LANGUAGE&COMMUNICATION

Language & Communication 26 (2006) 250–269
www.elsevier.com/locate/langcom

Language, writing, and disciplinarity in the
Critique of the ‘‘Ideographic Myth’’: Some
proleptical remarks
David B. Lurie *Department of East Asian Languages and Cultures, Columbia University, New York, NY 10027, United States

Abstract
Prominent in recent discussions of East Asian writing systems has been a metadiscursive polemicthat can be labeled the Critique of the Ideographic Myth. Associated primarily with John DeFrancis
and J. Marshall Unger, this is an attack on the notion that the Chinese writing system represents
ideas directly, and more broadly an argument for the primacy of phonography in inscription in general. This paper considers the disciplinary framework of the Critique, tracing its roots in a prewar
Sinological debate (the Boodberg–Creel controversy) and in Leonard Bloomﬁeld’s famous dismissalof writing, and locating it within the postwar ﬁeld of Asian Studies.
Ó 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: History of writing systems; Sinology; Asian studies; Bloomﬁeldian linguistics; Ideography; Area studies

The radical diﬀerence in scripts doubtless strengthened the disposition to see in
China not a subject for history in all its many branches, like France, but an -ology.
Egyptology, Sinology—they both suggest not simply chapters in the story of man, as
parts of the proper study of mankind, but self-contained intellectual puzzles (Levenson, 1964, pp. 507–508).
The primacy of speech and the primacy of the graphic principle based on speech needto receive the categorical support of scholars concerned with the nature of writing
and the progress of linguistic science (DeFrancis, 1989, p. 218).
*
Present address: 39 Claremont Avenue #53, New York, NY 10027, United States. Tel.: +1 212 854 5316; fax:
+1 212 678 8629.
E-mail address: DBL11@columbia.edu.

0271-5309/$ - see front matter Ó 2006 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.langcom.2006.02.015

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1. Introduction
The past two decades have seen a resurgence of interest in the comparative and historical investigation of writing.1 As the sole region of the globe with widely employed writing
systems that do not descend from the Semitic scripts of the ancient Middle East, and as
one of the few places where writing is thought to have been invented outright, East Asia
understandably occupies an important place in such scholarship. It is of considerable
interest, then, that within recent anglophone Asian Studies, the most prominent discussions of writing as a general problem have been dedicated less to its historical development
than to a metadiscursive critique of certain conceptions of the Chinese writing system.
This metadiscourse, which I refer to as the ‘Critique of the Ideographic Myth,’ came toprominence in the late 1980s, in books published by the University of Hawai’i Press and insuch journals as Monumenta Nipponica and the Journal of Asian Studies; it reached a highwater mark of sorts with a well-attended two-part panel at the 1995 annual meeting of the
Association of Asian Studies in Washington DC, entitled ‘‘The Ideographic Myth and Its
Impact on Asian Studies’’.2 The present paper focuses on arguments made by the originators of the Critique, John DeFrancis and J. Marshall Unger, both individually and in coauthored papers and reviews, although some reference is made to work by others under
their inﬂuence.3 Two central premises animate the Critique: the ﬁrst is that the Chinesewriting system does not represent ideas directly, but rather the syllables of Chinese words,
and only secondarily morphological information about those syllables. The second, andmore fundamental, premise is that all writing is necessarily phonographic, and that writing
systems based on the direct representation, not only of ideas, but even of words, do notexist in practice and are in fact impossible.4
Elsewhere I have explained how my sympathy with many of DeFrancis and Unger’s
arguments is tempered by reservations about their treatment of premodern writing, especially in connection with the translinguistic nature of ‘Chinese’ characters in early Korea
1

As Peter Daniels observes, ‘‘the fortunes of writing in modern linguistics have fallen and risen’’ (1996, 10); for
an oft-cited survey of the fall, see Basso (1974, pp. 425–426). The latter half of the 1980s saw a cluster ofanglophone surveys of writing systems, with the publication of Sampson (1985), Coulmas (1989), and DeFrancis(1989). The ﬁeld received a dramatic boost with Daniels and Bright (1996), which assembled dozens of specialist
essays on an appropriately wide range of historical and theoretical topics; recent years have seen another crop ofgeneral and theoretical works, with the appearance of Harris (1995), Coulmas (1996), Sproat (2000), Harris (2001[2000]), Fischer (2001), Coulmas (2003) and Rogers (2005), the last of which provides a useful bibliographic
starting point for surveying general and specialized studies of writing.
2
Revised versions of many of the panel’s papers are available in Erbaugh (2002).
3
DeFrancis, a specialist in Chinese linguistics and language pedagogy who taught for years at the University of
Hawai’i (and is currently emeritus professor of Chinese there), is well-known as an author of Chinese language
textbooks and readers, histories of language and script reform in China and Vietnam (DeFrancis, 1950;
DeFrancis, 1977) and, more recently, a very useful alphabetic Chinese–English dictionary (DeFrancis, 2000).
Unger, currently professor of Japanese at Ohio State University, combines training in historical linguistics withinterests in language pedagogy, electronic media (Unger, 1987), script reform (Unger, 1996), and the history of
linguistic thought.
4This rough summary hardly does justice to the Critique, which is a varied collection of texts that respond indetail to a wide range of secondary sources on writing in particular and culture in general. The core works are
DeFrancis (1984), DeFrancis (1989), Unger (1990), and Unger and DeFrancis (1995) (see also DeFrancis andUnger, 1994). The present paper is devoted to the Critique as it was presented between the mid-1980s and mid1990s; partly in response to the theories of the Bakhtin circle and of Roy Harris, Unger has continued to develop
his ideas about writing (see Unger, 1998a,b,c, 2004).

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and Japan (Lurie, 2001, pp. 320–333). My aim here, however, is not to consider the empirical content or speciﬁc claims of the Critique.5 Rather, in keeping with the theme of thiscollection, the present paper examines an important feature of this polemic against thenotion of ‘ideography’: the role played therein by disciplinary discourses of Sinology
and linguistics, before and after the emergence of the ﬁeld of Asian studies.6 My goal hereis neither to endorse nor to refute the arguments of DeFrancis and Unger (or their interlocutors), but rather to consider how those arguments about writing have been shaped by
the status of language as an object of competing academic disciplines.
2. Writing, language, and sinology
The belief that the Chinese writing system inscribes ideas, and is thus at least potentially independent of (spoken) language, is a venerable one, with signiﬁcant implications
for early modern and modern European intellectual history.7 Criticism of thisconception of Chinese characters also has a long history, going back at least as far
as the Franco-American scholar Peter S. Du Ponceau (1760–1844), who devoted amonograph to the argument that they ‘‘represent ideas no otherwise than as connectedwith the words in which language has clothed them, and therefore that they areconnected with sounds, not indeed as the letters of our alphabet separately taken,
but as the groups formed by them when joined together in the form of words’’ (DuPonceau, 1838, xii).8
Perhaps the most famous subsequent controversy about the nature of the Chinese script
was a vociferous debate between two of the founders of modern academic Sinology in the
United States: Herrlee Creel (1905–1994) of the University of Chicago, a cultural historian
and well-known popularizer, and Peter Boodberg (1903–1972) of the University of Berkeley, a legendarily erudite philologist. This exchange, which was carried out in four articles
published between 1936 and 1940 in T’oung Pao and the Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies, is of great interest here, because Boodberg’s arguments represent the chief forerunnerto the Critique (and are cited as such by DeFrancis).9 The controversy began with a longarticle by Creel (1936) entitled ‘‘On the Nature of Chinese Ideography’’, which argued
against notions that Chinese was a primitive language or had a primitive writing system,in eﬀect insisting that Chinese characters were a ‘‘method of writing which consists merelyof a graphic representation of thought, but which is not primarily a system for the graphic
notation of sounds’’ (p. 85).
5

Nor will I address the philosophical and semiological issues raised by the debate over the term ‘‘ideograph’’.
The former are taken up, in a way that—as discussed below—has proved controversial, in Hansen (1993), while a
discussion of the latter is available in Harris (2001 [2000], pp. 138–160).
6The European roots of Sinology are an important part of the story, but this paper focuses primarily on theinteractions among that discipline, linguistics, and area studies in the United States.
7
On the development of early modern European ideas about Chinese writing and their wider cultural andintellectual signiﬁcance, see Mungello (1985) and Porter (2001).
8
For more on Du Ponceau’s discussion of the Chinese script, see Chao (1940), Unger (1990, pp. 394–395) and
Boltz (1994, pp. 3–7).
9
The articles are: Creel (1936), Boodberg (1937), Creel (1938a) and Boodberg (1940) (photographic reprints of
the Boodberg articles, on which I relied in preparing the present paper, are available in Cohen (1979)). For a brief
account of this ‘‘celebrated exchange’’, see DeFrancis (1984, pp. 85–87). Founded in 1890, T’oung Pao, a joint
Dutch–French publication, is among the most venerable institutions in European Sinology; the Harvard Journalof Asiatic Studies (in publication since 1936) has similar status in the United States.

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Creel opposed not only a model of ‘‘unilinear evolution’’ of scripts that led to the conclusion that ‘‘if Chinese does not ﬁt into the predetermined top of the scale, then it follows
that Chinese is primitive’’ (1936, p. 86), but also analyses of Chinese writing that saw it as‘‘chieﬂy an attempt, dismally unsuccessful, to represent sounds’’ (p. 126). In this latter critique, his principal target was Bernhard Karlgren (1889–1978), the Swedish Sinologist who
ﬁrst applied the techniques of modern historical phonology to the reconstruction of earlier
forms of Chinese.10 Creel’s comments show a relatively undeveloped sense of the disciplinarity of both his own work and that he opposes. Early in the article he explains that
Practically all writing in Western lands, and that of most of Asia, is done by the representation of sound. As a result, linguistics and phonetics have at times almost coalesced. During the past eighty years Occidental scholarship has developed the studyof the sounds of language beyond the dreams of its founders into one of the chief
techniques of contemporary scholarship. [. . .] What more natural than for phoneticians to approach Chinese literature conﬁdent that there, too, their craft will unlock
every door? (1936, p. 87)
These lines demonstrate a clear sense of ‘‘phonetics’’ as a ﬁeld of study, but ‘‘linguistics’’
seems to denote more a general area of inquiry than a bounded discipline. A few lines later
he continues:
From the phonetic point of view, Chinese has long been studied by eminent scholars[. . .] But comparatively little work has been done by Western scholars toward theserious, systematic study of Chinese ideography from the point of view of the methods by which [. . .] it conveys the thought of the writer to the mind of the reader. Thisis a ﬁeld for research which is of profound importance for philology, psychology,
and the general project of human history (p. 87; emphasis added).
As is also apparent from his description of Karlgren as a ‘‘phonetician’’ (p. 160), Creel sees
this mode of scholarship as a foil for his own approach, but more than anything suchterms seem to indicate diﬀerent perspectives (‘‘point[s] of view’’), with a ﬂexible relationship to academic disciplines as such.11 This presents a striking contrast to the disciplinaryorientation apparent in Boodberg’s uncompromising critique of Creel’s discussion of‘ideography.’
Boodberg’s initial reply to Creel is embedded in a long article entitled ‘‘Some Proleptical Remarks on the Evolution of Archaic Chinese’’ (1937). His attack on the notion thatearly Chinese writing is ideographic takes place on a number of fronts: a brief excursus
into the theory of writing; linguistic considerations that allow him to argue that apparently
10

In this critique, Creel focuses on Karlgren (1974 [1923]) and Karlgren (1926).
The editor of T’oung Pao, Paul Pelliot (1878–1945) (a pioneering scholar who became, for better or worse,
representative of prewar Sinology), appended a short and gently worded critique to the end of Creel’s article. It
demonstrates a somewhat more developed sense of academic discipline as an aﬃliation marking thequaliﬁcation—or lack thereof—to pursue certain forms of inquiry: ‘‘All his work shows him to be a wellinformed connoisseur of writing, like the Chinese scholars themselves, who is, however, neither a linguist nor aphonetician’’ [Tout son travail montre un connaisseur averti de l’écriture, comme le sont les savants chinois euxmêmes, mais qui n’est linguiste, ni phonéticien] (Pelliot, 1936, p. 164). An important aspect of the Creel/Boodberg
debate is also implicit in Pelliot’s comment: the contrast between modern western (or ‘‘Occidental’’, as Creel putsit) and traditional Chinese scholarly methodologies. This is central to the much-discussed problem of Orientalism,in both its original ‘scholarly’ sense and the broader meaning it has taken on since Said (1978).
11

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ideographic character elements are actually phonetic; and analysis of a class of ‘‘alliterative binoms’’ (p. 354) as stemming from multi-character indications of single syllables withinitial consonant clusters. Signiﬁcantly, a much clearer disciplinary frame is apparent inthis article, whose introduction includes the following paragraph:
It is, perhaps, inevitable that in the investigation of ancient ‘ideographic’ scripts
the ‘phonetician’ and the ‘epigraphist’ should often work at cross purposes. Evenin Egyptology and Assyriology we frequently meet with such a situation, but inthose sciences the outstanding philological achievements of both camps haveconsiderably mitigated this wasteful division of labor. In the ﬁeld of Chinese, however, where we are just beginning to formulate methods of philological approach,the division is greatly retarding the development of science (Boodberg, 1937, p.
329).
With the exception of remarks made in a footnote to his discussion of the theory of writing, Boodberg displays little sense of ‘linguistics’ as a discrete discipline.12 The dominantframework for his critique is that of ‘‘Sinology’’, which, as the preceding passage makes
clear, he sees as analogous to ‘‘Egyptology’’ and ‘‘Assyriology’’. These introductory remarks conclude with a more explicit indication of his intended audience: ‘‘it is in the hopeof dispelling this fog of misunderstanding that the writer presents in the following pages
for the consideration of Sinologists a few hypotheses on the evolution of ‘sound and symbol’ in archaic Chinese’’ (1936, p. 330; emphasis added).13 Within this larger framework,‘philology’ seems to refer to a particular methodology or perspective rather than a strictly
bounded academic discipline.
The central role of the discipline of Sinology in Boodberg’s critique is even clearer in his
second article (1940), the fourth and ﬁnal of the debate, which was written in reply to a
response by Creel (1938a) to Boodberg’s ﬁrst article. Driven to even greater acerbity by
Creel’s reiteration of ideographic arguments, and perhaps also by his enlistment of Sumerological reinforcement—about which more below—Boodberg titled his article ‘‘Ideography or Iconolatry?’’ and forcefully expressed himself in such passages as the following
introductory lines, from which I have omitted a list of three graphic ‘etymologies’ takenfrom Creel (1938b).
[. . .] as a philologist and teacher of Chinese, I am naturally perturbed by—andcannot remain indiﬀerent to—the rise of a methodology which produces, not in comparatively innocuous special articles, but in textbooks through which a new generation of sinologists is expected to be trained, puerilities such as the following [. . .] To
invite anyone to accept similar interpretations as the correct ‘ideographic’ analysis of
12‘‘If we associate with a graph several related words, unable to determine which of them it is supposed torepresent exactly, this does not mean that the graph represents the ‘idea’ or ‘concept’ behind those words.
Whatever may be the signiﬁcance of these vague terms in psychology, in linguistics they mean absolutely nothing.
Linguistic science deals ﬁrst and last with the word, its only reality. The ‘disembodied word’ which is what is
generally meant by ‘idea’ or ‘concept’ does not exist for the linguist’’ (Boodberg, 1937, p. 332 [n. 5]; see also p. 333[n. 7]). In his response to Boodberg’s criticisms, Creel retorted to this remark with a discussion of linguistics andpsychology (1938a, pp. 272–275) that is of considerable interest, especially given the problematic relationshipbetween the two that marked the emergence of linguistics as a discipline. The relatively ﬂexible framework within
which he discusses his own ideas, however, remains largely unchanged.
13
The reference to ‘‘sound and symbol’’ is apparently an allusion to the title of Karlgren (1923), a popular
introduction to the Chinese language.

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Chinese writing is, to put it mildly, to incite him to disregard the laborious gains ofscholarship of the past two thousand years and to make sinology a subject ﬁt only
for Kindergarten instruction (Boodberg, 1940, pp. 267–268).
These lines catalogue the components of a discipline with striking clarity: research andpedagogic activity (‘‘philologist and teacher of Chinese’’), multilevel publications (‘‘special
articles’’ and ‘‘textbooks’’), and the all-important self-replicatory process by which ‘‘a newgeneration’’ of specialists is ‘‘trained’’.
Further traces of disciplinary structure are apparent in a T’oung Pao editor’s note (presumably written by Paul Pelliot). Remarks in Boodberg’s earlier 1937 piece about Sumerian
cuneiform parallels to Chinese developments had prompted Creel (1938a) to recruit a University of Chicago colleague, the prominent Sumerologist Arno Poebel (1881–1958), to supply a rebuttal. (Of course, in itself this consulation demonstrates a suggestively strong senseof Sumerology as a discipline with borders to be maintained.14) With typical polymathic
bravado, Boodberg responded sharply and speciﬁcally to Poebel’s critique (as quoted andsummarized by Creel), prompting the following editorial caveat at the bottom of the ﬁrst
page of the article: ‘‘While we gladly publish the present article by Mr. Boodberg, we consider that it must conclude, as far as T’oung Pao is concerned, a controversy whose Sumerianelements exceed the scope and competence of our journal’’ (Boodberg, 1940, p. 266).15
Depending in part on how one interprets their incompatible views of the proper
approach to language, the exchange between Creel and Boodberg can be seen as a clash
within a large, multi-disciplinary framework of ‘Sinology,’ or as an argument about theproper methodology for a uniﬁed discipline bearing the same name. Regardless, Boodberg’s contribution foreshadows in many respects the Critique of the Ideographic Myth.
For the present paper, the most signiﬁcant of these is the strength of the connection
between the critique of ‘ideography’ and the disciplinary position of the critic. Despite thiscontinuity, there are also clear diﬀerences in tone and content, caused, at least in part, by
an intervening transformation of the academic terrain on which both campaigns werefought. One aspect of that transformation was the solidiﬁcation of linguistics as a discipline. Another important component was the postwar emergence of Asian studies, a ﬁeldthat had a complex relationship to Sinology, which it both absorbed and opposed.16
3. Linguistics and the Critique of the Ideographic MythThe Critique of the Ideographic Myth was ﬁrst articulated in DeFrancis (1984), a
debunking of misconceptions entitled The Chinese Language: Fact and Fantasy. After asatirical introduction mocking the notion of Chinese as a universal written language,
14
The parallel between Sinology, on the one hand, and Sumerology (or ‘Assyriology’) and Egyptology, on theother, is another important component to the Creel/Boodberg debate.
15‘‘Tout en publiant volontiers le present article de M. Boodberg, nous considérons qu’il doit clore, en ce qui
concerne le T’oung Pao, une controverse dont les elements sumériens sortent du cadre et de la competence denotre revue’’.
16
Sinology was an already contested ﬁeld, but it was torn by rivalries among scholars with diﬀering disciplinaryaﬃliations as ‘Asian studies’ developed in the cold war context of the rise of area studies. Some of the attendant
bitterness is apparent in Schafer (1958). For discussion of this complex transition, see the overview in Zurndorfer(1999 [1995], pp. 31–44), and also Levenson (1964) and the other papers and responses from a 1964 symposium on‘‘Chinese Studies and the Disciplines’’ (at the annual meeting of the Association of Asian Studies) that arecollected in the Journal of Asian Studies 23 (4) and 24 (1).

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the book begins again with a brief chapter entitled ‘‘On Deﬁning ‘Chinese’ and ‘Language’’,’ in which the conceptual and disciplinary grounding of the nascent Critique is
explicitly indicated at the outset:
Take the word ‘‘language’’. Linguists—not polyglots but scholars concerned withlinguistics, the science of language—generally use the term in the restricted meaningof speech. In their view language must be clearly distinguished from writing. Speech
is primary, writing secondary. [. . .] The attempt by linguists to reserve the term ‘‘language’’ as a designation for speech is part of their persistent but largely unsuccessful
battle against the confusion resulting from the popular use of the term to encompass
diverse forms of human communication without distinguishing the properties speciﬁc to each (DeFrancis, 1984, p. 37).
It is not incidental that the status of linguistics as ‘‘the science of language’’ and the priority of speech over writing are linked so explicitly at the beginning of DeFrancis’s assault
on misconceptions about Chinese speech and writing. Focusing as it does on deﬁnitions,this initial chapter provides an axiomatic basis for subsequent discussion, but it also links
that basis to a particular, scientiﬁc academic community.17 (As will become apparent, thisconcept of ‘science’ is very diﬀerent from that deployed by Boodberg.)
That the Critique is animated by a sense of a disciplinary community and its obligations
is apparent from the following lines from Visible Speech, a work that extends analysis of
the Chinese script (and metadiscourse on works about it) into a general theory of world
writing systems:
Particularly astonishing is the failure of linguists to insist that writing—real writing,full writing—ﬁrst and foremost represents speech, however, well or badly it may doits job, even if its role is acknowledged as not being limited to representing speech.
The basis for my insistence is no mere assumption of the primacy of speech. The
historical reality is that all full systems of writing have been based on speech, andthat no set of nonphonetic symbols has ever shown itself capable of conveying anything more than an extremely limited range of thought. [. . .]The failure of linguists in this area comprises a major dereliction of duty thatreﬂects very badly on their discipline. [. . .]The claim of linguists to any authority for their discipline is seriously compromised by such irresponsible scholarship. The primacy of speech and the primacyof the graphic principle based on speech need to receive the categorical support ofscholars concerned with the nature of writing and the progress of linguistic science(DeFrancis, 1989, pp. 217–218).
As DeFrancis insists, his arguments about the relationship between speech and script are
grounded in empirical claims about the ‘‘historical reality’’ of what he deﬁnes as ‘‘full systems of writing’’. But those claims themselves are not the concern here; rather, what is of
17
An important component of DeFrancis (1984), and of the Critique in general, is the role played by advocacy
for script reform. In this connection see also Hannas (1997), which builds on DeFrancis’s work (and has aforeword by him) as it surveys the history of writing in China, Japan, Korea, and Vietnam, arguing for thenecessity—and the diﬃculty—of script reform in all four countries. Unger’s largely critical review (1998a) of thiswork focuses on theoretical and rhetorical issues, and does not take exception to Hannas’s pro-script reformperspective, which in its broad outlines is not fundamentally diﬀerent from the viewpoint of Unger (1987) and
Unger (1996).

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interest is the strength with which they are related to the integrity of linguistics as a scientiﬁc discipline.
That a particular academic lineage contributes to this connection is suggested by an earlier passage of Visible Speech, in which Leonard Bloomﬁeld (1887–1949) is a touchstone
for a discussion of the relationship between speech and writing, with Language (Bloomﬁeld, 1933) introduced as a ‘‘book [. . .] that can be said to mark the founding of the American school of descriptive linguistics’’ (DeFrancis, 1989, pp. 47–48). A similar statement ofaﬃliation appears in DeFrancis and Unger (1997), a review of Daniels and Bright (1996)
that, while generally favorable, chides the editors for not rejecting with suﬃcient ﬁrmness
notions, not just of ideography, but also of logography:
An authoritative reference text on all known writing systems is needed today, especially because the hard-won principle that speech is primary in language is underattack, despite the overwhelming weight of the evidence, and it needs to be vigorously
reaﬃrmed in the closing years of the 20th century. The pioneering achievements ofFranz Boas, Leonard Bloomﬁeld, Edward Sapir, and the other scholars who liberated
linguistics from the tyranny of the written word, and made it the cornerstone of cultural anthropology, are nowadays belittled, or worse, forgotten (p. 437).18
Appearing as it did in the journal Language and Society, this reference to pioneering scholars addresses a conglomeration of disciplines (linguistics, anthropology, sociology) withpotentially competing claims to the study of human communication. It is clear that theCritique involves more than taking a side in a debate over the nature of writing, or, indeed,of language: the way in which its assertions are framed suggests that, for its partisans, theauthority of their discipline—and, more narrowly, of a particular academic lineage within
it—is at stake.
It is worth pausing at this point to consider the earlier approach to writing that seems to
be most inﬂuential here: that which was so famously advanced by Bloomﬁeld (1933). This
will further clarify some important characteristics of the Critique of the Ideographic Myth,animated as it is by an avowedly Bloomﬁeldian perspective on writing, but it is also ofinterest because the best-known of Bloomﬁeld’s remarks on writing has overshadowed
the complexity of his thinking about the subject.19
4. Leonard Bloomﬁeld on writing
Among the most famous of the pronouncements in Language is the oft-quoted declaration that ‘‘writing is not language, but merely a way of recording language by means of
18
John Fought points out that ‘‘for Boas and his ﬁrst generation of students, much more than for anthropologists
since, language lay near the heart of anthropology’’ (Fought, 1995 [1994], p. 296). As the ﬁnal sentence of thepassage quoted from the review suggests, dissatisfaction with this shift away from a linguistics-centeredanthropology is a component of the inter-disciplinary awareness of the Critique.
19
Examination of Bloomﬁeld’s approach to writing provides necessary, but by no means suﬃcient, backgroundto the Critique. Another crucial inﬂuence is the work of I.J. Gelb (1907–1985), who strongly rejected the notion of‘ideography’ in his pioneering treatise on the world history of writing (Gelb, 1963, pp. 35–36 and 106–107). Gelb’s
inﬂuence is explicitly acknowledged by DeFrancis (1984, pp. 73, 137–138; 1989, p. 61), though not uncritically(1989, pp. 148, 224–225, 253). As is clear from the editorial direction taken in Daniels and Bright (1996) (seeDaniels, 1996, pp. 8–9), Gelb has exerted a major inﬂuence on the overall trend away from use of the term
‘ideograph’ in general studies of writing.

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visible marks’’; this is followed, a few sentences later, by the amplifying assertion that ‘‘alanguage is the same no matter what system of writing may be used to record it, just as aperson is the same no matter how you take his picture’’ (1933, p. 21). It is signiﬁcant thatthese assertions take place very early in Bloomﬁeld’s manifesto, at a point where he is taking pains to distinguish ‘‘linguistic science’’ from the ‘‘relatively practical preoccupations’’
that preceded it, but did not in themselves amount to ‘‘the study of language’’: ‘‘the use ofwriting, the study of literature and especially of older records, and the prescription ofelegant speech’’ (1933, p. 21). This catalogue sums up the philological, grammarian, andprescriptivist traditions confronted by linguistics as it emerged as a discipline, and suggests
something of what is at stake in the insistence on writing as a secondary phenomenon.
This famous discussion of writing is foreshadowed by several passages in the initialchapter on ‘‘The Study of Language’’, which serve to clarify the links between writing
and the earlier forms of linguistic knowledge to which the discipline of linguistics is
opposed:[Eighteenth-century scholars] had not observed the sounds of speech, and confused them with the written symbols of the alphabet. This failure to distinguishbetween actual speech and the use of writing distorted also their notions about
the history of language. They saw that in medieval and modern times highly cultivated persons wrote (and even spoke) good Latin, while less educated or carelessscribes made many mistakes: failing to see that this Latin-writing was an artiﬁcial
and academic exercise, they concluded that languages are preserved by the usageof educated and careful people and changed by the corruptions of the vulgar. In
the case of modern languages like English, they believed, accordingly, that the
speech-forms of books and of upper-class conversation represented an older andpurer level, from which the ‘‘vulgarisms’’ of the common people had branchedoﬀ as ‘‘corruptions’’ by a process of ‘‘linguistic decay’’. The grammarians felt free,
therefore, to prescribe fanciful rules which they derived from considerations oflogic (1933, p. 8).
Just as this passage provides a context for the renowned pronouncement on the separationof writing and language, another remark from the initial survey of linguistic thought helps
to explicate the photograph metaphor:Languages change in the course of time. Apparent exceptions, such as the medieval
and modern use of Latin [. . .] amount only to this, that by long schooling people canbe trained to imitate the language of ancient writings. This antiquarian feat is utterly
diﬀerent from the normal transmission of speech from parents to children. All writing, in fact, is a relatively recent invention, and has remained, almost to our day, theproperty of only a chosen few: the eﬀect of writing upon the forms and the development of actual speech is very slight (1933, p. 13).
Two points bear emphasis here: the ﬁrst is the implicit connection, again, to the world ofgrammarians and philologists (‘‘by long schooling people can be trained’’, ‘‘antiquarianfeat’’); the second is the categorical separation of writing from the ‘‘normal transmissionof speech’’, and the lightly qualiﬁed claim that its inﬂuence on ‘‘the development of actual
speech is very slight’’.
Of course, one area where writing obviously cannot be excluded is in the study of thelanguage of the past, and Bloomﬁeld is careful to acknowledge this immediately:

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To be sure, we get our information about the speech of past times largely from written records—and for this reason we shall, in another connection, study the history of
writing—but we ﬁnd this to be a handicap. We have to use great care in interpreting
the written symbols into terms of actual speech; often we fail in this, and always weshould prefer to have the audible word (1933, p. 21).
As forecasted here, later on in Language there is a brief overview of the history of writing
systems, in the chapter on ‘‘Written Records’’ that begins the portion of the book that isdevoted to the history of language. Introducing this history, Bloomﬁeld makes a crossreference to the previously quoted discussion of writing as ‘‘not language’’, reiterates thatwriting is a ‘‘relatively recent invention’’, and adds an expanded restatement of its
inconsequentiality:
A speech-utterance is the same, whether it receives a written record or not, and, inprinciple, a language is the same, regardless of the extent to which speech-utterancesof this language are recorded in writing. For the linguist, writing is, except for certain
matters of detail, merely an external device, like the use of the phonograph, whichhappens to preserve for our observation some features of the speech of past times(1933, p. 282).
Although the potential usefulness of sound-recordings for linguistic research gives this reference to phonography a literal signiﬁcance that was absent from the photography metaphor of the earlier dismissal of writing, it is similarly intended to emphasize the samenessof language whether or not it is associated with writing. Note, however, that in addition to
being more extensive and explicit, this restatement also introduces new qualiﬁcations: writing is ‘‘merely an external device’’ ‘‘except in certain matters of detail’’, and language is ‘‘inprinciple’’ unchanged by it.
A writer as careful as Bloomﬁeld does not insert such qualiﬁcations lightly, especially inconnection with a point as fundamental for his agenda as the nature of writing. It is,therefore, less surprising than it may initially seem that examination of other portionsof Language reveals several points where the power of writing to change language is explicitly acknowledged. For example, the ﬁnal paragraphs of the chapter on ‘‘The Uses ofLanguage’’ (the same one that begins with the categorical assertion that ‘‘writing is notlanguage’’) extol the cumulative, progressive consequences of writing:
The art of symbolizing particular forms of speech by means of particular visible
marks adds a great deal to the eﬀective uses of language. A speaker can be heard
only a short ways and only for an instant or two. A written record can be carried
to any place and preserved for any length of time. We can see more things at one
time than we can hear, and we can deal better with visible things: charts diagrams,
written calculations, and similar devices, enable us to deal with very complex matters. The speech-stimuli of distant people, and especially persons in the past, areavailable to us through writing. This makes possible an accumulation of knowledge.
The man of science (but not always the amateur) surveys the results of earlier
students and applies his energies at the point where they left oﬀ. Instead of always
starting over again from the beginning, science progresses cumulatively and withacceleration. It has been said that, as we preserve more and more records of more
and more speech-reactions of highly gifted and highly specialized individuals, weapproach, as an ideal limit, a condition where all the events in the universe, past,

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present, and future, are reduced (in a symbolic form to which any reader may react)to the dimensions of a large library (1933, p. 40).
It is true that this discussion does not contradict Bloomﬁeld’s fundamental insistence on
writing as a record of speech. The Borgesian image of a library in which ‘‘all events inthe universe [. . .] are reduced [. . .] in a symbolic form’’ may appear to imply a diﬀerent evaluation of writing, but it should be taken as assuming, rather than denying, the linguistic nature of the symbols in question. One can also see the broad cultural and historicaldevelopments discussed here as phenomena that do not pertain directly to the speciﬁc problems of language structure that are the real focus of the work. The tenor of the passage,
however, is diﬃcult to reconcile with repeated insistence on writing as a marginal phenomenon that should—or even could—be largely excluded from the study of language.20
A more striking contradiction of the externality of writing—one that may reveal the
misgivings that presumably underlay the qualiﬁcations discussed above—appears in aremarkable passage toward the end of Language, where a discussion of prestige and language-standardization in the chapter on ‘‘Dialect Borrowing’’ contains an extended consideration of how speech can be transformed by writing. Remarks on the eﬀects on ‘‘actual
speech’’ of ‘‘written convention’’ and on how it is both diﬃcult and necessary to relateorthographic practice to standardizing pronunciation lead to the observation that ‘‘in syntax and vocabulary the message of the written record is unmistakable, and it exerts a tremendous inﬂuence upon the standard language’’ (Bloomﬁeld, 1933, p. 486). This is thenfollowed by extensive discussion of phenomena, including diglossia, that involve ‘‘written
notation exercising an inﬂuence upon language’’ (1933, p. 495). These pages abound informulations that implicitly challenge the dismissive approach to writing that inaugurated
Bloomﬁeld’s scientiﬁc linguistics, as in the following:
If there is any rivalry between speech-forms, the chances are weighted in favor of theform that is represented by the written convention; consequently, if the written convention deviates from the spoken form, people are likely to infer that there exists a
preferable variant that matches the written form. Especially, it would seem, in thelast centuries, with the spread of literacy and the great inﬂux of dialect-speakers
and sub-standard speakers into the ranks of standard-speakers, the inﬂuence of
the written form has grown—for these speakers, unsure of themselves in what is,after all, a foreign dialect, look to the written convention for guidance. [. . .] A great
deal of spelling-pronunciation that has become prevalent in English and in French, isdue to this source. In a standard language like the German, which belongs originallyto no one class or district, this factor is even more deep-seated: the spoken standard
is there largely derived from the written (1933, p. 487).
Perhaps the most striking of such observations is a paragraph on abbreviations and acronyms, treated as cases in which ‘‘purely graphic devices lead to novel speech forms’’ (1933,
p. 488).21 Of course, Bloomﬁeld never acknowledges that such aspects of writing could
20

One might also note the irony that while the rejection of writing is crucial for the establishment of linguistics
as the science of language, in this passage writing itself is seen as the crucial prerequisite for science in general; thisis reminiscent of the contradictions involved in claiming that ‘‘in order to study writing, we must know something
about language, but the reverse is not true’’ (Bloomﬁeld, 1933, p. 21).
21
Although he does not confront the implications of this phenomenon, here Bloomﬁeld anticipates Roy Harris’s
discussion of the theoretical signiﬁcance of abbreviation (2001 [2000], pp. 149–151).

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disrupt theoretical assumptions about its externality to language. Indeed, as the following
paragraph suggests, he presents such phenomena as abnormal and exceptional (as in theearlier remark about the ‘‘normal transmission of speech from parents to children’’):
The inﬂuence of written notation works through the standard language, but featuresthat are thus introduced may in time seep down into other levels of speech. Needlessto say, this inﬂuence can be described only in a superﬁcial sense as conservative or
regularizing: the loans from written notation deviate from the results of ordinary
development (Bloomﬁeld, 1933, pp. 488–489).
The references here to ‘‘conservative’’ and ‘‘regularizing’’ approaches to language aresurely meant to suggest the prescriptivist grammarian tradition that is one of the principal
foils of scientiﬁc linguistics in Language. In fact, much of this discussion of the powerfulinﬂuence of writing on speech can be taken as an implicit analysis of the sources of that
denigrated form of ‘prescientiﬁc’ thought, and thus as further evidence of one of Bloomﬁeld’s motives for the opening dismissal of writing. But it is also important to note that
this discussion of the ‘‘tremendous inﬂuence’’ of ‘‘written notation’’ is incommensurablewith earlier claims that writing, like a photograph or a phonograph, is simply an external
record that has no eﬀect on that which it represents.
In sum, Bloomﬁeld’s approach in Language combines an outright—and subsequently
renowned—dismissal of writing with implicit—and less well-known—acknowledgementof its linguistic consequences. This contrast is worth pursuing in other of his works, where
even cursory examination reveals discussions of writing that echo these contradictions.22
For example, his earlier survey, An Introduction to the Study of Language (Bloomﬁeld,
1914), has only a brief section on writing, which focuses on the gap between writing
and speech. This gap is described as reﬂective of an ‘‘imperfect analysis’’ (p. 19) for‘‘the scientiﬁc investigator’’ (p. 23), but the younger Bloomﬁeld also points out that ‘‘muchof the value of writing is actually dependent on its not conveying the exact manner of pronunciation’’ (p. 23). An article on mathematics he published a few years after Language
calls attention to the ‘‘remarkable fact [. . .] that many of the scientist’s utterances cannot
be made in actual speech, but only in writing: their structure is so complex that a visual
record, for simultaneous survey and back-reference, is indispensable’’ (1970 [1935], p.
308). This statement is followed by a long note that begins by reiterating, verbatim, thedismissive case that had been made early in Language, but that then departs from it in
the following dramatic fashion:
A system of writing opens the possibility of graphic notations that cannot be successfully paralleled in actual speech. This is true because visual symbols possess charac22
A fuller account of Bloomﬁeld’s approach to writing would also require attention to similar dismissive
pronouncements by theorists of language contemporary to him. The section on the ‘‘history of linguistic science’’in Jespersen’s Language contains a strikingly similar discussion of the late discovery that ‘‘all language isprimarily spoken and only secondarily written down’’ (Jespersen, 1922, p. 23), and Sapir, who devotes very little
attention to the subject in his own Language, does conclude that ‘‘written language is [. . .] a point-to-point
equivalence, to borrow a mathematical phrase, to its spoken counterpart’’ (Sapir, 2004 [1921], p. 14). Most
importantly, Saussure’s famous pronouncement on the subject parallels—and likely inﬂuenced—Bloomﬁeld’s in
its early placement and disciplinary import: ‘‘A language and its written form constitute two separate systems ofsigns. The sole reason for the existence of the latter is to represent the former. The object of study in linguistics is
not a combination of the written word and the spoken word. The spoken word alone constitutes that object’’ (DeSaussure, 1983 [1916], pp. 24–25).

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teristics that are foreign to the sound-waves of speech: chieﬂy, they provide an
enduring instead of an immediately vanished stimulus, and oﬀer possibilities ofarrangement (tabulation) that cannot be matched in the succession of acoustic stimuli. Graphic notations that cannot be matched in actual speech have arisen in thecase of classical Chinese (which is unintelligible in modern pronunciation, but is read
and written by Chinese scholars [. . .]) and in the case which here interests us, ofmathematical and allied notations (Bloomﬁeld, 1970, p. 308 n. 2 [1935]).
In the body of this article, Bloomﬁeld takes pains to emphasize that the ‘‘relation of writing to language appears in a peculiar and highly specialized shape [. . .] in the utterances ofthe scientist’’ (1970 [1935], p. 308), but this note suggests that he was also thinking in termsof inherent features of all writing.
Such passages suggest that Bloomﬁeld’s reputation for an uncompromising dismissalof writing is parallel in some respects to his reputation for ignoring meaning: his work
itself contains more complex and nuanced perspectives than that of many of his ‘postBloomﬁeldian’ successors. Regardless, it is clear that, despite the complications that areapparent upon closer inspection, the most inﬂuential element of Bloomﬁeld’s approach
to writing is the clear and forceful statement of its phoneticity and basic irrelevance tolinguistics that is placed early in Language. The disciplinary character of that wellknown statement is not incidental: placing writing outside of language, and thus outsideof the new science of linguistics, was a crucial method of distinguishing that disciplinefrom earlier philological and prescriptivist-grammarian scholarship. It seems likely thatthe unequivocal nature of the introductory dismissal of writing itself, despite its subsequent qualiﬁcation and contradiction, stems in part from the polemical need for such a
distinction.
5. Linguistics and Asian studies
The link between insistence on the narrowly phonographic nature of writing and thescientiﬁc nature of linguistics as a discipline is also a hallmark of the Critique of the Ideographic Myth. In addition to the straightforward statements connecting the primacy ofspeech to ‘‘the science of language’’ (DeFrancis, 1984, p. 37) and ‘‘linguistic science’’(DeFrancis, 1989, p. 218), rejection of ideography and science in general are also ﬁguratively linked in several texts of the Critique. For example, the general abstract for the
1995 Association for Asian Studies annual meeting panel on ‘‘The Ideographic Mythand Its Impact on Asian Studies’’ begins its brief summary of the positive claims of the
Critique by emphasizing that ‘‘decades of careful research refute the ideographic myth,rendering it as outdated as creationism or the ﬂat earth hypothesis’’ (Erbaugh et al.,
1995, p. 265). Similarly, in the review of Daniels and Bright (1996) quoted above, the sentence about Boas, Bloomﬁeld, and Sapir is followed by: ‘‘Natural History magazine gives
Stephen Jay Gould a monthly column from which to argue point by point against the meritless claims of ‘scientiﬁc creationists’; yet as recently as April 18, 1996, the New York
Review, with a straight editorial face, printed the equally absurd and pernicious claimof ‘a unique anteriority of script over speech’ in Chinese’’ (DeFrancis and Unger, 1997,
pp. 437–438).23
23

The quoted phrase is from Leys (1996, 30), a review of Billeter (1990).

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The perniciousness of ‘scientiﬁc creationism’ is that, by importing untestable beliefs into
biology, it so contaminates science—a rational form of inquiry based on the experimental
testing and reﬁnement of hypotheses about the physical world—that it loses meaning andcoherence. Similarly, the passages quoted above imply, insistence on an unexamined anduntested notion of ‘‘ideography’’ (in the face of data suggesting it is incorrect) risks contaminating the discipline of linguistics, which is by analogy claimed as a science along thelines of modern biology. Comparing belief in the ‘ideographic’ nature of Chinese characters to creationism is thus not merely a ﬁgurative way of emphasizing the detrimental
implications of an erroneous belief about writing; it also contains an implicit assertion
about the nature of linguistics as a scientiﬁc discipline, and, therefore, about the sourcesof its authority. In this connection it is interesting to recall the penultimate sentence ofLanguage: ‘‘The methods and results of linguistics, in spite of their modest scope, resemble
those of natural science, the domain in which science has been most successful’’ (Bloomﬁeld, 1933, p. 509).
One of the clearest diﬀerences between Boodberg’s side of his debate with Creel and the
Critique is this newly developed sense of linguistics as an autonomous and scientiﬁc discipline. Given the crucial role that the insistence on the phoneticity of writing played inBloomﬁeld’s initial assertion of scientiﬁc status, it is natural that further attention shouldbe paid to that status in assertions about the wrongheadedness of the Ideographic Myth.
Another major diﬀerence between Boodberg’s articles and the texts of the Critique is also
related to the emergence of linguistics as a discipline, but even more so to its relationshipwith the new ﬁeld of Asian studies.
The summary of the Critique from the general abstract of the 1995 Association for
Asian Studies panel continues from the comparison of the ‘‘ideographic myth’’ to ‘‘creationism or the ﬂat earth hypothesis’’ with the following lines:
Experiments show that characters function very much like other writing systems,
including alphabets and syllabaries, to convey the sounds of spoken words. Linguists
are frustrated when our fellow Asianists indolently persist in discussing Asia in crude
and discredited 18th century terms (Erbaugh et al., 1995, p. 265; emphasis added).
This passage clearly indicates another position of the linguists associated with the Critique:in certain contexts, they are conducting an internal argument with implications for a particular conception of, or lineage within, their discipline, but in other contexts they argue on
behalf of their discipline, addressing scholars in others. An important context for the latter
position is the ﬁeld of Asian studies.
Despite the existence of Asian studies departments, scholarly journals, societies, andconferences, I do not use the term ‘discipline’ because the ﬁeld exists on a diﬀerent level
than the academic specialties of the scholars who inhabit it. Like the other ‘area studies’
that arose in the postwar American academy, Asian studies has a problematic status, comprising as it does scholars with specialist training in disciplines ranging from social sciences
like sociology, economics, and anthropology to humanities like literature, art history, religious studies, and history.24 As a supra- or multi-disciplinary space, ‘Asian studies’ is rife
24

History, of course, can occupy an intermediate position, considered at times a ‘social science.’ On area studies
and Asian studies, especially as concerns China, Korea, and Japan, see Zurndorfer (1999, pp. 31–39), Kwan andOh (1998) and Hardacre (1998); for a recent collection of critical essays on the topic, see Miyoshi andHarootunian (2002).

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with potential and actual disciplinary collisions, in which debates about materials or methodology incorporate issues of scholarly identity: in certain cases, at least, the Critique has
involved such a collision.
A striking example is the controversy over a 1993 article in the Journal of Asian Studies(JAS; the quarterly journal of the Association of Asian Studies) by Chad Hansen, a professor of Chinese philosophy at the University of Hong Kong. The article, entitled ‘‘Chinese Ideographs and Western Ideas’’, attempts to bring ‘‘Chinese folk theory of language’’to bear on the western theory of ideas. Ultimately it argues that the ‘‘ideograph’’ concept is
both appropriate for Chinese writing and replete with insight for understanding the natureof language in general; this involves a critique of the ‘‘dependency principle’’, by which
Hansen means the view that ‘‘writing is semantically (representationally) dependent on
speech’’ (1993a, p. 376). Here, the speciﬁc logical and empirical claims made by this article
are not at issue. Rather, it is important to note that it is written within the framework ofcontemporary analytic philosophy, and can be interpreted, in part, as a critique of linguistic scholarship on writing from that disciplinary perspective.
Much like Creel, though, Hansen provides no explicit disciplinary frame for his critique. Of course, his orientation is clearly marked through references to ‘‘philosophersof language’’ (p. 379), and, more importantly, through conceptual vocabulary such as‘‘word-types and word-tokens’’ (p. 379) and the ‘‘use-mention distinction’’ (p. 380), andthrough extensive discussion of the work of such thinkers as Aristotle, Locke, Berkeley,
and Wittgenstein. But there is no clear indication of a conscious ‘philosophy vs. linguistics’awareness in the article, which focuses on a conﬂict between what Hansen calls ‘‘prohibitionists’’ (of the term ‘‘ideograph’’) and ‘‘ideographers’’, and it is arguable how much linguistics itself is a clear disciplinary object in this context.25
A far clearer disciplinary frame is apparent in the furious response that Hansen’s article
provoked from Unger. The ﬁrst paragraph of this long ‘‘Communication to the Editor’’,published in the JAS six months later, contained the following:
I submit this response reluctantly, for merely doing so may suggest to some that I
think the ideographic account of Chinese writing as an explanation of distinctive
aspects of Chinese culture and thought is more deserving of space in a scholarly journal than, say, ‘‘scientiﬁc creationism’’ as an explanation of genetics and fossils. To
my mind, both hypotheses belong to the same category and ought not be digniﬁed.
Nevertheless, the quality of Hansen’s scholarship is so poor that I feel someone must
apprise readers who are not specialists in linguistics of facts and sources Hansen fails
to cite (Unger, 1993, 949).
The continuities between the disciplinary frame of this response and those of the earlier
quoted passages are apparent. Moreover, the JAS is the journal of the primary academic
25
Hansen does occasionally use the word to refer to the academic discipline, as in his summary of the view heopposes (‘‘We must reject the Chinese theory of their own language because linguistics proves that such alanguage is impossible’’ [p. 376]), but more commonly ‘‘linguistic’’ is an adjective meaning ‘pertaining tolanguage,’ as in ‘‘Sinology has masked a conﬂict between these two wildly diﬀerent linguistic views behind adebate about the word ‘ideograph’’’ (p. 374). Moreover, synonymous use of ‘‘scientiﬁc linguistics’’ (p. 376) and‘‘linguistic science’’ (p. 378) implies that, at least in this article, the modern academic discipline, as a discrete
object of inquiry, is not a major concern. Repeated references to ‘‘Sinology’’ suggest that it may be a more
important frame of reference for Hansen, though after the rise of Asian studies that term no longer has the same
meaning that it did for Boodberg.

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society devoted to Asian studies, so one of its chief characteristics is that it will inevitably
have numerous ‘‘readers who are not specialists in linguistics’’.
The ﬁnal sentences of Unger’s response show a particularly clear sense of one of thechief venues of disciplinarity:
It saddens me to think that the reviewers who gave Hansen’s article their imprimatur
did not notice or did not care about the points I remarked on above—and I haveomitted many others for the sake of brevity. In some ways, I think the reviewers
are more culpable than Hansen. He merely gave JAS the opportunity to add anotheritem to the long list of books and essays that mystify and exoticize China; they
advised JAS to go ahead (Unger, 1993, p. 953).
This evocation of the formal process by which what Boodberg called a ‘‘special article’’ issanctioned and published implicitly suggests that the reviewers in question also were ‘‘notspecialists in linguistics’’, and hence ‘‘did not notice or did not care about’’ the perspectiveof that discipline. Hansen, in his reply, explicitly addresses the problem of ‘‘how we should
deal with radically diﬀerent perspectives within an interdisciplinary scholarly community’’and is also pushed into more self-conscious disciplinary identiﬁcation, making reference to‘‘my philosophical colleagues’’ and discussing ‘‘philosophical norms of scholarship’’ interms of what ‘‘we’’ do (1993b, p. 954).
If the Critique seems to foster a particularly intense form of disciplinarity, perhaps one
reason is that language, and more importantly professionalized knowledge of language,
are the source of cohesion for the uneasy conglomeration of disciplines that make up
Asian studies: ‘‘‘area studies’ committed a student to engage in learning a foreign language, say Chinese or Arabic, while focusing on the history, anthropology, or sociology,i.e., through the methodology of a speciﬁc discipline, of the region where the language was
spoken’’ (Zurndorfer, 1999, p. 34). In a dialogue on the causes and consequences of what
they see as a resistance to theory in contemporary ‘‘Japan studies’’, Harry Harootunianand Naoki Sakai argue that ‘‘language promised entry and empathetic identiﬁcation with
the native. Once the language was grasped, then you would be able to understand Japan asa coherent and uniﬁed totality, as a uniﬁed culture’’ (1999, p. 597).26 A corollary, ofcourse, is that language oﬀered a kind of unity and coherence for a fractured ﬁeld of multiple disciplines.27
Here, the signiﬁcance of the fact that the Critique involves, among other things, anintervention by linguists into a broader discourse of Asian studies becomes more apparent.
Linguistics lays claim to special, scientiﬁc forms of knowledge (not to mention strategies of
26
This harks back an argument made earlier in their discussion: ‘‘the whole project of area studies’’ had military
intelligence origins, meaning that ‘‘to defeat the enemy one had to know and understand the enemy. At the heartof this desire for an instrumental knowledge was the acquisition of the enemy’s language. What got reproduced
after the war was language training, which was seen by many as the necessary and perhaps only methodologicaltool capable of understanding a foreign culture’’ (Harootunian and Sakai, 1999, pp. 596–597). This link between
knowledge and the expediencies of wartime (and eventually, cold war) education is also typical of American
linguistics, for which the imperatives of wartime language teaching functioned as a kind of second act to theoriginal, formative encounter with Native American languages.
27
The introductory paragraph of Unger’s response to Hansen concludes as follows: ‘‘There are equallywrongheaded writers [. . .] who deal with the relevant literature [. . .], get most of the basic facts straight, write
clearly, have something original to say, and may be excused for their missteps because they don’t know an East
Asian language. None of these qualiﬁcations applies to Hansen, however, and that is why I am writing’’ (Unger,
1993, p. 949; emphasis added).

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language acquisition and pedagogy, that is to say, ‘applied linguistics’), but it struggles
with both humanistic and social scientiﬁc disciplines for authority over language. The multidisciplinarity of Asian studies, in itself, would have the potential to exacerbate that struggle, but the role played by language and its study in holding the ﬁeld together raises thestakes signiﬁcantly. Also crucial is the problem of writing and its relationship to language.
As illustrated repeatedly, insistence on the primacy of speech is intimately related to claims
for disciplinary authority and coherence for linguistics. On the other hand, Asian studies—
to be more precise, its East Asian component—stands to inherit the unity conferred by textual otherness that marked its Sinological predecessor: as Joseph Levenson pointed out,‘‘the radical diﬀerence in scripts doubtless strengthened the disposition to see in China
not a subject for history in all its many branches [. . .] but an -ology’’ (1964, pp. 507–
508).28 Given these factors, the emphatic disciplinarity of the Critique was, perhaps,
inevitable.
6. Conclusion
The foregoing analysis of disciplinary discourse in the Critique of the Ideographic
Myth is not intended cynically—that is to say, I do not mean to somehow ‘discredit’
the arguments of DeFrancis and Unger (or of Boodberg and Bloomﬁeld before them)by leveling an accusation of ‘bias’ (as if it were possible to speak from a disciplinarilytranscendent, ‘unbiased’ position). The arguments about writing and language referredto here involve axiomatic deﬁnitions of terminology and speciﬁc, empirical assertions
about the present and past nature of writing systems, and any full evaluation of thosearguments must address those deﬁnitions and assertions in detail. The present article isnot such an evaluation; rather, my aim has been to consider how certain discussions ofwriting and language take on particular disciplinary colorations, often adversarial ones
involving competing claims to what Steven Jay Gould might have called overlapping
magisteria.29
This consideration opens out onto larger issues of the histories of Sinology, linguistics,
and Asian studies, leaving numerous questions for further inquiry. How parallel was the20th century development of Sinology with that of apparently cognate disciplines like
Egyptology and Sumerology, which unlike the former dealt with ‘civilizations’ that werewholly of the past? Was a conception of writing as such, as opposed to language in general,
as central to their formation as Levenson suggests? Did all of these ﬁelds undergo similartransformations over the course of the 20th century, as literary studies and linguistics
emerged from, and deﬁned themselves against, the earlier discipline/methodology of philology? What was the role of linguistics in the postwar emergence of area studies ﬁelds in
the United States, a phenomenon more often analyzed in terms of such disciplines as sociology and history?
As such broad questions suggest, more is at stake in the Critique of the Ideographic
Myth than an argument about specialist terminology or academic turf. The texts of the28

The temporal and cultural unity often attributed to writing in East Asia is another target of the Critique:‘‘when ideographic writing is said to be unchanged since 3000 BC, it becomes easier to disregard diﬀerences overtime[,] genre, and style (classical and vernacular) which span unrelated language families in China, Japan, Korea,
and Vietnam’’ (Erbaugh et al., 1995, p. 264).
29
That is, ‘‘domain[s] where one form of teaching holds the appropriate tools for meaningful discourse andresolution’’ (1999, p. 5).

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Critique provide a valuable arena for thinking through the complex connections
between language as an object of academic inquiry and the disciplinary perspectives
that shape that endeavor. The nature of writing and its relationship to language is a
topic in which scholarly identity is often at stake, but it is also well suited for the construction of a common space of discussion among—or perhaps alongside—the various
academic disciplines.
Acknowledgements
I am grateful to Carol Gluck, Bob Hymes, Gari Ledyard, Greg Pﬂugfelder, Henry
Smith, and John Whitman for their comments and suggestions, in some cases on muchearlier attempts to articulate some of the ideas presented here.
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