Bangladesh / Cambodia / India / Indonesia

16

2016

The Sixteenth Regular Report

Mongolia / Nepal / New Zealand /Pakistan

ACCU Nara International Correspondent
The ACCU correspondents periodically send reports on cultural heritage protection activities in which they have been
recently involved. This is a collection of fourteen reports submitted by international correspondents in the Asia-Pacificregion.

The Sixteenth Regular Report
Contents
Bangladesh

1

Cambodia

5

India

9

Indonesia

15

Kazakhstan

17

Malaysia

20

Maldives

24

Mst. Naheed Sultana
Architectural Style and Ornamentations of Chhota Sona Mosque

Vitharong Chan
Restoration Work at Prasat Srei Krup Leak-Phnom Baset

Kunkuma Devi Kishore
Fading Agricultural Heritage Systems of Vernacular Cultural Landscapes: Bharatpur Case Study

Dewi Puspito Rini
Conservation of Palas Pasemah Inscription Using Pulpwood

Gulnaz Kulmaganbetova
Preliminary Results of the Study of the Ancient City of Taraz

A Ghafar Bin Ahmad
The Making of Singgora Roof Clay Tiles, Bachok, Kelantan, Malaysia

Shiura Jaufar
Excavation of a newly discovered ancient structure in Ha. IhavandhooMongolia

28

Nepal

30

New Zealand39

Pakistan

47

Philippines

53

Sri Lanka

60

Uzbekistan

64

Munkhtulga Rinchinkhorol
A Newly Found Runic Inscription from Southwestern Mongolia

Suresh Suras Shrestha
The 2015 Earthquake in Nepal and Rescue of Cultural Heritage

Matthew Schmidt
Beattie’s Cottage: Preservation of a 19th Century Gold Miners Home

Tahir Saeed and Arshad Ullah
Conservation Problems and Recent Safeguarding Practices
for Archaeological Sites and Monuments in Pakistan

Louella Solmerano Revilla
Reconstruction of the Second San Ignacio Church in Intramuros, Manila

D.A. Rasika Dissanayaka
Construction of Ancient Houses in Sri Lanka

Akmal Ulmasov
Some Features of Buddhist Stupas of Central Asia and Korea

Bangladesh
Bangladesh

Architectural Style and Ornamentations of Chhota Sona MosqueMst. Naheed Sultana, Regional Director
Department of Archaeology, Ministry of Cultural Affairs, The People’s Republic of Bangladesh
Chhota Sona Mosque (Small Golden Mosque) is one of theancient mosques among the oldest mosques in Bangladesh.
The mosque was built on the outskirts of the capital of
Gauda in ancient Bengal. However, at present this mosque
is situated on the north-west border of Bangladesh, in thevillage Firojpur, Upazila Shibganj in the Chapai Nawabganj
district.
History of Gauda: The ruins of the ancient city ofLakhsmanavati, which is known as Gauda, is located in the
Maldaha district of West Bengal in India. This ruined city
is located 40 km from Rajmahal (India) on the west bankof the river Ganga. Presently the major part of this ruined

Map of Bangladesh

The Muslim general Ikhtiar Uddin Muhammad -BinBakhtiar Khilji conquered the Navadeep by defeating thelast Hindu king, Lakshman Sen of the Sen dynasty, in 1204.
He (Bakhtiar Khilji) established Muslim rule in Bengal andfounded his capital in Bangarh (West Bengal in India).
Afterwards, in the independent sultanate era, Sultan
Jalaluddin Mahamud Shah (1415-1433) again replaced thecapital in Gauda. The Golden Era began during the reignof Sultan Nasir Uddin Mahmud Shah of the Elias Shahi
dynasty, and Gauda was considered to be the capital of
Bengal. Enumerable mosques, palaces, fortified cities,
madrasas and tanks were built in the capital Gauda fromthat time. In 1554, De Barosh mentioned the city of Gauda
having spacious roads, adorned with many green trees,
and with innumerable buildings and inhabitants.
Nomenclature of the mosque: During the independent
sultanate period of Bengal and during the reign of Alauddin
Hussain Shah, Wali Muhammad built Chhota Sona Mosque(1493-1519). This exceptional monument to Muslim
architecture was built in Hussain Shahi ‘architectural style’.
In ancient times, this mosque was called the ‘Jewel of
Gauda’. At that time the domes were a golden colour andlooked even brighter in the sunlight. Consequently, the1city is in the Maldaha district of the province of West
Bengal in India. Some parts of these ruins are in the Chapai
Nawabganj district of Bangladesh. The ancient text Artha
Shastra (Economics) of Kautillys (approximately 350-280
BC) mentioned the name of Gauda as Banga, Pundra andthe Kamrup Kingdom. In the ancient text Brihat Shamhita,
written by Baraha Mihir in the 5th century, it is stated that
Gauda was one of the six human habitations. It is also
stated in the very ancient text Vavishya Purana of Paninithat Gaudac and other six provinces together formed
Pundradesh (Mazumdar 1998:110). In the 7th century AD,
Karnasvurna was the capital of Gauda close to Murshidabad.

The district Chapai Nawabganj

mosque was named ‘Sona Mosque’ or Golden Mosque. At
the same time (in the present-day Maldaha district, West
Bengal, India) another comparatively large mosque wasbuilt in Gauda in the same architectural style. Sultan Nusrat
Shah, the son of Sultan Hussain Shah, built this mosque in
1526. As a result, the biggest of the oldest mosques wascalled ‘Bara Sona Mosque’ (Large Golden Mosque) andthe smaller one ‘Chhota Sona Mosque’ (Small Golden
Mosque).
Architectural style of the mosque: At present, Chhota Sona
Mosque is situated in an area bordering the village Firojpur
in Shabajpur Union of Upazila Shibganj. The main road to
Chapai Nawabganj-Sona Mosque land port passes by thewestern wall of this mosque. The mosque used to be
surrounded by walls. The open courtyard (42 m x 43.5 m)
was decorated with very splendid tile ornamentations. To
enter the mosque one has to pass through an ornamented
gateway and open courtyard. The mosque was built withfired bricks and black stone and the stone face is richly
decorated. The mosque therefore seems to have been builtwith stone at first sight.
The measurements of the exterior portion of the mosque

Bangladesh

Ground plan of Chhota Sona Mosque

General view of Chhota Sona Mosque

Stone pillars showing part of the arches

Stone pillars showing part of the domes

Chauchala roof and semicircular domeare 25 m x 15.10 m and the interior walls are 21 m x 12 m.
The height of the mosque is about 6.40 m and the walls
are 2.10 m in breadth. Though the pillars are made ofblack stone, the domes and arches were formed from thecapital of the stone pillars and both are made of brick.
Outside the mosque, there are four corner turrets. These
turrets are raised high up to the roof from ground level.
The cornice is gently curved towards the north and south.

Tile ornamentation in the open courtyard

The three-aisled mosque has five bays created by decorated
pillars of black basalt. The roof is divided by a five-lined
dome. In the middle line, there is a three-hut-shaped roof
or chauchala roof (typical Bangla hut style) and its sides
are covered by 12 semicircular domes (6 on each side).

2

Bangladesh

The exterior surface of the western wall of the mosque iscovered with stone, except for the southern part. Most
probably this part was damaged by a natural disaster. The
entire mosque (exterior and interior wall) is covered byornamented black basalt. Five multi-cusped archeddoorways in the east and five mihrabs are on the westernwall facing the same direction. Three more doors are on
the north and three are on the south. The doors are
immaculate and every door enclosed within the rectangularframe is richly decorated. Gargoyles are used on thecornice for draining water.
In the north corner of the mosque, there is a high platform
named Badshah -Ka- Taktht (seat for king) or ‘Jenana
Gallery’ (praying place for women) and this is built on stonepillars. Some historians think that the platform was built forthe security of the king or administrator. On the other hand,
other historians think it was built as a prayer place forwomen. Outside, on the north-western corner, there is astaircase and doorway for entering the high platform.
Ornamentation: The ornamentation of Chhota Sona
Mosque is not unique or incomparable but it is significant
in terms of the various types of workmanship that havebeen used. There are three kinds of ornamentation
displayed in the work of this mosque.
Terracotta ornamentation: The terracotta ornamentations
mainly appear in the Bangla chauchala roof and arches ofthe domes. Various kinds of creepers, flowers, hanging
lamps, small roses and geometrical designs are seen in theroofs. There are special rosette ornamentations in thesquare panels of the chauchala roof. The interior of themosque was highly decorated with terracotta

3

ornamentations. In the ancient period, the interior of themosque would have been very beautiful and rich to look at.
Ornamentations in the stone: In the beautification of thismosque, engraved ornamentations are found to be much
more prevalent in the stone than in the terracotta. The
engraved ornamentations in the stone were made byexperts and experienced artists. The mihrabs inside themosque are beautifully ornamented on all sides, as are thefive doors in the eastern wall, with beautiful creepers,
rosettes, scrolls and geometrical designs. Having madebands of stones all around the mosque, dots and leaf
designs have been engraved on them. Besides these, theouter walls of the mosque have been ornamented byrosette designs and regular designs. The octagonal turrets
are decorated by creepers and flower designs.
Gild ornamentation: The other type of ornamentation is agolden colour slip or golden gild. Sir Alexander
Cunningham saw this gild ornamentation on the dome andthe walls when he visited this mosque in 1880. At thattime, the mosque was very decayed, although he was still
able to see the gilded domes. According to Cunningham:“It received its present name of the Little Golden Mosque
from the quantity of gilding employed in the ornamentationof which some still remains to justify the popular
appellation” (Cunningham 1994:74). “It received its
popular name of Golden mosque from the fact of gilding
employed in its ornamentation of which some traces wereseen by the archaeologists of the 19th century” (Haque
2007:191).
Conclusion: Chhota Sona Mosque, the ‘Jewel of Gauda’, isthe brightest instance of the Muslim architectural art ofWestern wall of the mosque

Staircase for using Jenana Gallery

Terracotta ornamentation in the chaughala roof

Terracotta ornamentation (close view)References:
1. Mazumdar, Ramash Chandra. 1998.
Bangladesher
Itihash (Pracheen Joog). Calcutta.
2. Dani, Ahmed Hasan. 1961. Muslim Architecture in
Bengal. Dacca.
3. Cunningham, Alexander. 1994. Archaeological Survey ofIndia. Delhi.
4. Haque, Enamul. 2007. The Art Heritage of Bangladesh,
Dhaka.
5. Hasan, Dr. Syed Mahamudul. 2011. Gaur-Pandua.
Dhaka.
6. Hussain-Dewan, Mosharaf and Tofael Ahmed. 2002.
Lakhmanavati-Gaur. Dhaka.
7. Khan, Khan Shaheb Abed Ali. 1985. Gaur o Panduar
Smriti. Dhaka

Inscription with ornamentations on stone

Ornamentations all around a mihrab

Ornamentation on stone

Ornamentation on stone

Multi-cusped doorway

Bangladesh

Bengal. The architectural designs and styles, ornamentations
and the use of terracotta and stone side by side added a
new degree of excellence to the sphere of building
construction. The stone band on the corner turrets of themosque, chain and bell motif, rosettes, creepers andgeometrical designs, etc. bear testimony to the high tasteof art and culture. As a result, this mosque, constructed by
the artists and craftsmen of Bengal, has been able touphold the art and culture of the Muslim reign in the worldof largely. According to Haque, “With all its establishment
and scheme of decorations, the Chhota Sona Mosque isregarded as one of the finest examples of the stone cutters
art of the Muslim period of Bangladesh” (Haque 2007:191).

Decorated corner turret4Cambodia
Cambodia

Restoration Work at Prasat Srei Krup Leak-Phnom Baset
Vitharong Chan, Deputy Director
Department of Safeguarding and Preservation for Monuments, Ministry of Culture and Fine Arts
Introduction
Prasat Srei Krup Leak (Temple) was built on the southernterrace of Phnom (Mount) Baset, approximately 25 km
northwest of the capital, Phnom Penh. It was built of brickand measures 14 m (length) and 10 m (width) and faces
the west (Fig. 1). There is a functioning door on thewestern side decorated with collonettes and lintel made ofsandstone, and three false doors on each of the other threesides with ‘flying palace’ decorations of.

information about the surrounding temples in that there
were already many trees at that time. Due to a lack ofproper conservation work over many years, trees and wildvines have been able to grow on the structure of thetemple and the rock (Fig. 3). Moreover, due to the locationof Cambodia in the tropical region, regular weedingaround the temple is required, and the branches of thetrees growing around the temple, which can harm thetemple structure, must be cut.

This temple was built over natural rock, worshipped as
Linga (Shiva), with both blocks of rock forming a cave andrepresented as Yoni (Uma). The tradition of belief ofworshipping Linga represented by the natural mountainand having a temple built over the mountain here is aunique case; nevertheless, not many examples like thiscan be found in other parts of Cambodia. This architecturalconcept comes from the harmony between the originalanimism of the Khmers with the adapted practices of
Hinduism from India.

2. Clearance and Excavation:• The accumulated soil and brick chips on top of therock within the temple were excavated to a height of
1.8 m (Fig. 4).
• Excavation for confirming and preserving the mouldingof the lower base of the wall was done. Remarkably,a covered pot was found in the trench on the edge ofthe north wall moulding.
• The accumulated soil in the gaps between the bricks
on the walls was removed carefully to confirm theexisting form of the structure to be able to preserve it.

According to the artistic decoration of lintels, this temple
can be dated to the late 7th century or early 8th century CE,
which belongs to the late Prei Khmeng style (east false
door) and early Kampong Preah style (western door). An
inscription appearing on the black schist stone was foundat Baset Mountain and dates from 668 to 677 CE.
Remarkably, some laterite and sandstone architectural
construction elements, and fragment of lintels were foundin the western part of the temple, which can help date thetemple back to the 11th century in the Angkorian period. In
the post-Angkorian period (from the 15th to 19th centuriesCE), this place and the nearby area became a place ofworship for Theravada Buddhism. To the present day, Srei
Krup Leak temple as well as the area of Phnom Baset havebeen considered to be sacred places (Fig. 2).
Due to aging of the temple construction, war, and theimpact from trees, and according to old photographs (fromthe 1960s), the top part of the temple roof has collapsed
and remains what we can see today. Moreover, thenorthern and southern false doors have also been seriously
damaged.
From the end of 2014, in order to prevent any more serious
damage to this temple, the Ministry of Culture and Fine
Arts has carried out emergency work to preserve thistemple.
Conservation Activities
On site conservation activities have been carried out fromthe end of June to the end of September 2015. The work
can be divided into five main parts:
1. Weeding: Photographs from the 1960s are able to tell us

5

3. Architectural survey: After the weeding and clearance
work, the architectural survey term started to reconfirm
the plan of the temple. A systematic survey of the temple
was conducted in order to record the information and toassess the current condition. The main goal of doing thiswas to prepare for conservation work. Detailed
measurement of each existing elevation was done (Fig.
5).
4. Restoration work: after the monitoring process, thestructural evaluation and the result of clearance andexcavation, the restoration was begun. The tree roots
caused the water to be absorbed into holes between the
brick elements. However, other problems might havebeen caused by the age of the structure and theconstruction technique, and this is probably anothercause of the collapse of the building last time. The
restoration project was divided into four parts:• Emergency support of doorway: Sandstone elements
contributed to weakness of the door frame, with thedecorated lintel and collonettes needing to besupported (Fig. 6).
• Structural strengthening: With the aim of preserving
the existing structure and decorative elements, part
restoration support was provided for the following
parts (Figs. 7~11).
• New elements of fallen brick was used to support
existing structures.
• On the top of the wall, bricks were used to protect
the original surface from rainwater. The bonded
joints were treated and consolidated with improved
mortar.
• Application of injection filling to delaminatedsurfaces and joints was examined: they are probablyFig. 1: Plan (conjunctional) of Prasat Srei Krup Leak

5. Roof sheltering: As mentioned above, the interior serves
as a place of worship. As the temple has no roof
remaining, a roof shelter was built within the structure toprevent rainwater. The roof is an independent structuralelement from the temple.

Cambodia

the best to re-fill these areas with adhesive materials,
as necessary. The joints in bonded or cracked areas
were treated and consolidated with improved
mortar.

Fig. 2: Belief practice by worshippers

Fig. 3: East façade before and during weeding work

6

Cambodia
Fig. 4: Accumulated soil on the rock next to the east wallFig. 6: Emergency support installation for the doorway

Fig. 5: East façade (before restoration work) created by PhotoScan

Fig. 7: East façade during restoration work

7

Fig. 8: East façade after restoration work

Cambodia

Fig. 9: The front pediment before and after restoration work

Fig. 10: The interior wall before and after restoration work

Fig. 11: The east corner of the north wall before and after restoration work8

IndiaIndia

Fading Agricultural Heritage Systems of Vernacular Cultural Landscapes: Bharatpur Case Study
Kunkuma Devi Kishore, Architect and Conservation Consultant
Good Earth Office, Hyderabad, India
Introduction
The article presented here is based on extensive researchcarried out (by a group of young students then training in
Architectural Conservation) to identify remnants of the
intricate relationships existing between man and nature in
the everyday living of a culturally rich region in northcentral India, and thus understand the concept of CulturalLandscapes.

A cultural landscape, as defined by the World Heritage
Committee, is the “cultural properties [that] represent the
combined works of nature and of man.” It is primarily alandscape designed and created intentionally by man, an
organically evolved landscape which may be a relict (orfossil) landscape or a continuing landscape and/or an
associative cultural landscape which may be valued
because of the religious, artistic or cultural associations of
the natural element.

Bharatpur district, constituting some historically noteworthy
towns like Bharatpur, Bayana, Kaman, Kumher, Deeg andWeir, is situated in the midst of three significant cultural
regions: the Ganga-Yamuna Doab to the east (one of themost fertile plains in the world), the Mewat region to thewest and the Dholpur-Karauli region to the south. A
detailed study of the regional physiographical features,historic evolution, tangible & intangible cultural resourcesclassifies the Bharatpur region as a transition zone between
the Ganga Yamuna Doab and the Mewat regions, entitling
it to be a unique vernacular cultural landscape. This
cultural landscape is the result of an integral and continuousinteraction between a single dominant community ofagriculturists known as the Jats, their agricultural activities
and their natural environment, for 500-600 years fromabout the 15th century AD. Several towns and villages in
the regions have enjoyed centuries of uninterrupted
historic significance as important trade routes and tradecenters, strategic military outposts, indigo production
centers, state mints, multiple power centers and agricultural
hubs. This paper will discuss (only) the agricultural based
heritage systems that evolved in the Bharatpur region as animportant influencing factor of the vernacular architecture
and practices.

were surveyed and studied using the following parameters.
These were laid down as the criteria for the delineation of
the Bharatpur cultural region. Similarities and differences
across different geographical boundaries within the district
and in the surrounding environs were understood todelineate the homogenous and heterogeneous zones.

Methodology of the Study
The Bharatpur district and its surrounding settlements

9

Physiographical Factors – Topography, Geology, Soils,
Hydrology, Vegetation
Evolution – Military and Defense, Administrative,
Settlement Patterns, Occupation, Trade and Economy
Intangible Features – Community, Linguistics, Fairs andFestivals, Parikrama (circumambulation of sacred places
such as religious deities in a temple, sacred water bodies,sacred hills, and close clusters of temples, as a part ofreligious worship)
Built Resources – Built Heritage Components, Typology
and Character
The Bharatpur cultural region thus delineated is surroundedby the Braj cultural region to the north-east, Ganga Yamuna
Doab region to the east (of which the Braj region is a part),
Dholpur region to the south, Dhundhar region to the west
and Mewat region to the north. The physiographic features
within the homogenous and heterogeneous regions clearly
indicated that the Bharatpur region itself is a transitionzone between the fertile Ganga Yamuna Doab plains andA sample study was undertaken of several historicallyimportant towns such as Bharatpur, Weir, Bayana, Kumher

Brief history of Bharatpur Cultural Region
Bharatpur district is the eastern gateway to Rajasthan state
in western India. It has ten tehsils: Bharatpur, Bayana,
Deeg, Kaman, Kumher, Nadbai, Nagar, Pahari, Rupwas
and Weir. Bayana was an important administrative centre
for the Yaudeya community, who were feudatories to the
Gupta and Gurjara rulers from the 4th to 7th centuries AD.
It continued to be an important administrative centre anda strong military outpost due its strategic location, andcontrolled eastern Rajasthan and Gwalior though the 8th to10th centuries AD. From the 11th century onwards, Bayana’s
status as a military outpost was exemplified and it emerged
as an important trading and cultural centre as it wasinvaded and controlled by the Muslim rulers of different
dynasties up until the 16th to 17th centuries AD, after which
it started losing its importance as a military outpost. It wasaround this period that the indigo vats of Bayana gained
popularity and found a world market. The brackish water,
soil conditions and suitable weather boosted indigo
production tremendously. While Bayana and its environs
were gaining significance as an important military base,other areas of Bharatpur district were gaining popularity
from other perspectives. Stone Age, early historical, grey,ochre and redware sites have been excavated in the central
Bharatpur region, as well as evidence of a dense populationfrom the 2nd century BC onwards.
The Yaudeyas, Chauhans and Gurjaras continued to rulethe entire Bharatpur region till they were defeated by theinvading Muslims, and what followed was uninterrupted
control of the entire region by the Slave, Khalji, Tughlaq,
Lodhi, Sur and Mughal dynasties till it was won over by the
Jats – the local peasant community. Between the 7th and10th centuries AD the agricultural communities of Jats andGujjars started occupying the Bharatpur district, driving
the original inhabitants, the Meos, further north to Alwar.
Over the next few hundred years this region became a richagricultural belt producing top quality indigo, wheat,sugarcane, henna, and other crops.
The Jats are commonly considered to be of Indo-Scythian,Indo-European, Indo-Iranian or Indo-Aryan stock in viewof their similar physical features and common practices.
There are no clear written records about their origin andanthropologists are still working on several theories.

and Deeg, and villages such as Sinsini, Au, Koh, Gunsara,
Sonkh and Awaar. Factors determining the cultural
significance of each of these towns and villages were
evaluated against the following criteria:

India

the Aravalli hill ranges. It was important to first understandthe concepts of a cultural region so as to identify theunique cultural landscape of Bharatpur and establish its
existence followed by an evaluation of its significance. A
comprehensive study of the mutual interaction of theabove parameters against the context of nature and culture
over several centuries in the past was carried out.

Against each factor determining the cultural significance of
these settlements, an understanding of how nature andculture interacted in that context with one another was
also listed to identify the unique cultural landscape of the
Bharatpur cultural region.

However, they are found in most states of North India andin many parts of Pakistan, and the Jats of the Bharatpur
region are well known for having fought the Mughals andcarved out a kingdom for themselves, rising from a simple
peasant community to Zamindars to finally rulers of theirland till the Matsya Union was formed in 1948 after India
attained its independence from the British.
The Jats were very unhappy with the tax system andenhanced revenue collection that was introduced for
Hindu peasants by the Mughal dynasty, and there was also
growing discontentment over religious discrimination by
Emperor Aurangzeb. These oppressive factors culminatedin a rebellion due to their deep attachment to personal
freedom, resentment towards external control and martial
character. The first rebellion was in 1669 AD, followed bymore organised and united attempts by Rajaram and
Churaman in the late 17th century AD, and the Jat kingdom
was finally founded by Thakur Badan Singh in the early
18th century AD. There were about 17 Jat rulers in Bharatpur
State from 1670 to 1947. Multiple power centres such as
Kumher, Weir, Bharatpur and Deeg were developed by
dividing several jagirs (the smaller subdivisions within
their kingdom) within the present Bharatpur district. The
entire Jat kingdom of Bharatpur saw major development
during this period. The natural landscape was greatly
altered by the construction of:- mud fortresses in the villages- mud fortifications around the villages- capitals with moats and gateways- palaces and forts- tanks and kunds (manmade lakes)- havelis (courtyard mansions)- religious structures- walled gardens and orchards- recreational structures
The Cultural Landscape Elements
The Jats knew their terrain and jungles only too well andstuck to their traditional mode of guerrilla warfare. They
hovered on the highways and plundered the caravans andtravellers in the countryside, and grabbed rich booty toshow their rage towards the Mughal system of administrationand to meet their warfare needs. They built their early forts

10IndiaDemarcation of the heterogeneous, homogenous and adjoining cultural regions of the Bharatpur Cultural Region

in the deep jungle and surrounded them with mud ramparts
that served as bases for operations and refuge, and also
places for dumping the booty. Garhis (mud fortresses) werebuilt in villages. These were prototypes based on which
strategic-military systems of protection against the enemy inbattles were developed in palaces and settlements by later
rulers. These consisted of the following:
1. Unique defence systems were incorporated with adeep understanding of the elements of nature tostrengthen the four major power centres of Kumher,
Deeg, Bharatpur and Weir. Moats of the settlement
acted as a water reservoir to recharge the soil. Whena moat was dug, all the earth from it was used to raisemounds and mud forts that acted as defence outposts.
The mud was rammed hard and vegetation grown on
the mounds so that the enemy could not make out thehideouts of the soldiers. Mud was also used extensively
to make ramparts around the fort and fortifications
around the villages. These were early strategic systems
of protection of the village against enemie. Today wecan still find many villages on these mounds andrecent expansion on the fringes too. Some of these
fortified settlements had such a strong defence systemthat it took the Mughals around 10 months to breakthe various tiers of the security net.
2. Forts were built within forests, and villages andmounds were surrounded by babul trees. The babul

11

is a tree 5-20 m high that prefers sandy or sterile
regions with a dry climate during the greater part of
the year, and can withstand both extremely dry
environments and floods. These babul trees withthorns were planted extensively and can be stillfound in abundance. The wood is strong, durable,
hard, very shock resistant, and is used for construction,mine props, tool handles and carts, and makes
excellent fuel wood and quality charcoal.
3. The soil of the Bharatpur region is alkaline and saline
in many places. This led to the development of an
indigenous system of irrigation which reduces the soilof its extra-injurious salts and prevents it frombecoming a saline and alkaline wasteland. This system
has been practiced in the region for generations andis an example of a traditional knowledge systemhaving evolved due to the interaction of humans withnature. Embankments on the agricultural fields known
as bandhs are constructed to harvest rainwater
effectively. The fields are extensively inundated for
irrigation to control the salinity. This is considered to
be a very simple, inexpensive, yet effective method.
The Ajan Bandh or dam is one of the largest among
several such irrigation channels to the south-west of
the capital city of Bharatpur and was constructed by
Maharaja Ranjit Singh (ruled 1776-1805 AD). It fed
into the Atal Bund adjoining the city, which in turnsupplied water to the moat around the city’s fort and4. Manmade Ponds/Taals were an important source ofwater for irrigation and domestic purposes such as
bathing, cattle rearing, washing clothes andsocialising. There were two types:• Kacha Tal (Go Taal) built for cattle• Pacca Tal (Kunds) built for the use of humans andusually constructed with steps

An illustration of the unique defence systems devised by
the Jats based on their agricultural knowledge

Both these ponds sometimes had wells projecting
into them and they were recharged with rainwaterfrom the pond very efficiently. They served as animportant source of soft potable water for drinking
and cooking purposes and could be used even after
the water in the pond was finished.

India

its wells and also supplied water to 77 villages. It also
played an important role in establishing the royalhunting ground. A UNESCO World Heritage Site andone of the richest bird areas in the world, the Keoladeo
National Park is a good example of how well the
farmers who turned into a ruling class understood thenatural geological conditions and terrain and how
they used these to create a hunting ground for theirrecreation. The park covers an area of 2873 hectares
and is a flat patchwork of marshes, artificially createdin the 1850s and maintained by a system of canals,
dykes, and sluices. Normally water is fed into themarshes twice a year from inundations of the Gambira
and Banganga rivers, which are impounded on arable
land by this artificial dam – the Ajan Bandh. Only one
third of the park is a wetland. Situated in an area
characterised by very sparse vegetation, the park is
the only spot with dense vegetation and trees. Dykes
divide the wetland into ten units and each unit has asystem of sluice gates to control its water flow.

5. With power came all other desires and the Jat rulers
built several beautiful gardens in their forts andpalaces, which they did so with a deep knowledge of
their terrain, and climatic and soil conditions. Walled
gardens along with tanks were located and built insuch a manner that they served as efficient water
catchment and harvesting bodies. Hand pumps andwells were all located in the vicinity because of theavailability of soft water. When mud forts, rampartsand mounds were built for military reasons they were
dug in a such a manner that they could serve as ponds,
water tanks or moats, and beautiful gardens werecreated around them for easy availability of water.
6. Every agricultural community has a deep understandingof how best to utilise its produce so as to ensure
maximum benefit and zero wastage, and the Jats were
no exception. The main crops that were cultivatedwere wheat, bajra, groundnuts, mustard, pulses,
rapeseed and henna. Indigo found a world market in
the 17th century AD but a major slump was seen in the
18th century. Salt began to be manufactured extensively
as a result of control of the soil salinity. The indigo
vats and salt mines also greatly altered the naturallandscape.

Moat and earthen mounds (garhis) with babul
plantations surrounding the Lohagarh Fort of Deeg

Moat, babul plantations and mud mounds of villages act as both a DEFENCE SYSTEM and a WATER RESERVOIR.

12

IndiaPhotograph of the Ajan Bund at Bharatpur, Rajasthan,taken by in 1900 AD

The swampy marshes of the Keoladeo Park

The wetlands with migratory birds inthe Keoladeo National Park

Babul trees – usually planted in clusters to form thorny,
impenetrable dense vegetation

A sample inventory to explain how data was collected and settlements were studied

13

Conclusion
All the villages that were studied revealed several historic
structures either in a reasonably good condition or in a
dilapidated state strewn among the fields, babul forests, on
plain land, adjoining water bodies, etc. Some of them were
found in a collapsed or demolished condition. These
remnants, along with wet scrublands and dense babul
forests, are spread across the entire cultural region along
the urban and rural areas. These clearly speak volumes
about the splendour created by the peasants, both while
trying to capture political power and after having turned

their jungles and wetlands into a royal kingdom. They
ensured that their vernacular knowledge system was fully
utilised both in their tangible and intangible expressions.
The grand and brilliant expression of their courage,
religious/social beliefs and customs, traditional construction
knowledge, desire for luxury and military strategies
through rural and urban architecture is beyond the scopeof this report. However, these factors, along with theabove vernacular representations, clearly showcase how
important and unrecognised a cultural landscape the
Bharatpur Cultural Region represents.

An illustration of an artificial pond and adjoining well system

The cattle pond in the village of Awaar

IndiaThe Pacca Taal ‘Lalawala Kund’ with projecting wells and ghats

The walled garden of RAMBAGH at the foothills of theearthen mound and a manmade pond

Cross section through the village of Sinsini illustrating the ponds and wells

Prevalent systems showing inter-dependency of agriculture with the lifestyle of the region, resulting in the evolution of the landscape14Indonesia
Indonesia

Conservation of Palas Pasemah Inscription Using Pulpwood
Dewi Puspito Rini, Archaeologist,
Heritage Conservation Office of Serang, Ministry of Education and Culture
The past is always interesting to learn. A lot of valuable
information can be obtained by studying the past throughits heritages. One source that is accurate enough touncover the past is inscription. By reading and analyzing
inscriptions, significant events that happened in the pastcan be seen.
One inscription that is contributing to unmasking thesecrets of the past of a region in Indonesia is the Palas
Pasemah inscription, which was found in Lampung
province. Lampung province is located at the southern tipof the island of Sumatra. Lampung borders South Sumatra
province and Bengkulu province to the north, the Java Sea
to the east, the Sunda Strait to the south, and the Indian
Ocean to the west. Lampung lies between longitude
103º40' to 105º50' E and latitude 3º45' S. Temperatures inthis region are constant and homogenous, and the meanannual temperature ranges from 30ºC - 37ºC.
The Palas Pasemah site is located in the administrative areaof ​​Palas Pasemah village, Palas sub-district, South Lampung
regency. The location of this site is strategic and fairly easy
to reach by public transport. The road conditions are fairly
good. The distance between the Palas Pasemah site to thecapital regency, namely Kalianda, is about 30 km.
The Palas Pasemah inscription measures 0.64 meters high,0.75 meters wide and 0.20 meters thick. The inscription
consists of 13 lines. It was written using Pallawa letters andthe Sanskrit language on a flat stone surface. The stonematerial of the inscription is andesite. The stone basematerial of the Palas Pasemah inscription can be categorized
as acid igneous stone.
In 2014, a team from the Heritage Conservation Office ofSerang intended to conserve the Palas Pasemah inscription.
Before carrying out conservation work, the team madesome observations about the condition and damage to theinscription. Based on the observations that were made, thestone of the Palas Pasemah inscription had deteriorated. A
reduction in the quality of the inscription material wasseen over almost the entire surface of the stone. The stone
surface was covered by black stains that were suspected ofbeing an adhesive. The stains had come from the adhesivematerial when a duplication of the inscription was made in
2004. The duplication impacted the surface of the stone
inscriptions, and partly covered the stone surface withblack remnants, so that the inscription is difficult to read.
Another impact is the stone surface become fragile, so thatweathering can easily occur.
Referring to the results of the observation, it was decided
to conserve the inscription using traditional treatment.
Because the surface of the stone was fragile, it would bevery risky if conservation were conducted using chemicals.
The team decided to conserve the Palas Pasemah

15

The Palas Pasemah inscription before being cleaned

inscription using traditional treatment in order to minimize
any further impact.
Traditional conservation is one way that can be used toinhibit the growth of microorganisms or weathering on thesurface of the heritage. This method is considered to havethe most minimal risk. There were several stages in the
Palas Pasemah inscription conservation, which were:
1. Dry Cleaning
The first step was dry cleaning. Various equipment areused in dry cleaning, such as nylon brushes, spatulas,needle sacks, and cleaning tools such as cleaning cloths
or chamois. The technique of dry cleaning is brushing
the stone surface carefully using a brush. To clean someparts that are difficult to reach, such as small holes on
the surface of the object, the team used spatulas orneedle sacks to pry away the remaining stains. Cleaning
was done slowly so that the stone surface was notdamage.

Brushing the stone

After that, the stone surface was cleaned with a clean
cloth or chamois, so that the stains that covered theinscription could be cleaned, as well as to make it easier2. Wet Cleaning
Wet cleaning was also used because the damage was
not caused by biological factors, but due to negligencein the use of chemicals. It was feared that this would
have more impact on the inscription.
The technique of wet cleaning is to sprinkle water on
the surface of the item, then brush it, so that the stains
can be detached. Unfortunately, maintenance using wet
cleaning does not provide maximum results. The aim ofcleaning using cold water was to open the pores of thestone and also weaken the adhesion stains on thesurface of the inscriptions. After the inscription was
cleaned using water and brush, then dried using acleaning cloth or chamois. However, the results were
not satisfactory, because some of the inscription was
still obscured.
3. Cleaning using paper pulp and hot water
Actually, cleaning using paper pulp is known as one of
the methods or techniques for removing salt from stone
surfaces. The conservation team decided to try thismethod to remove the remnants of the stain on the

Palas Pasemah inscription. The tools that used forcleaning using paper pulp are a set of scales, rubber
gloves, a mask, a nylon brush and a bucket, whereas
the ingredients consist of clean cold water, hot water,
and paper. The steps to make paper pulp are as follows:Indonesia

to determine the extent of cleaning that had alreadybeen achieved.

a. Prepare a container (bucket)
b. Prepare hot water (10 liter) at a temperature ofaround 85º Celcius
c. Prepare as much paper / newspaper as neededd. Pour the water into the container (bucket)
e. Soak the paper in the container
f. Leave the paper soaking for some time (about anhour)
g. After the paper is wet evenly, turn it into pulp by
tearing it into strips
h. Then stick the paper pulp onto the stone surface
evenlyi. After that, pour hot water over the pulp that has
been stuck onto the stone, so that the heat can last
longer. The remnants of the stain can be lifted fromthe surface of the stone. Repeat up to three times,
then allow to stand for 24 hours
j. After 24 hours, clean the paper pulp from the stone
k. Rinse the stone with water and dry using a clean
cloth or chamois.

Making paper pulp – sticking the paper pulp – pouring hot water onto the stone

After cleaning the stone using paper pulp and hot water,
the inscription can be seen more clearly. Some letters thatwere previously unreadable can be read now.
Recently, conservation in Indonesia has tended to usematerials that are environmentally friendly and not todamage heritages. This trend has a positive impact as aspur to carrying out research on the right materials that do
not adversely affect to heritages or the environment. In
further, conservation experts in Indonesia also learn about
traditional conservation techniques that were used by theirancestors, in order to preserve heritages, so they can last
longer.

Cleaning off paper pulp - rinsing the stone – Palas Pasemah inscription after treatment

16

Kazakhstan
Kazakhstan

Preliminary results of the study of the ancient city of Taraz
Gulnaz Kulmaganbetova, Research associateKazarchaeology LLP
In 2015, a detachment from Taraz LLP “Kazarchaeology”
continued research on the archaeological site of AncientTaraz. The purpose of this research project is thetransformation of the city in the historical and culturalarchaeological park “Ancient Taraz”. That is, after a fullscientific study of the structures and the ruins of the ancient
city, the works on conservation and restoration of themonument. The archaeological park “Ancient Taraz” will bepresented during the World EXPO in 2017 and will become
one of the most recognizable brands in Kazakhstan, creating
considerable interest among tourists. At the moment,scientific research has only partially been completed, andthe park was introduced at the 550th anniversary celebrationsof the Kazakh Khanate, with the participation of the
President of the Kazakhstan, N.A. Nazarbayev.

At the madrasah in the shahristan there were two groupsof buildings, comprising social and religious buildings. In
terms of the architectural and compositional techniques ofcombining two or three separate buildings into one group,
the Central Asian architects did this in several different
ways, on the basis of mutual arrangement of the buildings.
There is one building adjacent to the madrasah, thefunction of which has not yet been determined. The
function of the building was not clear from the generalprinciple of architectural expression; they are all designed
for the leading role of a separate building.

The ancient city of Taraz consists of a citadel (fortified partof the city), shakhristan (trade, or industrial part of thecity), rabad (suburbs or craft villages located outside theshakhristan) and fortifications.

Also undetermined was the system of town planning,which may have been either a regular rectilinear or radialsystem. Urban sprawl with cobbled streets quarterly,
whose length is 112 meters, with a width of 4.5 meters.
This street leads to the east gate, and is the main avenueof the shakhristan.

The high level of accomplishment of ancient Taraz
indicates a water supply system, public and religious
buildings, urban development with cobbled streets
quarterly, and fortifications.
Archaeological studies this year have covered a significant
part of the shakhristan and fortifications. Excavations
covered an area of 1.1 hectares, which revealed the central
part of the city in terms of the Karakhanid period (10th to12th centuries). Excavations in 2015 revealed the following
objects of the ancient city:
Main water system. Water was distributed through ceramic
pipes, one end of which featured a cone-shaped funnel.
Water pipes were laid on a “cushion” of stones, gravel andclay, and the top covered with flat stones and cobbled
pavements. Water from the Talas dam was fed into the pool.
Gravity acted to feed water in the reservoir through theceramic tubes to all parts of the city. Naturally, the presenceof the aqueduct required a certain amount of technicalknowledge and a relatively high degree of engineering.
There is a madrasah, comprising a closed rectangularbuilding with a courtyard, oriented along the long side ofa north-south line. Login to madrasah oriented to thenorth. Opposite the entrance is a rectangular room, and on
the east and west sides of the madrasah are a total of 14
hudzhra (dwellings for madrasah students and teachers)arranged in two rows parallel to each other. In the hudzhra
are ovens with ceramic caps, 25 x 25 cm, with a depth of
5-7 cm. Furnaces are located in the center of each room
facing towards the door. These furnaces have the functionof heating the room. The floors are covered with clay.
Such facilities are common in buildings in many countriesof the Muslim East, particularly in Central Asia.

17

The research revealed the remains of a bath, which by its
monumentality and architectural design is a rare exampleof civil architecture of Central Asia and Kazakhstan.

A unique find was a basement for the storage of products,
containing preserved voluminous bronze vessels, pottery,an iron cauldron, pitchers and bronze dishes. Also foundhere were a stone millstone and fragments of ceramic pots.
During the excavation of fortifications on the east andsouth sides, shakhristan were identified near the easternand southern gates and fragmentary preserved sections of
the fortress walls of the ancient city.
The results of archaeological research of cultural layers
from the Karakhanid period illustrate that Taraz, which
was at one time the capital of Karakhanid in its heyday,
had a well-planned system of urban development.
The rich archaeological material obtained during excavations
also points to the former wealth of the city. Uniquely, theexcavations this year found two treasures. The first consistedof gold and bronze bracelets, earrings, fragments of ornate
engraved silver plate and coins stacked in a ceramic vessel.
Second, was a hoard of 184 copper coins.
In the area of the excavation there were numerous finds ofceramics, metal, bone and stone. Among these was aunique three-dimensional image of a female head madefrom rock crystal, and numerous articles of silver and gold,
and a jade belt lining a silver cage. Of particular interest
were items of bone showing the high bone carving art ofthe medieval masters.
At this time, excavations continue. The purpose of thisperiod is the identification of more ancient cultural layersof the city to determine the age of ancient Taraz, but at thisdevelopment of the tourism industry and the object of thecultural heritage of our country - a country of great steppes.

General view

East Gate

Northeast view of the excavation

View from the south

Southeast view of the excavation

Water supply

Ceramic kettle

Jewels found in a vessel

Kazakhstan

stage, we can say that in the course of research andrestoration work, we have gotten a unique facility for the18

Kazakhstan
East Tower

The eastern wall

Bricked area

Artifacts found in storage basement warehouse

Jewelry and coin hoards
Visit of the President of Kazakhstan, NA Nazarbayev

Figurines (rock crystal, bronze, terra cotta)

19

Beads

Malaysia
Malaysia

The Making of Singgora Roof Clay Tiles, Bachok, Kelantan, Malaysia
Professor Dr. A Ghafar Bin Ahmad, Professor
School of Housing, Building and Planning, Universiti Sains Malaysia
Introduction
Locally known as bata atap, Singgora roof clay tiles are a
predominant roofing material seen on buildings on theeast coast of Peninsular Malaysia, particularly in the statesof Kelantan and Terengganu. The roof tiles, which are
made of clay available from the local swampy salt-water
areas, are turned into terracotta colour after undergoing ahigh-temperature baking process in a traditional earthen
kiln. Singgora is a Malay word which literally means Cityof Lions. It refers to the lion-shaped mountain located near
the town of Songkhla in southern Thailand where the roof
tiles were believed to have their origins. The Singgora roof
clay tiles and gable ends (Malay refers to them as ekor itik)
are of Thai and Cambodian influence since the states of
Kelantan, Terengganu and Pattani (in southern Thailand)
were once part of the Langkasuka Kingdom, dating fromthe 2nd to 16th centuries. Singgora roof clay tiles areprimarily used in Malay houses, old palaces, pavilions,gazebos, gateways, mausoleums, Siamese temples andmosques. Today, Singgora roof clay tiles are produced
manually by several family-owned roof clay tile-making
enterprises in the district of Bachok, Kelantan, which
supply these hand-crafted tiles not only to Malay houseowners but also to hotels and resorts. One of the Singgora
roof clay tile makers is Ms. Che Jah Abdul Rahman, 62
years old, from Kampung Pengkalan Baru, Beris Kubur
Besar, Bachok, Kelantan, who has decades of experiencein this cottage industry.
Specifications
Singgora roof clay tiles are thin, flat tiles. An average roof
clay tile measures 275 mm x 145 mm x 5 mm. With arhomboid shape at one end and a small right angle of 28
mm at the straight end, each roof tile is laid carefully on
roof battens without the use of any nails to form a tiered
roof. Visually, this presents a unique design feature of an
overlapping arrangement and a repeated pattern of roof
clay tiles resembling fish scales. Today, Singgora roof tile
makers are still in operation on the east coast of Peninsular
Malaysia and Southern Thailand. However, there is a slightphysical difference between Singgora roof clay tiles
produced in Malaysia and the ones made in Thailand. The
former have a more pointed edge and are relatively
thinner, while the latter have a more rounded edge andare much thicker.
Production Process
While modern contemporary roof tiles are manufactured
in large quantities in factories, Singgora roof clay tiles arecrafted manually by roof clay tile makers using their hands
and feet as per the following five stages:
i. Clay preparation
Natural clay is readily available in the swampy saltwater areas located along the river banks at Bachok,
Kelantan, Malaysia. Tonnes of clay are collected andstored temporarily in sheds. The clay is cleaned ofany debris, weeds, leaves and twigs and left to dry forseveral days before it is ready for wedging andkneading. Good quality clay with high contents ofsilicon dioxide (SiO2) and aluminium oxide (Al2O3) ismore resilient during the kiln baking process, whichallows the roof clay to harden and become sturdy
more easily.
ii. Clay wedging and kneading
Prior to the wedging and kneading process, somewater is added to soften the hard, cleaned clay stored
in the shed. Clay wedging and kneading are done
manually in the shed. Roof clay makers use their barefeet to wedge and knead the clay bundle until thedifferent shades of the clay are well blended and turninto a distinctive dark grey colour. The kneading
method using the feet has been a tradition among the
local roof clay tile makers for decades. It is a uniquemethod done mostly by the womenfolk. Once theclay is well mixed, the roof tile makers prepare awooden mould for mould pressing.
iii. Mould pressing
A wooden mould is used to shape the clay into its
rhomboid-shaped signature design. The roof clay tile
maker places a slab of clay into the mould andpresses the clay downwards a few times with her
right foot to smooth out the clay. Once the clay ispacked in the mould, a wire cutter is used to sliceaway the excess clay. The roof clay tile maker thenremoves a 5-mm-thick rhomboid-shaped clay sheet,
which is a dark grey colour. To avoid any clay sticking
onto the wooden mould, paddy husk ash is spread allover the mould before the pressing process begins.
On average, a roof clay tile maker can produce about
30-35 pieces of grey clay sheets per hour.
iv. Sun drying
The grey clay sheets are then laid down in rows on
the ground under the hot sun of 32-35 degrees
Celsius. While the clay sheets are drying, the roof clay
tile maker uses a stick to make a slight right-angled
bend at the straight end of each of the grey clay
sheets. The clay sheets are ready to be collected after
one to two hours of drying out in the hot sun. Oncedried, the clay sheets become clay tiles and the colourchanges to a lighter shade of grey. The clay tiles arecollected and inspected for possible defects such as
breakage, uneven shapes, chips or cracks. The goodtiles are grouped together in packs of ten pieces andstacked horizontally in alternate order. When thenumber of stacked roof tiles reaches 40,000 pieces,the roof tile maker fires them in a high-temperature
traditional earthen kiln.

20Malaysia

v. Kiln baking
Kiln baking is the most challenging stage as it requires
specific techniques by skilled and experienced roof
tile makers. The roof clay tiles are stacked in several
layers above the ground in the earthen kiln, which isalso covered with bricks to retain the heat. Firewood
is used as a fuel supply for the kiln. The fire is set at
one side of the kiln for the ten-day baking process.
The kiln is fired at a lower temperature in the firstseven days followed by a high temperature in theremaining three days. The kiln fire is controlled
manually and monitored 24 hours a day, particularlyin the last few days of baking, to prevent the tiles
from overbaking or becoming burnt due to theintense fire. After seven days of baking in the kiln, thefire is gradually extinguished and the roof clay tiles
are left in the kiln to cool off for an additional ten
days. The light grey clay tiles have now become
terracotta colour. After removal from the kiln, eachroof clay tile is inspected for possible overbaking or
burning. The roof clay tiles are then stacked in small
bundles of ten pieces in the shed. The roof clay tiles
are treated with a water-resistant application before
being transported to the clients. About 1,000 to 2,000roof clay tiles can be produced daily by the roof clay
tile makers during hot sunny weather.
Challenges
There are several challenges in the production of Singgora
roof clay tiles. Firstly, since Singgora roof clay tiles are
made manually using the hands and feet, the productionof these tiles is very slow and the number of pieces
produced per day is limited compared to mass-produced
roof clay tiles using machinery in factories. This has
resulted in a sluggish business and less profit for the roof
clay tile makers. Secondly, production of the roof clay tiles
is very much dependent on hot and sunny weather. Hence,
during the six-month monsoon season lasting from
October to March each year, the production of Singgora
roof clay tiles is duly suspended due to heavy rainfall andless sunshine affecting the sun drying process of the clay
sheets. When the production of tiles is disrupted during
the monsoon cycle, the clients inevitably have to delay
their construction projects, which may increase their costs.
Thirdly, the roof clay tiles are lightweight, brittle and easy
to break. There have been cases where tiles were practicallyblown away by strong winds during intervals of heavy
rainfall; or broken into pieces when humans or animals
stepped on rooftops. As a good measure, regularinspections, repairs and maintenance work are necessary
to ensure that Singgora roof clay tiles are in kept in goodcondition.
Conclusions
Despite all these challenges, the art and craft of making
Singgora roof clay tiles still remains strong and survives
until today. Over the years it has gained much popularityand demand due to its unique environmentally friendly
attributes. Many modern resorts, hotels and house owners
in the country have used Singgora roof clay tiles due totheir relatively lower cost, making them about three times
cheaper than modern concrete tiles. Singgora roof clay
tiles are also effective as they absorb less heat in tropical

21

climates, making the building interior much cooler andmore comfortable for users and inhabitants. Moreover, thedistinguished rhomboid-design tile arrangement andsequence reminiscent of fish scales contributes to theaesthetic value and visual impact of the tiered roofs ofMalay heritage architecture. Many researches anddocumentation projects have been conducted to recordand archive this outstanding cottage industry for the
benefit of future generations to help them understand andlearn the art and science of making Singgora roof clay tiles.
The Malaysian government, through its various culturaland heritage agencies such as the Department of National
Heritage and the Malaysia Handicraft Development
Corporation (Kraftangan Malaysia), have also recognised
Singgora roof clay tiles as one of the invaluable heritagecrafts of Malaysia due to its immense tangible andintangible cultural value and significance.
References
Ahmad, A.G., (2009), “Restoration of Kedai Mulong Old
Mosque, Kota Bharu, Kelantan, Malaysia”, ACCU Nara
International Correspondent: The Fourth Regular Report
With Special Reports, Cultural Heritage Protection
Cooperation Office, Asia/Pacific Cultural Centre for
UNESCO (ACCU), Nara, Japan, p. 8-10.
Fong, L.F., (2005), Singhorra on the Roof, The Star Online;
Archives, http://www.thestar.com.my, retrieved on 26
October 2015.
Hassan, Z. and Harun, S.N, (2013), “Preservation of Malay
Singgora Roof”, Procedia Environmental Sciences 17, p.
729-738.
Latif, L.A., (2011), “Atap Genting Singgora Penyambung
Tradisi”, Sepenting Singgora, http://www.budayaseni.com,
retrieved on 26 October 2015.
Acknowledgements:
The author wishes to thank the School of Housing Building
and Planning, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Registered
Conservator Hj. Shaari Mat Saod; and USM LRGS Local
Knowledge Project 3 Team (LRGS/TD/2012/USM-UKM/
KT/03) for making this research and article possible.

Tonnes of clay are collected, cleaned and stored temporarily in a shed.

Malaysia

A roof clay maker uses her bare feet to wedge and knead the clay bundle.

A wooden mould is used to shape the clay into its
rhomboid-shaped signature design.

The roof clay tile maker places a slab of clay in the mould and presses theclay downwards a few times with her right foot to smooth out the clay.

To prevent any clay from sticking onto the wooden mould, paddy husk ash is
spread all over the wooden mould before the pressing process begins.

The grey clay sheets are laid down in rows on the ground under the hot sunof 32-35 degrees Celsius.
Once dried, the clay tiles are collected and inspected for possible defects.

After sun drying, the good tiles are grouped together in packs of ten pieces
and stacked horizontally in alternate order.

The roof clay tiles are stacked in several layers above the ground in theearthen kiln, which is also covered with bricks to retain heat.

22

Malaysia
After removal from the kiln, each roof clay tile is inspected for possible
overbaking or burning.

The roof clay tiles are treated with a water-resistant application before beingtransported to clients.

The use of Singgora roof clay tiles during the restoration of Kedai Mulong
Mosque, Kota Bharu, Kelantan.

The overlapping arrangement and repeated pattern of Singgora roof clay tiles
resembling fish scales.

Top view of the rhomboid-shaped
Singgora roof clay tile.
View of old Singgora roof clay tiles at the Wat Chonprachumthat, Kampung
Dalam, Tumpat, Kelantan.

The average measurement of the Singgora roof clay tile.

23

Bottom view of the Singgora roof
clay tile with a small right angle of
28mm at the straight end.

Maldives
Maldives

Excavation of a newly discovered ancient structure in Ha. Ihavandhoo
Shiura Jaufar, Archaeologist
Department of Heritage, Republic of Maldives
Ihavandhoo, an inhabited island of Haa Alif atoll in thenorth of the Maldives, is a remarkable island with muchhistorical significance. The famous story of the Maldivian
Hero Mohammed Thakurufaanu (Boduthakurufaanu),
who defeated the Portuguese and ended their rule in theMaldives, reveals that the mother of Mohamed
Thakurufaanu was an Ihavandhoo woman. The island has
a beautifully carved coral stone mosque built by Sultan
Ibrahim Muzhirudheen in 1701. In addition, the mosquecompound is surrounded by an ancient cemetery consistingof tombs and shrines of important people. Their tombstones
are also beautifully carved and engraved. This mosque andits cemetery are the only remaining archaeologicalevidence of that era in Ihavandhoo island.

was created on how to complete the work and document
it within the next few days. A meeting was also held with
the island council to brief them about the work plan andto obtain their views about the site. The site’s oral history
from among the locals was also recorded, and the input of
the Permanent Secretary of the island council, Mr.
Mohammed Ibrahim, was very useful since he knew a lotof valuable information about the island’s history and thesite. He is known to be the best person in the island toobtain historical information from. He was also in chargeof the site after it was first discovered; thus, his knowledge
was rather useful and valuable.

Fig 2: Area before excavation

Fig 1: Map of Maldives showing Ha. Ihavandhoo

Discovery of the site
The structure was first discovered in November 2014 by
locals while digging a ditch for a water pipe around theirhealth center. Upon discovering the structure they halted
their work, documented what was found and informed theDepartment of Heritage (DoH). The site was reburied until
further action by the DoH and the path of their water pipe
was changed to avoid any damage to the structure.
Excavation
A team of three staff members from the DoH visited theisland for four days in December 2014 to excavate the site.
The team included Shiura Jaufar (Archaeologist), Zaha
Ahmed (Assistant Architect) and Fathmath Malsa Maaz(Research Intern). First, the site and the surrounding area
was investigated and documented and an excavation planFig 3: Excavation of Trench 1 by the locals of the island

The second day was devoted to excavating the site. Work
was carried out with the help of three locals under thesupervision and instructions of the DoH team andMohammed Ibrahim. At first, excavation was carried out at
the southern side of the area, and a trench of about 6.7 x
11 ft was excavated to completely expose the first structure
at the site. This trench was dug about 1.5 ft deep until nofurther structures appeared. After excavation, the structures24Maldives

were cleaned and documented with measured drawings
and photographs.
On the third day the excavation was extended towards thenorthern side of the area, resulting in a second trench
being dug measuring about 5.7 x 1.7 ft. The depth of thistrench was about 1 ft. The structures exposed in this trench
kept extending further towards the eastern side of thearea, and due to the limited time, it was decided to stopthe excavation and to record this extension without goingfurther. The eastern side of the area needed extra work
done on its thick vegetation before excavation, and since
it was the last day for the team, this did not seem possible.
This trench was also cleaned and documented properly. A
meeting was held with the council to discuss the findings
and it was decided that the site needed another season tocomplete the excavation. For the sake of protection of the
excavated structures, the site was backfilled to be ready forthe next excavation season.

Fig 6: Stone 2 showing its carvings

plant roots (Fig 8), shells, and stones (coral, coral stones,
sandstone) were also recovered from this trench. Some of
the coral stones were also carved (Fig 9).
Trench 2:
The findings in Trench 2 were similar to that of Trench 1,
and this was badly damaged as well (Fig 10). However,unlike the structures in Trench 1, the stones in this trench
were arranged in a straight line and they all had a similar
shape. Three stones were discovered in this trench. The
stone in the middle of the structure had an arc at the top
while the other two stones at either ends of the middle
stone had a quadrant shape. As mentioned above, the thirdstone extended towards the eastern side of the area, which
was rather bushy with thick vegetation, and therefore, due
to restricted time, excavation was stopped there.

Fig 4: Excavation of Trench 2

Findings
Trench 1:
This trench revealed coral stones of different shapes andsizes and some were carved (Fig 5). The first two stone
structures (Fig 5: Stones 1 and 2) were badly damaged andin very bad condition. Stone 2 (Fig 6) was carved and thecarvings were similar to the usual stone carvings in coralstone mosques of Maldives. A third flat stone (Fig 5: Stone3) was placed on top of Stone 2 and this stone had asquare post hole at its center (Fig 7). Among the stones
recovered in this trench, the best preserved one was Stone
8 (Fig 8). This stone was circular in shape and measured 3
ft in diameter and 1 ft in height. Other remains such as

Similar to the first trench, this trench also yielded several
coral stone fragments of different shapes and sizes, andsome were carved as well (Fig 11). Unlike Trench 1, thistrench had less plant root growth and furthermore, twopotsherds and a bone (possibly of a bird) were also
recovered from the soil (Fig 12).
Results and Conclusion
According to most of the locals’ beliefs, this site waspossibly used to carry out the stone work for Ha.
Ihavandhoo ancient mosque in the island during its
construction. They said that this site was used to cut, carve
and work the coral stones to be taken to construct theancient mosque in the island. Others believed that this wasa bathing tank while others suggested this to be a shrineof an important person. However, after much investigation,
research and study, no evidence was produced to support
any of the above theories of the site’s identity.
After investigating the structures revealed during thisseason, the team suggested that this could have been
another ancient mosque used in the past and later
abandoned, resulting in destruction and eventuallycomplete burial. The team suggested that the structures
revealed from this season’s excavation looked very similar
to the entrance of a mosque. This was suggested after
comparing the stone arrangements with several othermosques including the mosque in this island (Fig 13).

Fig 5: Intact stone structures (Nos. 1-8) andstones recovered within the soil (No. 9) from Trench 1

25

proper dating. Hence, it is necessary to carry out anotherseason of excavation to fully understand the site.

Maldives

However, it was concluded that in order to better
understand the nature of the site, more work needed to bedone, including a complete excavation of the site with

Fig 7: Stone 3 showing the square posthole in the centerFig 8: Stone 8 showing the extent of root growth within the soil

Fig 9: Loose stones recovered within the soil from Trench 1

26

Maldives
Fig 10: Stones recovered from Trench 2

Fig 11: Loose stones recovered from Trench 2

Fig 12: Bone and potsherds recovered from Trench 2

Fig 13: A comparison between the stone arrangements in R. Meedhoo Ancient Mosque and the stone structures recovered from Trench 1

27

Mongolia
Munkhtulga Rinchinkhorol, Researcher
Institute of History and Archaeology, Mongolian Academy of Sciences
On June 7, 2015, B. Ariyajav, who is a researcher inlinguistics, accidentally found a Runic inscription at a sitenamed Khulsana Am, in the territory of Erdene soum,Gobi-Altai aimag [Munkhtulga 2015: 45] (Fig. 1).
Here, the inscription is published for the first time.
The inscription is written on a rectangular rock, situatednear a road from the Gobi desert to a bordering low rocky
mountain area, east of the Mongolian Altai Range (Figs. 2
and 3).
On the surface of the southern side of the rock, a total of
five characters of the Ancient Turkic Runic alphabet havebeen written from right to left, according to the tradition of
Runic orthography (Figs. 3 and 4). The characters areclearly seen because the inscription is carved with wide
strokes (Fig. 4).
Text: ARBvT
Transliteration: TWBRa
Transcription: tobïra
Translation: Go around!
Although tobïra, the only word in the inscription, does notoccur in Ancient Turkic written sources, it can be translated
into English as “to go around.”
It seems likely that tobïq, a word that means ‘rounded
protuberant bone,’ ‘ankle-bone’ and ‘knee-cap’ [Clauson

Mongolia

A Newly Found Runic Inscription from Southwestern Mongolia

1972: 437] is derived from the root tob, as in tobïra. The
earliest evidence of tobïq appear in materials of the Turkic
languages of the 8th century [Clauson 1972: 437-438]. Itsroot tob (sometimes top) means ‘ball’ in the Middle andModern Turkic languages [Clauson 1972: 434]. Also,
Mongolian toyiγ ‘knee-cap’ is most likely a variant of theAncient Turkic tobïq because its Ancient Mongolian shape
can be restored as *togiγ<*toγïq/*toγïq.
The paleographic features of the inscription indicate that it
can be dated to the second half of the 8th c. AD. – first halfof the 9th c. AD.
There are rare Runic inscriptions to the east of theMongolian Altai range, particularly in the territory of GobiAltai aimag [Battulga 2005: 61], but it should be mentionedthat monuments such as the inscription of Khulsana Am
have still not been found in the northern edge of the Gobi
area, to the south of the Altai Mountains.
References
Battulga 2005 – Ц.Баттулга. Монголын руни бичгийн багадурсгалууд. Тэргүүн дэвтэр. // Corpus Scriptorum. Tom. I. УБ.
Clauson 1972 – Sir Gerard Clauson. An Etymological Dictionaryof Pre-Thirteenth-Century Turkish. Oxford
Munkhtulga 2015 – Р.Мөнхтулга. Хулсана амны руни бичээс.
“Монгол сурвалж бичгийн судлал” олон улсын эрдэм
шинжилгээний бага хурал. УБ. 2015 оны 08-р сарын 21. //“Монгол сурвалж бичгийн судлал” олон улсын эрдэм
шинжилгээний бага хурал. Илтгэлийн хураангуй. УБ.: 45-46

Fig. 1. Location of the Khulsana Am inscription

28

Mongolia
Fig. 2. A view of the Khulsana Am inscription

Fig. 3. The Khulsana Am Inscription

Fig. 4. Characters of the inscription

29

NepalNepal

The 2015 Earthquake in Nepal and Rescue of Cultural Heritage
Suresh Suras Shrestha, HeadWorld Heritage Conservation Section, Department of Archaeology, Nepal
Background
It was a normal day, a Saturday and public holiday as
usual. People were in the midst of the work that they haveon Saturday. Most of people might have been busy with
their holiday activities. Around midday, at 11:56 am, there
was a great earthquake with a magnitude of 7.6 on the
Richter scale on 25th April 2015 in Nepal. The epicenter ofthe quake was at Barpak in the Gorkha district, Central
Development Region. This earthquake badly affected 14
districts with huge physical destruction as well as humancasualties, and impacted a total of 35 districts. As per thelatest information from the Ministry of Home Affairs,
Government of Nepal, 8,600 people died, more than21,850 people were injured, 500,223 private buildings and
980 government buildings completely collapsed, and270,000 private buildings and 3,000 government officebuildings were partially damaged. Similarly, more than
13,300 school classrooms were completely destroyed andmore than 5,000 classrooms were partially damaged. The
movement of the Earth was beyond one's imagination. I
thought that the Earth including everything had collapsed
and nothing remained; it lasted for 56 seconds, but felt as
if it were several minutes, or even hours.

mainly of preliminary assessment of the monuments.
During that time, there was another earthquake on 12th
May 2015, which was also dreadful. Most of us were in thefield at an earthquake affected monument site and that
was a terrible situation; everyone was forced to leave thesite, and more vulnerable private buildings collapsed.
Luckily, we didn't receive any reports of monuments
collapsing due to the second earthquake in the Kathmandu
Valley; however some had been damaged or collapsed
outside the valley.

Another shock occurred on 12th May 2015 and aftershocks
happened continuously for three months, which was
terrible for the general public and frightened many people.
Anyway, things have been settling down and have beenreturning to normal over the past four months.

1. Immediate Response- Data Collection and Preliminary Assessment- Mobilization of Rescue Team

Earthquake and Emergency Rescue Operation for Cultural
Heritage
It is standard practice worldwide that human beings shouldbe the first priority for rescue in any kind of disaster.
Accordingly, almost immediately there were rescue teams
everywhere from different agencies either from thegovernment of Nepal or non-government agencies, just anhour after the earthquake. However, it was a devastating
situation and no one could think about heritage, thecreation of humankind, which always comes after humanbeings. Some of us from the Department of Archaeology
did inspect various sites as far as possible, in order to findand identify collapsed or damaged monuments within anhour of the earthquake. We knew that there wouldn’t beanyone else identifying and rescuing heritage instead ofhuman beings in such situation, as everyone would befocused on finding human casualties and rescuing themwherever possible. This should rightly be our basic priority
as human beings, but someone should be there taking
care of the precious heritage as well, as we are aware thatin a disaster, there could be measures that we could takewhich could save our precious heritage.
Aftershocks continued for more than three months. We
continuously visited the sites and assessed the sites andmonuments affected by the earthquake, which consisted

At the beginning, right after the earthquake, we were yet
to identify the condition of the staff and the situation they
were in, but for staff who contacted us, we decided tosend them to the sites to conduct preliminary assessments
on an ad hoc basis, which could be done from the second
day after the earthquake as most of the staff contacted us
and we could therefore do it systematically, or at least
whatever we could do in that situation.
The Department of Archaeology showed its enthusiastic
dedication to protecting cultural heritage immediately after
the earthquake. The activities it engaged in are as follows:

Immediately after the first quake, when it was informedthat the most significant cultural heritages of the Kathmandu
Valley World Heritage Properties had collapsed and were
badly damaged, the Department of Archaeology tried tocontact all the staff and the Director General as well, with
the Director General advising that he would come and visit
the sites. From the second day, most of the contacted staff
were present in the office and went to the heritage sites toassess and collect data of collapsed and damaged structures.
Within a week most of the preliminary assessments had
been done and data collected as well, except for some of
the affected districts in the Kathmandu Valley.
After the preliminary assessments had been done, theDepartment deployed teams consisting of an archaeologicalofficer, an engineer/architect and a photographer as
EMERGENCY HERITAGE RESCUE TEAMS to the various
sites. The teams urgently worked through the preliminary
data, identifying where it would be possible to ensure theemergency rescue of art objects, examining the vulnerabilityof structures, and undertaking other necessary activities
right at the sites.
2. Evacuation, Salvage and Immediate Protection of the Sites- Discussion and Interaction with Experts and Contractors- Documentation of the Sites
As the Department of Archaeology had formed the rescue

30

Nepalteams immediately and deployed them as necessary to thesites, the rescue teams worked jointly with units of the
Nepal Army and Armed Force Police as well as the Nepal
Police. These units were deployed specially for postdisaster activities, as they were skilled through their many
years of training in rescue in disaster and post-disastersituations. All the teams were very closely coordinated by
the Department of Archaeology regarding the whole postearthquake activities for cultural heritage during the time.
The main objective of this joint team was to salvage the art
objects and other elements scattered around the collapsed
and damaged structures at the sites; therefore, the teamsalvaged all elements and stored them in a proper place
where possible, along with on site documentation photographs, listing or preparing the name and number ofobjects salvaged, the storage location, and custodian andother required data as per the Nepalese MUCHULKA (akind of traditional legal documentation system for preparing
to handover or store anything). Most of the sites were
salvaged by the rescue teams, but at some sites, especiallyat Patan and later at Sankhu, the local communities with
Department of Archaeology representatives had salvaged
the items in this way as they are very much aware of theneed to safeguard heritage. They also stored all elements/
objects in the proper place as guided by representatives
from the Department of Archaeology. Kathmandu Valley
Preservation Trust and Patan Museum did their best in thisregard as well.
At the same time, very soon after the earthquake, theDepartment of Archaeology published a public notice inthe national daily newspapers asking for support to secure
any kind of cultural heritage and related elements fromvandalism, theft and any other activities that may harm
cultural heritage, and advising that all such activities would
be punished under national legislation, which madepeople very much aware of the need to protect theircultural property.
Some officials coordinated with the teams at the sites,
while other government and non-government agencies,
international rescue teams for heritage, teams ofinternational experts, donor agencies and many othergroups coordinated with the office, however the officebuilding was also at risk due to secondary quakes andhundreds of aftershocks that the conditions under which
they were working were awful.
During this time, the Department of Archaeology sent a
letter to ICCROM requesting the assistance of their experts
in salvage efforts and conducting proper scientificdocumentation, but the team was too late to participate ininitial phase. However, a Joint Mission Team came to
Nepal, consisting of experts from ICCROM-ICOMOS-ICOMSmithsonian Institution. The Mission worked for a week on
evacuation, salvage and emergency documentation, andwas the first formal mission for heritage rescue after adisaster in Nepal including related staff from the Department,
through which an opportunity was provided to build thecapacity of local experts in such situations in the future.
The joint rescue team did their work very quickly andcleared the sites as well. Most of the sites were cleared

31

within two weeks to four weeks, however, it took morethan two months at some sites, but it was very good thatthe sites were secured. The vulnerable parts weredismantled as per the instructions of the experts, whichwere minimal as they gave support for the protection of
the structures immediately.
In this way, the Department of Archaeology played its rolein the post-earthquake situation in coordination withseveral other agencies.
3. Stabilization and Temporary Protection of the Sites- Rainy Season- Formation of Expert Groups- Detailed Damage Assessment
The Department of Archaeology has been doing its best,and due to the leadership shown by our enthusiastic staff
in support of and in coordination with national experts
and other government agencies, it was possible for all
heritage sites to come under the Department's control.
Then it was possible to prepare as much documentation as
possible through the preliminary assessments. Due to thecloseness of rainy season, it was very important to protect
the sites where many of the monuments were still invulnerable condition and open to the elements and may
be very badly affected by rain. Therefore, tents and othermaterials for covering those structures were acquired andmore shoring or supports were provided to protect all of
the monuments at each site. These activities have still been
continuing at the sites, due to the several large monuments
affected by the earthquake.
The Department of Archaeology has formulated NATIONAL
EXPERT TEAMS during this phase, which consist mostly of
structural engineers, architects, archaeologists, earthquake
engineers, legal experts and other necessary experts. The
expert teams have been visiting sites as and whennecessary, and are in the process of making detailed
assessments of the whole of each site as well as preparationof amended Conservation Guidelines for renovation,conservation and reconstruction of cultural heritage/
monuments in Nepal. The expert teams are also involvedin providing proper instructions for the stabilization ofvulnerable and remaining structures for their rehabilitation,conservation, or renovation after a proper planning would
be came out.
As per the invitation of the Department, the Joint Mission
Team from ICCROM (as mentioned above) came andconducted training and worked with the teams of the
Department including the site engineers, architects,
traditional carpenters who works for shoring/supports,
Masons and some contractors were included as well. It
was also an opportunity for the national experts and thestaff of the Department for capacity building in thisprocess.
4. Preparation of drawings, designs and cost estimates
As the Department of Archaeology has limited manpower,
it is not possible to conduct all activities; however, it has
managed to appoint more than 30 architects and engineers
on a contract basis for preparing all the drawings, designs

and cost estimates of all collapsed, partially damaged andpartly collapsed monuments for their reconstruction,conservation and renovation.

5. Long Term Conservation, Renovation and Reconstruction
Planning - Conservation guidelines, amendment of related
legislation, guidelines for international and domestic donors,
etc.
The earthquake very badly damaged the significant
monuments within the Kathmandu Valley World Heritage
Property and other heritage sites as well. There is a lack oforiginal detailed drawings and designs; however, all themonuments should be renovated and reconstructed within
an adequate time interval. Therefore, the Department ofArchaeology, the leading and sole government authority of
the Government of Nepal for cultural heritage, has been
preparing a long-term plan. The long-term plan includes
the preparation of detailed drawings and designs depending
on detailed assessments; conservation, renovation andreconstruction planning; amendment of related legislation;
preparation of conservation guidelines; and other related
issues as well. Discussion and interaction programs havebeen conducted internally and externally, in which all the
related experts are included: structural engineers, architects,
legal experts, archaeologists, conservators, earthquake
engineers, disaster risk management experts, local
communities, traditional craftsmen, masons, contractors,
NGOs/INGOs and many other stakeholders.
In a natural disaster situation, no one thinks about cultural/
natural heritage or indeed anything else, except humanbeings and their rescue. Therefore, someone should think
about it and respond to it; in support of its own staff, theDepartment of Archaeology has responded to the issue ofprotecting cultural heritage in a disaster situation andmany of the national and international experts, agencies
and individuals also showed their concern immediately
after the earthquake. Humanitarian considerations are very
important in such a situation; however, cultural heritage,
which actually is the creation of human beings, should
also be important and someone should respond to it: “Ifhundreds of people are involved in rescuing people, one
would be enough for rescuing heritage in such a situation.”In the last earthquake in 2015, the following monuments
were affected as per the preliminary assessment of themonuments by the Department of Archaeology.

NepalFirst of all, the Department of Archaeology requested the
public and related experts to provide documents on thecollapsed, partially damaged or partly collapsed
monuments for which drawings are not available in the
Department. Some of the sketches and photographs were
provided by the different stakeholders, but nothing was
found for most of the monuments. Therefore, detailed
drawings have been prepared through the newly appointed
architects and engineers searching for either photographs
or other reliable sketches, or documents or other relatedmaterials. They have also been preparing cost estimates;
however, it is usually not possible to provide accurate
estimates for these kinds of archaeological structures.

PRELIMINARY LIST OF COLLAPSEDAND PARTIALLY DAMAGED MONUMENTS
Updated on 07 July 2015
KATHMANDU VALLEY WORLD HERITAGE PROPERTY
SN
1
2
3
4

PMZ/District
Hanuman Dhoka Durbar
Protected Monument Zone
Patan Durbar Protected
Monument Zone
Bhaktapur Durbar Protected
Monument Zone
Pashupati Protected Monument
Zone
Pashupati (Monument Groups)

5
6
7

Swayambhu Protected
Monument Zone
Bauddha Protected Monument
Zone
Bauddha (Monument Groups)
Changunarayan Protected
Monument Zone
Sub Total

Collapsed Partially Damaged Total
12

27

39

6

15

21

5

14

19

5

57

6

2

35

37

4

9

13

0

1

1

0

2

2

3

2

5

37

162

199

DISTRICTWISE
SN
1

PMZ/District

Collapsed Partially Damaged Total

Kathmandu

26

96

Kathmandu (Monument Groups)

2

3

122
5

2

Lalitpur

20

88

108

3

Bhaktapur

10

38

48

4

Kavrepalanchowk

7

46

53

5

Dolakha

7

20

27

6

Ramechhap

3

10

13

7

Lamjung

16

14

30

8

Gorkha

27

9

36

9

Nuwakot

5

26

31

10

Dhanusa

0

4

4

11

Kaski

3

1

4

12

Tanahun

0

29

29

13

Dhading

5

35

40

14

Makwanpur

0

4

4

15

Sindhupalchowk

19

4

23

16

Sindhuli

0

1

1

17

Rasuwa

0

7

7

18

Mustang

1

31

32

19

Bara

0

3

3

20

Parsa

0

1

1

151

470

621

Sub Total

RANA PERIOD BUILDINGSSN
1

PMZ/District

Collapsed Partially Damaged Total

Kathmandu
Sub Total

1

32

33

1

32

33

Source: ERCO: 2015(Updated on 07 July 2015)

The following are some photographs taken immediately
after the earthquake on 25th April 2015 within Kathmandu
Valley World Heritage Property and in the valley:32

NepalHanumandhoka Palace and square complex before earthquake

The buildings of Hanumandhoka Palace Complex after earthquake

Kasthamandapa before Earthquake

Completely collapsed Kasthamandapa due to the earthquake—hanumandhoka PMZ

Maju Dega before earthquake—Hanumandhoka PMZ

33

Completely collapsed Maju Dega due to the earthquake—
Hanumandhoka PMZ

NepalChyasing Dega (Krishna Mandir) before earthquake—Hanumandhoka PMZ

Completely collapsed Chyasing Dega (Krishna Mandir) due to theearthquake—Hanumandhoka PMZ

Narayan Temple before earthquake—Hanumandhoka PMZ

Completely collapsed Narayan Temple due to the earthquake—
Hanumandhoka PMZ

Anantapur Temple at Swayambhu PMZ before earthquake

Partially collapsed Anantapur Temple due to earthquake—Swayambhu PMZ

34

NepalShantipur Temple at Swayambhu PMZ before earthquake

Changunarayan Temple before earthquake—
Changunarayan PMZ

Kileshwor Temple before earthquake—
Changunarayan PMZ

35Partially damaged Shantipur Temple due to the earthquake—Swayambhu
PMZ

Changunarayan Temple still surviving during and after the earthquake—
immediate protection was needed—Chanagunarayan PMZ

Kileshwor Temple survived the earthquake but needed
strong supports for further strengthening—
Changeunarayan PMZ

NepalVatsala Temple before earthquake—Bhaktapur PMZ

Vatsala Temple after earthquake—collapsed due to earthquake

Fasidega before earthquake—Bhatkapur PMZ

Fasidega collapsed due to earthquake—Bhaktapur PMZ

Radhakrishna (Kedarnath) Temple before earthquake

Radhakrishna (Kedarnath) Temple—
partially collapsed due to earthquake

36

NepalSome cracks developed in the dome of Swayambhu Mahachaitya
due to the earthquake—Swyambhu PMZ

Hari Shankar Temple at Patan Durbar PMZ—before earthquake

Char Narayan Temple before earthquake—Patan Durbar PMZ

37

Bhaktapur—Bahirav Temple—not affected by earthquake

Completely collapsed Hari Shankar Temple due to earthquake at Patan Durbar PMZ

Char Narayan Temple completely collapsed in the earthquake—Patan Durbar PMZ

NepalNarasingha Temple at Patan Durbar PMZ before earthquake

Completely collapsed Narasingha Temple due
to earthquake, close to Krishna Mandir—
Patan Durbar PMZ

Taleju Temple at Patan durbar before earthquake—Patan Durbar PMZ

Broken pinnacle of Taleju Temple at Patan Durbar during earthquake

Dharahara—A significant structure with sentimental and historical value
in Nepalese society—before earthquake

Collapsed Dharahara during the first earthquake on 25th april 2015—
outside the boundary of a World Heritage Property in the Kathmandu Valley

38

New Zealand
New ZealandBeattie’s Cottage: Preservation of a 19th Century Gold Miners HomeDr Matthew Schmidt, Regional Archaeologist Otago/Southland
Heritage New Zealand Pouhere Taonga
Introduction
In the mid to late 19th century the riches of the Otago
goldfields provided a massive income for the Governmentof New Zealand and a wage for the thousands of migrates
who came to the New Zealand gold fields to make theirfortune (Figures 1 & 2). This aspect of Otago and New
Zealand’s history is highly significant as the goldfields
were vital in the formation and establishment of the‘colony’ of New Zealand when Pakeha (Europeans) arrived
in large numbers from the 1840s onwards. The first people
in New Zealand were the Maori who arrived ca. 1300 AD.
They knew of gold, but it had no value to them and hencewith the arrival of Pakeha the landscape began to change
dramatically due to goldmining. Tangible evidence of the
Otago’s gold mining history used to be found almost
everywhere where gold was discovered especially along
major rivers and feeder streams. However, much of thisheritage has been lost due to changes in land use
particularly as a result of hydroelectric power schemes
along the Clutha River which is the largest river in theSouth Island.
This article describes a project to preserve the remains ofa gold miners hut known as Beattie’s Cottage and therelated gardens as an example of how 19th century gold
miners lived on their claims along the Clutha River inCentral Otago (Figures 2 & 3).
Gold, Hydroelectric Power and Wine
Gold is considered to have been first discovered in Otago
in 1857 by Edward Peters (known as ‘Black Peter’) who
was from Mumbai, India. Peters came via the California
gold fields in 1857 and made his discovery while working
as a shepherd in Tuapeka. He used his gold to pay forprovisions. However, Peter’s discovery was paid little
attention and it was not until Gabriel Read announced hisgold discovery at Lawrence in 1861 that the Otago gold
rush commenced. The 1861 announcement saw thousandsof gold miners from Australia, North America, Europe andthen China converge rivers and stream all over Otago to
make their riches from gold. The big rivers such as the
Clutha, Kawarau and Shotover were headed for first with
their long and easily accessible banks where gold was
initially literally scooped off the surface of the river sands.
The early miners used simple and cheap methods torecover gold, such as gold panning, paddocking andcradling at the river’s edge. After the easy gold was won,larger sluicing operations evolved using miles of waterraces, reservoirs, and dams to control water to mine theriver banks and terraces.
By the end of the 19th century, the Shotover River near
Queenstown in the Lakes District (Wakatipu) was
considered the richest gold river in the world (Figure 1).
Also by 1900, New Zealand was a world leader in hydraulicelevating and gold dredge technology exporting its

39

inventions and expertise all over the world. New Zealand
had the world’s first electric dredge and today the hardrock mining site of Bullendale is the most complete earlyexample of an electrically powered gold mining operation
left in the world, this site using electricity as early as 1882.
Between 1861 and 1900 gold mining remains consisting oftailings, water races, dams, sludge channels, huts, gardens
pack tracks etc. were distributed throughout the region
mainly near water sources. Goldfields towns, which arestill working towns today mostly dependent on tourism,
were also a legacy of the mining.
After 1900, many miners had left the Otago goldfields withthe easily won gold was long gone. Only a handful of
sluicing and dredging operations survived being large
operations still capable of producing a profitable amountof gold by their sheer size of turnover of gold bearing
material. By the 1920s most gold mining was minimal with
the Depression drawing some groups back to previously
mined areas up until the 1930s.
In the 1940s a major hydroelectric dam was planned for
the Roxburgh Gorge on the Clutha River which contained
hundreds of archaeological sites related mostly to 19th
century gold mining but also containing Maori sites datingback to ca. 1300AD (Figures 4 to 6). The opening of the
Roxburgh Dam in 1956 and the flooding of the gorge
destroyed hundreds of archaeological sites with none
being recorded before the inundation of the gorge. Today,
many sites do survive above the current lake level but
often these are only parts of sites and not the wholecomplex.
Forty kilometres up river of the Roxburgh Dam, the Clyde
Dam was built and closed its gates for filling in 1992
forming Lake Dunstan which stretches 26km up stream(Figures 7 to 11). This again not only affected large areasof horticultural and farm land but buried numerous
archaeological sites. However, this time the New Zealand
Government had been proactive in recording heritage not
only within the inundation area but upstream to the sourceof the Clutha, surrounding Rivers and Creeks, nearby
Lakes and land within the Clutha catchment. This meantthat even with extensive loss, at least this loss could be putin context to illustrate what effects the dam would have on
Pakeha and Maori heritage sites. The loss was to be clearlysignificant in terms of the goldfields history for the Clutha
catchment and so to mitigate for this, hundreds ofarchaeological sites were recorded in detail and major
exactions were undertaken.
After the creation of Lake Dunstan, gold mining sites werethen faced with another risk due to significant change inland use. Areas which were once farm land running sheep
which had little effect on archaeological sites, wereconverted into vineyards (Figure 12 & 13). This affectedWhat remains of gold mining heritage sites along the
Clutha is therefore significantly less than what was present
before the Roxburgh and Clyde Dams. Excellent examplesof 19th century gold mining sites do survive along water
ways feeding into the Clutha River and in the Upper Clutha
itself, though these sites a less accessible than those which
lay along the river prior to the dams. The presence of gold
miner’s huts along Lake Dunstan is now rare and any good
examples have very high cultural heritage value.
History of Beattie’s Cottage
Alexander Beattie was granted a lease by the Crown in1916 to 10 acres of land on which his schist stone cottage
was built (Figure 14; Winter 2013:5). The land was
surveyed in 1915 (Figure 15) with this survey showing thelocation of the cottage and it’s boundary at that time
(Added to this figure is a blue line which shows
approximately how much of this property was flooded by
the creation Lake Dunstan in 1992). Beattie, however,occupied and built his cottage here ca. 25 years before he
was granted a lease.
Research by archaeologist Andrew Winter showed that
Beattie was recorded in electoral roles as a miner in 1882 at
Pembroke a town by Lake Wanaka now called Wanaka. He
is recorded in an 1887 newspaper as mining at the Criffle
Diggings which was a gold field ca. 10km from Pembroke
township (Winter 2013:5). This site is today famous for thepreservation of its workings. Beattie then appears at Quartz
Reef Point in the electoral roll of 1893 and is recorded as aresident with his wife Jessie. Miners in the 19th century
often did not own freehold land and leased land for mining
and/or living near their claim. It is likely that he moved
here after gold was discovered by Tillman and Bethune
who are noted in the Otago Daily Times (June 1891) as
striking large amounts of gold at the main creek at Quartz
Reef Point in 1891 (Winter 2013:5). A later edition of the
Otago Daily Times (September 1891) then notes ‘Beattie
and Logan’ recovering a “considerable amount of gold outof the creek at Quartz-reef” (Winter 2013:5).
Beattie, therefore, had moved to Quartz Reef Point as aminer in ca. 1891 and built his cottage there but it appears
at some years later he applied for a permanent lease toleave his life as a miner (though his occupation has not yet
been determined). It is possible with 10 acres he ran afarmlet and orchard. He retired in 1925 and died in 1940
(Winter 2013:6).
The lease land passed from his family to the Willson family
in 1967 then the Crown cancelled the lease in 1979 forhydroelectric generation purposes but the cottage was stillused as a holiday batch by the Willson family until 2013.
In 2013, the Crown through its agency called Land
Information New Zealand (“LINZ”) found the stone cottage
to be unsafe and closed it for private use. The original
intention was to demolish the whole cottage, but after
discussions between LINZ (represented by Rose Quirk)

and Heritage New Zealand, an opportunity to preserve
part of the historic cottage, the garden feature and trees
was recognised. Heritage New Zealand therefore
developed a preservation project to turn the property intoa public picnic area by Lake Dunstan.

New Zealand

many of those remaining heritage gold mining sites above
the new lake level. Sites higher up slopes above the lakewere bulldozed flat for the vineyards and their related
infrastructure.

The cottage prior to partial demolition
In Figures 16 to 26 are shown what the cottage and gardens
looked like prior to the partial demolition. Figure 16 showsa plan of the cottage by Winter (2013:23). It can be seenfrom the photographs and the plan by Winter (2013:23)
that the cottage was made of local schist stone (thedominant geology of this district) and probably had acorrugated iron roof as was common to use at the time ofits construction. It appears that the main cottage complex
originally had two structures with three others added later.
The first structures were the main two roomed cottage(Bedrooms 2 & 3) and the schist ‘store’, though only
remnants of the front stone wall of the ‘store’ remain(Figure 16-27). A schist stone ‘living room’ and lean-to wasthen added (used for Bedroom 1 and Living room) to themain cottage, these notable for the very different and lessprofessional stonework, and at some stage the timber
framing for the back section ‘store’ was built (possibly after
removal of the original stone walls(?)). The connecting
bathroom/vestibule/kitchen were 20th century add-ons
connecting the whole complex together. In the 20th century
another corrugated iron and timber framed outbuilding
was built behind the schist lean-to. A mud mortar wasused for all the stonework.
It can also be seen from the photos that in the 20th century
shuttered concrete was used to support various stone
walls and a concrete stacked chimney replaced the originalschist stone chimney (Figure 20). The windows are not theoriginal 19th century windows which would have beensquare or rectangular small glass pane windows (seeFigure 25 for 19th century style window on the right of thepicture). These have been replaced with early to mid-20th
century style wooden framed windows. The doors are alsoa mix of 20th century periods. The interiors of the structures
have 20th century linings over 19th century stonework or
20th century timber framing and the 20th century concrete
floors probably hide original flat schist pavers beneath.
The garden area was very overgrown but stone faced
garden terracing could be seen. Concrete fencepost which
pre-date the filling of the lake in 1992 can be seen in thewater just off from the property. Orchard trees, somewhich appear to be of some age, consist of apricot, plum,cherry and quince with a grape vine as well. The cottage
and gardens are sheltered by exotic Poplars which were acommon tree type in the 19th century to provide windbreaks around houses and occupation areas in Central
Otago.
The Preservation Project
As noted above, the original size of the property was 10
acres and this was designated for hydroelectric lake
operations in 1979. Not all of this acreage was flooded in
1992, perhaps 40%, leaving the land where the cottage
resides never to be flooded but where it also cannot be
used for occupation or building on. It can only be used for40

New Zealandrecreational purposes. LINZ and Heritage New Zealandtherefore agreed that an opportunity existed for a heritage/
recreation/teaching project for the site. This project would
preserve, through partial demolition, a footprint of thecottage to illustrate to the public visiting the site what thehome of a gold miner from the late 19th century looked
like. In addition, the gardens would be cleared to reveal
hidden features and heritage orchard plantings to complete
this picture. The project would also provide a teaching
opportunity for stone masonry students from the local
Otago Polytechnic Stone Masonry course, taught by expert
stone mason Steve Holmes, to work on a genuine 19th
century schist cottage. Such an opportunity is rare due tothe uncommon nature of these buildings along the lake.
The outcome would be a Heritage Recreation Reserve forthe public to enjoy.
The project saw a number of contractors and local heritageadvocates donate their time including Bruce Lauder, Kevin
Blanch and Steve O’Kane from Fulton Hogan (a large
construction company), Ben Teele from Jackie Gillies &Associates (a heritage consultancy recording the site on
behalf of LINZ), Historic Places Aotearoa Central Otago (avoluntary heritage advocacy group) and consultant
archaeologist Matthew Sole (Figure 28). LINZ (throughRose Quirk) also donated funds to pay for the materials
required for the stonework.
Partial demolition of the cottage and revealing site features
In Figures 29 to 38 can be seen the partial demolition,
vegetation clearance and stonework preparation underway.
Prior to this, the height of the walls to be retained during
the demotion was marked in white paint on the walls to
guide the digger driver (Figure 29). Some walls were in avery unstable state and so were reduced in height again
during demolition to create a more stable structure. The
demolition revealed more of the history of the cottage
showing how walls were or were not tied together and the
support timbers used during the original build. A 20th
century concrete dish drain was also revealed along theback wall of the cottage to take water away from this sideof the building which lay against a steep bank (Figure 36).
A small section of stonework on the outside of the dishdrain implied that a stone retaining wall may have once
been present behind the cottage providing enough of a
gap for access and to stop water flowing off the slope anddown its back wall. This gap probably filled up over timewith soil and leaf litter brought in by rain and wind etc.
from the slope and so rather than digging this fill out, thedish drain was installed in the 20th century to take thewater run-off away.

41

was completed. The gardens had been planned carefullyon the property and were a mix of both 19th and 20th
century garden features. Some terracing was dry stacked as
per 19th century style while others were the result of usinga modern cement mortar. One nice feature revealed under
turf was a schist stone path leading down to the lake which
originally may have led down to the Clutha River (Figure43). A cluster of broken artefacts from the late 19th and early
20th century indicated that a rubbish pit probably once layin the location of a 20th century concrete pad or very close
to it now under the trees bounding it (Figure 37).
Sycamores were required to be removed from the site dueto their proximity to the walls to be retained and also
because of their invasive effects they were having on thesite. Sycamores are considered a weed tree species anddamage many heritage sites in Central Otago. The
vegetation clearance also ensured that the fruit trees would
not have to compete with invasive weed species.
Current and ongoing works
Presently, the Otago Polytechnic Stone Masonry course isstill undertaking stonework of the preserved walls (Figures
44 to 48). The original mud mortar is too soft and friable
to preserve the walls now they are open to the environment,
so expert stone mason Steve Holmes is using a combinationof traditional 19th century recipes as used on other schisthuts of this time. For the pointing, he is using a sand-lime
pointing mix with the sand coming directly from across thelake (Fulton Hogan Parkburn Quarry). A yellow sand forthe pointing mix is being used because it has a better
colour and grain-size distribution for this application. The
lime is Taylors/Graymont Stabilime product (Calcium
Oxide / burnt lime in chip format) which is slacked in thesand (‘hot-mix’ method), then combined with the sand andlime thoroughly by hand before wetting to obtain aworkable mix. The render for the inside of the mainbuilding is a 2:1:1 (sand: earth: lime putty) mix. The earth
component is recycled mortar from the demolition-toheight of the original upper walls. Deteriorated earth
mortar and plaster from the lower walls are not being
reused because they are salt-affected and the introductionof excess ground salts into the replacement mortar mix
must be avoided.
For the wall capping pointing mix Steve is using an NHL 3.5
bagged lime (manufacturer Singleton Birch Ltd) mixed withthe same yellow sand. He is hoping this hydraulic lime willa more durable mortar for the exposed wall tops to better
resist rain, frost and people clambering on up on them.

The stone mason students began scrapping out loose
mortar as soon as partial demolition in a location had been
completed (Figures 32 to 34). Wall features, such as sockets
in the stonework where timbers had once been, wereprepared for preservation so as the full history of theconstruction technique could be seen.

The stonework will take about another two weeks tocomplete for the main cottage and early next year theremainder of the walls in the complex will be finished bymore students. Then the site will be revisited and any
further management advised on and undertaken. The final
stage will be producing a site management guide long termpreservation and the installation of an Interpretation Panel.

Figures 31, 37 & 38 show the vegetation clearance being
undertaken and features being revealed through theremoval of turf and thick grass. Figures 39 to 43 show thecomplex after vegetation removal and partial demolition

References
Winter, Andrew. 2013. Archaeological Assessment of a
Cottage at Northburn, Lake Dunstan, on behalf of Jackie
Gillies + Associates.

New ZealandFigure 1. Locations of two important Otago goldfields and major gold bearing
rivers (Map sourced from Info Map 266. Crown Copyright Reserved).
Figure 2. Location of Beattie’s Cottage near Cromwell as well as Lakes
Roxburgh and Dunstan which are the result of hydroelectric
schemes on the Clutha River (Map sourced from Info Map 266.
Crown Copyright Reserved).

Figure 3. Location of Beattie’s Cottage near Cromwell on the shores of Lake
Dunstan (Map sourced from Info Map 266. Crown CopyrightReserved).

Figure 5. The Roxburgh Gorge in the late 19th century showing mined banks/
terraces, a miners water race on the hillside and gold mining
dredges. All these remanats were buried under Lake Roxburgh(Photo source: Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa
Collection ref C016254).

Figure 4. The Roxburgh Dam under construction in 1955. All areas along theriver margins were gold mined and gold miners hut sites were
present in the rocky landscape. Otago. Whites Aviation Ltd (Photosource: Alexander Turnbull Library Wellington, New Zealand. refWA-39231-F).

Figure 6. Chinese gold miners in the 19th century in the Roxburgh Gorge.
Settlements such as this were buried under Lake Roxburgh.
(. Alexander Turnbull Library, Wellington, New Zealand Lib ref1-4009945-G).

42

New ZealandFigure 7. The Clyde Dam under construction,
17/01/1983 (RW Murray Collection heldby Matthew Schmidt).

Figure 8. Wagons between Crommwell & Clyde in1908. The desert like landscpae is fromgold mining activties which incldued
soucing trees for fuel and structres. This
area later became rich with orchards thenflooded by Lake Dunstan (RW Murray
Collection held by Matthew Schmidt).

Figure 10. Before the filling of Lake Dunstan, taken
04/04/1992 (RW Murray Collection heldby Matthew Schmidt).
Figure 11. After filling of lake Dunstan from thesame location as Figure 10, taken on
16/10/1993 (RW Murray Collection heldby Matthew Schmidt).

Figure 13. Effects of Lake Dunstan and vineyards
on Lowburn and gold mining hertiage
using Google Earth (10 April 2015)
looking in the same direction as Figure
12. Much of the different mining activties
from differing hsitoric periods have beenlost. Beatties Cottage indicated.

Figure 15. Survey plan SO8740 from 1915 showing Alexander Beatties
property on Section 39. The current shoeline of Lake Dunstan has
been marked (Survey Plan copyright Land Information New
Zealand).

43

Figure 9. Cromwell Gorge typical minersr shelter
flooded by Lake Dunstan (RW Murray
Collection held by Matthew Schmidt).

Figure 12. Lowburn looking towards Northburn
Station, taken April 1977 before Lake
Dunstan. Beatties Cottage is indicated.
Gold mining hertiage extends from theriver (dredging remains) to up on the hills
and slopes (RW Murray Collection heldby Matthew Schmidt).

Figure 14. Beatties Cottage, Northburn showing themain cottage structre first built in ca.
1891. The cottage is made of schiststone and probably had a corrugatediron roof as it does today (Photo:
Matthew Schmidt).

Figure 16. Plan of Beattie’s Cottage by Andrew Winter/Jackie Gillies &Associates 2013.

New ZealandFigure 17. Beattie’s cottage before partial
demolition. View to main cottage centre
and Living room/kitchen to the left
(Photo: Matthew Schmidt).

Figure 18. Centre of photo later addition made oftimber, far left outbuilding same age asmain cottage (Photo: Matthew Schmidt).

Figure 19. The back wall of the main cottage(Bedroom 2 & 3) before partial
demolition.

Figure 20. Left side of main cottage showing
modern concrete stacked chimney, laterstone lean to (right) and 20th century
concrete shuttering to support walls.

Figure 21. Back of later stone lean to andcorrugated iron ‘store’ (Photo: Matthew
Schmidt).

Figure 22. Later corrugated iron framing added tooriginal 19th century schist stone ‘store’
room (Photo: Matthew Schmidt).

Figure 23. Front of ‘store’ and 20th century wooden
and rendered living room/kitchen (Photo:
Andrew Winter, Jackie Gillies & Assoc’s).

Figure 24. Interior later stone lean-to bedroom 1.

Figure 25. Interior of main cottage bedroom 1 and2 showing modern fire but 19th century
style window on the right wall (Photo:
Matthew Schmidt).

Figure 26. Interior of later wooden living area andkitchen showing earlier schist stone wallin background (Photo: Matthew Schmidt).

Figure 27. Interior ‘store’ looking at original stone
work right of photo (Photo: Matthew
Schmidt).

Figure 28. Contractors/Volunteers who worked on
the preservation project (Photo: Matthew
Sole).

44

New ZealandFigure 29. Partial demolition underway(Photo: Matthew Schmidt).

Figure 30. Partial demolition underway(Photo: Matthew Schmidt).

Figure 31. Stonework being prepared andvegetation being cleared during partial
demolition (Photo: Matthew Schmidt).

Figure 32. The stone mason class and expert
stonemason Steve Holmes preparing thestonework (Photo: Matthew Schmidt).

Figure 33. Stonemasons preparing the walls(Photo: Matthew Schmidt).

Figure 34. Stonemasons preparing the walls(Photo: Matthew Schmidt).

Figure 35. Clearing debris from behind the backwall of the main cottage(Photo: Matthew Schmidt).

Figure 36. Archaeologist Ben Teele investigating a
20th century concrete dish drain foundbehind the back wall of the main cottage(Photo: Matthew Schmidt).

Figure 37. Archaeologist Matt Sole investigatingsome remnants of a late 19th/early 20th
century rubbish pit found during
vegetation clearance(Photo: Matthew Schmidt).

Figure 38. Clearing vegetation and excavating thestone path which once led to the Clutha
River and now Lake Dunstan (Photo:
Matthew Schmidt). View from lake edge.

45

Figure 39. View over site from behind Main cottage and Bedroom 1 & Living room after partial
demolition and vegetation clearance completed. Ready for stonework.
(Photo: Matthew Schmidt).

New ZealandFigure 40. View over site from lake edge showing stonework revealed in the gardens (Photo: Matthew Schmidt).

Figure 41. The main cottage (Bedroom 1 and 2)
ready for stonework(Photo: Matthew Schmidt).

Figure 42. Remains of ‘store’ ready for stoneworkand garden features revealed throughvegetation clearance.
(Photo: Matthew Schmidt).

Figure 43. Schist stone path leading from thecottage and once probably to the Clutha
River revealed during vegetation
clearance (Photo: Matthew Schmidt).

Figure 44. Main cottage walls being prepared forpointing by the stonemasonry class(Photo: Steve Holmes).

Figure 45. Repointing underway on one of the backwalls of the main cottage(Photo: Steve Holmes).

Figure 46. Repointing underway on the main
cottage(Photo: Steve Holmes).

Figure 47. Capping of the stone walls using a hardmortar and pieces of schist(Photo: Steve Holmes).

Figure 48. Rendering of the inner walls of the main
cottage as they would originally havebeen. A tougher mortar is used as thesewalls will now be exposed to the weather(Photo: Steve Holmes).

46

Pakistan
Pakistan

Conservation Problems and Recent Safeguarding Practices
for Archaeological Sites and Monuments in Pakistan
Tahir Saeed, Assistant Director / Ph. D scholar
Department of Archaeology and Museums, Government of Pakistan, Islamabad
Arshad Ullah, Assistant Director
Department of Archaeology and Museums, Government of Pakistan, Islamabad

Introduction:
Management is the function that co-ordinates the efforts ofthe people to accomplish goals and objectives using
available resources. Management science helps us inplanning, organizing, staffing, leading or directing, andcontrolling an organization or initiative to accomplish agoal.
When we talk about the conservation or management ofarchaeological sites/monuments, therefore, we have toconserve their cultural significance by safeguarding themfrom a vulnerable state. This encompasses a broad range ofissues related to protection and preservation, including
terrorism and natural disasters, such as earthquakes,
volcanic eruptions, hurricanes and tsunamis. The potentiallycatastrophic effect of natural disasters on cultural property
is sometimes fatal. Forecasting through risk managementmeans that the damaging effects can be minimized up to areasonable level. Large scale cultural losses resulting either
directly or indirectly from human intervention isconsiderable and regrettable, and these can be prevented
to some extent through a risk management plan.
Archaeological management for proper conservation ofarchaeological sites/monuments in Pakistan has developed
in response to the many threats to archaeological resources
and the means and methods of mitigating their impact by,
for instance, the development and implementation ofpolicy and legislation, surveys, collection of management
data, etc.
Cautious Approach:
The fundamental objective of conservation is to prolong
the life of the cultural heritage without destroying its
physical or other evidence. The minimum effective actionis always best while carrying out conservation work. If
possible, the action should be revisable, otherwise it canbe damaging for the existing original elements of the site.
Sometimes we have to go for re-construction of historicbuildings; for example, the recent reconstruction of Ziarat
Residency, which was completely damaged in a terrorist
attack in June, 2013. Even then, restoration and reconstruction has been based upon accurate documentationand evidence and not merely conjecture.
Complete documentation before, during and after
conservation is a vital tool which helps the conservators
discover traces of additions, alterations and earlier
treatment of the fabric of the place, as evidence of its
history. As such, our approach is based on precise
documentation in the form of analytical and critical reports,
otherwise it is feared that the site/monument will lose its

47

architectural, aesthetic,archaeological value.

historic,

documentaryandTechniques:
A number of key conservation principles relating tominimum intervention, or reversibility retreat ability, havebeen identified and are being implied by a team ofresearchers/archaeologists from the Department ofArchaeology and Museums. The first key principle is topreserve as much of the original material as possible,
keeping any intervention to a minimum, and doing no
more than is strictly necessary to guarantee the proper use
for the life of the original fabric. Thus our aim is to protect
the original elements of a structure. In buildings,
conservation reversibility is harder to achieve.
The material used for the conservation of archaeologicalmonuments can be naturally occurring or manmade, andbehaves differently within different parameters depending
on its quality. We can say that depending on these
conditions, materials are often substituted with anothermaterial that may be harder, less porous or durable.
Mud brick is an excellent example of a “soft” material
which is substituted for any material of less porosity,
greater strength, a lower hydrophilic nature or indeed anyhydrophilic qualities. For instance if we re-point or cap a
mud wall with cementitious material, the mud brickscarifies, or dissolves, in favour of the repair medium. In
Menjodaro (Indus Valley Civilization World Heritage Site
in Pakistan), for recharging the joints of the brick wall,
mud capping on the walls is applied. The bricks dissolve
in rainwater and fill the joints of the brick masonry with
mud slurry. This technique is revisable and successful forthe recharging of joints.
Since 1950, we have looked at modern materials to provide
a “magic” solution to the problems of materiality, such asconcrete and cementitious products, soluble nylon andwhole range of organic polymers, but one by one thesehave shown weaknesses in performance and compatibility.
In the world of restoration and reconstruction, modernmaterials have found favour, often because construction
companies have no skill or expertise in conservation
principles, aims or even science to carry out the work. It isregrettable that untold damage is probably being done tothe heritage monuments of places where simple material
facts are ignored or unknown. Repairing “like with like”
therefore, becomes a basic principle of the conservation ofarchaeological and architectural structures.

Historical Values:
Historical values are at the root of the very notion ofheritage. The capacity of a site conveys, embodies, or
stimulates a relation or reaction to the past of thefundamental nature and meaning of a heritage object.
Historical values occur in several ways, from the heritage
material’s age, its association with people or events, its
rarity and/or uniqueness, its technological qualities, orfrom archival documentary potential.
Cultural values:
History and heritage are core elements of all cultures.
Ideas, materials, and habits are passed through time, so
cultural values are, like historical values, a part of the very
notion of heritage. There is no heritage without culturalvalue. Cultural values are used to build cultural affiliationin the present and can be historical, political and ethnic.
Political Values:
The use of heritage to build or sustain civil relations,
governmental legitimacy, protests, or ideological causes isa particular type of cultural symbolic value. These values
stem from the connection between civic/social life and thephysical environment, and from the capacity of heritage
sites in particular to stimulate the kind of positive behavior
that builds civil society.
Socio-cultural Values:
Socio-cultural values are the traditional concern ofconservation—values attached to an object, building, orplace because it holds meaning for people or social groups
due to its age, beauty, artistry, or association with asignificant person or event, or (otherwise) contributes tothe process of cultural affiliation.
Religious Values:
Heritage sites are sometimes imbued with religious orother sacred meanings. These spiritual values can emanatefrom beliefs and teachings of organized religion.
Aesthetic Values:
Aesthetic value is widely agreed to be category of sociocultural value, although it refers to a wide range of
qualities. In the main, aesthetic refers to the visual qualitiesof heritage.
Participation:
Local communities are important stakeholders of heritageand can play a critical role in conservation and management.
This is particularly seen in monuments that are “living”. It
is necessary now to engage local communities in thedecision making process such as in aspects of conservationand management of the monument. This enables
communities to establish inextricable linkages with themonument and also leads to the generation of employment
opportunities, the sustenance of local crafts and an increase
in tourism-related activities. In Pakistan, conservation andrestoration works have been carried out at a number ofarchaeological monuments with the local participation of
educated and skilled people, for instance at Lahore Fort,
Monuments at Multan, Mosques at Thatta in Sindh, etc.

Pakistan

Values:
It is self evident that no society makes an effort to conserve
what it does not value. These values help to systematicallyset overall priorities in deciding proposed interventions, aswell as to establish the extent and nature of the individual
treatment. The assignment of priority values inevitablyreflects the cultural contents of each historic building inPakistan.

It has been learnt, after long experience, that communities
traditionally associated with the monuments or living intheir vicinity may be encouraged to continue this intrinsic
relationship with the monument and its setting, provided
this does not disturb its authenticity and integrity.
Use:
Any effort to restore and conserve historic cities,
monuments and sites must include renewal of theeconomic and financial structure to both fund and maintainthe restoration. Adaptive reuse is a flexible approach. It
demands a unique framework for a new type of private
public partnership in order to overcome the interlocking
regulations, the jurisdiction of multiple competentauthorities, fragmented ownership and various laws andpractices that can impede conservation and revitalization.
Historic public spaces are not only a witness of our past;
they are also part of a living organism which involves the
dynamics of rapid urbanization, shifting economic
activities, and the rising cost of urban land.
Conclusion:
The recent safeguarding practices being applied in Pakistan
have provided a great helping hand to prolonging theexistence of historical monuments/sites. The best practices
are being appreciated by the experts as they also provide
onsite training facilities to young students of archaeology.
Bibliography:• The Burra Charter (The Australian ICOMOS Charter
for Places of Cultural Significance) 1999.
• Feilden , Bernard. Guidelines for Conservation, A
Technical Manual,1989• Practice Guidebook on Compliance with Building
Safety and Health Requirements under the Buildings
Ordinance for Adaptive Re-use of and Alteration
and Addition Works to Heritage Buildings , Buildings
Department, Hong Kong, 2012
• National Conservation Policy for Monuments,
Archaeological Sites and Remains Protected by theArchaeological Survey of India, Archaeological
Survey of India, New Delhi 2013
• Marshal, John. Conservation Manual: A Handbook
for the Use of Archeological Officers and Others
Entrusted with the Care of Ancient Monuments, 1823
• Nuryanti, Wiendu. Yogyakarta Case Study: The RoleOf Tourism In Adaptive Re-Use And Development
Of Historic Public Spaces (Indonesia).
• Scientific Conservation and Master Planning for
Sustainable World Heritage Preservation in
Developing Economics (Global Heritage Fund), 2009.
• Assessing the Values of Cultural Heritage (The Getty
Conservation Institute, Los Angles)• Cleere, Henry. Preserving Archaeological Sites andMonuments, Archaeology –Vol-II

48

Pakistan49• Demas, Martha. Conservation and Management ofArchaeological Sites, (The Getty Conservation
Institute, Los Angles), 2003.
• Technological Requirement for solution in theConservation and Protection of Historic Monuments& Archaeological Remains, (Report Published by
Directorate General for Research Directorate, STOA
Programme, 2001

Aerial view of historical monuments at Thatta

Close view of facade of the tomb of Jam Nizamuddin, Thatta

Tomb of Issa Khan Tarkhan, Thatta

Aerial view of Moenjodaro

Old fort, Lahore

Old fort, Lahore

Pakistan

Wild growth problem at Rohtas fort, Jehlum

Shalamar garden, Lahore

Dharmarajika stupa after conservation work

Sirkap site, Taxila

Buddhist remains at Takht-e-Bahi

Main Gate at historical monument, Thatta

50

PakistanView of Rohtas fort

51

Aerial view of Shalamar Garden, Lahore

Shalamar Garden

Structural remains at Moenjodaro

Aerial view of Moenjodaro

Base of a Wall showing the horizontal damp-proof course at Moenjodaro

Pakistan

Leaning walls being protected with steel supports at Moenjoaro

Rainwater penetration into the structure at Moenjodaro

Befor Conservation SD Area, College building, B.1, R.61, pointing underpinning

52

Philippines
Philippines

Reconstruction of the Second San Ignacio Church in Intramuros, Manila
Louella Solmerano Revilla, Conservator and Head/Supervisor-San Agustin Museum Conservation Laboratory
San Agustin Museum, San Agustin Church, Intramuros, Manila
Intramuros or the Walled City is a historical landmark in thePhilippines where the most significant cultural propertiesare located. Miguel Lopez de Legazpi founded Manila in1571. The Philippines was under Spanish rule for 400 years.
During this period, strong fortifications or stone walls,
bulwarks, and moats were built to protect it from invasions.
As the walls were constructed so were government offices,
residences, and educational and religious institutions. The
first religious order to arrive in Manila was the Augustinians
in 1571 together with the Legazpi Expedition. The next
religious orders to come were the Franciscans (1578), theJesuits (1581), the Dominicans (1587), the Augustinian
Recollects (1606), the Hospitallers of God (1641), and theFranciscan Capuchins (1886). Within the walled city are
magnificent churches built by these different orders thatwere all destroyed during World War II except for the San
Agustin Church, the lone survivor, which was declared a
UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1993. Intramuros was left
in ruins and deteriorated. The author will focus on thereconstruction of one of the significant sites in Intramuros,
the Second San Ignacio Church built by the Jesuits, and therevival of the church and its mission house from its ruins.
The Republic Act 597 was signed in 1951, declaring the forta national shrine and Intramuros a historical monument.
The law specified the use of Spanish architectural designs
for buildings that were to be built in the area. Presidential
Decrees 1277 and 1537 were enacted to preserve the streets
and walls of Intramuros from destruction, and institutepenalties and violations. In 1979, by virtue of Presidential
Decree No. 1616, the Intramuros Administration was
created to administer the preservation, restoration,
protection, and development of the Intramuros walls. Since
the agency is now under the Department of Tourism, it has
an additional task to promote the Walled City as a tourist
destination. The Intramuros Administration was able toacquire priceless 18th-19th century ecclesiastical art pieces
from different parts of the country since its inception. The
enlargement of the collection made it necessary for theagency to think of an area spacious enough to accommodate
it. Through the years, some of the buildings destroyed
during World War II were reconstructed. Some were rebuilt
for adaptive reuse. One example of a building for adaptive
reuse is the ongoing project of the Intramuros Administration:
the Reconstruction of the Second San Ignacio Church. The
building is being reconstructed based on the original design
while the remnants of the old building are being preservedin the process. The reconstructed building of the Second
San Ignacio Church will house the Ecclesiastical Collectionof the Intramuros Administration. The site is envisioned to
become another tourist attraction.
Archaeological Excavation
Prior to preparation of the plan for the reconstruction of theSecond San Ignacio Church, the Intramuros Administration
requested the National Museum to provide assistance53

regarding the archaeological excavation of the site. There
had also been previous excavations done by the Intramuros
Administration. Based on the archaeological assessment
presented by the National Museum to the Intramuros
Administration, the archaeological excavation resulted in“the recovery of significant features and archaeologicalmaterials that can provide insights on the way of life ofearly occupants and the history of construction of thechurch, Jesuit Mission House and other structures. The
presence of architectural research will assist in the designconceptualization of the proposed structure so as not todeviate from the architectural origins of the San Ignacio
Church and Intramuros.” These were the findings of the
National Museum: The archaeological excavations in theSecond San Ignacio Church and the former Jesuit Mission
House revealed features that represented structures that
could be dated back to the 18th century. At the second San
Ignacio site, significant archaeological features were
exposed, including a small cistern, adobe granite flooring,the massive foundation of a wall, church flooring made ofbrick tiles, an underground crypt and a well enclosed with
adobe blocks. These features represent structures that were
portions of the residential buildings constructed in the 18th
century based on the Antonio Rojas ca. 1713 and Pedro y
Murillo ca. 1734 maps. These structures were built prior tothe construction of the Second San Ignacio Church and theJesuit Mission House. With regard to artifacts and ecofacts
retrieved, the most significant material recovered was anearthenware shard with an ancient inscription recovered in
the upper field soil and among artifacts associated with
Ming Dynasty ceramic ware trade. The different
archaeological discoveries at the San Ignacio site arebeneficial for the proposed ecclesiastical museum’sarchitectural and structural features, so as to maintain thearchitectural origins of the Second San Ignacio Church.
After the excavation, the National Museum also
recommended the incorporation and exposure of thearchaeological features at the proposed ecclesiasticalmuseum site, such as the discovered cisterns, adobe well,underground crypt and artifacts. Preservation of thestructures will provide visitors with an awareness of thehistory of the area and contribute to the study of Intramuros.
Historical Background
The third religious order to arrive in the Philippines was
the Society of Jesus, or the Jesuits, in 1581. The first Jesuitcompound in Intramuros is situated along Calles Victoria
and Palacio. Between 1590 and 1596, a second church
made of rock was built and dedicated to St. Anne. The
church was modeled after the IL GESU, the Jesuits’ motherchurch in Rome by Fr. Antonio Sedeño, a Jesuit priest. The
church of St. Anne did not survive after various earthquakes
and attempted reconstructions and restorations. The Jesuits
decided to build on the same site a church in honor of San
Ignacio, the first San Ignacio Church made of rock andwood designed by the Italian Jesuit Gianantonio Campioni,

The Jesuits returned to the Philippines in 1845 as
missionaries in Mindanao. They were able to buy a houseat the corner of Calles Anda and Arzobispo in Intramuros,
the site of the Jesuit Mission House. They ran the Escuela
Municipal which later became Ateneo Municipal (nowAteneo de Manila). The government gave permission tobuild a bridge over the street that would connect theschool house to the mission house. In 1878, the Jesuits
were given permission by Archbishop Pedro Payo toconstruct a chapel, the Second San Ignacio Church. A
prominent architect by the name of Felix Roxas Sr.
designed the church in the Classical and Renaissance style,although he died before seeing its completion. The
construction of the church was continued by a brother of
the Society, Francisco Rivera, with the help of Isabelo
Tampingco, Crispulo Hocson and Manuel Flores. Theinterior of the church boasts majestic wood carvings. The
church was strengthened by the builders to endure theimpact of earthquakes and calamities.
The differences between the first and second churches
were apparent: the first church’s façade boasted massive
stones while the second church’s façade was made ofbricks, piedra de Visayas (coral or limestone) and white
Carrara marble pillars. The first church had a patio, while
the second was directly constructed alongside the street,making it looked cramped. Nevertheless, what the second
church lacked in exterior design, it made up for in its
interiors. It was considered to be the Jesuits’ sueño durado
or “golden dream” because it acted as a bastion of glory
representing their return.
The Ateneo and the Second San Ignacio rose to fame andthe Ateneo was even considered to be the school esteemedby the distinguished families. In a great fire in 1932 theAteneo was burned to the ground. The church and themission were fortunately spared, but it could no longer
function as a college church. In 1945, the church and themission house were burned during World War II. After thewar, the church was converted into a storage area by the
Allied Storage Brokerage Building. Eventually, the site wasturned over to the government under the care of theIntramuros Administration.

to be preserved and displayed here. The archaeologicalfeatures and artifacts will be integrated to allow visitors
insights into the history of the site. The reconstruction of
the San Ignacio Church will have a great impact on
Philippine conservation of built heritage. It will serve as an
example of adaptive re-use in conserving structures.
Furthermore, the showcase of the religious art pieces willshow the rich cultural heritage of the Filipinos.

Philippines

which survived several earthquakes. It became the centerof Jesuit activities and was considered to be one of theprominent churches in Intramuros. The first San Ignacio
Church was turned over to the Spanish government whenKing Carlos III decreed the expulsion of the Jesuits from
Spain’s dominions. Their properties were confiscated andplaced for public auction. The church was neglected andtransformed into a stable by the Spanish government, andwas called Cuartel de España. The earthquake of 1863
destroyed the first San Ignacio Church.

References:
Chirino, S.J. Pedro. History of the Philippine Province of
the Society of Jesus. Ateneo de Manila University Press
2009, Volume I-II
The Jesuits in the Philippines 1581-1768 by H. de la Costa,
S.J. 1961
Harvard University Press, Cambridge Massachusettes
Diligencias sobre las propiedades de los expulsiados
Jesuitas , 1772
Box 39.4.1, Folder 3
Javellana, Rene B. Intramuros: in & around, an interactive
guide. 2003, page 83-84
Torres, Victor Z. Murada: A Walk Through Historic
Intramuros. Intramuros Administration and Vibal Publishing
House, Inc., 2005 page 22-24(1890) Reseña Historica de la Inaguracion de Iglesia de
San Ignacio de Manila. Manila: Imprenta y Litografia de M.
Perez.
Bañas, Raymundo. (1937) Brief Historical Sketches ofPhilippine Catholic Churches, Manila.
Cullum, Leo (n.d.). Personal Notes and Manuscripts on the
San Ignacio Church, translated by the Research andPublication Division.
Kemlein, H. (1908). Kemlein and Johnsons Guide and Mapof Manila Vicinity.
Miller George. (1906). Interesting Manila. Manila: Central
Methodist Church.
O’Reilley, Aubrey John. (1940). Interesting Churches of
Old Manila.
Archaeological Excavation at Iglesia de San Ignacio Site,
Intramuros, Manila (National Museum, Intramuros
Administration)
Acknowledgements:
I would like to thank the following for making this research
paper possible:
The Intramuros Administration headed by Atty. Marco
Antonio Luisito Villanueva Sardillo III-IA Administrator,
Mr. Edgardo Baysic, Architect Augusto Rustia, Architect
Flonel Winda Asuncion, Staff of Fr. Luis Merino, OSA
Library, and the Archdiocesan Archives of Manila.

Ongoing Reconstruction of the Second San Ignacio Church,
Intramuros, Manila
Phase I, the building of the shell of the church, is alreadycomplete. The reconstruction of the Mission House andthe refurbishment of the interior of the church as a museum
will be the next step as part of Phase II and Phase III of the
project. About 5,000 pieces from the Ecclesiastical
Collection of the Intramuros Administration are intended54

An old map showing the site of the first and second San Ignacio Churches

Architectural plan of the first San Ignacio Church

Philippines
Plans of the first San Ignacio Church. Completed in 1632. It is the site where
the Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila now stands

Pedro Murillo y Velarde Map ca. 1734

Pre-war photos of the Second San Ignacio Church

Façade (The Sunday Tribune, 1939. IA photos) and back view of the Second San Ignacio Church

The interior of the church boasts intricate carvings and designs. The main altar was carved by Isabelo Tampingco. The Statue of San Ignatius of Loyola and the altarof the Sacred Heart of Jesus were carved by Manuel Flores. An 1890 photo shows the side door entrance of the church sculptured from narra and baticuling wood.

55

Philippines

Old photos (1890) showing the majestic interior of the church with its intricate carvings.
The beautiful pulpit was carved by both Flores and Hocson.

Ruins of the San Ignacio Church: Structure at the back of the church, possibly placed as an addition when the area was used as a warehouse after WWII (left photo,
IA). Columns and bricks can be seen in the exterior wall (middle photo, IA). There is also a vacant crypt (middle right photo, IA) and a well at the site (right photo).

56

Site Development Plan: The Second San Ignacio Church

Philippines
57

Front/Rear elevation

Ground floor plan

Right side elevation

Left side elevation

Reconstruction of The Second San Ignacio Church

Philippines

The photo (upper left) shows two passages, the original side entrance with bricks, and another arched opening
created after WWII by the Americans.
The remaining parts of the original structure of the church consisted of bricks about 1 x 1 in size and volcanic
tuff. The church façade was made of bricks, adobe, and marble (upper right photo). (2014, IA photos)

Reconstruction of the façade, exterior, and interior walls of the church (2014, IA Photos)

These are recent exterior photos of the church taken by the author (2015). The original columns have been preserved.

58

Philippines
Recent visit of the author to the reconstructed site of the Second San Ignacio Church (2015).

Below are photos of the architect showing the plans of San Ignacio Church and the ground layout of the Ateneo in 1909
(note the bridge that connects Ateneo to San Ignacio) and the prepared design of the wrought iron gates as depicted in theold photo.

59

Sri Lanka
D.A.Rasika Dissanayaka, Actg. Assistant Director (Promotions)
Department of Archaeology, Sri Lanka
Abstract
This report will discuss the methodology of construction ofhouses in ancient Sri Lanka in respect to technical andintangible aspects. It will describe the methods andmaterials used for construction of ancient earthen houses
and the rituals relating to various stages of construction.
Not only that here were so many auspicious times but also
the auspicious materials used will be discussed.

heritage and its social impact.

However, traditional building technology is currently
facing numerous challenges and it appears that theirdisappearance from society is unavoidable. The important
thing is to document the traditional knowledge systems
and to try and safeguard at least some samples ofarchitecture. Attention will be drawn to this aspect in thesecond part of the report.

Houses of nobleman differed from the above mentioned
houses in the number of rooms, the internal garden andrarely tiled roof.

In the face of technical development education, even
earlier generations have been unable to pass such features
on to subsequent generations, and neither is the present
generation so concerned about these features.
1. Introduction
Sri Lanka’s recorded history goes back more than 2500
years. Prehistoric man in Sri Lanka was interested in living
in rock caves. Our architectural heritage was transformed
drastically from the 3rd century BC after the arrival of
Arahat Mahinda, who introduced Buddhism. Until then,ordinary village houses were built with clay and wattle androofed with grass.
The construction method of ancient dwellings in Sri Lanka
is significant in terms of its sustainability and was related
to environmental conditions, financial affordability andaesthetics.
Since the ancient period, earth and timber, which were
freely available and costless, were used for construction
purposes. The main structure consisted of a foundation,walls and roof. The foundation was also made of earth
with rock boulders, which hindered damp entering thehouse. Earth and sticks were used in the superstructure fordwellings as well as for religious and royal buildings. The
roof was thatched with tree leaves etc.
People in ancient Sri Lanka built their own dwellings byusing natural resources and materials in a very simple
manner. These houses were well maintained as the people
had a simple lifestyle and were free to maintain thebuildings. These ancient houses, which were mainly built
for protection from the elements such as the rain, windand sun, depicts the economic, social, environmental,
religious and cultural background of a past society.
Through the rituals, beliefs and faiths used in building
construction, research can be carried out on intangible

Sri Lanka

Construction of Ancient Houses in Sri Lanka

2. Construction
2.1 Methods and types
According to the plan of a typical house, it was one
rectangular unit with one or two rooms. Nails were notused in these houses. The wood in the roof was bonded
using cane or other wild creepers.

According to the writings of Robert Knox (17th century)
details of the traditional rural housing system has been
described.
“Their houses are small, low, thatched cottages, built withsticks daubed with clay, the walls made very smooth; forthey are not permitted to build their houses above one story
high, neither may they cover with tiles, nor whiten theirwalls with lime; but there is a clay which is as white, andthat they use sometimes. They employ no carpenters orhouse builders, unless some few noblemen, but each one
buildeth his own dwelling; in building whereof there is not
so much as a nail used; but, instead of them, every thingwhich might be nailed, is tied with rattans and otherstrings, which grow in the woods in abundance—whence
the builder hath his timber for cutting… The poorest sorthave not above one room in their houses, few above two,
unless they be great men…” Robert Knox (1981:235).
It was expressly forbidden under feudal laws laid down by
the King for ordinary people to build a two story house or
tiled roof as a dwelling in ancient Sri Lankan society. They
built their houses themselves with mutual cooperation. As
these buildings were made of temporary materials, they do
not exist now.
Anyone who wanted to build a house or repair one got
help from the other villagers voluntarily. And this person
would in turn help others according to their requirements.
As an example, in the event of roof thatching, they would
work with their neighbors. In this exercise the mutual
cooperation of villagers was built up.
Ancient Sri Lankan society had a totally community-based
system. Community participation (called “shramadana” –literally, the donation of self labour) is a very popularconcept in Sri Lankan society. Ancient people supported
each other in their special activities as well as day-to-day
work without any compensation. This community-based
system was also used in the repair and restoration ofhouses. Cadjan, straw and palmyrah thatching were usedin the vast majority of ancient rural houses. The main
problem of this kind of roof is less durability of the roofing

60

Sri Lanka

materials and because of that, they had been replaced incertain time periods. In this occasion of thatching, thewhole village participated with the house owner without
any compensation.

Fig. 3: Ancient house in Meemure village in Central Province – 9th century. An
inability to find traditional roofing materials and in the interests of easy
maintenance and durability, galvanized sheets were added during alater period.

Fig. 1: Community participation

Ancient buildings are small in scale compared to thosefrom later periods. The main structural elements of ancientbuildings are described as the foundation, superstructure(walls) and roof. As using earth in different methods, there
are five types of earthen construction as per the following
construction techniques.
i. Wattle and daubii. Rammed earthiii. Adobe
iv. Stone walling in mud mortar
v. Laterite blocks

Fig. 4: Inside the house

Only the wattle and daub and rammed earth methods will
be discussed in this report.

Fig. 2: Rural house61

2.1.1. Foundation
The foundation platform was usually built to a height ofabout 600 mm using selected clayey soil and stones. The
walls were constructed on this ground. After completingthe house the floor was finished with the application ofcow dung for a neat and smooth appearance as well as forantiseptic purposes.

Fig. 5: Plan and elevation of ancient house

2.1.2. Superstructure
Wattle and DaubIn this type, corner posts and taller gable posts were sunk
to above the described platform. In between these wereroof-supporting posts and thin stakes driven into theground. Other thin sticks were tied horizontally to thevertical posts and stakes. No nails were used in the entire
construction. Everything was tied with rattan and othera year. As a matter of habit, ancient house owners repair
their houses before the new year festival (April).
2.2. Materials and Techniques
They used freely available building materials that were
eco-friendly, and could be recycled, reused and renewed.
In these constructions the main building materials used areearth and timber. Desirable qualities for earth construction
material include:

Sri Lanka

strings. Two rows of this kind of lattice framework wereerected in parallel and clay balls were placed in between
these frames.

− Strength− Low moisture absorption− Limited shrink/swell− Availability− High resistance to erosion, insect and chemical attack
Fig. 6: Wattle and daub construction

Rammed earth
In rammed earth construction, clay balls were placed on
top of each other on the foundation platform with thesupport of shuttering. This kind of construction took alittle more time because the whole height of the wall could
not be constructed continuously due to bulging from its
own weight.
Finishes
After three days, the kinds of walls mentioned above wereplastered using clayey earth mixed with fine sand. Due tothe resulting shrinkage cracks, clay plaster was applied
several times. No equipment was used to apply the clay on
the walls.

Earth was used for constructing walls and plastering.
Suitable clayey earth was selected from pits. Foreign matter
was removed before it was pounded. Then water wasadded and the mixture was trampled by foot and allowed
to dry for 24 hours to remove excess water.
Timber was used in log form for all kinds of roof elements.
But they selected appropriate timber species for longevity
and resistance to climatic factors and insect attacks. In
normal practice timber logs were seasoned by being
submersed in mud for 3 to 4 weeks.
3. Local Knowledge Systems and Intangible Aspects
3.1. Local knowledge
This architectural heritage contains local knowledge, andmany of the norms, heritage values and construction
methods that existed in the past and have been transmitted
through the generations by practice and also through oral
traditions. So many aspirations, conceptions and methods
were used for construction procedures that were believed
to contribute to comfortable living.
Examples:− Earthen construction is very comfortable due to its
high thermal insulation. Therefore the inside of thebuilding is cool by day and warm by night.
− A high earthen plinth acts as a thermal and damp
barrier because earth has low capillary action. The
walls and floors do not get wet or warm and therefore
no cracking occurs.
− The floor was finished with cow dung because they
believed it to be antiseptic.
Unfortunately this knowledge is slowly disappearing due
to changing socio-cultural and economic patterns andways of thinking.

Fig. 7: Roof construction

2.1.3 RoofThe roof frame consisted of a timber structure including
crossbeams, ridge plates and rafters etc. The covering wasusually thatched coconut palm leaves (cadjan) or ricestraw on the frame.
2.1.4 Main Causes of Decay
White ants and the monsoonal rains are the main reasonsfor the decay of walls, and therefore, repair is needed once

3.2. Intangible Aspects
Usually these houses were constructed by family memberswith the help of an astrologer and the head craftsman.
Before constructing a building, many customs were
followed. The horoscope of the householder and theplanetary positions were considered by an astrologer.
There were so many steps that needed to be carried out at
auspicious times, from selecting land to finishing andhouse warming; i.e., for starting, cutting trees, erecting thefirst posts and placing doors, etc. They believed that62

Sri Lanka

cutting mature trees on new moon days would not be
subjected to insect attack as the sugar content in timber
was low during those days. Not only that, there were somany auspicious building materials which were only used
for house construction. Offerings were made to guardian
deities before starting.
In the rituals relating to the various important stages as
discussed above in the construction, the head craftsman orhouse owner would dress suitably in white clothes while
facing the east. They believed that if the ritual wereincorrectly carried out or held at a non-auspicious time, thehouse owner and family’s life and health would be affected.
3.3. Knowledge Transfer
The memory of older generations is important to transfer
the knowledge to the younger generations. They are richin invaluable information about auspicious times, material
techniques, designs and ideas, etc. Due to the introductionof technology, traditional houses are disappearing, so that
this knowledge is hardly passed on to the next generation.
Acceptance of new construction methods cannot be
avoided because of changing attitudes, changes in society
and new approaches to construction.
4. Social and Other Impacts
Nowadays, earthen buildings in Sri Lanka face numerous
challenges.
These are categorized as follows:i. Influence of social transformationii. Scarcity of materials
iii. Economic development
iv. Natural causes
i. Influence of social transformation
Social transformation cannot be avoided with the newtechnological trends. It is natural that people prefer acomfortable, long lasting and elegant environment andfacilities. As a result, the younger generation tends not tocontinue with the traditional knowledge systems describe
here. As elders spend the last stages of their life in themodern houses of their children, old houses are being
abandoned. The new generation tends to build houses
using cement, sand and stone and they do not like to use
traditional or natural materials because of the high cost of
maintenance.
ii. Scarcity of materials
In the past, the materials used for construction could be
easily found in nature. Clay from lake beds and timberfrom the jungle could be supplied freely. Nowadays, it has
become a difficult task to find building materials such as
earth and timber logs, as the relevant authorities havebanned the digging of lakes and cutting down trees injungles.
iii. Economic Development
As a result of the rapid economic development of Sri Lanka,

63

the materials and designs used in construction are converted
to easily bought materials and elegant designs. In thissituation people reduce the usage of traditional materials,
though they may be eco-friendly or comfortable to use.
Today most old and traditional buildings have beenabandoned because people would like to live in modern
houses requiring less maintenance.
iv. Natural Causes− Climate conditions− Structural failures− Destruction due to use− Insect attacks
5. Conclusion
Ancient earthen building technology made housing more
affordable for people, provided comfortable living andhelped conserve the environment. However, ancienthouses made of earth in Sri Lanka will deteriorate anddisappear soon due to lack of attention to maintaining
them and the reasons mentioned above. The earthenbuilding tradition will also disappear, be modified or
evolve due to the social and cultural needs of the time. In
lieu of traditional buildings, the cement building style has
become prominent.
While the expectation of people for modern things cannot
be eliminated, the process of getting old traditional things
eliminated is also inevitable. What we can do is to preserveand maintain some of the remaining buildings anddocument the knowledge systems associated withtraditional housing, and where possible, use them forpresent-day activities.
Bibliography:
1. Feilden, B.M. (1989), Conservation of Historic Buildings.
London: Butterworth, pp. 72.
2. Oliver P. ( ), Encyclopedia of Vernacular Architectureof the World. London: Cambridge, pp. 973-980.
3. Coomaraswamy A.K. (1979), Mediaeval Sinhalese Art.
Pantheon Books, pp. 114.
4. Manawadu, S. (1993), Vernacular Architecture of
Sathkorale and its Preservation, Wood International
Scientific Committee on Wood, Colombo: ICOMOS, pp.
48-60.
5. Myrdal-Runebjer, E. Gunawardane, D. Fernando, S.
(1994) Dwelling and Household: Activity Areas, Tools
and Auxiliary Devices, Further Studies in the Settlement
Archaeology of the Sigiriya-Dambulla Region, Colombo:
PGIAR, pp. 289-314.
6. Knox R. (1681), An Historical Relation of the Island
Ceylon, pp. 249.
7. Tissera, C.H.de. Weerakkody, F. (1990) Technology in
the Construction Industry in Sri Lanka.
8. Historical Overview of some aspects, Colombo: ICTAD
Journal Vol 2 No 1, pp. 8-9.

Uzbekistan
Akmal Ulmasov, Leader specialist
Fine Arts Institute, Academy of Sciences of Uzbekistan
Acknowledgements
This article is presented as a summary of a report preparedin the framework of the Asia Cultural Program onConservation Science (ACPCS) of NRICH Daejeoun in 2015.
In this program were participated young specialists fromseveral Asian countries, which working on the cultural
heritage preservation. During the program, participants
listened lectures by professionals from the Scientific andConservation Center, Department of Artistic Heritage,
Architecture and Archeology. Lectures comprised theoreticaland practical on conservation of different materials such as
metal, stone, ceramics, wood, paper and others. Also, there
were interesting presentation on the artistic heritage andarchaeological sites of Korea. As part of the program, we
visited to museums and familiar cultural monuments
located in different cities and areas. The main objective of
the course was to provide an opportunity to carry out
personal studies on specific topics selected by eachparticipant. My topic was devoted to the study of the
Buddhist stupas of Central Asia and Korea. The main focus
was to identify the characteristics and conduct a comparative
analysis of architectural decoration of the Buddhist stupas,
revealing elicit their similarities and differences.
Introduction
According to experience of the experts, Buddhism wasintroduced to Korea in the 6th century AD from China, andBuddhist missionaries from Sogd, Bactria, Parthia andTokharistan played an important role in its formation.
Contacts on the issue of Central Asian-Korean, we cannot
say certain, but there was probably an indirect influenceon the formation of the Central Asian Buddhism to thisreligion in Korea, Koguryo and Silla1.
Most stupas in Bactria date from the Kushan time. The firststupas with a square base appeared in the second half ofthe 1st century AD in north-western India, and these spreadthroughout Bactria in the 2nd to 3rd centuries AD. This typeis represented by the stupas of Airtam (separately standing),
Ushtur-mullo and the Tower of Zurmala. As excavations
have revealed, Bactrian stupas of that period, traditionallybuilt from pakhsa and adobe brick, were faced by stone
plates. This facing treated a profile of the structure and was
decorated by architectural and sculptural decor.
Monastery stupas with square bases had ladders going to
the platform of the base, where prayers and rituals were
undertaken. Stupas from Merv Buddhist complexes could
be related to this type. Stupas were located either insidecultic and monastery complexes (Airtam, Kara-tepa,
Dalverzintepa, Adjinatepa, Hishttepa), nearby (Fayaztepa,
Ushtur-mullo, Gyaur-qala in Merv), or were separately
standing (Zurmala, Zartepa, suburbs of Gyaur-qala in Merv).

Uzbekistan

Some Features of Buddhist Stupas of Central Asia and Korea

Comparison of stupas: similarities, differences, identity andcharacteristics
At first glance, the similarities between the stupas ofCentral Asia and Korea are far apart. But if you examine
them deeply, you can find parallels between them. In my
cursory examination of stupas in Korea, I tried to findsimilarities in the form and the individual elements and thedecor. When comparing Buddhist stupas and pagodas inCentral Asia and East Asia, the particular reasons why
Korea’s stupas are different are as follows:
1) Ideological aspect
Stupas and pagodas are regarded as architectural structuresassociated with Buddhist doctrine, and both were used forthe same function; i.e., for storing relics and as a place ofworship. And, in ideological terms, the majority of stupa inCentral Asia and Korea were strictly oriented to the east.
2) Etymological aspect
One possible origin of the term “pagoda” is reportedly the
Persian butkada, from boot (idols) and kada (church,home).
3) Architectural aspect
The plans for stupas and temples in Central Asia and Korea
are similar. Some experts have formed the view that thescheme of a Buddhist temple in Ayrtam was used later in
Ak-Beshim and East Turkestan. It can be assumed that thisscheme spread into the far eastern territories and including
Korea also. The similarities with Buddhist temples can beseen in the arrangement of the two stupas. This scheme
can be seen at the Karatepa Buddhist site and stone
pagodas at Gameunsa Temple Site in Gyeongju (Fig. 1).
There is the opinion that the prototype of the pagoda is
the wooden church, subsequently constructed of brick andstone. But I expect that the architecture of stupas in India
and Gandhara, stupas from Central Asia, also contributed
to the development of Buddhist pagodas in the East and in
Korea.
According to my research, the Buddhist stupa waseventually modified, becoming more decorative. In
architectural terms, the hemispherical stupa lost its originalvalue over a long stretch of time. The platform became
several layers. But, over time, increasing the platform
floors to two, then three then resulted in a multi-story
structure stupa. The reason for the increase was apparently
to depict on each platform the sculptural images of
Buddhist mythology or scenes from the life of Gautama
Buddha. Because, of the increasing number of stupas,
masters received a lot of experience.
However, in turn, Buddhist philosophy developed and tosome extent influenced the change in the shape andcomposition of the stupa. Here the chatra varies greatly

64

Uzbekistan

and, as it decreases. From this process, we can observe theformation and evolution of the stupa (Fig. 2).
We can give an example of a technique used in theconstruction of the stupa. It is known that the stupas ofCentral Asia and early Korean stupas were built with amixed technique of brick and stone blocks. It’s still possible
to see that the shape of the base of the stupa and pagoda
are identical; for example, in Central Asia early stupas had
a square base, and after further development the form of
the stupa appears with circular bases. We can also see
these platforms in Korean pagodas and stupas (Fig. 3).
I think the shape of stupas in Central Asia is more like thatof small Korean stupas. The hemispherical body ofFayaztepa stupa and small stupa in the walls of the main
stupa at the Karatepa Buddhist complex find a direct
analogy in the bell-shaped stupa at the Tongdosa temple
behind Daeungjeon (main Dharma Hall). This ball-shaped
stupa is decorated with lotus patterns, lotus blossoms,
lotus petals, the Four Virtues and gods on the base andupper parts (Fig. 4).
It is remarkable to research similarities have not in theform of the stupa, but also in the platform of the DiamondPrecepts Altar with the Gate behind the Main Hall. The
monumental platform surrounded by a stone barrier andarched gate reminds me of a stupa at Sanchi. We knowthat this stupa contains a relic of the Buddha, and stupas
in Central Asia are usually used for such a function. But
here we can see another similarity; that is, a broad platform
and a round fence, which served a Buddhist ritual called“pradakshina-patha” (Fig. 5).
4) Artistic aspect
In the course of the study I have read articles by Lee Heebong, where he cites similarities between the profile baseof the stupa and figures donators and apsara reliefs on the
stupa. I would add here, too, like elements such as
clearance stupa stone blocks with reliefs. For example, thelarge stupas in Central Asia facing stone slabs covered with
Buddha images and pilasters. This tradition appears in
Korean pagodas too (Fig. 6).
On the four corners of the stone brick pagoda of
Bunhwangsa Temple are statues of seated lions. We cansee such kind of designs in other pagodas as well (e.g.,
Dabotap). This view at first reminded me of the same
statue at Stambha of Ashoka in India, farther its continued
used in Central Asia too. For example, in Old Termez I
found the sculpture of a lion decorating a capital column.
The arrangement may have been in a different place, but
the ideological function was identical (Fig. 7).
For other similarities, we can look to the design of platform
stupas with a decorative ornament lotus, for example thesquare platform on Karatepa stupas and the stupa of the
Beopcheonsa Temple or the Hexagonal Multi-story Stone
Pagoda of Geumsansa Temple, which has the same
ornament decorated with three layers of lotus (Fig. 8).
The final part of the stupa at Beopcheonsa Temple
resembles another decorative item from Central Asia; i.e.,

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a round stone block decorated with two tiers of lotus. The
center of the block is hollow, which indicates that it could
have used as a harmika of a stupa (Fig. 9).
There are other similar elements, such as at the top of the
Seokgatap pagoda of Bulguksa Temple, the final part ofthe chatra, and floral ornaments such as growing curls
reminiscent of antefixes from the Khalchayan settlement in
the south of Uzbekistan (Fig. 10).
Conclusion
We can continue comparing in detail, but the above
examples suffice for us to draw conclusions about thefeatures and parallels of Central Asian stupas and Korean
pagodas. Once again, here is a total list of similarities
between the stupas of Central Asia and Korea:- Ideological and philosophical meaning is identical; thatis, both were used for storage (in Central Asian stupas,
reliquaries; and in Korean pagodas, sarira caskets) andplaces of worship;- Planning structure is similar: composition of the Buddhist
complex with two stages;- Construction technique: mixed technique of brick andstone blocks;- The form of small stupas of Central Asia and the stupa
monks in Korea are similar;- Structural parts: platform, plinth, cornice, harmika, chatra
and others;- Decoration of the stupa with zoomorphic (lion) andanthropomorphic (Buddha) images, as well as floral (lotus,
spiral) ornaments.
In conclusion, we can say that the stupa in Central Asia
affects, albeit indirectly, the formation of the stupa andpagoda in the East, including Korea. The stupa evolved
over a long time; as a result they developed a special form
and features. In every historical and cultural region they
represent local characteristics and traits. At the same timethey retain their original ideological and philosophicalsignificance. This shows the stability and duration of the
traditions and culture of the peoples of the East.
This research makes it possible to identify the features of
the architecture and artistic features of Buddhist stupas ofCentral Asia and Korea. And based on this, materials fromstupas found by archaeological excavations in Central Asia
can be reconstructed. Also, the studied materials can beused for research to identify the mutual culture andtraditions of the ancient peoples of the Silk Road.
References & Sources:
1. Abdullayev K., Annaev T. New finds of Buddhist
sculpture in the district Zurmala // Archaeology of
Uzbekistan. – Samarqand, 2012. No.1 (4). P. 108-116.
2. Culture and art of ancient Uzbekistan // Exhibition
catalog. Vol. I, M., 1991, fig. 92, p. 97.
3. Pidaev Sh. New elements of stone architecture from
Old Termez site // Buddhist complexes in Old Termez.
Kara-tepa VI, 1996, p. 331-332, fig. 98.
4. Pugachenkova G. Fragments of Hellenistic architecturefrom right bank of Tokharistan. Fig. 10, p.76-77.
5. Pugachenkova G. Two stupas in the south of Uzbekistan// SA, 1967, No.3, p. 257-264.
6. Rtveladze E.V. Ancient Korea and Ancient Uzbekistan:13. http://jikimi.cha.go.kr/english
14. http://www.buddhism.org
15. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_Buddhist_temples
16. http://www.buddhanet.net/e-learning/history/sites.
htm
17. http://www.berzinarchives.com/en/archives/study/
history_buddhism/buddhism_central_asia
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historical-cultural contacts. Journal “San’at” (ART).
No.2. 2002
7. Staviskiy B. Sudbi Buddizma v Sredney Azii (Destiny of
Buddhism in Central Asia). Moscow, 1998. P. 208
8. Stone Stupa of Jeollabuk-do. NRICH, 2004. P. 328
9. The Stone Pagoda of Baekje style. Mireuksaji Museum,2005. P. 260
10. Korean Traditional Patterns. Volume 1-7. NRICH, 2006
11. Uzbekistan Kushan Dynasty and Buddhism. NRICH,
2013
12. Comparative Study of the Buddha Hall in Far East Asia.
Buyeo NRICH. vol. 54, 2010

Rtveladze E.V. Ancient Korea and Ancient Uzbekistan: historical-culturalcontacts. Journal “San’at” (ART). No.2. 2002

Fig.1 Plan of Stupas in Monastery Complex of Karatepa Buddhist site (Central Asia) & Stone Pagodas at Gameunsa Temple Site in Gyeongju (Korea).

Fig.2 Increasing the platform floors to two, then three, and then a multi-story stupa.

Fig.3 Comparison by shape: Stupas of Karatepa Buddhist site & Base of Pagoda of Tongdosa Temple (Korea).

Fig.4. Comparison by shape: Fayaztepa stupa, Small stupa of Karatepa & bell-shape stupa of Tongdosa Temple.

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Uzbekistan
Fig.5. Stupa at Sanchi (India) & gate and platform of Diamond Precepts Altar behind the Main Hall of Tongdosa Temple.

Fig.6 Pilasters and friezes with Buddha images (Old Termez. South Uzbekistan. Kushan period) &Three-story Pagoda of Jinjeonsa Temple. Stone brick pagoda of Bunhwangsa Temple (Korea).

Fig.7 Stone statue of the Lion from Old Termez, Lions on Ashoka’s Stambha (India) & pagoda at Bunhwangsa Temple and Dabotap (Korea).

Fig.8 Similarities in the design of the platform: A square platform at Karatepa stupa & stupa of the Beopcheonsa Temple;
A round-shaped stupa in Karatepa & multi-story stone pagoda of Geumsansa Temple.

Fig.9 Similarities in design with lotus ornaments: Harmika from Old Termez & stupa of the Beopcheonsa Temple;
city of Old Termez & pagoda of Geumsansa Temple.

Fig.10 Comparison of floral ornaments: Antefixes from Khalchayan (South Uzbekistan) & top of the Seokgotap Pagoda from Bulguksa Temple (Korea).

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