Journal of Global Resources
doi.org/10.46587/JGR.2020.v06i02.011

Volume 6 (02)
July 2020
Page 72-80
ISSN: 2395-3160 (Print), 2455-2445 (Online)

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LINKING AGRO-ECOLOGICAL INFRASTRUCTURE TO CROPPING PRACTICES FORSUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURAL GROWTH: DO POLICIES AND LOCAL LEVELINSTITUTIONAL PARTICIPATION MATTER?
Amartya Pani
Research Scholar, Department of Humanities and Social Sciences,
Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur (West Bengal) India
Email: amartya.geo@gmail.com
Abstract: Agro ecological infrastructure for food security through sustainable agriculture is
critical in India. Understanding of sustainable agricultural growth coupled with agro climatic
farming practices and sophisticated water management seems to have resulted in productivity
and positive growth of this sector. In addition, the situation appears to more critical in India, thathas a large farm area under rain-fed practices with considerable proportion of marginal farmers,
limited capacity of irrigation infrastructure and ailing water management. It threatens the foodsecurity, livelihoods in general and the environment in particular. Given this background, thearticle highlights democratization of agriculture policy and practices. Therefore, the urgency toadopt an agro-ecological agricultural performance with the integration of productivity in terms ofefficient and participatory use of water from different sources within the hydro climatic
framework. It also provides an understanding of the necessities of less water consuming crop
yield adhering the diversification of agriculture. Consideration of these premises to theconclusion that technological intervention inside farmer knowledge helping agriculture precisely
smart and sustainable.
Key words: Agro Ecological Infrastructure, Cropping Practices, Sustainable Agricultural, Policy
Introduction
Agriculture is the largest source of livelihood for the working people in India, although its sharein gross domestic product (GDP) has declined over time (Gadgil and Gadgil, 2006). From thelast four years, the scenario of agriculture no even better, and the average growth rate was 2.1(Economic Survey of India, 2018). However, agrarian crises were accentuated by low growthwith declining productivity and high dependence of population on lower farm income. This
unprecedented crisis with stagnation or decline in rural employment growth and, as a result,food security and employment opportunities for the rural poor have terminated (Siddiqui, 2015).
Although the agrarian nature of the rural economy in India is well recognized, inadequate
infrastructure support, especially with limited irrigation facilities leading to lower productivity with
policy bias, institutional constraints and mismatched agricultural planning over the years carriedslow down the pace of development activities. In addition, input-intensive farming methods have
posed serious threats to the sustainable development of Indian agriculture as a result of loss of
biodiversity, reduction in groundwater levels and degradation of soil quality. Frequent incidents
of drought and unseasonal and heavy rains and floods have also affected the livelihood of rural
people, especially those living in dry areas where irrigation facilities are low. The latest
reminders of agricultural vulnerability are frequent droughts in 2014 and 2015 due to themonsoon deficiency (Gautam, 2016). Hari et al. 2018 evident that, climate change could reduce
farm incomes by 15-18 percent on average, and by as much as 20-25 percent in unirrigatedareas in India. Hence, assessing the vulnerability of agriculture, climate change is a prerequisite
for the development and dissemination of climate-smart technologies. This information isessential for decision makers and planners to devise strategies to address the adverse impacts72

of climate change and to prioritize areas that are vulnerable to resource allocation (Shinde andModak, 2013).
As the land cover changes sometimes gradually or many a cases anthropogenic in an
abrupt rate, the information regarding land use and land cover (LULC) changes has animportant role to play local level planning basically in agriculture. Agro climatic zone and regionwise specific factors causing low productivity as environmental challenges have also been
identified. As India has a large geographical area with a series of agro-climatic regions,particularly faced a severe problem regarding coping behavior against climatic variability inagriculture sector. It leads to the negative influences on the yield of rice, wheat, pulse, andsoybean. Researchers and policy makers always overseen that an extensive adaptation andmitigation strategies by the farmers’ for confronting the detrimental impact of climate change(Dagar et al. 2012). Sahu and Mishra (2013) suggested a bottom-up approach in a particularsocio-economic and agro climatic set up. It’s one of the available adaptive plans for sustainableagriculture growth. This approach has a long term focus on sustainability of agriculture andresource reserve; and also accentuated the inter-sectoral linkages at regional and inter-regional
levels.
This paper reviewed how agro ecological infrastructure coupled with proper cropping
practices and local level participation for managing the infrastructure to promote sustainableagriculture growth in India. The paper has six sections. Justification of agro ecology specificinfrastructure for sustainability of existing agriculture in the variable nature of climate is
discussed in next section. The third section presents the relevance of local level participationfrom governance to management of common poll resources like irrigated water in agriculture.
The fourth section deals with the relation between different sourced irrigation methods andcropping practices in Indian agricultural scenario. The subsequent section addresses thediversification of cropping system for sustainable use of water resource in different agro
ecological region of India. The last section concludes summarizing and highlighting policies
winding with the changing nature of climate regarding sustainable agriculture growth, which will
foster per drop per crop aspiration in future.
Agro Ecological Infrastructure for Sustainable Agriculture
Environmental change and its effects on water resources and agriculture practices are anoteworthy force with which India will have to adapt in the twenty-first century. Advance warning
systems can play an active role in assessing and controlling risk due to uncertain climatechange events. Thus, appropriate cropping systems and practices have been critical aspects ofIndian agriculture, particularly in rainfed agriculture. Hence, there is no practical consideration
for sugar cane in Marathwada, western Maharashtra, northern Karnataka, or the Cauvery belt in
Tamil Nadu, or even in the Gangetic plains in west Uttar Pradesh, eventually, wheat–rice cycle
in northwestern India (Thakkar, 2019). So, Agro ecological management approach desperately
needed to achieve a sustainable agricultural ecosystem utilizing local resources and wisdom in
production (Koohafkan and Altieri, 2011), which belittles costs of production and gives small
scale farmers more welfare. Apart from the twenties categorization of Agro-ecological zones
delineated by Indian Council of Agriculture Research (ICAR), we divided two categories of agroecological jones of India, i.e., irrigated and rainfed. Then, rainfed further shared high and low
potential area (Fan et al., 1997). Productivity in terms of cropping practices, irrigation types, andother socioeconomic indicators differs between high and low potential areas of the rainfed zone.
Indian Council of Agriculture Research (ICAR) and Planning commission allied agro
ecological or climatic zonation are miss fitted in micro scale agricultural studies, as do notconsider micro-climatic variables such as soil, weather and the availability of irrigation water that73

can be used to determine agro-ecological zones within states. In the case of Punjab state ofIndia, the cropping pattern in all these subzones is different as of variances in rainfall,underground water, soil type, and climate (Gill, 1992). Hence, based on agro-ecologicalevaluation and specific socio-economic characterization, optimize resource, policy, andtechnology in an integrated fashion to achieve a sustainable agricultural future. Thus, agoecology has emerged as a dominant approach used to study, confirm, and propose alternative
low-input management of agro-chemicals. The primary goal of ago-ecology is to address thesustainability problem of agriculture. Argo-ecology provides environmental guidance to guidetechnological development in the right direction. Agriculture proposes to restore landscapes
surrounding farms, which improve the ecological matrix and many functions such as natural
pest control, soil and water conservation, climate control, and biological control. Argo-ecology isa powerful systemic approach that helps us explore the link between agriculture practices,
planning, governance, resource management and health of ecology that contributes to rural
livelihoods in changing climate. Hence, sustainable agriculture should ideally produce good crop
yield with reduced impact on soil and water quality. Therefore, redesigning the ago-ecosystem
to maximize the climatic, ecological, economic, and social synergies among them, while
minimizing the conflicts in agricultural growth in a long run. (Figure.1)
There is an urgent need to acquire an agro ecosystem’s approach, such as integrated
ecologically crop with soil and water management. Given this backdrop, therefore, afundamental rethinking of food production calls for a rational partnership of sustainability, water
resources that will maintain and enhance ecosystem function between subsystems.When it isseen across the states, a more substantial number of state's area under rainfed practices, hometo the majority of rural poor and marginal farmers are expected to be the worst affected by thechanges in climatic conditions. Policy makers are increasingly looking for a rainfed area for
future agricultural growth. A seminal work by Raina (2012) foregrounded noticeable changes ofknowledge, policy, and practices of the rainfed area where considerable proportion of marginal
farmers poorly adapt to the changes in climatic conditions. In addition, suggested, from thepractice of “production per hector” to "more crop per drop" i.e. increasing productivity per unit ofwater. Agriculture has to achieve more 'crop per drop' to increase water efficiency bymodernization of irrigation technologies with on firm soil moisture management. Pradhan Mantri
Krishi Sinchay Yojona (PMKSY) scheme has allocated 50,000 crores over five years in theseareas. This is very important considering that some of the states have perhaps the utmost
successful three-tier panchayats institution in the country resulting in active and democratic
local level institutions to utilize local resources and expertise optimally. Participation is toimprove the institutional structures and rights behind participatory irrigation management (PIM)
and water user associations (WUAs).
Local Level Institution in Agriculture Growth
The scarcity and depletion of surface and groundwater resources is a common law worldwide
and sustainable management proves to be extremely unusual. The main reason for this misuseof water resources is that water is a common pool resource with a high environmental
externality (Gracia, 2010). Therefore, the approach to solving management problems involves
cooperation between stakeholders through the right democratic institution and organizations.
Numerous irrigation systems appear qualities of common pool resources (CPRs) and areoverseen as a fundamental property. Frequently, a group mutually keeps up a foundation tosuch an extent that the speculation of an individual creates positive externalities for the entire
group. The standard hypothesis predicts that it indicates free-riding behaviour and, thus, lowinterest in the asset system (Olson, 2009).

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A large numbers of Water User Associations (WUAs) are managing 13.16 million
hectares of irrigated land in India (NITI Aayog, 2015). Only fifteen states have successfully
implemented the Participatory Irrigation Management (PIM) Act (Dev, 2016). However, thepositive functioning of WUAs has been reported in parts of India such as Maharashtra, Gujarat,
Andhra Pradesh and Odisha. Initially, the experience of WUAs in Andhra Pradesh and Odisha
was encouraging; especially in the case of providing irrigation to farmers of tail-end watershed.
An adverse impact of Participatory Irrigation Management program as the regarding WUAs to
be further operative in case of a minor project whereas it is weak in case of major and medium
projects in the state of rainfed practices (Ghosh et al. 2010). Lesson from the plan of Pani
Panchayats in Odisha, participatory irrigation management in local scale provides equitable,
assured, and timely irrigation to a homogenous or heterogeneous group of farmers. It
incorporates a collection of water rates, distribution among the stakeholders, and regularly
conveys the maintenance of the systems (Behera and Mishra, 2018) to facilitate the greater
cropping diversification with achieving farming capacity. Kakatiya Project in the newest state ofTelangana in 2014 harness the benefit of tank irrigation by increasing command area ofGodavari and Krishna basins, revival and restoration of minor irrigation, water supply for
irrigation to the upscale opportunity of agriculture. However, the quality of implementation andapproachability of the village community has not been uniform across the district of Telangana.
It is evident that, the operation of tanks basically insouthern part of India renders maximizationof the positive impact in natural resource management for sustainable livelihood. This promotes
the interest of resource management of the user community and continuous use of publicresource significantly in a decentralized and judicial manner (Shah and Verma, 2018). Apartfrom this, there is no information regarding how much takeout from the waterbodies (tank, pond,
river, lake, wetland) can be allowed to keep the water sources, i.e., the carrying capacity maketo be sustainable and manageable.
Figure 01: Agro ecological framework for Sustainable Agriculture Growth (By Author)

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Rural population significantly depends on water for agriculture. The socio economic
value of water is also important, especially for rural residents. However, the governing ofcommon pool resources such as water in which numerous people uses such resources thatthey form units of resource where one person uses the quantity of resources available to others(Basurto and Ostrom, 2009). In addition, many common-pool resources are so large thatmultiple actors can use the resource system at once and are too expensive to exclude potential
beneﬁciaries is very costly. Larson and Soto (2008) suggested, natural resource
decentralization with an emphasis on water treated as common property resources, thus itshould be prompted in community-based resource management which intersects by good
governance, democracy, development, and poverty alleviation. Community beliefs, value
system, norm, and practices may be functional in dealing with the current issues, which adopt
and adapt to the emerging in management perspectives. The ultimate success andsustainability of any participatory framework of agriculture management depend on common
interest to collective efforts and good leadership with well-defined property rights, which are
bypassing to the factor of political half-heartedness and class and caste bifurcation and indeed
elite capture comprehensively. So, transfer of the management of irrigation practices from thegovernment to the formal or informal farmer’s association or club a pivotal policy that has
resulted in a possible impact in a spatio-temporal scale.
Cropping Practices towards Irrigation
An appropriate coping strategy possibly requires diversifying the land use for the cultivation ofcrops, which are more climates resilient, remunerative and environment-friendly. Such local
level institutions can play a crucial role in this regard. Sometimes, kharif crops experienced theflood factors as well as the prolonged dry spell and in contrary the Rabi corps experienced hightransportation (ET) and moisture loss of the agro-ecological system (Bhattacharya et al. 2019).
Generally, surface water storage fruitful for groundwater recharge through aquifers fillings in along run. But due to proper management of the water resources on surface area and cropping
practices by the farmer propelled the loss of soil moisture through evaporation withtransportation. Therefore, reliability on groundwater storage will acquire more considerable
significance for India in changing hydro-climatic regimes. (Shah, 2009).
Groundwater based irrigated agriculture in India started to take off from Green
Revolution by using the high yielding cropping behavior and input intensification. It haspromoted groundwater-driven irrigation expansion. It is estimated that more than 70 percent ofIndia's food grain production comes from irrigated agriculture, in which ground water plays amajor role (Gandhi and Namboodiri, 2009). The Central Ground Water Board estimates thecurrent annual groundwater draft to be 230.6 BCM. Subsidies on energy have cut the cost ofelectricity required for groundwater farmingto close to zero, which undoubtedly promotes
groundwater use. This is due to increased exploitation and rapid deterioration of water table,
deterioration of water quality, and increase in frequency of well failure and rapid investment andoperational costs. But microclimatic variation and agro climatic water supply demand
governance, in terms of infiltration, vegetative cover, mean temperature, low moisture, and case
explicitly justified subsidy catered sustainable water governance. Integration of groundwater
development and optimal use of surface water bodies like tanks is a precondition which
minimizes the externalities and plies for sustainable water resource management (Reddy,2005).
When, development opportunities in more favorable area seems fatigued, thenincreasing interest to improve productivity in rainfed areas based on equity, efficiency andstability will emerge. Thus, India has adopted an integrated watershed progaramme, as a viablestrategy for improving productivity in water-stressed areas. Thus, the effects of watershedinterventions in India are directly linked to increased groundwater availability for irrigation76

making groundwater management one of the major issues for the success and sustainability ofwatershed programs. However, watersheds are generally inhabited by a diverse group of
farmers with fragmented land use patterns and resource use rights. While social and biophysicalmiscellany inside the watershed reduces the potentiality of collective actions, erratic use andutilization of groundwater accelerates its reduction.
Upper catchment or lower catchment water governance will have the most beautiful
effect on local hydrology in general and execution of tanks in particular. Better utilization of landin the catchment development (in situ water harvesting), which further prompts a decrease insurface runoff part of that spillover effect in the favorable soil profile. Suitable tank structureswith smooth rehabilitation, channel, distributaries have a positive influence on tanks productivity(Jana, 2012); but the eastern part of India, tank are survived as a morbid ecosystem structure ofwater practices (Jana, 2012). Even though water system tanks have significant legitimacy inimproving the natural, biological, and socioeconomic status of the general population who arerelying upon it, the declining execution of tanks and related livelihood outcomes and adapting
methodologies have not been thoroughly inspected.
It has been found that the share of cropped area under non-food grains (high value
crops) has increased considerably in the last two and a half decades. Small and marginal
farmers constitute around eighty percent of the total farm households (Dev, 2012). Therefore,
the future of sustainable agriculture growth and food security, in India, depends on theperformance of small and marginal farmers. The small and marginal farmers depend on a small
piece of land and have no alternative sources of employment and income. However, there isevidence of these small and marginal farmers attempting to cultivate a variety of resilient climate
crops. From the existing literature study, it appears that an abundance of natural resources
alone is neither necessary nor sufficient to facilitate the growth of the agriculture sector. Whiledevelopmental policies and institutions are likely to influence the relationships between resource
abundance and growth of agriculture in respect of their conservation, management, and uses,
rational behavior of economic and social agents are also crucial in this regard.
Evidence also suggests that, the severity of poverty and social exclusion are caused
mainly by a level of control over and rational use of these resources instead of theirendowments. For example, Small farmers are looking for opportunities to intensify and diversify
their agriculture, which require irrigation throughout the year (Shah, 2009). Tanks and canalsystems are impotent to meet this need, but are groundwater wells. The increasing dependence
on groundwater and decreasing areas under surface irrigation is the major trend in Indian
irrigation nowadays (Figure 2). Efficiency and impacts are likely to differ across various types ofirrigation structures, mainly due to variations in physical settings, agro-climatic conditions, andsocio-economic setups.
Furthermore, it has been observed that the rapid development of minor irrigation India
has resulted in greater extraction of groundwater, resulting in dark areas, which have significant
implications for local ecology. It is mysteriously noticed, the sustainability of irrigation systems isadversely affected in terms of water use efficiency and equity (Dev, 2016). One of the studies
also indicated that more than 50 percent of the farmers were willing to pay additional charges
for assured irrigation supplies (GOI, 2010). While irrigation through watershed development canlead to a win-win situation by complementing natural resource conservation and agricultural
productivity, property rights are expected to provide incentives for sustainable farming practices
and promoting inclusive growth of agriculture.This is where the cogency of fortifying the scienceand policy interface, the intersected topic of conflict resolution.There is an urgent need that, ourplans, projects, and programs get tailored keeping this reality in mind and work to protect
groundwater recharge, enhance recharge where possible, and most importantly, regulate the77use of groundwater (Thakkar, 2019). Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee
Act (MGNREGA) created assets like farm form, contour trenches, land labeling, binding,orchard field would be useful for drought proofing convergence initiative for sustainable water
cum livelihood generation.
Figure 02: Net Area under Irrigation by different sources based on the data from Central
Water Commission, 2015

Cropping Practices to Sustainability
In recent years, there have been concerns about the economic and ecological sustainability ofprofit-oriented cropping practices. The farmers do not have a better alternative for theirdegrading land and also water underneath. Hence, initiatives should be taken for guiding thefarmers towards the choice of appropriate cropping patterns for more judicious use of water.
Some studies suggest that, valuing water at its opportunity cost will provide an incentive forfarmers to move from water-intensive rice to high-value, less water-intensive crops. Also wet
season rice; to ensure a market-based approach to water allocation, from farm crops to fruit andvegetables to other environments, will increase diversification and commercialization of irrigatedagriculture by increasing farmers' flexibility (Rosegrant et al.1995). To put Indian agriculture ona sustainable path, the strategy should be to shift from a relatively high risk rainfed to low risk
assured irrigation-based cropping system. Also, crop diversification can be another effective
instrument in that direction. Policy implications for crop diversification as a necessary strategy
for agricultural development to improve agricultural resources, productivity and efficiency inagriculture in India (Birthal et al. 2007). Gifted with the exclusive ability of nitrogen stabilizationin the soil, carbon sequestration, soil isolation, low water requirement, and greater handling
capacity, pulses remain an integral part of sustainable diversification of cropping practices inIndian agriculture (Acharya et al. 2011).
The Accelerated Pulse Production Program (APPP) under the National Food Security
Mission (NFSM), increase in both minimum support and procurement price for pulses, Rabi
pulse production. Therefore, integrated development of 60,000 villages under pulse production
through Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana (RKVY) and other initiatives have modified to height thepulse production from 2017-2018 million tones to more than 25 million tons in the current
financial year and moreover pulses which currently is 764Kg/ha as compared to a global
average productivity of 909 kg/ha (Directorate of Economics and Statistics, 2018). With theavailability of water, with its more economical and equal use and rational choice of crops, it
should be possible to irrigate more land now; it would be even more, if the water was taken into
consideration of its ecological assessment or its scrappy value is kept. Moreover, not in the face78

value at which the farmer receives it. So, there is a need to develop an optimal crop plan andwater resource allocation scenarios under hydrological uncertainties in relation to various
agriculture (rain and irrigation base) i.e.precision, organic, zero tillage and weather (monsoon
and winter).
Conclusion
The Sustainable Development Goals (SDG2) requires reliable and accountable institutions,
inclusive and effective decision-making processes, and societal equality and equity, which areachieving success in a long run basis. The interdisciplinary and dynamic perspective called fortechnology design and development efforts under the direction of poverty reduction andsustainable management in agriculture. Adoption of micro irrigation practices maintaining theminimization of cost and improving fertigation schedule (law of minimum input in horticulture
practice) pursues the public, private partnership for paving the way the sustainable irrigationintervention in a participatory manner. Incorporating inclusion in decision making in crop choices
and marketing in agricultural development not only enhance the productivity of agriculture but
also empowered the life of marginal people of the rural area in the field of national food security.
Ensuring climate-resilient agriculture and agro-biodiversity in India both builds and depends onstronger communities that can participate more actively in sustainable development andrationally achieve global food security.
Furthermore, traditional knowledge of the farmer with the latest scientific knowledge andpractices can yield productive food systems substantially. Environmental issues are usuallycomplex, interconnected, multidimensional, and widespread on spatial and temporal scales. So,
the seriousness and complexity of these issues has prompted the creation of comprehensive
approaches to resource management in India. Comprehensive and sustainable soil, land, water
management are requiring to lessen the conflict on ecosystem. Both risk and uncertainty
contribute to the selection of appropriate management practices by decision-makers inagriculture. Hence, develop an accessible database on climate, soil and water use and crop
yields to assess and monitor overall performance of agro ecosystem in a long run. Furthermore,water charge may be considered a suitable policy option to reduce the water level in semi-arid
areas, where intensive cropping patterns are expanding. Additional fees for irrigation, if
differentiate on the basis of crop-water demand, may encourage farmers to plant crops that
consume less water. Water markets alone also cannot improve water use efficiency and watersavings unless farmers use less water in agricultural activities. Integrated decision processes at
the national and regional levels are desired to achieve synergy. Moreover, there is an hour tocoordinate response for addressing vulnerabilities with committed engagement of farmers,
agricultural support services, institutions and enabling policy to build sustainable livelihoods
resilient to climate risks on smallholder farmers. Restructuring of agro environment systemcross cuttingly encourage the economic, environmental and social indicators. Now, agriculture iscommanded that is ‘doubly green’ which should both protect the environment and expectant todeal with trade-offs among agriculture, water, energy, land and climate change.
Acknowledgement
The author thankful and fortunate enough to get suggestions from the Annual Conference of the
Indian Political Economy Association (IPEA) is being organized by the Department of
Economics, University of Jammu during December 14-15, 2018.
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