Vol.4, No.1, 22-26 (2012)
http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/ns.2012.41004

Natural Science

Textile dyeing industry an environmental hazard
Rita Kant
University Institute of Fashion Technology, Panjab University, Chandigarh, India; kaushikrita@rocketmail.com
Received 9 December 2011; revised 28 December 2011; accepted 14 January 2012

ABSTRACT
Color is the main attraction of any fabric. No matter how excellent its constitution, if unsuitablycolored it is bound to be a failure as a commercial
fabric. Manufacture and use of synthetic dyes forfabric dyeing has therefore become a massive
industry today. In fact the art of applying color tofabric has been known to mankind since 3500 BC.
WH Perkins in 1856 discovered the use of synthetic dyes. Synthetic dyes have provided a wide
range of colorfast, bright hues. However their
toxic nature has become a cause of grave concern to environmentalists. Use of synthetic dyes
has an adverse effect on all forms of life. Presence of sulphur, naphthol, vat dyes, nitrates, acetic acid, soaps, enzymes chromium compounds
and heavy metals like copper, arsenic, lead, cadmium, mercury, nickel, and cobalt and certain
auxiliary chemicals all collectively make the textile effluent highly toxic. Other harmful chemicals present in the water may be formaldehyde
based dye fixing agents, chlorinated stain removers, hydro carbon based softeners, non bio degradable dyeing chemicals. These organic materials react with many disinfectants especially chlorine and form by products (DBP’S) that are often
carcinogenic and therefore undesirable. Many ofthese show allergic reactions. The colloidal matter present along with colors and oily scum increases the turbidity, gives the water a bad appearance and foul smell and prevents the penetration of sunlight necessary for the process ofphotosynthesis. This in turn interferes with the
Oxygen transfer mechanism at air water interface
which in turn interferes with marine life and self
purification process of water. This effluent if allowed to flow in the fields’ clogs the pores of thesoil resulting in loss of soil productivity. If allowed
to flow in drains and rivers it effects the quality ofdrinking water in hand pumps making it unfit forhuman consumption. It is important to remove
these pollutants from the waste waters before
their final disposal.
Copyright © 2012 SciRes.

Keywords: Waste Water; Pollutants; Toxic; Hazard;
Carcinogenic

1. INTRODUCTION
Color the earth beautiful and kill it with sweet poison!!
The art of color application to enhance our self appearance and the world around us has been known to man
since time immemorial. Historical records of the use ofnatural dyes extracted from vegetables, fruits, flowers,
certain insects and fish dating back to 3500 BC have beenfound. Color is the main attraction of any fabric. No
matter how excellent its constitution, if unsuitably colored
it is bound to be a failure as a commercial product. Fabricwas earlier being dyed with natural dyes. These however
gave a limited and a dull range of colors. Besides, they
showed low color fastness when exposed to washing andsunlight. As a result they needed a mordant to form a dyecomplex to fix the fiber and dye together thus making thedyers’ work tedious. The discovery of synthetic dyes by
W. H. Perkins in 1856 has provided a wide range of dyesthat are color fast and come in a wider color range andbrighter shades [1]. As a result “dye application” hasbecome a massive industry today.
However, due to the toxic nature and adverse effect ofsynthetic dyes on all forms of life the interest in naturaldyes has revived throughout the world. Neverthelesseven the natural dyes are rarely low-impact, due to certain mordants that have to be used with them. Mordants,
are substances, (such as chromium), used to “fix” color
onto the fabric. They may be are very toxic and may
have a high impact on the wastewater quality. Natural
dyestuffs require large quantities of water for dyeing.
(Almost equal to or double that of the fiber’s own weight). About 80 percent of the dyestuffs stay on the fabric,
while the rest go down the drain. Consequently naturaldyes prepared from wild plants and lichens can have avery high impact on the environment.

2. WATER CONSUMPTION IN TEXTILEINDUSTRY
The textile dyeing and finishing industry has created ahuge pollution problem as it is one of the most chemiOPEN ACCESS

23

R. Kant / Natural Science 4 (2012) 22-26

cally intensive industries on earth, and the No. 1 polluterof clean water (after agriculture). More than 3600 individual textile dyes are being manufactured by the Industry today. The industry is using more than 8000 chemicals in various processes of textile manufacture including
dyeing and printing. A fraction of these are listed in Table 1. Many of these chemicals are poisonous and damaging to human health directly or indirectly. Large quantities of water are required for textile processing, dyeing
and printing. The daily water consumption of an average
sized textile mill having a production of about 8000 kg offabric per day is about 1.6 million liters. 16% of this isconsumed in dyeing and 8% in printing. Specific water
consumption for dyeing varies from 30 - 50 liters per kg
of cloth depending on the type of dye used. The overallwater consumption of yarn dyeing is about 60 liters per
kg of yarn. Dyeing section contributes to 15% - 20% of
the total waste water flow. Water is also required forwashing the dyed and printed fabric and yarn to achieve
washing fastness and bright backgrounds. Washing agentslike caustic soda based soaps; enzymes etc. are used forthe purpose. This removes the surplus color and paste
from the substrate. Water is also needed for cleaning theprinting machines to remove loose color paste from printing blankets, printing screens and dyeing vessels [3,4]. It
takes about 500 gallons of water to produce enough fabricto cover one sofa. The World Bank estimates that 17 to 20
percent of industrial water pollution comes from textile
dyeing and finishing treatment given to fabric. Some 72
toxic chemicals have been identified in water solely fromtextile dyeing, 30 of which cannot be removed5. This
represents an appalling environmental problem for theclothing and textile manufacturers.
Table 1. Major chemicals and dyes used in synthetic textile
mills [2].
Sr No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22

ChemicalAcetic Acid
Ammonium Sulphate
P V Acetate
Wetting Agent
Caustic Soda
Softener
Organic Solvent
Organic Resin
Formic Acid
Soap
Hydrosulphites
Hydrochloric Acid
Hydrogen Peroxide
Leveling & Dispersing Agent
Solvent 1425
Oxalic Acid
Polyesthylene Emulsion
Sulphuric Acid
Disperse Dyes (Polyester)
Vat Dyes (Viscose)
Sulphur Dyes
Reactive Dyes

Copyright © 2012 SciRes.

Quantity Kg/month
1611
858
954
125
6212
856
247
5115
1227
154
6563
309
1038
547
321
471
1174
678
1500
900
300
45

3. HAZARDS OF WATER POLLUTION
Mills discharge millions of gallons of this effluent ashazardous toxic waste, full of color and organic chemicals
from dyeing and finishing salts. Presence of sulphur, naphthol, vat dyes, nitrates, acetic acid, soaps, chromium compounds and heavy metals like copper, arsenic, lead, cadmium, mercury, nickel, and cobalt and certain auxiliary
chemicals all collectively make the effluent highly toxic.
Other harmful chemicals present in the water may beformaldehyde based dye fixing agents, hydro carbon basedsofteners and non bio degradable dyeing chemicals. The
mill effluent is also often of a high temperature and pH,
both of which are extremely damaging.
The colloidal matter present along with colors and oily
scum increases the turbidity and gives the water a bad
appearance and foul smell. It prevents the penetration ofsunlight necessary for the process of photosynthesis [5].
This interferes with the Oxygen transfer mechanism at
air water interface. Depletion of dissolved Oxygen inwater is the most serious effect of textile waste as dissolved oxygen is very essential for marine life. This also
hinders with self purification process of water. In addition
when this effluent is allowed to flow in the fields it clogs
the pores of the soil resulting in loss of soil productivity.
The texture of soil gets hardened and penetration of roots
is prevented.
The waste water that flows in the drains corrodes andincrustates the sewerage pipes. If allowed to flow in drains
and rivers it effects the quality of drinking water in handpumps making it unfit for human consumption. It also
leads to leakage in drains increasing their maintenancecost. Such polluted water can be a breeding ground forbacteria and viruses. Impurities in water affect the textile
processing in many ways. In scouring and bleaching they
impart a yellow tinge to white fabric.
In dyeing stage metallic ions present in water sometimes combine with the dyes causing dullness in shades(Table 2).
Textile effluent is a cause of significant amount of environmental degradation and human illnesses. About 40
percent of globally used colorants contain organicallybound chlorine a known carcinogen. All the organic materials present in the wastewater from a textile industry
are of great concern in water treatment because they react with many disinfectants especially chlorine. Chemicals evaporate into the air we breathe or are absorbed
through our skin and show up as allergic reactions andmay cause harm to children even before birth.

4. A CASE STUDY
A report on “Toxic Sludge Irrigating Fields for 20 Years”
appeared in The Tribune dated April 7, 2009. It said quote“Due to unavailability of canal water and subsoil water,
farmers of this cancer—prone district have to irrigate their
OPEN ACCESS

24

R. Kant / Natural Science 4 (2012) 22-26

Table 2. Characteristics of effluent from dyeing and printing unit of a textile mill.
pH
DyeingPrinting

Alkalinity mg/l
9.2 - 11
6.7 - 8.2

Total Solids mg/l Total Dissolved Solids mg/l
1250 - 3160
3600 - 6540
500 - 1080
2110 - 2750

fields with toxic sludge flowing into a drain which passes
through their villages here”. The effect on crop irrigatedwith sludge can be observed through symptoms like plaquein teeth, joint pain and grey hair of villagers. Farmers of
Kot Bhara, Kot Bakhtu, Kot Fatta, Ramgarh Bhunder,
Chathewala, Jeewan Singh Wala, Shergah, Mallwala, Kaile
Bander, Chak Ruldu Singh Wala, Pathrala, Manak Khana,and other villages along the banks of the Lisada drain near
Bhatinda, have been using this toxic black water for 20
years for irrigation.
The drain carries sludge of factories located in Barnala
district. While crossing Bhatinda district the drain becomes almost dry as its water gets used in the fields. The
official apathy is evident as farmers, pooling money,
have installed motors along the banks of the drain to lift
water to supply it via steel and cemented pipes buried inearth to irrigate their fields. Satwant Singh a farmer of
Koy Fatta village said, “This water stinks, obviously it
will leave a harmful effect on crops also. As a precaution,
we sell whatever we produce and buy canal irrigatedyield of crops for our consumption. “Showing carrots
sown in his field Balwinder Singh said, “My grandchilddren have refused to consume these”.

5. TREATMENT OF EFFLUENT FROMTEXTILE INDUSTRY
Effluent treatment methods can be classified into physical, chemical and biological methods; (Table 3). Exclusive treatment by one of these three methods has proved
to be insufficient in removing color and other effluent
from textile industry wastewater. While some dyes are
difficult to biodegrade few, particularly the hydrolyzed
reactive and certain acidic dyes are not readily absorbedby active sludge; hence they escape treatment. Combination of various effluent treatment methods can remove
more than 85% of unwanted matter [6].
The resulting effluent is usually high in color. A complimentary treatment process is needed to remove colorand if possible residual impurities. The textile industry
has been condemned to be the world’s worst environment polluters. It requires large amounts of Chemicals
and Water at every step of the textile manufacturing andfinishing process. Water is needed to convey the chemicals into the fabric and to wash it at the beginning andend of every step. It becomes full of chemical additives
and is then expelled as wastewater; which in turn pollutes the environment. Water: a finite resource is thus
becoming scarce. Water pollution is indeed a serious
Copyright © 2012 SciRes.

Suspended Solids mg/l
3230 - 6180
1870 - 2360

BOD mg/l
360 - 370
250 - 290

COD mg/l
130 - 820 465 - 1400
135 - 1380 410 - 4270

problem in most countries. The textile industry continues
to search for an economical solution to decolorize thenearly 200 billion liters of colored effluent produced annually. Nations, states, industries are spending billions incash on research to reduce pollution and on constructionof effluent treatment plants. The public concern for industrial air and water pollution is leading to considerable
restrictions on all industrial activities polluting the environment [7]. Governments have proposed laws limiting
the amount and kind of waste that can be dumped as such.
Considering the adverse effect on environment and health of people due to the effluent being thrown out of the
Textile Dye Industry we need to wake up to the serious
problem and make every effort to reduce pollution andconstruct effluent treatment plants at the sites churningout billions of liters of waste water.

6. EXPERIMENTAL STUDY ON
ADSORPTION OF TEXTILE DYE
EFFLUENT USING ACTIVATEDCARBONA study was conducted on “Color/Dye Removal froma Textile Industry Effluent Using Activated Carbon” In
this study removal by adsorption of various acidic,
reactive and direct dyes on two different samples ofGranular Activated Carbon was observed in Static Batch
Method as well as Continuous Flow Process. Experimental data on optical density of blank solutions of different concentrations ranging from 10 mg/l to 100 mg/l
and optical density of solutions after adsorption on activated carbon samples were taken and analyzed. Calibration curves were plotted and the amount of dye adsorbed was calculated. The data was fitted to simple Polynomial, Langmuir and Freundlich isotherms for different
Table 3. Effluent treatment methods [8].
PhysicalSedimentation
Filtration
Floatation
Foam Fractionation
Coagulation
Reverse Osmosis
Solvent Extraction
Ionization Radiation
Adsorption
Incineration
Distillation
Membrane Treatment

ChemicalNeutralization
Reduction
Oxidation
Catalysis
Ion ExchangeElectrolysis-

Biological
Stabilization
Aerated Lagoons
Trickling Filters
Activated Sludge
Anaerobic Digestion
Fungal Treatment
Flocculation-

OPEN ACCESS

25

R. Kant / Natural Science 4 (2012) 22-26

7.2. Awareness to Go Green

carbon samples and concentration values of various dyes.
Constants were calculated from the slope and intercept
values of the isotherms. Coefficient of co-relation R2 andstandard deviation SD were also noted. The data wasfound to fit well to the isotherms. Carbon sample C1
showed considerably higher potential to adsorb the dye ascompared to carbon sample C2. Adsorption was better in
Batch Method in compared to Continuous Flow Process.
Analysis of the data showed that both activated carbon
samples had a good capacity to remove the textile dyes
from the residue water. Granular Activated Carbon was
found to have good potential for absorbance of dyestuff.
Being inexpensive and easily available it can be usedeffectively in a commercial system.

We must change the ways fabric is made and finished.
We need to produce luxurious, sensuous fabric in waysthat are non-toxic, ethical and sustainable. Environmentally appealing technologies should be made available tothe mainstream manufacturers. Efforts are needed toraise peoples’ consciousness about the far-reaching implications of their textile choices. We can see the growing consumer consciousness to purchase eco-friendly clothing, drapes, or even carpets. A company cannot claim
to sell a “green” shirt if the dyeing process used to color
the garment wastes and pollutes water. Thus this newwave for eco friendly products is throwing a major challenge to several apparel manufacturers. Some companies
have taken action and stopped using dyes on certain
garments, but again, it everyone would not be happy with
only off-white and beige colors to choose from. Consumers want color and variety in their clothing.

7. ADOPTION OF BEST PRACTICES
7.1. Reducing and Recycling Water
It is important to remove the various pollutants fromthe waste waters before their final disposal. By reducing
all forms of waste water industries can cut on costs andimprove profits. It has been suggested that most companies can save 20% - 50% expenditure on water and effluent treatment charges by reducing their water use. After identifying where the potential water savings can bemade the next step is to introduce appropriate water saving measures like re-use of water. This consists of rinsing
the product in a series of tanks each using progressively
cleaner water [8]. The rinse water is reused by moving it
progressively from last rinse tank towards first. Wash
water may also be suitable for re use elsewhere on thesite such as for floor washing, rinsing containers etc.

7.3. Dyeing
A solution seems to be in sight with the coming of“Air Dyeing Technology”. Air Dyeing Technology is adyeing process that uses air instead of water to dye garments, allowing companies to create garments with vivid
designs and colors, without polluting the water and environment [9].
Air Dyeing Technology“Figure 1” below indicates the benefits of Air dyeing
technology.
 Uses 95 percent less water.

2500001400000
1200000
1000000
Wet Dye

150000

Energy (MJ)

Water (Gallons)

200000Air Dye100000

Wet Dye
800000Air Dye

60000040000050000

200000
0

0

(a)

(b)
70000

Green house Gas

60000
50000
Wet Dye
40000

Air Dye

30000
20000
10000
0

(c)

Figure 1. Comparison of Air Dyeing and Traditional Wet Dyeing process for 25,000 medium men’st-shirts [10]. (a) Water (gallons); (b) Energy (Mega joules); (c) Greenhouse Gas (kg Co2

equivalent emissions).
Copyright © 2012 SciRes.

OPEN ACCESS

26

R. Kant / Natural Science 4 (2012) 22-26

 Emits 84 percent less Green House Gases (GHG).
 Requires 87 percent less energy.
 Reduces damage to goods (Up to one percent of goods
are damaged using Air Dyeing procedure as compared
to 10 percent of traditionally dyed garments).
 No rules to washing. Air dyed fabrics can be washedat any temperature, with whites or colors, with orwithout bleach.
 Allows for new designs. Different sides of a single
piece of fabric can be dyed in different colors or designs.
This unique dyeing process is already in use to create
vibrant, double-sided swimsuits, 100% recycled PET ecochic t-shirts, window coverings, designer handbags andrunway fashions of New York design house.

7.4. Bleaching
Chlorine bleach is known to be extremely toxic to theenvironment and to consumers, yet chlorine-based chemicals are still often used to bleach fabric. An alternative
bleaching method which is oxygen-based (hydrogen peroxide) can be used. Some mills have started using ozone,
a very new technology for bleaching. This technology
relies on cool water rather than having to maintain the
fabric in a hot water bath for many hours. The ozone
breaks down into water and oxygen in waste water [5].

abaca needs to be promoted. “Bast” fiber is spun into
yarn from the stalk of the plant and not the flower. As
Bugs do not attack the stalks, the plants can be grownwithout pesticides.

8. CONCLUSION
With newer varieties of modern textiles, synthetic dyes
and textile finishes entering the market air and waterpollution are bound to go on increasing unless strictures
are implemented and positive steps taken. The problem
of undesirable effects of a large number of chemicals anddyestuffs used in textile industry is indeed grave as theireffects in the environment and on the public do not show
immediately. According to a 5 June 2005 article in Business Week, the population that is allergic to chemicals
will grow to 60 percent by the year 2020. The R & D
needs to step up and step in to give us “Value Products”
in a “Value Environment”. We all need to join in the race
to go green.

REFERENCES[1]

Whitaker, C.M. and Willock, C.C. (1949) Dyeing withcoal tar dyestuffs. Tindall and Cox Baillière, London, 5,
1-7.

[2]

Handa, B.K. (1991) Treatment and recycle of wastewaterin industry. National Environmental Engineering Research Institute, Nagpur, 21, 65, 75, 76, 78, 82, 85, 94.

[3]

Wasif, A.I. and Kone, C.D. (1996) Textile processing andenvironmental consequences. Textile and Engineering Institute, 1-15.

[4]

Vijaraghavan, N.S. (1999) Environmental unit in textile
industry. Director BIS, bhopal science tech. Entrepreneur,
7, 3-9.

[5]

Hazardous Substance Research Centers/South and Southwest Outreach Program (2005) Environmental hazards ofthe textile industry. Environmental Update #24, Business
Week.

[6]

Donnet, J.B. and Papirer, E. (1965) Effect on surface
reactivity of carbon surface by oxidation with ozone.
Bulletin de la Societe Chimique de France, 1912.

[7]

Bansal, M. (1997) Removal of pollutants from industrial
waste water using activated carbon. Ph.D. Thesis, Panjab
University, Chandigarh, 2-3, 12-18.

[8]Mahajan, S.P. (2004) Pollution control in process Industries. Summer Report, IIT, Bombay, 5.

[9]Advanced Environmental Technologies (2011) Water
efficiency in textile and leather industry accepta-leadingechemical procurement. Statham House, Old Trafford,
Manchester. www.accepta.com

7.5. Functional Finishes
Rather than using harsh chemicals to soften and finish
the fabric a finish made of bees wax, Aloe Vera and Vitamin A are a good alternative. Efforts are on to find a
Flame retardant finish that uses chemicals that do nothave hazardous compounds.

7.6. Sizing
Instead of the use of polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) for sizing use of potato starch or carboxymethylcellulose (CMC)
which is cellulose dissolved by an acid to become a liquid can be used. It is used in food and is chemically inert,
non-toxic and is allowed under Global Organic Textile
Standard 2.3.5.

7.7. Fibres
Cotton is the second-most damaging agricultural cropin the world; 25 percent of all pesticides used globallyare put on cotton crops. The solution has been found in
Organic Cotton but this too requires a lot of water for
growing. Efforts should be made to use OC that comesfrom fields that enjoy natural rainfall sufficient to irrigate
the crops. Use of “bast” fibers such as hemp, linen, andCopyright © 2012 SciRes.

[10] http://sewreview.com/blog/water-pollution-andthe-textile-industry

OPEN ACCESS