International Journal of PharmTech Research
CODEN (USA): IJPRIF, ISSN: 0974-4304
Vol.7, No.1, pp 31-40,
2014-2015

Hypoglycemic effect of Pedada (Sonneratia caseolaris) Fruit
Flour (PFF) in alloxan-induced diabetic rats
Jariyah*1, Simon Bambang Widjanarko2, Yunianta2, Teti Estiasih2
1

Department of Food Technology, University of Pembangunan Nasional “Veteran”,
Surabaya, East Java, Indonesia 60294
2
Departement of Food Science and Technology, University of Brawijaya, Malang, East
Java, Indonesia 65145

Abstract: Our study provided evidence for the hypoglycemic effect of dietary fiber from Pedada Fruit Flour(PFF) in alloxan-induced diabetic rats. PFF is formulated to feed standard AIN-93M as a replacement of
Carboxyl Methyl Cellulase (CMC) diet composition. Meal Tolerance Test (MTT) consisted of three groups
with six rats each, i.e 3%, 6% and 9% PFF. Blood glucose levels were monitored for 120 min after feeding
intervals 30 minutes. The hypoglycemic effects of PFF in alloxan diabetic rats were studied for 4 weeks. The
diabetic rats were divided into 5 groups and each was administrated with the same treatment in MTT withcompared group of fed: glibenclamide, hyperglycemic and one group of normal rats as control. Blood glucose
and body weight levels was weekly monitored. At the end of feeding treatment we determined the Short Chain
Fatty Acids (SCFAs) profile from caecum digesta. The MTT showed that all concentration of PFF affected theabsorption of glucose in the blood and the lowest blood glucose improvement was 23.89%, indicated thehighest ability on glucose absorption. The hypoglycemic effect of PFF was significantly reducing glucose bloodin diabetic rats (P<0.05), i.e. 31.29%. In the other hand, the effect of PFF increase body weight in diabetic rats
(P<0.05) with magnitude of 5.25% (glibenclamide), 0.85% (3% PFF), 0.49% (6% PFF), and 4.19% (9% PFF).
The concentration of all SCFAs profile is similar, i.e acetic acid > propionic acid > butyric acid.
Keywords: Hypoglycemic; Meal Tolerance Test (MTT); Pedada Fruit Flour (PFF); SCFA.

1. Introduction
The majority of Indonesian people have less attention on diet and nutritional balance lead to negative
impact of increase in degenerative diseases. including diabetes mellitus1. Diabetes mellitus (DM) is common
disorder associated with markedly increased morbidity and mortality rate. DM, which affects a large number ofpeople around the globe, can be defined as a group of metabolic diseases characterized by chronic
hyperglycaemia resulting from defects in insulin secretion, insulin action, or both, resulting impaired function
in carbohydrate, lipid and protein metabolism2. The prevalence for all age-groups was estimated to be 2.8% in
2000; at least 171 million people worldwide suffered from diabetes, or 2.8% of the population and projected to
be 4.4% in 20303. It caused by deficiency or ineffective production of insulin by pancreas which results inincrease or decrease in concentrations of glucose in the blood 4,5, and the other hand such as lowest the physicalactivity and consumption of dietary fiber in food6.
Plant and foods of medicinal value have been proven to be very effective in the treatment andmanagement of diabetes mellitus7, such as dietary fiber. Dietary fiber has been defined previously as the plant
polysaccharides and lignin, which are resistant to hydrolysis by digestive enzymes of man 8. Hypoglicemic
effect of some dietary fiber decreased blood glucose9, psyllium11,12, guar gum13 polysaccharides14, black
glutinous corn15, and pectin will affect the metabolism and digestion, especially on the adsorption of glucose
and cholesterol16,17,18. One of the physiological effects of dietary fiber is the ability to form a gel matrix19, andJariyah et al /Int.J. PharmTech Res.2014-2015, 7(1), pp 31-40.

32

depending on the physicochemical properties, the consequences is including viscosity in the uppergastrointestinal tract, fermentation in the colon, and prebiotic effects. These effects improve laxation andincrease stool bulking in the gastrointestinal tract and also have metabolic consequences as improvements inserum lipids and postprandial glycemia and promotion of satiety 20. Mechanism of dietary fiber to recoverdiabetes is its efficiency to reduce the absorption of carbohydrates, thus reduce insulin response, consequence
the pancreas activity to be lighter so it can improve the function of the pancreas to produce insulin1. Soluble
dietary fiber can form a viscous gel thus inhibiting the absorption of glucose and improves insulin sensitivity21.
The potential plants to be developed related with a decrease in glucose blood is mangrove plants
species of Pedada (Sonneratia caseolaris), the fruit is edible and non-toxic22. Pedada Indonesian local name i.e.
Bogem is mangrove species with a wide distribution range from Sri Langka to Malay Peninsula as well as thePhilippines, Timor, New Guinea, Solomon Islands and Indonesia23,24. The ripened fruits of S. caseolaris have an
appealing flavor and taste, enriched with vitamins10. The Pedada fruit have many bioactive component such as
flavonoid, luteolin and luteolin 7-O-β-glucoside, terpenoid, steroid25-28, oleanolic acid, β-sistosterol-β-Dglucopyranoside that indicated anthihyperglycemic activity29.
Metanol extract of leaves Sonneratia caseolaris is effective as anti-hyperglycemic agents30, and its
dried leaf powder is significantly decrease in serum glucose leaves 5. Properties of anti-diabetic polysaccharide
from mangrove plant (Sonneratia alba) had reported by Morada et al31, but from Pedada fruit flour (PFF) had
not been researched. Previously known that PFF is rich dietary fiber (63.70%) and has high level of phenolic
compounds 30.61 mg/GAE/g of PFF and had reported decreased total plasma cholesterol, LDL-c, trigliceride,
but not affecting the HDL-c levels32. Therefore, this study focused to evaluate the hypoglycemic effect of PFF
in alloxan-induced rats.

2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Materials
Pedada fruit (Sonneratia caseolaris) (50-55g; ± 2 months) were obtained from Wonorejo village,
Surabaya, East Java, Indonesia. Pedada fruit flour (PFF) was processed using method of Jariyah et al 32. tosucceed dietary fiber (carboxil methyl cellulose) in standard fed AIN-93M 33. Fifty four male Wistar rats
(Rattus norvegicus) 2-3 month of age and weighing 219-234 g. Alloxan, glucose, glibenclamide and DiaSys(Diagnostic Systems) Glucose GOD were purchased from laboratory of Food Nutrition University of GadjahMada, Yogyakarta. PFF dosing calculated base on the research Anderson & Ward9 and the conversion dose of
fed was conducted using method Reagan-Shaw et al. 34, the composition of diet treatment as showed in Table 1.
Table 1. The composition feed of rats
Composition

Group A
Normalcontrol(%)

Group B
Hypergl.control(%)

Group C
Hypergl.
(%)

Maizena
CaseinSucroseSoy oil
CMC
PFF
Mineral mix
Vitamin mix
L-Systin
Colin bitartrat
Alloxan(mg/kg bw)
Glibenclamide(mg/200 g bw)

62.07
14.00
10.00
4.00
5.00
3.50
1.00
0.18
0.25
-

62.07
14.00
10.00
4.00
5.00
3.50
1.00
0.18
0.25
125

62.07
14.00
10.00
4.00
5.00
3.50
1.00
0.18
0.25
125

64.07
14.00
10.00
4.00
3.00
3.50
1.00
0.18
0.25
125

61.07
14.00
10.00
4.00
6.00
3.50
1.00
0.18
0.25
125

58.07
14.00
10.00
4.00
9.00
3.50
1.00
0.18
0.25
125

-

-

0.18

-

-

-

Note : Hypergl. = Hyperglycemic

Group D Group E Group F
Hypergl. Treated
3% PFF 6% PFF 9%PFF

Jariyah et al /Int.J. PharmTech Res.2014-2015, 7(1), pp 31-40.

33

2.2. Methods
Meal Tolerence Test (MTT)
Eighteen male Wistar rats were divided into 3 groups (6 rats/group) and individually housed in wire
screen cages, then adapted for a week and fed on standard feed of AIN-93M, water ad libitum. The rats were
fasting for 16 hours before feeding treatment, diet composition for MTT were group D, E and F (Table 1) andfollow the modified method of Madar et al.35 to determine change of blood glucose level increase after
consuming the feed. Blood sample were taken 1 mL from retro-orbital plexus of rats at 0, 30, 60, 90 and 120
min after feeding. Bloods samples were separated by centrifuge at 4000 rpm for 20 minutes and stored at 2025°C for further analysis of glucose levels by glucose oxidase-peroxidase method GOD-POD 36 and absorbancevalues were measured at a wavelength of 500 nm.
Hypoglycemic effect
The hypoglycemic effect was determined following the procedure of Ruzaidi et al.6. Thirty six male
Wistar rats (Rattus norvgicus) were adapted individually and housed in wire screen cages for a week and fed onstandard feed of AIN-93M, water ad libitum. The rats were divided into 6 groups (6 rats/group), and fasted 16
hours before treatment. Group A as normal control, and five groups were intraperitonial alloxan induced of
125mg/kg body weight. The rats were futher acclimatized for three days and followed by fasting 16 hours
before feeding treatment. A retro-orbital plexus blood sample was collected on non-fasting rats. The rats withglucose level above 200 mg/dL were used in the experiment. Group B as hyperglicemic control, group C wasgiven fed AIN-93M with glibenclamide (0.18 mg/200 g bb), while groups D, E, F were given fed mixture of
PFF at different dosages (3, 6 and 9% respectively). Each rat was fed ad libitum (15g/day) and had free accessof water for 4 weeks, the diet composition of rats showed in Table 1. Blood glucose levels and body weight ofrats were measured every week, while the residue was weighed daily. Blood glucose were taken from a retroortbital plexus after fasting for 16 hours and were measured by the GOD/POD methode.
Determination of Short Chain Fatty Acids (SFCAs)
As many as 6 rats per group were taken and anaesthetized with ether before the caecum digesta wastaken, then it removed to vial tubes and then centrifuged in 14000 rpm for 15 minutes. The supernatant wasmeasured to assess the profile of SCFA by a modified method of Henningsson et al. 37 with gas chromatograph(GC Shimadzu Serie GC 8A). Total of 1 µL supernatant was injected into column of GP 10% SP 1200 1%
HPP30 on chromosorb with a 2 m length and temperatures of 1300C, with FID detector, carrier gas N2 at 1.25kg/cm2 pressure. The injector and detector temperatures were maintained at 230 0C.
This study protocol had been appoved for ethical clearence No. 107-KEP-UB from Animal Care and
Use Committee, Brawijaya University.
Statistical analysis
All results were expressed as means + SEM for each group (n=6). Data were analysed by nested design
with two factors by one way analysis of variance (ANOVA) using the general linier model procedure of SPSS
16.0 software. The significance of the difference between the means of test and control studies were establishedby least significance difference (LSD). P values of less than 0.05 (α = 5%).

3. Results And Discussion
3.1. Meal Tolerence Test (MTT)The results of MTT study (Figure 1) indicated that all groups were fed with PFF affects the absorptionof glucose in the blood ranged from 72.63 mg/dL to 117.36 mg/dL. Groups D within 30 min absorption of
glucose increased 11.87 mg/dL or 15.68%, followed by group E and group F, it be required 30 min to reach theblood glucose levels back to normal. After 120 min of feeding, the blood glucose level of rats were increase
41.60 mg/dL (from 75.75 mg/dL to 117.46 mg/dL) or an increase 54.95%, this results was higher than groups E
and F which is 29.44 mg/dL (40.54%) and 17.44 mg/dL (23.89%) respectively. It indicated that the group F is
the most effective to maintain the blood glucose at normal levels. Low level of starch and add’s to PFF into dietcomposition caused the low absorpstion of the blood glucose, it indicated that dietary fiber from PFF was able
to inhibit the absorption of glucose.

Jariyah et al /Int.J. PharmTech Res.2014-2015, 7(1), pp 31-40.

34

Figure 1. Response on MTT of rats fed formulation with PFF
The inhibition ability of glucose absorption by soluble dietary fiber from PFF is lower than gembili
which extracted with papain38, and alignate on biscuit 39. This is caused the dietary fiber from PFF had not been
purified and higher with insoluble dietary fiber, so forming ability of matrix gel in digestion and absorption of
glucose in blood is slow. However, PFF have potential hypoglycemic effects. De Paula et al.40 explained thatsoluble fiber can form an unstirred water layer in the gut, which decreases absorption of glucose and can beused to prevent the postprandial increase of glucose.
3.2. Changes of blood glucose
Table 2. Effect of PFF on blood glucose levels (mg/dL) on normal and alloxan-induced hyperglycemic
ratsGroup of
rats

Feed

Normal (A)Hypergl (C)Hypergl (D)Standart AIN93M
Standart AIN93M
Glibenclamide
3% PFF

Hypergl (E)Hypergl (F)

6% PFF
9% PFF

Hypergl (B)Week 0Blood glucose levels (mg/dL)
Week 1
Week 2
Week 3

Week 480.21±1.62c

81.93 ±1.79bc

83.17± 2.31b86.50 ± 1.89a

88.11 ±1.91a

223.97±7.69 a

227.31±7.45a

224.34±6.62a

230.11±6.15a

232.82±5.93a

217.56±10.83a
211.93±8.26a

196.40 ±9.12b
198.37±8.73b

145.70 ±8.49c
167.61±8.80c

98.53 ± 8.34d
142.77± 8.76d

95.91±7.40d
129.35± 3.40e

215.83±11.11a
214.10±9.09a

200.22±6.98b
198.82±6.21b

159.82±7.09c
154.47±6.72c

124.35± 7.00d
114.29±6.23d

109.90±1.67e
100.51±4.67e*Different code indicated the differences in one column.
The weekly changes of blood glucose levels were presented in Table 2 and the differences treatments
shown in Figure 2. The administration of PFF significantly affect the blood glucose levels (P<0.05). The firstweek after alloxan injection showed blood glucose levels increase up to 223.97 mg/dL, exception the normal
control group there was a slight result presumably due to an increase in stress by injection, while there were no
significant different glucose levels in the hyperglycemic group. Alloxan injection cause damage selective in β cells islets of Langerhans, and hyperglycemia occurs because glucose output from the liver15.

Jariyah et al /Int.J. PharmTech Res.2014-2015, 7(1), pp 31-40.

35

Figure 2. Changes of blood glucose level of rats during 4 weeks feeding PFF in diet compared withglibenclamide
Feed with glibenclamide (group C) and group rats were administrated of 3% PFF (group D), 6% PFF(group E) and 9% PFF (group F) for 4 weeks shows reduction of 55.69%; 38.96%; 49.08% and 53.05%
respectively. The highest effect is shown by use of 9% PFF, the same tendency to that found on the MTT, if it
compared with glibenclamide the decrease in 2.46% difference. Feed with PFF formulation shows gradualreduction in the glucose blood level depending on PFF added into diet, it indicates that PFF have hypoglycemic
effect although the decrease were not as significant as glibenclamide.
The decrease blood glucose levels of groups D for 4 weeks about 211.93 mg/dL - 129.35 mg/dL(38.96%), it is lower than hypoglycemic effect gembili biscuits (135.74 mg/dL) (Harjono et al., 2013), group E
and F 49.08% (from 215.83 mg/dL to 109.90 mg/dL) and 53.05% (from 214.10 mg/dL to 100.51 mg/dL)
respectively. It indicates that dietary fiber from PFF have ability suppress to absorb glucose in blood andincrease of food viscosity. Dikeman & Fahey 41 reported that increase in viscosity will reduce the speed ofnutrients transport and inhibit contact between nutrients and surface of mucosa, further agitation peristalsis
decrease followed by contact between enzyme and substrate, formation of micelles reduced so that theabsorption of nutrients (glucose) be slowed.
Soluble dietary fiber can form water layer which is not moving in the gut so that reduce the absorptionof glucose and fat. This effect related to the behaviour of polymer to form immobile water layer, i.e. reduce
gastric emptying and withstand effects to remove a substance intestinal contractions and reduce the absorptionof glucose by small intestine15. The changes of blood glucose in all treatment for 4 weeks were summarized inTable 2. There are two groups of rats to reach normal glucose levels, i.e. group E (109.90 mg/dL) and F (100.51
mg/dL), as well as with treatment glibenclamide (95.91 mg/dL), while group D still above normal, although
there is a tendency to decline and near-normal (129.35 mg/dL). Thus feeding groups D have not been effective
in lowering blood glucose levels during hyperglycemic rats observation. The differences of profile blood
glucose among of all gropus for 4 weeks were summarized in Fig.2. The best treatment dietary fiber were group
F (25.34%), which shown decrease in blood glucose level lower than group D (28.84%) and E (31.29%)
respectively. It was also lower compared to group C (33.76%). Deruiter42 explained that glibenclamide drug issulfonylurea derivative which has a potential decrease in blood glucose levels higher than another.
Reduction of blood glucose in all PFF treatments is still lower than as reported by Morada et al.31
which observed hypoglycemic effect from leaf extract of Sonneratia alba for 6 hours, decreased blood glucose
level 66.90%. Whereas Moharib & El-Batran [8] investigated dietary fiber 50-150 mg/kg for 8 weeks reduced
blood glucose levels 16-61%, because dietary fiber delayed gastric emptying, diffusion of glucose in theintestine.
3.3. Changes of body weight
The results of changes body weight were presented in Table 3. Dietary fiber from PFF which
formulation in diet was significantly affect the body weight of hyperglycemic rats for 4 weeks (P<0.05). The
hyperglycemic of group B body weight were lower than the control group and it decrease up to 6.17%, causedby alloxan induction which can inhibit secretion of insulin. So that absorption of glucose into tissue will beJariyah et al /Int.J. PharmTech Res.2014-2015, 7(1), pp 31-40.

36

slower and gluconeogenesis happen on liver to obtain the energy, and affected degradation of protein in thelong time, the body weight were reduced. The body weight increase of group D (0.85%) and E (0.42%) werelower than group C (5.39%) and group F (4.19%). The profile differences of body wieght among all gropus for
4 weeks were summarized in Fig.3. It indicated that group F was best treatment that improved the performanceof rats pancreas. The dietary fiber of PFF able to lower the absorption of carbohydrates, as Restiani1 reported
that it reduce the insulin action, the pancreas metabolism becomes lighter so it can improve the function of thepancreas to produce insulin. Harjono et al. 39 explained that diabetes generally causes glycation of body protein
and affected the body weight.
Table 3. Effects of PFF on body weight (g) on normal and alloxan-induced hyperglycemic rats

236.17±4.17a

Week 1245.50± 4.04b

Body weight (g)Week 2253.50±3.73c

261.50± 4.04d

271.33± 4.76e

232.33±4.23a

226.83± 4.07b

223.67±3.44bc

218.00± 4.52d

233.67±3.77b

229.17± 4.02c

233.33± 4.18b

220.83±
4.07cd237.33± 4.13b

3% PFF

233.50±2.74a

228.83±3.66b

226.33± 4.18bc

225.00± 3.69c

234.83± 3.97a

6% PFF
9% PFF223.50±6.89b
228.17±6.11bc

219.17±6.49b
223.17± 5.34c

222.83± 6.82b
226.00± 5.48bc

225.33± 6.28b
229.33 ±5.05b

234.67±5.61a
238.17 ±5.31aGroup of
rats

Feed

Normal (A)Hypergl (C)Standart AIN93M
Standart AIN93M
Glibenclamide

Hypergl (D)Hypergl (E)Hypergl (F)Hypergl (B)Week 0Week 3

Week 4247.00± 4.60a*Different code indicated the differences in one column.

Figure 3. Changes body weight level of rats among all groups during 4 weeks feeding with PFF comparedglibenclamide
3.4. SCFAs level of caecum
Dietary fibers pass as unaffected matter through the small intestine, and when reaching the colon,
anaerobic bacteria degrade some dietary fibers via fermentation process, yielding short chain fatty acids (SCFA)
such as acetic acid, propionic acid, and butyric acid [20,21,43], and forming gases such as H 2, CO2 and CH4[37,44]. SCFA analysis was conducted to prove the alleged mechanism of decreased glucose levels through theutilization of SCFA in process of metabolism in the liver45. The decrease in blood glucose levels was not only
caused by dietary fiber in the PFF that inhibit the absorption of glucose in small intestine. Another cause is the
body's metabolism in mice such as increased insulin response to glucose in the liver due to the formation ofshort- chain fatty acids (SCFAs).

Jariyah et al /Int.J. PharmTech Res.2014-2015, 7(1), pp 31-40.

37

Figure 4. Short Chain Fatty Acids of caecum digesta of rats fed with PFF compared glibenclamide
Tabel 3 show that body weight of rats fed with dietary fiber from the PFF, glibenclamide and the groupof normal mice were increased. The increase was much higher in normal AIN-93M fed rat, while the bodyweight of hyperglycemic groups significantly decreased. It indicates various feed – which formulated instandard fed – have contribute to different metabolism in rats. The results of SCFAs profile from caecum’s
digesta rats with difference feed for 4 weeks as shown in Figure 4. The similar SCFAs level is on group A(normal) and group C (glibenclamide), whereas hyperglicemic group was lower than any treatment and higher
on the group F rats that fed with 9% PFF formula. The SCFAs level is increase along with the concentration of
PFF that added to feed. The profile of SCFAs show that the acetic acid were higher, followed by propionic acidand butyric acid. Similar reported by Topping & Clifton46. Lunn & Buttriss47 explained that the SCFAs profile
were dominated by acetic acid and followed by propionic acid an butyric acid. Fermentation of food is bacterial
performed by anaerobic breakdown and hydrolysed to their monomeric units, glucose, galactose, xylose,arabinose and uranic acids and then fermented via glycolysis to pyruvate and eventually to SCFAs together withsome gases48. It can impact glucose homeostasis49. They were absorbed in the colon and transported to the liver
via the enterohepatic circulation, a system that connect the liver and intestine50.
Caprita et al. 51 explained that effect of dietary fiber to colon depend on the composition and physicalproperties of fiber. Soluble dietary fiber such as pectin and guar gum are rapid fermented in the colon37,
whereas insoluble dietary fiber such as cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin has less effect on postprandial
glucose or insulin41. In the other hand it absorbs water in the colon, led to larger stool volume and stimulates thenerves in the rectum, giving rise to a desire for defecation52. SFCA also lower the colon pH and thereby inhibit
the growth of patogenic organisms and also the formation of toxic breakdown products53.
4. Conclusion
Dietary fiber from PFF on the diet composition for 4 weeks decrease the blood glucose levels on
diabetic alloxan induced rats. The most effective decrease of blood glucose is at the level of 9% PFF thatapproach value of glibenclamide group, and followed by 6% PFF and 3% PFF. All PFF treatment also increase
the body weight of rats. The SCFAs profile in all caecum treatment of the rats have similar concentration order,
i.e acetic acid > propionic acid > butyric acid.
Acknowledgment
We would like to thank the Directorate of Higher Education Ministry of Education and Culture
Republic of Indonesia due to the author Scholarship.

Jariyah et al /Int.J. PharmTech Res.2014-2015, 7(1), pp 31-40.

38

References
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.

Restiani, Y. (2010). Regulations related to claims against gastrointestinal function. Food Review
Indonesia, 5(3), 56-57.
Zbang, J., Huang, Y., Hou, T. & Wang, Y. (2006). Hypoglycaemic effect of Artemisia sphaerocepbala
Krasc seed polysaccharide in alloxan-induced diabetic rats. Swiss Med WKLY, 136, 529-532.
Ukwenya, V.O., Ashaoalu, J.O., Adeyemi, D.O., Akinola, O.B. & Carton-Martins, E.A. (2012).
Anthihyperglycemic activities of methanolic leaf extract of Anacardium occidentale (Linn.) on thepancreas of streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. Journal of Cell and Animal Biology, 6(14), 207-212.
Arayne, M.S., Sultana, N., Mirza, A.Z., Zuberi, M.H., & Siddiqui, F.A. (2007). In vitro hypogly cemic
activity of methanolic extract of some indigenous plants. Pak J Pharm Sci, 20(4), 261-268.
Ahmed, L.A., Hassan, D.R., & Hemeda, H.M. (2010). Anti-hyperglycemic effect of Okara, corn hulland their combination in alloxan induced diabetic rats. World Applied Sciences Journal, 9(10),11391147.
Ruzaidi, A., Maleyki, A., Amin, I., Nawalyah, A.G., Muhajir, H., Pauliena, M.B.S. & Muskinah M.S.
(2008). Hypoglycemic properties of Malaysian Cocoa (Theobroma cacao). Polyphenols-rich Extract.
International Food Research Journal, 15(3), 261-265.
Erukainure, O.L., Ebuehi, O.A.T., Adeboyejo, F.O., Okafor, E.N., Hafizur, R.M., Aliyu, M. & Elemo,
G.N. (2012). Anti-diabetic and hypoglycemic properties of fiber-enriched cake in alloxan-induced
diabetic rats. Mediterr J Nutr Metab. doi 10.1007/s12349-012-0116-9.
Moharib, S.A. & El-Batran. (2008). Hypoglycemic effect of diatery fibre in diabetic rats. Research
Journal of Agriculture and Biological Sciences, 4(5), 455-461.
Anderson, J.W. & Ward, K.R.D. (1979). High-carbohydrate, high fiber diets for insulin-treated men
with diabetes mellitus. Am J Clin Nutr, 32, 2312-2321.
Abeywickrama, W.S.S. & Jayasooriya, M.C.N. (2010). Formulation and quality evaluation of cordialbased on Kirila (Sonneratia caseolaris) fruit. Tropical Agricultural Research & Extension, 13(1), 16-18.
Sierra, M., Garcia, J.J., Fernandez, N., Diez, M.Z., Calle, A.P. (2002). Farmafibra group, therapeutic
effects of psyllium in type 2 diabetic patients. Eur J Clin Nutr, 56, 830-842.
Clark, C.A., Gardiner, J., Mc Burney, M.I., Anderson, S., Weatherspoon, L.J., Henry, D.N. & Hord,
N.G. (2006). Effects of breakfast meal composition on second meal metabolic responses in adults with
type 2 diabetes mellitus. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 60, 1122–1129.
Butt, S.M., Shahzadi, N., Sharif, M.K., & Nasir, M. (2007). A miracle therapy for hypercholesterolemia,
hyperglycemia and obesity. Food Science and Nutrition, 47(4), 389-394.
Xie, J.T., Wu, J.A., Mehendale, S., Aung, H.H. & Yuan, C.S. (2004). Anti-hyperglycemic effect ofpolysachharudes fraction from American ginseng berry extract in ob/ob mice. Phytomedicine, 11 (2/3),
182-185.
Zhang, Z., Zhang, W.S. & Feng Du, X. (2010). Hypoglycemic effect of black glutinous corn
polysaccharides on alloxan-induced diabetic mice. Eur Food Res Technol, 230, 411-415.
Gomathy, R., Vijayalekshmi, N.R. & Kurup, P.A. (1990). Hypoglycemic action of the pectin present in
the juice of the inflorescence stalk of plantain (Musa sapientum)-Mechanism of action. J Biosci, 1(4),297-303.
Hamed, W.M.A., Abid, K.Y. & Al-Amin, S.A. (2008). Hypoglycemic and hypolipidemic effects ofgrapefruit juice in diabetic rats. Tikrit Journal of Pure Science, 13(1), 129-131.
Sharma, M., Fernandes, J., Ahiwar, D. & Jain, R. (2008). Hypoglycemic and hypolipimic activity ofalcoholic extract of citrus aurantium in normal and alloxan-iduced diabetic rats. Pharmacoloyonline, 3,161-171.
Bisoi, P.C., Sahoo, G., Mishra, S.K., Das, C., & Das, K.L. (2012). Hypoglycemic effects of Insoluble
fiber rich fraction of differnt cereals and millets. Food Processing and Tecnology, 3, 1-11.
El Khoury, D., Cuda, C., Luhovyy, B.I. & Anderson, G.H. (2011). Beta glucan: health benefits in
obesity and metabolic syndrome. Review Articel Journal of Nutrition and Metabolism 2012, 1-28.
Anderson, J.W., Baird, P., Davis, R.H., Ferreri, S., Knudtson, M., Koraym, A., Waters, V., & Williams,
C.L. (2009). Health benefits of dietary fibers. Nutrition Reviews, 67(40),188-205.
Chen, L., Zan, Q., Li, M., Shen, J. & Liao, W. (2009). Litter dynamics and forest structure of
introducted Sonneratia caseolaris mangrove forest in Shenzhen China. Estruarine Coastal and Self
Science, 85(2), 241-246.
Mangrove Information Center. (2009). Sonneratia caesolaris. Retrieved fromwww.mangrovecenter.com.

Jariyah et al /Int.J. PharmTech Res.2014-2015, 7(1), pp 31-40.

24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.

30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.

41.
42.
43.
44.
45.

39

Varghese, J.K., Belzik, N., Nisha, A.R., Resmi, S. & Silvipriya, K.S. (2010). Pharmacognotical andphytochemical studies of a mangrove (Sonneratia caseolaris) from Kochi of Kerala State in India.
Journal Pharmacy Research, 3(11), 2625-2627.
Bandaranayake, W.M. (2002). Bioactive, bioactive compounds and chemical constituents of mangrove
plants. Wetlands ecology and management. Netherlands: Kluwer Academic.
Sadhu, S.K., Ahmed, F., Ohtsuki, T., Ishibashi, M. (2006). Flavonoid from Sonneratia caseolaris.
Journal Nat Med, 60, 264-265.
Minqing, T.D., Xiaoming, H.L. & Wang, B. (2009). Chemical constituents of marine medical mangrove
plant Sonneratia caseolaris. Chinese Journal of Oceanology and Limnology, 27(2), 288-296.
Wu, S.B., Wen, Y., Li, X.W., Zhao, Z., Hu, J.F. (2009). Chemical constituents from the fruits ofSonneratia caseolaris and Sonneratia ovata (Sonneratiaceae). Biochenical Systematic and Ecology,
37(1), 1-5.
Tiwari, A.K., Viswanadh, V., Gowri, P.M., Ali, A.Z., Radhakrishnan, S.V.S., Agawane, S.B.,
Madhusudana, K., & Rao, J.M. (2010). Oleanolic acid - an a-glucosidase inhibitory andantihyperglycemic active compound from the fruits of Sonneratia caseolaris. Journal of Medicinal andAromatic Plants, 1(1), 19-23.
Rahmatullah, M., Azam, Md.N.K., Pramanik, S., Sania, Rahman, S. & Jahan, R. (2012).
Antihyperglycemic activity evaluation of rhizomes of Curcuma zedoaria (Christm.) Roscoe and fruits ofSonneratia caseolaris (L.) Engl. International Journal of PharmTech Research, 4(1):125-129.
Morada, N.J., Metillo, E.G., Uy, M.M. & Oclarit, J.M. (2011). Anti-diabetic polysaccharide frommangrove plant, Sonneratia alba Sm. International Conference on Asia Agriculture and Animal, 3,
197-200.
Jariyah, Azkiyah, L., Widjanarko, S.B., Estiasih, T., Yuwono, S.S. & Yunianta. (2013). Hypocholesterolemic effect of Pedada (Sonneratia caseolaris) fruit flour in wistar rats. International Journal of
Pharm Tech Research, 5(4), 1619-1627.
Reeves, P.G., Nielsen, F.H., Fahey, G.C. (1993). AIN-93 purified diets for laboratory rodents: final
report of the American Institute of Nutrition ad hoc writing committee on the reformulation of the AIN76A rodent diet. The Journal of Nutrition, 123(11), 1939-1951.
Reagan-Shaw, S., Nihal, M. & Nihal, A. (2007). Dose translation from animal to human studies
revisited. The FASEB Journal, 22, 659-661.
Madar, Z., Nir, M., Ttrostler, N. & Norenberg, C. (1988). Effects of cottonseed dietary fiber on
metabolic paramaters in diabetic rats and non-insulin-dependent diabetic humans. Journal Nutr, 118,
1143 -1148.
Basak, A. (2007). Development of a rapid and inexpensive plasma glucose estimation by two-point
kinetic method based on glucose oxidase-peroxidase enzymes. Indian Journal of Clinical Biochemistry,
22(1), 156-160.
Henningsson, A.M., Bjork, I.M.E. & Nyman, M.G.L. (2002). Combinations of indigestible
carbohydrates affect short-chain fatty acid formation in the hindgut of rat. Journal of Nutrition, 132,3098-3104.
Estiasih, T., Harjono, Suhnarharum, W.B. & Rahmawati, A. (2012). Hypoglycemic activity of watersoluble polysaccharides of Yam (Dioscorea hispida Dents) prepared by aqueous, papain, and tempeh
inoculum assisted extractions. World Academy of Science Engineering and Technology, 70, 323-329.
Harjono, Estiasih, T., Sunarharum, W.B. & Hartono, M.D. (2013). Hypoglecemic effect of biscuits
containing water-soluble polysaccharides from wild yam (Dioscorea hispida Dennts) or lesser yam(Dioscorea esculanta) tubers and alginate. International Food Research Journal, 20(5), 2279-2285.
De Paula, A.C.C.F.F., Sousa, R.V., Figueriredo-Ribeiro, R.C.L. & Buckeridge, M.S. (2005).
Hypoglycemic activity of polysaccharide fractions containing β-glucans from extracts of Rhynchelytrum
repens (Willd) C.E. Hubb., Poaceace. Brazillian Journal of Medical and Biological Research, 38, 885893.
Dikeman, C.L. & Fahey, G.C. (2006). Viscosity as related to dietary fiber: a review. Food Science andNutrition, 46(8), 649-660.
Deruiter, J. (2003). Overview of the antidiabetic agents (pp 1-33). Endocrine Pharmacotherapy Module.
Tensiska. (2008). Fiber food (pp 1-8). Papers Food Industrial Technology Department, Industrial
Technology Faculty of Agriculture University of Padjajaran Bandung Indonesia.
Tharanathan, R.N. (2002). Food derived carbohydrates-structrural complexity and functional diversity.
Critical Reviews in Biotechnology, 22 (1), 65-84.
Lattimer, J.M. & Haub, M.D. (2010). Effects of dietary fiber and its components on metabolic health.
Nutrients, 2, 1266-1289.

Jariyah et al /Int.J. PharmTech Res.2014-2015, 7(1), pp 31-40.

46.
47.
48.
49.

50.
51.
52.
53.

40

Topping, D.L. & Clifton, P.M. (2001). Short-chain fatty acids and human colonic function: roles ofresistant starch and nonstarch polysaccharides. Physiological Reviews, 81, 1031-1064.
Lunn, J. & Buttriss, J.L. (2007). Carbohydrates and dietary fibre. Nutrition Bulletin, 32, 21–64.
Khattak, M.M.A.K. (2002). Physiological effect of dietary complex carbohydrates and its metabolites
role in certain diseases. Pakistan Journal of Nutrition, 1(4), 161-168.
Michael, R., Lyon, M.D., Ronald, G. & Reichert, N.D. (2010). The effect of a novel viscous
polysaccharide along with lifestyle changes on short-term weight loss and associated risk factors inoverweight and obese adults: an observational retrospective clinical program analysis. Alernative
Medical Review, 15(1), 68-75.
Luthana, Y.K. (2009). Asam Lemak Rantai Pendek. Retrieved fromhttp://www.yongikastanyaluthana.wordpress.com/2009/03/12/asam-lemak-rantai-pendek.
Caprita, A., Caprita, R. & Simulescu, V.O.G. (2010). Dietray fiber: chemical and functional properties.
Journal of Agroalimentary Processes and Technologies, 16(4), 406-416.
Marsono, Y. & Topping, D.L. (1993). Complex carbohydrates in Australia rice products-influence of
microwave cooking and food processing. Food Science and Technology LWT, 26, 364-370.
Buttris, J.L. & Stokes, C. (2008). Dietary fibre and health: an overview. Journal British Nutrition
Foundation Nutrition Bulletin, 33, 186–200.

*****