costs are
relatively high• Recycling is not a
profitable option
for many polymers,
requires large amounts
to justify investments
in infrastructure whichsmaller countries orislands would not have
• Alternative materials
may not be possible toscale up, also cautionthat these need to bethoroughly tested inmarine conditions so that
we do not create a bigger
problem• Oceans clean up is only at
pilot stage and only “endof-pipe” solution. Does notaddress the root cause of
the problems
When mismanaged, has thepotential to pollute air, land,
and water resourcesTowards a Pollution-Free Planet

Annex 8: Multi-stakeholder partnerships and platforms

A range of partnerships address pollution.
Some of the more global ones are discussed
below:Air pollution
Established in 2012, the Climate and Clean Air
Coalition (CCAC) is a voluntary partnershipof governments, the private sector, civilsociety and other stakeholders committed
to “achieve concrete and substantial action
to accelerate efforts to reduce short-lived
climate pollutants.” The Coalition combinesstrong science, high-level political will, andpartnership leadership, with a range of costeffective measures to reduce emissions,commitments by partners to implement
actions at home and a Trust Fund to financesome initial, collective activities. This isdelivered through 11 initiatives targetingtransformational change in householdenergy, cooling, bricks production, oil and gas
production, agriculture, transport, solid waste,
and national/local planning. A Scientific
Advisory Panel informs the Coalition’s policy
discussions and keeps the Coalition abreastof new scientific developments on short-lived
climate pollutants.
The Partnership for Clean Fuels andVehicles is a leading global public-private
partnership that supports countries on the
introduction of cleaner fuels and vehicles.
The Partnership was created at the World
Summit on Sustainable Development in 2000
and has spearheaded a programme to phaseout leaded petrol worldwide. This goal has
almost been achieved, bringing major healthand societal benefits. (Studies estimate that
more than 1 million premature deaths arebeing avoided every year.) The Partnership is
now supporting countries around the world
with the introduction of cleaner diesel fuels
and the introduction of advanced vehicles
standards. It has also recently started
activities to promote trade of cleaner used
vehicles. The Partnership has 75 members

from government, private sector, civil society
and international organizations. Its secretariat
is based at UN Environment.
Link: www.unep.org/transport/pcfv
The Global Fuel Economy Initiative (GFEI) –brings together six global partners, including
UN Environment, to promote cleaner and more
efficient vehicles. The Initiative is now working
with 65 countries and aiming to reach 100;
it is the leading climate change and mobility
initiative, supporting countries to develop
policies to double the efficiency of theirvehicle fleets. Improving the fuel economy offleets is one of the most effective measures
to reduce carbon dioxide emissions. Doubling
the fuel efficiency of the global fleet will gofrom an average of 8 litres per 100 km to 4
litres/100 km globally, and reduce annual
carbon dioxide emissions by 2 gigatons per
year by 2025. The Initiative supports countries
have introduced diversified taxation systems,
in which cleaner and more efficient cars
pay less tax than dirty cars. Countries thathave introduced such policies have seen an
improvement in the efficiency of their vehicle
fleets of 20 per cent to 30 per cent in only a
few years.
Link: www.globalfueleconomy.org
The Global Alliance for Clean Cookstovesis a public-private partnership hosted by
the UN Foundation to save lives, improve
livelihoods, empower women, and protect
the environment by creating a thriving global
market for clean and efficient householdcooking solutions. The Alliance’s “100 by
20” goal calls for 100 million households toadopt clean and efficient cookstoves andfuels by 2020. The Alliance is working with astrong network of public, private and nonprofit partners to accelerate the production,
deployment, and use of clean andefficient cookstoves and fuels in developing
countries.
Link: http://cleancookstoves.org/home/index.
html

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Towards a Pollution-Free Planet

The United for Efficiency-en.lighten initiativeis the UN Sustainable Energy for All’s energy
efficiency “accelerator” for lighting, appliancesand equipment. Its goal is to accelerate
the transformation of global markets tomore energy-efficient refrigerators, room
air conditioners, lighting products, electricmotors, and distribution transformers.
United for Efficiency comprises a country
and regional portfolio that is supportedby the Global Environment Facility andis implemented in collaboration with theUnited Nations Development Programme.
Other public and private partners, including
leading manufacturers such as Philips
Lighting, Osram, ABB, Arcelik and Mabe,
support the initiative with technicalexpertise. United for Efficiency also supports
countries with environmentally soundmanagement throughout the product’s
lifecycle, such as by properly collecting
lighting products containing mercury, properly
decommissioning transformers that contain
PCBs and choosing low-global warming
potential refrigerants in air conditioners andrefrigerators. It is active in over 30 countries
across Latin America, Africa, and Asia, andhas a large suite of tools and resourcesthat equip policymakers to understand theopportunities and steps needed to starttransforming their markets to efficient
appliances and equipment.
Link: http://united4efficiency.org/
To ensure the continued success of theCampaign Every Breath Counts, to raiseawareness about, and spur investment in,child pneumonia prevention, diagnosis, andtreatment. The UN Children’s Fund (UNICEF),
the UN Environment Programme and theWorld Health Organization have created an
Every Breath Counts Coalition. The Campaign,
launched by the UN Children’s Fund, raises
awareness about, and spurs investment in,child pneumonia prevention, diagnosis, andtreatment. The Coalition mobilizes partners
from a variety of sectors, disciplines andmovements to invest more in the fightagainst childhood pneumonia. Leadersfrom such diverse sectors as household air
pollution, sustainable energy, climate change,100

education, nutrition, water and sanitation,
immunization and child health combine theirrespective advocacy, policy development,
programme delivery and financing assets todramatically increase access to pneumoniafighting interventions among the mostaffected populations.
Link: http://everybreathcounts.info/
UN Environment and the World
Meteorological Organization (WMO) have thefollowing overarching themes of collaboration
with regards to observations and assessmentof the atmosphere:a) Observations, analysis and applications ofatmospheric composition, its evolution andimpactsb) Coordination of climate observations,assessment of climate science and its
applicationc) Sustainable Development Goals in relation
to the above.
In relation to atmospheric air pollution
emissions with consequences for climatechange and air quality the collaboration
focuses on greenhouse gases including
reactive greenhouse gases (e.g. methane)in the context of developing and using
observation-based applications, such as
the Integrated Global Greenhouse Gas
Information System (IG3IS).
Regardless of the strategies andmechanisms applied to track progress in theimplementation of the Paris agreement, theability to implement
long-term policies and manage themeffectively requires consistent, reliable, andtimely emissions information. This is greatly
enhanced by IG3IS, jointly implemented by
the World Meteorological Organization and
UN Environment at country and sub-country
levels. UN Environment also works jointlywith the World Meteorological Organization,
Member States, and the private sector, tojointly explore funding opportunities (andsynergies with other relevant initiatives)

Towards a Pollution-Free Planet

to facilitate the roll-out and implementation incountries and the long-term sustainability ofthe service.
Link: https://public.wmo.int/en/resources/bulletin/integrated-global-greenhouse-gasinformation-system-ig3is
The Global Bioenergy Partnership (GBEP)
was launched at the 14th session of theCommission on Sustainable Development(CSD- 14) in New York on 11 May 2006. It
aims to promote the sustainable developmentof bioenergy and provides a platform forcooperation and knowledge exchange
between national governments, internationalorganizations and other partners. The Global
Bioenergy Partnership generates scientificknowledge on sustainable bioenergy. Its
main functions are to i) promote global
high-level policy dialogue on bioenergy andfacilitate international cooperation, ii) support
national and regional bioenergy policymaking and market development, iii) favor
the transformation of biomass use towards
more efficient and sustainable practices,iv) foster exchange of information, skills andtechnologies through bilateral and multilateralcollaboration, and v) facilitate bioenergy
integration into energy markets by tackling
specific barriers in the supply chain. UN
Environment is one of the founding membersof the Partnership and led the developmentof the Partnership’s 8 Bioenergy Sustainability
Indicators of the Environmental basket.
Link: http://www.globalbioenergy.org/
aboutgbep/history/en/
Marine pollution
The Global Programme of Action for theProtection of the Marine Environment fromLand-based Activities was adopted in 1995.
By mandate from countries since 2012 theprogramme focuses on marine pollution
in relation to three source categories;
nutrient, litter, and wastewater. All threepartnerships, the Global Partnership on
Nutrient Management, the Global Partnershipon Marine Litter, and the Global Wastewater
Initiative have advisory capacity and engage
in science-policy interface activities. The

partnerships under the Global Programme of
Action are now all fairly well established withdefined governance structures and recognizedas providing a forum for exchange ofknowledge and best practices. A key successfactor is the composition of the partnerships,
which span broad stakeholder representation.
Poorly managed wastewater can have farreaching negative consequences for natureand humans alike. Established in 2013, theGlobal Wastewater Initiative is a voluntary
multi-stakeholder partnership working toaddress wastewater-related issues, prompt
coordination and encourage investments in
wastewater management. The Initiative is also
working towards having wastewater viewed
as a valuable resource instead of a waste
product. It is part of the Global Programme of
Action and is hosted by UN Environment.
Links: www.unep.org/gpa/gwi andhttp://web.unep.org/gpa/what-we-do/globalwastewater-initiative
The Global Partnership on Nutrient
Management was established under theaegis of UN Environment’s Global Programmeof Action for the Protection of the Marine
Environment from Land-based Activities. This
global partnership consisting of government,
research and academia, agricultural andfertilizer producer organizations, regional andinternational intergovernmental organizations,non-governmental organizations and UN
agencies; aims to harmonize otherwise
fragmented efforts to address the nutrient
challenge. Some of the partners are India’s
Ministry of Environment, Forest & Climate
Change; the International Fertilizer Industry
Association; the United States Environmental
Protection Agency; the United Nations Foodand Agriculture Organization; the UnitedStates Department of Agriculture; the Ministryof Infrastructure and Environment of theNetherlands; and the Centre for Ecology andHydrology.
Link: http://nutrientchallenge.org/partnerdirectory
The Global Partnership on Marine Litter isa global partnership gathering international

101

Towards a Pollution-Free Planet

agencies, governments, academia, private
sector, civil society and individuals.
Participants contribute to the development
and implementation of the Partnership’s
activities. Contributions may be in the form offinancial support, in-kind contributions and/or technical expertise. The main purposes ofthe partnership are: To reduce the impactsof marine litter worldwide on economies,
ecosystems, animal welfare and humanhealth, To increase awareness on sources ofmarine litter, their fate and impacts including(micro) plastics uptake in the food web andassociated transfer of pollutants, To enhanceinternational cooperation and coordination
related to marine litter and to assess andexplore emerging issues related to marine
litter.
Link: http://www.unep.org/gpa/what-we-do/
global-partnership-marine-litter
The Ocean Plastic Working Group is a crossindustry group of corporations focusing on
reusing plastic recovered from the ocean(through the creation of an operational andcommercially viable ocean plastic supply
chain) and potentially improving plastics
management in the upstream production
processes as well. The group, led by Dell,include among others UN Environment,
General Motors, Microsoft, Banca Intesa Sao
Paulo and Trek Bikes and is likely to expand
further in the coming months.
World Aquariums against Marine Litterwas officially launched on 27 July 2017by European Union Commissioner for
Environment, Maritime Affairs and Fisheries
Karmenu Vella. The initiative calls on all
aquariums to join a global awareness-raisingaction about marine litter to give their visitors
a vivid idea of how serious the issue is andwhat each of us can do about it. Aquariums
are ideal partners to showcase this growing
problem and to engage thousands of people,
by presenting practical solutions.
Land/soil pollution
With the aim of increasing its focus on foodsecurity, climate change impacts and resource

102

efficiency, UN Environment and International
Rice Institute in 2011, the Sustainable
Rice Platform promotes resource-use
efficiency and sustainability in the global
rice sector through an alliance that links
research, production, policymaking, tradeand consumption. The Platform connects
stakeholders across regions and sectors tofind and implement local solutions for rice
smallholders that will improve livelihoods,
reduce costs and protect the environment.
From its establishment, the Platform has
grown from 4 to 70 institutional partners
today.
Link: http://www.sustainablerice.org/
The Global Soil Partnership promotes
sustainable soil management activities
including preservation and restoration at the
global, regional and local levels. Voluntary
Guidelines for Sustainable Soil Management
contribute to addressing global challenges
and meeting international commitments
including the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable
Development; the Zero Hunger Challenge;
climate change adaptation and mitigation,
especially in the light of the Paris Agreement
on climate change; the commitment tocombat desertification and land degradationand mitigate the effects of drought; the Aichi
Biodiversity Targets; and efforts to secureland tenure under the Voluntary Guidelines
on the Responsible Governance of Tenure ofLand, Fisheries and Forests in the Context of
National Food Security.
Link: http://www.fao.org/global-soilpartnership/en/
Chemicals and waste
The Global Partnership on Waste
Management is an open-ended partnershipfor international organizations, governments,
businesses, academia, local authorities andcivil society. It was launched in November
2010 to enhance international cooperation
among stakeholders, identify and fill
information gaps, share information andstrengthen awareness, political will, andcapacity to promote resource conservation
and resource efficiency. The Partnership also

Towards a Pollution-Free Planet

aims to complement existing work in the areaof waste with a holistic approach which isa noted gap in waste management at large.
The holistic approach is meant to facilitate
coordination among different waste sectors
and related activities, to avoid duplicationof efforts and to improve efficiency andeffectiveness by complementing rather thancompeting.
Link: http://www.unep.org/gpwm/
The Global Mercury Partnership brings
together governments, intergovernmentalorganizations, non-governmentalorganizations, industry and academia toreduce the environmental and health riskof mercury. Eight priority areas for action
have been identified: artisanal and smallscale gold mining, coal combustion, cement
production, chlor-alkali production, mercurycontaining products, waste management,
mercury supply and storage, andatmospheric transport and fate of mercury.
The Partnership develops sector-specifictechnical guidelines, delivers technicalassistance to projects to reduce mercury, andprovides forums for information exchange
and mutual learning.
Link: http://www.unep.org/chemicals
andwaste/global-mercury-partnership
The Lead Paint Alliance is a cooperative
initiative jointly led by the World HealthOrganization and the United Nations
Environment Programme to focus andcatalyse efforts to achieve international
goals to prevent children’s exposure to leadfrom paints containing lead and to minimize
occupational exposures to lead paint. Its
broad objective is to promote a phase-out of
the manufacture and sale of paints containing
lead and eventually to eliminate the risks
that such paints pose. Lead is one of ten
chemicals of major public health concern.
Link: http://www.unep.org/noleadinpaint
The Global Alliance for Alternatives to DDT
as a vector control was establish in 2009by the Conference of the Parties to the
Stockholm convention. The secretariat of the
Global Alliance is hosted by UN Environment

Chemicals and Health Branch. The Global
alliance is a key stakeholder and undertakes anumber of activities within the context of theRoad Map for the Development of Alternatives
to DDT. The Road Map provides a thematic
guide and sketch the steps that are needed
for the development and deployment ofalternatives to DDT for the purpose of disease
vector control to Parties to the Stockholm
Convention and other global stakeholders.
Link: http://www.unep.org/chemicalsand
waste/what-we-do/science-and-knowledge/
persistent-organic-pollutants-pops/towardalternatives-ddt/global
The Global Alliance on Health and Pollution
is a collaborative body, made up of more than
50 members and dozens of observers that
advocates on behalf of its low- and middleincome country members for resources
and solutions to pollution problems. As an
advocacy and coordination network, theAlliance seeks to build demand for pollution
prevention and mitigation programs that are
implemented by its members. The Alliancebuilds public, political, technical and financial
support to address pollution globally, tracks
pollution impact and interventions, promotes
scientific research on pollution and raises
awareness on the scope and impacts of all
types of pollution. The Alliance also directly
assists low- and middle-income countries
to prioritize and address pollution throughhealth and pollution action planning andother development planning processes, incoordination with its members.
Link: www.gahp.net
Polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) Elimination
Network (PEN) establish in 2009 by adecision of the Conference of the Parties
to the Stockholm Convention. The Network
is coordinated by a secretariat, hosted by
UN Environment Chemicals and HealthBranch. The Secretariat works in close
collaboration with the Basel, Rotterdam
and Stockholm Conventions Secretariat.
The Network is a global multi-stakeholder
mechanism that promotes and encourages
the environmentally sound management of
PCBs with a view to attaining the Stockholm

103

Towards a Pollution-Free Planet

Convention goals: the 2025 goal of phasingout the use of equipment containing PCB
and the 2028 goal of the treatment andeliminations of the recovered PCB. The
Network leads the way toward elimination of
PCB in accordance with the Basel Convention
Technical Guidelines by defining strategies
and facilitating activities; providing targeted
assistance; developing guidance materials;
raising awareness; and encouraging global
and regional coordination and exchange of
information among stakeholders.
Link: http://www.unep.org/
chemicalsandwaste/what-we-do/science-andknowledge/persistent-organic-pollutants-pops/
pcb-forgotten-legacy/pcb
Cross-cutting
The Joint UN Environment/OCHA
Environment Unit is a partnership that pairs
the environmental expertise of the United
Nations Environment Programme and thehumanitarian response network coordinatedby the United Nations Office for the
Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA).
The Unit addresses the environmental
impacts of sudden-onset disasters andaccidents by coordinating international
efforts and mobilizing response partners. It
assists countries requesting assistance inpreparedness and response to environmental
emergencies. The JEU engages in over 15
different networks and partnerships, liaisingclosely with UN agencies, programmes andaffiliated organizations, as well as regionalorganisations and member states. Private
sector, industry groups, academic andresearch institutions are also well represented
among the Unit’s partners.
Links: https://docs.unocha.org/sites/dms/
Documents/JEU_2_English.pdf andwww.eecentre.org
The United Nations Industrial Development
Organization and UN Environment havecooperated for more than 20 years to advancesustainable industrial development, and104

sustainable consumption and production
in developing and transition countries.
Specifically, RECPnet - the Global Network for
Resource Efficient and Cleaner Production
aims to improve resource efficiency andenvironmental performance of businesses
and other organizations through scaling
up and mainstreaming the application of
RECP methods, techniques and policies.
Furthermore, the network has developed
experience in the application of cleaner
production practices, circular economy
and eco-innovation approaches within theiradvisory function, supporting new businessmodels in SMEs of various value chainsto implement more sustainable practices
at the core of their business identity.
The programme has supported capacity
enhancement on resource efficiency in
SMEs since the 1990s using this model ofnational institution development, which has
proven to be effective. Examples of work to
combat pollution are chemical leasing, RECP
assessments, SCP strategies, etc. Today,
RECPnet members are active partners in the
global development agenda, leading RECP
assessments in industry, providing specialized
training and disseminating sustainability
methodologies among practitioners andstakeholders.
The 10-year Framework of Programmes on
Sustainable Consumption and Production
Patterns (10YFP) is a global framework ofaction to enhance international cooperationto accelerate the shift towards sustainableconsumption and production (SCP) in bothdeveloped and developing countries. In
particular, it aims at contributing to resource
efficiency and decoupling economic
growth from environmental degradation andresource use, and at supporting capacity
building and facilitate access to financial
and technical assistance for developing
countries, supporting the implementation of
SCP activities at the regional, sub-regional andnational levels.
Link: http://www.unep.org/10yfp/

Towards a Pollution-Free Planet

The Partnership for Action on Green
Economy seeks to put sustainability at theheart of economic policies and practices toadvance the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable
Development and supports nations andregions in reframing economic policies andpractices around sustainability to foster
economic development, create income andjobs, reduce poverty and inequality, andstrengthen the ecological foundations of
their economies. It brings together five UN
agencies – UN Environment, International
Labour Organization, UN Development
Programme, UN Industrial Development
Organization, and UN Institute for Training
and Research – whose mandates, expertiseand networks combined can offer integrated
and holistic support to countries on inclusive
green economy.
Link: http://www.un-page.org/home105Towards a Pollution-Free Planet

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dump landslide. Reuters, 16 April. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-sri-lankaaccident/many-feared-buried-as-hopesdim-after-sri-lanka-garbage-dump-landslideidUSKBN17I0MX.
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