Filipino Migrant Workers, a Historical Perspective (1970-2010)山形大学人文社会科学部研究年報第15号（2018．３）149－159

Filipino Migrant Workers, a Historical Perspective(1970-2010)

Delilah R. LABAJO
School of Arts and Sciences
University of San Carlos
Overseas Filipino Worker (OFW) or Migrant Workers are the resident Filipinos who are presently andtemporarily out of the country to fulfil an overseas contract for a specific length of time or who arepresently at home on vacation but still has an existing contract to work abroad. There are two maintypes of OFWs. First is the land based workers. They are the OFWs hired directly by an employer
abroad through the assistance of the Philippine Overseas Employment Association or through a privateand licensed recruitment agency. Second, is the sea based workers – OFWs who worked or are working
in any international fishing/passenger/cargo vessels. It includes OFWs who worked or are working
for a shipping company abroad. And, it refers to a person who to be engaged, is engaged in a renumerated act in a state of which he or she is not a legal resident of (Sec.2B, Part II, Omnibus Rules ofRegulations Implementing the Migrant Workers and Overseas Filipino Act of 1995).
A. Historical Background
It has been noted that it was in 1506 to 1650 when migration started to happen when under half amillion persons migrated from Spain to the Caribbean and to Central and South America and Mexico.
In 1815, one (1) million settled on North America from United Kingdom and Ireland. And, 19th century,
witnessed the expansion and acceleration of voluntary migratory movements with the following factors:
Industrial Revolution, demographic and economic situation of Europe, attraction of spaces to be settled
and developed in the New World, technical advances in transportation and relaxation of government
controls on movements of people (Custodio, 2012).
In 1815 to 1914, intercontinental movements was noted. For instance, sixty million (60M) migrated
from Europe to Americas, Oceania, South and East Africa. Ten million (10M) from Russia to Siberia
and Central Asia. Twelve million (12M) Chinese and six million (6M) Japanese to Eastern and Southern
Asia. Noted also was the one and a half million (1.5M) from India to Southeast Asia and South and East
Africa. It also saw the development of migration for paid employment (Custodio, 2012).
The end of World War II brought a significant increase in migration, many flocked to Western
Europe. In 1973 to 1974, labour migration to Europe declined as a result of the recession which－111 －

Filipino Migrant Workers, a Historical Perspective (1970-2010)――LABAJO

followed the oil crisis, as an aftermath of the Second World War. As a result, these incidents became thesource of human rights and international tensions today. Industrialization created a demand for labour
which was initially met by internal resettlement from rural to urban areas (Vera Cruz, 2002).
In the Philippines, the history of migration can be traced during the American period wherein
Filipinos were deployed for two reasons: to work in the pineapple field in Hawaii and to enrich theirknowledge as graduate students and work on their field of specialization.
The Labour Export Program began in 1974, under the presidency of Ferdinand Marcos. It was
prompted by the double effects of the oil crisis in the 1970s where Philippines was badly affected by
the oil price increases and the economies of the oil-producing countries were out with money available
for projects for which mass labour migration was needed. He encouraged Filipinos to migrate to reduce
unemployment and to increase foreign currency earnings (Baluyot, 2007).
With this, the Philippines became the fifth largest remittance-receiving country after India,
China, Mexico and France. Middle Eastern countries were the earliest and by far the biggest market
for Filipino workers. Its boom in construction activities during the early 1970s opened a door ofopportunities for the Overseas Filipino Workers.
The next Philippine Presidents used different terms that projects positive positioning of theOverseas Filipino workers in the society. Corazon Aquino called them “modern day national heroes”
or “bagong bayani”. Fidel Ramos called them “internationally shared human resources”. And Gloria
Arroyo coined “Overseas Filipino investors”, “new investors”, “new aristocrats” and “the ambassador of
goodwill”. During her presidency, she would repeatedly flaunt that the Philippines is the “Home of Great
Filipino Workers”.
Basically, there are three main types of Filipino migrant population. One is the Permanent. They
are the Filipino immigrants who hold permanent residence or landed immigrant status in a foreigncountry, and whose stay does not depend on work contracts, includes even those who already acquired
foreign citizenship. Second is the Temporary which includes Filipinos whose stay overseas is based
or determined by a formal contract of employment. This includes land based or sea based, they arecollectively called Overseas Filipino Worker. And lastly, there is the Irregular who are the Filipino
residence or OFWs who do not possess valid passports or documents. Or even if properly documented,
they lack valid residency or work permits or have overstayed in a certain country.
The phenomenon of massive migration can be explained in two different views. In a macro
perspective, this is seen as a result of asymmetric structural between highly industrialized countries andpoor developing countries. Since developed countries are characterized by stable market conditions, highlevel of wages, low population growth and high educational profile brought about by rapid economic－111 －

山形大学人文社会科学部研究年報第15号（2018．３）149－159

growth and technological expansion of workers within the local population, the locales are now reluctant
to accept what is referred to as 3D jobs: dirty, dangerous and demanding. Thus, workers in the poor
countries were forced to take because of the limited economic opportunities and low wages within theircountry of origin. Then, there is the Micro perspective which involves the decision to migrate due toman’s rational behaviour, considering the human capital is a by-product of investment in the acquisitionof knowledge (Flores, 2007).
There two categories for the causes of migration. First is the Push Factors which refers to
the deterioration of condition in rural areas, including increasing population, lower incomes anddisplacement. This may also be caused by widespread unemployment, population pressure, shortageof land, famine and war. Second is the Pull Factors that which attracts the migrants may include free
agricultural land, the bright lights of a third world primate city or a booming economy, availability ofwell-paid work, demand for (cheap) labour, scientific and technical improvements in communication
systems and readily available transportation, migration network, and a dynamic process. The later isusually taking place between countries with close historic, colonial, economic and cultural ties which
can be considered as the “migration system” (Flores, 2007).
But in this migration process, there are disadvantages experienced by both the receiving andsending countries. For the receiving countries, as long as migrant workers are in the worst jobs, thereis less cause for national workers to complain about work and employment conditions. Few migrant
workers are unionized and therefore less in position to protest. This may resort to foreign labour
initially going the upward wage spiral and should facilitate future salary increases to national workers.
For domestic consumers, lower labour costs also translate into cheaper goods and services. Migrant
workers also cost nothing to receiving countries in social terms, nor in terms of education and training
prior to their employment. This may also lead to the existence of a 2nd class economically and sociallyvulnerable and culturally distinct population (Carungay, 2008).
From the sending countries, the supposedly poverty alleviation is only short-term. In long-term it
represents a threat to the political stability of those states. It may result in massive return migration
to the countries of origin at times when they can least afford to re-integrate returning nationals.
Remittances benefit economically individual migrant workers and their families in number of ways. But
it is difficult to gauge precisely the extent to which remittances contribute to a country’s development.
On international trade, the economic development is likely to be assisted by among other else, thegreater demand for the transport, banking and communication services, the increase in business andtourist travel and the promotion of the export of particular goods and products from the sending
country. Skills and other contributions that migrant workers will contribute to the development of their－111 －

Filipino Migrant Workers, a Historical Perspective (1970-2010)――LABAJO

own country on their return is seldom realized. Since they are hired mainly for mundane and repetitive
tasks, they do not acquire opportunities to develop new skills or to participate in vocational training.
More than anything else, this migration process causes strains on family structure. Family bonds
and solidarity erodes and society follows. Once in the receiving country, they acquire new lifestyles,
different consumption habits and new forms of behaviour which when introduced into the countriesof origin, many threaten and disturb social harmony. Lastly, this can cause brain drain where humancapital characterizes that serves them well abroad. Opportunity cost of their lost talent is incalculable
but significant. Also to be included is that which concerns of national pride, of domestic scientific andtechnological capabilities, of malaise among those who stay behind, of setbacks to local university andresearch centres (Carungay, 2008).
With this, below is the result of a survey or study conducted by the Migrant Ministry of theArchdiocese of Cebu. Respondents were from selected schools and universities in Cebu City whoseparent/s are OFWs. These schools includes: Colegio de la Inmaculada Concepcion, University of
San Carlos, Boys High School and Talamban Campus, University of Cebu, Lapulapu Campus and St.
Theresa’s College. The author of this article conducted and recorded this survey analysis in the year
2013.
SURVEY ANALYSIS
A. PATTERN OF SOCIAL RELATIONSHIP
Majority of the respondents said they have good & harmonious relationship with their family.
They are happy. This was made possible through constant and open-communication line, spending
quality time together, understanding and cooperation in times of adversities and strong faith in God. A
number of the respondents already see the complications it can give to a family. (i.e. indifferent brother,irresponsible father, existence of a special child in the family). Many are not relating with neighbours
but, majority still maintains the Filipino sense of community, friendship and sharing.
MEMBERSHIP IN ORGANIZATIONS: (usual organizations they are joining)
1.) Youth for Christ
2.) Facilitator in school organizations
3.) Church choir4.) Home owners Association
5.) Chapel organizations
6.) Political Science Society Philippine Nurses Association
7.) School organizations－111 －

山形大学人文社会科学部研究年報第15号（2018．３）149－159

8.) Filipino Private Duty Nurses Association
9.) Church Organizations
10.) Bogo Redeemers Society11.) Community Organization
12.) Solid Waste Association of the Philippines
DIFFERENCE IN CURRENT SITUATION (child rearing, household management & recreation)
Most of the respondents said that they find difficulty in raising family without the presence of ahusband/wife. Most of the time, household management is left to the eldest member of the family who
are left at home. As expressed, it becomes a burden, to them, to some extent. Also should be noted istheir difficulty to have and maintain long distance rearing and relationship.
B. PARENT-CHILD AND PEER RELATIONSHIP
Most of the children become closer to the parent left with them. Respondent/s pointed out, that
there children has the tendency to be strangers with the OFW family member and that OFW parent/s can only provide financial support but not emotional. For the mothers left behind, they have to play
the role of a mother and a father. A respondent stated, “I should know everything, from plumbing, tocooking and counselling children. Some children learned independence others tend to show indifference
in attitude.
C. ECONOMIC CONDITION
Majority of the respondents are relying on OFW’s salary only. Very few are engaging in small
scale business (i.e. sari-sari store, farm). Majority pointed out that there status in life changed for thereasons that they can send their children to better/schools, their standard of living improved, more
luxurious way of life and that they can save money for the future. Some said nothing changed since the
OFW’s salary is just enough to pay children’s tuition fees, for daily needs and to pay debts. Positively, it
was pointed out that being as such, improves their skills, job experiences and so will enhance their selfconfidence and self- worth.

D. CULTURAL AND RELIGIOUS BELIEFS AND PRACTICES
1.) Majority of the respondents are Catholic who are observing the following:
1.1) Attending Sunday mass
1.2) Praying/rosary together－111 －

Filipino Migrant Workers, a Historical Perspective (1970-2010)――LABAJO

1.3) Believe in one God1.4) Christmas celebration
1.5) Visiting grandparents on weekends
1.6) Celebrate occasions together
1.7) Believe in God & God- centred relationship1.8) Family day1.9) Eat together
1.10) Misa de Gallo
1.11) Kissing the hands of parents and elders
E. GOVERNMENT PROGRAMS:EXISTING PROGRAMS:
1.) Pag-ibig
2.) Social Security System
3.) Philhealth5.) Overseas Workers Welfare Administration
6.) Educational training
7.) Associated Marine Officers’ and Seamen’s Union of the Philippines
9.) Free medical assistance10.) Workers Welfare Assistance Program11.) Repatriation Programs
12.) Reintegration Program
13.) Department of Social Welfare and Development – Solo Parent Program
14.) Short term courses
15.) Education and training programs
SUGGESTED PROGRAMS:
1.) Anti human trafficking intensification
2.) Scholarship Programs to OFW children
3.) Protecting rights of OFWs and family4.) Health Insurance to OFWs and family5.) Cash advance in case of emergency
7.) Business/livelihood for employment
8.) Business/livelihood for OFW retirees－111 －

山形大学人文社会科学部研究年報

9.)第15号（2018．３）149－159

More recreation activities10.) Counselling services for OFW families
11.) Tax subsidies for dependents12.) Seminars for financial budgeting
F. ASSESMENT OF HAVING AN OFW IN A FAMILYPOSITIVE:◦Very helpful to support family needs◦Better school for children◦Gives more comfort in life
◦Makes us proud of them especially if they have good jobs
◦Self-worth and self-confidence◦Rewarding personally and professionally◦Travel and experience abroad◦Prestige and recognition◦Endurance in the face of adverse condition◦Determination to try risks into opportunities
NEGATIVE:◦The family really need the presence of both father/mother for strength and protection◦It may create a troublesome family or a dysfunctional family◦Family is always worried for each other◦Really hard to deal with Arabs◦Money can never pay loneliness◦Risky and difficult◦Learned to accept things and be used to it.
◦Hard for the family when someone leaves for a long time though it helps to have a beautiful life.
◦They realize how important a person is in your life.
◦An OFW in a family works hard for the family, not for herself, OFWs seldom have time for
their selves.
◦Homesickness and loneliness◦Brain drain◦Culture shock◦Spending hard earned money recklessly－111 －

Filipino Migrant Workers, a Historical Perspective (1970-2010)――LABAJO◦No father image
And, to end this article, it would be good to present some responses as quoted. These will
hopefully send a message as reality unfolds in the life of a Filipino Overseas Worker.
“I don’t like this situation because it’s not easy to miss them and not easy to feel anxious about
everything”.
“To have an OFW in a family is rewarding and at the same time not. I’ve gotten used to it but it issometimes hard to think about when activities or events occur where I need my parents and they
are both away. I don’t get to see them or talk to them always and with the family situation, I’m a bitpressured to grow up and mature to become more at least, a bit independent since my grandmotheris already old. Yet, more or less it’s okay, they had to do it to support me and they did what they had
according to them”.
“It is such a big help to us and a blessing that my OFW husband bring to our family. He provides
us everything we need and for the children as well. But every day we face different challenges that
his work brought as well. Like the feeling of not knowing what danger he face every day. Time, we
don’t have that, but as a family we pray and tried to be strong for each other and support each otheremotionally and a lot of prayers”.
“For the OFWs out there, please don’t forget about your family in your country. For the families, please
don’t forget your family member outside the country”.
“It is difficult to have an OFW in the family because it’s not only who’s having a hard time in adjusting
but the family left behind especially the children. Raising family alone is very difficult but you have tosacrifice and be away from each other in order to give them good life and better future”.
“Can sleep in peace and be controlled if my husband is with us. But should sacrifice to save forchildren’s future and for retirement”.
“Improve condition in life but the cost to pay is they can’t be with them in the saddest moments of theirlives”.

－111 －

山形大学人文社会科学部研究年報第15号（2018．３）149－159“To have an OFW in a family is such a heartache and in some way a relief. It is really hard to think
when someone is 1,000 miles away from you just to keep you alive. You can’t be able to spend every
minute with them but when you do have the time to spend, it would always be just for a short time andthat thought just saddens my heart”.
“May either make or break the family bond. Ours is not the best but, we try our best to cope up withthe distance. It is financially rewarding but may have adverse effects emotionally. Thus, it depends on
how strong and focused the other half is, to be able to manage home and care for kids alone while
maintaining a close relationship with the absentee-parent at the same time”.
“When relationship is not nurtured, it has the possibility to fall apart. Values inculcated become a thingof the past, people spend less time with family members, they don’t even bother to strengthen their faithand to feel their soul (by praying). Thus, sometimes, what one has kept for the rainy days is down in thedrain”.

“A complete family is still the best”.
References
PRIMARY SOURCEInterviews of OFW family members in selected schools in Cebu City (Colegio de la Inmaculada
Concepcion, University of Cebu-Lapulapu City, University of San Carlos-North & Talamban
Campus & St. Theresa’s College.
SECONDARY SOURCES
Thesis/Dissertation:
Aguilar, Josephine. The Socio-Economic and Cultutral Impact of Worker Migration on the Families ofBrgy. Ablang-Sapang, Moncada, Tarlac. March 2009
Alarilla, Elizabeth. Migrant Workers’ Remittances, Savings and Economic Growth; December 2006
Baluyot, Emily. The Effects of Foreign Labour Migration on the Economy of the Philippines. March
2007
Carungay-Sevillano, Ma. Celina. A Critical Analysis of Relevant Provisions of RA 8042 or the MigrantWorkers and Overseas Filipino /act of 1995 on Illegal Recruitment and Recruitment Violations.
October 2008Cuňada, Alvin. An Analytical Study of the Rights of Women Under Philippine and International Law.
－111 －

Filipino Migrant Workers, a Historical Perspective (1970-2010)――LABAJOMarch 2011
Custodio, Alfie. Overseas Work and Global Financial Crisis: Economic Impacts to Families-left-behindin the Philippines. February 2012
Flores, Miguel. The Determinants of Philippine Labour Migration to Selected Countries: An Economic
Analysis. March 2007
Pascasio, Catherine. The Effects of Empowerment Intervention Program on the Adjustment of Childrenof Mothers Working Abroad. September 2010
Books:
Cholewinski, Ryszard. Migrant Workers in International Human Rights Law; Oxford, Clarendon Press;c1997
Vera Cruz, Philip. A Personal Hisotry of Filipino Immigrants and the Farmworkers Movement. Manila;
Anvil Publishing, Inc., c2002－111 －

山形大学人文社会科学部研究年報第15号（2018．３）149－159

Filipino Migrant Workers, a Historical Perspective(1970-2010)

Delilah R. LABAJO
海外フィリピン人労働者（Overseas Filipino Worker: OFW）とは移住労働者であり，海外での一定期間の契約を満たすために現時点で一時的に国外にいるフィリピン居住者，あるいは，現時点では休暇のために帰国しているものの海外での労働契約を維持している者を指す。OFW には
主に２種類ある。ひとつは陸上労働者であり，彼らは POEA の支援や個人エージェントまたは認可募集機関を通じて，海外の雇用主によって直接雇用された OFW である。もうひとつは海上労働者であり，彼らは国境を超えて活動する漁船や旅客船や貨物船で勤務する OFW である（Sec.
２B, Part II, Omnibus Rules of Regulations Implementing the Migrant Workers and Overseas Filipino
Act of １９９５）。
本研究では１９７０年から２０１０年までを範囲として，フィリピン人移住労働者に関する歴史的な展
望を試みる。文書館や現地での調査といった歴史研究の成果のみならず，書籍や雑誌記事，学術論文や博士論文なども，重要な情報源となろう。また，口頭インタヴューの成果も用いるが，これは OFW 家族の経験が OFW 本人のみならず，その家族の移住についても深く理解するための，必須の要素だからである。本研究を通じて，海外フィリピン人労働者の社会的役割と意義を考察したい。
キーワード：フィリピン人，移住労働者，歴史的視点－111 －