The Influence of Food Traditions andCooking Methods on Energy Transition:
High Demand for Charcoal in Kampala, Uganda
SHIZUKA ASADA
Graduate School ofAsian and African Area Studies, Kyoto University

This study aims to investigate the influence of food culture on the choice of cooking fuel byverifying the locality of food and cooking methods using a case study from Kampala, Uganda. It
has been suggested in previous studies that when socio-economic status improves, households
generally upgrade their cooking fuel, shifting from woodfuel to LPG (liquefied petroleum gas)or electricity. Although Uganda's economy has grown for decades, charcoal has been the maincooking fuel in 80% of the households in Kampala. The food culture and cooking habits inCentral Uganda are unique. Bananas have high cultural value in the area as staple food and are
consumed in large quantities. Observations of the cooking process show that bananas are often
steamed for 2-4 hours over a very low heat, which cannot be achieved using advanced fuels suchas LPG. Even in high-income households, charcoal is still the main source of fuel despiteadvanced alternatives being available and affordable. Therefore, residents of Kampala positively
choose charcoal over other sources of fuel for reasons inherent to local cooking traditions. Not
only socio-economic status but also local food traditions also have an important impact on the
choice of cooking fuel.
Keywords: cooking fuel, food culture, woodfuel, banana, Uganda

1. INTRODUCTION
Woodfuel such as firewood and charcoal has been an important energy source for cooking since man's
discovery of fire between 240 and 380 thousand years ago. In Europe, cooking fuel sifted from wood­
fuel to LPG and electricity in the 19th century (W ilson 2012). However, in tropical areas such as
Sub-Saharan Africa, woodfuel is still the main cooking fuel, with 80% of the population in Sub­
Saharan Africa relying on biomass (IEA 2010).
It has been predicted since the 1970s that woodfuel will be exhausted in the near future in tropicalareas. This prediction was made around the same time as the 1970s' oil shock. Tropical countries haveattempted to move their energy source for cooking from woodfuel to advanced fuel with the assis­
tance of developed countries (Anderson 1986, c£ Dewees 1989, Cline-Cole et al. 1990).
The energy ladder model was proposed in the 1980s, which states that as the socio-economic statusof a country improves, cooking fuel shifts from a primitive level-firewood, agricultural waste, andanimal waste-to a transition level-charcoal, kerosene, and coal-and finally to an advanced level­
LPG and electricity (see Figure 1). Therefore, national governments should implement policies to

Nilo-Ethiopian Studies 24: 47-63 (2019)
Copyright© 2019.Japan Association for Nilo-Ethiopian Studies
47

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Nilo-Ethiopian Studies

Advanced fuel• LPG
• electricity• blogas

Advanced fuel• LPG
• electricity• biogasTransition fuel• charcoal• kerosene• coalPrimitive fuel• firewood• agricultural waste• animal waste

Transition f• charcoal• coalPrimitive fuel• firewood• agricultural waste• animal waste

Figure 1. Energy ladder (left) and energy stacking (right)
Source: Schlag and Zuzarte (2008); van der Kroon et al. (2013)

advance the linear transition of cooking fuel (e.g. Hosier & Dowd 1987; Schlag & Zuzarte 2008).
Moreover, because of the health consequences of particulates and other emissions from the combus­
tion and the exposure risk of women and children when collecting and using firewood, the use ofclean and advanced fuel was recommended (Barnes et al. 2005).
Empirical studies have shown that socio-economic status is not the only deciding factor concern­
ing the choice and transition of cooking fuel. Masera et al. (2000) suggested a multiple fuel use modelfrom their four-year fieldwork-based study in rural Mexico. The study found that firewood and LPG
were the most commonly used cooking fuels in the area, and many households continued to use fire­wood or shifted back to using it, even after installing LPG. Although some factors such as the
improvement of socio-economic status, convenience, and cleanliness encourage cooking fuel transi­tion, others-such as lack of devices and new skills for using advanced cooking fuel-hinder transi­tion. Therefore, some people are using traditional, transition, and advanced fuel simultaneously. This
multiple fuel use is called energy stacking (see Figure 1).
Other studies supporting the energy stacking model have also pointed out that livelihood strategies
for the poor, limited availability, the unstable price of advanced fuel, and local food culture influencepeople's choice to use different cooking fuels at the same time (van der Kroon et al. 2013). Murphy(2001) claimed that people in East Africa prefer food cooked with firewood and charcoal to foodcooked with electricity, indicating that the grid expansion does not directly influence people to shift
to advanced cooking fuel using a case study in Kenya.
African countries have experienced rapid economic growth for decades, but woodfuel is still themain cooking fuel even in urban areas. For instance, cooking energy usage has not shifted to advanced
fuel in Kampala, the capital of Uganda, despite the general improvement of the economy in the coun­try. The main cooking fuel in Kampala is charcoal, and other fuels such as firewood, LPG, kerosene,and electricity are only used on certain occasions. According to a household survey conducted by the
Uganda Bureau of Statistics, 79.4% of households in Kampala used charcoal as their main source ofenergy for cooking in 2016/17. Of this percentage, 66.4% of the households are in urban areas andonly 15.5% of these households are in rural areas (UBOS 2018). Firewood is the main source of
cooking fuel in rural areas at 80.8% (see Table 1). In 1989/90, 63.3% of households in Kampala usedmainly charcoal (Ministry of Energy 1990). This rate is still high at 77.7% in 2005/06 (UBOS 2006),
74.5% in 2009/10 (UBOS 2010), 80.2% in 2012/13, and 79.4% in 2016/17. Charcoal has been themain source of energy in Kampala for almost 30 years, although Uganda has experienced drastic
economic growth during the same period-with an annual average GDP growth rate ofS.4% betweenASADA: The Influence of Food Traditions and Cooking Methods on Energy Transition

49

Table 1. Transition of the main cooking fuel at household level in Kampala, urban areas, and rural areas
FY

Charcoal (%) Firewood (%) Kerosene (%) Electrici!z: (%) Others* (%)
63.3
11.3
6.8
2.0
16.6
5.2
77.7
5.8
2005106
1.4
9.9
2.4
74.5
2009/10
7.8
3.4
11.9
2012/13
2.1
7.6
80.2
2.1
8.0
0.6
79.4
2016/17
20.0
Urban
1989/90
62.1
13.6
6.1
1.9
16.3
22.9
66.1
2005/06
0.8
3.5
6.8
15.4
2009/10
69.8
4.9
1.6
8.2
2012/13
36.4
2.8
1.4
54.4
5.0
22.3
2016/17
66.4
11.3
2.6
69.5
1.3
Rural
1989/9026.1
0.6
2005/06
8.2
89.4
0.8
1.6
0.1
86.3
2009/10
1.7
1.3
0.3
10.4
8.2
0.2
89.4
2012/130.2
2.0
2016/17
80.8
3.7
15.5
• Including LPG, animal waste, sawdust, biogas etc., in 2016/17 it includes kerosene and electricity
Source: Ministry of Energy (1990); UBOS (2006; 2010; 2014; 2018)
Area
Kampala1989/902008 and 2017 (World Bank 2018).
This study aims to clarify the factors that encourage people to continue using charcoal as their main
source of energy in Kampala by verifying the locality of food, the cooking method, cooking environ­ment, and availability of cooking fuel. In Central Uganda, cooking bananas (plantains)Ol are one ofthe primary starchy foods. The empirical research concerning the relationship between the choice of
cooking fuel and local food culture-people's methods and preference in the kitchen-has not beensignificantly explored in previous studies. This study aims to demonstrate the benefit of woodfuelcooking in the context of daily practice in the kitchen in Kampala and the influence of food cultureon the choice of cooking fuel.
After an explanation of the research site and methods in Chapter 2, general information abouttypes and usage of cooking fuels in Kampala is explored in Chapter 3. In Chapter 4 the unique foodculture and cooking process in Central Uganda are explained in detail. In Chapter 5, we discuss theadaptability of cooking fuel considering the local cooking methods by observation data of the cooking
process in Kampala, and argue whether cooking fuel in Kampala would modernize from records ofthe choice of cooking fuel in high-income households. Finally, a general discussion of factors that
determine cooking fuel in Kampala-what makes people continue using charcoal-and the influenceof food culture on the choice of cooking fuel is explored in Chapter 6.

2. RESEARCH SITE AND METHODS
Kampala is located in Central Uganda, East Africa. The majority of people in Kampala are theGanda people (Baganda), and they have a great cultural effect in the country. The Ganda people
account for 17% of the total population of Uganda (UBOS 2016) and the capital of the Buganda
Kingdom--or the kingdom of the Ganda-has been located in Kampala since before the British
protectorate. The people of Kampala speak English and Luganda (language of the Ganda), and it isnecessary to be able to speak and understand Luganda to live in Kampala. A previous study on langu-

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Nila-Ethiopian Studies

age use in Kampala indicates that 95% of people there-including those of ethnic groups other thanthe Ganda-speak Luganda (Miyazaki 2009). There are also people of other ethnic groups, including
Bantu people from the Southern Uganda and Nilotic people from the Northern Uganda.
In Uganda, two main policies have been enforced to stimulate the cooking energy transition. The
Energy Policy for Uganda adopted in 2002 aims to improve the accessibility of advanced fuel such as
LPG and electricity (MEMD 2002). In 2007, the Renewable Energy Policy for Uganda was imple­
mented, which aimed to increase the use of renewable energy from 4% to 61% by 2017 (MEMD
2007).
Charcoal consumption in Kampala is increasing because of population growth. According to thenational census, the population of Kampala increased from 1.2 to 1.5 million people between 2002
and 2014 (UBOS 2016). The quantity of wood burnt for charcoal production in Uganda was 13
million tons in 2017, a drastic increase from 5 million tons in 2002 (UBOS 2004; 2017). These con­sumption quantities are for urban areas including Kampala.
This study conducted a survey in Kampala for 11 months intermittently between October 2012
and March 2014. The methods employed were participant observation and semi-structured inter­views concerning the usage and choice of cooking fuel during the cooking process of housewives andhousemaids (domestic workers). The information about cooking fuel such as price, devices, and fre­quency of use, was obtained from interviews and observation in some households and local markets(in Chapter 3). The food culture of Central Uganda and the cooking process of matooke amanyige, themost common way of cooking bananas, were obtained from interviews and participant observation(in Chapter 4). The relationships with daily food and choice of cooking fuel in low- and high-income
households were obtained from the interviews, records of the author and respondents, and participant
observation (in Chapter 5).

3. TYPES AND USAGE OF COOKING FUELS
3.1. Charcoal

Charcoal is sold per small bucket (approximately 1 kg) or per sack<2> (approximately 75 kg) in
Kampala. The price is about 1,000 Uganda shillingsl3> per bucket, and 50,000-70,000 shillings per
sack in local charcoal shops in 2014 in Kampala. In general, 1 kg of charcoal is used to cook one or
two meals, which is equivalent to between 500 and 2,000 shillings per day. However, the cost varies
according to the family size and the menu. A sack of charcoal lasts approximately two to threemonths. Therefore, the cost of cooking fuel can be estimated at 400-1,000 shillings per day whenbought by the sack. Charcoal shops are located on every block in Kampala, and it is quite easy forpeople to visit a charcoal shop on foot daily. For instance, there were 44 charcoal shops within
0.7 sq. km in Nakulabye and Kikoni A zones, a residential area for middle- and low-income house­holds (see Figure 2).
Portable cooking stoves are used when cooking with charcoal. There are three main types of stoves
used in Kampala: metal, clay, and improved stoves, which are relatively new. Clay stoves are currently
the most used and cost between 1,500 and 2,000 shillings each. Metal stoves are used more for bigger
families and restaurants. Elderly people have stated that metal stoves have been in use for longer thanclay ones. The price of a metal stove is at least 5,000 shillings and varies according to size. Clay stoves
keep heat longer than metal stoves, but break easily. Metal stoves, on the other hand, are strong but
consume more charcoal as it burns out faster. Improved stoves (also called "energy-saving stoves") aremetal stoves with clay kilns inside them. These contain heat for longer and do not break easily andthey cost between 15,000 and 35,000 shillings.
Some of the advantages of charcoal-in addition to its reasonable price-are that cooking issmokeless and a smaller space is needed. Cooking with charcoal means that people do not easily getlung and eye diseases since it does not produce smoke like firewood does. Additionally, cooking
utensils last longer and do not turn black with soot, as there is no smoke. Compared with firewood,

ASADA:The Influence of Food Traditions and Cooking Methods on Energy Transition

51

.::,,

* Kerosene sales point■ Large building§ Residential area
-Road
-StreamFigure 2. Locations of charcoal shops, LPG sales points, petrol stations, and kerosene sales points in the
Nakulabye-Kikoni A zone
Note: Both LPG and kerosene are sold at petrol stations.
Source: Field data from October 10-12, 2017
which is usually burnt in three-stone stoves, cooking with charcoal only needs space for a portable
stove, which is about 30 cm in diameter. Charcoal cooking also improves safety, because people do
not have to watch the fire continuously because it does not have flames. For instance, people were
working on other chores while cooking a meal with charcoal during my observations.
3.2. Firewood
Firewood is the main cooking fuel in rural areas, but in the city of Kampala, it is difficult to obtainsince there is not a ready supply (like a forest) near the residential areas. Used timber from construc­tion sites and wood from surrounding areas are sold at 1,000 shillings per three or four pieces. Three
big stones-called a three-stone fire or three-stone stove-are used to burn firewood; three pieces offirewood are set between the stones and a saucepan is put on them. Since it uses stones and bricks as
the "stove," this type of stove can be obtained for free.
Although less time is spent when cooking with firewood, it is difficult to keep a space to cook inthis manner in an urban area where population density is high. Kampala's population density was
9,204 people per sq. km in 2014 (UBOS 2016)<4>_ People generally live in tenements with one or two
rooms each and it is fairly common for families of more than four to occupy one tenement. Shelters
are often used as kitchens in tenements (see Figure 3 and Picture 1), where a three-stone stove does
not fit. Also, smoke should be prevented from entering the rooms, including the neighbors'<5>_
Soot is another problem. People living in tenements have limited storage space for cooking uten­sils, which are usually kept in a corner in their living room or bedroom. The residents need to scrub
the soot from a saucepan after every meal if they use it for their daily cooking, since saucepans withsoot will make the floor black<6l.
3.3. LPG and electricity
In Kampala, LPG is not easy to access, especially for lower-income people. LPG is sold in 6 kg,
12 kg, or 24 kg cylinders at shops and petrol stations. A burner or a stove is needed to connect to an
LPG cylinder. The price of LPG is between 50,000 and 100,000 shillings for 6 kg, and a burner orHilo-Ethiopian Studies

52

lM,lW
2 Cs

lM,lW

lC

)

lM,lW

lM,lW
lC

I.

lM,lW

lM

lC

j

lM,lW
lC

2 Cs

lW,lC

{_.

-}

0

Sm

M: man, W: woman, C: child

Figure 3. Size, location, and number of residents of tenements in Kampala
Note: The grey parts are shelters in front of each room. The size of each building is 5 m x 15 m, and a building
has four rooms each.
Source: Field data from March 16, 2014

Picture 1. A tenement in Kampala
Note:This picture corresponds to Figure 3. The place where a woman sits on right is the shelter that people
use for their chores.
This photograph was taken by the author on July 21, 2013.

stove costs at least 90,000 shillings. A woman using LPG for boiling water for tea every morning
reported that she consumes 6 kg of LPG in less than a month, which is equivalent to 1,600 shillings
per day, even though she uses it in the mornings only. Additionally, LPG is sold in fixed quantities
and cannot be sold in smaller quantities like charcoal, which means that only high-income people canafford to use such an expensive fuel.
Electricity is also not commonly used for cooking meals because of its price and availability. An
electric cooker with a coil plate is most often used when cooking with electricity. Some high-income

ASADA: The Influence of Food Traditions and Cooking Methods on Energy Transition

53

households have microwaves for cooking. The price of an electric cooker is at least 50,000 shillings
and that of microwave is 200,000 shillings. The price of electricity in Uganda was approximately 686
shillings per kW h in 2017, which is more expensive than in the surrounding countries<7l . Frequent
power outages also make cooking with electricity challenging.

4. FOOD CULTURE AND THE COOKING PROCESSThe three main features of food culture in Kampala are the variation of staple foods and side dishes,
the much-consumed and highly-valued bananas, and the steaming process of cooking. In Uganda, astandard meal often contains a starchy staple food and side dish with vegetable and protein.
Staple foods and side dishes vary greatly in Uganda. Steamed and mashed bananas<8l-calledmatooke amanyige in Luganda-is one of the main staple foods. In Luganda, the word " matooke" refers
to both the banana itself and a cooked banana dish (to avoid confusion in this paper, the term "matooke"
is used for the dish, and "banana" is used for the fresh fruit). Other staple foods often eaten in
Kampala are maize, usually ground and mingled with hot water as posho<9l (commonly known as"ugali" in Kiswahili)<10l , rice, cassava, sweet potato, Irish potato, pumpkin, and cocoyam. All staple
foods (except rice) are cooked without any salt or seasoning. Stew, called "enva" in Luganda<11l , is aside dish cooked with every meal-usually with tomatoes or groundnuts-and usually contains
vegetables as well as beef, goat, chicken, fish (Nile perch and tilapia are common in Kampala), or tiny
silver fish. Staple foods and side dishes are served separately in a formal way (see Picture 2), but at
home, it is more common to serve staple food and stew on one plate<12> . Katogo in Luganda, a boiled
staple food (usually bananas, Irish potatoes, or cassava) with stew, is a dish of staple food and stew
cooked together in one saucepan. For daily meals, one stew and at least one or more staple foods arecooked for one meal. At ceremonies and festivals, more than two kinds of staple foods and more than
two kinds of stew are prepared for one meal. This type of dish is called "kitoobero" in Luganda.
Bananas are consumed in large quantities in Central Uganda. In 2016, about 3.4 million tons ofbananas (including produce for manufacturing alcohol) were produced in Uganda, which is much
more than other crops such as maize (2.5 million tons) and cassava (2.7 million tons) (UBOS 2017).
In Uganda, bananas are cultivated on a much larger scale when compared with other African coun­tries where maize and cassava are the main crops (Fujimoto & Ishikawa 2016). Average per capita

Picture 2. Food in Uganda
Note: Staple foods are on the left plate: matooke (top-left), pumpkin, sweet potato, cassava, cocoyam, posho(center), stir-fried greens. Side dish (enva) is on the right: groundnut stew with dried fish in a banana leaf
(luwombo)

This photograph was taken by the author on March 4, 2014.

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Nila-Ethiopian Studies

annual consumption of bananas in Uganda is estimated at about 1 kg per person per day, which is thehighest in the world (Edmeades et al. 2006).
Bananas are mainly produced in Central and Western Uganda. In Central Uganda 1.0 million tonsof banana (24% of the total production in Uganda) were produced, and 2.9 million tons (67% of thetotal production) were produced in Western Uganda in 2008/09 (UBOS 2017). In the early 1960s
the main production area of banana was Central Uganda, but it has shifted from Central to Western(mostly Southwestern) Uganda since the 1970s because of the decrease in the labor force, increased
incidence of pests and other diseases, and so on (Sato et al. 2018).
Matooke has a high cultural value in the Ganda society (Roscoe 1 9 1 1 ; Bennett et al. 1 965; Sato2012). Matooke will-without fail-be served at ceremonies such as weddings, funerals, andChristmas. Traditionally, Ganda girls must learn how to cook matooke amanyige from their aunt on
the paternal side (called "ssenga"<1 3l) before becoming adults.
The process of cooking matooke amanyige is as follows: (1) First the bananas are peeled; about 30
bananas are peeled at one time and vascular bundles are peeled with the skin to stop the food fromturning black after cooking. (2) The bananas are wrapped in banana leaves by putting the fruit in thecenter of a folded banana leaf, wrapping them, and tying it with two pieces of banana fiber. This bagof banana leaves is called "muwumbo" in Luganda. (3) The muwumbo is steamed in a big saucepan.
The banana stalk and fibers are placed in the bottom of the saucepan, the water is poured over them,the muwumbo is added, and then covered with more banana leaves and another saucepan. This is tostop the banana from sinking into the water. After setting up the saucepan, it is placed on a stove witha strong fire. When all the water in the saucepan has evaporated, more water is added through thegap between the saucepans. This process (cooking the bananas first) is called "ku-tokosa" in Luganda.
(4) The bananas are mashed: when the color of the leaves changes to dark green, the saucepan isremoved from the stove and the muwumbo is taken out from the saucepan. The muwumbo is put in abasket and mashed by hand, not leaving any banana un-mashed. (5) Then the bananas are steamed
again: when the mashing has been done, the muwumbo is placed back in the saucepan with somewater and banana stalks, and steamed on a low flame. To cool the fire down, ash is poured over the
charcoal or firewood. This phase of cooking is called "ku-boobeza" in Luganda and it is distinguishedfrom the first steaming. When the color of banana leaves changes to brown, the food is ready (seePicture 3). Ganda women say that it is important to control the fire's temperature for ku-boobeza tocook matooke amanyige properly. When the fire is not controlled properly, the matooke becomes hard.
This cooking method currently used in Kampala is similar to methods mentioned in an ethnograph­ical book written in the beginning of the 20th century (Roscoe 191 1).
This steaming process is another feature of the Kampala food culture. It is only the people ofCentral Uganda that steam food-especially bananas-in East Africa (Sato 2012). Steamed stew inbanana leaves is called luwombo in Luganda (see Picture 2). Sometimes posho, a staple that is widely
cooked in Africa, is also steamed in banana leaves, although it can be eaten without steaming. People
prefer the flavor (kawoowo) of posho that has been steamed in this way. Cassava, sweet potatoes, andpumpkins are also steamed in a muwumbo when they are cooked together with matooke to improve
the aroma.

5. CONTROL OF FIRE AND CHOICE OF COOKING FUEL
5.1. Cooking time andfire control
This section addresses the time people spend and how they control the fire when cooking matookeamanyige in Kampala. The case study of Ms. Sr, a Ganda woman living with her 1-year-old daughterand 18-year-old sister in a tenement in Kampala, is utilized. The Sr household corresponds to a low­income level<14l as defined by the African Development Bank (AfDB). She has two clay charcoal
stoves for cooking food. On February 22, 2013, she cooked matooke amanyige and beef stew on thesestoves.

ASADA: The Influence of Food Traditions and Cooking Methods on Energy Transition

55

Picture 3. Procedure of cooking matooke amanyige
Note: (1) peeling bananas, (2) wrapping the fruit in banana leaves, (3) putting in a saucepan for the firststeaming (ku-tokosa), (4) mashing over banana leaves (ku-nyiga), (5) second steaming (ku-boobeza), and (6)finished.
These photographs were taken by the author between November 2, 2012 and April 21, 2013.

Ms. Sr started cooking lunch at 9:32 am. After taking 9 minutes to make a fire using 0.3 kg ofcharcoal, she "dried" the beef<1 5> for 60 minutes in a small amount of water in a small saucepan.
During this drying, she peeled 33 bananas (5 kg} and wrapped them in banana leaves to make a
muwumbo. At 10:30, she lit another stove filled with 0.3 kg of charcoal. After 10 minutes, she
chopped vegetables-tomatoes, onions, green peppers, and carrots-and added them to the pot to fry
them. After frying them for 7 minutes, she then added the beef cooked on the other stove, after
which (at 10:49) she added some water to the ingredients on the stove. She added 0.2 kg of charcoal
for boiling the water at 10:58. The beef stew was ready at 11:45. W hile the stew was cooking, sheboiled drinking water on the other stove (which was free after drying beef ).
At 11:26, she added about a half of handful of charcoal to stoke the fire in the stove used for boil­
ing the water, and put the saucepan with the muwumbo on the fire. She steamed the muwumbo on astrong fire (ku-tokosa) for 92 minutes. At 12:57 pm, she took the saucepan of muwumbo off the stove,mashed the banana in the banana leaves by hand, and put it back in the saucepan as before. Afteradding 0.3 kg of small charcoal pieces to the stove to decrease the fire, she put the saucepan back on
the fire for another steaming (ku-boobeza). After 60 minutes-at 2:13 pm-the matooke amanyige
was ready (when the banana leaves turned brown). In total, 1.3 kg of charcoal was used to cook.
The menu, amount of cooking fuel, and cooking time spent for 7 days (February 14-20, 2013) at
Ms. Sr's home was recorded by the author and Ms. Sr. According to the record, she used between
0.6-2.0 kg of charcoal ( 1 . 3 kg on average) daily for preparing meals for her family and neighbors06>(see Table 2). At Ms. Sr's home, the family cooks once a day and they eat the same food for lunch andsupper<17> _ Ms. Sr spent between 51-248 minutes (168 minutes on average) on cooking. The cooking
time exceeded 180 minutes when she cooked matooke amanyige or bean stew. It was quicker to pre­pare meals when she cooked katogo, which took 51 minutes (on February 20) and 64 minutes (onFebruary 17). Matooke amanyige needs to be cooked twice, taking at least 60 minutes for the firstcooking phase (ku-tokosa) and between 60-180 minutes for the second phase (ku-boobeza). Beans arebrought from the market dried, and need to cook for approximately 120-240 minutes to soften. To cookthese meals, a cooler simmering fire is preferred to a hot fire used for boiling. For simmering, a long­
burning fire is better, and it does not have to be very hot. For boiling, a hot fire is needed to be faster.

Nilo-Ethiopian Studies

56

Table 2. Menu, cooking time, and charcoal consumption for 7 days at Ms. Sr

Menu

Staple foodCooking time(mins.)Side dish

2.0
1.3
0.6
1.2
2.0

1,179

8.9

168

1.3

Bean stew
Bean stew
Bean stew
MatookeFish stew
Rice
Stir-fried cabbage
Groundnut katogo with bananas
Groundnut katogo with bananas
Average

(k )

248
240
225
202
149
64
51

Rice
Posho
Rice

Total

Charcoal
consumption

1 .2

0.6

Numbersof stoves

Date

3
3
3
2
2
1
1

2/16/2014
2/14/2014
2/19/2014
2/18/2014
2/15/2014
2/17/2014
2/20/2014

Source: Field data from February 16- 20, 2014

5.2. Choice ofcookingfuel in high-income households
Some Kampala households have different types of cooking stoves that use different kinds of fuel,especially high- and middle-income ones. For my case study, the menu, cooking time, and cooking
fuel of two high-income households were recorded by the author and respondents for 7 days toobserve people's different choices of cooking fuel. In both households, housemaids prepared themeals, which is a similar situation to other high-income households that have a monthly fixed income.
The respondents of this survey were Ms. Pr and Ms. Jp.
Ms. Pr is a housemaid that works in a household with a family of seven people. The father is a
Member of Parliament while the mother works for an international company. Their income level
corresponds to high income< 14> as defined by the AfDB. They have three sons and two daughters andone of the sons is over 18 years old. Both daughters go to a boarding school. They have a security
guard who takes care of the garden, vehicles, and the gate. The family members are of the Ganda
people, and Ms. Pr is the Soga(ts) _ The family owns three cars and a five-bedroom house, and they
were building another house in the suburbs of Kampala. In the kitchen, there are metal charcoal
stoves, an LPG gas cylinder and burner, and a microwave to cook food.
Ms. Pr uses LPG or the microwave to prepare breakfast and charcoal to prepare lunch and supper(see Table 3). It should be noted that charcoal is used only to prepare lunch and supper. In the morning,
Ms. Pr spent 10 to 60 minutes to boil milk with LPG and 15 minutes with the microwave. For lunch,she cooked katogo, pilau (rice cooked with onion, tomato, and meat (optional)), posho, cassava, andsweet potato. For supper, she cooked matooke amanyige for 5 of the 6 days per week that she works,
which took 2-3 hours. On Wednesday July 10, she boiled milk for morning tea using LPG, which
took 10 minutes to boil, and served it with bread. For lunch, she cooked boiled sweet potatoes andbean stew for her and the gatekeeper, because the family members were all at work or at school. The
cooking process-using charcoal-took 2 hours. She cooked matooke amanyige and chicken stew forsupper, which took 3 hours using charcoal.
Ms. Jp works in a household where the head of the household is a woman working as a seniorlecturer at a national university, earning enough for the household to be considered a high-income
householcl<14>_ The woman lives with her brother in a house with four bedrooms. They are all of the
Nyoro(19> people who also eat matooke as their daily staple food. The head of the household owns a car
and leases three tenements. In the kitchen, there is a charcoal stove, a firewood stove, and an LPG
cooker for cooking food.
Ms.Jp used LPG to cook breakfast, charcoal or LPG to cook lunch, and charcoal only for supper(see Table 4). During the 7-day observation period, she boiled water or milk for tea and cookedASADA: The Influence of Food Traditions and Cooking Methods on Energy Transition

57

Table 3. Menu, type of cooking fuel, and cooking time for 7 days at Ms. Pr's place
Breakfast

Date

Cooking
time

Lunch

Cookingtime

Fuel

Cookingtime

Matooke,

Charcoal

3 hrs.

Charcoal

2 hrs.

Charcoal

30 min. Mugoyo*

Charcoal

3 hrs.

Charcoal

3 hrs.

groundnut stew, Charcoal
stir-fried cabbage

2 hrs.

Menu

Fuel

Sweet
potatoes,bean stew

Charcoal

2 hrs.

1 2013 Milk tea (microwave) 15 min.

Matooke,lO min.

bananasand beans

Fuel

Menu

Wed.
7/ /

lO min.

10 2013 Milk tea LPG

Electricity

Thu.
7/ 1/

�;t212013

Milk tea LPG
Electricity

Sat.
7/1 /

fish stew

Katogo ofSupperPosho,

Menu
chicken stew

3 2013 Milk tea (microwave) 15 min. bean stew Charcoal 2 hrs.

Matooke,

Sun.
7/ 4/

1 2013 Milk tea LPG

1 hr.

Charcoal 1 hr.

Matooke,

Mon.
7/15/

Cassava,stir-friedcabbage2013 Milk tea LPG
u
Milk tea LPG;;t61201 3

lO min.

Pilau

Charcoal 1 hr.

Matooke,

5 min.

Cassava,bean stew

CharcoalMatooke,• Mixture of mashed sweet potatoes and boiled beans
Source: Field data from July 10- 6, 013

2 hrs.

beef stew

Charcoal

2 hrs.
Charcoal 3 hrs.

beef stew
chicken stew

1 2

Table 4. Menu, !z:ee of cooking fuel, and cooking time for 7 dars at Ms. Je's elace
Date

Breakfast

Menu

Mon.
7/8/2 10 3 Black tea

Tue.
7/9/2 103

Wed.
7/10/ 01

Fuel

Cookingtime

LPG l min.

0Black tea, katogo
of bananas and LPG 1 hr.
cow peas
Black tea, katogo

and LPG 1 hr.
2 3 ofcowbananas
peas

Thu.
7/1 1/ 01

2 3

Fri.

Black tea, katogo
of bananas and LPG 3 min.
fish

0Black tea,groundnut
katogo ofbananasLPG 30 min.

2013 Black tea

LPG l min.

7/12/

201 3

Sat.
7/13/
Sun.
7/14/

201 3 Milk tea

0

LPG 15 min.

Source: Field data from July 8-14, 2 13

0

Lunch

Menu

Fuel

Cookingtime

SupperMenu

Charcoal 1 hr.

Matooke,

Karo,

LPG
4 hrs.
CharcoalMatooke, rice,

Sweet
potatoes,bean stew

Charcoal 3 hrs.

Chips

LPG

2 hrs.

Karo,

Charcoal

3 hrs.

Charcoal

2 hrs.

Charcoal

3 hrs.

Bean stew

bean stew
Sweet
potatoes,bean stew

Matooke, rice,

beef stew,
stir-fried
greens3 min.

0

Cookingtime

hrs.
sweet potatoes, Charcoal
15 min.
groundnut stew

Karo,chicken stew

Fuel

cow pea stew

Matooke, rice,

fish stew

Matooke, rice,groundnut stew
Matooke, rice,pork stew

Matooke, rice,

beef stew

Matooke, rice

beef stew2

Charcoal

2 hrs.

Charcoal

2 hrs.

Charcoal

3 hrs.

Charcoal 3 hrs.
Charcoal

3 hrs.

Charcoal

3 hrs.

58

Nilo-Ethiopian Studies

katogo with LPG every morning for breakfast. For lunch, she often cooked karo (sorghum and cassava

flour mingled with hot water), sweet potatoes, and Irish potatoes (which are easier to cook thanmatooke), and rice, as she eats lunch with the householder's brother. She used LPG on July 9 to cookkaro and on July 11 to cook deep-fried potatoes, and used charcoal to prepare lunch on other days. It
took between 1 and 4 hours to cook lunch. For supper, she cooked matooke amanyige every day alongwith another staple food such as rice or sweet potatoes. She used charcoal every day for preparing
supper and took 2-3 hours. She did not use firewood at all. On Tuesday, July 9, for example, sheboiled water for tea and cooked katogo with the leftover stew with bananas for breakfast, using LPG
and taking 1 hour. For lunch, she used LPG to cook karo and charcoal to cook bean stew. The cook­ing took 4 hours in total. For supper, she cooked matooke amanyige, rice, and cow pea stew, using
charcoal and taking 2 hours.
Both Ms. Pr and Ms. Jp stated that they use charcoal for preparing "emmere" (meals). Emmererefers to food with longer preparation time and more work, which is different from "byokulya" (snacks
or light meals). Their householders instructed them to use charcoal to prepare emmere. They generally
cook using a steaming or boiling process, preparing meals such as matooke amanyige, rice, and stew,
which needs more cooking time but does not need a very hot fire. The food and fuel records showthat Ms. Pr often cooked matooke amanyige and bean stew spending 2-4 hours. Ms.Jp also spent 2-3
hours to cook matooke amanyige and 2-4 hours to cook bean stew. They always used charcoal forcooking these meals.
5.3. Preference and comparison ofcookingfuels

Many people in Kampala believe it is better to cook matooke amanyige with woodfuel, rather thanadvanced fuel. Advanced fuel such as LPG and electricity are used in very few households andmatooke is cooked by boiling with a small amount of water and is then mashed. This cooking method
is more used in single households or when cooking time is limited, but people say that matooke cookedin this way is tasteless. A man living in Kampala stated: "If my wife cooks matooke in this way, we
would get divorced immediately!"
According to the people of Kampala, the main factors of flavorsome matooke are color, aroma, taste,texture, and warmth. A vivid yellow (kyenvu) is preferred for the color. The matooke turns black when
it is not peeled properly because of the vascular bundle, and remains white (kyeru) when it is not wellsteamed. The smell of banana is supposed to come out when opening the muwumbo (bag of banana
leaves). The cooked meal is supposed to be sweet and not too hard or too soft. It is also supposed tostay hot until the meal is finished.
To compare the difference in food cooked with different cooking fuels, matooke amanyige was pre­pared by wrapping with banana leaves cooked on charcoal, firewood, and LPG respectively. All thecooking processes of a Ganda housewife were observed and recorded and the food was tasted by the
researcher, the chef, and two Ganda people. The charcoal cooking was observed on February 22, 2013,
the firewood cooking on February 26, 2014, and the LPG cooking on March 9, 2014.
The matooke amanyige that was cooked with charcoal became a little hard, vivid yellow, and had asatisfying texture and smell. It did not get cold until people finished eating. The banana leaves turneda dark green before mashing and brown when the food was ready. It took 88 minutes to steam before
mashing, and 60 minutes after mashing.
W hen cooked using firewood, the matooke became sweet and a vivid dark yellow, with a tendertexture and a pleasant aroma. It was very hot to eat in the beginning and stayed warm until the meal
was finished. The color of the banana leaves changed similarly to the charcoal-cooked meal before
and after mashing. It took 56 minutes to cook before mashing and 48 minutes after mashing.
W hen the matooke amanyige was cooked with LPG, it turned a subdued yellow and was quite hardwith a bad texture with lumps. It did not have a great aroma or taste and became hard and cold in
the middle of the meal. The banana leaves did not change color and the housewife had to add water
for steaming several times. It took 55 minutes to cook before mashing and 23 minutes after mashing.
Matooke does not remain soft once it gets cold. As mentioned before, the meal should be served

ASADA: The Influence of Food Traditions and Cooking Methods on Energy Transition

59

hot in Ganda society. Ganda people prevent the matooke from turning cold and hard by steaming itover a low flame, which is accomplished by pouring ash on firewood or charcoal when keeping theleftover food. A low flame does not always need added woodfuel, but LPG or electricity needs extra
energy, which is expensive and too hot for keeping matooke warm and soft.

6. DISCUSSION
6.1. 1he demandfor charcoal and its preference as cookingfuelThree reasons for the preference of charcoal as cooking fuel were highlighted by this fieldwork survey
in Kampala: economy, residential environment (in Chapter 3), and food culture (in Chapter 4 and 5).
First, the cost of charcoal is reasonable as a daily cooking fuel compared to LPG and electricity.
Charcoal can be bought in small amounts in small buckets (about 1 kg) at approximately 1,000 shil­lings, while it costs more than 50,000 shillings to buy an LPG cylinder. Additionally, charcoal stovescost about 2,000 shillings. This also makes it easier for people to use charcoal rather than LPG orelectricity.
Second, the high population density in Kampala necessitates using cooking fuel that does not needa large cooking space to cook and does not produce too much smoke. Although people in rural areas
generally have a small building that serves as the kitchen, people in urban areas have limited living
space such as tenements, which do not have specific kitchen space. Cooking with charcoal does notmake the living space and cooking utensils dirty with smoke and soot. Charcoal is readily available
everywhere in the residential areas of Kampala, as opposed to firewood, which is not readily available
because of limited supply in the city.
Third, food culture has a significant impact on the choice of cooking fuel according to the survey
on food preference and local cooking methods. Bananas are a staple in Uganda and are consumed inlarge amounts. As shown by Roscoe (1911), people have sustained the traditional cooking methodwith banana leaves since around 1900 or maybe even earlier. The dish cooked by using bananas,
matooke amanyige, has high socio-cultural value in the area. The cooking method involves steaming
for long hours over a very low flame. This steaming process is called "ku-boobeza" in Luganda. Our
field observations have showed that the matooke becomes hard and tasteless when it is cooked with
LPG, since the heat is too high. Steaming with banana leaves can be used for cooking other food aswell, such as posho and stew. People enjoy the aroma and flavor of cooking with banana leaves overa low flame.
Most people of the Ganda-especially women-are regarded as mature adults when they can cookdelicious matooke amanyige. This is important in order to get married and be a good housewife.
According to the meal and fuel surveys conducted in this paper, matooke was not cooked every day
in lower-income household. At Ms. Sr's household it was cooked 3 times in a week, and two of themwere cooked as katogo (see Table 2). This was because cheaper staple foods such as posho and rice areavailable. On the other hand, matooke was more frequently cooked in higher-income households. It
was cooked 6 times in a week at Ms. Pr's household (see Table 3), and every day for supper at Ms.Jp's
place (see Table 4). It can be indicated that matooke is something that people would like to eat every
day if they can afford to buy them.
6.2. 1he correlation between economic growth and choice ofcookingfuel

The energy ladder proposed in the 1980s states that people shift their choice of cooking fuel from alower to a higher level upon the improvement of the socio-economic status of the country. Charcoal
is regarded as transition fuel used in societies where the economy has not improved sufficiently toafford advanced fuel (Shively et al 2010). There are high-income households in Uganda- especiallyin the capital of Kampala-where the economy and urbanization are developing. However, eventhese households are still using charcoal as their main cooking fuel although they also have devices
for advanced cooking fuel at home. This is because matooke is eaten every day in most of these house-

60

Hilo-Ethiopian Studies

holds, which lower-income households cannot always afford every day. Charcoal is deliberately
chosen to cook tasty matooke amanyige every day, not because of their inability to afford advanced fuel.
If there is a system within a household with two or more women doing household chores, it alsoenables people to spend longer hours on cooking. Housemaids are hired in many households where
both the husband and wife work in town, which facilitates more time being spent on cooking than
before when women's participation in the workforce was only starting to increase. In other house­holds, it is quite common to have younger women from rural areas helping with chores. All thesefactors contribute to people being able to keep using charcoal for cooking.
6.3. Ihe influence offood culture on the choice ofcookingfuel
The energy ladder model shows that a country's socio-economic status has a great impact on the
choice of cooking fuel of the population. On the other hand, other factors also have an impact on the
choices of cooking fuel in energy stacking (van der Kroon et al. 2013).
Masera et al.'s (2000) study stated that the frequency and cooking method of tortillas influencepeople's choice of cooking fuel in Mexico. People once started using LPG but reverted to using fire­wood, because they were not able to cook as many tortillas as they need and make them as tasty with
LPG as they did with firewood.
This study's field observations in Kampala adds another case study proving that local food culture
has a great effect on the choice of cooking fuel. Bananas are a staple of the region and are cooked ina traditional way, which needs low and long burning fire. Modern fuel is not suitable for cooking
bananas to people's preference. When focusing on the choice of cooking fuel, factors such as infra­
structure, the livelihood strategy for the poor, the fuel cost, and socio-economic status are considered,
but the effect of local food culture also needs to be emphasized.

NOTES(1) The term "plantain" is used in a dual sense. It refers to cooking bananas in general, but also represents the
subgroup of banana species possessing the genome type of AAB. Cooking bananas in Uganda belong to
the AAA group (JAICAF 2010). In this study, the term "banana" is used to represent cooking banana, andthe term "fruit banana" is used for the raw-eating type.
(2) The bag is used for distribution of various commodities such as rice, maize flour, sugar, and beans. The sizeof a bag is approximately 60 cm wide and 100 cm deep.
(3) The exchange rate between the US Dollar and Ugandan shilling was USD 1 = 2,600 shillings in 2014
(UBOS 2017: 212).
(4) The population density is high in Kampala compared with other East African cities, for instance 4,500
people per sq. km in Nairobi, Kenya (Population Reference Bureau 201 1) and 3,133 people per sq. km in
Dar es Salaam, Tanzania (National Bureau of Statistics & Office of Chief Government Statistician 2013).
(5) In rural areas, it is common for sleeping and cooking buildings to be separate. This style has been followed
since when people were living in huts. Houses are separated by at least 10 m to prevent smoke from both­
ering the neighbors.
(6) When there is a kitchen in the homestead, people do not have to worry about soot and smoke, since sauce­pans are not brought into the living room or bedroom.
(7) A hydropower plant has been in operation since 1960s in Uganda using water resources from Lake
Victoria. Since Uganda is a landlocked country, it sells electricity to Kenya and Tanzania in return forusing their ports and roads to import commodities from other continents (Kimbugwe et al 2012). The
price of electricity is higher than the surrounding countries because generated electricity is sold rather thanbeing provided to the population (UPD EA 2009).
(8) There are many varieties of bananas in Central Uganda, including those used for staple food, fruit, andalcohol. Many varieties of bananas for staple food are planted in rural areas, but people in urban areas
cannot distinguish the varieties, and the price of bananas is decided according to size, not the variety.
More information about the varieties of banana in Uganda can be found in JAICAF (2010).
(9) The word "posho"is English according to the English dictionary (e.g. "Oxford Dictionary of English"). Its

ASADA: The Influence of Food Traditions and Cooking Methods on Energy Transition

61

origin is Kiswahili, meaning "daily rations." In Luganda posho is called "kawunga."(10) Posho is also called "ugali" in Kenya and Tanzania, "nsima" in Zambia, Malawi, and other surrounding
countries, "too" in Mali, and "Juju" in West Africa (Ogawa 2004: 95; Ankei et al. 2016: 33-34).
(11) In Uganda, "enva" translates to "sauce" in English, but it is not always poured on staple food. For the
purposes of this study, it is called stew, since it contains vegetables and meat.
(12) In the same family, people tend to serve the staple foods and stew separately for adult men and the headof the house. This is because the Ganda is a paternal society.
(13) An aunt on the maternal side is called "maama," as well as mother, since the clan of a maternal aunt is thesame as mother.
(14) The AfDB define people whose daily expenditure is below USD 2 as low-income, between USD 2 andUSD 20 as middle-income, and above USD 20 as high-income (Kingombe 2014) .
(15) Drying meat, called "ku-kaza nyama" is a process that pre-cooks meat before boiling it to make it softer
when the food is ready. Originally, people used to grill meat, but when they do not have the time or uten­sils, they boil it with a little water until all the water evaporates.
(16) Food is frequently shared with visitors and neighbors in Ugandan society, which makes difficult to tell how
many people food is cooked for every day apart from the family size. Ms. Sr and her family live in a tene­
ment (See 3.1), and she shares their food with her neighbors (including little children) when they want it.
(17) In Ms. Sr's household, the family eats a light meal-such as bread and chapati with tea-as breakfast andthe food left over from lunch as supper.
(18) The Soga people (Basoga) live east of the Ganda area, and their language-Lusoga-is closely related to
Luganda.
(19) The Nyoro people (Banyoro) live to the northwest of the Ganda area, mainly in the Hoima, Masindi,
Kibaale, Buliisa, Kiryandongo, Kakumiro, and Kagadi districts . The Nyoro people also eat banana, posho,
rice, cassava, sweet potato, and sorghum as staples.

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SHIZUKA ASADA: Graduate School ofAsian and African Area Studies, Kyoto University, 46 Shimoadachi-cho,
Yoshida, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan.