SUNDARBANS
A Roadmap to Resilience
Resilience Profiling
Ecosystem based Risk Reduction
Community based Action Planning
Policy Recommendations
Graduate School of Global Environmental Studies
KYOTO UNIVERSITY
Yoshida Honmachi, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto
606-8501, JAPANhttp://www.iedm.ges.kyoto-u.ac.jp
http://www.facebook.com/IEDM.KU

Printed in 2014

In Association with
South 24 Parganas District Administration
Government of West Bengal
INDIA

ABOUT THE INITIATIVEABOUT THE ORGANIZATION

The lower Gangetic delta or the Indian Sundarbans is a cluster of vastly populated low lying
islands. The area is unique in many terms, particularly due to the present of extensive mangrove

International Environment and Disaster Management Research group in the environmental

forests and associated bio-diversity. However, the region is also prone to wide range of coastal

education laboratory of Graduate School of Global Environmental Studies, Kyoto University

hazards due to its vulnerable geology and high developmental deficits. Consequently, its 4.37

targets to reduce the gap between knowledge and practice through pro-active field level,

million dwellers remain at an extraordinary risk from natural disasters such as cyclones & storm

community based project implementation in the field of environment and disaster risk

surges. This publication is a part of ongoing socio-ecological research which aims to enhance

management. The members of this laboratory work extensively in the field of disaster & climate

the coping capacities or ‘resilience’ of the communities through integrated resiliencerisk reduction all over the world, especially in South & Southeast Asia. The major thematic areas

assessment framework and participatory planning. Many people and institutions have extendedof research in this laboratory are climate change adaptation, urban risk reduction, environment

their support to the existing research. We extend our sincerest gratitude to all of them,and disaster education.

especially, the South 24 Parganas District Administration for their extensive support &cooperation during data collection process.

TEAM MEMBERS
Kyoto University

Contact Address

Rajib Shaw
Rajarshi DasGupta

Rajib Shaw, Professor
Graduate School of Global Environmental Studies
KYOTO UNIVERSITY
Yoshida Honmachi, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto 606-8501, JAPAN
Tele fax: +81-75-753-5708
http://www.iedm.ges.kyoto-u.ac.jp
Email: shaw.rajib.5u@kyoto-u.ac.jp

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We are immensely grateful to Mr. Santanu Basu, IAS, District Magistrate & Collector, South 24
Parganas & Smt. Lipika Roy, IFS, DFO, South 24 Parganas for their tremendous support during
field visit. In this regard, we also thankfully acknowledge the help & support extended to us by
the District Disaster Management Authority, South 24 Parganas and all the Block Development
Officers of Sundarban Region. We also sincerely acknowledge Sumitomo Foundation, Japan for
their financial assistance for publication of this document.
This document can be reproduced for academic purposes with proper citation.
Citation: DasGupta Rajarshi & Rajib Shaw (2014): Participatory planning for enhancing community
resilience in mangrove rich Indian Sundarbans, Kyoto University, 42 pages, Kyoto, Japan© Rajarshi DasGupta & Rajib Shaw, Graduate School of Global Environmental Studies, Kyoto University, JAPANClock Tower, Kyoto University, Japan

FOREWORD

1

MESSAGE

2MESSAGE

3MESSAGE

4MESSAGE

5

E cosystem services of mangroves is believed to sustainm o r e t han 70 d i r ect hu man acti v it ie s

inc luding it sremark able habitat function for fish and crustacean
production and regulating functions such as effective
sediment trapping, storm and surge protection.

I n association with such ecological benefits, these coastal
forests also have significant cultural & aesthetics values
that are intrinsically linked to social & economic wellbeing of a vast section of coastal communities.

(In this picture: Mangrove Forests at Henry’s Island, Bakkhali, Sundarbans.)
6

INTRODUCTION

Sundarbans, named after the exuberant mangrove species of Heritiera fomes, is the vast low
lying delta situated at the confluence of the rivers Ganges, Brahmaputra, Meghna and the Bay of
Bengal; extending over 25,000 sq. km in India and Bangladesh. A significant portion of the delta,
measuring approximately 9630 sq. km is situated in the administrative territory of India. As per
the organizational hierarchy, the region is covered within two districts of West Bengal, i.e. Northand South 24 Parganas; although the majority falls within the territory of South 24 Parganas. Asof 2011, the Indian Sundarbans hosts a population of 4.37 million with a staggering density of 957
people /sq.km spreading over 19 Community Development Blocks. The region also suffers fromextreme poverty and lack of human development with an average of 43.5% of the population
living below the nationally designated poverty line. Inaccessible and hostile terrain conditions,
ecological degradation, serious developmental deficits and persisting natural calamities suchas cyclones, tidal surges and floods are some of challenges that the region is facing today.
Considering this, a multi-dimensional approach is required to reduce the vulnerability or in turnto enhance the resilience of the communities.

7CONCEPT OF RESILIENCE
Despite of having its origin from ecological sciences, the concept of resilience has become
extremely popular in the field of Disaster and Climate Risk Management, especially in the
management of ‘socio-ecological’ systems. In a purely physical terminology, ‘resilience’is considered as the capacity to absorb external shocks without significant deformation.
However, in the context of disaster risk reduction, number of researchers has defined ‘resilient
communities’ as ‘systems’ that can (1) absorb shocks or recurrent disturbances without
significant deformation, (2) recover quickly from an altered state and further can (3) restructure
and reorganize itself through adaptive processes and practices in order to minimize the impactsof expected disturbances.

SCOPE OF THE STUDY
In this publication (consultation version) results are shown from all the 19 Community
Development Blocks of Indian Sundarbans. The resilience score is representative of the existing
structural and non-structural components that are essential for fostering resilient communities.

BLOCK PROFILE
Area in
Sq. KmCensus
(2011)

Density
Person/km

Literacy
Rate (%)

BPL Population(%)

Joynagar I

131.01259980

1984

66.67

39.57

Joynagar II

186.25246955

1326

60.09

42.60

Kultali

306.18231855

757

60.81

46.36

Mathurapur I

147.30194069

1318

66.00

34.43

Mathurapur II

227.45219541

965

68.94

39.59

Kakdwip252.74286325

1133

71.38

34.91

Sagar

282.11211096

748

78.92

44.46

Namkhana

370.61

181869

491

79.38

48.17

Pathar Pratima

484.47333687

689

73.44

49.13

Canning I

187.86297995

1586

61.23

31.05

Canning II

214.93248521

1156

52.72

50.32

Gosaba296.73244721

825

69.67

38.02

Basanti

404.21331973

821

58.12

64.89

Hingolganj

238.8

159585

668

70.07

44.50

Hasnabad

153.07

196880

1286

63.45

28.69

Sandeshkhali I

182.3

164185

901

58.45

58.29

Sandeshkhali II

197.21

160828

816

59.31

59.70

Minakhan158.82191908

1208

58.65

38.42

Haroa

152.73214248

1403

62.82

33.73

Name
Of the CBD

8METHODOLOGY
The study is based on questionnaire survey and secondary data collection covering fivedimensions of coastal resilience. Each of the five dimensions was further categorized in to 5
major indicators and 25 variables. In total, the study is based on the result obtained from 125
variables. Results from the 125 variables were transformed to a resilience score by weighted
mean average of the indicators and variables.

SOCIOECONOMIC

Demography Annual Average Growth Rate, Population Density, Age Dependency Ratio,% of Rural Population, % Backward/Tribal Population
Livelihood % of Below Poverty Line population, % of population lives on Coastal
resources, Enrollment in Livelihood Guarantee program, % of population lives on Ecotourism, % of population suffered livelihood discontinuation
Health Average Life expectancy Birth, Doctor: Population Ratio,% of population having
primary health facility within regular access, General condition of Public heath, Morbidity ofmajor diseases
Social Capital Social cohesion, Acceptance of community leaders, Frequency ofvillage level meetings, Occurrence of Conflicts/Riots/ Homicide incidents, Community
participation in shared interests
Education & Awareness % of Adult Literacy Rate, School dropout rate of children,
Primary Schools, Existing community awareness of Disaster & climate change, Frequency
of mass awareness camp run both by NGOs, CBOs etc.

Transportation % road compared to overall land use,% of all weather accessible
roads, % of waterways compared to overall land use, Status of Jetties and inter island
communication, Availability of emergency vehicle/boats
Residential Infrastructure % of population with informal (slum etc) settlements, % of
population in co-operative housing,% of houses living under the avg. flood line, % of
population having ownership of their house, % of population living extremely close tohazardous activity (port/industry)
Electricity % population having access to electricity, Number of hours of average
PHYSICAL OR
disruption of electricity supply, Service quality (Frequency of dropout or distribution
INFRASTRUCTURAL
failure etc.),% population having alterative source of electricity in case of disruption,
Implementation of renewable source of energy (Solar/wind etc)
Telecommunication % population having mobile phone, Quality of service / network
accessibility, % of population having radio/television, % of population having internet
connection, Provision of fishermen tracking systems
Water & Sanitation % population having access to safe drinking water, Quality of water,
Scarcity of Drinking water and seasonal variation of water availability, % population having
access to hygienic toilets, Implication of Waste water disposal and treatment facility

INSTITUTIONAL

Laws & Policy Integration of DRR in developmental activities, Implementation of CRZ
Notification, Administrative initiatives of coastal greening, Frequency of DRR training
organized by the block, % of funds allocated to DRR activities.
Coordination Coordination among government departments, Coordination with politicalleaders, Coordination with NGO (Number of joint program etc), External assessment(Funding) received, Coordination with neighboring blocks
Emergency Response Existence of early warning system, Adequacy of trained emergency
response team, Availability of Evacuation centre ( Number of Flood/cyclone shelter),
Availability of Emergency Aids (Food, medicine, water etc),Transparency in Aid distribution
process
Adaptive Action Integration of Climate change & DRR in developmental activity,
Development of forestry & Plantation at administrative initiatives, Implementation ofDisaster Insurance / Statutory aids to victims, Implementation flood/erosion control
technical measures only, Implementation of rainwater harvesting scheme
Governance Implementation of developmental plans, Public Private partnerships indevelopmental activities, Off-disaster activities of Block Disaster Management Authority,
Information sharing & risk communication with the community, Adequacy of manpowerin existing block administration
9

METHODOLOGY

COASTAL ZONEMANAGEMENTENVIRONMENTAL
OR NATURAL

10

Embankment & Shoreline Protection % of vulnerable shoreline protected by dykes/
embankments, Average age of embankments, Strength of Material & design used forbuilding the embankments, Frequency of maintenance of embankments, Frequencyof reported overtopping incidents
Mangrove Management % of mangrove cover compared to block size, % of
people directly depends mangroves, Activity of FPC in conservation of mangroves,
Performance of authorities in mangrove conservation, Frequency of organizedmangrove felling
Bio-Diversity Conservation Frequency of Animal Poaching incidents, Performanceof FD, Activity of EDC/FPC, Reported reduction in species , Frequency of monitoring
overfishing in tidal waters
Coastal Pollution Quality of water, Industrial waste discharge points, Dischargeof domestic waste , Occurrence Oil spilling incidents , Frequency of monitoring ofcoastal water quality
Coastal Land Use % of coastal sensitive land (500m) reclaimed for agriculture (10years), Extent of fish cultivating pond, Extent of coastal land diversion for settlements/
infrastructure, Extent of mining and other drilling activities, Extent of coastal land
rehabilitation (Greenbelt etc.)

Frequency of Natural Disaster Frequency of flood occurrence, Extent of cyclone
damage, Extent of Coastal erosion and degree of damage, Frequency of heavy tidal
inceptions, Extent of Earthquake & Tsunami vulnerability
Climate components Extent of physical impact caused by sea level rise ,Relative rateof sea level rise in the block, Reduction of availability of freshwater, Extent of rise inriver water salinity, Extent of mangrove deterioration (loss of species) due to salinity,
Decadal loss of shorelines/permanent inundation area
Geo-physical components Extent of change in tidal patterns leading to riverpiracy/damage to dykes, Extent of Natural accretion, Extent of subsidence due tocompaction, Protective measures (bouldering/cementing) to control erosion
Bio-Geochemical Components Extent of arsenic contamination, % of total
population exposed to arsenic contaminated water, Extent of chemical pollution,
Extent of loss of soil fertility, Mitigation level of existing chemical contamination
Environmental Measures Extent of Integration of Natural hazard Maps
,Implementation of Environmental Protection Act, Extent of Control in Deep
aquifer pumping, Extent of monitoring and Maintenance of environmental database,
Involvement of Scientific communities in Environmental R & D

DATA COLLECTION & APPROACHESThe questionnaire survey was conducted at the Block Level and data were collected according
to our pre-designed framework. The Block Developmental Officers were the major respondent;
however, additional help was also sought from the other concerned officials and published data
& reports. Further, the responders were requested to prioritize the variables as per their local
administrative experiences.

Figure 1: Filling Out the Questionnaire and Prioritization of Variables under Demography Component(from Canning I Block)

RESULTSThe following pages show and discuss the results for the overall resilience of the region with thehelp of spider diagrams and spatial maps for better visual understanding. This is important tomention that results approaching 5 depicts high resilience and vice versa.
11

SOCIO-ECONOMIC RESILIENCE

Overall socio-economic resilience is observed to be uniformly poor and can be generally
assigned between ‘very low’ to ‘low’ category. Out of the five components, demography andlivelihood resilience seems to be critical for all the blocks. For example, the average population
density is close to 987/sq.km; extremely high compared to any other coastal rural areas in the
country. Population density in blocks such as Joynagar I (1984/sq. km), Canning I (1586/sq.
km) are alarming. Similarly, average annual growth for blocks of Kultali, Canning I & Canning
II crosses 2% per year. On the other hand, excluding some of the interior blocks, livelihood
scenario of the communities remains extremely vulnerable. Extreme coastal blocks such
as Gosaba, Basanti, Kultali (> 40% of population) heavily survive on the coastal resources.
Particularly, the study coincides aftermath the cyclone ‘Aila’ where majority of the extreme
coastal blocks suffered heavily from livelihood discontinuation due to saline water floodingof the agricultural lands. However, in statistical term, Socio-economic factors (r =0.48) has
moderate influence in the overall resilience of the region.
12

PHYSCIAL RESILIENCE

Physical resilience profile of the 19 coastal blocks follows the similar trends of socio-economic
resilience and in general, can be categorized between poor to moderate. This is mostly becauseof earthen housing structures, non-availability of potable water, rural electrification and primitivetransportation. However, on the other hand, cyclone ‘Aila’ in 2009 has triggered some positivechanges with 14 new projects of building ‘emergency cyclone shelters’ in the delta is currently
being undertaken. Out of the five components, transportation & electricity has wide spreadvariation. While at one hand, blocks such as Joynagar I, Mathurapur I, Canning I, Hasnabad,
Haroa and well connected by railways and formal public transportation network, blocks such as
Sandeshkhali I, Sandeshkhali II, Goasaba remain physically isolated due to lack of well developed
transportation network. The same observation holds true for electricity, although the situation
has improved over the past few years. In general, physical factors have been indentified to havesignificant correlation (r=0.68) with the overall resilience.

13

INSTITUTIONAL RESILEINCE

The institutional resilience also varies significantly and can be generally defined as low tomoderate. Out of the five components, ‘adaptive actions’ and ‘laws & policy’ are the specificareas that require adequate attention. This is precisely important for the extreme coastal blocks
such as Gosaba, Patharpratima, Sandeshkhali I & II. In cases of these blocks there is an acuteneed for adaptation in the sectors such as livelihood, water management etc. Although, there isa plethora of preventive environmental laws and policies exist, implementation of these policies
is not satisfactory. However, since the Cyclone ‘Aila’, in general, emergency management has
improved considerably with all the blocks having a Disaster Management Plan to deal withemergencies. Notably, one of the significant achievements since the cyclone ‘Aila’ is that the
local government undertook a community based mangrove plantation program named as“Green Sundarbans”. Pathapratima, Namkhana are presently under going mangrove plantation
under this project. Institutional factors also remain statistically significant (r=0.8) in the overall
resilience of the region.
14

COASTAL ZONE MANAGEMENT

Resilience due to effective coastal zone management (CZM) is a measure of local levelecosystem conservation, implementation of CZM guidelines and structural competency (earthen
embankments). Interior blocks such as Mathurapur I, Joynagar I are found to highly resilient
since the length of coast lines is limited. Despite of the fact that all these areas were reclaimed
from dense mangrove several years ago, there has been no major alteration of coastal landsince the last 10 years. On the other hand, the observed resilience scores of the extreme coastal
blocks are significantly low compared to the interior blocks (e.g. Gosaba, Sandeshkhali I & II,
Namkhana, Kakdwip). One particular reason is the existence of extensive embankment networks
in these blocks, majority of which are semi-engineered earthen structures that were constructed
over a century ago. These blocks are also challenged with mangrove degradation, heavy violationof forest rule etc. As a component, CZM has strong correlation (r=0.78) with the composite scoreof the blocks.

15

ENVIRONMENTAL OR NATURAL RESILEINCE

Environmental/Natural Resilience is a measure of the local level variation of natural exposure
from coastal disasters. Consequently, all the extreme coastal blocks show moderate to low
resilience score and almost uniformly exposed to coastal disasters such as cyclones and storm
surges. Likewise, interior blocks are observed to somewhat more resilient compared to theextreme coastal blocks.

However, the eastern coastal blocks such as Gosaba, Sandeshkhali I &II are further exposed to high soil salinity while the western blocks such as Sagar, Kakdwip are
exposed to severe coastal erosion. Apart from that, significant portion of tube wells in Hasnabad,
Hingolganj used for drinking water purposes have been found arsenic contaminated, although,the other coastal blocks are found to be safe in this regard. In general, environmental resilience (orExposure) has very strong correlation (r=0.78) in the overall resilience.

16

COMPOSITE RESILIENCE

17

Socio-Economic Resileince Profile
Mathurapur I
GosabaJoynagar I

5Sandeshkhali I

4

Kakdwip

3

Haroa
Namkhana

2
Canning I

Joynagar II

1
0

Hasnabad

Mathurapur II

Patharpratima

Canning II

shkhal II
Sandeshkhali

Physical Resilience Profile

ltali
KultaliHingolganj

Environmental/Natural
Resilience Profile

Minakhan
Sagar

BasantiMathurapur I
GosabaSandeshkhali I

4

Kakdwip

3

Mathurapur I
Joynagar I

5GosabaHaroa
Namkhana

Composite
Resilience Profile

2
Canning I

Joynagar II

1
0

Hasnabad

Mathurapur II

Kultali

Sandeshkhali II

MinakhanHingolganj
Sagar

5

Sandeshkhali I

4

Kakdwip

3

Canning I

3

Minakhan
Sagar

BasantiMathurapur II
Canning II
Kultali
Minakhan
BasantiMathurapur I
Joynagar I

GosabaHaroa
Namkhana

2
Joynagar II

10

Mathurapur II

Patharpratima

Canning II

Sandeshkhali II

KultaliHingolganj

Minakhan
Sagar

Canning II

Hingolganj

Mathurapur I

Kakdwip

Mathurapur II

Kultali

Joynagar II

0

Sagar

4

Joynagar II

0

Sandeshkhali II

Namkhana

Hingolganj

Sandeshkhali I

Namkhana

Patharpratima

Haroa

Sandeshkhali II

5

Haroa

1

HasnabadPatharpratima

Hasnabad3
2

Joynagar I

1

HasnabadCanning I

Kakdwip2

BasantiGosaba4

Canning I

Mathurapur I
GosabaCanning II

Patharpratima

Joynagar I

5Sandeshkhali I

Basanti

Instituional Resileince Profile

5

Sandeshkhali I

4

Kakdwip

3

Joynagar I
Haroa
Namkhana

2
Canning I

Joynagar II

1
0

Hasnabad

Mathurapur II

Patharpratima

Canning II

Sandeshkhali II

KultaliHingolganj

Minakhan
Sagar

BasantiCoastal Zone Management Profile

The study used the weighted mean average to calculate the composite resilience score of the 19
community development blocks. All the obtained resilience scores range from 2.07 and to 4.09.
Using these values as lower and upper limit, the resilience scores were further segregated into
five categories, i.e. Very High (5.0 > 4.0), High (4.0 > 3.5), Moderate (3.5>3.00), Low (3.0>2.5) andVery Low (2.5>2.0). Consequently, out of the 19 blocks, only one (Mathurapur I) can be classified
as High resilient block, while 7 blocks are classified as moderate resilient and rest of the 11
blocks are classified into low resilient blocks. As discussed, majority of the low resilience blocks
are extreme coastal blocks. Therefore, in general, it can be concluded, community resilience
follows an inversely proportional relationship with the exposure, i.e. communities with low inEnvironmental & natural resilience (i.e. high exposure) are less resilient and more prone towards
disaster loss. However, as discussed earlier there are significant contributions of other factors,
especially coastal zone management and involvement of local institutions.

18

PLANNING FOR COASTAL RESILEINCEThe overall resilience profile of the Indian Sundarbans demands an urgent and immediate
attention in order to cope with future disasters as well as the climatic abruption that theregions will probably face in near future. This has also been figured in the revised coastalzone management notification of 2011 by the Government of India which declares the Indian
Sundarbans as 'Critically Vulnerable Coastal Area.' The notification has urged the local
government to develop a comprehensive plan to manage the region; however, it requires aparticipatory planning approach that emphasizes involving the local community in the strategic
and management processes of region. In view to harmonize different approaches and challenges,
the study conducted several focus group discussions & participatory planning with the local
communities in order to understand the intrinsic vulnerability of the communities, their existing
coping abilities and further to plan for actions that would facilitate the coping abilities of thecommunities. Consequently, the study comes up with a set of policy recommendation based on
the field observations and interaction with a huge number of community members, occupationalgroups, NGO activist and local leaders. The report specially emphasizes three sectoral areas,
i.e. enhancing the efficiency of the existing participatory mangrove management, integrated
livelihood planning & proactive risk reduction through integrated coastal zone management.

19

POLICY RECOMMENDATION

Enhancing Participatory Mangrove Management

BACKGROUND
COORDINATIONThe sole agenda of the participatory forest management in Indian Sundarbans revolves
around the conservation of the existing mangroves & associated bio-diversity throughcommunity ‘policing’. Notably, this approach has been fairly successful since illegal
poaching & logging have reduced significantly. However, under the existing scenario,
it requires a more proactive approach, i.e. from conservation to restoration anddevelopment of new mangrove areas, especially in the tidal mudflats and along theembankments. The study observed that such initiatives have been undertaken by the local
government, several NGOs and voluntary groups mostly in an adhoc basis which needs
to governed and categorized by the forest department. Also, a technical wing needs tobe formed to assist such groups. Similarly the ‘Green Sundarban’ Initiative needs to beclosely monitored by the forest department and adequate technical assistance should be
extended in this regard.

AWARENESS20

The name Sundarban is synonymous to its heritage mangrove forests. Any regional planfor Sundarbans, therefore, should provide adequate priority to the mangrove forests.
These mangroves are particularly important from the risk reduction point of view since
it serves as an effective buffer between the land and the water. Mangrove ecosystemservices are vital for the region to arrest soil erosion & promote natural accretion,
providing rich breeding ground of estuarine fishes and to support a number of local
livelihoods. Although, there has not been significant degradation of mangroves since
the last three decades, considering the region’s vulnerability, forest cover still need to
be increased, especially along the shorelines. The region has long adopted participatory
mangrove management as a tool to promote community based mangrove management.
At present around 65 Joint Forest Management Committee (JFMC) consisting
approximately 35,000 members are responsible for the management of nearly 64000 haof mangrove forests. However, this arrangement has been partly successful to motivate
the communities to effectively involve in the participatory management. The study
therefore undertook a systematic survey of the JFMCs to understand the existing conflicts
and probable measures to motivate the communities towards effective participation in the
JFM approach. The following sections provide some of the key policy recommendations.

The study observed a growing mutual distrust between the Forest officials and the local
fishermen group due to the restriction of access in the core and restricted areas. Of late,there have been several cases of forest crimes, particularly due to the illegal access in
the restricted areas. Several fishermen group mentioned that they are not aware of thedemarcation and has been victimized under the circumstances. Consequently, growing
mutual distrust has been a major concern pertaining to effective involvement of thefishing communities which forms the largest forest user group. Therefore, it is strongly
recommended that a detailed map of ‘go and no go’ areas should be provided alongwith the fishing licenses. Proper campaigning should also be made in order to aware thecommunities of the possible legal and ecological consequences.

BENEFIT SHARINGThe existing benefit sharing mechanism between the JFMC and the FD needs a major
restructuring. For example, The Eco-Development Committees (EDCs) now get a revenue
sharing of 25% from the ecotourism which is considered to be on the lower side. On
the other hand, the FPCs do not get any benefits from the eco-tourism. Similarly, there
are persisting issues of the Non timber Forest product prices, especially honey. Honeycollectors are compelled to sell their products to the West Bengal Forest Development
Corporation with a stipulated price (INR 100/kg). Communities claim that the prices are
not competitive with the local markets. Although, such issues are not pertaining to otherforest products such as wax etc, the local forest department needs to provide adequate
attention to market competitiveness of the forest products.

INSTITUTIONALMODIFICATIONS

On an institutional dimension, the JFMCs perform under the co-management guidelines
stipulated by the Forest Departments, i.e. the State Forest Department and the Sundarban
Tiger Reserve. However, political interferences have been a major concern for theselection and performance of the JFMCs. Some of the committees could not be formed
or remain non-functional due to political reasons. Therefore, strict regulation and codeof conduct should be initiated to restrict the undesired political intervention into thefunctioning of JFMCs. On the other hand, the focus group discussion with the JFMC
members revealed that they are not necessarily aware of the detailed plans since they
were not involved in the micro-planning process. The forest department, therefore, needto effectively include the local communities in decision making process.

HUMAN RESOURCES

The mangroves of Sundarban represent a structurally complex ecosystem that is highly
prone to changes in environmental boundary conditions. It requires close monitoringof environmental & ecological parameters. However, considering the extremely difficult
terrain conditions, monitoring of this ecosystem requires high amount of vigor andcapacity. Therefore, the forest department require adequate human resources which
at present it is lacking. Interviews with higher officials reveal that aging of the local
forest staffs clearly emerging as a threat to constant surveillance. Therefore, it is highly
imperative that the Forest department is properly staffed with compatible humanresources. On the other hand, many organizations and local universities work of several
ecological aspects of the Indian Sundarbans. A possible collaboration and sharing of
information would deeply facilitate quick decision making process.

21

POLICY RECOMMENDATION
Participatory Planning for livelihood Resilience

BACKGROUND
ADAPTATION

Both the existing form of agriculture and fishing requires substantial amount of adaptive
measures to cope with climate extremity. Therefore, planning for agricultural adaptation(e.g. cultivation of salinity tolerant species, crop diversification etc) is extremely
necessary. However, this process will require substantial amount of external assistance,
capacity development and training of the vulnerable groups. Further, adaptation measures
will largely vary depending on the socio-economic and individual capacity of the farmers
as well as fishermen. Therefore, prioritization of adaptive actions needs to be integrated
in the regional agricultural and fisheries action plan. There is also a need for creation of
separate adaptation fund in the distirct level.

ALTERNATIVELIVELIHOODAt present, over 50% of the total agricultural workers are landless labors. Similarly,
approximately 3-5% of the communities are involved in eco-sensitive livelihood suchas prawn seed collection. Several researchers has already urged about development ofalternative livelihood for these vulnerable communities. However, these need to reflect in
the regional development plan as a priority. Further, small scale rural initiatives needs tobe supported by the local government through small loans, infrastructural assistance andsubsidies.

MARKET

Focus Group Discussion with the local fishermen also revealed problem of non-availabilityof markets and high transportation cost involved to reach the distantly located commercial
facilities. Therefore, development of wholesale markets for large scale transaction of
goods needs to be developed within the extreme coastal blocks. Improvement of the local
transportation facilities is also very important in this regard.

FACILITIES

22

Sundarban region is exceptionally vulnerable in terms of its existing livelihood scenario of
the local communities. On an average, 43.5% of the populations of this region live under
the designated poverty line. Mono crop agriculture, primarily rice, form the major form of
livelihood of the communities (approximately 60%), however, saline water flooding in thecyclone ‘Aila’ has drastically reduced the productivity of the coastal agricultural land. On
the other hand, approximately 30% of the local communities depend on estuarine and onshore fishing. Fishing is one of the traditional livelihoods of the communities. However,of late, fishing activities is also simultaneously challenged with drastic reduction (30-50%)
of fish catch. Another section of the communities, precisely, economically marginalized
women group take part in prawn seed collection. The process is poorly rewardingand ecologically destructive that is believed to be primarily responsible for reductionof aquatic bio-diversity. The study primarily interacted with these three occupationalgroups in order to understand the existing threats and coping mechanism. The following
recommendations are based on the FGDs conducted with these groups.

Interaction with several occupational groups revealed that a number of physical facilities
could positively influence the local livelihood scenario. For example, agriculturalcommunities revealed that irrigation facilities, seed collection and soil testing laboratories
are extremely important in view of developing their potentials. Similarly, there is alsoa need for developing local hatcheries & breeding centers to support local fishermen.
These facilities can be planned through the effective involvement of NGOs & NPOs orstrengthening block offices with adequate human resources and facilities.

Embankment & Vulnerable Area Management

BACKGROUND

Sundarban is crisscrossed with several tidal rivers, channels and creeks making
it topographically complex and inaccessible. There are approximately 4000 km ofembankments of which 672 km of embankment was fully or partially destructed by thecyclone ‘Aila’ in 2009. Understandably, the entire network of embankment remain at thecentral of attention in the management of this low lying delta area. The Government ofWest Bengal has launched the ‘Aila damaged embankment reconstruction project whichaims to reconstruct approximately 800 km of vulnerable embankments. This projectis crucial in view of abating future disaster impacts. However, the project is severely
challenged due to non-availability of land. Over the last 5 years, less than 40% of therequisite land has been acquired. The study provides following policy recommendations
which emerge from the interview of the project officials and the local communities.

LEGAL ISSUES

In view of the vulnerability of the delta, acquisition of the land is extremely crucial.
However, there have been several issues with the existing process of land acquisition. The
study proposes a separate sub-section of the existing land acquisition & rehabilitation
policies to deal with urgent and immediate land acquisition in highly vulnerable (naturally)
areas for larger public interest. Public Hearing & other legal formalities in this regard
should be dealt with immediate priority.

RESEARCH

Considering the extreme fragile hydro-geological settings of the delta, a close monitoringmechanism should be established to govern the hydrological changes that the delta isfacing today. River course changes, coastal erosion and accretion need to be documented
on regular intervals. Academic and research institutes need to be involved in the overalldelta area management and a strict ‘Lab to Land’ policy need to be adopted.

GREENBELTAs the embankments provide protection to the island, maintenance of the embankment
should be given the first priority. Responsibility of maintaining the embankment canbe shared with the local people. The maintenance procedure should also include
the development and monitoring of coastal greenbelt as proposed the 'Aila Dam
reconstruction project.'

STRUCTURALISSUES

Majority of the existing embankments are earthen and made from the locally availablesoil, however, considering the eco-fragility of the region changing of the structuralcomponent is not recommended. In some cases height of the embankments need to be
increased above the existing heights under the clogging of the river beds. Importantly,
embankments are also used as major arterial roads for many islands. Therefore, surface
protection and erosion control of embankments should be dealt with priority. Surface
protection to embankment can be provided in many forms –grass turf, vetiver grasshedges, stone riprap, concrete slabs, etc.

23

CANNING - I
Socio-Economic
Demography
5
4
3
2
1
0

Education andAwareness

Community
GovernanceLivelihood

HealthPhyscial

Canning I block consists of 11 Gram Panchayets and the Subdivisional headquarters. The existing demographic settings, i.e.
high population density (1586 person/sq. km) and decadal growthrate of 21.82% is the major concern for the block. Since theblock also host the administrative facilities of the Canning subdivision, in general, the livelihood scenario of the blocks is better
compared to other blocks with around 12% people are involvedin organized sectors. Dependency on coastal resources arealso comparatively less. The block also consist a sub-divisional
hospital and some private health care facilities.

Transportation
5
4
3
2
1
0

Water and
Sanitation

Residential
Infrastructure

Electricity

Telecommunica
tion

Institutional

Although the block is connected by rail and road network,transportation remains a challenge, especially in the interior
villages. Approximately, 15% of the household has formal
electricity connection and 80% of the residential infrastructure isprimitive. However, the in spite of that, tele-communication has
majorly improved over the years, almost 70% of the communities
have mobile phone connection.

Laws and Policy
5
4
3
2
1
0

Governence

Adaptive
ActionCoordination

Emergency
Response

Coastal Zone Management
Embankment Protection

CoastalLanduse

5
4
3
2
1
0

Mangrove
Management

Bio-diversity
Conservation

CoastalPollution

Environmental/Natural
Disaster Frequency
Environmental
ActionBiogeochemcial

24

5
4
3
2
1
0

Climatic
components

Geophysicalcomponent

Since the block is centrally located and also hosts the subdivisional headquarters, in general, the emergency response set
up & coordination with the other blocks is better that the rest.
However, the block is yet to implement any substantial adaptation
actions to cope with its vulnerability.
Canning I block is located in the transitional zone of the
Sundarban mangroves. Majority of the mangrove area in thisblock is unprotected open forest. Over the past few years, someof the transitional mangroves were lost in this block, althoughrelatively small. The block has an extended stretch of embankment
across the river Malta in the South east region, part of which is
being upgraded after the Cyclone ‘Aila’.
Canning I block is mainly prone of tidal flooding. The main
water areas of the block are now challenged with excessive
sedimentation and clogging of riverbed. This has resulted inpoor navigability and emerged as major threat to tidal flooding.
Overtopping of tidal embankments has become more frequent inrecent years. Neither of the domestic tube wells has so far beenreported of Arsenic or other heavy metal contamination.

CANNING - II
Canning II block consists of 9 Gram Panchayets and is locatedin the North-east of the Canning town, the sub-divisional
headquarters. The existing demographic settings, i.e. highpopulation density (1156 person/sq. km) and decadal growth rateof 26.82% results in poor demographic resilience of the block.
In terms of livelihood, approximately 70% of the communities
depend on mono-crop agriculture and half of the population lives
under the designated poverty line. Around 52% of the population
is literate. In terms of health facilities, it has a block health centre,
however, the doctor: population ration is very poor.

Socio-Economic
Demography
5
4
3
2
1
0

Education andAwareness

Community
GovernanceLivelihood

HealthPhyscial
Transportation

The block is poorly connected and the existing transportation
facility in poor. The length of surfaced road compared to the block
size is about 0.26 km/sq. km. Almost 100% of the population
can be designated as rural population and suffers from poor
residential infrastructure. Only 3 to 5% of the local households
are having formal electricity collection.

5
4
3
2
1
0

Water and
Sanitation

Residential
Infrastructure

Electricity

Telecommunica
tion

Institutional
Laws and Policy

The location proximity to the sub-divisional head quarters
is a major cause behind it moderate institutional resilience.
Emergency response and cordination among the communities arealso satisfactory. However, no intuitional adaptation actions havebeen initiated by the local government or the village institutions.

5
4
3
2
1
0

Governence

Adaptive
ActionCoordination

Emergency
Response

Coastal Zone Management

Coastal exposure of Canning II Block is relatively low since it
only faces a small stretch of the river Matla in the South-west
region. Therefore, no significant interventions into the coastal
ecosystems were observed in this block. Relatively small stretchof embankment exists in this block and these embankments were
not identified as vulnerable. However, structurally this is over a
century old which has been repaired on demand basis.

Embankment Protection

CoastalLanduse

5
4
3
2
1
0

Mangrove
Management

Bio-diversity
Conservation

CoastalPollution

Environmental/Natural

Canning II block is primarily exposed to cyclonic storms.
Particularly the rural setting is prone to high winds. The land isstable and there has not been major subsidence and erosion
incidents occurred in past few years. The ground water is also
relatively contamination free. Overall, the natural resilience issignificantly high compared to its neighboring blocks.

Disaster Frequency
Environmental
ActionBiogeochemcial

5
4
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0

Climatic
components

Geophysicalcomponent

25

BASANTI
Socio-Economic
Demography
5
4
3
2
1
0

Education andAwareness

Community
GovernanceLivelihood

HealthPhyscial

Basanti Block consists of 13 Gram Panchayets and is located in theSouth east of the Canning town, the sub-divisional headquarters.
This is also designated as extreme coastal blocks located in the
mangrove buffer areas. The population density (821person/sq.
km) and decadal growth rate of 19.16% is quite high. Almost theentire population is rural. In terms of livelihood, over 70% of
the communities are involved in agriculture. This block is alsocharacterized by a huge number (approximately 65%) of BPL
population leading to very poor socio-economic resilience.

Transportation
5
4
3
2
1
0

Water and
Sanitation

Residential
Infrastructure

Electricity

Telecommunication

The block is poorly connected and void of formal transportation
network. Approximately 80% of the housing structures are madeof earthen structures. In terms of road area, the block has only 0.46
km/sq. km of the total area. Less than 1% of people are having
electricity connection. Drinking water facilities are also notadequate. In general, physical resilience of the block is poor.

Institutional
Laws and Policy
5
4
3
2
1
0

Governence

Adaptive
ActionCoordination

Emergency
Response

Coastal Zone Management
Embankment Protection

CoastalLanduse

5
4
3
2
1
0

Mangrove
Management

Bio-diversity
Conservation

CoastalPollution

Since the cyclone ‘Aila’ the block has experienced some sort ofinstitutional strengthening and received good amount of aid andattention. However, despite of that institutional intervention inpromoting adaptive action is not experienced.

Coastal exposure to Basnati Block is very high since the block
is surrounded by two major channels, i.e. Matla River andBidya River. The main problem it has experienced is the land
use alteration & land encroachment in the highly eco-sensitive
areas, although the length of potentially vulnerable embankmentis relatively small. The block has several Forest Protection
Committees performing under the local forest department.
This has made substantial contribution in conservation of themangrove forests.

Environmental/Natural
Disaster Frequency
Environmental
ActionBiogeochemcial

26

5
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Climatic
components

Geophysicalcomponent

Basanti Block is primarily exposed to coastal flooding and storm
surges. Rising of inland water salinity is also a potential concern
for the local fishermen. However, the ground water of the block isvoid of arsenic and heavy metal contamination. Also, the majority
area of this block is not prone to natural subsidence.

GOSABA
Gosaba block is located at the fringe of the Sundarban mangrove
forest and also a significant part of this block is covered under the
mangroves. The Block consists of 15 Gram Panchayets. Population
density (825 person/sq. km) and decadal growth rate of 9.83% ishigh and moderate respectively. The entire population is rural. In
terms of livelihood, the block is exceptionally vulnerable. Over,
70% of the population is dependent on agriculture and rests are
involved in fishing and prawn seed collection. The block lives inisolation and livelihood opportunities are very limited. Overall,
the socio-economic resilience is observed to be poor.

Socio-Economic
Demography
5
4
3
2
1
0

Education andAwareness

Community
GovernanceLivelihood

HealthPhyscial
Transportation

The block is very poorly connected through semi-mechanizedboats. In the islands, no formal motorized public transportationis unavailable. Less than 1% of the communities have formal
electricity connection and the islands are yet to be connected tothe main supply grids. Over 80% of the housing is vulnerable
to storms and flooding. Although, approximately 65% of thecommunities have access to mobile phones, telecommunication
facilities are not up to the satisfactory limit.

5
4
3
2
1
0

Water and
Sanitation

Gosaba is one of the extreme coastal blocks and coastal
exposure is very high. The block is entirely surrounded by earthen
embankments which posses a formidable challenge. Many of its
embankments were destroyed during the past cyclone leading
to prolonger flooding. Gosaba has several Eco-Development
Committees for bio-diversity conservation, especially tigers. The
problem of man animal conflict in this block is acute.
Gosaba block is exposed to all sort of coastal hazards. The primaryconcern is the tidal and surge flooding. However, existence ofthe great Sundarban mangroves provides a strong buffer to thewind hazards. It is also experiencing severe coastal erosion andchanges of river courses. Salinity has become a major problem inrecent years. Ground water is, in general, free from heavy metalor arsenic contamination.

Electricity

Telecommunica
tion

Institutional
Laws and Policy
5
4
3
2
1
0

Governence

Physical isolation plays also an important role in Gosaba’s poor
institutional resilience. Implementation of laws and policies arealso another critical issue under the depleting resources and poorsocio-economic condition.

Residential
Infrastructure

Adaptive
ActionCoordination

Emergency
Response

Coastal Zone Management
Embankment Protection

CoastalLanduse

5
4
3
2
1
0

Mangrove
Management

Bio-diversity
Conservation

CoastalPollution

Environmental/Natural
Disaster Frequency
Environmental
ActionBiogeochemcial

5
4
3
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1
0

Climatic
components

Geophysicalcomponent

27

KAKDWIP
Socio-Economic
Demography
5
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Education andAwareness

Community
GovernanceLivelihood

HealthPhyscial
Transportation
5
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Water and
Sanitation

Residential
Infrastructure

Electricity

Telecommunica
tion

Kakdwip block is located in the South western part of Indian
Sundarban in the bank of Hooghly River. The block consists 11
Gram Panchayets and the Kakdwip sub-divisional township. The
block experiences high population density (1133 person/ sq. km)
with a decadal growth rate of close to 19.64%. Approximately,
53% of the population is dependent on agriculture. It also hostsa good amount of fishing communities. Apart from the Kakdwip
Township which also serves as the head quarter of Kakdwip subdivision, the entire population is rural.
The block is connected through roads and railways. The amountof available road is 1.21 km/sq, km of the block area which issignificantly high compared to other blocks. However, the interiorrural areas are not very well connected. Approximately 12 % of
the population, mainly residing in the township is having accessto electricity. Most of the communities are having mobile phones
and formal communication medium such as television and radio.

Institutional
Laws and Policy
5
4
3
2
1
0

Governence

Adaptive
ActionCoordination

Emergency
Response

Coastal Zone Management
Embankment Protection

CoastalLanduse

5
4
3
2
1
0

Mangrove
Management

Bio-diversity
Conservation

CoastalPollution

The observed institutional resilience for this block can be
categorized between poor to moderate. Part of this evolves fromthe ineffective implementation of laws and policies. Similar to theother blocks in the region, emergency response mechanism has
improved since Cyclone “Aila’.
Kakdwip has significant coastal exposure since it has longstrength of embankments across the river Hooghly in thewest and Saptamukhi in the South. The embankment scenario
is comparatively better to other blocks and also only a small
stretch was breached during Aila. Despite of an entry point to the
Sundarbans, mangrove cover of this area is significantly low.
The Kakdwip Township also causes substantial water pollution
in the adjoining rivers since it does not possess any waste water
treatment plant. Also, some of the villges are dangerously close
to the river.

Environmental/Natural
Disaster Frequency
Environmental
ActionBiogeochemcial

28

5
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Climatic
components

Geophysicalcomponent

Kakdwip is primarily exposed to coastal erosion and has highflooding potential. River bank erosion is also an identified asa major threat for the block under the changing hydrologicalscenario of the river Hooghly. However, the block does not sufferfrom ground water contamination with arsenic or other heavy
metals.

SAGAR
Sagar is an extreme coastal block situated in the western part ofthe delta. The population density of the block is 748 person/sq km
and the decadal growth rate is 13.71%. Approximately, 75% of thecommunities are involved in mono crop agriculture. However,religious tourism has substantial positive impact in the local
economy. Sagar has one of the highest literacy rates in the delta.
In general, the socio-economic scenario is comparatively better
than the other extreme coastal blocks.
The entire block of Sagar represents islands communities andsuffers from geographical isolation. The only way to enter theblock is through waterways and the transportation is not welldeveloped. However, the block has a well developed arterial roadwith formal transportation such as bus, car etc. The road density
is 0.59 km/sq/km. Close to 2% of the people have electricity
connection, however, the situation is expected to improve as theisland have been recently connected to the main power grids.
Rural infrastructure such as mud houses is the major concern forthis block.
Sagar has a well established emergency response and coordination
mechanism, presumably due to the annual religious event that it
hosts. However, in general, implementation of CZM notificationand other environmental regulations are poor. Despite of theblocks vulnerability, adaptation mechanism are also not in place.
Sagar is surrounded by rivers ( Gabtala River in the west andMuriganga River in the east) and faces the Bay of Bengal in thesouth. The main island of Sagar is protected by sea and riverdykes and maintenance of these facilities is of major concern.
Some of the embankments were damaged during the cyclone ‘Aila’and presently being reconstructed.
Sagar is primarily exposed to severe coastal erosion and the
projected sea level rise implies a grave concern for the block. It isalso equally exposed to coastal flooding and storm surges as wellas high wind events. The main islands and some other nearby
small islands are probably undergoing a geological subsidence
leading to a rapid coastal erosion and loss of land. However,the block is free from bio-geochemical hazards such as arsenic
contamination etc.

Socio-Economic
Demography
5
4
3
2
1
0

Education andAwareness

Community
GovernanceLivelihood

HealthPhyscial
Transportation
5
4
3
2
1
0

Water and
Sanitation

Residential
Infrastructure

Electricity

Telecommunica
tion

Institutional
Laws and Policy
5
4
3
2
1
0

Governence

Adaptive
ActionCoordination

Emergency
Response

Coastal Zone Management
Embankment Protection

CoastalLanduse

5
4
3
2
1
0

Mangrove
Management

Bio-diversity
Conservation

CoastalPollution

Environmental/Natural
Disaster Frequency
Environmental
ActionBiogeochemcial

5
4
3
2
1
0

Climatic
components

Geophysicalcomponent

29

NAMKHANA
Socio-Economic
Demography
5
4
3
2
1
0

Education andAwareness

Community
GovernanceLivelihood

HealthPhyscial

Namkhana is an extreme coastal block in the Kakdwip subdivision. The block consists of 7 Gram Panchayets with apopulation density of 491 person/sq. km. The decadal growth rateis also moderate 13.22%. Approximately, 65% of the communities
are involved in agriculture and rests are involved in estuarine
fishing. The block is predominantly rural, however, part of thisblock such as Namkhana and Bakkhali are now being developed
as small townships. The block is characterized by high amount ofpoverty with approximately half of the population is living below
the poverty line. .

Transportation
5
4
3
2
1
0

Water and
Sanitation

Residential
Infrastructure

Electricity

Telecommunica
tion

Institutional
Laws and Policy
5
4
3
2
1
0

Governence

Adaptive
ActionNamkhana is connected by road and water ways; however, it isdifficult to reach some of the remote islands such as Mousuni.
Approximately 6% of the population has formal electricity
connection. In general, the population has safe drinking watersupply in terms of availability of tube wells. The block is covered
through both private and government telecommunication
network and over 70% of the population has access to mobile
phones.

Coordination

Emergency
Response

The institutional resilience of this block is moderate. Similar
to the neighboring blocks, it requires substantial institutional
intervention to promote adaptive actions. In general, coordination
mechanism among the adjacent blocks and higher level ofgovernment is well established.

Coastal Zone Management
Embankment Protection

CoastalLanduse

5
4
3
2
1
0

Mangrove
Management

Bio-diversity
Conservation

CoastalPollution

Namkhana block is surrounded by several creeks and river
channels and faces the sea in the south. The Henry’s island in thesouthern tip of the block maintains a thick greenbelt of mangroves
which undoubtedly increases its resilience from storm surges. The
block also host several protected areas of mangroves. However,similar to other coastal blocks, maintenance of extensive
embankment network remain as a crucial challenge.

Environmental/Natural
Disaster Frequency
Environmental
ActionBiogeochemcial

30

5
4
3
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1
0

Climatic
components

Geophysicalcomponent

Namkhana is located at the central tip of the delta and exposed
to severe cyclones and tidal flooding. This is also one of theextremely affected blocks in the cyclone Aila. The area is further
prone to erosion and rising salinity of the inland waters. However,
the region is not exposed to acute bio-geochemical hazards suchas arsenic or heavy metal contamination in ground water.

PATHARPRATIMAPathar Pratima block is located in south central region of the
Indian Sundarbans. The block consists 15 Gram Panchayets. The
existing density of population is about 689 person/sq. km. The
decadal growth rate is 15.71, considerable high for a rural coastal
area. Close to 65% of the communities are involved in agriculture
and almost half of the population survive below the designatedpoverty line. However, close to 74% of the people are literate andwell aware of their existing vulnerability.

Socio-Economic
Demography
5
4
3
2
1
0

Education andAwareness

Community
GovernanceLivelihood

HealthPhyscial

The block is connected through roads and waterways. The amountof available road is 0.23 km/sq, km of the block area which issignificantly poor compared to other coastal blocks. Informal
semi-motorized vehicles & boats are the lifeline for local people.
Particularly, G-spot and other extreme coastal areas are highly
inaccessible. The block has less than 1% of house hold electricity
connection, however, localized solar power are extensively usedby the communities.

Transportation
5
4
3
2
1
0

Water and
Sanitation

Residential
Infrastructure

Electricity

Telecommunica
tion

Institutional

The observed institutional resilience for this block can be
categorized between poor to moderate. Part of this evolves fromthe effective implementation of laws and policies. However,similar to the other blocks in the region, emergency response
mechanism has improved since Cyclone “Aila’.
Similar to the other coastal blocks, Pathar Prratima block has highcoastal exposure. The block is surrounded by Takhurani River inthe east and Saptamukhi River in the west. The Southern part ofthe block consists of small deltaic islands crisscrossed by several
tidal creeks. Therefore, embankments are the lifeline of thisblocks. However, following the cyclone Aila, the majority of theembankment need to be reconstructed and require improvement.
The block has significant mangrove forests in its southern tip
which is being protected by the forest department.

Laws and Policy
5
4
3
2
1
0

Governence

Adaptive
ActionCoordination

Emergency
Response

Coastal Zone Management
Embankment Protection

CoastalLanduse

5
4
3
2
1
0

Mangrove
Management

Bio-diversity
Conservation

CoastalPollution

Environmental/Natural

Due to its geographical location, this block is severely exposed tocoastal& surge flooding. Tidal flooding is also a mjor concern forthis block. Part of this block is also experiencing coastal erosions.
The projected consequences of climate change may havesignificant adverse impact of this block. However, the block is freeof bio-geochemical contamination.

Disaster Frequency
Environmental
ActionBiogeochemcial

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components

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31

JOYNAGAR - I
Socio-Economic
Demography
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Education andAwareness

Community
GovernanceLivelihood

HealthJoynagar I block is located in the middle mature delta andconsists of 12 Gram Panchayet. The block is under the Baruipur
Sub-division and represents a mixed population of rural andsemi-urban settlements. Joynagar I has the highest population
density (1984 person/sq.km) with a decadal growth rate of
18.66. Approximately, 33% of the communities are involved inagricultural sector. Joynagar has a relatively better health facilities
compared to the other blocks.

Physcial
Transportation
5
4
3
2
1
0

Water and
Sanitation

Residential
Infrastructure

Electricity

Telecommunica
tion

Institutional

Joynagar I block is well connected via rail and road networks.
Formal transportation facilities exist in almost every corner ofthe block. Although, some of the interior villages are difficult toreach by formal mean of transportation. Approximately 15.21% of
the local populations have access to electricity. Joynagar I is also
the highest amount of people having access to supplied drinking
water. Over 80% of the communities have access to mobile
phones, radio or television.

Laws and Policy
5
4
3
2
1
0

Governence

Adaptive
ActionCoordination

Emergency
Response

Due to the close proximity to the state capital, both thec o o r d i n a t i o n a n d e m e r g e n c y r e s p o n s e m e ch a n i s m a r esatisfactory. However, implementation of laws and policies is
identified as a major challenge.

Coastal Zone Management
Embankment Protection

CoastalLanduse

5
4
3
2
1
0

Mangrove
Management

Bio-diversity
Conservation

CoastalPollution

Joynagar I block has significantly less coastal exposure. The
Hobka Cannel flows through the north of the block. There is onlya small stretch of embankment. Particularly, the embankments ofthis block did not suffer much damage in the Cyclone ‘Aila”. The
block has a small patch of unprotected mangroves in the south
east, however, significant conservation imitative exists at present.

Environmental/Natural
Disaster Frequency
Environmental
ActionBiogeochemcial

32

5
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Climatic
components

Geophysicalcomponent

Due to its interior location in the middle mature delta, theblock is relatively less exposed to coastal hazards. The block is
primarily get affected by wind hazards. However, block is partiallycontaminated by arsenic in some of the tube wells. There is no
major observed or predicted impact of climate change on thisblock.

JOYNAGAR-II
Joynagar II block is located in the south of the middle maturedelta under the Baruipur sub-division. The block consists of 10
Gram Panchayets. Almost the entire population is rural excluding
the sub-urban areas of Joynagar. The block is densely populated(1326 person/sq.km) and experiences a decadal growth rate of
18.06%. The choice of livelihood is limited. More than half of theexisting population lives on agriculture. Approximately, 42.6%
people live under the designated poverty line.

Socio-Economic
Demography
5
4
3
2
1
0

Education andAwareness

Community
GovernanceLivelihood

HealthPhyscial

In general, Joynagar II block is well connected via road andrailways. The Joynagar-Majilpur station on the Seladah
Lakshmikantapur railway serves the gateway of the block. Over
90% of the population lives in rural areas and live in earthen or
semi structured houses. Only 5.80% of the population has formal
electricity connection, although many of the communities use
personalized solar electricity facilities. Similar to other blocks,
majority of the communities have access to mobile phones, TV orradio.

Transportation
5
4
3
2
1
0

Water and
Sanitation

Residential
Infrastructure

Electricity

Telecommunica
tion

Institutional
Laws and Policy

In general, these blocks show similar institutional resilience
to Joynagar I block and take the advantage of being at close
proximity to the district and sub-divisional head quarters.
Coordination with NGOs & research organization such as ICAR
is also very satisfactory. The Nimpeeth Krishi Vigyan Kendra, an
NGO & technical consutant has worked extensively with the block
administration in promoting agricultural adaptation.

5
4
3
2
1
0

Governence

Adaptive
ActionCoordination

Emergency
Response

Coastal Zone Management
Embankment Protection

Joynagar II is surrounded by creeks and small channels,
especially Moni River and Hobka Khal in the west and east
respectively. The eastern side of the block is entirely covered byearthen embankments; part of which has been demarcated asvulnerable. There has also a bit of sparse mangrove vegetation
which remains unprotected.

CoastalLanduse

5
4
3
2
1
0

Mangrove
Management

Bio-diversity
Conservation

CoastalPollution

Environmental/Natural
Disaster Frequency

Exposure to Coastal Hazards is significantly low, primarily due to
its location in the middle mature delta. However, southern partof the block was heavily impacted by river flooding due to thecyclone ‘Aila’. The block is void of major heavy metal or arsenic
contamination.

Environmental
ActionBiogeochemcial

5
4
3
2
1
0

Climatic
components

Geophysicalcomponent

33

KULTALI
Socio-Economic
Demography
5
4
3
2
1
0

Education andAwareness

Community
GovernanceLivelihood

HealthPhyscial

The block Kultali stretches from middle mature delta to the active
delta area and consists of 11 Gram Panchayets. Kultali block has
predominantly rural communities with a population density of 757
person/sq. km. The decadal growth rate is 23.33%; significantly
high compared to the other coastal blocks. More than 70% of
the communities are involved in mono crop agriculture. Close to
46.36% of the population lives under the poverty line. The block
has been infamous for law & order problem creating conflicts
among the communities.

Transportation
5
4
3
2
1
0

Water and
Sanitation

Residential
Infrastructure

Electricity

Telecommunica
tion

Kultali block is connected through a major arterial road; however,formal public transportation in this road is rare. Almost half ofthe population has access over drinking water facilities, however,
only <1% has access to electricity. Over 70% of the communities
have access to mobile phones, TV or radios. The majority of thelocal houses are semi-engineered earthen structures.

Institutional
Laws and Policy
5
4
3
2
1
0

Governence

Adaptive
ActionCoordination

Emergency
Response

Implementation of laws and policies is a substantial challenge
for the local administration. However, emergency response has
substantially improved since the cyclone ‘Aila’. The block is yet
to implement any formal structured adaptation measures. Lackof human capacity in the block administration is also a major
challenge.

Coastal Zone Management
Embankment Protection

CoastalLanduse

5
4
3
2
1
0

Mangrove
Management

Bio-diversity
Conservation

CoastalPollution

Kultali block is surrounded by rivers. Matla River flows south tothe block. It has a long stretch of embankments facing the Matla
River, part of which has been restored after cyclone ‘Aila’. The
block also has several Forest Protection Committees in orderto protect and conserve the mangrove forests. In general, thefunctions of FPCs are satisfactory, however, in some cases theforest cover has marginally reduced. There are some problems
with illegal settlement across the river embankments.

Environmental/Natural
Disaster Frequency
Environmental
ActionBiogeochemcial

34

5
4
3
2
1
0

Climatic
components

Geophysicalcomponent

Kultali block is primarily exposed to coastal flooding. The southern
tip of the block was inundated during the cyclone Aila and a large
portion of the coastal land was eroded. The changing river track ofMatla near Kaikhali is also an identified phenomenon. There is noreported arsenic contamination in this block.

MATHURAPUR-I
Mathurapur I block is located in the middle mature delta under
the Diamond Harbor sub-division. The block consists of 10 Gram
Panchayets. Population density of this block is 1318 person/sq km.
The block also experiences a decadal population growth 17.87%.
Approximately 46% of the populations are involved in agriculture.
34% people live under the designated poverty line which issignificantly low compared to the other blocks of Sundarbans.

Socio-Economic
Demography
5
4
3
2
1
0

Education andAwareness

Community
GovernanceLivelihood

HealthPhyscial

The block is well connected by road and railways. The available
road length/sq. km of land area is approximately 2.06. Nearly
12% of the people have formal electricity connection while morethan 50% of the population has access to drinking water supply.
Almost the entire community has access to television, radio or
mobile phones.

Transportation
5
4
3
2
1
0

Water and
Sanitation

Residential
Infrastructure

Electricity

Telecommunica
tion

Institutional
Laws and Policy

Coordination between the blocks and with other implementing
agencies is substantially good for this block. This is primarily due
to close proximity to the head quarters and land connectivity. The
block has an emergency management plan in place. However,similar to the local administrative scenario, implementation oflaws and policies remain significant challenge.

5
4
3
2
1
0

Governence

Adaptive
ActionCoordination

Emergency
Response

Coastal Zone Management
Embankment Protection

Mathurapur I has only a small stretch of embankment in the southof the block. These embankments are not classified as vulnerable;
also it did not suffer major damage in the cyclone ‘Aila’. The block
does not possess significant amount of mangroves or designatedforest land. However, there are scope for mangrove plantation.

CoastalLanduse

5
4
3
2
1
0

Mangrove
Management

Bio-diversity
Conservation

CoastalPollution

Environmental/Natural
Disaster Frequency

Although it is a designated block under the Sundarban region,
the block is relatively less exposed that any other blocks in theregion. It only faces significant wind hazards and some occasional
flooding. No major incidents of land erosion or land subsidence
were recorded in this block.

Environmental
ActionBiogeochemcial

5
4
3
2
1
0

Climatic
components

Geophysicalcomponent

35

MATHURAPUR-II
Socio-Economic
Demography
5
4
3
2
1
0

Education andAwareness

Community
GovernanceLivelihood

Mathurapur II block is located under the Diamond Harbor subdivision. The block has a population density of close to 1000
person/sq km. The decadal population growth has been 10.72%,
relatively low compared to the other blocks. Approximately
40% of the population lives under the poverty line. Agriculturalcommunity consist amount 63% of the local population.

HealthPhyscial
Transportation
5
4
3
2
1
0

Water and
Sanitation

Residential
Infrastructure

Mathurapur II is connected by roadways; however, connectivity
to the interior blocks is poor. The length of surfaced road/sq km is
only 0.60. Approximately 6% of the communities have household
electricity connection while more than 50% of the population has
access to safe drinking water.

Electricity

Telecommunica
tion

Institutional
Laws and Policy
5
4
3
2
1
0

Governence

Adaptive
ActionCoordination

Emergency
Response

Institutional resilience profile of the block is similar to theneighboring blocks. The block has an emergency management
plan in place. The existing coordination mechanism is also good
due to its proximity and land connectivity to the administrative
headquarters.

Coastal Zone Management
Embankment Protection

CoastalLanduse

5
4
3
2
1
0

Mangrove
Management

Bio-diversity
Conservation

CoastalPollution

Mathurapur II has moderate coastal exposure. There is a long
stretch of embankment across the Raidighi River located in theSouth of the Block. These stretches of embankment are relatively
safe and did not suffer much in the cyclone ‘Aila’. However, theblock does not possess significant mangrove or forest cover andthere is scope of mangrove plantation.

Environmental/Natural
Disaster Frequency
Environmental
ActionBiogeochemcial

36

5
4
3
2
1
0

Climatic
components

Geophysicalcomponent

The block is relative less exposed to coastal hazards withmoderate frequency of flooding. The immediate threat comesfrom high wind event. However, the block is experiencing riverbank erosion in the south. The block is free of bio-geochemicalhazards.

SANDESHKHALI-I
Sandeshkhali I block is located in the Bashirhat Subdivision
under the North 24 Parganas. This riparian block has a population
density of 901 perosn/sq. km with a decadal population growth of
16.88%. Close to 60% of the population live under the designatedpoverty line. Approximately, 63% of the population lives on
agriculture. Approximately 59% of the communities are literate.
Sandehkhali I has extremely limited health facilities.

Sandeshkhali I is connected by road and waterways, although
the interior villages are only connected through waterways. The
block has the road density of 1.14 km/sq km. Domestic electrify
connection is rare; however, many uses personalized solar
facilities .The existing residential and housing facilities are mostly
earthen, making it highly vulnerable to coastal hazards.

The inaccessible location of the block has been a major
drawback in the emergency response mechanism adopted by
the block administration. However, the block prepared a disastermanagement plan after the cyclone Aila.

The block has significant coastal exposure. The block issurrounded by rivers and creeks and survives on a peripheral
embankment. The eastern part of the block has experienced
embankment failure during the cyclone ‘Aila’. Majority of thoseis yet to be properly reconstructed. The block has several altered
land for coastal shrimp cultivations adding to its vulnerability.
Despite of significant mangrove cover, majority of it are notprotected.

Socio-Economic
Demography
5
4
3
2
1
0

Education andAwareness

Community
Governance

HealthPhyscial
Transportation
5
4
3
2
1
0

Water and
Sanitation

Residential
Infrastructure

Electricity

Telecommunica
tion

Institutional
Laws and Policy
5
4
3
2
1
0

Governence

Adaptive
ActionCoordination

Emergency
Response

Coastal Zone Management
Embankment Protection

CoastalLanduse

5
4
3
2
1
0

Mangrove
Management

Bio-diversity
Conservation

CoastalPollution

Sandehkhali I has high coastal exposure and primarily exposed tocoastal flooding, storm surges and high wind events. The block isalso among the most impacted blocks in cyclone Aila. River bankerosion and changing of river courses are of primary concern
for this block, especially near Dhamakhali, the entry point andcommercial centre of the block. Apart from that, approximately
0.6% of the existing tube wells have arsenic contamination
leading to bio-geochemical hazards.

Livelihood

Environmental/Natural
Disaster Frequency
Environmental
ActionBiogeochemcial

5
4
3
2
1
0

Climatic
components

Geophysicalcomponent

37

SANDESHKHALI-II
Socio-Economic
Demography
5
4
3
2
1
0

Education andAwareness

Community
GovernanceLivelihood

HealthSandeshkhali II is located in the Bashirhat sub-division and to thenorth of the Gosaba block. The block consists 8 Gram Panchayets.
The block has a population density of 816 person/sq. km andthe decadal population growth in 17.98%. Close to 60% of theexisting population live below the designated poverty line. Nearly
65% of the populations live on agriculture. Sandeshkhali II has
also extremely limited health care facilities making this block
exceptionally vulnerable on socio-economic front.

Physcial
Transportation
5
4
3
2
1
0

Water and
Sanitation

Residential
Infrastructure

Electricity

Telecommunica
tion

Sandehkhali II is connected by roads and waterways. Most of
the locations under this block can only be reached by semimotorized boats. The block consists road areas of nearly 0.14
km/sq km. Similar to the adjacent blocks, the existing residential
infrastructure are high vulnerable and made of semi-engineered
earthen houses. However, more than 60% of the population havemobile phone and have access to radio.

Institutional
Laws and Policy
5
4
3
2
1
0

Governence

Adaptive
ActionCoordination

Emergency
Response

Coastal Zone Management
Embankment Protection

CoastalLanduse

5
4
3
2
1
0

Mangrove
Management

Bio-diversity
Conservation

CoastalPollution

Sandeshkhali II is among the most impacted blocks in the Cyclone
Aila. Since then, the institutional mechanism has vastly improved.
The block maintains an emergency action plan. However, similar
to the regional scenario, efforts for institutional adaptation are yet
to be initiated.

Sandehskhali II is surrounded by rivers and creeks. It faces the
Bidya River in the South. The eastern part of the block has a huge
stretch of vulnerable embankment which was destructed during
the cyclone ‘Aila’. Sandehkhali II also has substantial amount ofmangrove forest. Especially in the southern villages of the blocks
have several patches of mangrove. In general, the mangroves arewell conserved.

Environmental/Natural
Disaster Frequency
Environmental
ActionBiogeochemcial

38

5
4
3
2
1
0

Climatic
components

Geophysicalcomponent

Sandeshkhali II receives very high exposure from all sorts ofcoastal hazards. The block was affected by storm and floods
during the cyclone ‘Aila’. Change of land use in terms ofdevelopment of shrimp & aquaculture ponds further adds to its
vulnerability. A small number of shallow tubewells are arsenic
contaminated, however, they are well segregated.

MINAKHAN
Minakhan is located in the eastern part of the Sundarban delta
under the Bashirhat sub-division. The block has a staggering
density of 1208person/sq km and experiences a decadal
population growth of 13.58%. Close to 55% of the local
communities are engaged in agriculture. The block also hassignificant amount of BPL population. In general, the observedsocio-economic resilience can be defined as poor.

Socio-Economic
Demography
5
4
3
2
1
0

Education andAwareness

Community
GovernanceLivelihood

HealthPhyscial

Minakhan is connected by roads & waterways. However, theinterior areas are difficult to reach in absence of formal road
network. The average road area is about 0.38 km/sq km. Close to
27% of the local communities has access to electricity. Comparedto the other blocks, the residential infrastructure is slightly better.
Majority of the community members have access to mobile
phones and radio or TV.

Transportation
5
4
3
2
1
0

Water and
Sanitation

Residential
Infrastructure

Electricity

Telecommunica
tion

Institutional

The administrative headquarter of this block is well connected tothe district headquarters by an all weather road ensuring good
coordination. In general, the observed institutional resilience iscomparable to its neighboring blocks.

Laws and Policy
5
4
3
2
1
0

Governence

Adaptive
ActionThe block is crisscrossed by several small tidal creeks. Bidyadhari
Khal marks the western border to the block while Netia Khalmarks the boundary in the east. The block has long stretches ofembankment; approximately 30% of them are vulnerable andwere damaged during the Aila. Particularly, the block experiences
severe alteration of land use due to the creation of aquaculture
ponds. Similarly discharge of untreated Kolkata city sewage
severely pollutes the tidal water bodies.

Coordination

Emergency
Response

Coastal Zone Management
Embankment Protection

CoastalLanduse

5
4
3
2
1
0

Mangrove
Management

Bio-diversity
Conservation

CoastalPollution

Environmental/Natural

Majority of the existing block area is not exposed to coastal
hazards. However, the southern parts of the block, especially,
along the ri ver are prone to erosion and ri ver flooding.
The transitional salinity is a major issue for the local fishingcommunities which have also been considered as a major treat
under climate change.

Disaster Frequency
Environmental
ActionBiogeochemcial

5
4
3
2
1
0

Climatic
components

Geophysicalcomponent

39

HAROA
Socio-Economic
Demography
5
4
3
2
1
0

Education andAwareness

Community
GovernanceLivelihood

HealthHaroa block is located in the north of Minakhan under theBashirhat Sub-division. The block consists of 9 Gram Panchayets
and has a population density of 1403 person/sq. km. It also
experiences a decadal growth rate of 17.38%. Close to 50% of thecommunities are involved in agriculture. Haroa has significantly
low BPL population ( nearly 33%) compared to the adjacent
blocks.

Physcial
Transportation
5
4
3
2
1
0

Water and
Sanitation

Residential
Infrastructure

Electricity

Telecommunica
tion

Haroa is well connected by rail and road networks. The block
has one of the highest road densities (nearly 2.11 km/sq km of
the total area) in Sundarban area. Approximately 60% of thecommunities have access to electricity. Most of community
members have access to mobile phones, radio and TVs. Also, theresidential infrastructure is significantly better compared to theother blocks.

Institutional
Laws and Policy
5
4
3
2
1
0

Governence

Adaptive
ActionCoordination

Emergency
Response

Due to close proximity of the district headquarters (Barsat)
and sub-visional headquarters (Bashirhat), the block is good interms of coordination and governance. In general, the observed
institutional resilience is comparable to the interior blocks.

Coastal Zone Management
Embankment Protection

CoastalLanduse

5
4
3
2
1
0

Mangrove
Management

Bio-diversity
Conservation

CoastalPollution

Haroa has relative small coastal exposure. The Bidyadhari Khal
(canal) flows through the western part of the block. There is alittle stretch of vulnerable embankments. Although the block does
not have significant amount of mangrove forests, in general, nofurther degradation has been reported in recent years. In also has
relatively small areas designated to shrimp farming activities.

Environmental/Natural
Disaster Frequency
Environmental
ActionBiogeochemcial

40

5
4
3
2
1
0

Climatic
components

Geophysicalcomponent

In general, the environmental and natural resilience of Haroa issignificantly high compared to other blocks in this region. The
block is moderately exposed to flood and high winds. However,the block has some problem with the ground water arsenic
contamination.

HASNABAD
Hasnabad block is located in the northeastern corner of Indian
Sundarbans bordering Bangladesh. It consists of 10 Gram
Panchayets and also hosts the Hasnabad Township; the subdivisional headquarters of Bashirhat. The block has a highpopulation density (1286 person/sq. km) and 36% of the local
communities are involved in agriculture. The block is located in
the border area. Several issues such as trans-boundary migration,illegal settlements are majorly responsible for poor community
participation in developmental agendas.

Socio-Economic
Demography
5
4
3
2
1
0

Education andAwareness

Community
GovernanceLivelihood

HealthPhyscial
Transportation

Hasnabad town is well connected by road and railways. However,interior villages are isolated and the formal road coverage is only
about 0.37 km/sq.km. Close to 65% of the local households haveformal electricity connections. However, residential infrastructuresare vulnerable as majority of the communities live in earthen
housing. Almost 75% of the communities have access to mobile
phone, radio or TV.

5
4
3
2
1
0

Water and
Sanitation

Residential
Infrastructure

Electricity

Telecommunica
tion

Institutional
Laws and Policy
5
4
3
2
1
0

Governence

Hasnabad being a border area, constantly faces law and orderproblems. The local administration is poised of several challenges,
particularly conflicts among the communities.

Hasnabad has high coastal exposure, particularly in the easternpart of the block. The river zone also faces the problem ofindustrial pollution and forcible occupation of land by people.
This has resulted in several adverse consequences in the local
bio-diversity. The existing small patches of mangroves andother coastal forests are highly vulnerable under the humanencroachment. Hasnabad has also had substantial amount oflands diverted to aquaculture ponds.

Adaptive
ActionCoordination

Emergency
Response

Coastal Zone Management
Embankment Protection

CoastalLanduse

5
4
3
2
1
0

Mangrove
Management

Bio-diversity
Conservation

CoastalPollution

Environmental/Natural
Disaster Frequency

The river Icchamati marks the eastern boundary of the block. Thistransboundary river has undergone severe siltation which exerts
significant risk of riparian flooding. The river is also undergoingnatural course changes along with changes in water quality.
Hasnabad is also a designated arsenic contaminated block.

Environmental
ActionBiogeochemcial

5
4
3
2
1
0

Climatic
components

Geophysicalcomponent

41

HINGOLGANJ
Socio-Economic
Demography
5
4
3
2
1
0

Education andAwareness

Community
GovernanceLivelihood

HealthHingolganj block is located the eastern corner of Indian
Sundarbans bordering Bangladesh. The block has a moderate
population density of 668 person/sq. km. Close to 60% of thecommunities are involved in agriculture while 45% of the local
communities live under the designated poverty line. The healthconditions are also not satisfactory. However, on a positive note,more than 70% of the communities are literate.

Physcial
Transportation
5
4
3
2
1
0

Water and
Sanitation

Residential
Infrastructure

Electricity

Telecommunica
tion

Hingolganj is connected through roads and waterways. The
majority of the block is extremely difficult to reach. The roaddensity of Hingolganj is 0.21km/sq km. approximately 25% of
the local population has domestic electricity connection and theresidential infrastructure is in general poor. Approximately 50% of
the communities have access to mobile phones, radio or TV.

Institutional
Laws and Policy
5
4
3
2
1
0

Governence

Adaptive
ActionCoordination

Emergency
Response

Coastal Zone Management
Embankment Protection

CoastalLanduseThe observed institutional resilience is comparable to theneighboring blocks. As a bordering block, enforcement oflaws and policies remain the major challenge of the local
administration.

5
4
3
2
1
0

Mangrove
Management

Bio-diversity
Conservation

CoastalPollution

Hingolganj is surrounded by river and creeks in its four sides.
Icchamati River marks the eastern boundary of the block. The
block survives due to long stretches of earthen embankments,
significant length of which was breached during cyclone ‘Aila’ in
the Southern corner of the block. Presently, the embankments arebeing reconstructed. The block does not host significant amountof mangrove or other coastal forests, however, anthropogenic
interventions of forests is relatively less.

Environmental/Natural
Disaster Frequency
Environmental
ActionBiogeochemcial

42

5
4
3
2
1
0

Climatic
components

Geophysicalcomponent

Hingolganj is severely exposed to storms and river flooding. It isalso one of the worst affected blocks in Cyclone Aila. Similar to
the neighboring Bashirhat Block, heavy siltation in the riverbedof Icchamati also exerts similar risk of riparian flooding, coastal
erosion and increment in soil salinity.