Oral Presentation ProceedingsInternational Forum on
Water Environmental Governance in Asia
Technologies and Institutional Systems for Water Environmental Governance

14-15 March 2007

Bangkok, Thailand

Ministry of the Environment, Japan
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Oral Presentation ProceedingsInternational Forum on Water Environmental Governance in Asia
Technologies and Institutional Systems for Water Environmental Governance

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International Forum on Water Environmental Governance in Asia
Technologies and Institutional Systems for Water Environmental Governance
14-15 March 2007
Siam City Hotel, Bangkok
Bangkok, Thailand
Table of Contents
Theme 1: Local Water Environmental Management 1
1. Maria Rebecca A. Campos
Regulatory Pricing of Water and Sewerage Services in Metro Manila ·························
2.

1

Adhitia Pramadhita, Resmiani, Setiawan Wangsaatmaja
Environmental Manager Trainee and Certification as The Pollution Control Program
Implementation in West Java Province ········································································

6

3. Erlinda A. Gonzales
Innovative Partnership in the Protection and Management of the Marine and Coastal Resourcesof Manila Bay·····················································································

12

Theme 2: Local Water Environmental Management 2
4.

Chan Ngai Weng
The Perbadanan Bekalan Air Pulau Pinang Sdn Bhd (RBAPP): A Good Example of Corporate
Social Responsibility of a Private Water Company in Malaysia··································

5.

Abeynayaka A., Werellagama D.R.I.B., Yatawara S.C.B., Paranavitana, G. N.
Lessons on Water Management, Past to the Future ·····················································

6.

19

26

Kalithasan KailasamCommunity Water Quality Monitoring Programme in Malaysia·································

33

Theme 3: Local Water Resource Management
7.

Smita Mishra Panda
Negotiation Processes in Institutionalising Grassroots Level Water Governance: Case of Self
Employed Women’s Association, Gujarat, India ··························································

8.

Payton Deeks, Trigeany Linggoatmodjo, Irma Setiono
Power of Partnerships: Bringing Safe Water to Indonesia ···········································

9.

39

46

Shashi Bhattarai, Binay Shah, Srijan Aryal
Governance on Small Towns Water Supply Project in Nepal ······································

54i

Theme 4: Regional Water Resource Management
10. Wang Jinmin
The Evolution of Water Rights System in China- From State to Market ·····················

60

11. Feng Qi
Water Resources Management and Rehabilitation in China ········································

65

12. Geoffrey D. Gooch, Alistair S, Rieu-Clarke, Dan Kim Nhung
A Multi-disciplinary Approach to Vulnerability Assessment and Transboundary Water
Governance: The Case of the Sesan Basin ···································································

73

Theme 5: Monitoring Technology
13. Soon-Jin Hwang, Jae-Kwan Lee, Jae-Hyun Lee, Soon Cho, Doo-Hee Won, Kwang-Guk An
Biological Water Quality Assessments and Criteria in Korea······································

79

14. Suphia Rahmawati, Dwina Roosmini, Indah Rachmatiah Siti Salami
Development of Biomaker in Surface Water Quality Monitoring by Using Culture Fishery
Case Study: Saguling Reservoir, West Java, Indonesia················································

85

15. Md.Mafizur Rahman, Fatima Jahra
Challenges for Implementation of Rain Water Harvesting Project in Arsenic Affected Areas of
Bangladesh····························································································

91

Theme 6: Regional Water Environmental Management Technology
16. Muhammad Naeem Sarwar
Adoption and Impact Zero Tillage Technology for Wheat in Rice-Wheat System. Water andCoast Saving Technology. A Case Study from Pakistan (Punjab)·································

96

17. Kiyoshi Honda, Nguyem Duy Hung, Hiroshi Shimamura
Sensor ASIA - Sensor Network and GIS for Environmental Monitoring in Asia··········

102

18. Yoshiaki Tsuzuki, Thammarat Koottatep, MD Mafizur Rahman, Faruque Ahmed
Preliminary Study on Pollutant Discharge from Domestic Wastewater and Pollutant Load in theRiver: A Comparative Study between Japan, Thailand and Bangladesh ·······················

107

Theme 7: Regional Water Environmental Management 1
19. Carlos M. Pascual
Towards a Sustainable Systems Approach in Governing Water Environment in the Philippines····························································································

113

20. Hyun-Joo Moon
Watershed Management and Implementation of Total Pollution Load Management System(TPLMS) for Water in Korea ·······················································································

118

ii

21. Grace B. Villamor, Rodel D. Lasco
Water Levy as Financing Scheme for Watershed Protection- A City Government Initiative toRehabilitate the Baticulan Watershed, Philippines ·······················································

125

Theme 8: Environmental Management Technology 1
22. Carlito Santos, Jr., David M. Robbins
Low-Cost Innovative Solutions for Treating Public Market Wastewater in the Philippines:
Deploying Hybrid Anaerobic/Aerobic Cocopeat Filtration Systems·····························

130

23. Winia Farida, Lufiandi, Setiawan Wangsaatmadja
The Sanitation Facilities Imrpovement Based on Social and Cultural Consideration in Kelurahan
Batununggal Bandung City, Indonesia ·········································································

136

24. Prayogo, T.B, Hendrawan, A.P, Sumiadi, Susilo G.E.
Separating Drainage as the Alternative Small Municipality Water Treatment ·············

142

Theme 9 : Environmental Management Technology 2
25. Katsuyoshi Ishizaki, Naoko Nakagawa, Masahiro Otaki, Yasuhiro Nakanishi
Sustainable Improvement for Sanitation in Households···············································

148

26. Le Ngoc Cau, Hiroyasu Satoh, Takashi MinoThe Existing Urban Environmental Sanitation in Hanoi and Problems Related ··········

154

27. Chart Chiemchaisri, Lumpoon Jaitrong, Ryo Honda, Kensuke Fukushi, Kazuo Yamamoto
Application of Photosynthetic Bacteria Treatment System for Recovery of Organic Carbon
from Noodle Processing Wastewater ··········································································

159

iii

International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

Regulatory Pricing of Water and Sewerage Services in Metro Manila

Maria Rebecca A. Campos, Ph.D.
Southeast Asian Regional Center for Graduate Study and Research in Agriculture

Abstract
Contingent valuation method was used to come up with regulatory pricing of water andsewerage services in Metro Manila. The ability to pay analysis for sewerage services was
based mainly on the 2000 Family Income and Expenditures Survey conducted by the
National Statistics Office (NSO). Estimates of willingness-to-pay were based on surveys
conducted in Barangays Wawa, Western Bicutan, Calzada of Taguig; and Barangay San
Juan in Tanay, Rizal in November 2003. Both water and sewerage fees are collected as
one bill by the Manila Waterworks and Sewerage Systems (MWSS).

1. Introduction
The Taguig Sewerage System involves construction of four drainage/flood retention
ponds into Sewage Treatment Plants (STPs) in line with the flood control project of the
Department of Public Works and Highways (DPWH) in coordination with the Manila
Waterworks and Sewerage Systems (MWSS). The STPs allow treatment of sewage in
Taguig before discharge to Laguna de Bay during the dry season. Covering the areas of
Taguig and Pateros, the STPs will treat the dry weather drainage/sewage flow at least 1.5
times the dry weather flow during wet season. With the new facilities, a new pricing
system that would cover utilization both water and sewerage services was estimated.
2. Results
Household or Family Income
The National Statistics Office (NSO) prepared a “2000 Family Income and Expenditures
Survey” which presents information on family income and expenditures for regions andselected urban areas in the Philippines. Taguig was one of the selected municipalities
covered in the 2000 survey. Tanay, Rizal was classified under Region IV. The
information collected provides one indication of the ability of the households to pay forthe services of the proposed sanitation and sewerage project.
The average and median annual incomes for Taguig and Tanay, Rizal were comparedwith other regions in the Philippines for 2000. Compared to other municipalities in the
country, Taguig and Tanay, Rizal have more high income families. The average income ofhouseholds in both locations is lower than the NCR average, though. The same is true forthe median income.
Family Income Expenditures for Water
The NSO 2000 survey of family expenditures for water was the primary source of
information of this section. This section estimated the historical and current ability to pay
for water, for the purpose of estimating future ability and willingness to pay for water andwastewater services.
1International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

The NSO Survey showed that in the year 2000, the average annual expenditures for waterin the Taguig and Tanay, Rizal was PhP 2,504 and Php 2,064, respectively. The same
survey revealed that fuel, light and water comprised 6.3 % of the family expenditures.
Most previous studies have worked on this aggregate figure and assumed that water rates
represent approximately one-third of the total.
On the average families living in other areas of the Philippines reported earning lessincome but paying more for water than did the average family in Taguig and Tanay, Rizal
in 2000. These communities spent a higher proportion of their income for water: 1.27 %in Taguig and 0.84 % in Tanay, Rizal, as compared to the NCR (0.52%). However, thenational average is higher at 1.34 %. This is due to the high average annual income
received by households in Taguig, Tanay and in the NCR. Water consumption is not
responsive to income changes.
Future Ability to Pay for Water and Sewerage Services
Families living in the Taguig and Tanay, Rizal have traditionally reported paying between
0.84 to 1.27 % of their annual income for water and sewerage services.
Average family income in these communities has increased in real terms (inflation
adjusted) from 1997 to 2000 by: 14.4 % in Taguig, and 30.6 % in Tanay, Rizal. This
represents an annual growth rate of 4.8 % in Taguig, and 10.2 % in Tanay, Rizal. Higherfamily income in the future will result in higher per capita consumption, and an increased
ability and willingness to pay for water and to connect to the sewerage system. That
greater ability and willingness to pay will be partially offset, however, by higher prices. If
real incomes in these communities grow at an average annual rate of
4.8 % in Taguigand 10.2 % in Tanay, then the estimated average family income of PhP 230,719 (inTaguig) in 2000 will grow in real terms to approximate PhP 278,310 by the year 2004. In
Tanay, the estimated average family income in 2000 was PhP 246,286 which will grow inreal terms by PhP 363,217 in 2004. Median household incomes will also increase at thesame time. By the year 2004, “real” ability-to-pay, will be about 36.12 % higher in
Taguig and 47.67 % in Tanay than in 2000. The average family in Taguig that could
afford to pay PhP 209 per month for water in 2000 will be able to pay PhP 284.50 per
month by the year 2004. In Tanay, the average family that could afford to pay PhP 172
per month for water in 2000 will be able to pay PhP 254. However, since the real price ofwater in 1997 prices should not change, the average family will have an extra PhP 75.50
in Taguig, and PhP 82 in Tanay, per month left over after paying for its present water
charge. The said amounts can be spent for the additional sewerage service.
3. Willingness to Pay for Sewerage Services
Socio-economic Survey of Taguig STP Communities
The 2003 survey of Barangays Wawa, Western Bicutan, Calzada of Taguig, and Barangay
San Juan in Tanay, Rizal reported that 42 % of households interviewed were willing to
pay for the price increase in their water charges for a sewerage system. Ten percent of the
respondents gave no response while 48 % were not in favor of the price increase. The
respondents were informed that the payment will be incorporated in their water bill.

2International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

The results of the survey show that sanitation is given a low priority and attracts only asmall proportion of the total funding to the sector. The low level of demand for andwillingness to pay for sanitation among respondents in the project areas stem from a lackof understanding of the effects of good sanitation on health. The Bank should further
promote health education and ensure that it is an essential component of its WSS program
both to stimulate demand and WTP for sanitation and to maximize the health benefits ofthe project.
The respondents were further asked about their general feeling about the proposed priceincrease in their water charges. The general feeling about the price increase is as follows:
15% were happy; 63.% were not happy; 21 % were neither happy nor unhappy; while therest did not comment at all.
Among the respondents who admitted they were happy with the price increase in theirwater bill to accommodate sewerage services: 57 % reasoned out that the price increase
would mean better quality service; 12 % said it was low with respect to their incomes;
12 % declared that the current charge is low; while 10 % didn’t say anything.
Of the respondents who were unhappy with the price increase, 44 % disagreed with any
price increase, 28 % said there was no increase in family income and the price increase
would lessen their household budget, 13 % thought that the MWSS would just pass on
its expenses to its customers. Other reasons indicated were: no budget allocation,
additional household expenditure, while some said that the it is the obligation of thegovernment to shoulder the price increase.
Sewerage fee charged by the MWSS at present is 50% of the water charge for all
customers connected to the MWCI sewerlines. The survey results showed that none of
the respondents was aware of this. The figure they gave ranged from PhP 180 to 500 amonth. Although the response given is true, they however, were not aware how thisamount was arrived at. The MWSS has been releasing to the press information about its
water tariff, one of which was posted in the Manila Standard dated August 10, 2003. This
reflects that more information dissemination is needed.
As part of the Socio-economic Study of the Environmental Impact Assessment study,
willingness-to-pay (WTP) surveys were undertaken in Barangays Wawa, Western Bicutan,
Calzada of Taguig; and Barangay San Juan in Tanay, Rizal. One purpose of this study
was to estimate the willingness to pay for an increase in the water bill for sewerage
services. The analysis of willingness-to-pay was based on the contingent valuation
method. Using this method, survey information is evaluated to determine the relativevalue the respondents place on various services.
A simple average of the four communities provides a rough indication of what theexpressed WTP amount might have been for Barangays Wawa, Western Bicutan andCalzada in Taguig; and Barangay San Juan in Tanay in 2003.

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International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

The estimated average WTP in 2003 is: PhP 20 per month, or approximately 8.31 % and9.58 % of their average water bills of Taguig and Tanay, respectively.
This amount can be adjusted to estimate 2004 price levels using the 6.3 % inflation rate
for fuel, light and water in Metro Manila, so that the 2003 prices should be raised to makethem current with 2004 prices.
Estimated average WTP in 2004 pesos is: PhP 21.26 per month per household or
approximately 8.84 % and 10.18% of the average water bills in 2003 of Taguig and Tanay,
respectively.
4. Future Willingness-To-Pay
By the time the first households begin connecting to the new sewage system, real
incomes will have changed, and ability-to-pay as well as willingness-to-pay will haveincreased accordingly. A projection of future willingness-to-pay has made taking these
expected changes into account, and using the following assumptions:
Low priority is given by the affected families to the sewage in their household
expenditures. Information education campaign and awareness on the benefits that they
will gain from safe piped-water and sanitation services should be conducted to change
their perception and willingness to pay for such service.
Households which have signified that they would be willing to pay for sewerage service
estimated it to be equivalent to as much 8.84 % and 10.18 % of the water bills ofhouseholds in Taguig and Tanay, respectively. This amounts to PhP 21.26 on the averagefor each water connection.
Ability to pay was estimated to be as much as PhP 20 a month or approximately 8.31 %and 9.58 % of their average water bills of Taguig and Tanay, respectively.
Historically water bill payments accounted for 1.09 % of average family income in the
Taguig, and 0.84 % in Tanay. Future water bills are expected to do the same.
If the combined payment for water and sewerage services does not exceed 0.84 % and1.09 % of average family income of households in Tanay and Taguig, respectively, mostfamilies will be able and willing to pay for sewerage.
The relatively low willingness to pay of Taguig STP families at 8.84 % and 10.18 % of
the average water bills in 2003 of Taguig and Tanay, respectively as compared to the
50 % that MWSS is presently collecting is an indication that communities locatedadjacent to these but may be indirectly affected by the proposed project will have to be
included in the price increase.
To remain within stated limits of willingness to pay expressed as percent of the averagefamily, the average payment for sewerage services should be approximately 0.84 % and1.09 % of the average family income in Tanay and Taguig, respectively.

4International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

Real incomes in the Taguig STP communities will continue to grow at 6.3 % annuallyfrom 2000 to the future. If sewerage connections will start by year 2004, projected
average family income in that year will be about PhP 278,310 and PhP 363,217 in Taguigand Tanay, respectively in constant 1997 prices. If payments at that time do not exceed
PhP 329.92 per month or PhP 3,959 per year for Taguig; and PhP 254.25 per month or
PhP 3,051 per year for Tanay in constant 1997 prices, they will be within the limits ofmost families expressed willingness-to-pay as a proportion of total income.
Therefore, in year 2004, average household consumption in the Taguig STP communities
was assumed to be willing-to-pay for sewerage service, expressed in constant 1997
prices as: PhP 251.55 a month in Taguig; and PhP 254.25 a month in Tanay..
Higher income families will have a greater willingness to pay to be connected to thesewerage system. To the extent that the sewerage system serves property owners in areas
with higher than average incomes, the willingness-to-pay will be higher than the figures
above representing the average household.
An information awareness campaign will definitely shift the willingness-to-pay decisionsof households.

5International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

Environmental Manager Trainee and Certification as The Pollution Control
Program Implementation in West Java Province
Adhitia Pramadhita* 1 , Resmiani 2 , Setiawan Wangsaatmaja 3West Java Environmental Protection Agency, Bandung, Indonesia
Jl. Naripan 25, Bandung 40111, Indonesia*Corresponding author, 1 E-mail : adhitia@bplhdjabar.go.id
2
E-mail : resmiani@bplhdjabar.go.id
3
E-mail : setiawan-w@bdg.centrin.co.id

Abstract
The Increasing of the humans and industries activities are the main cause of the water
environmental quality and quantity degradation in Indonesia. Citarum River in West
Java, for example, its function as the drinking water and power sources has been
threatened because of the significant degradation in its quality and quantity. Various
treatment efforts have been conducted either by government or stakeholders but havenot shown an optimal result. The approaches that have been conducted are pollution
control through stipulating standard quality that has mandatory character, ISOstandardization and industrial commitment to government programs (Proper and Clean
River Program). Environmental Pollution Control Manager (EPCM) represents one of
the individual reinforcement programs to improve the capability of human resource thathas responsibility in industrial pollution management with certification program. This
program has been initiated since 2002, representing as the first program in Indonesia
cooperating with JETRO (Japan External Trade Organization). Legal formal of thisprogram is The West Java Provincial Regulation No. 3/2004 concerning Water Quality
Management and Water Pollution Control Of Contamination mentioning “each person
or agency which conducting waste disposal to water sources must have certified person
in charge and operator of Waste Water Treatment Plant (WWTP)". This program isconducted by certification agency (independent) with supervision from West Java
Government. It is held regularly once in a year. In 2005, the program has been followed
by 61 participants and increase to 83 participants in 2006. Besides conducting training
and test, it is also conducted text book up dating, socialization to industries in entire
area of West Java, Training of Trainer and also refreshment to the previous participants.
Key words: Pollution Control Manager, Waste Water Treatment Plant, Environmental
degradation

1. Introduction
West Java Province geographically is located between 5 0 50 - 7 0 50’ and 104 0 48 LS 104 0 48 BT with its regional boundary north side on Java Sea and DKI Jakarta andeastside boundary on Central Java Province, between Indonesia Ocean in Southside andBanten Province in Westside. It has a tropical climate, with temperature 9 0 C in top of
The Pangrango Mountain and 34 0 C in Coast North, rainfall average is 2000 mm peryear, but in some mountains are between 3000 to 5000 mm per year.
West java region has more than 35 watersheds of both big and small scale, 20
watersheds run in northward and 15 in southward.

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International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

The biggest and the most important river in West java is Citarum River, with total areaof 6.080 km 2 , length of 269 Km, rain fall of 2.300 mm/year. The usage of Citarum riverare drinking water source for many cities such as Jakarta, Kabupaten Bekasi,
Kabupaten Karawang, Kabupaten Purwakarta, Kabupaten Bandung, and Bandung City;
main supplier for 3 big dams (Saguling, Cirata and Jatiluhur) for electricity generator.
Those 3 reservoirs produce electrical energy of 5.000 giga watt hour (5x109
KWH)/year, equal to 16 x106 ton/year fuel energy and as irrigation source for 300.000
Ha paddy field. On the other hand, alongside Citarum River has approximately 1000
industries causing Citarum River facing many complex problems such as (1) decreasingof Citarum River water quality and quantity, generally caused by industrial waste,domestic waste, agricultural waste and animal husbandry; (2) depletion of carrying
capacity due to land covering change, mixed land use between industrial and domestic
will make bigger pollution loading; (3) decreasing of Citarum River level in dry season
and increasing in wet season because decreasing of catchments area in upper stream.;and (4) lack of institution coordination in Citarum watershed, because Citarum Riverpassing 7 Kabupaten in West Java Province, with many interest there.
Relation between average Citarum Upstream water quality, for some chemical andbacteriological parameters with the distance (upstream-downstream) in Wangisagara,
Sapan, Cijeruk, Margahayu dan Nanjung shown in a pictures.
Changing in Citarum River quality significantly occurred after Sapan station. This
station placed in Upstream Citarum River from Wangisagara direction after passing thefarm, residential, and industrial zone. The inset picture below show the comparation
between landscape image of year 1994 with 2001, LAPAN interpretation (2001).

Picture 1. River pollution contribution in Sapan Station

7

International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

A. (BOD)BOD (mg/L)

B. (COD)

COD ( mg/L)

100
140
80

120
100

60
80
40

hilir

60
hilir
Margaha yu

Wangiasa
gara
20
hulu

Sapan

40Wangiasa gara
Nanjung

20

Cijeruk

hulu

Sapan

Nanjung

0

0

0 Km

12 Km

22 Km

12 Km

0 Km

45 Km

32 Km

22 Km

( mg/L )

45 Km

32 Km

LokasiLokasiDO

Margaha yu

Cijeruk

C. (DISSOLVED OXYGEN) DO

Fecal Coli (/100 ml)

D. (FECAL COLI)

1,000,000

8

hulu
6

750,000

4

500,000

hilir

h ilir2
Margaha yu

Wangiasa gara
0

0 Km

Sapan

12 Km

250,000
Margaha yu

Wangiasa garahulu

Nanjung

Sapan

Cijeruk

Nanjung

2,000

Cijeruk

0

22 Km

Lokasi

32 Km

45 Km

0 Km

12 Km

22 Km

Lokasi

STANDARD

32 Km

45 Km

STANDARD

Picture 2. Average Upstream-Downstream Citarum River Water Quality Change(1990 – 2000), West Java EPA 2001.
Dissolve Oxygen (DO) at Wangisagara is 5,76 (mg/L), it still fulfill the regulation(West Java Governor Decree No. 39/2000) which is above 3 mg/L. DO decreased after
12 km from Wangisagara (Sapan) into less than 2 mg/L, it had a little increasing atCijeruk (10 km after Sapan), and decrease again at Margahayu (10 km from Cijeruk)and Nanjung (13 km from Margahayu) into less than 2 mg/L. BOD and COD parameterare increasing after Sapan station, there are 10,34 and 20,73 mg/L at Wangisagara,
getting more and more increase into 85,18 and 145,35 mg/L at Sapan, and decrease into
17,95 and 45,38 mg/L at Najung.
Fecal coli number show different pattern, there are 8.511 / 100 mL at Wangisagara,
9.500 / 100 mL at Sapan, and significantly increase at Cijeruk (315.468 /100 mL), andincrease constantly to Margahayu (446.728 /100 mL) and 429.818 /100 mL at Nanjung.
From the analysis, the cause of the increasing number of BOD, COD, and Fecal Coli
are the direct contamination from the untreated waste of residential, industrial,
agricultural, and animal husbandry along the Citarum River.
One of the problems solving on Citarum river quality degradation is by improving
human resources that will manage and responsible to the industrial pollution withcertification program called Environmental Pollution Control Manager (EPCM).

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International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

2. About EPCM in West Java provinceWest Java Government has been cooperating with JETRO (Japan External Trade
Organization) for Environmental Pollution Control Manager (EPCM) program since
2002. Environmental performance from industry is highly determined by ability of its
personnel which is concerned in the management effort of industrial environmental
impact. Besides requiring personnel owning knowledge, skill, and adequate behavior, it
is also concerning about involvement of the competence personnel that have to beinstitutionalized in a functional organization which has the division of role, duty andresponsibility. To reach the target, West Java Government obligates industries causing
water pollution, air pollution, land and ground contamination as well as noise trouble
and vibration to have Environment Pollution Control Organization.
Environmental pollution control organization in the industry consists of Environmental
Manager, Technical Coordinator and Operator of waste installation. The duty of theEnvironmental Manager is to conduct effectiveness and performance of all pollution
control; the technical coordinator must be have responsibility to the technical pollution
control and the duty of operator of waste installation is controlling the waste disposal
facilities such as waste water treatment, emission and incinerator.
Environment pollution control organization in the industry must have written document
about organization structure with role, responsibility, and authority for every personnel,
job description and standard operational procedure. Environment pollution control
organization has to be registered to West Java Government, which is West Java
Environment Protection Agency (West Java EPA). After that, West Java EPA submits
information concerning the environment pollution control organization toenvironmental institution in local government (Kabupaten/City). West Java EPA
authority is to observe organization performance and can substitute the personnel if theindustry has poor performance.

3. EPCM implementation in West Java province
3.1 Regulation
We have 3 Acts as an legal formal for EPCM implementation which are The Act ofEnvironment No 23 Year 1997, The Act of Manpower No 13 Year 2003, and based onthat act, West Java Province made regulation of waste water pollution control and is
acted by governor decree on environmental human resources and West Java Provincial
Regulation No. 3/2004 concerning Water Quality Management and Water Pollution
Control Of Contamination mentioning that "each person or agency which conducting
waste disposal to water source must have certified person in charge and operator of
Waste Water Treatment Plant (WWTP)".
3.2 Objective
EPCM objectives are to Support the government in the effort to control industrial
environmental impact; Forming an acceptable and applicable EPCM training andcertification scheme to various stakeholder group including industrial owner andmanagement, community, government, legislator, professional groups and training
agent; Provide added value to human resources involved in the industrial pollution
control field and provide formal recognition of the profession of environmental

9International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

manager; Create a fair and transparent certification mechanism to be managed bystakeholder; Encourage training provider to develop related and supporting training
program.
3.3 Outcomes
Expected outcomes of implementation EPCM are creating basic concept of PCM
standard competency ; PCM classification and qualification; certification mechanism;
required training program and institutional scheme included accreditation mechanism
for training providers; Implementation of strategy and planning; included developmentof legal frame work, capacity building of independent certification body and long term
implementation plans; Training curriculum and methods; Format of examination andcertificate; Develop the training manual and text book.
3.4 Institutions
Institutions involved in EPCM certification implementation consist of Advisory Board,Supervisory Board, Certification and Training Agencies. Certification Body handlingby Association Industry of Indonesia (APINDO) and Environment Professional
Association (IATPI).
3.5 Certification Mechanism
The industrial WWTP operator/coordinator who have an educational background, atleast diploma degree in environmental engineering and 2 years professional experience,
can directly register to take examination. If he/she unable to full fill those requirements
the applicant has to take training before taking examination.
Curriculum of The Training consists of nine materials, which are EPCM Background,
Liquid Waste and Water Environment Preservation Regulation, Role and Responsibilityof Water Pollution Control Manager, Water Environment Management, Liquid Waste
Management, Liquid Waste Management Technology, Liquid Waste Characteristic
Analysis, Sludge Treatment, and Water Pollution Emergency Action.
The Pilot activities (training session, examination, and certification) in 2005 followed
by 61 participants, which 53 participants were graduated and 8 participants were notgraduated. In 2006 the participants increase to 83 participants, which 79 participants
were graduated and 4 participants were not graduated.
Percentage of Certification Graduation in 2006

Percentage of Certification Graduation in 2005

Not Graduated : 5%

Not graduated : 14 %Graduated : 86%

Graduated : 95%

Picture 3. Percentage of Certification Graduation in 2005 and 200610

International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

CERTIFICATION MECHANISM>Diploma Engineering> 2 years experiencenoBASIC TRAINING

PREREQUISITE
yes

Fill registration form
with copies of ID Card,
CV, diploma of formal
education & training
certificate fromapproved training
program

REGISTRATION. Training Agency. Training material follows
Competency Standard of
Personnel

PASS

EXAMINATIONASSESSMENT . By assessor board
no

PASS

Report to

CERTIFICATEPROVINCE ENVIRONMENTAL OFFICE

Picture 4. Certification mechanism diagram
3.6 Monitoring, Evaluating, and Reporting
Supervising and monitoring conducted by The Board in coordination with theenvironmental control institution in Kabupaten/City and The Certification Body. The
Board can process any disobedience according to the existing law and regulation.
4. Conclusion
The Environmental Pollution Control Managers (EPCM) program is the first pilot
project conducted in Indonesia concerning human capacity development for pollution
control in industry. The West Java Government expect that EPCM program can control
industrial pollution in Citarum River, considering its big role as the drinking water andpower sources. Next step will be EPCM implementation in air pollution, hazardous
waste, noise and vibration control. Supervising and monitoring is the success key forthis program beside the support from all stakeholders, such as industry, local
government, NGO’S, University, and Professional.
References
1. Adinugroho Endro and Yuwono Rudy.(2006). Water Pollution Control Manager
Handbook , West Java EPA, Bandung
2. The Act No 13/2003 concerning Manpower,
3. The Act No 23/1997 concerning Environmental Management
4. Wangsaatmaja, S. (2004), Land Convertion Impact to Surface Water Regime andCommunity Health: A Case Analysis in Upstream Citarum Watershed, PhD thesis,
Environmental Engineering Departement, Bandung Institute of Technology.
5. West Java Governor Decree No 6/1999 concerning Liquid Waste Standard Quality
for Industrial Activity in West Java
6. West Java Provincial Regulation No. 3/2004 concerning Water Quality Management
and Water Pollution Control Of Contamination

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International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

Innovative Partnerships in the Protection and Management of the Marine and Coastal
Resources of Manila Bay

Erlinda A. Gonzales, ChE
Chief Environmental Management Specialist
Environmental Management Bureau andProject Manager, Manila Bay Environmental Management Project

Abstract
Manila Bay is a semi-enclosed estuary facing the South China Sea which provides a source offood, livelihood, employment, and recreation to about 23 million Filipinos. Its sustainability is
continually threatened by over-exploitation of resources, illegal and destructive methods ofharvest, habitat destruction, pollution, siltation and sedimentation, and multiple-use conflicts.
To address the complexicity of this environmental issues affecting the bay, the Manila Bay
Environmental Management Project (MBEMP) was therefore established under the Departmentof Environment and Natural Resources -Environmental Management Bureau(DENR-EMB) withsupport from GEF/UNDP/IMO Regional Programme for Building Partnerships in Environmental
Management for the Seas of East Asia (PEMSEA) to oversee and steer the participation of allconcerned agencies, sectors and the civil society in arresting these threats, and realize a vision ofclear, safe and wholesome Manila Bay.
The partnerships of the concerned agencies resulted in the development of plans and programs
which will lead towards sustainable development of Manila Bay:1.

Manila Bay Coastal Strategy

2.

Refined Risk Assessment.

3.

Integrated Environmental Monitoring Program.

4.

Operational Plan for the Manila Bay Coastal Strategy.

5.

Manila Bay Oil Spill Contingency Plan

6.

Integrated Information Management System

7.

Environmental Investment

8.

Coastal Land and Sea –Use Zoning Plan

9.

Stakeholders participation

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International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

1. Introduction
The Manila Bay is the country’s major hub and international gateway to the political, economic
and social center. It is a natural heritage, a witness to the panorama of Philippine history and thevenue of significant events that have helped shape the country.
The Bay, with its semi-enclosed estuary facing the South China Sea, represents a vital national
asset, providing a source of food, livelihood, employment, recreation, to an estimated 23 million
People, consistent with its character of being a major source of economic benefit for the country.
Hand in hand with the surrounding provinces, cities and towns, the Bay contributes a verysignificant share of the country’s gross domestic product (GDP) and accounts for almost one
third of the country’s agriculture, and fisheries production. Its supports fisheries and aquaculture
as major sources of livelihood as well as development activities in manufacturing, shipping andports, agriculture and commerce.
The sustainability of the Bay and its diverse ecosystem is however continually threatened by avariety of watershed, lowland and sea-based human activities, which contribute to the decline inits environmental quality. Overexploitation of resources, illegal and destructive methods ofharvest, habitat destruction, pollution, siltation and sedimentation, uncontrolled development andthe conflicting use of limited available resources cause pressures on the bay.
Essential in the process to address the complexity of these environmental issues affecting the Bay,is the development of innovative partnerships that would bring together all agencies, institutions
and the civil society to carefully plan and implement programs under a common framework
toward the rehabilitation and restoration of the Bay and its watersheds.
The Manila Bay Environmental Management Project (MBEMP) was therefore established under
the DENR-Environmental Management Bureau with support from GEF/UNDP/IMO Regional
Programme for Building Partnerships in Environmental Management for the Seas of East Asia
(PEMSEA) to oversee and steer the participation of all concerned agencies, sectors and the civilsociety in arresting these threats, and realize a vision of clear, safe and wholesome Manila Bay. A
Technical Working Group (TWG) coordinates and collaborates initiatives which are responsive
to issues in components of the project. The TWG is composed of representatives from relevant
National Government Agencies, concerned Local government units, academic and scientificinstitutions, NGOs/POs, and even the civil society. A project coordinating committee was also
created to provide policy guidance and directions to the various activity of the project (Fig.1).

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International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

Project Coordinating
Committee ( PCC)

Project Director
EMB

Project Manager
EMB
Technical Working
Group (TWG)

MBEMP Components
•
•
•
•
•

Manila Bay Coastal Strategy
Refined Risk Assessment
Integrated Environmental
Monitoring Program
Operational Plan for the Manila
Bay Coastal Strategy
Manila Bay Oil Spill Contingency
Plan

•
•
•
•
•
•

Integrated Information
Management System
Environmental Investment
Coastal Land and Sea Use Zoning
Plan
Stakeholders Participation
Environmental and Resource
Valuation
Institutional Arrangemenets

Regional Executive
Director /Site Manager
Site Coordinating
Committee (SCC)

Site Management Office
DENR Regions 3

Site Management Office
DENR NCR

Site Management Office
DENR R 4

Figure 1. Manila Bay Environmental Management Project Organizational Structure.
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International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

2. Current efforts towards sustainable development of the bay
2.1 Development of the Manila Bay Coastal Strategy
One of the early achievements of the projects was the development of the Manila Bay Coastal
strategy, a product of stakeholders consultations throughout the regions to formulate a sharedvision on the future of the bay.
The MBCS clearly identified the various risks and challenges the Manila Bay area faces. Water
pollution tops the other major issues like overexploitation of resources, siltation andsedimentation, habitat degradation, multiple and conflicting uses.
The commitment to pursue this shared vision for Manila Bay was affirmed by over a hundred
representatives from the government, private sector, financing institution and other stakeholder
groups through the Manila Bay Declaration signed on October 24, 2001.
2.2 Refined Risk Assessment
The Refined Risk Assessment is a scientific and technical assessment of the resources and thephysico- chemical features of the Bay as it relates to the ecosystems and human health.
Retrospective risk assessment conducted, established that there is a clear evidence of declines
for fisheries, shellfisheries and mangroves. For coral reefs, there were accounts indicating adecline in quality and cover of these reefs.
For prospective risk assessment , the study found out that numerous environmental parametersof the waters of the Manila Bay exceeded acceptable levels. The parameters that showedexcessive levels are: Total and Fecal Coliform, phosphates, heavy metals such as mercury, lead,zinc and copper.
Base on these findings, future actions and interventions for the Manila Bay must address theabove concerns.
2.3 Operational Plan for the Manila Bay Coastal Strategy
The Operational Plan developed by an interagency and inter-sectoral Technical Working Group(TWG) is the translation of the Manila Bay Coastal Strategy into actions plans and programs inthree (3) areas of concerns namely:
1. Protection of the waters in Manila Bay and its tributaries ( rivers and lakes) andensure that they are safe for various uses ( recreation, irrigation, Fisheries and otherliving resources, source of potable water).
2. Protection restoration and sustainable development of resources, habitats, naturalareas, and historical, cultural and religious and archeological sites.
3. Promotion of partnerships and ensure the implementation of good
governance as means to achieve the sustainability of the bay
region.
15

environmental

International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

2.4 Integrated Environmental Monitoring Program
The Integrated Environmental Monitoring Program (IEMP) developed is a cross-sectoral andsustainable integrated environmental monitoring program. The program comes with a 5-year
action plan which among others identifies the agencies or the institutions where applicablemonitoring capacity may be tapped. The development of the 5-year action plan involves a pilot
study integrating the different monitoring programs being undertaking by various stakeholders
under one monitoring plan. The adopted IEMP design focused on the identified priority
parameters, contaminants, habitats and resources as well as data gaps and sources of uncertainty
in the Refined Risk Assessment (RRA).
A Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) defining the roles and responsibilities of participating
agencies for the implementation of the Integrated Environmental Monitoring Plan was forged byconcerned agencies on November 13, 2006.
2.5 Integrated Information Management System
The Integrated Information Management System (IIMS), developed is a relational database withgeographic information system (GIS) linkage, This handles data set such as information on
Marine and Coastal resources, socio-economic and demographic features of Manila Bay.
A web-based IIMS for Coastal and Marine Environment was installed in the three (3) Site
Management Offices (SMOs) of the Manila Bay Environmental Management Project (MBEMP)
to effectively and efficiently facilitate the input, storage and retrieval of data in support of
the activities of the MBEMP on environmental monitoring, environmental resource valuation,
oil spill contingency planning, coastal strategy development and its operational plan, coastal use
zoning and public awareness.
Such development of the system paved the way to the establishment of the Manila Bay Area
Information Network for DENR, a sub-set of the network among agencies in the Manila Bay
Area. The DENR also adopted IIMS as a common database platform nationwide, with initial
implementation in DENR Regions 4-A and 3 and NCR .
The Manila Bay Atlas which is a collection of geographic maps or charts which features thenatural resources , economic activities and the risk and challenges facing the Manila Bay area
was also developed.
2.6 Oil Spill Contingency Plan
Using the results of risk assessment and environmental monitoring as inputs, an oil-spill
contingency plan was developed for Manila Bay to strengthen the coordination of relevant
agencies for a timely and effective response to oil spills. Key habitats, resources and species,
which are at risk from oil spills are being identified, and sensitivity mapping and response
strategies are being developed. Concerned national government agencies, local government units(LGUs) and the private sector (ports, shipping and petroleum industries) worked on thiscontingency plan, with the Philippine Coast Guard (PCG) taking the lead. In this way,
preparedness and cooperation are being instilled.

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International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

2.7 Environmental Investment
Public – Private Partnerships (PPPs) was adopted as an alternative delivery mechanism in thedevelopment and implementation of investments in environmental facilities and services,
particularly those identified in the coastal strategy and operational plan. Through PPPs, the LGUs,
which have the mandate but not the technical and financial capacity; the private sector, which has
capital technology and business expertise; and the communities, which need service, are brought
together to tackle the challenges of having essential facilities that are technically viable,
environmentally sound and financially acceptable.
Using PPP approach two (2) feasibility studies on integrated solid waste management systemwere developed
2.8 Stakeholders’ Participation (Civil Society Participation)
Another key component of the MBEMP is the information, education and communication (IEC)
drive to increase awareness among the government, the communities and the public, in general,
about the risks, the current state of the ecosystems and the environment, and the corresponding
ecological and socioeconomic consequences. Creating public awareness through participation is
being carried out in the course of mobilizing various stakeholders in activities such as coastal
cleanup, mangrove reforestation, bird counting and tree planting.
As part of its advocacy and stakeholders participation program, a memorandum of undertaking(MOA) was forged between the DENR and the Manila Yacht Club-101st Squadron of thePhilippine Coast Guard Auxiliary to contribute to the implementation of the Manila Bay Coastal
Strategy. The MOA serves as a platform for technical cooperation between DENR, the Coast
Guard Auxiliary and the Manila Yacht Club in the development and implementation ofpollution and mitigating activities for Manila Bay, such as regular clean –up activities with thestudents from various schools and universities.
Through the various IEC activities, people’s consciousness concerning the interconnectivity
among ecosystems and with human activities, as well as the need for active participation andcollaborative efforts to solve multiple – use conflicts and to address the lack of policy anfunctional integration in the management of the bay and the adjacent coastal and watershed areas,is being raised.
2.9 Coastal Land and Sea –Use -Zoning Plan (CLSUZP)The Coastal Land and Sea –Use- Zoning Plan was developed, with the Province of Bataan as apilot site. The development of the (CLSUZP) considered both the biophysical/environmental
elements and socio-economic factors affecting Bataan. The objective for its development is todemonstrate the application of coastal land and sea-use- zoning in resolving multiple resourceuse conflicts in the coastal area. This will also provide a regulatory framework of permitting andprohibiting coastal activities according to designated use of coastal space and to serve as a model
for coastal zoning for other coastal provinces within Manila Bay.

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International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

References
1. PEMSEA- DENR Manila Bay Coastal Strategy, October 2001
2. PEMSEA- DENR Manila Bay Refined Risk Assessment, March 2004
3. PEMSEA- Tropical Coasts, Vol. 11 No. 12, July 2004
4. PEMSEA- DENR Manila Bay Environmental Management Project Reports 200618

International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

The Perbadanan Bekalan Air Pulau Pinang Sdn Bhd (PBAPP): A Good Example ofCorporate Social Responsibility of a Private Water Company in Malaysia

Chan Ngai Weng
Water Watch Penang
10 Brown Road, 10350 Penang, Malaysia
Email: waterwatchchan@hotmail.com

Abstract
The story of Perbadanan Bekalan Air Pulau Pinang Sdn Bhd (PBAPP), a privatized watercompany in Penang, Malaysia, show-cases how privatization can be successful. More importantly,
PBAPP is undoubtedly one of the most successful privatized water companies in the country,
both in terms of its annual profits as well as its key performance indicators and its commitments
towards corporate social responsibility. Its partnership with Water Watch Penang in the area ofawareness, education and conservation testifies to its commitment towards social as well as
environmental responsibility. Due to its success, PBAPP has been quoted both by government,
NGOs as well as global water players as the “benchmark” for water companies.
1. Introduction
The Perbadanan Bekalan Air Pulau Pinang Sdn Bhd (PBAPP) is a privatized water company in
Penang, Malaysia. It is the sole subsidary of PBAHB 1 which was incorporated in Malaysia on
March 1, 1999 to undertake the role of the successor company in the corporatisation exercise of
the water authority in Penang State. PBAPP was subsequently granted a license by the Penang
State Government pursuant to Part IV, Section 16 of the Water Supply Enactment 1998 tooperate as the water supplier in the state. Despite the resistance from some NGOs and the public
towards water privatization in Malaysia in general, PBAPP is a good example of how watersupply can be privatized. The company has adopted a holistic approach towards managing thewater supply in Penang State, from handling the sourcing of raw water, treatment of water,
distribution and the billing of consumers (http://www.pba.com.my/ 13 Feb 2007). PBAPP has
also committed itself towards its Corporate Social Responsibility by contributing towards water
conservation and supporting as well as working closely with NGOs, especially Water Watch
Penang (WWP) (www.waterwatchpenang.org) in its conservation programmes.
Historically, the supply of water for Penang State was fragmented under the City Council ofGeorgetown (for Penang Island) and the Public Works Department Penang (for Mainland Penang
or Seberang Perai). In January 1, 1973, the roles was taken over by Pihak Berkuasa Air Pulau
Pinang (PBA) pursuant to the Penang Water Authority Enactment 1972. With that, PBA wasestablished in 1973 as statutory body to manage and regulate the water supply in the state.
1

PBA Holdings Bhd (PBAHB) was incorporated in Malaysia on May 25, 2000 as a public limited company under the Companies Act,1 965 andhaving its registered and principal place of business at Level 32, KOMTAR, 10000, Jalan Penang, Pulau Pinang. PBAHB is an investment holding
company with a single subsidiary, namely Perbadanan Bekalan Air Pulau Pinang Sdn Bhd which is involved in the business activities of the watersuppliers in the state of Pulau Pinang. PBAHB was listed on the Main Board of the Bursa Malaysia (Malaysian Stock Exchange) on April 18,
2002.

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International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

Pursuant to the approval of the Penang State Government in August 1997 and the approval fromthe Economic Planning Unit in June 1998, PBA was corporatised as Perbadanan Bekalan Air
Pulau Pinang Sdn Bhd on March 1, 1999 under the Penang Water Authority (Successor
Company) Enactment 1998.

2. Key Performance Indicators
Since privatization, PBAPP has consistently shown impressive water performance indicators. It is
probably the most successful water company in Malaysia, having been quoted not only by the
Malaysian Government but also consistently by NGOs (Netto, 2005; Chan, 2006a). PBAPP's
supply coverage is 100% in urban areas and 99% in rural areas, and Penang water rates/tariffs areamongst the lowest in Malaysia. (An average of RM0.31 for the first 35 cu.m [Domestic] and an
average of RM0.94 for first 500 cu.m [Trade] [RM1.00=US$0.28]). Despite the fact that Penang
is a water stressed state, i.e. a state with few water catchments and about 80 % of its water comesfrom the Muda River which has its catchment in another state, PBAPP has done well to ensurethat water supply in Penang State is amongst the most efficient, if not the most efficient in
Malaysia. The PBAPP is constantly planning for the future as the state's population grows andprospers towards vision 2020 as the company supports the Penang State Government's plan tocultivate sustainable development and a green environment. In 2004, PBAPP implemented an
Environmental Management System (EMS) at the Batu Feringghi Treatment Plant and the Teluk
Bahang Dam. Subsequently, the company also obtained ISO 14001:2004 certification dated 1
March 2005 for the "Management and treatment of raw water and the supply of potable water in
the above two facilities”. PBAPP is now seeking similar certification for the 8 other treatment
plants and 2 other major dams in the State of Penang. PBAPP is continuously striving forexcellence. The company is keeping up to its promise of “meeting all your water supply needs”,
not just in the quality of its supply but also through continuous public awareness and education.
The PBAPP’s website (www.pba.com.my) is a comprehensive collection of relevant information
regarding the quality of Penang’s drinking water supply along with helpful tips about murkywater, where water comes from, the most effective course of action to take during water stress,and how safe is Penang’s drinking water, etc. Perbadanan Bekalan Air Pulau Pinang (PBAPP) is
committed to “continuous improvement” in water supply for the State of Penang, in accordance
to international ISO 9001:2000 certifications from UKAS (United Kingdom) and DAR(Germany) for the “treatment and supply of water with customer services.” Table 1 shows thevarious performance indicators.

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International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

Table 1. Performance Indicators and Statistics of PBAPP (Source: www.pba.com.my).
No. of dams

6

Total raw water storage capacity

46,013 million litres

No. of treatment plants

10

Design capacity of treatment plants

1,166 million litres

No. of treated water reservoirs

50

No. of treated water towers

30

Volume of treated water supplied daily

759 million litres

Total daily water consumption

612 million litres

Percentage of non-revenue water(NRW) 20%

Total length of mains and pipelines (100mm in diameter and above)

3,407km

Supply coverage

100% in urban areas
99% in rural areas

Domestic water tariff (1st 35,000 litres)
Trade water tariff (1st 500,000 litres)

RM0.31 per 1,000 litres
RM0.94 per 1,000 litres

3. Corporate Social Responsibility and Partnerships with NGOs
Since 1999, PBAPP has initiated a partnership with WWP. This is an annual water awareness,
education and conservation programme in Penang State fully sponsored by PBAPP and carriedout by WWP. The objectives are: to create and promote greater awareness of the importance ofthe environment and the vital resources that the environment produces for humanity; to inculcate
in all Penangites the habit of loving and treasuring the environment, ultimately making themenvironmentally-friendly people; to reach and educate the young, especially school children andalso the adults (the general public) about the importance of the environment and its conservation;
to change peoples’ habits from being apathetic towards the environment to being caring towards
the environment (for example changing them from “water wasters” to “water savers” and by
doing so we change a “Water Wasting Society” into a “Water Saving Society”); to ensure that
Penang’s water resources are sustainable in the long run via the efforts/activities of government,
industry, NGOs and the public; to promote internationally and locally the image of the Malaysian
Government as one that is “Caring Towards The Environment” and also one that is“Accommodating In Allowing The Private Sector, NGOs and the Public to play a significant rolein environmental management”; to realize the Government’s commitments towards sustainable
development in the long run, especially in terms of a Malaysia with a clean and healthy
environment, and a clean and healthy population.
Since 1999, WWP and PBAPP have jointly organised and celebrated World Water Day (WWD)
which falls every year on 22nd March. For example in 2006, WWD was held in Penang on 2 April
2006. This event was jointly by WWP together with PBAPP Sdn Bhd, Rotary Club of Penang
and Avago Technologies at the Penang Youth Park. A total of 99 schools took part with 217
students and 20 teachers. The estimated total number of accompanying parents is 70 and total
number of members of the public attending is more than 200 people. A total of 12 organizations
put up water exhibition booths during this event to increase public awareness about water andrelated issues. The event was officiated by the Chief Minister of Penang with many otherpoliticians, government officers, staff of PBAPP, members of Rotary Club Penang, staff of21

International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

Avago Technologies, staff of Penang Municipal Council (MPPP), and other VIPs. Many
activities were organised throughout the day, including the opening ceremony, declaration ofWorld Water Day by YAB, talks on water conservation, press conference with members of thepress, water quizzes, water painting competitions, prize giving, water exhibitions and water
guessing competitions and visits to waterfall treatment plant. The total number of people
attending is officially noted at 498 but those that did not register may be around 200 to 300.
Altogether, it is estimated that at least 900 people attended this event. In addition, the PBAPP
Sdn Bhd’s waterfall treatment plant was also open to the public. It is estimated that at least 100
people visited the plant.
PBAPP and WWP, together with Ford Motor Company (through its Environmental Conservation
Grants) also jointly produced a water education VCD in April 2006. The VCD was launched at
the WWD celebrations on 2 April 2006. This is a 20 minute VCD on water education producedby WWP and jointly sponsored by PBAPP Sdn Bhd and Ford Foundation. The VCD was givenout at RM1 a piece during WWD 2006 at the Penang Youth Park. The VCD was also sold at all
WWP functions and activities in 2006. A total of 2000 VCDs were made. WWP plans to
distribute the VCDs to all schools in Penang State.
PBAPP and WWP also partnered the Excel Point Community Care Kids Joy Club “Easter
Colouring Contest on 16 April 2006”. The event was held at 2-4-5 Pekaka Square, Lebuh PekakaSatu, Sg Dua 11700 Penang. PBAPP contributed some of the prizes. YB Goh Kheng Sneah,
ADUN Batu Uban officiated and gave away the prizes. A total of 301 children took part in thethree categories of the contest: (i) Category A (Ages 4-6); (ii) Category B (Ages 7-9); andCategory C (Ages 10-12). The number of parents who accompanied their children also totaled
more 200. The organisors of the event totaled about 30 staff of EPCC. The total number ofschools involved is estimated at more than 50, many coming from as far as Batu Ferringhi andBalik Pulau.
PBAPP and WWP also worked with schools. On 21 April 2006, it jointly organized the SMJK
Chung Hwa Confucian “Educational Quiz 2006”. A total of 200 students took part in this quiz.
WWP provided facilitators, questions and contributed some of the prizes. WWP facilitators gave
educational talks about the importance of water before the quiz.
PBAPP and WWP has a monthly programme for schools on river awareness and education. For
example on 29 July 2006, a Sg Air Terjun river catchment awareness programme was carried out
with apartment children in the Batu Uban area. This activity was organized with a number ofcondominiums and apartments in the Batu Uban area. A total of 50 children (with many
accompanying parents) were first briefed on the importance of rivers and then taken on a river
walk around botanic gardens along the Sg Air Terjun. The group was taught about the functionsof the forest as a water catchment as well as for biodiversity, tourism and other functions. The
group was treated to a lunch snack. After lunch, a river clean-up was conducted. The group was
also taught how to measure river water quality via pH, dissolved oxygen, temperature, dissolved
solids, etc. All participants enjoyed themselves and WWP T-shirts and other souvenirs werehanded out to each participant.

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International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

PBAPP and WWP also work with universities. On 5 August 2006, a “Penang National Park
Programme and Importance of Teluk Bahang Dam as a future source of water supply” wascarried out for Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM) undergraduates. This is a awareness andeducation programme for university students. The students have to write a report after theyfinished the activity. A group of about 200 undergraduates of Universiti Sains Malaysia weretaken into the Penang National Park (PNP). Bus was provided by USM. WWP provided thefacilitators. The students were briefed by WWP facilitators on the history and process of how the
PNP was gazetted, the importance of the PNP and what they thought would be most important in
the conservation of the park. The group hiked into the park and stopped at Pantai Kerachut forlunch. Along the route, the group encountered many clean streams and some tests of water
quality were performed. The discharge and cross-sections of the small streams were alsomeasured as part of the exercise. Students were taught that inside the PNP, the water quality ofstreams was very good. After the hiking, the group was taken to the Teluk Bahang Dam. They
were briefed on the importance of the dam and how the PNP was a catchment for this dam.
A Local Awareness and Water Saving Seminar was held in N-Park Condominium, Penang on 18
November 2006 (Chan 2006b; Chan 2006c). This was part of PBAPP and WWP’s aim ofreaching all segments of the public and teaching them to save water, WWP organized this event
for apartment owners and residents, given the fact that N-Park Resort Condominium is a big userof water. A total of 120 apartment owners and residents took part in this event, organized by
WWP. Many also brought along their children (about 20 children were counted). WWP presented
two papers titled “The Water Situation in Malaysia and Penang: Why The Need To Save Water”
and “Water Watch Penang - What We Do and How N-Park Residents Can Reduce Water Use”.
The participants were enthusiastic, took part in the discussion actively and gave many usefulcomments. Those taking part were all registered and accounted for. It is expected that by the endof the test period, N-park residents would reduce their water demand/use by about 10 %. This
being the case, N-park Condominium will be used as the “bench-mark” for replication of the
project in all other condominiums and apartments in Penang, and Malaysia.

4. Future Activities
Future water conservation activities planned by PBAPP and WWP are as follows: (1) 2007 StateLevel Celebration on World Day for Water 2007 in one of the shopping malls in Penang (Thetarget is the newly opened Queensbay Mall), tentative dates are over 2 days, i.e. 24 March(Saturday) and 25 March (Sunday) 2007;(2) Dissemination of 2000 copies of water education
VCD by WWP-PBAPP-Ford Foundation for distribution to all schools in Penang State & also to
be distributed during World Water Day 2007; (3) Reprint of 1000 copies of New Water T-Shirt
Bearing WWP-PBAPP Sdn Bhd logos for distribution during World Water Day 2007 as well as
to be used in all 2007 WWP-PBAPP Activities; (4) Reprint of 3000 copies of School Exercise
Books with WWP-PBAPP logos for distribution during World Water Day 2007 as well as to be
used in all 2007 WWP-PBAPP activities; (5) Production of 3000 copies of School Note Pads
with WWP-PBAPP logos and Water Conservation Tips for distribution during World Water Day
2007 as well as to be used in all 2007 WWP-PBAPP Activities; (6) Production of 1000 pieces of
WWP-PBAPP Mugs for distribution during World Water Day 2007 as well as to be used in all
2007 WWP-PBAPP Activities; (7) Production of 3000 pieces of Rubber Wrist Bands (A very
“in-thing” amongst the young) that carries WWP-PBAPP logos and “Save Water” message for23

International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

distribution during World Water Day 2007 as well as to be used in all 2007 WWP-PBAPP
Activities; (8) Production of 3000 pieces of Writing Pens with WWP-PBAPP logos for
distribution during World Water Day 2007 as well as to be used in all 2007 WWP-PBAPP
Activities; (9) State-wide Inter-School Water Crossword Puzzle for primary school children(Category 1) and lower secondary school children (Category 2). The puzzle words are all related
to water. Issues such as the water cycle; water resources management; water conservation; waterpollution and its management; water and life; water and ecosystem; and all other topics related towater. Prizes and certificates will be awarded to the top 5 winners in each category and 10
consolation prizes in each category. In the event of more than 1 correct entry, the winner will be
determined by a lucky draw. The competition will be on a monthly basis with one competition
per month. The puzzle will be printed and sent to all schools via the Minsitry of Education
Penang; (10) Production of a Water Educational Poster Calendar (2000 copies). The calendar
will have water saving tips, the role of PBAPP Sdn Bhd & WWP, photos of rivers, water
treatment plants, the importance of water and water conservation in Penang, and other water
conservation aspects. All schools in Penang will be given the poster calendar free; (11) Water
Awareness and Education Fieldwork for school children. This is an ongoing activity to expose
and educate school children on the importance of water. The target group is school children under
15 years of age, i.e. from primary to lower secondary. Every month, a school will be selected
whereby 40 students and two teachers will be taught water quality monitoring of rivers in Penang,learn about the entire water treatment process (via visiting a plant), do river clean-up, and upload
the data collected and stories of the fieldwork on to the respective school’s websites. In this way,schools can learn about water and rivers, learn ICT on website management, and also interact
with students from other schools; (12) Publication of booklet titled “101 ways to save water” tobe distributed to all schools in Penang; (13) State Level Domestic Consumers Water Usage
Survey under the Ministry of Energy, Water and Communications (KTAK) and Federation of
Malaysian Consumers Association (FOMCA)’s “National Water Awareness and Saving
Campaign”. This is a national campaign on water saving whereby WWP is a partner responsible
for the Penang State activities. Currently a State-wise water saving campaign survey is under way.
FOMCA is also carrying out surveys in all other states in the country. The campaign targets a
10 % reduction is water use at the end of 2 years.
5. Conclusion
Contrary to popular misconception, not all privatization of the water sector is necessarily bad forthe public. When carried out professionally with transparency, accountability and efficiency,
private water companies can be successful and profitable. The story of Perbadanan Bekalan Air
Pulau Pinang Sdn Bhd (PBAPP) demonstrates that water privatization can be successful. The
success of PBAPP is widely recognized, not just amongst local government authorities andNGOs but also in the Asian region. PBAPP is so successful that it has ventured overseas and won
many contracts. PBAPP’s success is backed up by its annual profits as well as its key
performance indicators and its commitments towards corporate social responsibility. Its
partnership with Water Watch Penang in the area of awareness, education and conservation
testifies to its commitment towards social as well as environmental responsibility. PBAPP has
many water conservation programmes with WWP targeting the schools and the general public.
Not surprisingly, due to its success, PBAPP has been quoted both by government, NGOs as well
as global water players as the “benchmark” for water companies.

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International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

References
Chan, N.W. (2006a) River catchment Awareness and Monitoring Programme for Pinang River,
Penang State, Malaysia: Role of Water Watch Penang, Private Sector and Local Community. In
Proceedings of the International Symposium on Community Activities for the Conservation of
Water Environment – Lessons Learnt from Community Activities. Tokyo: Ministry of theEnvironment, Japan, 48-51.
Chan, N.W. (2006b) “The Water Situation In Malaysia And Penang: Why The Need To Save
Water ” Paper presented at Local Seminar on “National Study for the Effective Implementationof Integrated Water Resources Management in Malaysia: Nega-Litres Demonstration Project –N-Park Condominium”, N-Park Condominium, Penang, 18 November 2006.
Chan, N.W. (2006c) “Water Watch Penang - What We Do & How N-Park Residents Can Reduce
Water Use & Take Part in the Project ” Paper presented at Local Seminar on “National Study for
the Effective Implementation of Integrated Water Resources Management in Malaysia: NegaLitres Demonstration Project – N-Park Condominium”, N-Park Condominium, Penang, 18
November 2006.
Netto, A. (2005) Why Privatise Water? Aliran Monthly, Vol. 25 No. 2, 2-7.
http://www.pba.com.my
http://www.waterwatchpenang.org

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International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

Lessons on Water Management, Past to the Future
Abeynayaka A.,1 Werellagama D.R.I.B.,2 Yatawara S.C.B.,1 & Paranavitana G.N.3
1

Kaluganga Agriculture Development Project EIA Team, Centre for Environmental Studies, University of
Peradeniya, Sri Lanka.
2
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka,
3
Natural Resource Management Services, Mahaweli Authority of Sri Lanka, Sri Lanka.

Abstract
The dry zone of Sri Lanka has been the home of one of ancient “hydraulic civilizations” inmonsoon Asia. Mahaweli River development project started in 1970 is the largest water resource
management project in Sri Lanka. 33 km long Huruluwewa feeder canal was constructed under
the Mahaweli development project to feed Huruluwewa tank, which was initially constructed by
King Mahasen (325 – 352 AD). Yet during the design period land development and land usedplanning was not taken to account. After a decade the project objectives of feeding the
Huruluwewa tank was unachieved. Now the stakeholders were trying to take actions to manage
the situation and supply sufficient water to Huruluwewa tank. Yet now the situation becomes
critical with improper catchment management practices. This paper discusses the percent
situation of the water management system compared with the ancient water resource management
techniques. .

1. Introduction
Sri Lanka is an island located in the Indian Ocean with an extent of 65 525 km2. The country has
103 river basins, while Mahaweli is the largest river system, draining about one sixth of thecountry. The central hills receive over 3500 mm of rain annually while the dry zone of thecountry receives rainfall less than 1500 mm annually. This nun uniform nature of the rainfall
pattern and the prolonged dry periods made it necessary for the early colonizers (2000 years ago)of the country to consider irrigated cultivation in dry zone (DZ) of the country. This was triggeredby the hot dry conditions and high evaporation rates for available limited surface water.
Civilization based on tanks (man made irrigation reservoirs) is uniquely highlighted in the historyof Sri Lanka. This paper discusses the present water management practices in Sri Lanka
compared with ancient technologies.
The DZ of Sri Lanka has been the home of one of ancient “hydraulic civilizations” in monsoon
Asia (Wittfogel, 1957). It consists of interconnected minor irrigation tanks collectively referred toas a cascade. A cascade is defined here as “a connected series of tanks organized within a microcatchment of the DZ landscape, storing, conveying and utilizing water from an ephemeralrivulet” (Madduma Bandara, 1985) and is considered as one of the traditional land water
management systems which has obviously been developed on the basis of catchment ecosystems.
Those cascades were formed not only as water storage and irrigation practice but also with proper
land use planning and operation and maintenance system.

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International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

The Mahaweli River diversion project was the largest development project carried out in the
Nation’s history. The project included the construction of a series of large dams along river
Mahaweli and its’ tributaries. The master plan for the development of the Mahaweli river basin,with the expectation of both hydropower generation and irrigated agriculture in the dry zone (DZ)
of Sri Lanka, was prepared during the 1950’s and 1960’s with the help of United Nation
Development Program and Food and Agriculture Organization. The project was to be
implemented over a 30-year period, starting from 1970. Yet in 1977, the initial project plan wasaltered and accelerated Mahaweli development project was conceptualized aiming to complete
the four major dams of Victoria, Kotmale, Randenigala and Rantembe (refer figure 01) within ashort period of five years. Huruluwewa feeder canal (HFC) was constructed under the Mahaweli
development project in 1970s’ to feed Huruluwewa tank (HT) which was initially constructed by
King Mahasen (325 – 352 AD).

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International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

Figure 1. Reservoirs of Mahaweli development project and other two ancient tanks (Huruluwewa;
HT and Mahakanadarawa; MT) discussed in the study.

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International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

2. Indigenous tank cascade system and land management
In order to establish sustainable agriculture in dry zone, earliest attempts (since 2200 years ago)at irrigation were made through construction of dams across ephemeral streams and divertingwater from perennial streams. Those surface water sources fed several tanks throughout thecascade. This system enabled the reuse of irrigation water many times down stream before ending
in the ocean. It can be clearly explained by the famous saying, “Let not a single drop of water
received from rains go waste into the sea without benefiting the man and the beast” - King
Parakramabahu (1153-1186). Under tank cascade systems land use planning was done with agroecological approach. The un-irrigable upland areas were used for residential activities andshifting cultivation (Chena in local
language).In those uplands subsidiary foodcrops which did not require much water
were cultivated (Goonasekere and Gamage,1999). Apart from the food product thoseshifting cultivation lands provided wood,stumps, debris etc. for the villagers. Village(refer figure 2) was located at a higher
elevation and protected with the tank serving
as a buffer from the wild animals. The
catchment was protected with forest coverand runoff water was filtered by the tree beltof specially selected plants at the entrance tothe tank. The water hole caught the sedimenttransported from the upper catchment andprovided water for cattle and wild animals
without polluting the tank. The interceptor
Figure 2. Traditional tank village system
located immediately downstream of the dam
reduced seepage from the tank, provided
additional safeguard for the dam, prevented
entering of salinity to the paddy fields and was used as a wetland agro-forestry system which
included medicine, fuel wood, fruit, fodder, fencing material and reeds providing raw material forthe traditional mats.
Cultivable area (farm land; figure 02) was determined by capacity of the tank and it was properly
located after the interceptor. This immediately determined the size of the community. Beyond thefarm land another tank was placed downstream, where the construction of the next dam was
feasible. Downstream Water hole and grass-tree belt was used to filter the water drained from thefarm lands. Once a series of tanks constructed a cascade was formed.

3. Huruluwewa feeder canal (HFC) issue
The 33 km long HFC (refer figure 01) was designed to convey 4.3 m3/s of water throughout theyear to the HT (Lahmeyer, 2004). The canal discharges the water into Yan Oya (a natural stream)
which crosses three minor tanks including Thalkote, Hiriwadunna, and Habarana (TH&H) withcommand areas of 80, 64, 40 ha respectively (Mahaweli, 2005). At the project planning stage, theland around the banks of the canal was undeveloped and project planners of 1960s and 1970s
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International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

ignored the future land development possibilities and water requirement for those lands (figure 4).
Hence the project planners assumed that the majority of the flow (except minor losses such as
seepage and evaporation) would reach the HT. Yet the HT water budget shows a very low inflow
to the tank (figure 5) starting from 1995, more than a decade after the HFC construction (MASL,
2005).
Mahaweli Authority of Sri Lanka (MASL), Department of Agrarian Services (DAS) and
Irrigation Department of Sri Lanka (IDSL) are managing the major three components, HFC,
TH&H and other minor irrigation schemes, and Huruluwewa Tank respectively. Lack ofinteraction among those institutions is a problem. When the MASL releases water to HFC thewater passes through tanks managed by farmer organizations (FO) under DAS. At the beginningunder those tanks (TH&H) the cultivatedarea was limited due to less water
availability. Yet when the HFC passed
Tankthrough those tanks the water availability
Farm land
was not a constraint any more. It destroyed
the concept of “tank capacity controlled
farmland area”. Farmers encroached theland as they can. It continued up to the dam
in some places (figure 3) by removing the“interceptor” (refer figure 2) which acts as asalt trap. This has made a severe impact on
Figure 3. Farm lands up to the dam
the sustainability of the farm lands.
On the other hand the lands around the HFC were developed by taking water from HFC. Since
HFC is a contour canal along most of its path, farmers on the low side started to take water out
with siphons (now the lands are developing on the high side also using solar pumps). Once thewater taken by putting a siphon generally water is allowed to flow out continuously to sustain thesiphon function. This wastes considerable amount of water than well designed outlet irrigation
canal which can be used as a discharge control device.

Figure 4. Water encroachments and cultivated land with encroached water

Cultivation in DZ of Sri Lanka is mainly done in two seasons. The rain fed “Maha” season starts
from November and stretches about five months while dry “Yala” season starts from April and30

International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

stretches about 4 months. The designed flow rate of 4.3 m3/s gives a water flow of 44.6 MCM(million cubic metres) for a four months cultivation-season and 55.7 MCM for a cultivationseason of five months.

2005

2005/2006

2004/2005

2004

2003

2003/2004

2002/2003

2002

2001

Huruluwewa feeder canal inflow / (MCM)

2001/2002

2000

2000/2001

1999

1999/2000

1998

1998/1999

1997

1997/1998

1996

1996/1997

1995/1996

60.00
50.00
40.00
30.00
20.00
10.00
0.00
1995

MCM

Yala-Maha two seasons inflow data to HT

Catchment inflow / (MCM)

Figure 5. Inflow data to Huruluwewa tank in Yala-Maha two seasons
In many occasions the HFC flow is far below the designed flows due to water pilferage. The
inflow graph (figure 5) shows the catchment inflow has a greater value than the HFC inflow at
the initial stage. Catchment’s inflow may vary due to catchment development. Mahakanadarawatank (MT) (rifer figure 1) constructed by the same King who constructed the HT has a commandarea of 3200 ha which is almost similar to the cultivated land in its catchment area under minor
irrigation tanks. Rehabilitation of those tanks has a significant effect on the inflow to the MT.
Table 1 summarize the effect of rehabilitation in the catchment area and required flow rates fromthe outside resource (feeder canal from Mahaweli development project) for the cultivation of total
land in command area in both seasons (Yala and Maha).
Table 1. Inflow requirement for the full cultivation and minor tank rehabilitation percentage data
extracted from Kariyawasam et al., 1984.
Mahakanadarawa tank catchment
Required net inflow / (m3/s)
improvement percentage / (%)
0
0.00
20
0.00
40
1.78
60
2.22
80
2.66
Surface water inflow reduction into HT (as shown in figure 05 for last 10 years) can happen due
to catchment development and removal of forest cover as illustrated in the similar of study for
Mahakanadarawa Tank (MT).
Due to water scarcity in HT command area the farmer organizations (FO) of HT campaigned toadopt a water management plan for the HFC. Hence in late 1990s’ FO of both HT and HFC,IDSL, and MASL got together and discussed ways to solve the issue. Finally the parties agreed
for a water management plan, which provides more water than before to the HT. The increment

31International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

of HFC flow to HT is apparent in the figure 05. Yet the agreement was just an informal
agreement among the organizations. It improved neither the water controlling structures nor land
use planning of the area. Hence even now a considerable amount of water is wasted due tounauthorized tapping of water.

4. Conclusions
Ancient water management systems were not only used as irrigation schemes. The designers
considered the available water resources, topography of the land, and sustainability of the system
by considering the environmental aspects. Improper management of water resource systems
including poor catchment management and land use planning reduces the productivity of water
resources. Future land developments must take these facts into account at the project planningstage itself. Water management policy must be coupled with land management and landdevelopment.

Acknowledgments
The authors wish to acknowledge all the officers who contributed data for the preparation of thisdocument in HFC office, MASL; HT office, IDSL and all the consultants and research assistantsof the Moragahakanda–Kaluganga EIA study team who shared their experiences during the fieldvisits.

References
Goonasekere K. and Gamage H. 1999. Some indigenous technology knowledge and practices forwatershed management in Sri Lanka. University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka, pp. 10-13.
Kariyawasam et al. 1984. The impact of the catchment development of Mahakanadarawa tank.
Agrarian research and training institute, Colombo, Sri Lanka.
Lahmeyer International, 2004. Feasibility study report of Kaluganga development project,
Mahaweli Authority of Sri Lanka, Sri Lanka, pp. 3_134.
Madduma Bandara C.M. 1985. Catchment ecosystems and village tank cascades in the dry zoneof Sri Lanka, A time tested system of land and water resources management. In: Strategies forriver basin management, Lundqvest J., Lohm U., and Falkenmark M. D. Reidel Publishing
Company. Dordrecht, Holland, pp 99-113.
MASL, Mahaweli Authority Huruluwewa feeder canal management office database, 2005.
Mahaweli Authority, Sri Lanka.
Wittfogel K.A. 1957. Oriental Despotism: A comparative study of total power. Yale University
Press, New Haven, USA.

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International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

Community Water Quality Monitoring Programme in Malaysia

Kalithasan Kailasam
Global Environment Centre
2nd Floor, Wisma Hing, 78, Jalan SS2/72, 47300 Petaling Jaya, Selangor DE, Malaysia.
kalithasan@genet.po.my

Abstract
Fresh water is predicted to become the principal limitation for sustainable development within
this century. The economic, social, environmental and public health implications ofdecreasing water quality are a worldwide threat. In Malaysia, rivers provide 97% of drinking
water. So the status of rivers especially the water quality is vital for water management.
Rivers also reflect the health of the surrounding land because they are the collection point forwater flowing from all around. Therefore monitoring water body (river) is equivalent totaking care of our own health. Today, it is recognised worldwide that strong community
participation is a key factor in river basin management approach. As major stakeholders, local
community can be trained to become watch dogs of water bodies in their vicinity. Community
water quality monitoring is a low cost approach that is reliable and sustainable.

1. Introduction
Water is the basic element of life; without it life would not exist It is second most importantresource for man, and yet it is taken for granted because water is everywhere and it flows
freely when we turn on the tap. The usage for water increases as population grows until thedemand sometimes overshoots the supply or availability.
Although the quantity of water on Earth is same all the time (same as in dinosaur age, 60
million year ago), the quality of the water that is available has drastically changed. Everytime we use water, we affect it in some way. Every watershed is affected by what takes placeon the land. Once used, water flows out as quickly as it comes - down the drain and into ourrivers. The gunk and grease that is flushed down into the drain unthinkingly every day will
ultimately find their way to a nearby river. In other words, we are poisoning the very resourcethat gives us life. Therefore acquiring knowledge on ecosystem especially river basin will
ensure efficient and effective management of rivers and water
2. River Basin
A river basin is a geographic area defined by the flow and movement of surface water. In ariver basin, because of the elevation and contours of the land, all water flows to the samewater body, such as a stream, pond, lake, wetland or estuary. River basin boundaries occur
along high points in the landscape that separate different stream networks. Hydrologists
sometimes refer to river basins as catchments or drainage basins. The term watershed is usedsynonymously with river basin. They come in various shapes and sizes.
In Malaysia, there are 1,800 rivers comprising 150 systems that run up to 38,000 km. As inmany parts of the world, water from rivers and streams in Malaysia is used extensively fordomestic needs, agriculture, aquaculture, industry and hydroelectric power as well as provide
recreational use. Rivers are important as they support nation’s economic development, social

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International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

and cultural needs, religious beliefs and the natural environment. Clean water body and theriparian area in its vicinity support diverse and delicately balanced natural aquatic ecosystems
3. River Pollution
Generally, river water is potable (fit for human consumption) with minimum treatment, if it is
not affected by human activities. However, rivers are now used as disposal routes for liquidand solid waste. While river pollution issues need to be and are being addressed by thegovernment, such fundamental aspect of water supply requires the understanding andparticipation of end users. Water pollution occurs when a body of water is adversely affectedby addition of small or large amounts of materials (pollutants) to the water. Pollutants may be
divided into twp types - point and non-point, depending on their source. Generally,
controlling non-point sources is more complex than dealing with point source pollution.
Statistics published by the Department of Environment (DOE) for the year 2004 reveal 8% of
our rivers to be polluted, 44% slightly polluted and remaining 48% to be clean. This is a clear
indication that river basins in Malaysia are facing serious environmental problems. Studies
indicate that residential, agricultural and industrial wastes are 3 main sources of riverpollution in Malaysia. Degradation of water quality due to pollution causes adverse effects toaquatic life forms, disturbs the balance of life and reduces the bioavailability of potable water.
The burden on rivers to supply fresh water is likely to increase as demand is growing at 4%
annually and is projected to reach 20 billion m3 by the year 2020. Since rivers form 97% of
our fresh water resource, this is an indication that water supply would have to be treatedextensively in future and the cost would have to be absorbed by the public. This fact alone isenough to give us a wake call on the need for careful water quality monitoring to keep ourrivers clean.
4. River Monitoring ProgrammeRiver basin ecosystem such as streams, rivers, lakes, ponds, wetlands and estuaries are thelifeblood of our environment. They provide homes for wildlife; aquatic animals and plants;
water supplies for homes and industries; and places of recreation for all of us. In addition,
rivers reflect the health of the surrounding land because they are the collection point for waterflowing from all around. Therefore the ultimate goal of river monitoring is to sustain or
improve the health of its ecosystem for the use of inhabitants of the earth. One of the ways toachieve such goal is by creating awareness and educating various target audiences including
school students and the general public on issues related to water quality monitoring and river
ecosystems. Awareness need to be created on determining the current health of a river and theimpact it receives from the cities. Data need to be collected on the quality of river water andsuch data would have to be made available to the community and the decision makers.
Water quality and quantity are two most important monitoring factors and are intimately
linked although not often measured simultaneously. Water quantity is often measured bywater level, discharge, and velocity. Whereas water quality is usually determined byanalyzing samples of collected water in a laboratory or by conducting in-situ testing.
Typically, water quality is determined by comparing the data from water samples against
water quality guidelines or standards.
Despite dependence on streams, rivers, ponds and lakes for freshwater supply, Malaysian
have historically not shown sufficient interest in the protection of her water resources.

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International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

Although there are adequate laws and regulations, compliance and enforcement are stilllacking. Currently most of Malaysia’s river systems are not monitored by any agencies.
Adequate river water quality monitoring would ensure sufficient freshwater supply in the
future and initiate emergency procedures should there be unexpected pollution incidents thatcause severe damage.
Generally, the purpose of river monitoring is to:
1. Survey streams and water sources to assess its physical condition.
2. Identify areas where water quality degradation exist and investigate its causes andsources.
3. Provide a comprehensive database to analyze trends in water quality.
4. Indicate areas where water quality needs improvement and how this can be achieved.
There are three types of stream monitoring - physical, chemical and biological monitoring.
1. Physical Monitoring (Visual Observations)
The physical characteristics of a stream can provide clues to indicate its health. Healthy
streams have lush riparian buffers, clear water and abundant wildlife. Several physicalcharacteristics of water quality are: water clarity, water colour, smell/odour, general land use,
description of stream origin & type, riparian vegetation (algae, wetlands), aquatic life forms(fish, prawns), and measurements of in-stream parameters such as width, depth, flow &substrate, drains, erosion and garbage.
2. Chemical Monitoring
Chemical monitoring and testing is one of the most accurate and reliable water quality
monitoring methods. Chemical testing is often used to analyze drinking water. It isextremely useful for determining sources of pollution, as well as determining specificpollutants. Common chemical parameters tested are: pH, dissolved oxygen, conductivity,
temperature, total suspended solids, turbidity and nutrients (phosphate & nitrate).
3. Biological Monitoring
Biological monitoring of rivers and streams provide remarkable insight into the functional
quality of the environment studied. It can reveal important changes in the composition of
biological communities that is caused by human activities. Insects and crustaceans that live ina waterway are excellent indicators of water quality because all organisms require specificconditions to live. Based on the sensitivity of the organisms, water quality can be classified
into 4 status - excellent, good, fair and poor.
Bio-monitoring is easy to conduct and requires relatively inexpensive equipment. The qualityof the water of each part of the river is identified based on the presence of living organismsthat live in the water of the surrounding area. Two frequent groups of living organisms used
for bio-monitoring are invertebrate and fish. The presence of these tiny organisms is used as
an indicator for the quality of the river; whether it’s clean or otherwise. The methods used are
fun and simple and it can be done by individuals, families or groups with minimum training.
Invertebrate is used to identify short term pollution effects. On the other hand, fish is used toobserve pollution effects for a longer period of time. This method is also suitable for anglers
and fishing enthusiasts who could play and important role as river watchers.

35International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

5. Community Water Quality Monitoring
Managing our biological diversity is all about managing people because the ultimate decision
makers for biodiversity are the individuals - you and me. Governments, companies and others
have a responsibility to lead and inform the public, but finally it is an individual choice madebillions of times a day that counts the most. Today, it is recognised worldwide that strong
community participation a key factor in river basin management approach. Participation in thesimplest of its meaning is taking part, sharing and acting together. Local community is amajor group of stakeholders within a river basin and if mobilized adequately, they could playa key role in the management of rivers especially monitoring activities in the river basin.
Community monitoring can stimulate the interest of public and would help induce ownershipof river basin especially in their local catchment area.
However in Malaysia, the potential of local communities and special interest group’s
involvement in river management is currently not being fully utilized. As such, there is atremendous need for local communities and authorities to work together to conserve andprotect our rivers. In addition, the local community too can play an enormous role as watch
dogs to safeguard the environment and create a win-win situation for all parties involved.
Why is community participation important?
1. Most of the time, local community acts as “polluters” and/or “end receivers” either
directly or indirectly. They have enormous potential to become “eyes & ears” of theauthorities. They can take preventive measures to curb unwanted incidents fromhappening by informing the authorities.
2. Local communities too have the potential to promote immediate curative measures torectify unwanted incidents that had happened by informing authorities.
3. Local communities have better knowledge and understanding of the local environment.
Therefore they make excellent informers.
Local community can be trained to monitor land use, illegal dumping, water quality testing
and become watch dog (RIVER Ranger) of water bodies in their vicinity. However what tomonitor will depend on the needs of the data users, the intended use of the data, and theresources of the community monitoring programme. The aims of community water quality
monitoring are to develop community participation, partnership, awareness and ownership on
issues related to water; and encourage them to take remedial actions. In addition, it can
provide links between existing monitoring programmes and community within local river
basin (watershed) as well as across the country to enable exchange of information and ideas.
6. Challenges
The biggest challenge for community water quality monitoring programme is to haveeffective and analytical monitoring of environmental indicators. Effective monitoring
schemes are necessary to identify specific pollutants, their sources and occurrences, todevelop preventive measure, and to assess the efficacy of corrective actions. Another dilemmain community water quality monitoring is how their results can help or support government
agencies effort to protect the environment. Some uses require high-quality data. For example,
high-quality data are usually needed to prove compliance with environmental regulations,assess pollution impacts, or make land use planning decisions. In addition, understanding therelationships between water quality conditions and natural landscape, hydrologic processes,
and human activities that take place within a river basin are lacking especially in developing
countries like Malaysia.

36International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

7. Case Study : Community Participation in River Management : Sg Pencala and
Kelana Jaya Lakes Rehabilitation Programme.
“Community Participation in River Management”, a project funded by DANIDA wasundertaken from Dec 2002 – July 2006 and implemented by Global Environment Centre(GEC) in collaboration with various partners/stakeholders. The Kelana Jaya Lakes
Rehabilitation Programme was co-funded by UNDP-GEF Small Grants Programme.
The project was developed to assist in demonstrating community based approach to improve
quality of rivers in Malaysia. This is the first river rehabilitation program in Malaysia that
focuses on involvement from communities as a component in integrated river basin
management plan.
The “Community Participation in River Management” project aims to improve the quality of
Malaysian rivers and the status of its biodiversity through awareness campaign andenhancement of community participation in river management. It focused on facilitating theestablishment of a two-way communication mechanism between communities and decision
makers in developing appropriate solutions and management plans. The project also aimed toincrease the understanding of the benefits of managing rivers well and develop ownershiptowards rivers among the general public, community groups and special interest groups.
The project mobilized community groups along Sg. Pencala to participate in awarenessprograms and activities related to water quality monitoring, river clean-up and river
rehabilitation. Selected communities were trained on the aspects of river hydrology, ecology
and biodiversity. In addition the communities were also involved in programs to adopt asustainable life style such as changing their consumption patterns, reducing and recycling
domestic waste, and conserving water and energy. Through the participation of community
groups, the monitoring programme documented the presence of a wide range of point andnon-point sources pollution along Sg. Pencala.
8. Community River Monitoring Programme
GEC in collaboration with several other NGOs, organized more than 50 training courses onriver water quality monitoring and biological monitoring techniques to the following
stakeholders: CBOs, schools, local authorities, government agencies, NGOs, private sectors
and media. The Project established 13 water quality monitoring sites along 12 km of Sg.
Pencala and 5 sampling points for the Kelana Jaya Lakes. Currently, there are 3 CBOs
(Friends of Taman Aman and Kelana Jaya Park & the Resident Association of Sec 19)
monitoring the water quality of Sg Pencala and Kelana Jaya Lakes.
As part of education program, GEC developed the RIVER Ranger Programme and SMART(Start Managing All Resources Today) Ranger Programme. In the past 1 year, 13 schools
within these basins were selected and trained to be RIVER Rangers. The Rangers were trained
to conduct water quality monitoring at an interval of 1 month for a period of 6 months andproduce a brief report for compilation by GEC to be presented to relevant agencies. Besidewater quality studies, Rangers are also required to fill ‘River Health Check Card’ that consistsof 10 assessment categories to assess the health of Sg. Pencala and Kelana Jaya Lakes.
Furthermore the local university - Universiti Teknologi Mara - has undertaken a scientificwater quality study at an interval of 1 month for a period of 18 months. A total of 15

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parameters were analyzed that covers all six Water Quality Index (WQI) parameters, heavy
metals, pesticides, hydrocarbon, fertilizer/nutrients and microbes.
Eventually, the water quality monitoring data of the Sg. Pencala and Kelana Jaya Lakes
produced by River Rangers, local community and UiTM/GEC will be featured in the website
www.sungaipencala.info for public access, as below:

Currently the Sungai Pencala and Kelana Jaya community monitoring programme has been
acknowledge and accepted as a model for community programme under the ‘One State One
River programme’ by the Drainage & Irrigation Department of Malaysia.
Acknowledgements
Let me extend my sincere gratitude and thank the project funder DANIDA and UNDP-GEF
Small Grants Programme, MBPJ, DBKL, DID, Education Department, IWK, Alam Flora,
local community for their support towards and through out the project
References
1. Abdur-Razzaq Lubis. (1998). Water Watch – A Community Action Guide. Asia-PacificPeople’s Environmental Network. Malaysia.
2. Andrew Chong, Chan Mung Xian, Chew Ing Kok and Kok Mei Ling. (2005). The River
Watch Programme. The Industrial Training Report.
3. Bent Lauge Madsen. (1995). A Riverkeeper’s field book – a nature guide and field book.
4. Department of Environment. (2004). Malaysia Environmental Quality Report 2004.
5. Jenny Tan Suat Eam. (2004). The Malaysia Stream Keepers Handbook.
6. Keizrul Abdullah and Juhaimi Jusoh. (1996). An appraisal of Malaysia’s water resources:
Problems and prospects. In the proceedings from: CAP-SAM National Conference – Stateof the Malaysian Environment, January 1996.
7. South East Queensland Regional Water Quality Management Strategy Team. (2001).
Discover the Waterways of South East Queensland.

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International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

Negotiation Processes in Institutionalising Grassroots Level Water Governance: Case of
Self Employed Women’s Association, Gujarat, INDIA

Dr. Smita Mishra Panda
Associate Professor, Kalinga School of Rural Management, Bhubaneswar
KIIT University, Campus V, “B” Block, PATIA, 751024
ORISSA. Email: smitafem@gmail.com

Abstract
Several grassroots level institutions are currently playing a positive role in water governance inrural India. The Self Employed Women’s Association (SEWA) 1 based in Gujarat state of India,
a women’s organisation, through its ‘Women, Water and Work’ campaign has proved how
through strong grassroots level women led water institutions has turned around water governancein favour of the local communities. The focus of the paper is how through negotiation processes,
women’s groups have been able to institutionalise a sustainable water governance system at thevillage level. Two cases have been selected for detailed discussion, in which gender as anorganizing principle has played a crucial role in the process of establishing a sound institution for
local water governance.

1. Introduction
People-centred water governance has proved to be solving the water problems in the rural areasof the country, much of the interventions being initiated by the civil society organisations,through mobilisation around water issues. What is increasingly seen is that for any intervention(programme or project) to be successful through people’s institutions, the negotiation processes
have played a crucial role in strengthening not only, the institution but also, sustaining thebenefits of the programme. Often these negotiation processes initiated by the local people are notvisible and ignored and therefore not documented. Currently, however, there is a lot of interest by
development professionals and practitioners to take note of the processes for replication ofdifferent interventions/best practices in varying contexts. These processes also bring home thepoint that for any development intervention to be successful, there are no quick fix blue prints asthey interface with complex social realities particularly in societies that are divided along caste,class and gender lines.
The paper at hand is divided into four sections. After the introduction, the second section
introduces SEWA and its water Campaign. The third section delves into the negotiation processes
by women’s groups in two selected districts of Gujarat – Navakheda in Sabarkantha and ThalaMalvan cluster in Surendranagar. The last section draws some lessons from the negotiation
processes for a sustainable water governance at the local level.

1

SEWA has won several awards (national and international) for its ‘Women, Water and Work’ Campaign as a bestpractice.
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2. Self Employed Women’s Association and the Water Campaign
The Self Employed Women’s Association (SEWA), a development NGO, established in 1972, isthe largest self employed women’s trade union in the country. It is a membership basedorganization (NGO) with a total of around 800,000 members all over the country, of which morethat 500,000 are based in the state of Gujarat. Its members are all poor women belonging to theinformal sector, of which two-thirds are from the rural areas. SEWA strongly believes that thebasis of development and progress is through organization. It works with the two-fold objectiveof providing full employment to its members and making them self-reliant. SEWA combines four
specific strategies – organizing women into groups/collectives, since individual women have no
voice; capacity building of women to become owners and managers (not just producers andlabourers); encourage capital formation at the household, group and community levels; andincreasing social security to enhance women’s well-being and productivity to reduce the impactsof crisis on fragile household economies (SEWA 2003).
SEWA initiated its water campaign in 1995 in which diverse water issues affecting its members
are addressed. It is active in 9 districts, mostly in the semi-arid regions of the state, where water isscarce and hardly available for 2-3 months in a year. The objective of the Campaign is totranslate ‘optimal and efficient use of water’ into a mass campaign. Women, Water and Work
Campaign – also known as the Millennium Campaign is guided by a water vision in which
women should have rightful access to sufficient amounts of quality drinking water. The
Campaign mobilises and empowers women to identify and address water related bottlenecks atthe village, taluka and state levels. It enables women to control and manage their water sources.
This has a direct bearing on women’s livelihoods, incomes and employment opportunities.
The Campaign
The water Campaign is both a movement and a development alternative, spread across 11
districts covering more that 200,000 women in 500 villages of Gujarat (SEWA 2003). It is basedon the promise of decentralized water management that captures the specific cultural andenvironmental contexts where it is currently active. It attempts at meeting needs of women fromdifferent socio-economic backgrounds. The organizational structure of the campaign (Figure 1)
illustrates a well-coordinated, decentralized approach to water management, involving various
stakeholders at three levels of action and interaction – the state, district and the village.
The objectives of the Campaign are to:-raise women’s and community’s awareness of water related problems such as availability,
quality and its conservation;
establishment of local water user groups (of mostly women leaders) called ‘pani samitis’for the maintenance of community water sources;
capacity building for women through leadership and technical training for them tofunction as efficient water managers;
facilitate women’s ownership of water resources, such as registration of household
rainwater collection tanks in women’s names and;forge links with other organizations, both nationally and internationally to promote
gender-responsive water policies.

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Water Campaign
Co-ordinator

District Co-ordinator

District Water Campaign
LeaderSpearheadTeam
Grassroots Women Leaders

Village Water Committees(Women and men water users)

Figure 1. Organisational Structure of SEWA’s Water Campaign.

3. Negotiation Processes
The two cases (Navakheda and Thala-Malvan) have been identified for detailed discussion as
they represent a variety of negotiation processes by women’s group with the facilitation of
SEWA. These negotiation processes contribute to the development strategy (improved water
availability, better livelihoods, health and sanitation and overall well-being) in the quest for41

International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

efficient water management. A point to be noted here is that a successful water management
intervention may not be always the starting point for its success.
Navakheda
In case of Navakheda, SEWA made an entry by organising women’s Self Help Groups (SHGs)
for micro-credit programmes to address their livelihood needs. Initially vermin-composting
activities by the SHGs were promoted. During the course of this activity it was realized by both
SEWA and the women members, that regular access to safe drinking water was more important
than access to credit. Village women were concerned about instances whereby they had lost work
opportunities on account of non-availability of water and ill-health.
Ground water in the region was comparatively higher than other neighbouring districts in theregion. Although there were handpumps installed by the government, they were not functioning
regularly. A group of women along with SEWA personnel approached the government officialsof the State Water Board to find out ways to solve the problem. After a series of discussions theyrealized that government either did the maintenance work through its own officials or gave out
service-contracts for maintenance of these hand-pumps. However, in both the cases the
handpumps were mostly in a state of disrepair.
The women’s group came up with the idea of maintaining handpumps themselves. Initially the
women members had doubts about their own ability to do so. Moreover, they were not surewhether they would get the support of the village community. Handpump repair work is
considered a male domain and women were hesitant to encroach upon this space. However, withthe support of SEWA, women members gathered the courage and confidence to undergo
technical training for maintenance of water infrastructure. The government officials initially werereluctant to train illiterate or semi-literate women. SEWA convinced the government officials
about women’s capability to undertake the task of maintenance and repair of handpumps. Finally
the Gujarat Jal Training Institute (GJTI) a government organization agreed to train women in thetechnical aspects of water infrastructure. After some initial problems and intensive round of
training sessions, 4 units of women were ready to initiate the handpump repair work. The
government signed a contract with SEWA for maintenance and repair of handpumps in villages
in the district. Women were paid a certain amount as wages for their work by the government andpart of the expenses such as transporting the tools etc. were borne by SEWA.
In the initial phase of application of their skills for maintenance of handpumps, the village
community, especially men were most skeptical about women’s abilities and refused to cooperatewith them. Women also received threats that if the handpumps failed to function then they would
have to face grave consequences. Despite all odds, women in the Sabarkantha villages did notgive up and subsequently the handpumps were all repaired on time and people could access water
on a regular basis. Not only were the repairs carried out at the earliest but the women were able tomotivate the communities to keep the surroundings of handpumps clean and free from water
logging to maintain a clean environment. In addition, women also came up with suggestions toimprove the quality of work by modifying tools used for repair which would minimize labour andtime. Consequently, SEWA-trained women could not only, save on the cost towards repair but
also, provide suggestions to the community to adopt practices for better maintenance of these42International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

handpumps. Today the community wants the women’s group to continue with handpump repair
work even though the government has pulled back its service contract in some areas.
The unique feature of the interventions in Navakheda has been making water accessible to asmall cluster comprising 17 households belonging to the marginalized section of the village. Thissection was faced with government apathy and the village community was also indifferent totheir problems, but the women’s group with the support of SEWA could meet their water needs.
Women bare-foot technicians as they are popularly know, have been able to adopt innovative
measures in terms of cost reduction and design of new implements/tools for maintenance of water
infrastructure.
In case of Navakheda, the community acceptance of women trained technicians as better
alternative to traditional service contractors has threatened the bureaucracy and the politiciancontractor nexus. Under political pressure the Water Board was forced to withdraw the service
contract in one of the talukas allotted to SEWA. As a result in Dhansura village around 50
technically trained women are idle and there is a possibility that they might lose the skills thatthey have developed in the course of two years. Further, when the contract is renewed after a time
gap, they need to put in more efforts to maintain the handpumps which have been lying in a stateof dis-repair for a long time.
Thala-Malvan
Thala Malvan is a 19 year old scheme, although its management has been with women members
only for the past four years. The scheme involves five villages being served by a group watersupply, covering a population of about 8500. The scheme has a tank in Isadra village with acapacity of 450,000 litres. Water is chlorinated once a day before it is released to the rest of thevillages. Each village has their own smaller capacity tanks and water is distributed throughstand-posts located at strategic points in the village.
SEWA had started its work in the area for the promotion of hygiene and safe practices inprocurement and usage of drinking water. The Thala Malvan Scheme was located in the area
which was once infested by a major water borne disease. Subsequently, SEWA had approached
its members to explore the possibilities of management of the scheme. Initially women resisted
taking up the responsibility, due to lack of confidence. There was also a feeling among thevillagers, and the officials in the GWSSB, that women, being illiterate and unexposed to any
work except unskilled labour and salt work, were incapable of managing the water supply scheme.
It took time and great effort on the part of SEWA to give assurance to the people about the
project’s feasibility including the economic and technical benefits. Gradually, a few women cameforward to participate in the experiment. The village panchayat also nominated a few women to
take the lead who they thought were capable of managing the system. The Gujarat Water Sewage
and Sanitation Board (GWSSB) provided the women with six-months technical training inmechanical and technical aspects of maintenance of the water supply system. Eventually those
women trainees who could meet the standards set by the Board were selected for the final task ofoperation and maintenance of the system. Finally a contract was signed between GWSSB and
SEWA to hand over the management of this scheme to the women. The contract includes theoperation and maintenance of the system. All required repairs at the time of handing over of thescheme were done by GWSSB.
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International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

As agreed in the contract, the day-to-day maintenance of the system is the responsibility of thewomen’s group, although the GWSSB extends help if needed. The cost sharing in the operationand maintenance between SEWA and the women’s group is shared on a 70 - 30 basis. The
women’s group bears the cost in the form of labour. While the wear and tear of the system andthe replacement of parts such as the taps etc. is the responsibility of SEWA, the water board pays
the electricity charges. The expense incurred on the maintenance of the system is recovered fromthe pre-decided amount as mentioned in the contract with SEWA. At times, there were someproblems with finances as the amount received in the contract from the GWSSB was not enoughto cover the costs of the project operation and maintenance. Currently, SEWA is faced with the
problem of non-renewal of the contract. The scheme is being managed by the GWSSB officials.
However, due to poor accountability within the government system, it is poorly maintained as aresult of which water shortage for long periods has become a common phenomenon.
The unique feature of the efforts in Thala-Malvan has been the successful management of thepiped water supply scheme in all aspects like chlorination, maintaining pressure and flow, repairs
and water storage maintenance. Another important feature of this initiative is the emergence of
women as local managers of supply systems, who are accountable to the village community.
Moreover, women tend to be aware about local realities, needs and conditions which give themmore space to negotiate on water issues. Such features are evident in the initiative taken forcollection of water charges in the cluster of villages at the local level, although it has met withpartial success on account of political and institutional hindrances.
The limitation in Thala-Malvan is that promotion of efficiency through dialogue on inter-village
water issues has not materialized. Women’s groups have met with non-cooperation from theaffluent sections of the village as their power was being threatened. Just like any other natural
resource, water is also a source of power and traditionally access to water has been directly andindirectly controlled by a few. Dependency of marginalized groups on those who control water,
was reinforced particularly during the lean months of summer every year. Due to the availabilityof piped water and RRWHS the dependency has got diluted. To counteract the situation, theaffluent people in some of the villages are not agreeable to bear their share of water charges, as aresult of which there is a likelihood of the water supply being finally stopped.
Both Navakheda and Thala-Malvan experiences show that access to water and water supply
infrastructure is intimately linked with the power balance at the local level. Therefore any efforts
to change the existing set-up will have to face opposition from vested interests that have thepower to influence the political and administrative set-up governing the water sector.
4. Institutionalising Local Water Governance - Lessons
Both the cases indicate a need based development of an integrated approach for better water
management (access of local community to clean safe drinking water for the entire year) that hasorganically developed from grassroots realities based on women’s lived experiences. With thesupport of SEWA, women’ groups have been able to take active participation in activities related
in water management in the public domain and over the years have gained the support of the local
community to a great extent. The cases here clearly depict that women have broken social
barriers and by organizing themselves into collectives have been encroach in the male space aswater managers. Some of the distinctive features of the Campaign which can be represented as
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International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

outcomes of the long negotiation processes by the women’s group are: (a) Formation of strong
Pani Samitis or grassroots women’s institutions which forms the backbone of the Campaign; (b)Formation of a Technical Cadre comprising the formally trained women engineers and agrassroots cadre of ‘barefoot technicians’ who have substantially contributed to the maintenanceof the piped water supply and the handpumps in rural areas. In the process they were also trainedin environmental protection, sanitation and maintenance of water quality for drinking purposes;(c) Women were able to transcend all social barriers in the highly stratified rural society, andhave come together regardless of caste, class and ethnicity for a common cause; (d) As acollective women have come to represent a strong political voice and have been able to dialogue
with the state on various water problems affecting them.

References
SEWA (2003), Women’s Struggle for Water. Ahmedabad

Acknowledgements
The author would like to thank Mr. Ravi Sannabhadti for research assistance and Ms. Bharti
Bhavsar of SEWA for her kind cooperation in organizing the field study in the SEWA water
Campaign villages in the 2 districts of Gujarat.

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International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

Power of Partnerships: Bringing Safe Water to Indonesia

Payton Deeks, Trigeany Linggoatmodjo, Irma Setiono
USAID/Indonesia ~ American Embassy Jakarta ~ Jl Medan Merdeka Selatan 3-5 ~ Jakarta 10110 Indonesia
Tel: (62 21) 3435 9376 ~ Fax: (62 21) 380 6694 ~ pdeeks@usaid.gov

Abstract
Lack of clean and safe drinking water is a major health and development issue in Indonesia.
USAID is working to alleviate this problem, and two recent efforts capture the synergy of the
public and private sectors. The Aman Tirta program is a consortium working to support acommercially viable point-of-use water treatment product. The Cinta Air program, apartnership between Coca-Cola Systems Indonesia and USAID/ Indonesia, focuses on small
water infrastructure and behavior change in a village close to the Coca-Cola plant. These two
projects highlight the importance and success of non-traditional arrangements in addressing
water issues in Indonesia.

1. Introduction
Safe drinking water is a major development and health challenge for Indonesia and affects alarge number of people. More than 48 million people in Indonesia do not have access to“improved” drinking water (e.g., household connection, public standpipe, borehole, etc.)(UNICEF, 2006); only 39% of the urban population and 8% of the rural population haveaccess to piped water which is controlled and ostensibly quality checked (Ministry of
Settlement and Regional Infrastructure, 2004). Additionally, more than 100 million
Indonesians go without adequate sanitation (UNICEF, 2006).
Even with piped water and other “improved” sources, the water is not necessarily clean (Jones
1993; Dharmapatni and Firman, 1995) due to siltation, proximity to sewage, or inundationfrom seawater (Dharmapatni and Firman, 1995; Nur et al., 2001). Unsafe drinking water is amajor cause of diarrhea in Indonesia (Lenz, 1988), and diarrheal disease, in turn, is the second
leading killer of children under 5 in Indonesia (excluding mortality within the first week oflife) and accounts for about 19% of child deaths each year (Surkesnas, 2002; Biro Pusat
Stastik, 2003). A number of authors have shown that diarrheal disease has been the third
leading cause of overall morbidity in Indonesia, and the leading cause of infant mortality(Nazir et al., 1985; Sunoto, 1985; Simanjuntak et al., 1998).
To address water, health, and other issues, USAID and its predecessor agency have beenworking with the Government and people of Indonesia to meet their needs for over 50 years.
USAID/Indonesia has embraced public-private partnerships as a way to mobilize the ideas,
efforts and resources of governments, businesses, and civil society in order to stimulate
economic growth, develop businesses and workforces, address health and environmental
issues, and expand access to education and technology.
Two of USAID’s projects focusing on water in Indonesia have come to fruition through theunique arrangements of public-private partnerships. The Aman Tirta project has supported themarketization of Air RahMat, used to treat drinking water for households. The Cinta Air, orLove Water, project aims to provide clean water supply and water education to residents ofBekasi, West Java, Indonesia.
46International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

2. Aman Tirta and AirRahMat
The Aman Tirta (Safe Water System) program is a USAID-funded effort to improve access tosafe water through point-of-use water treatment. Aman Tirta has taken a new approach to thistask by creating a commercially viable product complemented
with a behavior change program.
As described above, safe drinking water remains elusive tomuch of the Indonesian population. Studies have shown that insome areas, nearly all households boil water, although it is often
then re-contaminated (Prihartono, 1994). This re-contamination
Figure 1. Aman Tirta program logo
can occur through improper boiling; mixing with unboiled
water; or improper storage (e.g., an unclean ladle or hand is used to obtain water, rather than aspigot) (CDC, 2005; Ainslie, 2007). Aman Tirta’s recent findings showed that up to 96% ofsource water in one district of Java was contaminated by E. coli. When the water was tested
after being boiled, 47% of the water was still contaminated by E. coli (ACNielsen, 2004;
Aman Tirta, 2006). In addition, studies have found that boiling can be economically andenvironmentally unsustainable (deKonig et al., 1985; Gilman and Skillicorn, 1985). For thisreason, inexpensive and simple-to-use point-of use treatment is vital for public health,particularly for reducing the likelihood of diarrhea in children under 5 years old.
Instead of making a subsidized product that would be available and distributed for the shortduration of a project, Aman Tirta seeks to facilitate the production and distribution of a
product that will be commercially viable in the Indonesian market, ensuring its sustainability
after the program funding has ended. While similar products have been implemented aroundthe developing world, to date these products have been subsidized and not commercially
viable. Air RahMat differs radically in that it aims to be wholly commercially supported.
In order to create a commercially viable product, a partnership between the public and private
sector was vital. There are five main parties supporting Air RahMat. The Johns Hopkins
University Bloomberg School of Public Health’s Center for Communication Programs is
responsible for overall program strategy design, management, and communication andbehavior change interventions. CARE is leading the community participation component andenhancing water treatment socialization and adoption and the implementation of the program.
PT Tanshia Consumer Products is manufacturing, bottling, and packaging the Air RahMat
product. PT Dos ni Roha, one of Indonesia’s leading distributors or pharmaceutical, health,and personal care products, is distributing Air RahMat across a full range of outlets fromvariety stores to clinics to kiosks. LOWE Worldwide is handling the developing andimplementation of the marketing and positioning of Air RahMat. The financial support in its
nascent period allows these companies to form relationships and “work out the kinks” while it
has a safety net. For example, the bottle was redesigned after the first production run to makeit more stable, to improve the visibility of the measuring lines inside the cap, and to create
more space on the front of the bottle for type. While this redesign might have been financially
impossible for a company on its own, it is possible with the Aman Tirta project and will resultin a better and more marketable product. Additionally, the Aman Tirta project is working tobuild the capacity of PT Tanshia (who will take over whole responsibility for Air RahMat in2009). In this vein, the project works with PT Tanshia on brand management; outreach toNGOs; advocacy with the government; community mobilization; and building a businessnetwork so that they will be able to continue the success of Air RahMat as a commercial
product.

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Air RahMat is the Indonesian version of similar products that have been used successfully inmore than 25 countries worldwide, and was used generically in Indonesia previously (USAID,
2006a). The name is derived from a combination of four words: Air (water), muRAH(economical), Mudah (easy-to-use), and sehAT(healthy). The product is also certified halal(sanctioned by Islamic law) which increases its appeal to Indonesian consumers.
Air RahMat is a liquid 1.25% sodium hypochlorite solution which, when used properly, canreduce by 40-80% the risk of diarrhea by deactivating the mostcommon microorganisms that cause diarrhea in humans. The 100 mL
bottle is enough to treat the average amount of water a household
uses in 1 month. It costs Rp 4000 – 5000 (around $0.50), which, at
Rp 7 per liter, is cheaper than bottled water (450 Rp/L), refilled water(Rp 175/L), or boiling water (Rp 102/ L) (USAID, 2006a). Air
RahMat is available through traditional stores such as warung, kiosks,
kelontong, apotik (pharmacies) and through non-traditional outlets(community-based organizations, non-government organizations, andcommunity centers). When a 6.3 magnitude earthquake hit
Yogyakarta, Central Java, Aman Tirta distributed over 100,000
bottles of Air RahMat through UNICEF, CARE, and other relief
organizations (USAID 2006b; Ainslie, 2007). Following the floodingin Aceh province in December 2006, UNICEF distributed Air
Figure 2. Air RahMat bottle RahMat to ensure a ready supply of safe drinking water.
The Aman Tirta program debuted Air RahMat to the Indonesian market in Jakarta in
December 2005. In February 2006, the product was rolled out to Banten and North Sumatra.
By December 2006 the program expanded to other provinces including West Java, Central
Java, East Java, Jakarta metropolitan area, and Aceh. Future plans include expanding to allprovinces in Java and, ultimately, nationwide (USAID, 2006b; Ainslie R., 2007).
By December 2006, less than a year after being formally launched, more than 1 million
bottles have been sold and 950 traditional and 350 non-traditional retailers are carrying Air
RahMat.
In addition to facilitating the commercialization of the Air RahMat product, the Aman Tirta
program supports its use through education about safe water and health. This education
happens through a multimedia campaign promoting Air RahMat, community-level activities,
activation activities such as promotions at markets hosted by local radio stations, andcommunity-level demonstrations at posyandu (village health posts). In addition, Aman Tirta
focuses on cross-fertilization of other USAID projects working in the water and health sectors
to ensure that as many project sites as possible are promoting Air RahMat in their work. The
Cinta Air program, described below, incorporates Air RahMat into its programming, as do anumber of other USAID-funded health and education programs.

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3. Cinta Air (Love Water)
Bekasi is an industrial, peri-urban area outside of Jakarta and ishome to 25,000 people as well as the bottling plant of Coca-Cola
Systems Indonesia. The rapid population growth of Bekasi has
strained the already inadequate water infrastructure. A recent
survey of the Kalijaya village of Bekasi revealed that 50% of thehouseholds relied on shared or public deep boreholes with apump for drinking water. The other households relied on
unprotected shallow wells or bottled water. Only 15 houses of1700 in the village have individual toilets; the rest use outdoor
toilets which consist of boards for squatting over a river, pond, or
irrigation canal, with cloth or plastic sheets as “walls” (Figure 3).
Handwashing with soap is a poorly practiced hygiene behavior in
the area although an important way to reduce diseasetransmission (Aulia, 1994; USAID, 2006c).
Figure 3. Open toilet over a river

USAID/ Indonesia and Coca-Cola have come together to support
the Cinta Air (Love Water) program in Bekasi, West Java (Figure 4). This program is part of
the global Community Watershed Partnership Program (CWPP), a strategic alliance between
USAID and The Coca-Cola Company (TCCC) that focuses on water for the poor. CWPP
enables USAID and TCCC to provide incentive grants to local TCCC business units andbottlers as well as USAID missions to carry out water-related projects in target communities
in the developing world. Implemented initially in Bolivia and Mali, Indonesia was selected as
the third country in the world to participate in this partnership.
Through the Cinta Air program, USAID has leveraged its
support for improvement of water systems in Indonesia. The
partnership with Coca-Cola will empower the Kalijaya
community to improve their own village wells; learn better
health and hygiene practices; and strengthen Coca-Cola
Systems Indonesia’s (CCSI) ongoing Go Green Schools
Figure 4. Cinta Air program logo
program which involves youth in their local environment.
Through good communication, strong technical knowledge, andshared goals, USAID/Indonesia and CCSI have built a successful partnership that addresses
the vital needs of the community of Kalijaya.
Launched in March 2006, the Cinta Air program is implemented through cooperation by threedifferent programs, all supporting the project team as they address the three prongs of the
project—a technical intervention, the multi-media campaign, and the Go Green Schools. The
Coca-Cola Foundation Indonesia leads the Go Green Schools and multimedia campaign;
USAID’s Environmental Services Program is responsible for the technical water andsanitation intervention and health hygiene advocacy; and USAID’s Aman Tirta promotes theuse of Air RahMat.
The objectives of Cinta Air are to:• Improve public awareness of water conservation practices, including tree planting, toprotect and stabilize water resources;

49International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok•••

Improve public health through the promotion of health and hygiene behaviors linked
to water and sanitation practices;
Empower local communities to improve water quality by introducing simple methods
and approaches to improve, protect and monitor water quality; andImprove stakeholder capacity to understand and commit to long-term, sustainableoptions for better water supply.

As of January 2007, significant progress has been made towards the objectives in each of thethree prongs, all of which complement and strengthen the other. The technical intervention
began with a baseline study of local stakeholders to assess their needs and attitudes regarding
water usage and storage; sanitation and solid waste facilities; and hand washing and healthpractices. This study was a main input for a Mini PHAST (Participatory Hygiene andSanitation Transformation) participatory process whereby the community members
themselves identify the needs and problems around water and sanitation. Through a process ofcommunity mapping, walks, and discussions with community members, the Cinta Air teamlearned about the community’s situation regarding water, sanitation, and hygiene, and thenworked with the community to identify solutions. The team and the community thendeveloped action plans based on these goals and objectives. They identified 22 existing
shallow wells to be improved and protected (Figure 5). The community was required tocontribute to the well improvement project (either financially or in-kind with time and laborfor cleaning and maintenance), assist in the construction, and organize into user groups to
identify maintenance responsibilities. This community involvement in the improvement
increases the likelihood that the wells will continue to be properly cleaned and maintained;
community pressure will reduce shirking and small user fees will give the safe water a greater
value than unsafe water.
In addition to building the small
infrastructure to support safe water,
the multimedia campaign works to
inform community members about theimportance of safe water through anumber of different outreach events
since the beginning of the project. At
community meetings, households(primarily mothers) are informed
about proper handwashing techniques,household water treatment (including
Air RahMat), and other hygiene
improvement activities. In addition,outreach specialists from the Cinta Airteam work with midwives from the
Figure 5. Children show off an improved well that provides clean
local puskesmas (sub-district healthwater to around 50 community members.
center) to disseminate information on
basic health and hygiene to new mothers. The Air RahMat product is also tied into theseoutreach efforts; the Cinta Air team has identified a local distributor and retailer for as well asa billboard in Kalijaya on which to advertise Air RahMat. The multimedia campaign also held
a Breaking the Fast event during Ramadan at the Coca-Cola bottling plant, which wasattended by more than 300 people from the surrounding communities. An ustadz (religious
teacher) gave a sermon on the importance of water to humankind. By interweaving the50

International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

message through health care workers, religious figures, and traditional community meetings,
the multimedia campaign reinforces the importance of safe water.
The campaign also has fun events to keeppeople engaged with health and water topics
while enjoying themselves. The Jalan Sehat(Health Walk) celebrated the program’s
progress to date and also allowed teams fromthe village (comprised of more than 440
participants) to compete at different stations
that featured water and sanitation trivia along
the Health Walk route. The community’s
enthusiasm for the event is demonstrated by
the creative costumes the teams put together(Figure 6).
Figure 6. Two teams prepare to begin the Jalan Sehat

At the time of writing, the campaign was alsoplanning on implementing a photographycompetition, a poster competition, a 10K for Water, a radio talk show, and a school water
festival during 2007. Many of these events generally include games, music, andcompetitions— which invariably attract large crowds.
The Go Green Schools campaign involves students from 4 high schools in education aboutwater, sanitation, and the environment. Cinta Air staff have held activities for students on the
topics of solid waste disposal, water quality monitoring, reforestation, composting, and publichealth. Nearly 80 students at two high schools have committed to support Cinta Air throughtraining of fellow students, composting, awareness-raising, and construction of a greenhouseon school grounds. By involving students, the program helps spread the messages, as students
often share their learning with their parents. In addition, high school students are not far awayfrom becoming young leaders—by generating interest in the topics today, Cinta Air hopes tohave supportive and educated leadership tomorrow.
The Cinta Air Program will last till August 2007, and in the long term, the Cinta Air Programaims to have the local stakeholders own and sustain the program. Positive responses andfeedback have been received by the team from youth and religious leaders, the health agencyof Bekasi, the Cleanliness Agency of Bekasi, and two primary school principals. The teamwill work to transition the continuation of efforts to these groups.
4. Conclusion
Through innovative arrangements and the support of the private sector, USAID/ Indonesia has
worked to improve Indonesians’ access to and understanding of the importance of safe water.
Both Aman Tirta and Cinta Air capture the power of the private sector and the development
expertise of the public sector to create lasting change and improvement. These programs
should be viewed as successful partnerships that can be repeated elsewhere to affect greaterchange.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank the Aman Tirta program and Robert Ainslie, the Cinta Air
team, Coca-Cola Systems Indonesia, GETF, and USAID’s Environmental Services Program.

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References
ACNielsen. (2004). A Baseline Study on Water Hygiene.
Ainslie, R. (2007). Personal communication between Robert Ainslie, Chief of Party, Aman
Tirta, and the authors. January 22, 2007.
Aman Tirta. 2006. Evaluating the Impact of a Public-Private Safe Water System Project on
Household Water Treatment Practices. Unpublished. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins
Bloomberg School of Public Health’s Center for Communication Programs and Centers for
Disease Control.
Aulia H, Surapaty SC, Bahar E, Susanto TA, Roisuddin, Hamzah M, Ismail R. (1994).
Personal and domestic hygiene and its relationship to the incidence of diarrhoea in south
Sumatera. J Diarrhoeal Dis Res.Mar;12(1):42-8.
Biro Pusat Statistik. (2003). Survai Kesehatan Rumah Tangga [Family Health Survey, inBahasa Indonesia]. Jakarta, Departemen Kesehatan RI.
deKonig H.W., Smith K.R., and Last J.M. (1985). Biomass fuel consumption and health. Bull.
World Health Organ. 63, 157-63.
Dharmapatni, I. A.I. and Firman T. (1995). Problems and challenges of mega-urban regions inIndonesia: the case of Jabotabek and Bandung metropolitan area. In: The Mega-Urban
Regions of Southeast Asia, Policy Challenges and Responses, T.G. McGee and I. Robinson(Eds), UBC Press, Vancouver, pp. 296-314.
Gilman R.H. and Skillicorn P. (1985). Boiling of drinking water: can a fuel-scarce community
afford it? Bull. World Health Organ. 63, 11-26.
Jones, G. W. (1993). Population, environment and sustainable development in Indonesia,
Majalah Demografi Indonesia, 40, 1-20.
Lenz, R. (1988). Jakarta kampung morbidity variations: some policy implications. Soc. Sci.
Med. 26(6), 641-649.
Ministry of Settlement and Regional Infrastructure, Directorate General of Urban and Rural
Development. (2004). Water supply and sanitation program in Indonesia. Conference brief.
Hilton Hotel, Jakarta, Indonesia, April 26, 2004.
Nazir M., Pardede N, and Ismail R. (1985) The Incidence of Diarrhoeal Diseases andDiarrhoeal Diseases Related Mortality in Rural Swampy Low-land Area of South Sumatra,Indonesia. J. Trop. Ped. 31(5):268-272.
Nur Y., Fazi S., Wirjoatmodjo N., and Han Q., (2001). Towards wise coastal management
practice in a tropical megacity—Jakarta. Ocean Coast. Manage., 44, 335-353.
Prihartono N., Adisasmita A., Costello C., Damayanti R., Prasetyo S., and Syarif S. (1994).
Water preparation practices in south Kalimantan, Indonesia. J Diarrhoeal Dis Res. 12(4),279-86.
Simanjuntak, C.H, Hardjining S., Hasibuan M.A., Pujarwoto, and Koman I. (1998).
Gastrointestinal infections in Southeast Asia (V). Technical Meeting of Counterparts on South
East Asian Medical Information Center, Tokyo, 23-31.
Sunoto. (1985). Diarrhoeal problems and infant & child mortality in Indonesia. Paediatr
Indones 25, 71-86.
Surkesnas T. (2002). Laporan studi mortalitas 2001: pola penyakit penyebab kematian diIndonesia [in Bahasa Indonesia]. Badan Penelitian dan Pengembangan Kesehatan,
Departamen Kesehatan RI.
UNICEF. (2006). Statistics obtained from UNICEF’s statistics website(http://www.unicef.org/statistics/index_step1.php) on January 8, 2007.
USAID. (2006a). Air RahMat Frequently Asked Questions. Available online at
http://www.jhuccp.org/asia/indonesia/SWS_ARFAQ.pdf
USAID. (2006b). Aman Tirta year two work plan, April 2006-February 2007.

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International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

USAID. (2006c). Informal, unpublished household survey undertaken by the Cinta Air teamin Kalijaya village, Bekasi, West Java.
Widayastuti E, Silaen G, Pricesca A, Blanton C, Handzel T, Brennan M, and Mach O. (2006).
Assessment of health-related needs after tsunami and earthquake: three districts, Aceh
Province, Indonesia, July-August 2005. JAMA 295 (11), 1240-1244.

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International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

Governance on Small Towns Water Supply Project in Nepal

Shashi Bhattarai, Binay Shah and Srijan Aryal
Integrated Consultants Nepal
PO Box 3839, Kathmandu, Nepal.
shashi@icon.com.np, binay@icon.com.no and srijan@icon.com.np

Abstract
The paper is a brief midterm governance assessment of Small Towns Water Supply andSanitation Sector Project (STWSSSP) being implemented by Government of Nepal. The
assessment is made at implementation as well as operational stage at the first phase of the
project. The governance of the project at feasibility study & detail design, implementation andoperation & management are discussed. Factors instrumental in delays in implementation,
cost recovery arrangements in the project after operation and users committee ownership are
the key message that the paper intends to disseminate.

1. Introduction
Government of Nepal is implementing the Small Towns Water Supply and Sanitation Sector
Project (STWSSSP) in order to improve quality of life of the people living in the project
towns by constructing and extending water supply systems, limited drainage and sanitation
facilities and providing health and hygiene education program in various small towns of thecountry. Asian Development Bank has been providing financial assistance to this project andduration of the first phase of the project is 2001-2006. Department of Water Supply and
Sewerage (DWSS) is the implementing agency whereas the Ministry of Physical Planning andWorks (MPPW) is the executing agency. The project is assisting in implementing a part of the
15-year plan for Small Towns Water Supply and Sanitation Development in the country andabout 31 Small Towns are being covered by this project. Further, UN-HABITAT Water for
Asian Cities programme in Nepal facilitating to strengthening intuitional and local capacity,
gender mainstreaming and support in pro-poor urban water governance in this STWSSSP as
well.
Water User and Sanitation Committee (WUSC) is fully involved and jointly responsible forall major decisions related to subproject planning, implementation and long term operationand management (O&M). The project design is also based on the principles of cost recovery,
whereby the Town Development Fund (TDF) provides 30 percent of the water supply project
cost as loan for a period of 12 years with interest rate of 8 percent. The community
contributes an additional 20 percent of the project cost, as 5 percent upfront cash contribution
and 15 percent kind. The Government provides the remaining 50 percent as grant to thequalifying community. However, all operation and maintenance cost including loan
repayment and any subsequent expansion is the responsibility of the users, which is to begenerated through localized incremental tariff system.
The project is nearing its end for the first phase and a number of projects have been completed,several are nearing completion and others are at various stage of implementation. The paper
reflects some of the governance issues at the stage on positive outcome as well as hindrances,which have been instrumental in creating some delay – especially during the implementation
phase.
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2. Feasibility Study and Detailed Design Phase
This is a very crucial phase of the entire project cycle, as it establishes the viability of the
proposed project in technical, social, environmental and financial terms. It at this stage thatthe consumers get a picture of the scope of the selected alternative, level of investment andtariff level required to pay back the loan amount to TDF. The project modalities are also
clearly spelt out to the consumers and their role and responsibility is elucidated.
Establishment of the scope of the works: The Scope of Works for the Feasibility Study Phase
is fairly comprehensive and deals with the entire gamut of technical, social, environmental
and economic / financial issues for each of the identified alternative. It is thus essential tofurther streamline and curtail the cumbersome feasibility study process and focus on the
demands and needs of the users / community.
Incorporating Design Feedbacks: The design standards and guidelines provided by the
Project Management Office (PMO) of STWSSSP have been modified on a case-to-case basis
and from time-to-time. These changes and recommendations should be documented and madeavailable to the engineering firms for proper design and estimating procedures.
Need and demand assessment: Proposed projects need to be assessed in terms of their
management capacity, need and desire for water supply and sanitation services, increased
service level for better quality and reliable services, etc. for the long-term sustainability of
implemented projects. It has been often observed that such assessment parameters are“overlooked” leading to less needy town projects getting into the project fold. It is imperativethat a very rigorous approach be adopted to establish the need and demand for improved water
services in targeted small towns.
Interaction with the community in determining the service area of the project: A majorbone of contention has been the demarcation of the service area for a town. Service area
demarcation often has been done covering political boundaries like an entire municipality or avillage development committee (VDC). Typically service area demarcation is done withrespect to the feasibility of the source, settlement pattern (clustering), etc. Covering politicalboundaries like the entire municipality is not necessarily the most cost effective approach.
More intensive and transparent interaction with the community is required and the service
area should be demarcated as per the technical and financial viability of the water source ofthe project. This means that not 100 percent of the population within the municipality or VDC
needs to be covered by the piped system. There have been several examples where inadequate
exercise for determining the scope and service area of the project during feasibility appraisalstage has led to considerable delay in project implementation.
Streamlining design approach and assumptions: After the approval of the best sought
alternative at the feasibility stage by the community, detailed engineering design of the
adopted alternative is undertaken by the engineering consultants. As mentioned earlier, theProject has developed a brief operational manual. However, this operational manual lacks
adequate details to ensure similarity and consistency in engineering design carried out by
various engineering firms. Some of the critical issues requiring immediate attention to bringabout consistency in the design and reporting process are:•

The per capita demand needs to be broadly categorized as domestic, institutional andcommercial (schools and offices) and other demands like fire demand etc.

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International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok•••

An explicit guideline to accommodate demand of water from temporary and floating
population and their growth potential.
A more relevant drinking water quality guidelines need to be developed (at present
WHO guideline has been adopted as defacto standard).
Specific guidelines for structural design of civil structures need to be establishedincluding seismic considerations to be adopted.
Box 1. Lekhnath Town Project, Kaski
Lekhnath Town was one of the first towns to be selected as a sample town during the
project preparation stage in 1999. The acute shortage of water in the town made it an ideal
place for the implementation of the Project. However, enhanced scope of the project
during the detailed design phase led to unwanted delays and revisions to the project
design. After several rounds of discussions and amendments, the scope of the project was
reduced to a more manageable scale and the project has finally gone into implementationin late 2005 after a delay of about five years.

Incorporating demand responsive principles in detailed design: One of the basic features ofthe project is demand responsiveness and incorporating consumers’ wishes and demands.
Although the scheme cycle provides ample opportunities for entertaining the demands of theconsumers, as it happens with most other development works, the consumers tend to float
ideas and requirements even at a very later stage of the engineering design works. This may
require changes and additional work for the designer, but should be taken as a challenge and
the Project needs to have an inbuilt mechanism to address such “last minute” requests.

3. Implementation Phase
Critical governance issues in the implementation phase is the balancing of community, thecontractor, government and the Asian Development Bank.
Balancing the community’s demands and contract administration: Being a community
based project, there are always certain issues that the community brings up and needs to beconsidered in the spirit of the Project. However, the Contract with the Contractor limits thedegree of flexibility to which the request of the community can be met during construction.
The need to introduce variation order and other contractual measures often limits the process.
Certain financial resource either through a provisional sum or additional lending from TDF,
which can be used by the WUSC directly can go a long way in providing the degree of
flexibility and avoiding complex contract administrative procedures. Additionally, consumersof several towns have also been voicing their concern regarding communities’ responsibilities
for factors like price escalation awarded to contractors during standard contract administrative
procedures. It has been generally felt that considering the nature of the project, a simpler
process to address price escalation issue needs to be taken in the contracts.
Community’s role during implementation: The Project has prominently placed the role of thecommunity in the forefront. However, this has to be further enhanced considering the highdegree of maturity and knowledge demonstrated by the members of the WUSC and generalcommunity members in the planning, development and implementation (ongoing in some56

International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

cases) of over 20 town projects. Enhancing the community’s role during implementation may
require additional capacity building measures.
Balancing Government financial regulation, ADB guidelines and the Community: Need toconform to two different regulations – one of the Government of Nepal and the other of ADB– often leads to some confusion and delay in project execution. It would be worthwhile toexplore the possibility of having a single regulation for the execution of the town projects.
This issue can be further eased by giving greater financial responsibilities to the Town
Managers of their respective Town Project Offices (TPOs).

4. Operation and Management Phase
Community’s responsibility and capacity building: This phase has not been fully realized yet,though few projects have been completed and their respective WUSCs are operating andmanaging the new systems. It has been observed that some of the existing WUSCs are quite
capable to handle the complexity in operations and management of the systems. Some of the
WUSCs have already started providing house connections to households and collecting
monthly tariff. It has been observed that some additional training and support is required tomake the operating procedures effective and efficient. Such capacity building measures may
be, Computerizing the billing and inventory system of the WUSCs., Training on operating
and maintaining water quality laboratory and Getting access to services for further
improvement or expansion, etc.
Positives from the Project Cycle: There are strong positives vibes that have resulted with theongoing implementation of the Small Town Water Supply and Sanitation Sector Project invarious towns in the country. Apprehensions in the early stages of project implementation
regarding upfront cash contribution, kind and labour contribution, effective operation andmanagement, tariff setting based on actual operation and maintenance cost including paybackof 30 percent loan, etc. have “disappeared” and stakeholders are now convinced that effective
operation and management and cost recovery are essential to the success and sustainability ofthe project, as a whole. Some of the strengths emanating from the project concept and strategy
are as follows:
Community participation: Participation of community in projects located in urban areas wasthought to be very difficult – in fact well nigh impossible. However, after initial hiccups
raising five percent cash upfront of the total water supply cost and additional fifteen percent
cost in kind has not been a problem. In fact on the average nearly $ 20 in cash has been
contributed by each household within the service area of various towns under implementation.
The community and their representatives in the WUSC have been actively participating
during contractor selection, contract implementation and running bill payments. This has
greatly enhanced the sense of ownership and responsibility.
Cost recovery: A unique and probably a pioneering effort in rural and semi-urban watersupply and sanitation sector in the region is process of acquiring loan to the tune of 30 percentof the total water supply cost and setting tariff to pay it back in 12 years with an interest of 8
percent per annum. This cost recovery feature of the project is in the process of
implementation in some of town projects, which have been completed and handed over to thecommunity (WUSC).

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International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

Box 2. Khairenitar Town Project, Tanahu
During the feasibility and design phases of Khairenitar Town Project, it was assessed thatabout 50 percent of total consumers (808) were interested in getting services from the
project in the initial phases of project operation. The Project is completed and functioning
since last few months. Although the project has not been formally handed over, the WUSC
has taken over the operation and management responsibilities. It has provided houseconnections to 709 customers and is generating about US $ 800 as monthly revenues. Itspresent monthly expenditure, predominantly staff salaries and regular maintenance cost, isabout US $ 350. The monthly revenue shall go up with the installation of meters andlevying of incremental tariff in lieu of the present lump sum tariff.
Local tariff: As discussed earlier, the water tariff at each town is set to cover the entire
operation and maintenance cost including the loan of 30 percent of the water supply cost to
TDF. Therefore, the community is responsible to make the technological choice and the levelof investment associated with that choice / option. The tariff blocks are set on the incremental
block tariff system, where the rate for the initial 8 – 10 cu.m. is kept at a lower rate andgradually increased for higher blocks of water consumption.
Gender involvement and social inclusion: A critical and essential feature of the project is theinvolvement of women and disadvantaged groups in various phases of planning, development
and implementation of the town projects. This involvement does not end there and isfurthered through the mandatory participation of women in the apex WUSC and ward level
sub-committees.
Enhanced service level: The basic premise of the STWSSSP has been providing better
services to the semi and peri-urban populace, who are often left out in the face of higher
investment in the rural and purely urban areas. Therefore, the service level of the Project ishigher than the typical rural schemes with higher quantity per capita, quality conforming to
WHO Drinking Water Guidelines and better reliability and accessibility.

5. Conclusion
The Project experiences have clearly indicated that to enhance and strengthen performancesof projects for emerging towns elsewhere, it is imperative to build-in the features of effective
governance system such as community participation, cost recovery, localized tariff, increased
involvement of women and better service level. Similarly, appraisal process of proposed
projects in terms of needs assessment and general feasibility has to be done in a robust
manner with special focus on the determination of service area. Further, the design processneeds to be streamlined to bring consistency and effectiveness. Introduction of greater
flexibility in contract administration and allocating more financial responsibilities to users’organizations and local project representatives shall go a long way in making project
implementation effective. Strengthening and consolidating of such issues in sector project
design and implementation shall further the cause of providing sustainable water andsanitation services to small and emerging towns in the sector.

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References
Asian Development Bank (2000) Volume 1: Main Report (2000), Nepal Small Town Water
Supply and Sanitation Project Preparation Technical Assistance (TA No. 3059 – NEP), Nepal.
Integrated Consultants Nepal and CMS Nepal (2002) Detailed Engineering Design Report of
Parsa and Ratnanagar Towns, Small Town Water Supply and Sanitation Sector Project, Nepal.
Integrated Consultants Nepal and CMS Nepal (2005) Feasibility Study and Detailed
Engineering Design Reports of Khairenitar 7 Prithvinarayan Towns and Budhabare &Birtamode Towns, Small Town Water Supply and Sanitation Sector Project, Nepal.
Project Management Office (2003) Project Implementation Guidelines, Small Town Water
Supply and Sanitation Sector Project, Nepal.
Shah, Binay and Srijan Aryal (2006) Small Town Water Supply and Sanitation Project – The
Learning Curve, Pre-prints of 32nd WEDC Conference, Colombo, Sri Lanka

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International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

The Evolution of Water Rights System in China- From State to Market

Wang JinminCollege of Public Administration, Zhejiang University

Abstract
In the past two decades, China has established one complete set of common water right systemon the basis of administrative means. However, the equilibrium is being disrupted with the rapid
development of market economy in China. The paper makes use of property rights theory toanalyze the water trade between Yiwu and Dong Yang City, Zhejiang province, East China to
explore evolution of water rights system in China. In the end, the paper summarizes the latest
development of waters rights and water market system.

1. Introduction
The water resources in China are not very rich and the average water resources per capita is about
1/4 of the world average. Meanwhile, the spatial allocation is not even. With the rapid economic
development, the rise of population and the accelerating pace of urbanization, the disequilibrium
between the demand and supply of water resources in China has been worsened. The water
resources have become one of the main factors constraining the sustainable economic and social
development in China. One of the main solutions is to establish a water-saving society. In orderto achieve the objective, it is important to establish one complete set of administrative system ofwater resources on the basis of water rights and water market theories.
2. The Common Property Rights Arrangement of Water Resources in China
In the planned economy, water was open-access resource in China since the utilization of water
resources was mainly constrained by development capability and the utilization cost. There were
no competition in water use and the allocation of economic interests. The formal property rights
arrangement did not exist at that time. With the deepening market-oriented reform in China, thewater use in China has increased dramatically and water resources have become scarce economic
resources. Regional disputes on water use have risen rapidly with more fierce competition in theutilization of water resources. The property rights of water resources have become essential
because of water scarcity. The Water Law is the key law defining the nature of water managementin China and it was implemented on July 1, 1988, in which “The water resources in China belong
to the nation” was mentioned. It also included the topics such as the long-term water supply anddemand, the macro-allocation system of water resources, the license of water use, the use ofwater with compensation and the coordination of water disputes. The purpose of the Water Law
as revised in 2002 was to undertake the rational development, utilisation, saving and protection ofwater resources; to prevent and control water disasters; and to conduct the sustainable use ofwater resources (Shen Dajun, 2004).
In the past two decades, China has established one complete set of common water right systemon the basis of administrative means. Although the excludability has been improved, the water60International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

right is still fuzzy. The present institutional arrangement of water rights is the equilibrium of theinefficiency of water use due to the fuzziness of water rights and the cost saving of administrative
water allocation. However, the equilibrium is being disrupted with the rapid development ofmarket economy in China.
3. The Water Trade Between Yiwu and Dongyang CityOn 24 November, 2000, the municipal governments between Yiwu and Dongyang City signed acontract of partial transfer of water right of Heng Jin Reservoir in Dongyang City. The municipal
government of Yiwu City purchased the permanent right of annual water use of 49,999 million
cubic meters with RMB 200 million yuan. The water quality in the reservoir reached National
Type One Drinking Water Criteria. Yiwu municipal government pays the comprehensive
management fee of RMB 0.1 yuan per cubic meter to Dongyang City. The water resources fee
would be adjusted according to the average price stipulated in the provincial regulations. The
water trade between Dongyang and Yiwu City was completed on equal and voluntary basis and it
broke through the barriers among administrative regions and realized the coordination andsharing of regional resources. Besides, the water resources can be utilized fully throughtransferring the surplus water of Dongyang City in the upper stream to Yiwu City, which has
witnessed a rapid economic development in the past two decades. Water scarcity was very serious
in Yiwu City. The actual water allocation for agricultural use from Dongyang City to Yiwu City
was officially completed on 6th January 2005.
The case was introduced widely both domestically and internationally as a win-win game forboth cities because agricultural water in Dongyang was sufficient and the water scarcity in Yiwu
city in near future was one of the biggest problems constraining its sustainable development. The
event symbolized the emergence of water rights market and marked the beginning of reforming
the water rights system in China.
Both Dongyang and Yiwu City are located on the upper and down streams of one river.
Theoretically, the water rights of Yiwu River can be regarded as the river basin property rights,
which can be shared by the areas along the upper and down streams. However, because Hengjin
Reservoir is located in Dongyang City, the use rights and earning rights of water resources in thereservoir are owned by Dongyang City. In other words, the property rights of water resources inHengjin reservoir belong to the non-exclusive regional property rights. Under the common
property rights arrangements on the basis of administrative means, Yiwu City can ask for waterdrainage from Dongyang City. In fact, Dongyang city supplied the water to Yiwu city free ofcharge in times of drought many times in the past. However, Yiwu city realized that the periodic
water drainage free of charge depending on the upper-level administrative coordination wasneither reliable nor lasting. In addition, the polluted river water drainage was mainly for
agricultural drainage, but Yiwu city needed to expand its capacity of urban water supply.
Therefore, the interregional drainage of high-quality water at Hengjin Reservoir became the best
choice. Then, Yiwu municipal government asked for the permission from higher authorities
including the Ministry of Water Resources (MWR) to construct the water diversion project from
Hengjin Reservoir to Yiwu City.
The greatest advantage of traditional interregional water drainage is that the local government canenjoy the unconditional benefit from the fiscal investment of upper authorities, but the61International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

administrative coordination is usually time-consuming. In particular, it is difficult for relevant
parties to reach consensus due to the lack of monetary compensation to the supplier. On the other
hand, Zhejiang province where the water trade took place can hardly meet the preconditions forstate fiscal investment. The regional water conservancy projects in Zhejiang province have been
mainly invested by the local investment instead of the subsidy from the provincial and central
government. In the case of Yiwu, the water conservancy projects have mainly been financed andconstructed by the local government. The total investment of Ba Dou Reservoir, which was put
into use in 1997, reached RMB 180 million yuan and the subsidy from the upper authority only
accounted for 10%. The municipal government in Yiwu has the sufficient fiscal income andinvestment capacity to purchase the water rights. According to the agreement of water trade, theexpenditure of water trade amounting to RMB 200 million yuan would be paid off in five
instalments with annual instalment of RMB 40 million yuan, which only accounted for 4.5% of
total fiscal income in 1999. The total water diversion project cost RMB 700 million yuan with theannual investment of RMB 140 million yuan, which only took up 4.6% of total fixed assets
investment in 1999.
The main reason why Yiwu city chose to purchase the water rights instead of asking for waterfrom upper authority was that the returns of buying water exceeded the costs of asking for waterfrom the upper authority. The costs of buying water were the loss of fiscal subsidy, but the returns
were the timely solution to the bottleneck restricting the urban development. As for Dongyang
City, the administrative allocation of its water resources could scarcely have any gains but makegreat profits through water trade. The mutual benefits of water trade have led to the inevitable
institutional change since the transition from one institution to another meant that the costs ofimplementing the new institution were less than those of maintaining the old one. Why did thewater trade first take place in Zhejiang province? The costs of transferring water rights throughadministrative means were higher than through market transaction. The special partnership
between Dongyang and Yiwu City reduced the transaction costs further, which was one of theimportant preconditions bringing about the institutional change.
4. The Transitional Path of Water Rights System in China
The water trade between Dongyang and Yiwu City in 2000 broke the administrative monopoly ofwater allocation in China and it is also the prologue to the reform of water rights system in China.
The water trade between Dongyang and Yiwu City indicates that there is still ample room to
introduce water rights and water market system so as to optimise the allocation of water resourcesin China. With the increasing water shortage, the operating costs of common water rights on thebasis of administrative means have become much higher than used to be. With the deepening
market reform, it has become more difficult for the higher authority to monitor the local
government and the administrative orders can scarcely be carried out effectively. In addition, thegovernment has no capability to deal with the complicated information of assets specificities andthe allocation of water rights through administrative means has failed to meet the social demand.
The opportunity costs of implementing institutions have risen considerably. Moreover, the cost ofidentifying and maintaining water rights has been lowered and the returns of establishing theexcludability of property rights are rising. The market-oriented reform is also lowering the costsof property rights transactions and the expected earnings of introducing the market mechanism
are rising constantly.
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International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

The costs of implementing the existing institutions have increased considerably due to the risinginternal costs. The excludability costs are being reduced constantly and the earnings of clarifying
property rights are on the rise. As a result, the equilibrium of existing institutions has been
disrupted. It can be expected that the institutional change of water rights is moving towards the
improvement of excludability and clarification of property rights. The precondition of water trade
between Dongyang City and Yiwu City was that Yiwu City acknowledged Dong Yang City’s
possession of transfer rights of water resources in Hengjin Reservoir. However, many people
would wonder how to undertake the transaction without clarifying the property rights. The fuzzy
water rights in the most part of China have led to a lot of water disputes and very little
cooperation has taken place. The water trade between Dongyang City and Yiwu City has shownthat clarifying the property rights will help to nurture the water market. The clarification ofproperty rights includes the identification of the use right, the earnings right, the transfer rightand the more obvious identity of owning these rights. However, the clarification of water rightmust corresponde to the social conditions. The fuzzy property rights to some extent arereasonable and can be wholly efficient. Since the cost of establishing the private property rights
of water resources is high, the main form of water rights structure will be still the common
property rights in the near future, but the internal excludability can be raised constantly. Civil
property rights and basin property rights can be divided into regional property rights andcollective property rights. The identity of owning water rights can also be diversified, including
the governments at various levels, organizations, enterprises, the big consumers of water andeven individuals.
The water trade between Dongyang City and Yiwu City exhibited the feature of induced
institutional change, but it is not typical in China. As for the whole country, although the total
earnings of institutional change are higher than the cost, the induced institutional change canhardly take place because of the disequilibrium of benefits allocation among various interest
groups. Thus, the central government still plays an important role in dominating the mandatory
institutional change. The MWR will play an important role in making and revising the relevant
rules and regulations on water governance.
5. The Latest Development of Water Rights System in China
In recent years, China has been promoting the establishment of water rights system in China. In
addition to the water trade between Dongyang and Yiwu City, other typical cases include thewater coupon system of rural households at Zhangye, Gansu Province, the large-scale water tradeat Ningxi autonomous region and Mongolia autonomous region, located in Northwest China.
Recently the development of water rights system has been spread to other parts of China
including the clarification of water rights in Song Liao Basin, the trial implementation of waterrights in Huolin River; Yongding River, Weihe River, Zhanghe River and Luanhe River in Haihe
River valley, Jinjiang River in Fujian province, Fuhe River in Jiangxi province, the DongjiangRiver in Guangdong province and the Shiyang River in Gansu province. The water rights andwater market system have played an important role in improving the efficiency and effectivenessof utilizing water resources, realizing the optimal allocation and scientific management of water
resources and ease the contradiction of water demand and supply.

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International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

At present, MWR is trying to establish a set of water saving social management system with thecore of total control and quota management. According to the whole nation’s blueprint, thevarious river basins and regions have carried out the comprehensive planning of water resources
respectively, laying a solid foundation for the initial allocation of water rights nationwide. The
preparation for water quota system has also made progress. Up to now, twenty-four provinces
have issued the quotas of water use. Meanwhile, the planning of water quotas for agricultural
irrigation has completed and the quota system for some industries with high consumption ofwater has been implemented.
China faces many challenges with its water policy as it transforms itself into an industrialised
country. However, China needs to strengthen the institutional reforms in water policy further
dominated by MWR. Whether China will achieve the improvement of water policy in the near
future depends upon the extent to which water policy is made and implemented based on socioeconomic and environmental considerations.
Reference
Fujimoto, N and Tomosho, T. (2003). Water trade in Zhejiang Province, the People’s Republic ofChina: A literature and field Survey. Journal of Japan Society of Hydrology and Water Resources,
16 (3), pp.215-224.
Ministry of Water Resources. (2005) China Water Resources Bulletin 2004, 1st ed., China Water
Resources& Hydropower Press, Beijing.
Shen Dajun (2004). ‘The 2002 Water Law: Its Impacts on River Basin Management in China’,
Water Policy, 6 (4), pp345-364.

64International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

Water Resources Management and Rehabilitation in China

Feng Qi
Cold and Arid Regions Environmental and Engineering Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Sciences No. 260
West Dong Gang Road, Lanzhou, 730000 P. R. China. E-mail: qifeng@ lzb.ac.cn

Abstract
A water resources management plan should be implemented throughout China, which is based ona unified watershed-scale. Water prices should be increased as well as investments in agriculturaland industrial water conservation. Save water methods should be applied in the whole regions ofwater shortage. Increased water use efficiency will ensure that China's water resources will be
used in a reasonable, effective and sustainable manner. New technologies and management
methods will be required which are underpinned by science. Greater attention must be given toprevention of pollution and other forms of water quality degradation in large river basins.

1. Introduction
Hydrological and environmental changes in China have seriously impeded sustainable
development, for four centuries. Hydrological conditions of China's watersheds have long beenmonitored and studied. Overuse of some water resources has led to soil salinization anddesertification. Only in the last few decades has this land degradation become a strikingly
apparent, leading to recognition that hydrological factors and environmental sustainability are
inextricably linked. Both government agencies and non-governmental organizations (NGOs)
have taken or are taking steps to address these issues (Kenneth, 1997). Reasonablecountermeasures to protect ecosystems, land and water quality during intense water resource
development are proposed, which nonetheless promote social development.
2. Current status
Provincial yearbooks have compiled hydrological data back to the 1950s. Some gauging stations
have detailed measurements for over 40 years, while the remainder has at least 25 years data.
Groundwater quantity and quality data were taken from China Water Research Bulletins
published by Ministry of Water Resources (MWR). Agricultural, industrial, domestic and others
water use data was obtained from the National Statistics Bureau (1998a, 1998b, 1989). Data was
not available for Macao, Hong Kong and Taiwan. China is divided into five regions, usinghydrological, geological, geographical and climatological criteria. These are south east China(SEC), south west China (SWC), north east China (NEC), north west China (NWC) and northcentral China (NCC) (Feng et al.,1999a). Regions exhibit different water use, development issues
and trends, necessitating different rehabilitation measures.
The SEC Region covering 1.23 million km2 or 12.8% of China's total landmass (Table 1). Under
the influences of SE monsoons and tropical storms, precipitation varies from 800 mm yr-1 in thenorth to over 1600 mm yr-1 in the south, resulting in a climate that ranges from semi-humid toextremely humid. Resources include 905 km3 in surface waters (97.4%) and 25 km3 (2.6%) in net
groundwater (Table 1).
65International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

The SWC region contains Sichuan, Yunan and Guizhou Provinces, Guangxi and Tibetan
Autonomous Regions and Chongqing City. Precipitation varies from 200 to 4490 mm yr-1, due tovaried landforms and stratified climatic zones across a range of elevations. The Tibetan glacial
area accounts for 60% of China's glaciated area. Total net water resources in the region are 1280
km3, of which net groundwater is only 2 km3 (Table 1).

Figure 1. Water resources regions by watershed or river basin in China.
A: Liaohe; B: Haihe and Lunahe; C: Huanghe; D: Huaihe; E: Yangtze; F: Zhujiang river basins;
G: rivers basins along the east China Sea in Guangxi Autonomous Region; H: Honghe,
Lanchangjiang, Nujian, Yiluowadi, and Yalunzangbu rivers, excluding the rivers in G; I: Inland
river basins including the Tarim and Heihe river basins, etc. J: Heilongjiang, Shuifen-Tumen and
Liaohe-Yalujiang river systems.
Table 1. Water resources distribution in China in 1990 (MIHWR, 1997, 1998)
Region of China
Extent of water resources
Surface
Total
Groundwater
water
Per capita
Volume9 3
9 3
9 3(10 m )
(10 m ) (10 m )(103 m3 person-1)
Southeast (SEC) 905
25
930
2.0
Southwest
1278
2
1280
5.3
(SWC)
Northwest
210
10
220
2.5
(NWC)
Northcentral
127
43
170
0.5
(NCC)
Northeast (NEC) 128
22
150
1.4
All
2648
102
2750
2.2

66

Per area (103m3 km-2)
756
492
71
89
188
286

International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

Table 2. Total area, population, farmland, rain and water resources in China and the World
Water Resources
Regio Landmas Popul Farmla Rainfa Volume
Per capita
Per area ofns areaationnd (106 ll(103 km3) (m3 person- farmland
1(106 km2) (109)
km2)
(103
)
(m3 km2)
km3)
World 149.5
5.4
13.26
120
46.8
8690
353
China 9.60*
1.2
0.96
6.19
2.81
2344
293
Ratio (6.42)
22.2
1.0
5.2
6.0
27.0
83.2
(%)
Table 3. Current situation of water usage (km3) by different sectors in China in 1997 (MIHWR,
1997, 1998).
Region Irrigat Forestry,
Agricul Rural Urba Dome Industri Totalionpastures
ture
n
stic
al
fisheries
Southea 150
7
158
14
11
25
63
245
st
Southw 51
8
59
5
6
10
12
81
est
Northw 46
20
66
1
2
3
5
73
est
Northce 71
5
77
6
5
10
15
102
ntral
Northea 36
3
40
2
3
4
12
55
st
Total
354
43
400
28
27
52
107
557
Table 4. Current water consumption of different users in China.
Irrigation
Regio Irrigation
Domestic water quota
rate
n
quota
Urban
Rural (L)(%)(m3 m-2)(L)
Southeast 0.20
76.5
260
110
Southwes 0.53
47.0
245
85
t
Northwes 0.25
50.4
130
65
t
Northcen 0.50
57.0
185
71
tral
Northeast 0.15
24.3
145
90

Industrial water
consumption(m3/1000 USD)
86
158
118
46
95

The NWC region is made up of Xinjiang and Ninxia Autonomous Regions, as well as theprovinces of Qinhai, Gansu, and Shaanxi. It is located at least 600 km from the ocean and issurrounded by tall mountains. Several inland rivers are distributed across the region being theTarim, Heihe, Shiying, and Urumqi. Regional water resources amount to 220 km3, withgroundwater being less than 5% (Table 1).
The NEC region's watersheds include those of the Heilongjiang (J), Shuifen-Tumen and LiaoheYalujiang rivers (A). Under this semi-humid to humid climate, precipitation ranges from 500 to
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International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

1000 mm yr-1, under the influence of monsoons and different landforms. Total net water
resources are 150 km3, with 22 km3 of net groundwater (Table 1).
Total net water resources of the NCC region in the region are 170 km3 with 43 km3 (25%) of net
groundwater (Table 1).
Precipitation and thawing of alpine glaciers are the primary sources of runoff in China, but such
waters are only exploitable when they flow in surface channels or emerge from springs (Yang,
1981). The Yangtze and Zhujiang rivers carry the bulk (48%) of total runoff estimated at 2,700
km3. Based on measured seepage rates and volumes from farmland channel systems, particularly
those in the piedmont plains, as well as a consideration of storm and flood event hydrographs,
total net shallow groundwater in China represents about 100 km3 (Liu et al., 1996). Groundwater
resources, excluding those feeding streams, occur mainly in the shallow aquifers of plains regions
and total some 100 km3. While China ranks sixth amongst nations in total water resources, its
per capita water resources (2344 m3 person-1) are roughly a quarter of the global mean (Table 2).
Use of water in agriculture is the largest sector in terms of water withdrawal, rising four-fold in
the last 50 years (Zhao, 2000). Table 3 shows usage in relation to different regions. Different
agricultural areas employ water in different ways. As agricultural water use includes irrigation,
forestry and grassland use, fishery supplementation, so a wide range of problems has developed
as a result of rapid agricultural development.
3. Water issues
3.1 Unequal distribution
China's water resources are unevenly distributed both in terms of area and population. With very
high population densities in SE China per capita farmland area is low, roughly 500 m2 person-1.
Catchment areas of the Yangtze River and its southern tributaries account for 80% of China's
total runoff, but house only 36% of China's farmlands (Chen and Xia, 1999). Per capita water
resources in northern China are one-quarter those in the south, while on an areal basis the north's
water resources are a tenth of those in the south (Chen and Xia, 1999). The paucity of water
resources in northern China results in more acute conflicts in supply and demand than in thesouth. Arid and semi-arid lands of the NWC region cover 47% of China, but only benefit from
7% of water resources (Table 1). Humid and semi-humid regions of SE China account for theremainder and enjoy 93% of water resources (Chen and Xia, 1999).
3.2 Serious Water Resource Shortages
Water shortages have restricted China's agricultural, industrial and urban development. About
300 of 600 medium sized cities, of 0.1-1.0 million inhabitants, have experienced water shortages,
while 108 of these cities suffer from a serious lack of water (Feng et al., 1999b). The area ofdrought-prone lands has risen by 50% since the 1950s, reaching 267,000 km2 in 1990. Only 500
of a potential 640,000 km2 of potential irrigated area has been developed, of which 100,000 km2
has poor irrigation facilities. So agricultural production and grain supply is restricted.
Additionally, about 7.0 million people and 60.0 million head of livestock must drink highly
saline water as no fresh water is available (Feng, 1999).

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International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

Water shortages also adversely affect industrial production and living standards. In the late 1980s
and 1990s, many electric power plants and factories in large, > 1.0 million inhabitants, andmedium-sized cities of northern China had to suspend production due to water shortages.
3.3 Deterioration of aquatic ecosystems
Regions susceptible to soil erosion have reached 38% of China's landmass. On the Loess plateau,
430 and 276,000 km2, or 69% and 44% of total area, are subject to moderate and severe soil
erosion, respectively (Feng et al., 1999a). Across half the Loess plateau, soil erosion is greaterthan 5 Gg km-2 yr-1, while in some areas it reaches 30.7 Gg km-2 yr-1. Despite annual investments
of $2.4 million (U.S.), reclamation rates are below rates of soil erosion, leading to loss of land
productivity.
Due to sediment deposition, lakes along the Yangtze have quickly shrunk dropping by 1500 km2
in area and 12 km3 in volume between 1949 and 1983 (Wang et al., 2000). Lake shrinkage has
resulted in a 20% decrease in adjustment capacity, a rise in water level of 0.76 m, and aconcomitant economic loss of $6.0 billion.
Water pollution is a very serious problem in China. In 1990, 56.0 km3 of sewage drained intolakes and rivers, of which 68% originated from industrial sources and 32% from domestic
sources (Feng et al., 1999b). A survey showed that more than 400 of 500 rivers were
contaminated to different degrees, and 12 of 15 large cities situated near big rivers had seriously
contaminated water supplies.
Polluted water can affect people's standard of living and health indirectly or directly through local
diseases outbreaks. Localized endemic illness has increased due to bad water quality: inBailedou, Qinghai Province with diarrhoeal symptoms have been attributed to water with a highsulphate content.
3.4 Flood and waterlogging damage
Seasonal and annual variations in precipitation and stream flow in China are comparatively large.
Precipitation within the four months of the flood season may account for 60-80% of annual totals.
As floods, water-logging and drought occur frequently, a keen awareness of hydrologicalextremes guides development and use of water resources in China. Statistical analysis has shownthat about 100 of 370 large reservoirs ( 0.1 km3) have potential dangers, 670 of 2,500 common
reservoirs (0.01-0.10 km3) have potential dangers, and 32,000 of the 80,000 small reservoirs(0.001-0.010 km3) also have serious problems. In 1998 he most extensive flood of the 20th
century on the Yangtze River damaged a quarter of the cities in southern China, affected 12 cities
of 0.1-1.0 million inhabitants, and resulted in losses of $36 billion (Zhao, 2000). In 1994, flooded
areas totalled 193,000 km2, affecting 223 million people, and resulting in direct economic losses
of $2.17 billion (NIHWR, 1997).

3.5 Acute gap between water demand and supply
Conflicts between water users along rivers have become more apparent in recent years due toinadequate management legislation, uncoordinated water distribution, uncontrolled development
69International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

and water resource wastage in river basin. Such conflicts have the potential to cause landdesertification and environmental degradation in the lower reaches of rivers (Feng et al., 2001).
In the landlocked watersheds of the NWC region, use of most of the streamflow in middle
reaches has resulted in the area of terminal lakes being significantly reduced. The surface area ofWest Juyan Lake on lower reaches of the Heihe River in Inner Mongolia was 3,000 km2 in the
1960s, but by 1995 only 17 km2 remained. In recent years the lake has dried up in the summer.
Some 4,565 km2 of the 38,000 km2 of desertified lands in the Tarim basin are directly attributable
to unreasonable water resource exploitation (Zhu and Cheng, 1995).
Different governmental departments have set up factories, each developing water resources fortheir own economic benefit in an excessive manner. In agricultural production, water
consumption is closely related to crop species. Similarly, water requirements for growing cotton(Gossypium hirsutum L.) are 110-112% of precipitation, still 6-17% short of available
precipitation in normal precipitation year, but much better than those for wheat (Qu and Ma,
1995). An irrational distribution of crops adversely affects sound allocation of water resources.
3.6 Wastage of water resources
While China suffers from shortages, a large proportion of water resources in China are wasted.
Much of the water in reservoirs built between 1960s and 1970s on the plains evaporates. Large
irrigation quotas and heavy irrigation are common. Annual irrigation norms across China range
from 150 to 530 mm (Table 4). Areas where water conservation techniques applied are few, assome farmers still use traditional but inefficient multi-channel water-diverting methods for
irrigation, thus wasting a great deal of water. Poorly constructed channels for water conveyancesuffer from severe seepage, mean conveyance efficiency in the NEC and SWC regions ranges
from 0.03 to 0.45 (Table 4).
Under flood irrigation conditions with excessive amounts of water, water tables can rise and soils
become salinised. Consequently fields must be irrigated in the spring in order to leach salts fromthe topsoil, thus significantly reducing water use efficiency. In Shandong Province, Hainan,
Shiyang River area and over the entire Shiyang River basin water use efficiencies are 24 kg m-3,
25 kg m-3, 75 kg m-3, and 41 kg m-3, respectively. The latter case represents wastage of over half
the water (Xia and Takeuchi, 1999). In China water use efficiency is very low, and the output
water demand index of 0.4-0.7 kg m-3 much lower than the worldwide mean of 2.0 kg m-3.
Legislation on urban water use is seldom enforced. Furthermore, low water prices result in agreat waste of urban water resources. The range of rural domestic water quotas is 65 – 110 lperson-1 yr-1 (Table 4). In some locations where well water is used, water consumption may riseas high as 200 l person-1 yr-1, resulting in a sizeable waste of water (Qu and Ma, 1995).
4. Rehabilitation measures
Efforts must be made to promote urban, industrial and agricultural water conservation. Sprinkler
and drip irrigation are only used on 1.5% of irrigated areas, though water savings relative to
traditional irrigation methods could be as high as 50% and 70%, respectively (Qu and Ma,1995).
The water wasted under flood irrigation occurs mainly through channel seepage and saturated
water evaporation, and results from the lack of coordinated canal systems and poor seepage
control techniques. If increasing expenditures on channel upgrading could raise their water
conveyance efficiency, 10-15% of the total water used in field irrigation could be saved. An
70International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

enhancement of field water conservancy projects, including the levelling of fields and a change
from flooding to sprinkler or drip irrigation could save 10-20%, even up to 40%, of total
irrigation water use in arid regions and up to 30% of total irrigation water use in humid regions(Cheng, 1996). A rise of water use efficiency from 0.4 to 0.7 would result in water savings of120-160 km3 yr-1.
As the highest water consumption per $1000 of output for the SWC region is over six-times
greater than the lowest value for the NCC region, it is clear that a great potential exists for water
conservation in the industrial sector (Table 4). The water-reuse ratio is low in the SWC and
NWC regions, being 40 and 60% in most cities, but somewhat higher in the NCC and SEC
regions. Were all industries to operate at NCC industrial water use and reuse levels, 160 km3 yr-1
of water resources could be saved.
A great potential also exists for urban water conservation; however, given low water prices,pressure for water conservation and efficient use of existing water resources are low in most
Chinese cities. Water consumption in these cities ranges from 130-260 L person-1 yr-1 (Table 4).
Poor management and maintenance of water conveyance infrastructure can result in serious
wastage of water resources. Water leaking from pipes, excessive water usage in some large
hotels and gardens, and public fountains can waste large quantities of water. By reducing waste
and with wastewater reuse, cities could save 33-50% compared to their current water usage.
Sources can be developed, and more efficiently used through construction of terraced fields
supported by local government. In the future, for certain regions, de-salinization of seawater may
provide a solution to water shortages (Agnew and Anderson, 1992).
Water resource management at the societal and environmental levels must be improved. Natural
ecosystems inevitably vary with time; however, if one only considers economic benefits,
ecosystems can be damaged (Jones, 1999). Water pollution in China is serious and linked witheconomic development. In recent years, the area affected by water pollution has been expanding,resulting in economic losses of roughly $400 billion. Consequently, China must strengthen its
water resource management policies, establish water conservation regions, reduce water pollution
and continue to raise water use efficiency.
Holistic resource management plans are needed. Inland rivers flowing through different regions
require watershed-wide co-ordination. River management draws on expertise in conservation,
forestry, industry, agriculture, water quality protection, and urban construction. Each department
manages some aspects of the water supply-demand problem, but there is a lack of watershedwide coordination. Co-ordinating water resource usage, requiring users to observe the water laws
and unifying allocation of water resources at the watershed scale should be completed as soon as
possible.
* Ministry of Water Research (MIHWR). Yearbook of China Water Resources (1997 and 1998).
References
Agnew, C. and Anderson, E. 1992. Water resources in the arid realm. pp. 222-228. London:
Routledge.
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Cheng, J. Q. 1996 The general introduction of water resource Science. pp53-56. Beijing: China
Water and Hydropower Press (in Chinese).
Chen, J. Q. and Xia, J. 1999. Facing the challenge: barriers to sustainable water resources
development in China. Hydrol. Sci. J. 44(4): 507-516.
Feng, Q. (1999). Sustainable utilization of water resources in Gansu Province. Chinese Journal of
Arid Land Research 11: 293-299.
Feng, Q., Cheng, G. D. and Mikami, M. S. 1999a. Water resources in China: Proelms andcountermeasures. Ambio 28, 202-203.
Feng, Q., Cheng, G. D. and Xiu, Z. M. 1999b. The characteristics of dry land and the research
progress of dry land agricultural technologies in China. World Science and Technique Researchand development 21(2): 54-59 (in Chinese).
Feng. Q., Cheng, G. D. and Endo, K. H. 2001. Water content variation and respective ecosystemof sandy land in China. Environment Geolog y 40.
Jones, J. A. A. 1999. Climate change and sustainable water resources: placing the threat of global
warming in perspective. Hydrol. Sci. J 44 (4): 541-550.
Kenneth, D. F. 1997. Adapting to climate impacts on the supply and demand for water. Climatic
Change 37: 141-156.
Liu, C. M., He, X. W. and Ren, H. Z. 1996. Research on water problems in China. pp. 12-52.
Beijing: China Meteorological Press (in Chinese).
Nanjing Institute of Hydrology and Water Research (NIHWR). 1997. Flood and drought disasters
in China, pp. 53-78. Beijing: Hydrological and Waterpower Press (in Chinese).
National Statistics Bureau. 1989. China statistics annals: 1988, Beijing: Chinese Statistics Press(in Chinese).
National Statistics Bureau. 1998a. China statistics annals: 1997. Beijing: Chinese Statistics Press(in Chinese).
National Statistics Bureau. 1998b. China statistics annals, Beijing: Chinese Statistics Press (inChinese).
Qu, Y, G. and Ma, S. M. 1995. The stage and potentiality of water resources development andutilization in arid northwestern China. Journal of Natural Resources 10 (1): 28-32 (in Chinese).
Wang, R. S., Ren, H. Z. and Ouyang, Z. Y. 2000. China water vision-the ecosphere of water, life,
environment and development, pp. 178-179. Beijing: China Meteorological press (in English).
Xia, J. and Takeuchi, K. 1999. Introduction to special issue on barriers to sustainable
management of water quantity and quality. Hydrol. Sci. J. 44 (4): 503-506.
Yang, L. P. 1981. Water resources in Xinjiang and its utilization, pp 58-62. Urumqi: Xinjiang
People’ Published House (in Chinese).
Zhao, S. Q. 2000. Water states and stress in China. In: China waters vision-the eco-sphere ofwater, life, environment and development, ed. Wang et al. pp. 3-33. Beijing: China
Meteorological Press (in English).
Zhu, Z. D. and Cheng, G. T. 1995. Sandy desertification in China, pp. 53-66. Beijing: Sciences
Press (in Chinese).

72International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

A Multi-disciplinary Approach to Vulnerability Assessment and Transboundary Water
Governance: The Case of the Sesan Basin
Professor Geoffrey D. Gooch1, Dr Alistair S. Rieu-Clarke2, Dr Dan Kim Nhung31

Department of Management and Engineering, Linköping University, 581 83 Linköping, Sweden
UNESCO Centre for Water Law, Policy and Science, University of Dundee, Dundee DD1 4HN, Scotland, UK
3
Vietnam Academy of Science and Technology, 18 Hoang Quoc Viet Str., Hanoi – Viet Nam

2

Abstract
Water governance, especially in transboundary contexts, needs to integrate inputs from different
disciplines as well as from stakeholders and the public and scientific knowledge from the naturaland social sciences needs to be combined with local knowledge and stakeholder needs. There ishowever often a lack of suitable methods for combining these. Within the EU-financed STRIVER
project (www.striver.no) integrated interdisciplinary assessment of four river basins is being
conducted; the Sesan (Vietnam-Cambodia), Thunga Bhadra (India), Tejo/Tajo (Spain-Portugal),and Gomma (Norway) Rivers. The project’s focus is on heavily modified rivers in Europe, India,
and south-east Asia and this paper describes the approach used in the Sesan Basin, an approachthat combines ecological and human vulnerability studies with future scenarios.
1. Introduction
Changes in water governance in different countries and parts of the world can be very dissimilar
in character; they do however seem to have one thing in common, that the challenges facing
water managers have significantly increased. Water management now has to deal with moreissues that affect more people than they did in the past (i.e. water management involves not justhydro-electric power and farmers, but also industrial interests, nature conservationists andordinary citizens). Water management has increasingly become concerned water-related risks andbenefits, and whereas water management has traditionally been considered a predominantly
technical field in many countries, the increase in scope, and new demands on water management,
now make the political character of the field very clear. These developments from the primarily
technical to a combination of technical and political-social spheres has lead to an increased
interest in public and stakeholder participation in water management. It has become apparent that
there is a need to truly integrate insights and knowledge from the natural and social sciences, aswell as local knowledge from stakeholders and the public, in integrated and multi-disciplinary
approaches. Participation is of course only one of the challenges for water management, problems
arising from the production of scientific information, the communication of that information,legal systems, and institutions are also important (Gooch and Stålnacke 2006). Rapid changes inthe driving forces behind water problems have also increased the levels of uncertainty underwhich policies must be formulated, and have increased the necessity to involve many different
groups of actors. While this in turn has lead to an increased awareness of the necessity ofincluding stakeholder and public participation in water management decision-making, as well as
in other areas (OECD 2001), it is also important to stress that reliable information must be madeavailable to the public in an understandable form. While we note that local knowledge can also
contribute to water management processes, it is vital that public participation is also based on an73International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

understanding of the knowledge provided by the scientific, engineering, and management
communities.
Changes in water use, the effects of global warming, and increasing populations mean that water
management also needs to focus on different aspects of vulnerability, ecological, economic andsocial. In order to do so new methodologies need to be developed and ways of involving actors
need to be improved. The design and application of a multi-disciplinary approach to vulnerability
assessment and transboundary water governance is being conducted as part of the STRIVER
Project (www.striver.no). STRIVER conducts an integrated interdisciplinary assessment of four
river basins (Sesan (Vietnam-Cambodia), Thunga Bhadra (India), Tejo/Tajo (Spain-Portugal),
Gomma (Norway), and through twinning facilitates the exchange of knowledge and experience.
The point of departure for STRIVER is the lack of clear methodologies and problems occurringin the implementation of IWRM, as pointed out by both the scientific and management
communities. Building upon the development of a multidisciplinary knowledge base assessment
in all case studies (policy, social and natural sciences), and the development of a conceptual
framework for IWRM, the project seeks to apply IWRM methodologies within the four selected
twinned catchments covering six countries in Europe and Asia. The project has received EC
funding for three years (2006-2009) under the 6th framework programme (FP6). The multidisciplinary approach described in this paper will be applied in two transboundary river basins,the Sesan and Tejo/Tajo. This paper focuses only on the Sesan basin, and provides a descriptionof the methodology used and the results to date.
2. The Sesan Basin
The Sesan River is one of the largest tributaries of the Mekong River with a drainage area of22

2

17,000 km , (11,000 km in Vietnam and 6,100 km in Cambodia). With its origin in the Central
Highlands of Vietnam and the southernmost part of Laos, the river flows through mountainous
areas in Vietnam’s Dak Lak, Gia Lai and Kon Tum Provinces before entering Northeast
Cambodia, where it moves into relatively lowland areas. In Cambodia, the Sesan winds from east
to west through Ratanakiri Province and into Stung Treng Province, where it merges with the
Srepok River, another large tributary of the Mekong and then flows east into the Se Kong River
just before this river entering the Mekong River close to the Stung Treng Town. Traditionallypeople have relied on subsistence agriculture and fishing, developing techniques suited for smallscale water utilization. The increase in population and modernisation has created a demand formore intensive utilization of the water resources, such as large-scale hydropower production,
large-scale irrigation and increased water supply for urban populations. This has resulted in more
discharge of effluents. While small-scale hydro-electric power production is often managed
locally, it is the central authorities that drive large scale water projects. Both forms can create
problems, but it is often the large-scale production that has created unforeseen negative impacts
for local communities which are still embedded in an older subsistence oriented system. The
intensified use of water for power production is also at odds with the needs of agricultural
irrigation. If Vietnam and Cambodia are to meet the growing demand for hydropower, water for
irrigation and urban water supplies as their economies develops, there is a need to modernise themanagement of the water sector. In both countries reform of the management of the water sector
has started, but there is still a long way to go to be able to secure the “rights” of all water userinterests, as well as to maintain a healthy aquatic environment.

74International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

In both Vietnam and Cambodia, authorities exist at the national, provincial, and district level. The
organisation of these authorities is based upon a communist administration system with a strong
central-state role. However, due to the large number of research institutions and multilateral andbilateral aid programmes working on the Great Mekong Sub-Region (GMS), the Sesan represents
a case with a multitude of actors, both national and international. The national ministries
responsible for the management of the Sesan interact in the context of their work on the Mekong
and Srepok Rivers and Cambodia and Vietnam are both members of the Mekong River
Commission, a co-operative forum for both the utilization and protection of the Mekong Riverand its tributaries. Also, an ad hoc Sesan River Committee has been established, but nopermanent basin commission has yet been established.
3. Vulnerability Assessment and Transboundary Water Governance
The analysis of transboundary water governance within the Sesan Basin adopts vulnerability as aunifying idea between different disciplines. UNEP have defined vulnerability as ‘the interface
between exposure to the physical threats to human well-being and the capacity of people andcommunities to cope with those threats’ (UNEP GEO3). Vulnerability should therefore beconsidered a combination of social and bio-physical processes, as human ability to manage
physical threats is of vital importance. A region may be faced with significant physical problems,
yet because of a good economy, competent management systems, and political will, still beconsidered less vulnerable than a region with smaller physical problems that does not have thesehuman resources. Four vulnerability assessments are therefore considered in the Sesan Basin: i)
bio-physical; ii) socio-legal-economic; and iv) stakeholder-based. The bio-physical based
identification of vulnerability involves conducting an analysis of areas considered vulnerable
according to certain natural science criteria. Key variables include; land use, land cover andriver bank use (irrigation systems, location and type of dams); infrastructure (roads, trains, canals,
river navigation); possible future developments; topography, including river bed profiles; waterlevels and water flows; water level fluctuations; and the location of protection areas. The socio75

International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

economic vulnerability assessment involves an assessment of population of the basin, including
ethnic groups; administrative divisions and maps; education levels and training programmes;
economy (distribution of wealth and income, employment); literacy; literacy; urban-rural
divisions; economic policies; ownership patterns; activities of civil society (levels ofparticipation); HEP regulations; environmental flow regulations; drinking water needs andavailability; fishing; recreation and tourism. The legal analysis involves an assessment of thegaps within the existing system; identification of any barriers to the implementation; and, throughan indicator based evaluation, a measurement of compliance and enforcement. Added to these
two we are also conducting stakeholder-based vulnerability assessment that involves anidentification of the main areas of concern through stakeholder group discussions (workshops andinterviews), creating ‘mind maps’ of these areas of concern, then comparing the maps of concern
to those produced in the other two vulnerability assessments. Having conducted the analyses ofareas considered vulnerable in terms of natural science, socio-economics, law and policy, andstakeholder perspectives, maps are then constructed in a GIS system. The aim of the maps is to
identify basin ‘hot-spots’, ie., places where there is a high risk (according to natural science
criteria), and a low capability (according to the socio-economic, law and policy criteria). The
stakeholder perspectives data will then be superimposed to look at similarities and differences.
Finally, using the method developed by Gooch and Stålnacke (Gooch and Stålnacke 2006)
scenarios will be developed. These scenarios will take into account the two main perspectives;
natural/hydrological risk and socio economic ability to cope with effects of this risk. Working in
a 15-year perspective, the scenarios will examine future possible trends and developments innature/hydrological risk and socio-economic ability to manage risk.
The method thus follows the following schema:
1. An overview of the areas considered vulnerable according to natural science criteria.
2. A similar overview of the areas considered vulnerable from a socio-economic, legal andpolitical point of view, including law.
3. The construction of maps than can be used in GIS systems.
4. The incorporation of both aspects (1 and 2) into a GIS database.
5. The identification of the basin ‘hot-spots’, that is, the places where there is a high risk
(according to the natural science criteria) and a low capability to manage those risks(according to the socio-economic and political criteria).
6. The identification of the mains areas of public concern through stakeholder group
discussions.
7. The creation of ‘mind maps’ of these areas of concern.
8. The use of the knowledge gained in these processes to construct combined qualitativequantitative scenarios (Gooch and Stålnacke 2006).

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International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

Risk

Ability

Analysis

Stakeholder
Basedmulti-disciplinary
vulnerability
assessment

Outputs

Biophysical
Identification

Socio-LegalEconomic

GIS Database andMaps of “hotspots”

Figure 2. Methodology used for vulnerability analysis in the Sesan Basin
4. Vulnerability scenarios
During recent years the use of scenarios for environmental policy-making has attracted
considerable attention from both the scientific community and policy-makers (see, for example,(Greeuw, Asselt et al. 2000). Many of these applications have however either focussed on larger
spatial scales, such as countries (Kahane 1997), or have utilised relatively well-known cases
where information, while not comprehensive, has been comparatively readily available (Greeuw,
Asselt et al. 2000). In the case of regions, and especially Transboundary water
management, scenarios have not yet been so widely used. Scenarios are not precise predictionsof the future (Porter 1985) but should be seen as simulation tools, as a technique similar to, butdifferent from, models (Jouvenel 2000). Alcamo (Alcamo 2001) identifies five main elements of
scenarios; these are a description of the changes that may take place; of the main factors anddriving forces that influence these changes; a definition of the beginning year of the scenario, thebase year; the selection of the time frame for the scenarios and the adoption of time steps; and theconstruction of the storylines, which are narrative descriptions of possible futures. Scenarios,
through their simplification of available information and their use of alternative,
possible futures, can make the process of challenging uncertainty in water
management easier. Utilising past and present trends, scenarios attempt to see which factors
might lead to likely futures. A qualitative/quantitative method will be used in the Sesan
Basin, where qualitative/explorative scenarios will be used as input into computer-generated
models that can best be described as quantitative/explorative in the first stage, andquantitative/normative in a second stage. This combination of storylines and set of model
calculations is similar to that used in the ‘World water vision scenarios – the world water
situation in 2025’. The European Environment Agency report ‘Scenarios as tools for international
environmental assessments’ (Alcamo 2001) also proposes a ‘story-and-simulation’ (SAS)77

International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

approach to developing scenarios and a variant of the SAS model will be used in this study.
5. Conclusions
The Sesan Basin study is part of a larger project that facilitates knowledge and experienceexchange between river basins in Europe, India and South East Asia. The methodology used in
the project aims at facilitating the utilisation of scientific and local knowledge in an integrated
manner and the use of physical and human vulnerability studies, combined withqualitative/quantitative scenarios, will allow many different actors to become involved in water
governance in the region. A first stakeholder workshop, held in Pleiku in Vietnam in December
2006, has initiated the process and more meetings with stakeholders and water managers areplanned for the spring of 2007. The project aims at integrating perspectives from the polity, water
managers, stakeholders and the public, and as such is expected to contribute to the developmentof out knowledge of governance mechanisms and perspectives in the South-East Asian region.

References
World Environment 1972-1992.
Alcamo, J. (2001). Scenarios as tools for international environmental assessments. Copenhagen,European Environment Agency: 31.
Gooch, G. D. and P. Stålnacke, Eds. (2006). Integrated Transboundary Water Management in
Theory and Practice: Experiences from the New EU Eastern borders. London, IWA Publishing.
Greeuw, S. C. H., M. B. A. v. Asselt, et al. (2000). Cloudy crystal balls. Copenhagen, European
Environment Agency.
Jouvenel, H. d. (2000). "A Brief Methodolgical Guide to Scenario Building." Technological
Forecasting and Social Change(65): 37-48.
Kahane, A. (1997). Imagining South Africa's Future. Learning from the Future. L. Fahey and R.
M. Randall, Wiley.
OECD (2001). Engaging Citizens in Policy-making. Puma Briefing Paper. Paris, Organisation for
Economic Cooperation and Development.
Porter, M. (1985). Competitive Advantage. New York, Free Press.

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International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

Biological Water Quality Assessments and Criteria in Korea
Soon-Jin Hwang1, Jae-Kwan Lee2, Jae-Hyun Lee3, Soon Cho3, Doo-Hee Won4,
Kwang-Guk An5
1

Department of Environmental Science, Konkuk University, Seoul 143-701, Rep. of Korea
Environmental Diagnostics Research Department, National Institute of Environmental Research, Inchon 404-708,
Rep. of Korea
3
Water Quality Management Bureau, Ministry of Environment, Gwacheon, 427-729, Rep. of Korea
4
Doohee Institute of Ecological Research, Korea Ecosystem Service, Inc., Seoul 153-768, Rep. of Korea
5
School of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Chungnam National University, Daejon 305-764, Rep. of Korea

2

Abstract
The attainment of sustainable water environment is not enough with only the clean water, but itshould sustain healthy and diverse aquatic life. Aquatic life is affected by various factors such as
physical habitat conditions, water chemistry, and biological interactions, and thus good conditionof both physical and chemical water quality is prerequisite for sustaining healthy organisms.
Therefore, biological assessment, along with other physical and chemical assessments, is crucial
for evaluating the health of a water body. Biological assessments in Korea were just formalized
in the national 10 year master plan (2006-2015), named as “the basic plan for water environment
management” with the adoption of narrative biological criteria in the law of water quality andaquatic ecosystem conservation in 2006. These efforts have resulted in a significant change of aparadigm in the management of water environment, and a shift away from a sole reliance on
regulatory and administrative activities as the principal measures of success to the inclusion of
measures based on environmental results. We expect that integrating biological assessments into
existing assessment programs will provide the information critical to protect and restore aquatic
ecosystems.

1. Introduction
Water bodies exhibit various physical, chemical, and biological characteristics, but theirconditions are expressed as a water quality as a whole. Thus, water quality largely focused on thechemical measurements, and their conditions, resulting in ignoring an ecological concept in thewater quality program. Current programs are not protecting rivers or their biological resources
because our laws of water conservation and management are being implemented as if crystal
clean water running down concrete conduits were the goal. In this conjunction, our policies ofconservation and restoration of aquatic systems have been focused on a narrow array of factors,
mostly related to chemical pollution. As such, assessments of water quality are being
implemented to attain only clear water.
Water resources are not simply the water; however, their value as resources is beyond the water
alone. They also depend on biological components (species) and the underlying biologicalprocesses that sustain those species. Only clean water is not enough for sustainability of water
resources (Karr, 1995), and thus, sustainable aquatic system should support diverse and healthyorganisms. Because aquatic biota are affected by not only chemical water quality but also habitats
and risks, good water quality based on both physical and chemical aspects is prerequisite for79International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

supporting healthy organisms. Therefore, the true health of aquatic environments is reflected by
the biological communities that reside within them (US EPA, 2002).
Since 1980s, some development countries started to understand a sustainability of aquatic
environment in conjunction with attaining ecosystem health. Biological assessments have beendeveloped in that context, and now are being implemented (EEA, 1996; US EPA 1999). The
concept of ecological integrity (i.e., ecosystem health) has been introduced for the conservationand management of aquatic ecosystems (rivers) in Korea. After the three-year (2004-2006)
pioneer research, Korean government is now to formalize an ecosystem health concept in therelated regulations. Biological assessment tools are also being developed and tested with atentative bioassessment program on rivers across the whole country. The purpose of this paper is
to introduce current status and development of a biological assessment program in Korea.
2. Conceptual background of bioassessments for water quality
Bioassessment is a primary tool to assess biological condition in a water body, and consist of
survey and other direct measurements of aquatic life; algae and aquatic vegetation,
macroinvertebrates, fishes, etc. Bioassessment, along with physical and chemical assessments,
are critical for evaluating the health of a water body, and in turn, their results are essential toprovide the information of disturbed systems to be restored. Aquatic life integrates the cumulative
effects of diverse stressors such as excess nutrients, toxic chemicals, increased sediment loadings,
and habitat destructions. Therefore, bioassessments allow measuring the aggregate impacts of thestressors, and this, in turn, emphasizes that a conceptual framework of a comprehensive
assessment of aquatic environment needs to include ecological integrity (biological health)
responding to all existing stressors interrelated (Figure 1).

Figure 1. A framework for using biological assessments and criteria to set aquatic life use(Source: US EPA, 2002).
3. Development of biological assessment tools in Korea
Broad scale preliminary biosurvery should be conducted for the development of bioassessments
and biocriteria for a country and in this case regional differences, such as ecoregion, should befully considered. In Korea, the biocriteria are under development, and remains to complete withmore data in spatially broader scale. At the initial stage, however, a narrative biologicalclassification system has been proposed; 4-tired system including categories of excellent (A80International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

class), good (B class), fair (C class), and poor (D class). Indicator species including fishes andmacroinvertebrates also were designated to each class. The numeric biocerteria are also underdeveloping, using tiered use of fish, macroinvertebrates and benthic algae. Values of numericindices were tried to discriminate the indices at 4-tiered classes, as mentioned above. To theselected biological assemblages, various numerical indices were considered in order to get thebest candidate for Korean rivers. Values of indices were discriminated at 4 classes, in supportiveof the proposed narrative biocriteria.
There exist a quite few number of numeric indices for the assessment of water quality using
benthic diatoms (e.g., Descy, 1979; Watanebe et al., 1986; Kelly and Whitton, 1995). All of themfollowed the format of the saprobic index, first proposed by Zelinka and Marvan (1961), to assessorganic pollution of the water. We finalized two indices reflecting organic pollution (Diatom
Assemblage Index of Organic Water Pollution: DAIpo, Watanabe et al., 1986) as well as nutrient
enrichment (Trophic Diatom Index: TDI, Kelly and Whitton, 1995). Parameters consisting of theindices were tried to amend for Korean environment.
A numeric index, named as Korea Saprobic Index (KSI), to evaluate saprobicity of the water
body was developed using DIN 38410 (1990), based on the formula of Zelinka and Marvan(1961), and the method of calculating weighting value proposed by Yoon et al. (1992). Our fish
multimetric model to evaluate water biological water quality principally followed the multimetricmodel of IBI (Index of Biological Integrity) invented by Karr (1981). Originally, Karr’s model
was consisting of 12 metric. However, we modified the metrics to fit Korean environment, river
structure and species, and finally made the model with 8 metrics.
A classification of biocriteria can be varied with management purposes in countries, and the levelof class is usually ranged from four to seven. We finalized with 4 class system, form A class to Dclass (Table 1). When classifying the values of numerical indices of the considered biota into 4levels, BOD water quality parameter in the same study sites were compared. Several
representative indicator species for macroinvertebrates and fishes were included in theclassification system, although the standard for the bioindicator remains to be questionable. Thus,
the classification according to the indicator species needs to be revised with the accumulated
survey data.

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International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

Table 1. Biocriteria based on the model values and bioindicators of macroinvertebrates, benthic
diatoms along with BOD in Korean Streams
Numerical indicesClass andnarrative BM*
DiatomsFishdescription KSITDI DAIpo IBI

Trophic
statusIndicator species
BOD

Macroinvertebrates

Fish

Zacco
temmincki<10-40 100-85 36 - 40
Rhynchocypris
kumgangensis
Coreoleuciscus
OligoPotamanthidae
splendidus
B
1.0-2.4 40-55 85-60 28 - 34 Mesotroph 1-4(Good )
Semisulcospira. Microphysogobi
ic
o yaluensis
Zacco platypus
MesoRadix auricularia
C
3-8
2.4-3.6 55-70 60-40 18-24
Hamibarbus(Fair)
Eutrophic
Orthetrum
labeo
Eu –
Carassius
Limnodrilus gotoi
D>7
3.6-5.0 70-100 40-0 < 14HyperauratusPhysa acuta(Poor)
trophic
Cyprinus carpio* BM: Benthic macroinvertebrates
A
0-1.0(Excellent)

Oligo
trophic

Plecoptera
Gammarus

4. Results of biological water quality assessments using tiered use of aquatic life
Using diatom indices, TDI evaluated the water quality of the studied river sites to be worse than
DAIpo (Figure 2). With this result it is implied that the studied river appears to be more affectedby nutrients than organic matters. Overall, a pattern of variation in biological water quality andagrees with chemical water quality (BOD) with in a broad range. However, both diatom indices
showed a considerable variation even within the very similar BOD levels. This result emphasizes
that biological water quality evaluated by benthic diatoms is affected various parameters.
The results of KSI using macroinvertebtates at study sites also showed the similar trend ofvariation to BOD changes with a broad spatial range (Figure 2), as shown in the diatom result.
However, the variation of KSI was relative small. A major reason of this variation was evaluatedto be habitat destruction. If biological water quality is assessed to be worse than chemical one,
there may be possibilities of physical disturbance (e.g., destruction of river bed and siltation) andunknown toxic material. Excepting for some river site with physically disturbed condition, KSI
agreed with BOD in most cases, and showed a justification to apply KSI to other sites.

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International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

16
KSI

4

12

40

60

40

20

60

80

10

3

8
2

6
4

1
2

0

100

0

0

BOD
IBI

14

BOD (mg L-1)

20

80

2
0

BOD5

40
35

12
30
10
25
8
6

20

4

15

2

Index of Biological Integrity

4

18

5

14

8
6

16

Korea Saprobic Index (KSI)

10

0

DAIpo

BOD(m g L -1 )

12

100
BOD
TDI
DAIpo

TDI

14

BOD (mgL-1)

16

10

0

Figure 2. Comparison of BOD and numerical indices of diatom (DAIpo and TDI),
macroinvertebrates (KSI), and fish (IBI) at the study sites of Seomjin and Youngsan Rivers.
Although chemical conditions, based on BOD values, indicated a good water quality, biologicalwater quality using the biological integrity (IBI) was frequently more deteriorated than expectedin the aspect of water chemistry (Figure 2). Those impacted sites were mainly due to habitat
simplifications such as sand or silt depositions and channel modifications by various
constructions in bank area. These activities usually cause modification of fish habitat providing
nursery area and refugee. Accordingly, water quality evaluation using only chemical parameters
usually overestimate actual ecosystem health. The same implication also was supported by the
results of diatoms and macroinvertebrates.
5. Implementation and perspective of biological assessment program in Korea
Our next step is to establish a national bioassessment monitoring network (> 1000 sites in 5
major river watersheds) for throughout the country. The plan is supposed to be launched in theearly 2007. A tentative bioassessment program was named as, “Korea River Monitoring Network
for the Evaluation of Ecosystem Health,” and summarized as Table 2.
In Korea, the concept of bioassesssment was just formalized in the regulation of water quality
management. It provided us with a comprehensive perception of how we deal with water quality,
why ecosystem health is important, why we expand the meaning of the pollution and risk, andhow we attain the sustainable water resources (Karr, 1995). Because we are at the beginningstage in the development and implementation of biocriteria program, there are still many things to
be completed in the program, such as the establishment of bioassessment monitoring network,
development of numerical biocriteria, implantation of biocriteria into the broad range of water
resource management program. Related with the biocriteria program, the government is trying tointegrate an ecological concept into the ecosystem restoration in the amend of the related
regulations. Bioassessment is not only the most basic but also an essential process to provide thegoal to restore disturbed ecosystems.

83International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

Table 2. A tentative biomonitoring program in Korea.
Code Name of theParameters ofSurveySurveyGeographical
Reportingnameprogramassessment
intervalfrequency
coverage-Chemical water
quality
Bioassessment -Habitat
Started with 50
KRTwo times-Reportof reference -Benthic diatoms Every year
streams: increasing
Ref(spring, fall)-DBstreams
step by step
Macroinvertebrates-Fish
KR-Chemical water
RH
quality
KR-Habitat> 1,000 sites: need -Report
R1 Bioassessment
Two times-Benthic diatoms Every year-DB
to be fixed(spring, fall)KR- of streams-Mapping
R2
Macroinvertebrates
KR-FishR3
Note; KR: Korea, Ref: Reference stream, R: River, H: Habitat
References
Descy, J. P. (1979). A New Approach to Water Quality Estimation Using Diatoms. Nova
Hedwigia, 64, 305-323.
DIN 38410, Part 2, (1990). Biological-ecological Analysis of water(group M); determination of
the saprobic index(M2), German Standard Methods for the Examination of Water, Waste Waterand Sludge, p. 10.
EEA. (1996). Surface water quality monitoring. Topic report No. 2. European Environment
Agency.
Karr J.R., (1981). Assessment of biotic integrity using fish communities. Fisheries, 6, 21-27.
Karr, J. (1995). Protecting Aquatic ecosystems: Clean water is not enough. In: (Davis and Simon,eds.) Biological Assessment and Criteria. p 7-14. Lewis, Boca Raton.
Kelly, M. G. and Whitton, B. A. (1995). The Trophic Diatom Index: a new index for monitoring
eutrophication in rivers. Journal of Applied Phycology, 7, 433-444.
USEPA. (1999). Rapid bioassessment protocols for use in streams and wadeable rivers. EPA
841-B-99-002. US Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C.
USEPA. (2002). Biological Assessments and Criteria. EPA 822-F-02-006.
Watanabe T, Asai K, and Houki A. (1986). Numerical estimation of organic pollution of flowing
water by using the epilithic diatom assemblage - Diatom Assemblage Index (DAIpo). Sci. tot.
Environ, 55, 209-218.
Yoon, I.B., D.S. Kong, and J.K. Ryu, Studies on the Biological Evaluation of Water Quality by
Benthic Macroinvertebrates (I) - Saprobic Valency and Indicative Value, Korean J. Environ. Biol.
10(1), pp.24-39 (1992).
Zelinka, M. and Marvan, P.(1961). Zur Präzisierung der Biologischen Klassifikation der
Reinheid Fliessender Gewässer, Arch. Hydrobiolog, 57, 389-407.

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International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

Development of Biomarker in Surface Water Quality Monitoring
by Using Culture Fishery(Case Study: Saguling Reservoir, West Java, Indonesia)
Suphia Rahmawati1, Dwina Roosmini2 and Indah Rachmatiah Siti Salami3
1

Environmental Management Technology Research Group, Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering,
Institut Teknologi Bandung , jl. Ganesha 10, Bandung, 40132, Indonesia
email: suphia_rahmawati@yahoo.com
2
Environmental Management Technology Research Group, Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering,
Institut Teknologi Bandung , jl. Ganesha 10, Bandung, 40132, Indonesia
email: droosmini@bdg.centrin.net.id
3
Environmental Management Technology Research Group, Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering,
Institut Teknologi Bandung , jl. Ganesha 10, Bandung, 40132, Indonesia
email: indahrss@yahoo.com

Abstract
Saguling reservoir is one of reservoir that located in West Java Province in Indonesia.
Originally this reservoir was plan for single purpose to generate the electricity and received
water from Citarum River. Water quality in this reservoir is depends on the water quality ofCitarum River which have face significant change because of the increased of land use along
Citarum River basin and ineffective effluent and stream standard. Parameter that tends toincreased is heavy metal especially mercury from industries and agriculture discharge. The
studies conduct in Saguling culture fishery using two dominant species of fish Oreochromis
niloticus and Cyprianus carpio as biomarker. Mercury concentration in fish was analyzing
based on Standard Nasional Indonesia (SNI) 06-264-1991. High concentration of mercury
found in Oreochromis niloticus (16.8470 ppbwetweight ) and 12.8943 ppbwetweight for Cyprianus
carpio. These results are still below the permissible limit but still high compare to control
samples. These sampling point was located in the same area and received water discharge
from agriculture and domestic area which have contribution of mercury discharge. Biomarker
by culture fisheries can be used as monitoring method to maintain the water quality in
Saguling reservoir.
Keywords: Biomarker, Mercury, Saguling, Reservoir, Oreochromis niloticus, Cyprianus
carpio1. Introduction
Saguling reservoir is an artificial lake that located at 6:50 S, 107:25E, 643 m above sea levelor 40 km from Bandung City . The surrounding area of Saguling reservoir was hilly, while theriver that goes to reservoir has many tributaries. This condition makes the Saguling reservoir
different with other reservoir in West Java such as Jatiluhur and Cirata Reservoir. Populationthat lived surrounding reservoir is dense and predominately by farmer population withextensive agricultural lands. The catchments area of the reservoir or the upper Citarum river
faced high population pressure especially from farmer population.
This reservoir also received water from Citarum river basin with 7 sub river basins which are
the water quantity and quality depend on the quality of Citarum river Basin. Upper Citarum
river receives discharge water from domestic and industrial activities resulting water quality
degradation such as the increasing of heavy metals concentration. The rapid change of land85

International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

used in Citarum River also effected the quality of Saguling reservoir water. Wangsaatmaja(2004) state that land used for urban area has increased for 49% and 35% for industrial area.
Originally this reservoir was planned for single purpose dam to generate the electricity but
along the year it re-planned to multi purposes dam such as fisheries, agriculture, tourism andtheir multiple effects. On the other hand, the people also used for domestic purposes likewashing and bathing. Poor management of Saguling reservoir made the water quality became
worse.
Water quality monitoring is common methods to maintain Citarum river water and Sagulingreservoir water quality by using chemical and physical parameter. Stream and effluent
standard were use as an instrument in monitoring river water quality. According to Citarum
river water quality monitoring in 2001 only 1.4% of total 146 sampling location fulfill therequirements river water quality standard in Government of West Java Province Decree
No.39/2000 (Wangsaatmaja, 2001). These facts demonstrate that monitoring methods byusing only chemical and physical parameters was ineffective to monitoring and maintain thereservoir.
Fisheries using cage (net) culture was rapidly increased through the year and it was supported
by fishing activities-tourism in the reservoir. There were 5.000 fisheries using cage (net)culture were recorded, this number was still below the limit according to Government of WestJava Province Decree No.41/2002 that only 12.000 fisheries (Kompas Newspaper, July 2004).
There are two dominant species of fish that were found in fisheries at Saguling reservoir, thefirst one is Oreochromis niloticus (“Ikan Nila”) and Cyprianus carpio (“Ikan Mas”). Most of
the fresh water fish for West Java consumption was supply by Saguling and Cirata reservoir
fisheries (Oktaviatun, 2004). Oreochromis niloticus and Cyprianus carpio can be used as
biomarker as the availability of the fish in Saguling reservoir.
2. Material and Methods
Sampling points selected among fisheries which cultivated Oreochromis niloticus andCyprianus caprio with age 3-4 month (± 250gr) or ready to harvest. Two samples of fish wastaken each fish cage culture and put in the cooler box. In the laboratory, fish was fillet and cut
into small pieces, after that the sample was destructed using nitric acid (HNO3) pa andanalyzed with Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry (AAS) specific Hg-analyzer. Thismethod is referred to SNI 06-2464-1991 (Indonesian National Standard) and USEPA 1991-d.
The results was calculated and presented in ppbwet weight. Samples of water were also taken
during sampling to measured pH and mercury concentration. To compare mercury
concentration in fish, samples from control location (unpolluted) area also measured.
Location of sampling points was pointed by GPS (Global Positioning Satellite) and plotted
into map of Saguling reservoir and control location. Observation and interviewed was done
during sampling especially to find out the data of fish such as fish seed, fish feed andcondition surrounding cage culture.
Correlation between mercury levels in fish and water, field condition surrounding the fisheries
and potential source of mercury was analysis. The results could be used for an indicator ofenvironment degradation which can be develop the monitoring system in Saguling reservoir
and a recommendation for integrated water quality management in Saguling reservoir.

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International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

3. Results and Discussion
Location of sampling was shown in Figure 1, point 1,3,4,6,7,9,10,11,12,13 for both fish andwater sampling while point 2,5,8, and 14 only for water sampling because fisheries in thispoint was not available. On the other hand, control point was selected in Subang district, thenorth of Bandung City. These fisheries received water from upper Cipanagara and Ciasem
rivers which was land used dominated by forest and the activities of domestic and agricultural
were still low.

Figure 1 . Location of sampling in Saguling reservoir
Concentration of mercury in Oreochromis niloticus and Cyprianus carpio for each sampling
point was described in the Table 1. Average concentration for both species was similaralthough the minimum concentrations for Oreochromis niloticus lower than concentration in
Cyprianus carpio. This concentration still below the permissible level for consumption
according to FAO Fisheries Circular No.765/825 which is range between 0,1-1 mg/Kg wetweight.
Highest concentration of mercury in Cyprianus carpio found in point 6 which value 16.8470
ppbwet weight and for Oreochromis niloticus was found in point 4. These results relatively
higher compare to control samples which have average concentration 3.51 ppb wet weight for
Cyprianus carpio and 3.62 ppb wet weight for Oreochromis niloticus.
Mercury concentration in water was described in Table 2 which have range between <0.06 –0.18 ppb and still in permissible limit according to Government Decree No.82/2001 which is
1 ppb for mercury. High concentration were found in point 2, 3, 4 (12 ppb) and 7 (18 ppb)
while mercury concentration in control location was <0.06 ppb.

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International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

Table 1. Concentration of Mercury in Oreochromis niloticus and Cyprianus carpio at October
2004
LocationFish (ppbwet weight)
Point
Cyprianus carpio Oreochromis niloticus
12.34594.10943
1.18334.95044
3.147812.89436
16.8470
3.16457
4.46772.36409na0.520310na11.5230
12
3.5431
0.483813
na3.5345
Average
5.25584.8382
Maximum
16.8470
12.8943
Minimum
1.18330.4838

Table 2. Concentration of Mercury in water each sampling points at October 2004
Consentration
Consentration
Location
Location
(ppb)
(ppb)
1
<0.06
8
<0.06
2
0.12
9
0.06
3
0.12
10
<0.05
4
0.18
11
<0.06
5
0.06
12
<0.07
6
0.06
13
0.06
7
0.12
14
0.06
Saguling map describe that point 4, 6, and 7 was located in the same area which is positioned
near the river tributaries and received water discharge from agriculture and domestic activities.
According to observation these locations were surrounding by agriculture and domestic area.
Mercury can be found in organic form such as phenyl mercury (C6 H5-Hg), methyl mercury(CH3-Hg) and alkoxyalkyl mercury or methyoxy-ethyl mercury (CH3O-CH2-CH2-Hg+). Oneof mercury source is mercury in organic form which is came from uncontrolled dosage
pesticides for agricultural activities (Budiono, 2003). Hadisantosa (2006) also state that
Citarum river basin were predominantly used for agricultural activities and using pesticides.
On the other hand, these areas also very dense by people who live near the fisheries using
floating house. They are doing their daily activities like washing, bathing even they havesmall chicken husbandry above the cage culture (Figure 2).
The used of soap for washing from the domestic activities influenced the pH which has range
7.3- 8.9. Mercury has characteristic low solubility in the water and depends on the pH ofwater. The solubility will be higher if the pH low (acid) and the contrary will les soluble in
pH high (Lloyd, 1992). According to the sampling pH relative neutral or above pH 7, thiscondition made the mercury will less soluble in water. The others parameters that measured
during the sampling was temperature which has range 27-29°C and Conductivity Level withrange 252-685 μmhos/cm.
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International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

Figure 2. Condition of fisheries in Saguling Reservoir.
Mercury concentration in fish food was also analyzed and the results have range between 11.5 ppbwetweight. From interview, there were four types of food that were used for almost
fisheries. Three of them were produced by factory and the other food was made by the people
who take care the fisheries (usually they are not the owner of fisheries) which made bycassava and vegetables. This food may also contribute for the mercury concentration in fish.
Mercury uptake can be trough by both bioaccumulation and biomagnifications process(Soemirat, 2003 and www.ehu.es/europeanclass2003)
Even though mercury concentration in fish still below the permissible limit, but higher
compare to control point. In February 2003, mercury concentration in Saguling reservoir
reach 0.06 mg/L according to Saguling reservoir management (Oktaviatun, 2004). Although
the mercury concentration in water fluctuated, the concentration tends to increased along theyear. The change of land used along Ciratum river basin become industries and domestic area
influenced mercury concentration in Citarum river and Saguling reservoir. Painting and paperindustries have contribution to mercury discharge. The other study also mentions that there
are several gold plating industries that using mercury for their process. These gold plating
industries is illegal and the activities is not regularly. (Hadisantosa, 2006).
According to the results, common water quality monitoring using chemical and physicalparameter still ineffective to monitoring and maintains Citarum river and Saguling reservoir.
Biomarker using culture fishery in Saguling reservoir as monitoring system could be used asmonitoring methods especially for heavy metal parameters which have characteristic
bioconcentration, bioaccumulation and biomagnification. Better management in Sagulingreservoir should develop to reach better condition such as people prohibited lived nearfisheries using floating house, limitation of fisheries number, and controlling tourism
activities. If mercury concentration in water increase rapidly and concentration in fish above
the permissible limit, fish from Saguling reservoir must not be consumes but only formonitoring purpose.
Monitoring of water quality in Citarum river and Saguling should be integrated by good
cooperation between government, industry, stakeholders and community such as tight
implementation of stream and effluent standard, monitoring using culture fish as biomarker,
measuring, controlling heavy metal concentration in fish feed for Department of Fisheries

89International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

recommendation and controlling pesticides dosage for Department of Agriculture
recomendation.
4. Conclusion
Mercury level in Oreochromis niloticus and Cyprianus carpio still in permissible limit withconcentration maximum 16.8470 ppbwetweight for Oreochromis niloticus and 12.8943
ppbwetweight for Cyprianus carpio but still higher compare to control samples
Mercury concentration in point 6 and 4 were high, these location received water discharge
from river tributaries which is the land used predominantly by agriculture and domestic area.
Saguling water quality influenced by Citarum River quality which effected by industries
discharge from paper and painting industries, illegal gold planting industries, uncontrolled
pesticides used, and domestic waste.
Biomarker using culture fish in Saguling reservoir as monitoring system could be used as oneof monitoring methods for heavy metal parameters especially for mercury which havecharacteristic bioaccumulation and biomagnification.
5. References
Budiono, Achmad. (2003). Pengaruh Pencemaran Merkuri Terhadap Biota Air (influenced of
Mercury Pollution on Water Biota). Article. Bogor: Institut Pertanian Bogor
FAO Fisheries Circular No.765/825
Hadisantosa, Fajar. 2006. Heavy Metals Level in Hyposarcus pardalis as Biomarker in
Upstream Citarum River, West Java, Indonesia. Master Thesis. Bandung : Institute Bandungof Technology.
Oktaviatun. (2004), Uptake dan depurasi timbal pada ikan nila (Oreochromis niloticus) (Lead
Uptake and Depuration in Oreochromis niloticus). Final Project. Bandung : Institut Teknologi
Bandung
Kompas Newpaper (2004).Heavy Metal Concentration in Saguling and Cirata Reservoir .
Lloyd, Richard. (1992), Pollution and freshwater fish. The Buckland Foundation.
Soemirat, J. (2003), Toksikologi lingkungan. Yogyakarta : Gajah Mada University Press
U.S. EPA (Environmental Protection Agency). (2001). Fact Sheet: Mercury Update: Impact
on Fish Advisories National Listing of Fish. EPA-823-F-01-011. Office of Water.
Environmental Protection Agency).
Wangsaatmaja, S. (2004). Perubahan tata guna lahan terhadap rezim aliran air dan sanitasi
lingkungan (Land use change impacts on surface water regime and environmental sanitation:
Case analyses of the Upper Citarum Watershed). PhD thesis. Bandung: Institut Teknologi
Bandung.
(www.ehu.es/europeanclass2003/biological_aspects_of_metal_accu.htm)

90International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

Challenges for Implementation of Rain Water Harvesting Project in Arsenic Affected
Areas of Bangladesh
Md. Mafizur Rahman1, Fatima Jahra2
1

Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Bangladesh University of Engineering & Technology(BUET), Dhaka, Bangladesh Email: mafiz@agni.com
2
Graduate Student, Department of Civil Engineering, Bangladesh University of Engineering & Technology (BUET),
Dhaka, Bangladesh

1. Background
Recently Bangladesh is facing severe crisis in supply of safe drinking water due to increasing
trend of arsenic contamination in the underground water in different parts of the country. As aresult of accelerated installation of shallow handpump tubewells over the past decades, as meansof cheaper and convenient "safe" water supply, most people of the country has become heavily
dependent on groundwater. Replacing these handpump tubewells, despite severe arsenic
contamination, with other options of similar benefits and convenience has become a challenging
task for all concerned. The immediate challenge therefore, is to assess various technologicaloptions in terms of their technical feasibility, economic viability, social acceptability andenvironmental sustainability. Rainwater harvesting system, which has been widely used in many
parts of the world, possesses a great potential in addressing today's real challenge of acute arsenic
poisoning in different parts of the country. It is an option, which has been adopted in many areasof the world where conventional water supply systems are not available or have failed to meet theneeds and expectations of the people (Alam, 2006). The rainwater is free from arsenic
contamination and the physical, chemical and bacteriological characteristics of harvested
rainwater represent a suitable and acceptable means of potable water.
People can construct storage reservoirs so that they can use rainwater during the entire rainyseason and about 2-4 months of the dry period. The capacity and the construction materials of thereservoir and its maintenance depend on the socio-economic condition, population, educational
background and awareness of the habitants of the area. This study put special emphasis on theconstruction and maintenance issue of the RWHS and also on the harvested water quality in
Charghat and Bagha Upazilas of Rajshahi district.
2. Objectives of the Study• To assess of the technical requirements and feasibility for efficient rainwater harvesting (e.g.,
evaluation of cost-effectiveness of tanks of various sizes considering the socio-economic
condition of the people of the study area).
•To document of good experience and learning from the study and disseminate those among thesector agencies including the community people.
•To monitor and document construction and performance of the RWHS in terms of users
acceptance and user friendliness, water quality, water security and general system management.
3. Study Area
The study area is located in the arsenic affected villages at Bagha and Charghat Upazilas in
Rajshahi district in the western part of the country. The average annual rainfall of the project area
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International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

is around 1400 mm and the highest rainfall occurs in the month of July, which is around 3000
mm. The villages had been selected considering the concentration of tube-wells contaminatedwith arsenic and availability of suitable safe water options. A total of 3,290 families were livingin the 13 villages namely Miapur, Anupampur, Arazi Sadipur, Chandpur, Talbaria, Kaluhati,
Batikamari, Fakirpara, Jotnasti, Kishorpur- Beelpara, Monigram, Habashpur and Bajubagha. The
average family size ranged from 4.31 to 5.2. Agriculture is the main occupation of the villagers.
About 61.29% of the villagers were related to agriculture and most of the people did not havestrong educational background. Most of the villagers live below poverty line and some are
hardcore poor living in extreme poverty conditions. In few villages like Kaluhati among 776
people 458 (59.2%) were living always in financial deficit.
4. Methodology of the Evaluation Study
Technical evaluation of the RWHS was done through analysis of design considerations, fieldobservation, and case studies and through interviewing people of Charghat and Bagha Upazila ofRajshahi district on various technical and social aspects of rainwater harvesting as implemented
during the study period. Interview was taken of 140 families (caretakers) for evaluating technicalaspects of RWHS through base line studies. A few randomly selected water samples were also
tested in the laboratory for ascertaining quality of the stored rainwater. Apart from interviewing
the caretakers, literature including manuals, progress reports, monitoring reports, mid-term
evaluation reports were consulted.
5. Data Collection and Analysis
5.1 Water Supply and Demand
In rain water-harvesting calculation of supply and demand of water is very important. Storage isthe difference between actual supply of fresh water and the demand. Different methods can beused to calculate water demand and supply from rainwater. One method is shown below:
Supply:Average catchment area for rainwater harvesting=20m2 (approximately)
Run-off coefficient = 0.8 (assuming for ideal CI roof catchment)
Average yearly rainfall = 1400 mm
Average yearly water supply from rainfall = 20 m2 *0.8*1.4 m =22.4 m3
Demand:Consumption per capita per day, C = 7.5 liters
Number of people per household, n = 6
Monthly water demand = 7.5*6*30 = 1350 liters = 1.35 m3
Yearly demand = 1.35* 12 =16.2 m3
Storage volume required for a nuclear family = 22.4-16.2=6.2 m3
Field observation suggests that the average rainwater demand is actually less than 7.5 L/ person/
day in most of the families as rainwater is used only for drinking and cooking purposes. Run-off
coefficient values vary between 0.3 and 0.9 depending on the material of the catchment area. It
takes into consideration losses due to percolation, evaporation, etc.

92International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

5.2 Rainwater Storage Reservoir
It was observed from the study that a total 268 RWHS were constructed which were of different
capacities ranging from 300 liters, 500 litters, 1.0 m3, 2.0 m3, 2.5 m3, 3.2m3 and of different
materials such as RCC ring, brick, Ferro-cement, plastic tank, Earthen Motka etc. The different
types of tanks were FC tiles tank, FC Jar, RCC ring, Brick tank, Chari tank, Plastic motka andplastic tank.

0
FC jar(2800tk)

RCC
ring(2700tk)

Bricktank(3500tk)

FC
jar(4400tk)

2

2
Brick tank(ss)(5500tk)

4

29

11
Brick
tank(5000tk)

5

6

34
22

RCC
ring(4400tk)

6

40
30
20
10
0

FC tiles tank
(4500tk)

7

8

Number of reservoir

Number of reservoir

Brick tank of capacity 2500 liter and cost 5000 Tk were in use in large number (Fig.1) among thesame capacity’s other tanks because of its reasonable cost, durability and better performance. FC
jar, RCC ring and brick tanks of 1000 liter were used at a less frequency (Fig. 2).

Reservoir type

Reservoir typeFigure 2. Number and types of reservoirs of
capacity 1000 liter and catchment area 70-80
sft.

Figure 1. Number and types of reservoir ofcapacity 2500 liter and catchment area 90100 sft.

Number of reservoir

A survey had been made among 140 families through interview. It had been observed that FC jar,
Brick tank, Earthen motka and plastic tank were being used by 35, 39, 37 and 2 families
respectively (Fig.4). It is because of the low cost, availability of the reservoir materials as well as
the reservoir capacity and durability of the reservoirs. Another observation was made from thesurvey that Earthen motka which was widely used (Fig.3) was preferred by mainly the people of
low income group (such as agri-labor and day labor), whose monthly income was less than 1500
Tk generally.
150

127

100
26.40%

50

1.40%

0

FC tank
RCC tank

5%

Earthenmotka(550tk)

FC jarBrick tank

8

2
Plastictank(3300tk)

25%

Brick tank(1300tk)

14.30%
27.90%

Earthen motka
Plastic tankReservoir typeFigure 3. Relation between the number ofreservoir and type of reservoir of capacity
500 liter and catchment area 60-70 sft.

Figure 4. Percentage of different types ofreservoir was in use during survey period.

93International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

The FC tiles tanks of capacity 3200 liter, RCC ring tanks of capacity 2000 liter and plastic tanks
have limited use probably because of their relatively higher cost against capacity and for theneed of high catchment area. The use of Chari tank was also very negligible for its low
performance.
5.3 Quality of Harvested Rainwater
The concentration of As and Fe were monitored in the tubewell and pumps of the villages (datafor 12 villages are available). A relationship between As and Fe can be introduced (Fig.5). It had
been observed that in almost all cases (with few exceptions) with the increase of the percentageof As contaminated underground water sources the percentage of the Fe contaminated water
sources increases.
Percentage

80
60
As%

40

Fe%

20
0
1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9 10 11 12

Village no.

Figure 5. Relationship between As and Fe affected underground water sources.
In this study about 1340 water samples of TC and FC were tested. Regarding the test result ofTC, out of total samples 894 were bacteria free and 446 were contaminated. On the subject of FC,
out of total tested samples 1083 were bacteria free and 254 were contaminated. This could be
attributed to some operation and maintenance problems, such as not cleaning the roof catchment
and the inlet gutter before rain events, not opening the screw cap to divert the first flush water,and not washing the empty storage tank with bleaching powder. 2419 water samples were tested
for pH. pH of 335 samples were found within the acceptable limit (6.5-8.5). About 1035 water
samples concerning turbidity was tested and only 50 samples were found unacceptable (greaterthan 5 NTU). It may be occurred due to the improper collection of water from the catchment i.e.
harvesting of rainwater without flushing the first foul water for 10 to 15 minutes. Testing 5
random water samples collected by NGO Forum, it was found that Pb and Zn were within
acceptable limit. Iron and Fluoride concentration were below detectable range of measurement,i.e., < 0.05 mg/L (NGO forum, 2000-2003).
6. Operation & Maintenance
It was found that the average cost of O&M in Rainwater harvesting is very negligible, nearly 20
Tk/ year. Lack of education and awareness of the caretakers were the major reasons of poor
operation and maintenance of the RWHSs. The study had been made among 140 families having
different types of reservoirs.
Table1: Types of caretakers considering quality of O&M of different types of reservoirs
Type of reservoir
FC jar
FC tank
Brick tank
RCC ring
Earthen motka
Plastic tank

Good
12
5
23
3
6
0

Medium
14
9
8
2
21
0

Bad
9
6
8
2
10
2

94

Total no. of reservoir
35
20
39
7
37
2

International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

The number of good caretakers of Earthen motka is relatively less (Table 1) because it is mainly
used by the people of low income group who have almost no educational background.
7. Conclusion
The action research study clearly identifies rainwater harvesting as a potentially safe, reliable andaffordable alternative source of water supply for drinking and cooking for at least 8-10 months ofthe year. RWHS can be widely used because different types of reservoirs are available andpeople of different income level can afford it according to their income level. Other important
conclusions drawn from evaluations of the research are as follows:• The supply of rainwater, given the CI roof catchment area available, is much higher than thehousehold demand for drinking and cooking.
• The rainwater can be stored in tanks, jars or pots of different sizes and materials of varying
costs to match individual household's need and affordability. Brick tank and Earthen motka arewidely used because of its performance and low initial cost and suitable capacity for nuclear
family.
References
1. NGO Forum, (2000-2003) Monitoring Reports on “Rainwater Harvesting in BangladeshAction Research Project”, Dhaka.
2. Alam M.A. (2006) Technical And Social Assessment of Alternative Water Supply Options in
Arsenic Affected Areas, M.Sc. (Civil and Environmental) thesis submitted to the Department
of
Civil
EngineeringofBangladesh
UniversityofEngineering
And
Technology(BUET),September 2006.

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International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

Adoption and Impact of Zero Tillage technology for Wheat in Rice-Wheat System.
Water and Cost saving technology. A case study from Pakistan (Punjab).

Muhammad Naeem Sarwar
Center for Research on Poverty Reduction and Income Distribution (CRPRID), Planning Commission Islamabad,
Pakistan.
naeemsarwar@crprid.org

Abstract
One of the major cropping systems of South Asia is rice-wheat grown on 13.5 million
hectares on the Indo-Gangetic Plains (IGP). It has a pivotal role in the food security andlivelihoods of millions of farmers and workers. Continuously, need is being felt to explore thepossibilities of saving critical inputs by adopting alternative resources conservativetechnologies as zero tillage. Main aim of this paper was to see factors affecting the adoption
and impact of zero tillage technology in rice wheat system. Economic analysis of the data
presented in this paper shows that zero tillage method for wheat cultivation is the mosteconomical and attractive option for farming community. The high yield grain and less cost of
production per hectare was noted on zero tillage farms as compared with conventional farms.
In this paper, analytical technique was employed for the adoption of zero tillage technology inPakistan (Punjab). A binary Logit model was also estimated based on the available data set,with the probability of an adoption of zero tillage technology as a dependent variable and set
of other variables as the explanatory variables. It was found that with the increase in farm size
per hectare the probability of adoption of zero tillage technology increases. While with thehigh NPK nutrients cost per hectares and with more tubewell irrigation time required toirrigate one hectare of land the probability of adoption of zero tillage technology reduces.
Finally, the adoption of zero tillage technology improves farmer’s profit and eventuallycontributes in reducing poverty. However, the long-term impacts of this technology on foodproduction, natural resources (land and water) and linkages with poverty alleviation should befurther explored.
Key words: Cost saving, Zero tillage, Binary Logit model, Economics

Introduction
The Indo-Gangetic Plains of Pakistan, India, Nepal and Bangladesh are endowed withplentiful natural resources, deep productive soil, sufficient good quality water, climaticconditions that permit multiple-cropping, high population density and relatively good
infrastructure. The Green Revolution technologies, beginning 1970s, have remained thecornerstone of South Asian strategy for food security, nutrition, rural development, andpoverty alleviation. Slowed growth of productivity in agriculture, and negative impacts ofintensive agriculture on environmental quality, suggested for infusion of a complimentary setof new agricultural technologies to boost productivity growth.
In South Asia, the rice-wheat cropping system is found on 13.5 million hectares and is one of
the most important cropping patterns for food security in the region. While another 10.096International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

million hectares are found in China, mostly in the central areas of the Yangtze River Valley.
The area of rice-wheat systems in India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Nepal is 10.0, 2.2, 0.8, and
0.5 million respectively. Rice-Wheat systems represent 32 percent of total rice area and 42
percent on the wheat area in these countries. (Ladha et al., 2000).
In Pakistan, under rice-wheat cropping system, farmers grow rice in Kharif season followed
by Wheat in Rabi season. The total area under rice in Pakistan is about 2.2 million ha, out of
which 62 percent of rice area is in Punjab alone. Out of total rice area in the country, 50
percent is under fine rice varieties. Punjab, the largest rice-growing province in the country,
occupies 78 percent of area under fine varieties. Farmers prefer to grow fine rice in spite of
low productivity and longer time period due to its high gross margins. Punjab province grows
about 96 percent of total production. (Khan 2002).
The area reported under zero tillage has increased from 50 acres in 1996-97 to 72168 acres in
2000-2001 in Punjab alone. (Bhambhro 2001). There is an increase in the yield with zerotillage technology over the conventional tillage and the savings made through less fuelconsumption and machinery use (Grey et al. 1996). Economically zero tillage is superior overconventional method of sowing because more net returns were recorded on zero tillage farms
than that of conventional wheat farms (Nagarajan et al 2002). The main objective of current
paper is to see which factors are mostly affecting the adoption of zero tillage technology inrice-wheat system of Pakistan’s Punjab and also to compare and evaluate the cost and crop
yield per ha of wheat crops by using conventional and zero tillage technologies.
Materials and Methods
The study was conducted in the Rice-Wheat area of Sheikhupura and Hafizabad districts of
Punjab, Pakistan. Three distributaries were selected namely Ghour Dour, Gujjiana and Kakar
Gill Sub-Minor. Gujjiana and Ghour Dhour distributaries off-take from Upper Gugera Canalof Lower Chenab Canal system (LCC) and come under the Chuharkana irrigation subdivision in district Sheikhupura whereas Kakar Gill sub-minor falls in the Gujranwala
irrigation sub-division in district Hafizabad.
Total costs, gross margins, crop yield and Benefit-cost analysis were calculated both for zero
tillage and conventional methods of sowing. Water use efficiency and fertilizer use efficiency
for both zero tillage technology and conventional method of sowing was also calculated.
Several previous studies have used the Logit model in relation to adoption of different
technologies (Burton et al 1999, Kalyebare, R. 1999, Zegeye et al 2001, Caswell et al 2001,
Lee et al 1983, Ouma et al 2002 ).

Results and discussions
Economics
The results as depicted in Table 1a and Table 1b, are quite convincing as far as economic
superiority of zero tillage is concerned over conventional method.
The yield recorded was significantly higher than conventional method (3409.98 kg/ha ascompared to 3122.64 kg/ha). Total cost were Rs.10217/ha in the zero tillage, significantly
lover than that of Rs. 12321/ha in traditional /conventional planting system. Gross margins
97International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

were Rs. 17146/ha in the zero tillage technology, significantly higher than that of Rs.
13794/ha in conventional method of sowing. Benefit-cost analysis calculated shows that zero
tillage method was economically the most feasible (B/C= 1.68) and attractive option ascompared to conventional (B/C=1.12) for farming community. Of the bread-up of total cost of
production in rupees per hectare, farmers were investing significantly less on land preparationand on irrigation cost per hectare, which is major source of reduced working cost in zero
tillage as compared to conventional sowing of wheat.
Table 1(a) Benefit cost analysis of wheat with various techniques.
Techniques
Traditional
Mean
3122.64
12321.17
13794.02
1.12

Yield in kg per hectare
Total cost of production in Rs. Per hectare
Gross Margins in Rs. per hectare
Benefit cost ratio

Zero Tillage
Mean3409.98
10216.6
17145.65
1.68

Table 1(b) Break-up of Total cost of production (Rs/ha)
Techniques

Seed Cost (Rs/ha)
Cost of Ploughings (Rs/ha)
Cost of Irrigation water (Rs/ha)Fertilizer Cost (Rs/ha)
Chemical cost (Rs/ha)
Harvesting cost (Rs/ha)Threshing cost (Rs/ha)

Traditional
Mean

Zero Tillage
Mean

948.642093.25
1057.373685.78
389.032413.591733.51986.25756.74753.7
4471.09516.442315.04
1174.1

Most importantly water use efficiency kg/m3 for both methods were also recorded. Table 2
shows that water use efficiency obtained on zero tillage farms was much higher as compared
to conventional farms. Volume of water for zero tillage was 1828.8 m3/ha significantly lower
than that of 2256.9 m3/ha in conventional method. Water use efficiency kg/m3 was noted high2.29 kg/m3 in zero tillage, which was significantly higher than that of 1.51 kg/m3 in case of
traditional/conventional method of sowing.
Table 2 Effect of sowing techniques on water-use efficiency for wheat production.
Techniques
Traditional
Mean
3122.642256.97
1.51

Yield in kg per hectare
Volume of Water (m3\ha)Water productivity (kg\m3)

Zero Tillage
Mean3409.98
1828.82.29

NPK levels on zero tillage farms and conventional farms are shown in table 3. The efficiency
of fertilizer at zero tillage farms was greater because of the facts that these allow uniform
distribution of fertilizer, which induce the farmers to use their fewer quantities. In case of zero98

International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

tillage, fertilizer is placed close to seed. Fertilizer use efficiency was noted high as compared
to conventional method. Higher fertilizer-use efficiency showed that this zero tillage
technology is more conducive to optimal use of fertilizer. These results also in lined with theresults of Choudhary et al 2000.
Table 3 Effect of sowing techniques on fertilizer-use efficiency for wheat production.
Techniques
Traditional
Mean
3122.64
171.2018.29

Yield in kg per hectare
NPK kg/ha
Fertilizer use efficiency

Zero Tillage
Mean3409.98
209.4016.28

The results of the logit model are shown in Table 4. All the coefficients of explanatory
variables except experience of farmers in years were found significant at 99, 95 and 90
percent of significant level. The results shows that with an increase in land holding of one
hectare the probability of adoption of zero tillage technology increases by 0.001. The results
are according to the priory expectation because with the increase in landholding, farmers havebetter choices to experiment with new technologies as compared to resource poor farmers.
Similarly according to the perceived benefits of this new technology it should have decreased
water consumption in order to be adopted on wider scale. The results support this perception
and show that the probability of zero tillage adoption decreases (-0.009) with the increase inirrigation timing (hours/ha) especially tube well irrigation because tube well irrigation has
maximum contribution for fulfilling the crop water requirements in the study area. Farmers
adopt those technologies, which they perceive as cost effective. Such relationship is depictedby the results of the logit model with respect to cost of fertilizers i.e. the marginal probability(-0.004) of adoption of zero tillage technology decreases with the increase in the cost offertilizer per hectare. The relationship between cost of chemicals and adoption of zero tillage
although is significant but its marginal effect is negligible. Similarly, with increase in numberof years of agricultural experience marginal probability of adoption for zero tillage decreases
by the coefficient–0.001. The major reason behind this result is that old people are still of theview that indigenous ways of cultivation are superior than the new ones and are following thefamous proverb “more you till the soil more would be the crop production”. Dummies forowner-cum-tenant and tenant were included and it was found that if a farmers is owner-cumtenant or tenant instead of owner, the marginal probabilities of adoption for zero tillage
technologies are 0.051 and .025 respectively. Similarly if a farm household is located in thecommand area of Kakargill and Gujiana distributaries instead of being located in thecommand area of Ghourdour distributary, the marginal probability of adoption for zero tillage
technology is 0.045 and 0.052 respectively. Increased marginal probabilities can be attributedfor favorable environment regarding the awareness about the new technology and flexibility
and easiness of availability of zero tillage drill in the command areas of the first two
distributaries.

99International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

Table 4. Regression Results of Logit model
Variables
Constant
Farm size in ha
Tubewell irrigation time of one ha (hours/ha)
Cost of NPK nutrients in Rs/ha
Cost of chemicals in Rs/ha
Quantity of FYM (trolleys/ha)
Abiana charges in Rs/ha
Experience of farmer in years
Dummy for owner-cum-tenant
Dummy for tenant
Dummy for Kakargill distributary
Dummy for Gujiana distributary

Coeff.
8.882
0.268-2.532-1.1520.013-7.7030.071-0.14614.5677.136
13.05215.023

Std.Err. P-value
10.4760.397
0.109 0.014***1.239 0.041**
0.555 0.038**
0.006 0.042**
4.865
0.113
0.042
0.086*
0.100
0.147
7.343 0.047**
4.054 0.078**
6.881 0.058**
7.254 0.038**

Marginal Probability
0.031
0.001
-0.009-0.0040.000-0.0270.000-0.001
0.051
0.025
0.045
0.052

Chi square = 55.227-2 Log likelihood = 16.876
Cox and snell R square = .634
Negelkerke R square = .867
Df
= 11
*
Significant at 90 percent confidence level**
Significant at 95 percent confidence level*** Significant at 99 percent confidence level

Conclusions and recommendations
Zero tillage technology contributes in increasing wheat yield and also helps in reducing costof production. The results show a convincing as far as economic superiority of zero tillage
over conventional method of sowing. Zero tillage technology is very conducive in increasing
the crop production and net income, its popularity would increase day by day among thefarming community and area under such technologies is expected to enhance widely inPakistan. The suitable policies are needed in order to further facilitate promotion of zero
tillage technology by encouraging private sector-public sector cooperation and educating
farmers about the use of this technology. The long-term impacts of this technology on foodproduction, natural resources (land and water) and linkages with poverty alleviation should befurther explored. The participatory research at farmers’ field could play pivotal role intechnology improvements and dissemination.

References
Bhambhro, S.A. 2001. Wheat sowing: zero tillage best option. Dawn. November 12. Monday.
Caswell, M., K, Fuglie., C, Ingram., S, Jans and C, Kascak.2001. Adoption of Agricultural
Production Practices: Lessons Learned from the U.S. Department of Agriculture Area
Studies Project. Resource Economics Division, Economic Research Service, U.S.
Department of Agriculture. Agricultural Economic Report No. 792.
CIMMYT. 1993. The Adoption of Agricultural technologies. A Guide to Survey Design.
Mexico, D.F.: CIMMYT.

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International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

Choudhary, M. A., M. A. Gill, M. A. Kahlown and P. R. Hobbs. 2000. Evaluation of
Resource Conservation Technologies in Rice-Wheat System of Pakistan. Rice-Wheat
Consortium for the Indo-Gengetic Plains.2002. Proceedings of the International
Workshop on Development an Action Program for Farm-Level in Rice-Wheat
Systems of he Indo-Gengetic Plains, 25-27 September 2000, New Delhi, India. RiceWheat Consortium Paper Series 14, New Delhi, India: Rice-Wheat Consortium for the
Indo-Gengetic Plains. 148pp.
English, B. C., R.K. Roberts and, J.A. Larson. 1999. A Logit analysis of precision farming
technology adoption in Tennessee.
Gray, R. S., J. S. Taylor and W. J. Brown, 1996. Economic factors contributing to theadoption of reduced tillage technologies in central Saskatchewan. Canadian Journal of
Plant Sciences. 76: 661-668
Kelyebara, R. 1999. A comparison of factors affecting adoption of improved coffee
management recommendations between small and larger farmers in Uganda. Paper
presented at the CIAT International Workshop: "Assessing the Impact of Agricultural
Research on Poverty Alleviation, San Jose, Costa Rica; 14-16 September 1999.
Khan, S. R. H. (2002), ‘ Agriculture of Pakistan: Challenges and Remedies’. The Environ
Publications, Lahore, Pakistan
Lee, L. K., and W. H. Stewart. “Land Ownership and the Adoption of Minimum Tillage.”Amer. J. Agr. Econ. 65(1983): 256-264.
Ladha, J.K., K.S. Fisher, M. Hossain, P.R. Hobbs, and B. Hardy, (Eds.). 2000. Improving the
productivity and sustainability of rice-wheat systems of the Indo-Gangetic Plains: A
synthesis of NARS-IRRI partnership research. IRRI Discussion Paper Series No. 40.
IRRI, Los Banos, Philippines.
Nagarajan, S., A. Singh, R. Singh and S. Singh. 2002. Impact Evaluation of zero-Tillage in
Wheat Through Farmer’s Participatory mode. Paper for international workshop on
herbicide resistance management & zero tillage in rice-wheat cropping system, March
4-6, 2002, Department of Agronomy, CCS Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar125 004, India.
Ouma, J., F, Murithi, W, Mwangi, H, Verkuijl, M, Gethi, and H, De Groote, 2002. Adoptionof Maize seed and fertilizer Technologies in Embu District, Kenya, Mexico, D.F,:
CIMMYT.
Zegeye, T., Tadesse, B and Tesfaye,S. 2001. Determinants of adoption of improved Maize
technologies in major Maize growing regions of Ethopia. Second National Maize
Workshop of Ethiopia. 12-16 November, 2001.

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International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

Sensor ASIA
- Sensor Network and GIS for Environmental Monitoring in Asia Kiyoshi Honda1, Nguyen Duy Hung2
Asian Institute of Technology, P.O.Box4, Khlong Luang, Pathumthani, 12120, Thailand
http://www.rsgis.ait.ac.th/~honda１ NguyenDuy.Hung @ ait.ac.th２

Hiroshi Shimamura
E-Lab Experience Co., Ltd., 104 Anotsu-Pia, 4-6-1, Anotsu-Dai, Tsu, Mie, Japan,
h.shimamura @ elab-experience.com

Abstract
Authors are proposing the “Sensor ASIA” to promote sensor network for obtaining real-timehigh-density environmental data using Sensor Network and GIS technology in Asia. To obtain
sensor data at real time from everywhere at low cost is quite important for environmental
management, agriculture, disaster management, industries, securities and to support our daily
life.
Sensor technology and network technologies, especially mobile network, have been showing
its great advancement these days. These technologies make it possible to obtain high-density
environmental data both in terms of spatial and temporal. Field Server is a good example ofcombination of sensor and network. Further, linking the data to GIS is important for searching,visualization, archiving, analysis, and futher data exchange.
OpenGIS® SWE (Sensor Web Enablement) specifications will provide standard interface
between client and sensor data in GIS. It can even give Web presence to each sensors.
SWE-enabled sensors would be discoverable, controllable, and accessible through Web.
We are developing SSG (Sensor Service GRID), basically based on OpenGIS® SWE, toprovide, besides standard sensor service, many more high level web-services for end-users,
such as sensor plug&play and securities. We envision that off the shelf sensors should be able
to be set without highly skilled sensor/network engineers. We would like to promote sensor
networks in Asia using SSG and Field Server. We have named this initiative as “Sensor
ASIA”.
Introduction
Network technologies, probably represented by internet and mobile phone, have been
expanding all of the world. Internet or Mobile phone network is available even country side of
developing countries. Connectivity to the Internet has drastically improved. WiFi network can
be detected everywhere in the city. Based on these network or internet technologies, so calledubiquitous network environment is being realized so that we can enjoy the advantage of the
network everywhere without understanding the technology itself.
The price of sensor is getting inexpensive and smaller in size. Imaging sensors, CO2 sensors,soil moisture sensors and others, which were expensive before, have been reducing theirprices drastically. Some of them can be purchased at only one tenth of the price a decade ago.
Even small mobile phone can have GPS and G-sensors.

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International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

By combining the network and sensor, we can form sensor networks to obtain real time
high-density environmental data. One good example is the Field Server (Fig.１) developed by
NARC ( National Agriculture Research Center, Japan). It has several sensors andmesh-network capabilities. Data can bebrowsed directly as itself is a web-server.
The Field Server is currently manufacturedby E-LabExperience, in Japan under the
license from NARC. HAII ( Hydro and Agro
Informatics Institute, Thailand ) is also
producing local version of the Field Serverand expanded more than 300 hundreds ofthe unit over Thailand.

OpenGIS®
Sensor Web Enablement
initiative and a deployment example
Sensor observations can be tagged withrelated information such as time ofobservation and location of sensor. The
latter tag qualifies sensor observations as
GIS data, which is defined as consisting of
spatial information. Thus Open Geospatial
Fig. 1 Field Server
Consortium -a standards organization that isleading the development of standards forgeospatial and location based services started Sensor Web Enablement Initiative todevelop standards to enable the discovery, exchange, processing of sensor observations, aswell as tasking sensor systems. Reader should refer to OpenGIS Sensor Web Enablement
architecture document and related specifications to get details of following overview.
SWE focuses on:
z Discovery of sensor systems, observations, and observation processes
z Determine sensors' capabilities and quality of observationsz Access sensor parameters that allows software to process sensor observationsz Retrieve observations in standardized encodingz Tasking sensors
z Subscription to published alert from sensor services
through the establishment of standard encodings for sensor description and sensor
observations, and standard web services that actually use these encodings:
z
z
z
z
z
z

Observation and Measurement (O&M) Schema for encoding sensor observations
Sensor Model Language (SensorML) for encoding sensor description
Sensor Observation Service (SOS) for querying sensor observations and sensor
description
Sensor Planning Service (SPS) for planning sensor observations
Sensor Alert Service (SAS) for publishing and Subscribing to sensor alerts
Web Notification Service (WNS) for asynchronous messaging between different
Sensor Services

103International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

Fig. 2 Deployment example of SWE

SWE provides foundation for operating Web-based sensor networks. Fig.2 shows a field
server which collects environmental data in paddy field and publishes it through SOS.
Sensors such as thermocouple, soil moisture sensors, and net radiation sensors are connected
to data acquisition devices that communicate with a host computer through local ports such as
COM or USB. Observation feeder is a module that is responsible for tagging observations
with time and location of sensors, then populate them into an authorized observation databaseof a sensor services node in public network site. Observation feeder can be deployed at field
server side as well as at Sensor services node side. Deploying observation feeder in field
server side as the above figure has the benefit that the field server does not need fixed global
IP address which is often in the case in mobile Internet connections such as GPRS. For both
fixed and mobile sensors, sensor location and observation time are vital sensor parameters.
And as mentioned above these parameters qualifies sensors observations as spatial data sets.
Sensor observations and descriptions are then exposed to Internet users in form of XML
documents that complies with O&M and SensorML schemas respectively. User software canparse and interpret these XML data automatically, thus enabling automated web-based
discovery and processing of sensors and their observations without a priori knowledge of thesensor system.
SSG - Sensor Service GRID
However, the important functionalities forapplication and nominal end-users are
sensor plug&play and security. If
off-the-shelf sensors can immediately startand send data to archiving system, it will
reduce burden for every users. The
archived data should be published
immediately just by a single click of“Publish”. The data communication
should be well secured. No one will beable to listen the data, modify the data or
switch the sensor to different one withoutauthorization.
We are currently developing a system torealize these functionalities using SOS asa core technology of sensor observation

Fig. 3 SOS and SSG (Sensor Service GRID)

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International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

publishing. We have demonstrated a
prototype of SSG in January 2007 in Putra
university, Malaysia (Fig.3, 4) Several
important functionality of SSG are¾ Sensor Plu&Play ( automatic
downloadof
SensorML
document )¾ Security¾ Adaptability for various network
environment
suchaspublic/private IP, mobile phone,satellite network)¾ Interface to Google Earth¾ Interface to MetBroker [2]Fig. 4 SSG Prototype
One click registration of sensor node, archiving andpublishing to Google Earth immediately

Sensor ASIA
Sensor ASIA is an initiative to promote sensor networks in Asia for real-time high density
environmental data based on Field Server and SSG. To obtain the data is definitely importantfor environment management, disaster, agriculture especially food security, and science. The
information through Senor Asia can be combined to food security system. Open information
chain from the site of the food production to the end-user is quite important for food security.
The idea of the sensor Asia was presented in the 23rd APAN meeting in Manila in January
2007 [3]. Researchers from various countries in Asia-Pacific in the conference have agreed tocooperate and participate to the initiative.
Authors have recently setup a sensor system for a draught research project (by Thai ResearchFund, Thammasart University, AIT) in Trakan, Ubonratchani, Thailand (Fig.5). The data is
being sent to AIT server real-time every 30 seconds through internet satellite (IP STAR). The
data will be served through SOS. Also, the authors are involved in setting up a Field Server
node in Khon Kaen, Thailand. The system in the rice field is powered by solar panel. The data
is being sent to a primary school nearby then sent to a server in Japan through internet satellite(Fig.6)105

International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

Fig 5. Field Server with internet satellite for Draught
Research by TRF, Thammasart University and AIT,
Ubonratchathani, Thailand, observing soil moisture,
vapour&heat flux real time.

Fig.6 Solar Powered Field Server inKhon Kaen, Thailand. by University ofTokyo, NIAES, JIRCAS, Khon Kaen
Univ., AIT, and E-LaboExperience

Conclusion
Obtaining Real-time high-density environmental data is technically feasible. Expansion of thesensor network through Sensor Asia will contribute to promote various sectors. For example,
it is important for developing countries to utilize the sensor data and implement information
management system, especially when they try to export their food products. Sensor Asia isaiming at providing inexpensive plat-form for sensor network and information system.
Acknowledgement
Authors acknowledge Dr. Amnat KHOWANIT, Thai Research Fund, Prof. Takaharu
KAMEOKA, Mie University, Prof. Seishi NINOMIYA, Prof. Masayuki HIFRAFUJI, NARO ,Dr. Masaru MIZOGUCHI, University of Tokyo for their generous support.
Reference[1] Open Geospatial Consortium http://www.opengeospatial.org/[2] MetBroker
http://www.agmodel.org/projects/metbroker.html[3] APAN
http://www.apan.net/

106International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

Preliminary Study on Pollutant Discharge from Domestic Wastewater and Pollutant Load in
the River: A Comparative Study between Japan, Thailand and Bangladesh

1

Yoshiaki Tsuzuki1, Thammarat Koottatep2, MD Mafizur Rahman3, Faruque Ahmed1

Research Center for Coastal Lagoon Environments, Shimane University, Nishikawatsu 1060, Matsue, Shimane 6908504, Japan, ytsuzuki@soc.shimane-u.ac.jp and frahmed2007@yahoo.com;
2
Environment Engineering and Management, Asian Institute of Technology, P.O. Box 4, Klong Luang, Pathumthani
12120, Thailand, thamarat@ait.ac.th;3
Department of Civil Engineering, Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology, Dhaka-1000,
mafiz@agni.com, Bangladesh

Abstract
Flooding control and water pollution abatement have been major problems in the surface water inthe Asian countries including Thailand and Bangladesh. We have conducted field surveys andsecondary data collection to clarify the relationships between domestic wastewater discharge andpollutant load in the river from October to December in 2006. This paper reports summary data
which will be a part of basic data sets for the estimation of pollutant discharge per capita (PDC)and pollutant load per capita flowing into the water body (PLCwb). For the estimation of thepollutant load in the river, river flow fluctuation derived from the tidal level fluctuation was
important to be considered in regards to both water quantity and quality, because the river bed inthese areas are rather flat.

1. Introduction
In the context of the Millennium development goals (MDGs), decreasing the population without
access to safe drinking water and appropriate domestic wastewater treatment facilities wasdetermined as very urgent tasks of the world community. In regards to the efficiency of domestic
investment and overseas development assistance (ODA), it is important to consider and discusson the efforts of stakeholders in the developed countries such as Japan including national andlocal governments, private companies, citizens, fisheries and researchers. Tsuzuki (e.g. 2006b)
proposed pollutant loads per capita flowing into the water body (PLCwb) as an appropriate
indicator of the domestic wastewater contribution to the water pollution in the targeted water
body.

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International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

Figure 1. Rivers and lakes in urban and periurban area of Dhaka, Bangladesh (Original
sources: Maps of Bangladesh (2006),
http://www.bangladeshgov.org/bdmaps/).

Figure 2. Rivers and canals in urban and periurban area of Bangladesh, Thailand (Original
source: PCD (2006) and Thinknet ®).

We have conducted secondary data collection and field survey in regards to pollutant discharge
with domestic wastewater and pollutant load in the rivers, lakes and canals in urban and periurban area of Bangkok, Thailand, and Dhaka, Bangladesh in October, November and December,2006. The purpose of this paper is to present a part of the summary of the secondary data and thefield survey results, in order to make comparison of the situations of domestic wastewater
treatment between Japan, Thailand and Bangladesh. A conceptual proposal for preparation of thecomprehensive basin based domestic wastewater strategies with centralized and decentralized
domestic wastewater treatment system will be presented in the future opportunity based on theseresults. A part of this paper was presented in the International symposium on the ‘Restoration andSustainability of Estuaries and Coastal Lagoons’ in January, 2007, Matsue, Japan.

2. Methods
Secondary information/data collection from documents, papers and web-sites and field surveys
were conducted in regards to water quantity and quality in urban and peri-urban area of Dhaka,Bangladesh (Fig. 1), and Bankok, Thailand (Fig. 2). The Sitalakhya River flows west of108

International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

Narayanganj District, Bangladesh, and flowing into the Dhaleshuari River, which flows into theMegha River at Bandar. The Narayanganj District is one of the highest population density districtin Bangladesh with more than 2,000 person km-2 (Alam ed., 2005). The Chao Phraya River andthe Tha Chin River flow in the central area of Thailand. Pak Kret District (Amphoe) (area: 89.0
km², population: 201,399 person in 2004, population density: 2,296.6 person km-²) was located at
northeast of Notanburi Province (Wikipedia, 2006). Pak Kret Municipality was located in Pak
Kret District as one of the twelve communities (Tambon). Total pollutant discharge and PDC in
the Pak Kret Municipality was estimated from Sinsupan (2004).
From October to December, 2006, field surveys were conducted in the Sitalakhya River and lakes
in Dhaka City, namely, Dhanmondi, Banani and Gulshan Lakes, Bangladesh, and in the Chao
Phraya and the Tha Chin Rivers and the Tamru Canal, Thailand. Water quality was measured witha water quality data logger, Compact-CTD (Alec Electronics, Japan), and water quality
monitoring kits, Pack Test (Kyoritsu, Japan), and laboratory measurements. Parameters measured
with the Compact-CTD were water depth, water temperature, salinity, electricity, EC25
(electricity calibrated at water temperature of 25 ºC), density, sigma-T, chlorophyll-a and turbidity.
Parameters measured with the Pack Test were CODMn and PO4-P.

3. Results and Discussion
Figure 3 shows the water quality measurement results with the Pack Test in the Sitalakhaya Riverand the three lakes, which effectively showed the water quality characteristics in the river andlakes, water quality deterioration near the river side community in the sampling points S2, S3 andS4, and natural purification or dilution in the sampling point S5 were observed. The DhanmondiLakes (D1, D2) was in the residential area and used for recreation of the people, however, Banani(B1, B2) and Gulshan Lakes (G1, G2) were in the office and commercial area. The relatively
lower concentration of the Dhanmondi Lakes might reflect these characteristics of the lakes. The
measurement results with the Compact-CTD in the Sitalakhaya River showed verticalhomogeneity of the water quality measured in this study (Figure 4).
The Pack Test water quality measurement results showed the characteristics of water quality inthe rivers and canals in Thailand also. The simple water quality measurement was considered tobe effective methods especially in the field of community participation. Development of morecost-effective water quality measurement methods might be desirable for these developing
countries.

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International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

120

1000.0995.78CODMn, Pack Test ®

995.76100

100.0
Water temp. (ºC)

Water quality-1

CODMn (mg l )995.7480
60
40

995.7210.0

995.70

Salinity (UNESCO Formula)
EC25 (μS cm-1)
Chlorophyll-a (ppb)

1.0995.68

Turbidity (FTU)
Density (kg m-3)

995.6620

0.1
995.64
0.0

G2

G1

B2

B1

D2

D1-2

D1-1

S5

S4

S3

S2

S1

0

995.62
0.0

2.0

4.0

6.0

8.0

10.0

Depth (m)Sampling point

Figure 3. Water quality measurement resultswith Pack Test ® in the Sitalakhaya River andthe three lakes in Dhaka, Bangladesh.

Figure 4. An example of vertical profiles of water
quality parameters at the sampling point No.4, theSitalakhaya River, Bangladesh.

Table 1. Pollutant discharge from the Pak Kret
Municipality estimated based on the secondary data.
Pollutant discharge

Pollutant

PDC-1

kg daykg person-1 day-1
BOD
11,935
49.2
TN
3,791
15.6
TP
1,530
6.30
Source: calculated by the authors based on Sinsupan (2004).

Total pollutant discharge and PDC of the Pack Kret Municipality was estimated as shown in
Table 1 based on the MFA results (Sinsupan, 2004). Pollutant load in the Chao Phraya River was
estimated with the field survey results of water quality and the flow rate in the secondary data (Table2). Pollutant load differences between the corresponding monitoring points for Pak Kret Municipality
were estimated as 60 – 120 times of the pollutant discharge for BOD and nitrogen. Pollutant
discharge and pollutant load estimation should be further investigated. These results would be basedata for the calculation of PLCwb in the region. The estimated PDC and PLCwb in the Pak Kret.
Municipality would be compared to PDC and PLCwb in Japan (Figure 5).
35
Wastewater treatment plant
Agriculture village wastewater treatment facility
Combined jokaso
Simple jokasoNight soil treatment

PDC (g person-1 day-1)

30
25
20
15
10
5
0
BOD

COD

TN

TP

Water quality parameter

Figure 5. PDC in Japan (Tsuzuki, 2006a).

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Pollutant discharge has been investigated in Thailand especially with MFA methods (e.g.
Sinsupan, 2004). The river water quality including basic parameters including carbon, nitrogen,phosphorus, bacterial pollution, and heavy metals have been monitored periodically by the
Pollution Control Department (PCD) (PCD, 2006a). Water pollution control program by the Thaigovernment has been consisted of 1) wastewater treatment and disposal, 2) waste minimization,3) cleaner production, 4) legal framework, 5) institutional and financial management, 6)
monitoring and enforcement, 7) cooperation with related agencies and local communities, and 8)
river basin management approach (Simachaya, 2000). Integral water resource management(IWRM) has been studied in Thailand (Lekphet et al., 2004). Environmental education program
has been conducted in the drainage area of the Tha Chin River (Thongnopphakun, 2006).
Information dissemination has been conducted by PCD by the web-site (PCD, 2006b). The
results of this research would assist the environmental education and dissemination in regards towater environment in Thailand.
Table 2. Pollutant load in the Chao Phraya River calculated with the field survey results and thesecondary data of flow rate.
Distance from theTOC
TNFlow rateariver mouthkmt day-1
t day-1
m3 s-1
Wat Potongbon
58
1,082
581
117
Wat Tumnuktai
67
955
523
97
Pibulsongkram Bridge
80
784
388
78
a: Lohani et al. (1980); b: CODcal=2.5*TOC; c: BODcal=0.061*CODcal

CODcalb

BODcalc

t day-1
1,500
1,300
970

t day-1
89
80
59

4. Conclusion
Simple water quality measurement with the Pack Test effectively demonstrated the water quality
in the rivers, lakes and canals in Bangladesh and Thailand. Integrated river basin management(IRBM) has been widely advocated among the researchers and governments, and material flux
analysis (MFA) has also been studied. The results of this research would assist the water
environment improvement in the countries.

Acknowledgement
This research was financially supported by Japan Education Center for Environmental Sanitation.
Field surveys were assisted by Ms. Angkhana Intharasawat, Ms. Pannee Boonsiri of AIT, and Mr.
Rana Hasan and Mr. Sumon of BUET.

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References
Alam, MD. Shamsul ed. (2005) Jahan Atlas, A K M Mainuddin, 112p., Dhaka.
Maps of Bangladesh (2006) http://www.bangladeshgov.org/bdmaps/
Lohani, B.N., Thanh, N.C., Muttamara, S., and Liengcharernsit (1980) Mathematicaloptimization model for regional water quality management, AIT, Thailand.
Pollution Control Department (PCD), Thailand (2006a) Thailand state of the pollution report
2004.
Pollution Control Department (PCD), Thailand (2006b) Water quality and management,
http://www.pcd.go.th/info_serv/en_water_wt.html.
Sinsupan, T. (2004) Material flux analysis (MFA) for planning of domestic wastes andwastewater management: case study in Pak Kret Municipality, Nonthaburi, Thailand, AIT Master
Thesis, Bangkok, Thailand.
Simachaya, W. (2000) Water quality management in Thailand, Workshop on “Environmentallysound technology on water quality management”, UNEP, Mekong River Commission.
Lekphet, S., P. Panichayapichet, A. Suwanchoojit, W. Simachaya, and N. Chuersuwan (2004)
Decision Support Model for Integrated Water Resources Management: A case study for the TaChin River, Thailand, Proceedings of the 2nd APHW Conference, Singapore.
Thongnopphakun, D. (2006) We love Thachin Club, International symposium on community
activities for the conservation of water environment – lessons learned from community activities,
Dec. 8, 2006, Bangkok.
Tsuzuki, Y. (2006a) Comparative study of pollutant loads per capita flowing into public water
body, Toward a Sustainable Management of Surface Waters: the 2nd CWR/Japan Symposium,
July 6-8, 2006.
Tsuzuki, Y. (2006b) An index directly indicates land-based pollutant load contributions ofdomestic wastewater to the water pollution and its application, Science of the Total Environment,
370, 425-440.
Wikipedia (2006) Nonthaburi Province, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonthaburi_Province

112International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

Towards a Sustainable Systems Approach in Governing Water Environment
in the Philippines

Carlos M. Pascual
Professor, Department of Agricultural Engineering
Mariano Marcos State University
Batac 2906, Ilocos Norte, Philippines
Email: cmpascual123@yahoo.com

Abstract
This paper presents a critical state-of-the-art review of the policy agenda cum theoretical modelof governing water environment in the Philippines. Systems approaches on water governancemodel propose that transparency, accountability and participation of stakeholders or theirimprovement among water institutions be further strengthened and enhanced to ensure thestability of water governance and policy in the country. There is a need for a transfer of powerfrom national to local water authorities and certainly necessitates the creation of an enabling legal
and policy environment that would enhance and support local initiatives, as well as a continuingresearch agenda on water governance for sustainability.

1. Introduction
The Philippines, although known to have relatively abundant water resources is presently
confronted with disturbing sustainable development crisis in the water sector. Ensuring the longterm availability of adequate supplies of clean water at a reasonable price is one of the greatest
challenges the nation needs to address. Rapid population growth, economic development,
urbanization, and industrialization have taken its toll on the water resources of the country
resulting in an increased competition for water supply, irrigation, and hydropower. Furthermore,increasing water pollution, degradation of the watersheds, and the inadequate government support
to the water sector programs has aggravated the situation. Hence, there is a need for the
implementation an integrated, coherent and sustainable integrated water resources management
program. Water governance is a central issue to these concepts and entails complex issues andfactors. There is a clear need to analyze the impacts of different types of governance of nationaland regional water resources in a global context (Craswell, 2005). Apart from concerns overenergy and oil resources, scientists revealed a global shortage of water would curtail the world's
ability to raise food by 2025. A system approach integrates voluminous database, complex issues,
and analytical modeling methods such as artificial intelligence, decision analysis, optimization,modeling, etc. to support decision making (Aldeman, 1991). Walker & Zhu (2000) listed four
reasons that would justify the development of system approaches decision support system forrural planning and resource management, such as: 1) increase of available information; 2)
increase of complex decision making; 3) professionalization of resource management systems;
and 4) increase of requirements to demonstrate “due process”. However, such system approaches
had been applied mostly on agricultural land use planning options, crop suitability using GIS,
crop modeling, and natural resources management (Lansigan, et al., 2000) and being consideredjust lately in higher education and policy researches.

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2. Water Environment Situation
The Philippines is an archipelago consisting of more than 7000 islands and covering a total areaof 300,000 km2. The average annual rainfall is estimated at 2373 mm/year. There are 421 rivers
in the country. There are also 59 natural lakes and more than 100,000 ha of freshwater swamps.
The groundwater resources are estimated at 180 km3. The total internal water resources would
therefore amount to 479 km3/year. A survey of surface water storage potential has identified sites
for 438 major dams and 423 smaller dams. The total water withdrawal was estimated on the basisof the water rights issued by the National Water Resources Board (NWRB) to 55,422 million m3
in 1995, of which 88% is for agricultural purposes. The water situation in the Philippines may be
best described as an abundant scarcity. There is so much water, but it is scarce for most Filipinos.
Moreover, scarcity has become so widespread that it seems happening most everywhere in the
country. Irrigation service areas have dropped nationwide due to urbanization and drought(Malayang, 2003).

3. Policy Agenda for Water GovernanceOutputs of the policy forum on water resource management in May 2002, revealed three major
themes. This include: (1) there is an alarming water crises; (2) the water crisis, which is caused
by a conjuncture of natural and anthropogenic events and rooted on destructive land-use practices,
is aggravated by a flawed governance system characterized by a soft state (wherein laws areformulated in imprecise terms); and (3) while there is a need to strengthen national laws in orderto address the water crisis, the need to empower local government units (LGUs) and communities
is clearly recognized (PIDS, 2002). Major key problems in water governance were: (a) the failure
to implement the laws and the presence of corruption—the problem of a soft state; and (b) the
absence of mechanisms to operationalize an ecosystems approach and a market-based valuation
technique in water resource governance. At present, the following laws provide the legal
framework for water governance in the country: the 1987 Constitution which mandates that allwater resources belong to the State; Presidential Decree (PD) 1067 in 1976 or The Water Code of
the Philippines; Republic Act (RA) 8041 in 1995 or The Water Crisis Act; and the Executive
Order (EO) 364 in 1996, which created the Presidential Task Force on Water Resources
Development and Management. In this regard, it may be argued that it is necessary to establish ascience-based governance mechanism and support the institutionalization and statutory
recognition in any form of both a watershed approach and a market-based valuation system inwater resource governance. However, legislating for a watershed or market-based approach will
only be effective if it is supported by capacity-building programs inasmuch as the issues involved
here are of technical rather than of legal nature. Water management inevitably involves a twotiered system of governance-national and local. The central government still holds significant
powers in water resources management. In some instances, other sectors such as nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) also influence water policy and management schemes.
However, failure in water governance is eminent due to: (1) failure to implement the laws –‘soft
state’ of governance system; (2) the absence of institutional mechanisms to operationalize
integrated watershed approach; (3) the lack of appreciation of water as an economic good; and (4)the lack of mechanisms that will integrate water and watershed plans and programs of various
agencies (PIDS, 2002). And, just lately, the Clean Water Act was enacted in 2004, with
Implementing Rules and Regulations issued in May 2005. Provisions of the Clean Water Act willsoon open commercial opportunities among various stakeholders.
114International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

4. A Conceptual Model of Water Governance
Water governance is viewed broadly as the collection of social controls on human conduct
relating to water (Malayang, 2003). The controls constitute the deliberate intentions of a bodypolitic to shape the state and conditions of water resources and its availability and services tohumans and to other beings. They are articulated by the decisions and actions of water
institutions which are either formal like state agencies or LGUs or non-formal regulatory
arrangements like customs and tradition. In this view, water governance encompasses the set of
purposive human decisions to bring about actions that are intended to maintain, or alter (if they
are unacceptable, e.g., if polluted), the physical and social components of water resources. These
are the decisions and actions that determine how water resources are able to produce energy,
information and materials for acceptable human ends.
The model (Fig. 1) as expounded by Malayang (2003) is constructed from the following
observations on how decisions and actions on water environment are made in the Philippines:
1. There is a multiplicity of institutions – organizations and regulations – governing water and its
uses in the country; (Malayang, 1999; Magallona & Malayang, 2001 as cited by Malayang,2003);
2. The authority and jurisdiction of water institutions differ in terms of a hierarchy of theircoverage. Some are national while others are regional (or sub-national) and local. Others areglobal which have acquired legal authority in the Philippines through treaty ratification; they, too,affect water decisions and actions in the country;
3. The mandates of the institutions differ. Some are statutory (prescribed by law, and others arecustomary (or are creations of tradition or of local social arrangements, e.g., irrigation
associations); and4. Water institutions differ as well in terms of the societal sectors that they occupy; i.e., some arestate agencies, while others are community or civil society groups (i.e., non-state organizations
like irrigation associations, farmers’ associations, consumer groups, NGOs and peoples’organizations (POs), private business groups (PBGs) and research and academic institutions(RAIs). Some of the latter might have legal personality ascribed to it by the state such as farmers’
associations given water rights under agriculture and fishery, or NGOs and POs given official
capacities in the national planning process like through the Philippine Council for Sustainable
Development (PCSD). Thus, the decisions and actions on water resources in the Philippines arein fact a product of the interplay of multiple institutions operating in different hierarchies ofauthority, and in different societal sectors of decision-making and action taking. It is multi-leveland multi-sectoral. And because the concerns on water may cover a number of issues over its
uses and features, it is multi-thematic as well (i.e., it covers a range of technical, social, economic,
and political concerns on water). The three – hierarchy, sectors, and themes – define a“governance space” where water decisions or actions occur, or which can be located at any given
time (Fig. 1).

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International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

Figure 1. Water governance model in the Philippines. (Source: Malayang, 2003.)

5. Concluding Remarks
Transparency, accountability, and participation are the keys to strengthening water governance in
the Philippines (PIDS 2002). The water governance model suggests that water policy,
management, and governance in the Philippines will likely become more effective and efficient if
they were to be the product of multi-sectoral participation in shaping the decisions and actions on
a wide array of water concerns. Participation is to be anchored on public transparency andaccountability to engender higher levels of legitimacy, public trust and credibility of water
institutions, and thus of water governance itself. Those who own and manage water definitely
have power over those who are deprived of this resource. But if governments fail to redistributewealth and power by protecting local communities and vital water resources from the invasion of
greedy corporations, who can the people rely upon but them. Stronger democratic movements at
different levels that will demand and successfully obtain greater accountability from bothgovernments and private corporations are therefore needed. And at the end of the day, when somany people are dying from lack of access to safe drinking water and sanitation, the struggle forwater has to be transformed into a struggle for a fundamental human right and for being an
economic good. Paradigm shift of research agenda is needed on water resource indicators, quality,
productivity, as well as blue, green water and environmental flows; virtual water and associatednutrient flows, risk assessment on the water systems discourse to integrate natural science andsocial science into system approaches for a sustainable science on water environment (Craswell,2005).

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References
Aldeman, L. (1991). Experiments, quasi-experimental and case studies. A review of empiricalmethods for evaluating decision support systems. IEEE Transaction on Systems, Man andCybernetics 21(2).
Craswell, E.T. (2005). Water and poverty in southeast asia – The research agenda from a global
perspective. A paper presented during the SEARCA Regional Conference on Water Governanceand Poverty, held in Manila, 9-10 March 2005.
Lansigan, F.L., Pascual, C.M., Francisco, S.R. & Cruz, R.T. (2000). Exploring land use option for
the Ilocos Norte Province, Philippines. In: Proceedings on System research for optimizing future
land use in south and southeast asia, IRRI, Laguna, Philippines.
Magallona, M. and B. S. Malayang III. 2001. “Environmental Governance in the Philippines” inEnvironmental Governance in Southeast Asia, Institute of Global Environmental Strategies,
Tokyo, Japan.
Malayang, B.S. (1999).“Environmental Co-Management in the Philippines: A Policy Challenge
from the Perspective of Political Ecology” In: Co-Managing the Environment: The Natural
Resources of the Sierra Madre Mountain Range. Ellen Bernardo and Denyse Snelder (eds.).
Cagayan Valley Programme on Environment & Development and PLAN International.
Malayang, B.S. (2003). A model of water governance in the Philippines. Paper Presented at theWater Policy Forum, Philippine Institute for Development Studies (PIDS), 28 May 2002, PIDS
Room 208, Makati, Philippines.
Walker, D.H. & Chu, X. (2000). Decision support for rural resource management. In: Workshop
Proceedings “Deepening the basis of rural resource management”, February 2000, ISNAR, The
Hague, The Netherlands.
PIDS (2002). Development Research News. Philippine Development Studies, vol. 20 No. 4. JulyAugust 2002. ISSN. 0115-9097. pp. 1-7.

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International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

Watershed Management and Implementation of Total Pollution Load Management System(TPLMS) for Water in Korea

Hyun-Joo Moon
Korea Environment Institute

Abstract
Korea launched new national water quality improvement initiatives implementing watershedmanagement and total pollution load management system (TPLMS). This paper summarizes
these changes of water pollution management policy in Korea and implementation of TPLMS
with discussion of the difficulties encountered in implementation. These Korean experiences canprovide benchmarking references for the other Asian countries.

1. Water Pollution Management Policy in Korea
Water management policy in Korea mainly focused on the water resource development to support
the increased water demands until 1980s. Management focus was shifted to water quality control
and major investments were made to construct public owned treatment facilities since late 1980s.
However, improvements of water qualities particularly in major reservoirs were not sosatisfactory because of the limitation of end-of-pipe approaches, difficulties in pollution source
control, resident’s resistance on tighter regulations, and upstream- downstream conflicts onenvironmental regulations.
Korean government launched new national water quality improvement initiatives so called‘Comprehensive Water Management Measures for the Four Major River Basins (hereafter
Comprehensive Water Management Plan, CWMP)’ to effectively deal with such problems.
Implementation of the CWMP is legally supported by the 'Acts Relating to Water Resources
Management and Community Support for the Four Major River Basins (hereafter, 'Special Acts')'.
New watershed-based management schemes those have been introduced and evolved in theestablishment and implementation processes of the CWMP are briefly summarized in following
table.

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Table 1. The Changes of Water Quality Management Schemes
Conventional Policy
Watershed-based Policy
By Water Quality Preservation Act
By Special Acts
Riparian Buffer Zone
Special Measure Zone
Land Purchase System
Water Quality Criteria & Effluent
Total Pollution Load Management System
Standard
Emission Charge⇒ Water Use Charge, TPL Excess Charge
Support for Water Source Protection
Area

Financial Supports for Water Source Area
Support for Civilian Water Quality
Monitoring Activities
River Basin Management Committee

2. Establishment of Watershed Management System in Korea
In the course of reforming the government's water quality policy for the five years, Korean
government was challenged by severe resistance by the community people, self-governing bodies
and civilian groups in the upper and downstream regions. As a result, the government established
its planned watershed management system, following a number of difficult processes, such asconvincing the residents of its need for such a system through more than 420 public hearings,
explanatory meetings and panels.
The process of taking the special measures for four major rivers, which commenced in 1998, issignificant in terms of the history of Korean environmental policy. Such measures are not just an
administrative program by which some projects are developed and thereby investment is made as
set forth by related laws, but involves a task to establish the "watershed management system"
based on thorough analysis of its previous measures for water quality management. That is, thespecial measures for four major rivers are related to a reform program reflecting the conceptionof the nation's 21st century water management policy, as well as a blueprint for passing theSpecial Act on four major rivers.
Specially, in the course of establishing such measures, the government daringly abandoned its
previous bureaucratically administrative practices which have been controlled by the central
government, and had heart-to-heart discussions and debates with the residents in watershedregions. Based on the agreements with such community people, the government successfully
established the watershed management system for four major rivers. This is deemed to be a
victory achieved as a result of its hard efforts made for the five years (1998~2002) in order toaccomplish its objective, the 'transformation into a watershed management system'. The
following is the key contents adopted in taking the special measures for four major rivers.

119International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok•
The measures are based on the discussions and agreements between the residents in theupper and downstream regions. The residents in the upper stream regions are not allowed todevelop water or land resources unlimitedly without considering the situation of the residents inthe downstream regions, whereas the residents in the downstream regions should not require
overly heavy restrictions be placed upon the upper stream regions because of their own
environmental needs. The primary principle was that reaching a compromise should be based on
the agreements between the parties involved.
•
By grafting the 'user pay principle' on the measures, the government introduced the wateruse charge system'. This enabled the residents in each watershed region to secure their own funds
required for watershed management, helping resolve the equity problem occurring between the
restricted zones and the non-restricted zones.
•
Introduced the buffer zone system and the total pollution load management system whichbecome an effective measures for watershed management. This ensured a systematic basis forundertaking scientific and reasonable watershed management measures.
•Founded the ‘basin management committee’ as a decision-making body, and the‘watershed environment office’ as an executive body for watershed management. This ensured
effectiveness in the government's policy-making process and the strength of its executive system.
•
The measures four major rivers created a community culture built based on enhanced
community participation in debates, discussions and agreements with the government from the
beginning stage - an underlying element of watershed management. That is, such measures
helped form a frame for the ‘co-prosperity of upper and down stream regions’ through suchreasonable debates, discussions and agreements between the members of each watershed - selfgoverning bodies, community people and civilian groups.

3. Implementation of Total Pollution Load Management System (TPLMS)
Total Pollution Load Management System (TPLMS) has been introduced for efficient regional
environmental management coping with the limitations of present water quality management
policies. TPLMS for Water involves determining the target water quality standard for each blockof the water systems, computing the maximum allowable load, and regulating or controlling theamount of pollutants discharged from the region within the maximum permissible load. Thissystem is expected to help achieve a balance of preservation and development of a region bypermitting regional development necessary solely within the extent in which the target level ofwater quality is attainable. It is just introduced and in the stage of implementation in four main
watershed in Korea.
Korea's total pollution load management system discriminates Han River basin from the otherthree river basins. In the case of the Han River basin, regional governments may implement the
TPLM voluntary bases, whereas for the other three river basins (Nakdong River, Geum River andYeongsan River) should a regional government fail to meet its target water quality level, theimplementation of TPLM is compulsory.

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International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

Minister's orders for the total
pollution load management

Established by the Ministry of Environment↓
Determining the target water quality Announced by the Ministry of Environment / the mayor oflevel
implemented city or county↓
Approval of the master plan
for TPLM

Review of TPLM by the investigation & research teamApproval by the Minister of MOE↓
Approval of the action plan prepared
Review of TPLM by the investigation & research teamby the implemented city or county Approval by the provincial government / Approval by the(Gun)
Watershed Environmental Office↓
Pubic level
Promoting pollution reduction measures

Civilian level
Promoting pollution reduction measures• Installation or improvement of sewage treatment
facilities• Building construction restrictions• Allocating pollution load quotas to public treatment
facilities

Allocating pollution or discharge quotas to each polluter↓
Sanction taken against non-compliances• Non-compliance charge• Order of improvement• Suspension of business, or order of closure• Financial penalties

Submission of an assessment report(by the mayor of implemented city or county)
Review of the assessment report(by the head of the Watershed Environmental Office)Submission of a performance assessment report↓
Target reduction amount
Sanctions taken against non-compliances
Restricted approval and permission with respect to:
1. Operation of an urban development project
2. Development of an industrial complex
3. Development of a tourist resort or complex
4. Projects requiring prior discussions according to the law

Figure 1. Implementation Process of Total Pollution Load Management.

4. Difficulties Encountered and Settlement of TPLM in Korea
4.1 Institutional Issues
Lack of incentive under voluntary implementation scheme. In case of Han River basin, TPLM
implemented with voluntary scheme confronting residents’ objection due to overlapped
regulations such as Source Water Protection Zone, Special Management Region and Natural
Environmental Preservation Area. Although voluntary scheme is the ideal policy in case of121

International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

successful implementation, it can encounter the implementation barriers as follow. The incentive
system for inducing voluntary TPLM is not enough to induce TPLM directly. Therefore, theMinistry of Environment (ME) motivated local government with indirect pressure such as
restriction on swage treatment facility permission, EIA and so on. Local governments tend to beforced to implement voluntary TPLM.
Also, as local governments, city and municipal authorities, take charge of implementation plan of
TPLM, it can be hard to consider comprehensive measure to improve water quality of wholewatershed area. For instance, if a municipality located in upper stream doesn’t plan TPLM
implementation, TPLM implementation plan of the down stream municipality might not beeffective. In order to effective implementation of TPLM, it needs comprehensive plan reflecting
on whole watershed areas.
The aim and approach to TPLM of local government differ from that of ME. Local governments
intend to implement TPLM for developing their area more within legal basis, on the other handME pursue comprehensive watershed management for actual water quality improvement.
Therefore, there are conflicts of interest in setting of target water quality for TPLM and it’s
implementation between ME and regional government as well as between regions, and these can
induce the difficulties in TPLM implementation.
Lack of capacity prevents local government from implementing TPLM actively. Local government
officers are likely to delay the implementation of TPLM by temporal impediment of plan or
setback of permission. This is not only because they are deficient in experiences also because
TPLM is directly connected with their local development. Also, Regional difference ininstitutional and financial capacity of regional government can result in differences in
implementation, and undesirable side effects in some region.
Differences in regional implementation conditions. Differences of environmental management
condition in each region including socio-economic factors affect the performance and effect of
TPLMS implementation. Uniform implementation of TPLMS disregarding difference in regional
pollution reduction cost can result in social cost-inefficiency and regional inequity. Also, there is
the lack of data and information for those affecting factors and conditions in each region as wellas the behavioral and strategic changes in pollution management of regional polluters under
TPLMS. Establishment of systematic approach for efficient pollution reduction in the region(cost-benefit analysis of each reduction methods, establishing optimal mix of pollution
management methods, etc) as well as capacity building of local government are required.
4.2 Technical Issues
Besides institutional problems, there are technical issues such as estimating total pollution load,
determining target water quality standard and allocating pollution load quotas.
First, TPLM requires accurate information on pollutant source and pollutant load in order toestimate management object, BOD. However, there are short of precise information on pollutant
load and source and it can cause uncertainty. It is not easy to build up the confidential data suchas water-purifier tanks, underground water and unreported pollution discharge facilities. Most of
all estimating non-point source is the hardest part to estimate pollution load. Current measure to122International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

estimate non-point source is deficient in that it does not reflect characteristic of storm water.
Second difficulty is to targeting water quality standards. Lack of frequent monitoring, insufficientnumber of monitoring points and large change of flow can be the fundamental limitation todetermine target water quality standards. Current monitoring information has limitations forusing as data for TPLM.
Allocating pollution load quotas is the problem to be solved. Due to lack of institutional scheme,
pollution load cannot be allocated into individual pollutant charging facilities. It is allocated only
large-scaled pollution charging facilities rather than all of the small and medium sized facilities.
Moreover, considering whole watershed, and allocation pollutant load can cause the conflictamong local authorities. Even though allocation pollutant load has legal basis based on three
Major River Special law including regulation and sanction measures, it is needed to be more
realistic in the process of planning TPLM.
5. Implications of Korean Experiences to Asian Countries
Based on Korean experiences, the following can provide the implication to environmental
management in order to achieve integrated and effective management of watersheds.
5.1 Effective Problem Solving by Adapting Watershed Management System
Since the watersheds mirror natural water flows, they provide a most reasonable foundation in
managing water resources. Up to the present point, the Korean government's programs regarding
the improvement of water quality have been focused on point-pollution sources or someparticular waters including downstream regions or marshes. Such an approach may turn out to be
successful in resolving some particular problems, but it is not effective in resolving the chronic
problems which cause deterioration of water quality. The watershed management method canprovide more accurate data & information necessary to find many stressors impacting the water
resources, and such an information will help make decisions in taking measures necessary toconserve and restore given resources. Thus, the integrated watershed management system will
ensure effective resolution of the water resource problem by taking all of such stressors into
consideration to achieve reasonable allocation of water resources.
TPLM for water is based on a basin or watershed management system. In many Asian countries awatershed management system is not adopted yet. For effective environmental management, thetransition to a watershed management system is necessary. The U.S. and the EU, like many other
Asian countries, are characterized by the fact that administrative borders do not coincide withriver basins, so considerable attention was paid to shared water resources issues. There is a strong
need for integrated and sustainable water resources management to be implemented on the river
basin scale, the natural unit of hydrology. These countries have created highly effective andresilient institutions for integrated river basin management.
5.2 Promotion of the Residents' Participation
The watershed management system can enhance the residents' awareness and support effectively.
Once individual residents become concerned about their own watershed, they will not only
participate in the government's conservation and restoration programs for such a watershed, butalso become interested in the government's priorities and decisions regarding important matters.
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As such, the watershed management system helps build such a participatory community, reducecomplications, and induce the agreements between related parties necessary in taking measuresrequired to accomplish the nation's environmental goals. This will further enhance the potential
for the success of the government's environmental programs.
5.3 Active Development of Deregulated Environmental Management Plan
In addition to the conventional EM system, including land restrictions and installation of basic
environmental facilities, implementing TPLM should be accompanied by the active developmentof a deregulated EM plan—such as environmentally friendly living patterns and environmentallyfriendly management of farmhouses and stables. A special focus should be on the emerging
problem of non-point sources of water pollution. All sectors need to focus on minimizing theimpact of non-point sources, beginning with the planning stage in developing water quality
management programs and including developing training programs, establishing aquatic buffers
and better site design, implementing erosion and sediment control projects, and installing BMP(Best Management Practices) facilities to reduce non-point sources.
5.4 Solving possible difficulties of TPLM implementation
As the experience in the United States, Japan, and Korea has shown, implementing TPLM canencounter both institutional and technical challenges. For example, local governments lack
incentives to implement TPLM. Since TPLM is directly connected with regional development,
some conflicts of interest can arise. In Korea, local governments tended to focus on complying
with the legal regulations of implementing TPLM, while the central government pursued
comprehensive watershed management for actual water quality improvement. It is important toestablish schemes to induce the active participation of local governments. Another institutional
challenge is the lack of local government capacity for TPLM implementation. Providing
education programs for local government officials and workshops for public awareness can help
solve this problem. In terms of technical issues, the lack of precise information on pollutant loads
and sources can cause uncertainty. A TPLM committee for watershed management in eachwatershed can help resolve these conflicts and technical problems.
Capacity building for implementation of TPLMS and reduction of administrative cost are also
important. Information provision for cost-effect pollution reduction, support of expertise forselection and implementation of optimal pollution reduction strategies, and provision of regional
capacity building program are recommendable.

References
Korea Ministry of Environment (2006), Environmental White Paper 2006.
Moon H. (2005). Regional Environmental Management with Total Pollution Load Management
System, Korea Environment Institute.
Shin C., et. al. (2005). Impact Assessment of Conflicts in Compulsory Implementation of TPLMS
in Han-River Basin, Korea Ministry of Environment.
http://tmdl.nier.go.kr/

124International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

Water Levy as Financing Scheme for Watershed Protection – A City Government
Initiative to Rehabilitate the Baticulan Watershed, Philippines

Grace B. Villamor and Rodel D. Lasco
World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF) – Philippines
gvillamor@cgiar.org

Abstract
Due to the government failures in conserving the environment in the past, the question ofwhether they could still play important roles in protecting the critical watersheds is achallenge. This paper presents a case study in the Philippines where city government played
an important role in developing financing scheme to rehabilitate their denuded watershedthrough water levy. Its key actors and its roles are identified and described. A sample of apilot utilization of the proceeds for watershed protection is presented. Lessons learned fromthe case study gives future perspective for the government to play major role in the watershed
protection.

1. Introduction
In the Philippines, the general public is aware of the problems on reduced water availability,
severe shortages, or deteriorating water quality and uncertain future water supplies (Bautista,2005). The watershed degradation poses threat to the country’s economy, affecting
livelihoods of the many rural households for their farming and forestry activities.
Watershed functions are considered to be the first environmental service functions that has
been recognized for payments due to immediate relevance for the people (van Noordwijk,
2005). It is no doubt that markets for forest watershed services whilst not well documented
are now widely used to improve forest management, reforestation and forest protection(Landell-Mills and Porras, 2002). This paper presents the city government initiative thru
water ordinance to secure financing the watershed rehabilitation. This focuses the main actors
and its roles in the development and financing the rehabilitation activities.

2. Study Site
The Baticulan watershed is located within the boundary of San Carlos City at the northeasternside of Negros Island in the Philippines. It lies between the towns of Palampas and Rizal,
covering a total of 428 hectares. Part of the main Mandalagan Watershed, it is one of the six
main water sources that supplies for both domestic and agricultural use in and around the city.
Historically, the whole of Negros Island was naturally covered with rainforest, however due tomassive logging during the 1950s and 60s, and continuous shifting cultivation, its originalnatural vegetation coverage has reached below five percent. Currently, the watershed ismostly farmed using shifting cultivation. Ten percent of the whole area is public land while
the rest is privately owned. Both past and current land use practices have resulted in serious
soil erosion, flooding particularly during the rainy seasons and degradation of agricultural
land.

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In spite of these conditions, San Carlos City is still a booming city with more than 120,000
inhabitants. Its strategic location in the region makes it an appropriate industrial andinfrastructure development zone. Because of its growing population, domestic and industrial
water demands are high. Inhabitants are concerned that water supply will be a scarce resourcein the future. To meet the economic growth of the city, the City government developed ascheme to rehabilitate the denuded watershed.

3. Water Levy – Government Initiative
The widespread degradation in the upland has urged the City Government of San Carlos toincorporate in the City Ordinance No.37 Series of 2004 “An ordinance regulating theoperation of the City Waterworks of the City of San Carlos, Negros Occidental and creating
the Watershed Development and Protection Fund, and for other related purposes.” It is a
special levy for environmental fee of =P 0.75 on every cubic meter of water billed. The
proceeds will go to a special account known as the “Watershed Development andEnvironmental Protection Fund” which supports the implementation of the Master
Development Plan (MDP) of the City.
The concept of this fund is that inherent Article X.
with the use of water are the negative Watershed development & Environmental
externalities incurred in the production Protection Fundand consumption of water. The price ofwater should include the cost of Section 1. Environmental Fee. A special levy
externalities to address the negative of P.0.75 on every cubic meter of water billed
impacts on the environment. It is shall be set aside as Environmental Fee. Thisestimated that the budget allocation per amount shall already be included in theyear for the project is approximately 1.2 restructured water rates imposed on the
million pesos. After a year, the consumers.
ordinance took effect.
Other features of the Ordinance include the provision of drilling or construction of artesian
well and deep well for domestic use as well as spring.

4. Key Actors
The actors of a given landscape are the persons who have direct influence to the conditions ina certain landscape (van Noordwijk, 2005). It is really important to identify the key actors forpossible replication in sites where similar conditions apply. There were four (4) major actors
in the development of water levy till the implementation of rehabilitation and protection
activities (Table 1). These actors have their specific roles and functions and success would
rely on them.

5. The Implementation
The local water consumers (include the households, local industrial firms, and small-scale
farmers) are paying 0.75 pesos per cubic meter of water used. Then, the City waterworks
department (CWD) automatically deducts the environmental fee and placed into the special
account. Section 3 of the ordinance specify the disbursement of environmental fee that funds
accrued in the Watershed Development and Environmental Fund can only be disbursed inconformity with the Implementing Rules and Regulations governing the said funds to be126

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submitted by the City Waterworks Department and approved by the Sanggunian.
Under the Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) between the City Government of San
Carlos and the San Carlos Development Board, Inc (SCDBI), the SCDBI has the
responsibility to leverage the said funds for watershed rehabilitation. Among the otherobligations of the SCBDI are - to develop a detailed comprehensive plan on identified
watersheds within the City; to negotiate with the stakeholders and establish a legal frameworkthat will be mutually beneficial; and to provide a multi-year watershed rehabilitation andconservation plan as well as its responsibility of realization of the plans.
Table 1. Actors and roles or functions in the ES transfer of rewards in Baticulan Watershed.
ActorsUpland communities-

Private land owners-

City Government or Local
Government Units (LGUs)--

San Carlos Development Board
Inc. (SCDBI)-

Households, domestic water
users, private individuals

-

Roles
Tenants of the private lands around the Baticulan
Watershed; most of them are migrants fromneighboring provinces. Cultivating the landthrough planting root crops and bananas.
Own around 90% of the whole watershed. Allow
their tenants to oversee and/or cultivate theirrespective lands. Most of the landowners areliving in the downstream of the watersheds.
Government body whose activities are towards
the welfare of the local people and the policy anddecision makers in the area.
Initiated the policy framework (Ordinance) thatwill allow financing the watershed rehabilitation
through water levy.
A multi-sector-represented non-stock, non-profit,
and non-government business organization thatwas given the task to utilize the special fund forwatershed protection activities.
Water users who pays environmental fee (0.75
pesos/cubic meter of water bill) for clean / regularwater used for hygiene, drinking, domestic
activities and recreation.

The SCBDI currently prepares development plans that establish protection forest, andvegetable and mango orchards on the degraded private lots. Because of the upland people
living in the watershed areas, additional activities include community organizing, landuse
mapping and zoning. Their target is to have at least 40% reforestation.
The upland farmers in the watershed are the laborers in the watershed rehabilitation activities.
For a period of three (3) years, they are hired by the landowner to plant and maintain trees.
Depending on the negotiation, the landowner will set a portion of his land to be cultivated by
the upland farmer for his own cash crops. Because of this, the SCBDI provides assistance tolandowners to prepare an agroforestry management plan, where upland farmers could
continues to apply agricultural cropping systems.

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Box 2. The Pilot Test
Recently, the SCBDI accomplished the reforestation of the watershed of one lot owner(Figure 1). The lot, which has a total area of 3.81 ha, was divided into 4 management
units. Each unit has its own respective development plans depending on the area, slope,soil type and existing structures and vegetation. There are at 3 management types
implemented in the said site including protection forest, production forest and belt areas
where strips of fruit trees are planted. As of 2005, a total of 7,014 seedlings of indigenous
and fast growing species where planted. During the reforestation activity, the uplandcommunities were given the priority to work as laborers.

Figure 1. Management map of a landowner to be rehabilitated.

To better utilize the fund generated from the water levy, through the leadership of the City
Government, a Rapid Hydrological Assessment (RHA) training of the local agencies was
conducted. It was participated by different stakeholders of the watershed. With this, thestakeholders would better understand the characteristic of their own watershed.
With the City Government and SCBDI, the Genesys Foundation, a local non-governmentorganization in the area, nominated the Baticulan Watershed to be a learning site of the
Rewarding Upland Poor for Environmental Services programme (RUPES). In 2005, it was
granted and become a learning site for the institutional study on enabling conditions forpayment for environmental services (PES).

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6. Lessons learned and Challenges:
The following are the lessons learned from the case study presented:• The initiative shown by the government attracted other players in this case the SCBDI
and the Genesys Foundation to come in and do their part. Basically, the government
could not do everything alone, but with its initiative especially when the one taking thelead has the mandate to protect the environment then others will take part. The
leadership and openness of the government could be seen as political investment forthis case.
• The upland people living in the watershed have no rights to the land since they are
tenants. This situation could be traced back during the Spanish colonialization in the
country. The landlord-tenants relationship is prevalently operating till today. They arepoor in terms of human capital such as no political voice and no employment available.
Because of this, the role of the government is seen significant.
• Financing schemes to rehabilitate the denuded watersheds like water levy are craftedto address critical threats on the scarce resources. The government used their authorityand position to develop new financing not previously availed for conservation.
This financing scheme is now being replicated in some other parts of the country. It isimperative to identify the different actors and its roles for future studies. In this case study, thegovernment initiative has an important role in the development of financing scheme for the
rehabilitation of the watershed. This is just one of the approaches on watershed protection andis at an infantile stage. The questions such as “are all the water consumers/users properly
consulted and well informed? Is there a monitoring body in placed to make sure the funds arewisely used? Is watershed rehabilitation the best solution to address water scarcity?” are yet
to be answered.

References
Bautista, G. 2005. Water and a payment system for environmental services. In Padilla, JE, EE
Tongson, and RD Lasco. 2005. PES: Sustainable Financing for Conservation and Development.
Proc from the National Conference-Workshop on Payments for Environmental Services: Direct
Incentives for Biodiversity Conservation and Poverty Alleviation. 1-2 March 2005. WWF,ICRAF, REECS, UP-CIDS, UPLB-ENFOR, CARE. pp. 34-49
Landell-Mills, N and Porras, T.I. 2002. Silver bullet or fools’ gold? A global review ofmarkets for forest environmental services and their impact on the poor. Instruments forsustainable private sector forestry series. International Institute for Environment andDevelopment, London.
van Noordwijk, M. 2005. RUPES typology of environmental services worthy of reward.
RUPES Working Paper. http://www.worldagroforestry.org/sea/Networks/RUPES/
download/Working%20Paper/RUPES_Typology.pdf
van Noordwijk, M., F.J. Chandler & T.P. Tomich, 2004. An introduction to the conceptualbasis of RUPES: rewarding upland poor for the environmental services they provide. ICRAFSoutheast Asia, Bogor.

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International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

Low-Cost Innovative Solutions for Treating Public Market Wastewater in thePhilippines: Deploying Hybrid Anaerobic/Aerobic Cocopeat Filtration Systems
Carlito Santos, Jr.1, PE, David M. Robbins2, R.S.
1

Sanitary Engineer LINAW – Philippines – clsantos41@yahoo.com
Water & Sanitation Advisor, ECO-Asia – drobbins@eco-asia.org.ph
PADCO, Suite 4022, Golden Rock Building, 168 Salcedo Street, Legaspi Village, Makati City, Philippines
2

Abstract
Public markets in the Philippines and around Asia pose significant challenges for wastewater
treatment due to the relatively high strength of the discharges and variability of flows. The
Muntinlupa Public Market, located in Muntinlupa City in the southern part of Metro Manila,
is one of the largest public markets in the metropolitan area with 1,448 stalls and 24 hours a
day operation. With support from the U.S. Agency for International Development forplanning and design, the city constructed a treatment facility which began operating in
February 2006. The wastewater treatment system is an innovative combination of anaerobic
and aerobic treatment coupled with filtration using cocopeat media to meet local discharge
standards. It also includes a water recycling system that will allow re-use of the treatedeffluent for flushing toilets, watering plants and street cleaning. This technology is being
applied elsewhere in the Philippines and is suitable for other locations in the region.

1. Market Wastewater
Wastewater from public markets is generated from distinct sources and activities. These
include:••••Meat, poultry, fish preparation and sales
Fruit and vegetable (produce) sales
Prepared food stalls
Public restrooms

When combined into a common outfall, the resulting wastewater mixture typically contains
high levels of organic material, suspended solids, fats, oils and grease. It commonly contains
two to three times the organic matter and solids typically found in residential wastewater,classifying market sources as “high strength.”
To effectively manage high-strength wastewater, treatment infrastructure must be designed
and sized not only to address hydraulic loading in terms of volume (cubic meters per day), butalso organic loading, which is expressed in terms of kilograms of BOD (Biochemical Oxygen
Demand) per day, and solids loading, which is expressed in terms of Total Suspended Solids(TSS). Additionally, appropriate pre-treatment devices are required to remove fats, oils andgrease from prepared food stalls, and the high percentage of solids associated with butcheringand produce preparation and sales activities. Such devices typically include septic tanks,
grease interceptors, grit chambers and bar screens.

130International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

2. Design Considerations
When the Muntinlupa Public Market Wastewater Treatment Facility was designed, the market
had 1,448 stalls with approximately 4,800 active vendors and workers and an average of
4,500 daily customers. The average wastewater output was a flow of 210 cubic meters ofsewage per day with a BOD of approximately 600 milligrams per liter (mg/L). Suspended
solids and fats, oil and grease were also quite high. The discharge outfall flowed to the
Alabang River which drains into Laguna Lake, an important fishery and future water supply
for Metro Manila. The discharge limit into Laguna Lake was 50 mg/L BOD.
3. Site Specific Challenges
Developing an effective wastewater management strategy for the Muntinlupa Public Market
required careful consideration and planning to overcome several site-specific constraints:•••

Limited available space for wastewater treatment infrastructure. The identified site for thewastewater system was limited to 160 square meters and was used as a parking lot anddelivery area.
Relative elevation of the outfall in relation to the area designated for treatment
Unconsolidated and unstable fill material containing garbage in the treatment area alongwith seasonally saturated soils

Perhaps the most innovative aspect of the Muntinlupa Public Market wastewater system isthat the treatment facility is located entirely underneath the area designated for parking anddeliveries. The ability to contain the wastewater system underneath the parking lot was thedriving factor in selecting the treatment technology. In order to accomplish this, the main
reactor tank was designed by a structural engineer to withstand the heavy loads from cars anddelivery trucks that utilize the parking area. The resulting tank lid is a slab of concrete andsteel 15 centimeters thick.
Developing the sewer system was also a challenge as the relatively low elevation of the outlet
required that wastewater be pumped up to the inlet of the treatment system. This required theinstallation of a pump tank with trash screening and duplexing pumps. While raw wastewater
pumping systems are common in sewage treatment, this component added significantly tocapital expenditures and operation and maintenance (O&M) costs that were not anticipatedduring the initial project planning for the system.
Finally, installing the site-built tankage in an area of unconsolidated fill and trash was achallenge in both excavation and worker safety. Pouring concrete for the main tank requiredthat the soils underlying the tank be compacted and stabilized prior to construction.
Additionally, these unstable soil conditions resulted in the need for shoring to protect workers
during the initial installation activities for the tank.
4. Technology Selection
The Muntinlupa Public Market Wastewater Treatment Facility use a combination oftechnologies including an anaerobic baffled reactor (ABR), sequencing batch reactor (SBR)
and cocopeat filtration system to treat the wastewater to discharge standards. This
combination of technologies was chosen for the following reasons:•

ABR technology is an effective and low-cost method of reducing BOD and TSS fromhigh-strength wastewater.
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International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok•••

The ABR tank could be built onsite with a structural top cover designed to support theweight of delivery trucks that frequent the parking area.
The SBR technology is a proven low-cost method of oxygenating anaerobic effluent to
reduce BOD and the odors typically associated with anaerobic treatment.
Cocopeat is a locally available waste byproduct that has shown potential as a biologicalfiltration medium for wastewater effluent.

Other technologies effective in treating high-strength wastewater were considered for use inthis project but were rejected for the following reasons:
1. Sewage lagoons – require a relatively large land area that was not available at this site.
2. Constructed wetlands – also requires a large land area and additional pre-treatment
devices.
3. Activated sludge - high installation and O&M costs and could not be effectively
installed below the parking area.
4. Trickling Filter – high installation and O&M costs and could not be effectively
installed below the parking area.
The table below summarizes the technologies considered, approximate cost, anticipated O&M
expenses and land area requirements:
Technology

Capital
Cost

O&M/Month

Land
Requirements

ABR/SBR Hybrid$140,000$500

150 sq. meters

Selected

Lagoon$80,000$175

2000 sq. meters

Space constraint

ConstructedWetlands$120,000$175

1500 sq. meters

Space constraint

Activated Sludge$200,000$700

150 sq. meters

Trickling Filter$200,000$700

150 sq. meters

Remarks

Cost and couldn’t
keep parking lot
Cost and couldn’t
keep parking lot

5. The Hybrid System: How it Functions
There were several discrete components to the Muntinlupa Public Market wastewater system.
They are described below:
Sewer Collection System - Wastewater from the market’s wet section (meat, fish, produce) iscollected and screened, then combined with flows from the public toilets and prepared foodstalls in a gravity sewer that flows to a pump tank where two alternating pumps (duplexing)
are installed. The screenings are placed in covered receptacles and removed as solid waste
weekly.
Anaerobic Baffled Reactor – The screened wastewater enters the ABR tank through the inlet
structure, which directs the flow to the bottom of the first compartment. Due to the nature ofwastewater under anaerobic conditions, a granulated sludge blanket is formed. As thewastewater flows up through the sludge blanket, the solids are trapped in the granulated
sludge blanket where anaerobic bacteria consume the organics as food. The result is that a132

International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

partially clarified effluent flows up over the baffle to the next compartment where the sameaction is performed. In each subsequent compartment, the effluent is clarified further until the
final compartment in which the anaerobic effluent is relatively free of suspended solids andthe BOD level is greatly reduced. Because raw wastewater is delivered to the ABR underpressure, low volume pumps were required so the overflow rate did not exceed the settlingrate of the sludge blanket.
Profile and plan views of the Anaerobic Baffled Reactor system

Sequencing Batch Reactor – Connected to the ABR is an aeration chamber with coarse bubble
diffusers designed to impart dissolved oxygen to the effluent prior to discharge. The SBR iscontrolled by a process logic controller (PLC) that first aerates, then settles the wastewater
under quiescent conditions, and finally discharges the supernatant to the media filtration
system. The discharge structure is at a preset level and connected to a lamella clarifier, which
is a settling tank with inclined plates to further reduce suspended solids. Due to funding
constraints, only one blower is used to deliver atmospheric oxygen under pressure through the
network of diffusers placed at the bottom of the aeration tank. Ideally, two blowers would be
used and controlled by an alternating control panel equipped with an alarm that indicates if
there is a malfunction.
To reduce foul odors, the aeration chamber is equipped with a simple venting systemcomposed of a 4 inch PVC pipe with an exhaust fan, also controlled by the PLC, which
extends to the roof level of a nearby building. There is a plan to use an activated carbon vent
stack cover should the need for enhanced odor control ever arise.
Cocopeat Media Filtration – Cocopeat is a waste product of the coconut producing industry.
It is obtained by shredding the coconut shell and removing the coir fibers. The remaining
cocopeat is dried and then layered in a lined box with an effluent distribution piping network
on top. Effluent is pumped from the aeration chamber through the piping network anddistributed to the cocopeat through small holes drilled into the pipe. The pressure system iscontrolled by a timer that sends intermittent doses of effluent through the pipe. As theeffluent flows through the cocopeat media, the downward flow draws atmospheric oxygen
into the pore spaces in the media. This naturally aerated media filtration system provides ahighly treated and polished effluent suitable for reuse.

133International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

Muntinlupa Public Market Wastewater Treatment System Flow (“Hybrid Design System”)
COCOPEATIRRIGATION/PLANT BOX

TOILETSWETSECTION OF
MARKET& FOODAREA

ANAEROBIC BAFFLED
REACTOR + UPFLOWFILTERAERATION
TANK
(SBR)

CLARIFIERDISINFECTIONCHAMBER
MULTIMEDIAFILTERDISCHARGE(Alabang River)

RE-USE* Street
Cleaning* Fire* Toilets

6. Effluent Reuse
Effluent from the Muntinlupa Public Market is disinfected so that it will be suitable for reuse
and recycling for the public toilets, floor washing and dust control. To accomplish
disinfection, effluent passes through a chlorination chamber where a liquid chlorine solution
is mixed with the treated effluent to impart a chlorine residual to the wastewater. Chlorinatedeffluent is then pumped to a storage pressure tank where it receives the appropriate chlorine
contact time to ensure full disinfection and is available for reuse on a demand basis.
7. Financing
The full cost to construct the wastewater system was 6.8 million pesos (approximately
US$136,000). During the first year of operations, O&M costs for operations staff, electricity,
repair parts and consumables were approximately 27,000 pesos per month ($540). The reuseof the treated effluent resulted in a savings of 15,000 pesos per month ($300) in electricity
costs because less water needed to be pumped from underground. This partially offset the
O&M costs. To recoup the capital costs of the system, the City has implemented a full cost
recovery plan in which stall owners are charged a user fee of 5 pesos ($0.10) per day per stall.
This will cover the O&M costs and result in full cost recovery in approximately 3 years. The
user fee has been collected since June 2006 and there have been no complaints, presumably
because the market is well run and the project has been thoroughly discussed with the market
vendor association.
8. Social Marketing Campaigns
Awareness of sanitation and wastewater treatment issues is very low throughout the Philippinesand must be elevated to build support for pilot projects and willingness to pay required user’sfees. Social marketing uses commercial marketing and advertising techniques to get people’s
attention, communicate a set of discreet, easily understood messages and encourage them totake a specific action or change a behavior, such as urging people to have their septic tanks
desludged. In Muntinlupa the city and the LINAW team developed a campaign plan with target
audiences and messages and then developed a mascot, fliers, posters, newspaper ads and a video
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about the market treatment facility that was aired on a local cable TV station. They launched thecampaign at a large shopping mall with an exhibit and event that featured a live mascot andback up dancers who put on a show and then handed out fliers. Meetings were also held withthe market vendors’ association to discuss the project with them, answer their questions and get
their support. The vendors welcomed the project because they take pride in the numerous
awards the market has received, including Most Outstanding Healthy Market in the National
Capital Region for 2003-2004 and Huwarang Palengke sa 2004 (best market award).
9. Lessons Learned
Since the commissioning of the treatment system on February 24, 2006, there have been
several lessons learned. These include:
1. The constraints with the site at the Muntinlupa Public Market, while considerable, are
not atypical of public markets in the Philippines and elsewhere in Asia, especiallythose located in densely populated city centers. As word of the success of the
Muntinlupa project spreads, several other Philippine cities are replicating it for theirmarkets and two resorts have already built similar systems based on the design. Manyare experiencing similar constraints including very limited land area, unstable orseasonally saturated soils, and the need for raw wastewater pumping. Considering
these factors during the initial stages of project development is advisable.
2. It is possible for local government units to develop wastewater treatment systems
using their own resources to meet stringent effluent discharge standards.
3. Full cost recovery of public investments in wastewater treatment infrastructure is anachievable goal when low-cost, low-maintenance systems are used.
4. Public participation. A key factor to the success of the project is believed to be thesignificant effort in public participation driven by an intensive social marketing
campaign. This effort, lead by the LINAW project, included a multimedia outreacheffort to increase awareness of wastewater issues and demand for treatment facilities
and increase willingness to pay user fees.
10. Conclusion
The Muntinlupa Public Market wastewater project is a functioning model of low-cost, lowmaintenance treatment technologies that are combined to provide sustainable wastewater
treatment for high-strength flows. Using a combination of public outreach to drive thedemand, and full cost recovery mechanisms to pay for the system, this approach brings thetechnology within the reach of many communities within the Philippines and throughout theregion.
Acknowledgements
This work was completed with support from the United States Agency for International
Development (USAID) Local Initiatives for Affordable Wastewater Treatment (LINAW) and
Environmental Cooperation-Asia (ECO-Asia) projects. Under these projects, USAID
encourages use of a low-cost, low-maintenance approach to wastewater treatment by helping
its partner cities develop pilot projects that demonstrate appropriate and sustainable
technologies. LINAW has been working with Muntinlupa City since 2004 and has provided
technical assistance to help design a wastewater treatment facility for its public market and tooversee the construction.

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The Sanitation Facilities Improvement Based on Social and Cultural Considerationin Kelurahan Batununggal, Bandung City, Indonesia
Winia Farida*1, Lufiandi2, Setiawan Wangsaatmadja3*Corresponding Author, 1West Java Environmental Protection Agency
Jl. Naripan No. 25 Bandung, 40111, Indonesia
E-mail: winia@bplhdjabar.go.id
2
West Java Environmental Protection Agency
Jl. Naripan No. 25 Bandung, 40111, Indonesia
E-mail:lufiandi@bplhdjabar.go.id
3West Java Environmental Protection Agency
Jl. Naripan No. 25 Bandung, 40111, Indonesia
E-mail:setiawan-w@bdg.centrin.net.id

Abstract
The increasing number of population in big cities in Indonesia especially in Bandung City thatmostly caused by urbanization has brought a demand to provide many kinds of facilities for theircitizen which already influence the increasing land use demand. Unfortunately, the increasing offacilities demand is not supported by land provision and it causes a further land conversion. The
impact from land conversion can be viewed from the growth of slum settlements area in several
occupancy locations such as in along side of Cikapundung River. Based on data of West Java
Environmental Protection Agency in 2003, 141,264 Ha from 183,105 Ha of total area in Kelurahan
Batununggal in Cikapundung Area is used for settlement area. The growth of slum settlements area
is triggered by poverty and as a consequences from not fulfilled many kinds of basically needs suchas the availability of shelter, clean water, health sanitation systems has stimulated people especiallypoor people to establish buildings alongside of Cikapundung River. Based on that, the growth ofslum settlements area has brought a negative impact toward its surrounding environment.
Moreover with social and cultural behavior from their community which dispose their wastewaterand solid waste directly into Cikapundung River as consequences from a limited of sanitation
systems in that area and it causing high water pollution in Cikapundung River. Because of that, inorder to improve the water environment and quality of life of the local community, West Java
Environmental Protection Agency together with the local community build a Community-Based
Sewerage System with Tangki AG.
Keywords: Conversion Land, Slum Settlements Area, Social and Cultural Behavior, Tangki AG

1. Introduction
The number of population in Bandung City has been increasing since 1960 and it is showed fromthe data which from 986.880 people in 1959 becomes 1.028.245 people in 1960. Nowadays, theincreasing number of population is increased about 4,8% per year and mostly caused byurbanization. The impact from urbanization causes the high number of unemployment in Bandung
City because most people who do urbanization are not educated and do not have any skills to work.
To survive, they work at informal sectors such as being a beggar, labor, street singer, maid etc.
Because of the low income, they cannot afford to have and rent a house and to fulfill their basically136

International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

needs like a shelter, they establish buildings in many occupancy locations such as alongside riverand alongside rain trail which in further becomes a slum settlement area. Since than, the growth ofslum settlements area has becomes a main problem in Bandung City.
The slum settlements area is defined as a settlement which has a high density people (more than
500 people per Ha) with lower income and lack of infrastructures such as clean water, healthsanitation systems, other social infrastructures such as school, house of worship, clinic etc.
Furthermore with that condition has influenced to the environment like an environmental
degradation and it is triggered by social and cultural behavior from their resident. The correlation
between environmental physic condition and social and culture in Bandung City especially inCikapundung Area can be viewed from the conceptual frame in Picture 1.
The Increasing of Population Number in Bandung City
The Increasing of Facilities Demand Which Impact to the Increasing of Land Use Demand

Conversion of Land Use

The Growth of Slum settlements Area in Alongside of Cikapundung River With The Social and Cultural
Behavior from Local Community Which Still Has Lack of Environmental Awareness

The Increasing of Water Pollution in Cikapundung River

The Effort from Government to Improve Water Quality in Cikapundung River
By Using Tangki AG With Involving Local Community Participation in Tangki AG Development Process

The Decreasing of Water Pollution Index in Cikapundung River

Picture 1. Conceptual Frame
2. Social and cultural consideration
One of the other occupancy locations that people used as a settlement area in Bandung City is
Cikapundung River as one of Citarum tributory rivers. Cikapundung River has potency andfunction as a municipal flushing and natural drainage, raw material for drinking water, electrical
powerplant and also as tourism object. Cikapundung River with the length is 28 km which 15,50
km of the river passes accross Bandung city, partially (10,57 km) passes densely-populated
settlement area which occupied by 1.058 buildings and 71.875 people. Because of that,
Cikapundung River has much kind of problems especially in environmental aspect and it ishappened because of unbalanced between carrying capacities and the number of population. The
description about the location and settlements area in alongside of Cikapundung River can beviewed in Picture 2 and 3.

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International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

Picture 2. Cikapundung River Map

Picture 3. The Condition of Settlements Area
In Alongside of Cikapundung River

Based on data of West Java Environmental Protection Agency in 2003 it is known that from
183.105 Ha of total area in Kelurahan Batununggal is settled by 12.109 people so that in every
hectare has 66 people which settled in that area. Furthermore, with the density and limited of landhas stimulated the growth of slum settlements area in alongside of Cikapundung River. The
condition already showed that community which lived in alongside of Cikapundung River has alimitation to improve their quality of life because of lack many kind facilities especially sanitation
facilities system. Moreover, mostly people who lived in that area are poor people with lower
income and it is represented by their social and cultural behavior. The social norms which tendeasier to break and poverty culture that can be seen from skeptic and aphetic behavior but in other
hand that social and cultural behavior has already created a unique and different social cohesion
than other community, especially in community level organization, house holding and sense of
public domain which very close such as in providing clean water, garbage storage, people’s
cooperation when the flood occurred, etc. The description about slum settlements area inCikapundung River can be viewed in Picture 4.

Picture 4. The Condition of Slum settlements Area in Cikapundung River

The disparity between the population number and environmental carrying capacities and alsosocial and cultural characteristic from the local community in Cikapundung Area has brought
many kinds of problems such as: a) Many kind of existing buildings made a difficulty to arrange
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the area in alongside river, b) The behavior from local community especially in disposing theirwastewater and solid waste directly into the river, c) Mostly with the building density and land
limited made a difficult to build a septic tank in every house.
Based on West Java Environmental Protection Agency in 2003, it is known that the total number ofdomestic wastewater which is disposed to Cikapundung River is about 2.496.802,30 litres/day and
it is estimated that the number will increase continuously. The estimation of domestic wastewaterflow rate can be viewed in picture 5.
Domestic Wastewater Flow Rate Estimation
In Cikapundung Area
25000
20000
Wastewater 15000
Flow Rate(L/det)
10000
5000
0
Lebak
Siliwangi

BabakanBurangrangCiamis Kelurahan

Ancol

Picture 5. Domestic Wastewater Flow Rate In Cikapundung Area

The high amount of wastewater has caused high water pollution in Cikapundung River such as badodor, diseases like cholera, diarrhea, etc, sewerage clogging and flooding and is caused bybehavior from local community itself, which still dispose their domestic wastewater and solid
waste directly into Cikapundung River. Thus, regarding to the social and culture condition fromlocal community which still has lack of environmental awareness and limitation to improve their
quality of life, West Java Environmental Protection Agency together with the local community hasa cooperation to improve water quality in Cikapundung River by using Tangki AG.

3. Cooperation mechanism
Based on social and culture characteristic in slum settlements area which has an unique anddifferent social cohesion, the cooperation mechanism done by West Java Environmental Protection
Agency is implemented by involving participation from local community as a way to build anenvironmental awareness, such as: a) To socialize environmental friendly living way, b) Tochange bad habit from community which usually dispose their wastewater and solid waste intocollecting it, with supported by the availability of good sanitation (like septic tank), c) To maintainexisting drainage to create a clean and health environment.

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Furthermore, the involvement of local community in Tangki AG development process is purposed
to build sense of belonging among local community toward wastewater treatment plant that will bebuilt. The local community is involved from planning, organizing and controlling until actuatingprocess, such as: a) Holding public meeting which involving local community and organization to
discuss a development process, b) Holding communal work to build tank and ponds, c) Installingthe central pipe to wastewater treatment plant (Tangki AG). The cooperation mechanism processuntil it is established can be viewed in Picture 6, 7 and 8.

Picture 6. Cooperation Mechanism Activity with Local Community

Ventilation
Tangki AG Cover
Pipe from Households
Tangki AG Wall
Cemented Wall
Wastewater Filter

Picture 8. Tangki AG

Pipe to Pond

Picture 7. Tangki AG Construction
Tangki AG consist of a network of collecting pipes laid beneath footpaths or below existing drains
running along walkways through the communities. Treatment plants are constructed from concrete,
plastered brick tanks and chambers. Some of those facilities are covered with light sheet metal
shutters. The function of Tangki AG is to collect and treat wastewater from households and thendisposing it to the river so that it will help to reduce the water pollution which derived fromhouseholds.
Finally, the Tangki AG development process has already given a significant contribution to
improve water quality and surrounding environment in Cikapundung River. The existing condition
can be viewed from the decreasing of BOD and COD as described in Picture 9.

140International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

COD
BOD
SS

500
400
mg/L
300
200
100
0
Influent

Effluent

Picture 9. Tangki AG Effluent Quality
4. Conclusion
The conversion of land use as a consequence from disparity between facility demand and land
provision has already brought many kinds of problems in cities, especially in Bandung City. One of
the manifestation of that problems is the growth of slum settlements area in alongside of
Cikapundung River. Furthermore, with the density of building and social culture characteristics
from the people which still has a lack of environmental awareness has caused a high amount ofwater pollution in Cikapundung River. Because of that, West Java Environmental Protection
Agency together with local community build a Community-Based Sewerage System with Tangki
AG. The cooperation mechanism is done by involving the local community in all processes which
are started from planning, organizing and controlling until actuating. Moreover, with the uniqueand different social cohesion of people like their close relationship each other made the process
becomes successfully and it can be viewed from the decreasing of water pollution index in
Cikapundung River.

References
1. ADB. (2000). Gender Checklist on Water Supply and Sanitation Projects, Asian Development
Bank, Manila.
2. BPLHD. (2003). Sosialisasi Dengan Masyarakat Yang Berada Di Sekitar PEmbangunan IPAL
Komunal Limbah Domestik Tangki AG Di Kelurahan Batununggal KEcamatan Bandung
Kidul Kota Bandung.
3. Foley S., Soedjarwo A. and Pollard R. (2000). Of the people, by the people, for the people:
Community-Based Sewer Systems in Malang, Indonesia.
Available in the website: www.waspola.org (October 2006).
4. Gunarto, Agus. (2003). Sosialisasi Tangki AG
5. Kimpraswil. (2004). Sistim Pengolahan Air Limbah Rumah Tangga: Sebuah Sukses Stori Di
Desa Tlogo Mas Malang, Direktorat Perkotaan Dan Perdesaan Wilayah Barat, Direktorat
Jendral Tata Perkotaan Dan Tata Perdesaan, Departemen Permukiman Dan Prasarana
Wilayah, Indonesia.

141International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

Separating Drainage as the Alternative Small Municipality Water Treatment
Prayogo, T.B1; Hendrawan, A.P1; Sumiadi1, Susilo, G.E.2
1

Water Resources Engineering Department, Engineering Faculty, Brawijaya Univesity2
Civil Engineering Department, Engineering Faculty, Lampung University
Email: tribudip@yahoo.com

Abstract
Recently, almost the drainage system in Indonesia was use the mixing drainage, rain water andwaste water drainage. The drainage system will directly connect to the river as the main drain.
This condition will be affected to decreasing of the river water quality. The other way, while theflushing was not occurred by the rain water, the waste water, especially from the municipality,
will be stagnant at the drainage channel, that will caused some odor and healthy problem inmunicipality area.
The research was conduct to maintain the waste water from the municipality by using theseparated drainage system. Small new neighborhood was used as the pilot scale of themunicipality as the application of the method. Method of the waste water screening by using theactivated carbon or zeolith sand was used to removing the odor and the turbidity of the waste
water.
The result was shown that the separated drainage was effective to reduce the waste water todirectly flowing to the river, and the simple screening waste water was effective to use as the firsttreatment of the waste water in the small municipality to removing the odor and decreasing theturbidity of waste water.
Keywords: Separating drainage, waste water treatment, pilot scale

1. Introduction
The waste water from the municipality was the one problem that must be solved in Indonesia.
Most of the municipality area in Indonesia has not the permanent waste water treatment. Waste
water from the household was directly flowing into the drainage channel system. Usually, themain drainage of the drainage channel system will be flowing to the river as the main drain, andas the result of the untreated waste water that flowed, will be decreased the river water quality,
where in the some chase, that river water was used as the raw water for the drinking water in thedownstream area.
The drainage system in many areas in Indonesia was the mixing system, where the rain water andthe waste water were flowed into the same drainage channel. Waste water will be diluted andflushed into the main drainage by using the volume of the rain water. The volume of waste water
was usually only 1 – 2 % of the rain water volume. Problem was occurred when in the dry season,
where there was not enough rain water available to flushing the waste water. Waste will bestagnant in the drainage channel. In the sloping area the problem was not high enough; other else

142International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

in the flat area, the problem was occurred. The stagnant waste water in several day will be caused
the bad odor and the color will be change to be dark color with some flog that occurred at thatwaste water. This condition will be caused the decreasing of the health and esthetic level in themunicipality. Usually, this condition occurred in the middle of the dry season and the waste water
will be flushed after the rain came.
This condition was aggravated, where in the many municipalities in Indonesia have no waste
water purification plant. That constrain were support with the unavailability of the budget andarea to build the treatment. As the developing country, the municipality has a big population andthe density of the population was very high. It was very difficult to finding the open area toconstruct the complex waste water treatment. While the government role, in this chases
municipality government, was very few to support budget and effort to maintain such kind of thisproblem. It was very common to saw such as condition in many places. It was very important tofind the method of the waster water treatment that fulfilling the conditions of the municipality.
This method must be achieve the small, simple, inexpensive, and have sufficient easy
maintenance.
2. Methodology
The research was conducted to achieve the solution of the small, simple, and inexpensive methodthat can be implemented at the municipality area. This research was conducted in Malang
Municipality, East Java, Indonesia. This municipality was the one of the faster growing
municipality in East Java. As the one of the higher education center in Indonesia, every year thismunicipality receiving more than 10,000 new students as the resident beside the 786.699 actual
population of the municipality (until June 2006) that has 1.1% population increasing in every
years (Malang Municipality Database, 2006) and the population density was 8,377 people inkilometer square area (Malang City in Figure, 2005). This research was the pilot scale of thewaste water purification plant that implemented at the new neighborhood.
2.1 Separating Drainage
It was very common in the Indonesia municipality drainage design that using the drainage
channel as the rain water drainage and the waste water drainage in one function. The drainage
channel was designated to receive the rain water with 2 or 5 years return period and the waste
water from the household that occupied the area. The design criteria of the drainage were shownthat the waste water from the household was 75 – 80% from the water consumption of thehousehold member in one day. Where, the water consumption for the municipality wasapproximately 150 litters per person per day.
There were two different drainage channels comes out from the household, one for the rain waterand the other one for the waste water from the bathroom, kitchen and the other room of thehousehold. While the rain water was flowed into the drainage system, the waste water from thehousehold will be flowed into the pipe to the collecting storage that collect the waste water fromthe other household. But this pipe only receiving the waste water that not came from the toilet,
the black soil will be separating from this waste water treatment. Waste water will be flowing bygravity to collecting storage. This pipe was design by the hydraulic uniform flow that prevents
the back water that will occur at the pipe before entering the collecting storage. The pipe design
was considered to the amount of waste and the time when the waste water will flow into this pipe.
143International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

This storage was placed underground, below the neighborhoods road to prevent the decreasing of
the land use in the neighborhood area. This storage will be connected with the simple waste water
treatment, that will treat the waste to reducing the odor and decreasing the turbidity before thewaste water was flushing into the drainage system. The collecting storage dimension designed tostore the waste in the half amount of the entire waste water. The assumption that used was thetime of the waste water outflow occurred only in the peak time, in the morning and in the evening,where the water consumption using was very high for supplying the household member. Basedon this assumption, storage dimension that available for this neighborhood was approximately 4
m3.
2.2 Simple Waste Treatment
The waste treatment was placed to treat the waste water from the household before the waste
water entering to the drainage system. This purpose of this waste water treatment was to reducing
the odor and decreasing the turbidity in the waste water. Basically, the purpose of this waste
water treatment, to remove the odor and reducing the turbidity, was very low. But as the earlystep to promoting the reducing of pollutant burden of the river as the main drainage system, thisstep must be obviously conducted. Main purpose of this research was introducing the simple
system that can used widely in the municipality and can be placed at the small neighborhood thatwithout using the wide area, easy to maintain and not expensive in the budget to construct.
This waste water treatment plant was consisting with the five small storages that allow the waste
water flowing by gravity force trough the spillway that placed at the side of the storage. Waste
water will be flowing to the lower storage after the upper storage was filled with the waste water.
The storage was placed as the cascade storage. This section was allowing the waste water tosettling the sediment that containing in the waste water into the bottom of the storage. The
hydraulic retention time of these 4 storages was supporting the purification process of the waste
water. The using of the 4 storages was formulated from the scale modeling of the waste water thatshowed that the effective number of the storage to reduce the odor and the turbidity was 4
storages. At the end of that cascade storage the active carbon or the zeolith in the sandy form
screen was placed. This section was act as the slow sand filtration for screening the waste water.
The use of the active carbon or zeolith sand was purposed to reducing the odor, and removing thesediment that still contain at the waste water. The use of this material was based at the scalemodeling research that shown the material that suitable to reducing the odor and the turbidity.
Pump must be installed in the end of this treatment plant in order to flow the treated waster thedrainage channel if the drainage channel level was higher that the lowest storage after thescreening process has conducted.

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International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

Storage I
Storage II
Storage III
Storage IV
Filtration

Tank

Figure. Cascade Storage and Filtration Method Scale Modeling

3. Result and Discussion
The research area was the new neighborhood in Malang Municipality that consisting by 15
household with the width of the area was 3,000 m2. (Dini, 2006). The consideration that the
research conducted at the very small pilot project was the organization of the municipality. The
lowest organization in Indonesia municipality was “RT” that in assumption it was very easy to
conduct the regulation of the separating drainage and communal waste water treatment in thesmall area that were regulated in one of authority. The rain water was calculating with the 5 years
return period for the research area using the conventional Rational method. The waste water that
produce from the household was calculated by using assumption that in every household was
occupied by average 5 people. In the other hand that neighborhood was occupied by 75 people.
The amount of the rain water that resulted from the Rational method calculation was 0.03 m3/s
while the amount of was 0.0001 m3/s. The result shown that the amount of waste water was not
has many influences to the municipality drainage design. In the other hand, the reducing amountof the waste water from the channel design has no influence to the standard of the municipality
drainage system.
The combination between the cascade storage as the beginning process of the treatment and theactive carbon or zeolith slow sand filtration at the end of process was resulting the suitablecondition for water that will flowing into the drainage system according the scale modelingresearch. Result shown that the turbidity was decreasing from 45 Nephelometric Tubidity Unit
(NTU) becomes 5 NTU, where the water quality standard for the drinking water for the turbidity
was lower than 7 NTU. (Aulia, 2006; Robert, 2006). The odor of the waste water was removing
and the taste of the water was become no taste. Physically property standard for the water was
fulfilled before flowing to drainage system. The chemical property standard was not covered inthis research, according to the aim of this research that the one purpose of this research was fulfill
the removing the odor and for the esthetic standard.

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International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

As the developing country, Indonesia has facing the water environmental where about 56.16% of
the household was disposed their waste water directly into the river or by flowing into thedrainage channel system. This evidence was support that almost the entire river in Indonesia wasindicated that the water quality not meet the water criteria class 1 (drinking water raw based on
Regulation 82/2001). This condition can be decreased by decreasing the burden of the pollutant
from the source of that pollution, the household. Separating the waste water from the rain waterthat flowing into the drainage channel system will decreasing the burden of the pollutant that willflow into to the drainage system.
The separating drainage was widely and the common system that used in the developed country.
Opposite with that in Indonesia, especially in the small municipality at the remote area, themixing drainage system was the choice of the planner. The mixing drainage was the cheapest andthe fastest way to drain the exceeded water from the area. But in the other side this system wasneglected the side effect that caused by mixtures the waste water and the rain water into theenvironmental decreasing level. The new idea of the separating drainage must be promoting
widely as the solution to prevent the decreasing of the environmental level.
This research was the simple sample that can be conducted in the small neighborhood, where theseparating drainage that used can be effectively implemented to prevent the decreasing of theenvironmental level. This system can widely used in the other small neighborhood in themunicipal that organized by the lowest level of the government authorization. This system will beeasily implementing because the management to maintain the system was no so complicated. The
government role must be conducted, such as enacted the regulation, controlling the design criteria,
etc, to promoting the using of this system widely.
As the solving problem to solve the waste water treatment, the simple cascade storage tank withthe carbon active or zeolith slow sand filtration was the one of treatment plant that can be
implemented. This simple plant can be removing the odor and decreasing the turbidity that
containing in the waste water. Although the purpose of this waste water treatment was very low,
as the simple waste water treatment solution in Indonesia, this system was suitable as the firststage to promote the water environmental awareness of municipality in Indonesia. Because thetreated parameter was only for mainly fulfill for the esthetic criteria, the other parameter of theeffluent standard that occurred must be observed more detail to achieve the standard of thetreated water even though the treated water was only flowed into the drainage system.
The advantage of this system was could implement in the small neighborhood, that not needing
the wide area to conduct the system and can be manage by the local people as the member of theneighborhood. The construction of the system was simple and not need the complicatedmaintenance. This system was not changing the drainage system design that was used widely inIndonesia recently, and the main consideration was that the system was inexpensive in budget.
The disadvantage was the parameter that treated in this system was very limited according to thestandard of the treated waste water.

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4. Conclusions
As the first stage of the research, the implemented of the system was more carefully observed toobtain the more perfect result to promoting the water environmental awareness in themunicipality. The following research must be conducted to achieve the standard of the treatedwaste water, and the effectiveness of the system must be compared with the other waster water
treatment in the small municipality.
References
Aulia R, (2006), Simple Water Filtration Tank with The Activated Carbon. (In Indonesia)
Undergraduate Thesis, Water Resources Department, Brawijaya University
Dini S, (2006), Separating Drainage at the Small Neighborhood, Malang Municipality. (InIndonesia) Undergraduate Thesis, Water Resources Department, Brawijaya University
Malang Municipality Government, (2005). Malang City in Figure.
Malang Municipality Government, (2006). Malang Database. (In Indonesia)
Robert A, (2006) Cascade Tank with Zeolith Filtration for Simple Water Filtration. (In Indonesia)
Undergraduate Thesis, Water Resources Department, Brawijaya University

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International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

Sustainable Improvement for Sanitation in Households
Katsuyoshi Ishizaki1, Naoko Nakagawa2, Masahiro Otaki2, Yasuhiro Nakanishi3
1

Research Institute on Restoration and Regeneration of Water Environment, Waseda University, 513 Tsurumakichou, Waseda, Shinjuku-Ku, Tokyo, 169-8050, Japan
2
Dept. of Human Environmental Sciences, Ochanomizu Univ.,2-1-1, Otsuka, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, 112-8610, Japan3
Miyako Subtropical Farm, Tokyo Univ. of Agriculture, 72-2 Hukusato, Gusukube, Miyakojima, Okinawa, 906-0103,
Japan

Abstract
A trial improvement of sustainable sanitation in the household are carried out on Miyakojima,
Japan. Groundwater of this island, only source for the tap water, has been deteriorated by nitrates
deriving mainly from agricultural activities and household wastes. To reduce the nitrates loaded
from households, the Bio-toilet and constructed wetland are used. Reductions of load fromhousehold to groundwater are estimated fairly much.

1. Introduction
About 31 million people on the countryside in Japan have no or badly functioning wastewater
treatment. Furthermore, from the view-point of sustainable future, two more problems will befocused as follows:
1) Need for reduction of nutrient to conserve water environment from eutrophication.
2) Need for reduction of materials to conserve the groundwater quality in order to keep
drinking water safe.
Sustainable improvement for sanitation in households is proposed in this paper.
The system is located in the household upstream of conventional waste water treatment systems.
The sustainable improvement will change the route of nutrient（phosphorus and nitrogen）tooriginal one (Organic Loop). The sustainable improvement will conserve the water environment
at low cost in both construction and maintenance.
2. A trial of sustainable improvement for sanitation in Miyakojima
2.1 NO3--N concentration in groundwater of Miyakojima
Miyakojima belonging to Okinawa prefecture, one of the most southern islands in Japan, islocated in the mesh of 24-25oN and 124-125oE, having an area of 159km2 and 48,000 populations.
The average air temperature is 23.4oC and the annual rainfall is about 2,000mm. The island has avery flat and low topography and the elevation at the highest point is only 115m a.s.l. Nitrateconcentration (NO3--N) in groundwater of this island has been recorded since the end of 1980s.
Nitrate is known to have two kinds of risk, health and environment. The health risk may occur
particularly in infants under six months of age by drinking bottle-fed milk that is unsanitary and148

International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

high in nitrate. Nitrate is well known as a material causing eutrophication in water regimes aswell as phosphorus. In the south-west islands of Japan, a very big concern is the influences ofgroundwater eutrophicated by nitrate to the ecosystem in coral reef as it is fundamentallyorganized and formed under a low level in sea water nutrient. The coral reef ecosystem is very
important not only for tourism also for coastal fisheries in these areas.
The source of nitrate was investigated by Y. Nakanishi and estimated as follows. In 1998, 960tonsof nitrogen was annually loaded to groundwater of this island. About 35.6% was derived from
cultivation, 31.4% from animal husbandry, and 16.4% from domestic wastewater.
Enactment of the two municipal ordinances has been carried out in Miyakojima. One is theordinance on conservation of Miyakojima Groundwater. Another is ordinance on source
protection of drinking water supply on Miyakojima. Under these ordinances various programs
have been in practice to keep the quantity and quality of the groundwater. The concentration of
NO3 has been reduced gradually since 1990.
2.2 Composition of the trial at Nakama’s house
Three people live at Nakama’s house at the trial. Wastewater composed of black water and grey
water is guided to a septic tank and infiltrate to base rock through the bottom of the septic tank.
The septic tank has the size of approximately 1.5m×1.5m×1.0m. At the trial of the sustainableimprovement, urine and feces are treated both using bio-toilet. Grey water from kitchen, bathroom and others are first stored at the septic tank, and then pumped up to a constructed wetland.
As Mrs. Nakama proposed to use the wastewater from the constructed wetland, garden products
beside the reservoir were added to this trial. Wastewaters from the reservoir are infiltrated to thebase rock through a soil.

mgL-1

12
10

157t(16.4%)

159t(16.6%)

Domestic

Natural864342t(35.6%)302t(31.4%)

2

Live Stock
0
1960

1970

1980

1990

Cultivation

Total nitrogen:960t

2000

Figure1-1
Nitrate-nitrogen concentration in
groundwater of Miyakojima.

Figure1-2 Estimation for annual amount of nitrogen
loaded to groundwater in Miyako-jima.

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International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

Figure 2. The Sustainable Sanitation

3. Bio-Toilet
Bio-Toilet is a kind of dry toilet, invented by M. Kinoshita about 30 years ago. Urine and faeces
from toilet are lead to bio-reactor which contains sawdust. Urine is once stored in small porespaces of sawdust, then evaporates by rotating with sawdust and lose its water content.

Figure 3. The Bio-toilet

4. The constructed wetland
4.1 The constructed wetland at Nakama’s house
The constructed wetland is used for grey water treatment. A limestone called Ryuukyuu Sekkai isused as filter material which has high porosity in the particle. The constructed wetland has thesize of 2.0m×2.0m×0.6m (depth). The filter particles are first submerged 2hours by thewastewater from the septic tank, then the water are drained .The filter particles are exposed to air
22hours a day for the decomposition of organic carbon(BOD). In reservoirs, wastewaters fromthe constructed wetland are stored few days.

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International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

CA
B

Figure 4.
The schematic of the constructed wetland

90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0

60

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Ⓐ

Ⓑ

Ⓒ
Ⓒ

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M ar. 8Fe b. 930

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1月 2日

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0
1月 0日

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0

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Ⓐ

40

10

T-P (mg/L)

T-N (mg/L)

J a n .2 7

50
COD (mg/L)

BOD (mg/L)

4.2 Result of the trial improvement
Measurements of water qualities were carried out 6 month after the completion of wetland. Data
were changing as days passed, the average water quality are shows as Fig.5. Fig.5 shows theresults of the measurement of the influent, the effluent of the constructed wetland, and the treatedgrey water in the infiltration basin. In the infiltration basin, COD is around 20 mg/l, T-N is 10
mg/l, and T-P is 0.6 mg/l. more purified in the treated water reservoir. This means that the treatedwater reservoir takes an important role in N&P removal.

Fe b. 9F e b .1 4

Figurethethe(closedcircles),
ino sethein
F igu5.reChanges
9
C h aofn ge
s oCOD,f th e Cthe
O D T-N,, th e T- NT-P, th einT -theP ininfluent
th e in flu
e n t (c lose d c ircthosele s), theffluent (closed triangle), and those in the infiltration basin (closed square) in the constructed
th e e fflu e n t (c lo se d tria n gle ), a n d th o se in th e in filtra tio n b a sin (c lo se d s q u a re ) in th e
wetland.Ⓐ, Ⓑ and Ⓒ are correspond to the point shown Fig.4 .
c o n stru c te d w e tla n d151

International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

5. Total rate of reduction to the underground
Table 1. The estimated yields of C, N, P at households
Urine & Feces
GreyWater
Total[g/human/day] [Rate] [g/human/day] [Rate] [g/human/day]

BOD
T-N
T-P

19
8
0.9

33%
73%
75%

39
3
0.3

67%
27%
25%

58
11
1.2

Table 2. The reduction of the loads at each devices

BOD
T-N
T-P

Ⓐ
[mg/l]①

The rate of reduction inconcentration at the Wetland[mg/l]②＝①-③Ⓑ[mg/l]③

The rate of reduction inconcentration at the Reservoirs[mg/l]④＝③－⑤Ⓒ[mg/l]
⑤

80
15
1

70
5
0.5

10
10
0.5

7
8
0.45

3
2
0.05

From the average data of water quality at point Ⓐ, Ⓑ, Ⓒ, the rate of reduction in concentration
are calculated as Table.2. The total reduction rates from the household to the groundwater areabout 80-90% after constructed wetland and over 95% after the reservoirs shown Table.3. As forthe nitrogen, the rate of reduction is 72% at Bio-toilet, 10% at constructed wetland, 14% atReservoirs and 96% in total. Removal of nitrogen at the reservoirs is fairy much. If habitants ofhousehold like reservoirs in the sustainability improvement, they will also enjoy plants and thespectacle in their garden.
Table 3. The rate of reduction after Constructed Wetland and after Reservoirs.
(gram/person/day)
Bio-toilet + After Constructed Wetland
Yield athousehold( , )*

Urine&Feces

BOD
58 (39,19)
19
T-N
11 ( 8, 3)
8T-P
1.2(0.9,0.3)
0.9*(Urine & Feces, Grey Water)

Grey Water
Influent

Effluent

39
3
0.3

4.9
2.0
0.15

Rate of
Reduction
92%
82%
88%

Bio-Toilet + After Constructed Wetland+ Reservoirs
Urine&
Feces
19
8
0.9

Grey Water
Influent

Effluent

39
3
0.3

1.5
0.4
0.01

Rate of
Reduction
97%
96%
99%

Acknowledgements
This research presents the results of the research project “Research on the Development of
Sustainable Sanitation Systems and their Introduction in the Water Cycle System,” which is Core
Research for Evolutional Science and Technology (CREST), as performed by the Japan Scienceand Technology Agency.
The trial improvement was carried out at the Gusukube-town (now, joined to Miyakojima City).
The authors pay deep appreciation to Katsu Nakama, Kazuyuki Zakimi, Akio Nakama for theircooperation.

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International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

References
Nakagawa, N., M. Otaki, K. Ishizaki. (2001), The technical trend at the low environmental loadtype toilets in Japan, Proceedings of IWA 2nd World Water Congress, pp. 240-248
Nakagawa, N., M. Otaki, S.Miura, H.Hamasuna, K. Ishizaki.(2004),Availability of sustainable
sanitation system in a residential house, Proceedings of APHW 2nd Conference, Vol.2,pp.402410
Ishizaki, K., N.Nakagawa, et al.(2005), Field survey of a sustainable sanitation system in Miyako
island in Japan. Proceedings of AOGS 2nd Conference
Nakanishi Y. and Honda M.(2003). Groundwater dam and the water quality conservation; cases
in Japan. : International Symposium on Artificial Recharge of Groundwater, Korea Water
Resources Corporation, pp.91-106.

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International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

The Existing Urban Environmental Sanitation System in Hanoi and Problems Related
Le Ngoc Cau1*, Hiroyasu Satoh2, Takashi Mino2
1

Asian Institute of Technology Center in Vietnam, 21 Le Thanh Tong Str., Hanoi, Vietnam (when research was
conducted. Current affiliation: Institute of Environmental Studies, Graduate School of Frontier Sciences, theUniversity of Tokyo, 5-1-5 Kashiwanoha, Kashiwa-shi, Chiba, 277-8561, Japan)
2
Institute of Environmental Studies, Graduate School of Frontier Sciences, the University of Tokyo, Japan*
Corresponding author: PhD student, Institute of Environmental Studies, Graduate School of Frontier Sciences, theUniversity of Tokyo, 5-1-5 Kashiwanoha, Kashiwa-shi, Chiba, 277-8561, Japan; E-mail: lecau@mw.k.u-tokyo.ac.jp

Abstract
Urbanization is a very popular phenomenon in developing countries, and Vietnam is not an
exception. In Vietnam, the rapid urbanization and flow of immigrants to urban areas in two
biggest cities, Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City (HCMC), are indeed the main challenge of theinfrastructure development. In these cities, the rapid urban population and economic development
are accompanied with increased resource consumption and environmental degradation due toinadequate sanitation services. This paper will discuss the existing urban environmental
sanitation in Hanoi, its legal framework, and the main environmental problems caused.
Key words: Developing countries; environmental pollution; groundwater exploitation; Hanoi;
urban environmental sanitation system

1. Introduction
Recently published data show that world-wide 2.4 billion people do not have access to improved
sanitation (UN, 2004). This global sanitation-related crisis has been recognized, and UN has put
forward a Millennium Development Goal to halve the number of people without access toadequate sanitation by 2015 (UN, 2003). In order to achieve this goal, improving the alreadyexisting sanitation systems to meet the increasing demand is a must for municipalities. This paper
analyzes the existing urban environmental sanitation system in Hanoi, the capital city of Vietnam.
In particularly, the system’s infrastructure, the related legal framework, and main environmental
problems caused will be discussed. The analysis is conducted with the main objective to present
to relevant professionals the picture of the current urban sanitation system in Hanoi in a hope thatthe information will facilitate the decision making process for finding appropriate solution. It isnoted that the environmental sanitation as hereby defined includes water supply, disposal ofwastewater and excreta, and municipal solid waste management.
2. Brief description of the study area
Hanoi, the capital city of Vietnam, has a long history of about 1,000 years. The city’s urban
infrastructure also has a long history and major drainage system in the main streets was built by
the French during the colonization period from 1874 - 1954. When Vietnam implemented its“open-door” policy in early 1990s, the city has witnessed rapid economic development andpopulation growth. The city’s population has increased about 30% during the period from 1995 –
2003, from 2.4 million people to about 3 millions people. The number of urban districts has

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International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

increased from 5 to 7 plusing 5 sub-urban districts with a total area of nearly 1,000 km2 (Hanoi
PC, 2003).
Like many other cities in developing countries, rapid urbanization, increasing immigration fromrural areas, industrialisation, and economic growth have put a strong pressure on the urban
infrastructure in general and environmental sanitation in particular. The urban population growthand economic development are accompanied by increased resource consumption andenvironmental degradation. In the last decade, the environmental pollution has become worsen
because the urban environmental sanitation infrastructure is inadequate to provide the basic
necessary services, like sanitary management and disposal of human waste and wastewater. This
has led to severely polluted receiving water bodies in the cities (Hanoi SADCO, 1997).
3. Institutional framework related to environmental sanitation in Hanoi
In Hanoi, the urban solid waste (SW) is managed by Hanoi Urban Environment Company(URENCO), a public non-profit utility belongs to Hanoi city people’s committee (Hanoi PC).
Mandate of URENCO is to collect, transport and disposal of SW generated in urban districts ofHanoi. The collection and management of solid waste generated in peri-urban districts is
responsibility of local authority, the people’s committee at district and ward levels.
As regard to wastewater, the Hanoi Sewerage and Drainage Company (SADCO), a public utility
under Hanoi PC, is responsible for treatment and disposal of both domestic and industrial
wastewater. SADCO is responsible for the provision, operation and maintenance of the sewerageand drainage network in the core urban area of Hanoi. Hanoi SADCO manages the primary andsecondary network (ditches, channels, city’s sewers and rivers, as well as other sewerage anddrainage facilities).
Water supply is implemented by Hanoi water work authority, also operating under Hanoi PC. In
summary, the mandates of the different public utilities providing urban sanitation services are
regulated and financed by Hanoi PC.
A recent study on legal and institutional framework related to environmental sanitation of Hanoi
city has shown that the environmental law enforcement is relatively weak (Bucher, 2005). At
state level, the National Assembly has ratified environmental protection law in 1993. However,when down to city and provincial levels, the environmental law enforcement is weak due to alack of human capacity, a strong institutional framework, and commitment from people as well.
Financial capital for environmental law enforcement is also a concern of relevant organizations.
Hanoi People’s Committee issues its own regulations following central decrees and laws, but if
no expenses are made in their enforcement, those regulations are not implemented correctly andadequately. This has resulted in institutional and legal weaknesses, main obstacles to thedevelopment of a well-managed urban sanitation system.
4. Solid waste management
It is estimated that in 2005, the total amount of SW generated in Hanoi is of about 900,000 tonnes.
Hanoi URENCO is responsible for SW generated in urban districts, in peri-urban districts the SW
management is implemented by environmental department of the districts’ people committee.
Approximately, 80 % of total generated urban SW is collected and disposed of into landfill by155

International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

URENCO. The remaining 20 % is either improperly disposed of into open landfills or illegally
thrown to the city’s rivers and lakes. The SW is not on-site classified, and only a small portion of
the organic SW is classified and used for compost production in a composting plant placed undermanagement of Hanoi URENCO. A study on nutrient budget for Hanoi city has shown that only
about 10 % of N and P contained in SW is recycled (Cau, 2003).
Collection and disposal of industrial waste is entirely responsibility of industries. However, theindustries usually commission Hanoi URENCO to collect and disposal of their waste in waste
collection service contracts.
5. Wastewater pollution
In Hanoi, receiving water bodies are severely polluted by discharges of untreated wastewater, inwhich industrial wastewater is main the pollution source, although Vietnam has ratified water
resource law in 1999 strictly prohibiting the discharge of hazardous wastes, untreated wastewateror treated wastewater that does not meet the permissible standards into any water receiving
bodies. The reason is that the law has not been effectively implemented due to the lack of guiding
circulars and enforcement measures.
In 2003, it is estimated that every day the total amount of industrial wastewater discharged is263,000 m3, and only 6.2 % of this amount is treated before being discharged into water
receiving bodies in the city. In addition to industrial wastewater, a large amount of hospitalwastewater is also discharged untreated to receiving water bodies. It is estimated that about 7,000
m3/day of hospital wastewater is discharged into the receiving water bodies, and only 30 % ofthis amount is treated before being discharged (Hanoi DOSTE, 2003).
The water quality monitoring data in the four main rivers and lakes in Hanoi have clearly shownthat the water quality of rivers, lakes and ponds in Hanoi is worsening due to the discharge ofuntreated industrial wastewater, which contains toxic substances, inorganic substances and highorganic content. Averagely, concentrations of BOD, COD, heavy metals and coliform in To Lich,Lu, Set and Nhue rivers are 3 – 4 times higher than standards (Hanoi DOSTE 2003).

6. Sewerage and drainage system
Hanoi SADCO is responsible for wastewater drainage at city and district levels of Hanoi. Down
to ward and commune level, the wastewater drainage management is placed under managementof ward people committee. The sewerage and drainage system of Hanoi is a combined one,which means that both industrial and domestic wastewater, storm water and street cleaning water
are served by on drainage system. The sewerage and drainage system is working under the
automatic-flowing mechanism (due to the difference of hydraulic pressure between two points ofthe sewerage system) (Hanoi DOSTE, 2003). Overview of the drainage system is shown in figure
1.

156International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

Figure 1. Overview of sewerage and drainage system in Hanoi (by courtesy of Anh etal., 2005)
Total length of the central sewerage and drainage system, which is placed under maintenance andmanagement of SADCO, is of about 318 km, approximately of the 60 % of total transport road. It
is estimated that the total coverage of the drainage system just accounts for 40 % of city’s total
area. Total length of local drainage in small alleys under management of ward people committee isof about 190 km. The ratio of sewer length per capita in Hanoi city is about 0.3 m/person, which ismush less than average ratio in other developing countries, 2 m/person. The ratio is still much lessfor small sewers in alleys and living areas (the tertiary network as indicated in Fig. 1) where total
length of sewers is of about 190 km, equal to 29% of 641 km of total length of the roads (withwidth > 2 m). Among those, only 72 km or 11% is under SADCO’s enterprises. The rest part of
the network is under management of local authorities such as ward/commune PCs (SADCO,
2003).
Most of the existing sewerage and drainage channels in Hanoi have a small size, low hydraulicslope, inappropriate structure, and the amount of sludge and sediment that settled in the system isrelatively high. In addition, due to the fact that Hanoi’s topography is relatively flat, the soil
foundation is the range of between 2.5 – 10 m, decreased from northeast to southwest, which is
not good for the automatic flowing sewerage system. Therefore, the wastewater receiving andtransporting capacity of the existing sewerage and drainage system is still far under the demand.
During rainy season, flooding happens quiet often.
Another problem of the drainage system in Hanoi is that some parts of the system, especially theones located on central districts of Ba Dinh and Hoan Kiem, which were built during Frenchcolonization period, before 1945s, are now not working properly. Wastewater leakage and groundwater pollution are occurring. This problem coupled with flooding during rainy season has
caused the environmental pollution worsen.

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International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

7. Groundwater exploitation
The centralized and large scale exploitation model is implemented and managed by Hanoi Water
Work Authority. Currently, there are 9 wells and some water distribution stations with the total
exploitation capacity in between 400,000 – 450,000 m3/day. The decentralized and small scale
exploitation is implemented and managed by factories and households. According to a statistic,
there are currently about 299 wells being exploited and used by factories. The exploitation
capacity of these wells is in between 60,000 and 100,000 m3/day. The total number of wells thatbeing exploited and used by the people is of about 100,000 with a total exploitation capacity of
about 100,000 m3/day (Hanoi DOSTE 2003).
Totally, the amount of ground water that is currently exploited in Hanoi is in between 600,000
and 650,000 m3/day. This groundwater withdrawal rate is nearly the same with the recharge rateof approximately 700,000 m3/day (Nga, 2005).
8. Discussion
From the above-mentioned discussions, it is concluded the following key issues related to waterand nutrient management of Hanoi’s urban sanitation system:

Excessive groundwater abstraction
Serious surface water pollution due to inadequate treatment of wastewaterCoverage of sewerage and drainage system is inadequate to provide sanitary disposal ofwastewaterNutrients recycling is not well done
References
Anh, N.V., Nga, P.T., Nhue, T.H., Antoine, M. (2005). The potential of decentralized wastewater
management for sustainable development – a Vietnamese experience. WEF International
Conference: Technology – August 2005, CA, USA.
Bucher, I. (2005). Institutional framework and stakeholder analysis of Hanoi urban sanitation
system. Field study report of the Diploma of Continuing Education in Development
Studies
Program, AITCV and IUED, Switzerland.
Cau, L.N. (2003). Nutrient budget analysis and its implication as an indicator of urban
sustainability: A case study on Hanoi, Vietnam. M. Eng. Thesis, Asian Institute of Technology(AIT), Bangkok, Thailand, August 2003
Hanoi Department of Science, Technology and Environment (Hanoi DOSTE) (2003).
Environmental State Report – Hanoi City.
Hanoi SADCO (1997). Executive Summary Report of Project on Investigation of Environmental
Pollution Status of To Lich River, and on Designing of Treatment Methods for Treating
Wastewater Discharged into the River’s Cannel Systems.
Hanoi SADCO (2003). Plan of Drainage in Rainy season 2004.
Hanoi URENCO (2002). Report on Status of Solid Waste Management in Hanoi.
Nga, T.T.V. (2005). Application of Dynamic System for Sustainable Urban Water Supply: A
Case Study in Hanoi City. In Proceedings World Water Week, Stockholm Water symposium,
Workshop 3: Water Provision Across Sectors and Jurisdictions. Stockholm, Sweden, August 2127; 2005.
United Nations (UN) (2004). Interim Report of Task Force 7 on Water and Sanitation.
Coordinators: Roberto Lenton and Albert Wright.
UN (2003). Water for People Water for Life. The UN Water Development Report.
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International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

Application of Photosynthetic Bacteria Treatment System for Recovery ofOrganic Carbon from Noodle Processing Wastewater
Chart Chiemchaisri1*, Lumpoon Jaitrong1, Ryo Honda2, Kensuke Fukushi3
and Kazuo Yamamoto3
1

Department of Environmental Engineering, Kasetsart University, 50 Phaholyothin Road, Chatuchak, Bangkok
10900, Thailand. Fax +662-5790730 * Email: fengccc@ku.ac.th
2
Integrated Research System for Sustainability Science, University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113,
Japan
3
Environmental Science Center, University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113, Japan

Abstract
This paper presents a case study on application of photosynthetic bacteria wastewater treatment
system to recover organic carbon in wastewater in the form of photosynthetic bacterial cells. In
noodle production process, the wastewater was mainly produced during rice soaking and rinsing
processes containing starch as its main constituent. For carbon recovery purpose, wastewater wasapplied to laboratory photosynthetic wastewater treatment system where carbon could betransformed into protein in purple non-sulfur or purple sulfur bacterial cells. The system has
shown to be effective for the treatment of starch wastewater and cultivation of photosynthetic
bacteria when operated at hydraulic retention time of 6 and 10 days.

1. Introduction
The application of photosynthetic bacteria to wastewater treatment is one of the attractive
methods since the microorganisms are widely available in nature and capable of removing
organic substances even under high organic load (Hiraishi et al., 1989) especially in sunlightintensive area like tropical countries. The treatment will require minimum additional energy apartfrom natural sunlight and the treatment cost can be substantially reduced. They are applicable toorganic compounds (Madigan et al., 2000) and wastewater from various industries(Noparatnaraporn et al., 1986). By introducing this system, it might be possible to develop ahigh-efficiency treatment process without odorous gas production. The proposed system (Figure1) consists of two ponds connected in series. In the first pond, it is expected that acidogenic
bacteria consume organic matter in wastewater and photosynthetic bacteria grow with their
metabolite. Then the following aerobic fishpond is expected to have a high fish yield. Moreover
the by-product of the treatment, the photosynthetic bacteria cells, has high nutrition such asprotein and vitamin (Kobayashi and Tchan, 1973; Getha et al., 1998; Banjaree et al., 2000) which
is a good alternative for fish feed.

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International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

Wastewater
Organic
matters

Anaerobic photosynthetic
treatment pond
AcidogensFishpond
Aerobic stabilization pond

Treatedwater

Plankton

PnSB

Fatty acids, alcohols

Figure 1. Process flow of photosynthetic bacteria pond treatment system.

2. Wastewater from noodle production
Typical production of rice noodle includes broken rice and water as two main raw materials for
production of unfermented rice noodles. It involves washing and soaking of rice, pasting the riceand making the starch slurry. For thick noodle processing, the slurry is then used in sheeting prior
to cooking and drying step. For thin noodle processing, the sheeted slurry is cooked and dried inan oven before cutting process. The processing of vermicelli noodle is slightly different fromthick and thin noodle. The starch slurry is passed through a filter press, yielding semi-dry starchsolids. The starch solids are steamed before being extruded to form vermicelli noodles. The
production of rice noodles produces wastes at various stage, i.e. raw material preparation,
production, packaging and process line cleaning. Among these, wastewater is mainly produced
during rice soaking/rinsing and cleaning of pasting tank. It contains starch as main constituentswith high BOD and suspended solids.
3. Experimental system
Laboratory scale reactors (3-L working volume) simulating photosynthetic bacteria ponds wereused (Figure 2). The reactor was illuminated for 12 hours per day by two 60 W incandescentlamps from both side. The bioreactor was operated as single pass complete mixed reactor byproviding magnetic stirrer mixing. During the experiments, intermittent aeration was supplied toprevent permanent drop in oxidation-reduction potential (ORP). Feeding of wastewater andwithdraw of reactor effluent was done once a day. Enriched photosynthetic bacteria (wild strains)
were used as seeding in the photo-bioreactor. The organic loading to the system was varied
between 0.16 and 0.35 kgCOD/m3.d respectively. Microbial population in the system was studied
by determining bacterio-chlorophyll-a (Bchl.a) for photosynthetic bacteria and chrolophyll-a for
microalgae. Purple non-sulfur bacteria (PnSB) were also quantified by fluorescent in-situ
hybridization (FISH) technique. The populations of sulfate reducing bacteria (SRB) and purple
sulfur bacteria (PSB) were quantified by conventional plate count methods. Crude protein content
of sludge withdrawn from the photo-bioreactor was also analyzed.

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International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

Thermometer
ORP Meter

Influent

pH controller
Peristaltic
pump

Peristaltic
pump

Effluent

Raw
wastewater

Air

Stirrer

Figure 2. Schematic of laboratory scale photosynthetic bacteria pond system
4. Organic carbon conversion in the system
The photo-bioreactors were operated either with or without infrared transmitting filter. The main
purpose of filter installation is to prevent the growth of microalgae in the system. It was foundthat high COD removal rate of more than 90% was achieved under the organic loading rate of 0.1
to 0.3 kg/m3.d. High COD removal was obtained when the HRT in the system was operated
between 3 and 10 days even though occasional fluctuations on the removal efficiency wereobserved at low HRT case. The removal of organic substance is mainly accomplished by PnSB
which utilized organic substrates in the presence of light from wastewater as photosynthetic
electron donor and carbon sources. In addition, sulfate reduction can also help eliminating somefraction of organic substances. The treatment performance in the photo-bioreactor with andwithout infrared transmitting filter was comparable to each other.

sCOD Removal rate (kg/m3.d)

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0.0
0.0

0.1

0.2
0.3
sCOD Loading rate (kg/m3.d)

HRT 10 d (with filter)
HRT 10 d (without filter)

HRT 6 d (with filter)
HRT 6 d (without filter)

0.4

HRT 3 d (with filter)
HRT 3 d (without filter)

Figure 3 Relationship between organic loading and removal rate in photo-bioreactor

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International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

The reduction of HRT did not only increase organic substance but also raised sulfur compound
loading to the system. As a result, they produce sulfide which is inhibitory compound for PnSB.
Sulfite concentration in effluent was kept below 20 mg/l while sulfate concentrations in effluent
was increasing. This was mainly due to the oxidation of incoming sodium metabisulfite which
has been used for bleaching and antioxidant purposes. Nevertheless, sulfate concentration was
found gradually declined towards the end of the operation due to the development of sulfate
reduction in the system.
Figure 4 shows the variation of ORP in a feeding cycle. In photo-bioreactor without infraredtransmitting filter, ORP increased much higher than those in photo-bioreactor with infraredtransmitting filter after feeding because oxygen was produced from the photosynthesis of
microalgae in the presence of light. Higher organic loading and the use of infrared transmitting
filter could control the ORP mostly in the negative range. Microanaerobic condition is preferable
to the growth of PnSB as compared to microalgae but too low ORP might also promote the SRB
activities.

300

300

200

200
ORP vs NHE (mV)

ORP vs NHE (mV)

5. Bacteria community in the system
Photosynthetic bacterium cultivated from natural mixed culture consists of at least two species of
PnSB; Rps. palustis and Rba. blasticus. There was a decreasing trend of Bchl.a and PnSB in thesystem. The growth of SRB was found significant in the latter stage. The opposite trend of PnSB
and SRB suggested that there was a competitive relationship among them. The growth of PSB
associated with SRB was also observed at high organic loading rate as PSB could utilize sulfide
produced from SRB activities for their growth. Chl.a was found abundant in the photo-bioreactor
without infrared transmitting filter since visible wavelength could be easily absorbed by
microalgae during photosynthesis. The use of infrared transmitting filter was found effective forsuppression of microalgae growth.

100
0
0

3

6

9

12

15

18

21

24

-100

100
0
0

3

6

9

12

15

18

21

24

-100
-200

-200
-300

-300
Time (hour)Time (hour)

HRT 10 d

HRT 6dHRT 10 d

HRT 3 dHRT 6 dHRT 3 d(a)(b)
Figure 4 Variation of ORP within a feeding cycle (24 hours) in the photo-bioreactora) with infrared transmitting filter and b) without infrared transmitting filter
6. Single cell protein (SCP) production
Crude protein content in the sludge obtained from the photo-bioreactor with infrared transmitting
filter at all HRT was found more than 50% (Table 1), sufficiently high to be utilized as SCP.
Sludge from the system with infrared transmitting filter had higher protein content than that162

International Forum on Water Envrionmental Governance in Asia, March 2007, Bangkok

without infrared transmitting filter as the photosynthetic bacteria cell contain higher protein than
microalgae.
Table 1. Production of SCP from photosynthetic bacteria at different HRT.
Run
Organic-N Crude protein
HRT
Light
SS Crude protein content
(d)
A-1

10

A-2
B-1

6

B-2
C-1
C-2

3

(mg/l)(mg/l)(mg/l)(g/g-dry weight)

with filter

38

234

437

0.54

w/o filter

33

208

529

0.39

with filter

46

287

430

0.67

w/o filter

52

326

541

0.60

with filter

35

181

343

0.53

w/o filter

41

254

458

0.55

7. Conclusions
High organic removal of more than 90% was achieved in photosynthetic bacteria treatment
system operated at HRT of 6 and 10 days. Infrared transmitting filter was effective in suppressing
the growth of microalgae and allow purple non-sulfur to grow. Two species of purple non-sulfur
bacteria were identified, i.e. Rps. Palustis and Rba. Blasticus. The growth of purple sulfur
bacteria associated with sulfate reducing bacteria was observed. The sludge withdrawn from thesystem contained high protein content of more than 50% which to be utilized as single cell
protein.
8. References
Banjaree S., Azad S.A., Vikineswary S., Selvarai O.S. and Mukherjee T.K. (2000). Phototrophic
bacteria as fish feed supplement. Asian-Aus. J. Anim. Sci., 13 (7), 991-994.
Getha K., Chong V.C. and Vikineswary S. (1998). Potential use of the phototrophic bacteria,
Rhodopseudomonas palustris as an aquaculture feed. Asian. Fish. Sci., 10, 223-232.
Hiraishi A., Shi J.L. and Kitamura H. (1989). Effects of organic nutrient strength on the purple
non-sulfur bacterial content and metabolic activity of photosynthetic sludge for wastewater
treatment, J. Ferment. Bioeng., 68(4), 269-276.
Kobayashi M. and Tchan Y.T. (1973). Treatment of industrial waste solutions and production of
useful by-products using a photosynthetic bacterial method, Wat. Res., 7(8), 1219-1224.
Madigan M.T., Martinko J.M. and Parker J. (2000). Brock Biology of Microorganisms. 9th edn,
Prentice-Hall Inc.
Noparatnaraporn N., Sasaki K., Nishizawa Y. and Nagai S. (1986). Stimulatin of vitamin B12
formation in aerobically-grown Rhodopseudomonas gelatinosa under microaerobic conditions.
Biotechnol. Lett., 8(7), 491-496.

163