Research

Emerging Sustainable
Technologies
2021 Edition

External version

Emerging Sustainable Technologies

Emerging Sustainable
Technologies
Edition 2021
Authors: Elodie Le Cadre Loret, Jan Mertens,
Jean-Pierre Keustermans, Monique Créach
Based upon discussions with ENGIE Research experts
Laurent Baraton, Anass Berrady, Fiona Buckley, Dominique Corbisier,Cathy Crunelle, Koenraad De Bauw, Frederiek Demeyer, Carina Faber,
Emmanuel Girasa, Louis Gorintin, Jim Gripekoven, Xavier Jaspar, Yilmaz Kara,
Nouaamane Kezibri, Hannes Laget, Jonathan Lehmann, Hélène Lepaumier,
Olivier Lhote, Maxime Hervy, Marion Maheut, Camel Makhloufi, Jos Menting,Frédéric Monnaie, Lionel Nadau, Elise Nanini-Maury, Steve Nardone,
Han Ngoc Huynh Thi, Célestin Piette, Nicolas Quiévy, Stjin Scheerlinck,
Julie Simon, Olivier Van Oost, Julien Werly

2

Emerging Sustainable Technologies

How were the technologies selected?
Current efforts to limit global warming to 2 degrees above pre-industrial levels, as agreed in 2015 at the

COP 21 in Paris, are insufficient.
The IPCC 2021 report — like all other forecasting efforts — makes no mention of possible breakthroughtechnologies which could emerge and speed up our pathway to carbon neutrality. One could consider this aconservative approach, justified by the huge difficulty of predicting the next technology breakthroughs andtheir potential.

In this Emerging Sustainable Technologies 2021 document we present topical areas we think will offer nontrivial benefits for this transition. ENGIE does not only keep a close eye on their development but also has theambition to help bring some of these technologies to the market at an increased pace through piloting anddemonstrating.
How did we select these technologies? We have tried several methods to pick them in an ‘objective’ mannerusing quantitative indicators such as the number of publications and of patents, mentions in other reports
and in press releases. However, we have not found any one quantitative method that was satisfying on its
own.
In fact, using ‘objective’ quantitative measures results in mostly digital solutions dominating the selection due
to the enormous work being carried out worldwide on our digital transformation. If ENGIE adopted the same
approach we would, in effect, all be reporting the same and add little value.

Instead, we decided to trust the insights of our ENGIE experts in a wide variety of domains to compile thisselection. This approach implies a degree of subjectivity, reflecting our unique ENGIE expertise in gamechanging scientific and technological trends in energy-related activities.

3

4

Emerging Sustainable Technologies

What happened to the technologies featured in previous reports?
For the first time this year, we look back at technologies we highlighted in previous editions of this report.
A qualitative evaluation is given based on our experts’ insights into the technologies that are constantly
evolving. In this second part of the report, we illustrate how many of these technologies have rapidly gainedin maturity, enhancing their potential to speed up our pathway to carbon neutrality and prove the roadmaps
wrong.
Others, meanwhile, either mature at a slower speed or fail to live up to the expectations they raised at thetime — a reminder how notoriously difficult it is to accurately evaluate the potential of new technologies. It
also means we have to be ready to change direction if early hopes are not fulfilled.
No technology has the potential to rise to this challenge on its own. It is therefore essential to explore avariety of solutions relating to energy production, transport, storage and use.
The challenge is also too vast for a single person/company/sector to handle on their own — working together
is key.
The main purpose of this document is to help inspire a new sense of collaboration between all the players inthis hugely important endeavour.
Dr. Jan Mertens,
Chief Science Officer @ENGIE,
Visiting Professor @Ugent
Disclaimer: please note that the incorporation of a certain technology does not imply that it is part of
ENGIE’s strategy towards carbon neutrality.

Dr. Elodie Le Cadre Loret,
Lead Science Advisor @ENGIE

5

Emerging Sustainable Technologies

Table of contents

New emerging technologies
to watch out for

What about the technologies
we reported on in previous
editions?

6

Emerging Sustainable Technologies

Natural hydrogen

PV everywhere: the era ofIntegrated Photovoltaics (X-i-PV)

Road to 30% efficiency PV cells

New emerging technologies to watch out forWind Turbine Blade Circularity

Metal fuels

Fusion Power7

Emerging Sustainable Technologies

Natural hydrogen

Natural hydrogen

Emerging Sustainable Technologies

Water plays a key role in the natural hydrogen cycle
A REDOX REACTION BETWEEN MINERALS AND WATER CAN PRODUCE H2Hydrogen emissions from rocks containing ferrous
minerals in an onshore bassin [1] (see above) oralong medio-oceanic ridges [2] (see below).

Olivine and/or
Pyroxene(Oceanic crust minerals or
intracratonic intrusions)

+

Water

Serpentine+

Hydrogen+

Magnetite

Heat from geothermal
gradiento The Earth is at the heart of iron oxide
redox reactions between ferrous
minerals and water percolating in thesubsurface to generate H2 via
serpentinization reactions.

o Natural hydrogen leakages are estimatedby extrapolation at several Mt/y (sameorder of magnitude as current
annual hydrogen consumption ~70 Mt/y).

8

Emerging Sustainable Technologies

Natural hydrogen

9

Source [3]Emerging Sustainable Technologies

Natural hydrogen

Monitoring allows a more precise
evaluation of the quantity of H2 released
at surface level by structures known as
fairy circles. Quantity is estimated atseveral hundred of kilos per day
confirming the high H2 potential of theSão Francisco basin [4]. Researchers arestill working to understand thisphenomenon [5].

10Natural hydrogen

Emerging Sustainable Technologies

Advantageso Continuous production: hydrogen could be produced
continuously with large volumes permanently
replenished.
o Dedicated sensors have been developped to identify
prospective areas (TRL 7-8). Existing geophysical data
is often used to make the link with the subsurface(TRL 9).
o Exploration & Production tools and technologies canbe reused (TRL 9).
o Low cost onshore and low carbon production.
o Low footprint on the ground.

Challenges

Challenges to overcome through:o Hydrogen generation and potential trapping needs tobe better understood (TRL 3-4).

o Research programs are necessary in order to better
understand mechanisms and model each brick.

o The hydrogen system still needs to be proven by
drilling wells.

o Need to participate in practical projects todemonstrate potential and get a global vision of
accumulation mechanisms.

o Rates and volumes may not be economical (TRL 3-4).

11

12

Emerging Sustainable Technologies

PV everywhere:
the era of integrated
Photovoltaics (X-i-PV)

PV everywhere: the era of integrated Photovoltaics (X-i-PV)

Emerging Sustainable Technologies

Floating PV

PRICES DIVIDED BY ALMOST 5
IN THE LAST 10 YEARSo A photovoltaic installation mounted on a floating structure
Vehicle integrated PV (VIPV)o When solar PV modules are installed on windows, walls,
agriculture, light-roof structures etc. requirements otherthan efficiency need to be taken into account: weight,
flexibility, color, transparency…

o A PV installation integrated into the vehicle,
connected to electric loads or batteries in electricvehiclesAgri PVo PV combined with standard
structures (e.g. greenhouses)

X-i-PVo Intensify the land use(crops harvesting and energy
generation)
Infrastructure integrated PV (IIPV)o Refers to embedding solar power ininfrastructures such as: noise barriers,
carports, streetlights etc.
Building integrated PV (BIPV)

Price development for PV Rooftop Systems in Germany (10kWp – 100kWp) [6]o PV used to replace conventional building
materials in parts of the building envelope
such as the roof, skylights, windows or facades

Sources [7], [8], [9], [10], [11]13PV everywhere: the era of integrated Photovoltaics (X-i-PV)

Emerging Sustainable Technologies

AGRI PV• Lessen the competition for land use between
growing food and generating energy in densely
populated areas [12]ADVANTAGES• Create favorable environments for crops (shade,temperature, humidity conditions) [12]• Bring additional revenues to farmers at marginal costeither thanks to electricity generation (selfconsumption), crops (quality/quantity), land lease or
free / less costly equipment [12]CHALLENGES

FLOATING• New opportunities to produce solar energy in countries with a highpopulation density and where competition uses for land is rife [13]• Thanks to advantageous regulations, the BIPV market is
expected to grow by an average of 2.7% per year [15]• Attractive in combination with hydropower assets as bothtechnologies can benefit from each other: grid connection already inplace, reduction of evaporation, complementary production
profile…[13]• Numerous aesthetically appealing products have beenlaunched (semi transparent, colored PV, flexible etc.) [16]• Synergies between fresh water and PV: the cooling effect of water
can boost the energy yield, reduction or elimination of panel
shading, elimination of the need for major site preparation (leveling,foundations etc.) [13] [14]• Major module manufacturers do not yet market
modules of a suitable size and efficiency for Agri PV
systems [12]• Need for specific floating PV test for drinking-water compatibility,
wind resistance of platforms etc. International certifications arelacking [13]• Possible higher price due to its innovative nature;
specific regulatory frameworks are needed tosupport its development [12]• O&M more complex compared to conventional PV (electrical circuit,cleaning due to possible soiling caused by birds) [13]• Soiling from products, components, and fertilizers
used in agricultural activities could impact the
durability and power production [12]BIPV• Difficulty of implementation in the sea where water surface
conditions are much rougher [13]• Mitigation of the timing imbalance between supply anddemand of electricity thanks to BIPV façade oriented
towards east or west [17]• Bring additional revenues at marginal cost thanks tointegration on existing envelope functionalities.
• Today, BIPV is a niche market [18]• PV modules lose efficiency as temperature increases, special
care should therefore be taken regarding façade ventilation[19]• BIPV projects require advanced collaboration between
building stakeholders: PV, architects, construction and realestate sectors [15]14PV everywhere: the era of integrated Photovoltaics (X-i-PV)

Emerging Sustainable Technologies

Flagship commercial projects*

First commercial floating PV
Completed in 2008,
175 kWp in the Far Niente
Winery [13]

ENGIE BIPV demonstratorso Linkebeek in 2017, 2.37 kWp, first
integration of OPV into glass [20]o Zwijndrecht in 2018, 40m² oforganic façade BIPV [21]Largest floating PV in
Belgium developed by ENGIE
Sibelco: 7MWp 17256
modules, construction
completed in 2019 [22]Biggest Agri-PV plant
640 MW solar park in
the Binhe New District,combined with goji
berry production [25]Fisker Karma
2011, first mass
production of a car with a120W solar roof [27]Carport by ENGIE
Completed in 2016,
13,5 MWp in Rivesaltes [28]* This is a non-exhaustive selection of examples of recent technology developments and achievments.

Largest bifacial noise barrier
Along the A50 in the
Nederlands, 400m long [23]Largest BIPV façade
Mumbai, Ctrls Data
Center, 800 kWp
completed in 2019[24]

World largest
floating plant
Hangzhou Fengling
solar floating farm.
Completed in 2020,
320 MW [26]15PV everywhere: the era of integrated Photovoltaics (X-i-PV)

Emerging Sustainable Technologies

Countries with significant X-i-PV projects
Floating
PV

Floating PV Agri PV
Agri PV

◉

◉

VIPV

◉
◉

Italy

◉

◉

◉

The Netherlands

◉

◉

◉

Norway◉Portugal

◉

Spain

◉

Scandinavia

North
America◉◉

Germany

EuropeIIPV◉Austria
France

BIPV

◉

◉
◉
Asia

◉

◉

◉

◉

Australia

◉

China

◉

◉

◉

India

◉

◉

◉

Indonesia◉

Israel

◉

Japan

◉

Malaysia◉

Maldives◉

Republicof Korea◉

Singapore◉

Sri Lanka◉

Sweden◉Switzerland◉

Turkey◉Taiwan◉United Kingdom◉

Thailand◉Canada◉Vietnam◉United States

◉

Latin
America

Brazil◉Panama◉AfricaTunisia

◉

◉

◉

◉

◉
◉

◉

◉

BIPV

◉

IIPV

VIPV

◉

◉

16

17

Emerging Sustainable Technologies

Road to 30%
efficiency PV cells

Road to 30% efficiency PV cells

Emerging Sustainable Technologies

SILICON SOLAR CELLS ARE LEADINGTHE MARKETThe rapid increase in overall photovoltaic
electricity production has been facilitated by the
declining cost of silicon-based solar cells [29].

COMPETITIVE MARKET FOR NEWCOMERSDue to its technological maturity, its
prominence in the microelectronics industry
and its cheap cost, Silicon based technology isa difficult supply chain to challenge.

SIGNIFICANT IMPROVEMENT
OF THE EFFICIENCYDuring the last decade, solar PV has seen asubstantial improvement in efficiency: from
16% in 2010 to 22% in 2021. The efficiency
value of silicon solar cell is moving towards the
maximum achievable limit of 29.2% [29]In the future, perovskite cells will
possibly challenge silicon solar cells.
Significant commercialization is notexpected before 2025T
Trend: share of cell technologies [30] [31]Cell Efficiency Trend in Mass Production, current and roadmap [29] [31]18Road to 30% efficiency PV cells

Emerging Sustainable Technologies

CONCENTRATED PV
o Integration of tiny, highly efficient,multi-junction cells on top of standard
silicon panels.
o Use of micro-lenses and microtrackers to track the sun’s position.

TANDEM PEROVSKITE SOLAR
CELLSo Layer of perovskites absorb only thehigh-energy blue end of the spectrum
that silicon cells are unable to capture[29].

o Measured efficiency of 29%.
[32] [33] [34]Illustration of the concept of a tandem
perovskite-on-silicon cell

LIGHTWEIGHT PVo Weight: 1-10 kg/m2 as opposed to
12- 15kg/m² for standard PV.

o Encompasses several technologies:
organic PV, Silicon, CiGS etc.
o Different approaches exist such as
replacing the glass with lightweight
polymers. [16]Heliatek’s lightweight PV modules on ENGIE
Laborelec’s building, Linkebeek, Belgium

19

THERMORADIATIVEPHOTOVOLTAICSo [35] proposes a “night time photovoltaiccell” that uses the earth as a heat source
and the night sky as a heat sink.
o [36] demonstrated a similar device thatcan produce 25mW/m² (for 150 W/m2 forsilicon) at night using a thermoelectricmodule that radiates heat towards theextreme cold of space.

Description of the concept [37]Road to 30% efficiency PV cells

Emerging Sustainable Technologies

CONCENTRATED PV

TANDEM PEROVSKITE SOLAR CELLSLIGHTWEIGHT PV

THERMORADIATIVE PV

ADVANTAGES• Assembly of technological maturebricks in an innovative module giving
concentrated PV a higher module
efficiency than tandem
perovskite/silicon modules [34]• Increasing efficiency decreases theenvironmental footprint of PV• Micro-tracking allows for a flattened
production curve [34]• High efficiency allowing theefficiency limit of silicon to be
exceeded [40]• High and tunable spectral
performances [41]• Intensive R&D activity which
accelerates the development [43]• Possible implementation of
PV on unused areas/surfacesthat require lightweight or
flexible PV [16]• Already commerciallyavailable [16]• High-cost reduction potential
due to innovative
manufacturing such as rollto-roll [16]• Possible production of electricity
during nighttime [35] [36]• PV cells could be combined withthermoradiative cells [35]

CHALLENGES• Complex technology inducing an
overpricing and possible reliability
issues [34]• Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) offers highefficiency, but competitive prices
must be maintained on an industrial
scale [34][38]• Gallium is listed as a critical raw
material by the European
Commission [39]• Maturity not yet reached,problems with stability over the
lifetime of the modules(degradation can be caused byenvironmental conditions) [40] [43]• Retaining high efficiencies on anindustrial scale and module sizewith competitive prices [40[43][42]• Presence of lead in the bestperforming perovskite cells might
require a specific recycling process[40] [44]• Efficiency is currently lower
than conventional PV
modules.
• Adapting the best existing
efficiencies to lightweight
manufacturing processes[45]• €/Wp costs are still higher
than standard PV [16]• New technology still in early
research phase with a low TRL (1-3)• Due to a lack of maturity, several
different concepts currently exist[35][36]• The demonstrated power
production remains low(25mW/m²) [36]20Road to 30% efficiency PV cells

Emerging Sustainable Technologies

Stanford or UC Davis
Thermoraditative
photovoltaics
concepts [35] [36]Oxford PV
Record efficiency of
29.52% efficiencies forperovskite/silicontandem of 12cm² [46]
TRL 5

Solliance
Perovskite/silicontandem of 9mm².
Efficiency: 28.7% [47]TRL 5

Insolight
Hiperion
Efficiency: 29% [32]

ENGIE & Heliatek
Largest lightweight OPV
installation of 530m² in
La Rochelle [50]
TRL 8-9

ENEL & CEA INES
Efficiency of 25% onheterojunction siliconcells [51]
TRL 5-6

TRL 6-7

Panasonic
Perovskite
Efficiency:16% for fullmodules of 30cmx30cm [53]
TRL 5

TRL 1-3

Miasolé & Solliance
Perovskite/CiGS
Efficiency: 26.5%
efficiency [48]
TRL 5-6

ENGIE
Test bench for new PV
technologies in Chile in the
Atacama desert which offers
among the highest surface
irradiance on earth [49]
TRL 7-9*These are a non exhaustive selection of examples of recent technology development and achievments

Hanergy
Silicon heterojunction
modules of 2mx1m
Efficiency of 25.11% [52]TRL 6-721

22Emerging Sustainable Technologies

Wind Turbine Blade
Circularity

Emerging Sustainable Technologies

Wind Turbine Blade Circularity

Wind Blade Waste is composed of valuable resources thatshould be recycled to make the supply chain even moresustainable
BLADE COMPOSITION

23

Wind Turbine Blade Circularity

Emerging Sustainable Technologies

BLADE DIMENSIONS INCREASING
Wind Turbine Rotor diameter [meters]

250

BLADE DECOMMISSIONING KICKING IN

o In five to ten years time,
the number ofdecommissioned blades
will be so high that it
will be crucial to adapt
the current waste
processing system.

IEC Class I
IEC Class II
IEC Class III
IEC Class IV
IEC Class S
Offshore

225
200
175
150
125
100
75
50

Mass scaleswith a powerof ~2.3

25
0
1990

1995

2000

2005

2010

2015

2020

2025

2030
Source [57]Source [58]o The wind energy
industry believes an EU
landfill ban will
accelerate the scaling
up of recycling
technologies, which inturn, will see thedemand for recycledmaterials rise.

24

Emerging Sustainable Technologies

Wind Turbine Blade Circularity

MATURITY OF SOLUTIONS

Source [58]

FRP: Fibre-Reinforced Plastic

25

Wind Turbine Blade Circularity

Emerging Sustainable Technologies

STRENGTHS

ThermalPYROLYSIS• Pyrolysis gas/oil can be used as an energy source inprocesses or in chemicals production;• Easily scaled up;• Microwave Pyrolysis: easier to control. Less damage to thefiber.

• Fiber product may retain oxidation residue or char (combine withgasification)• Potential gas leakage from waste treatment chambers

CO-PROCESSING• Highly efficient, fast and scalable;• Large quantities can be processed;• No ash left over.

• Loss of original material form;• Additional energy needed to reach high processing temperatures• Emissions of pollutants and particulate matter• Recovery of energy and potential precursor chemicals;• High efficiency of heat transfer.

• Recovery of low-quality material;• Economically viable at > 10,000 t/year;• Process-related emissions

SOLVOLYSIS• Recovery of full length clean fibers;• Recovery of resin which can be re-used.

• Low efficiency;• High energy consumption due to the high temperature and pressure• Large amounts of solvents required, ecotoxicity from gas emissions

HIGH VOLTAGEPULSE
FRAGMENTATION• Scalable to treat large amounts of waste;• Low investments required to reach the next TRL.

• Only laboratory- and pilot-scale machinery is available;• Heavily decreased modulus of glass fiber.

MECHANICALGRINDING• Efficient and high throughput rates.

• Cost efficiency;• Low quality of output. High content of other materials;• Requires space and facilities to treat materials.

GASIFICATION(Fluidized bed)

ChemicalMechanical

CHALLENGES

Source [59]26Wind Turbine Blade Circularity

Emerging Sustainable Technologies• Virol• Conenor• Extreme Eco2 Solutions• Carbon Conversions• Carbon Rivers• CHZ Technologies• Firebird Advanced Materilas, Inc.

• V.Carbon• ReFiber ApS• Continuum• ECRT• Miljøkœrm

• ELG Carbon Fibre Ltd.

• General Electric• Veolia North America• Reprocover• Alpharecyclage
Composites• Recycling Carbon• Extracthive• PHYre• CRTC• ECO-WOLF, Inc.
• Global Fiberglass Solutions• Shocker composites• Shocker composites• Geocycle

Projects• Neowa/Neocomp
Selfrag• Reciclalia• TRC

Legend• Carbon Fiber Recycle Industry co. Ltd.
• Mitsubishi Rayon Co, Ltd.
• Toray• Teijin• CFK Valley Stade Recycling• Hadeg Recycling Ltd• Wipag• Roth International• Karborek

Pyrolysis

Mechanical Grinding

Co-Processing

Solvolysis

Gasification (Fluidized Bed)

HV Pulse Fragmentation

RELICARIO
BRIO – Green – Tech Fibre Insulation

27

Wind Turbine Blade Circularity

Emerging Sustainable Technologies

Today’s Focus is on recycling but the major manufacturers are now working on future eco-designed blades
PORT-LA-NOUVELLE WIND FARM IN FRANCEThe ZEBRA project goal is to demonstrate on a full scale the technical,
economic and environmental relevance of thermoplastic wind turbine blades,with an eco-design approach to get a 100 % recyclable wind turbine blade.
The project has been launched in 2020 for a period of 42 months with abudget of €18.5 million.

TRL 9

ZEBRA

Source [60]The shredded material can be used tomake solid recovered fuel (SRF).
Gasification of this SRF is planned on
the GAYA platform of ENGIE.

GAYA
TRL 5-6
TRL 4

28

29

Emerging Sustainable Technologies

Metal fuels

Metal fuels

Emerging Sustainable Technologies

Metals have high energy densities and serve as fuels in many batteries, energy materials, and propellants. Metal fuels can be burned with air or made toreact with water to release their chemical energy in a range of power-generation scales. Metal-oxide combustion products are solids that can berecycled, enabling metals to be used as recyclable carbon neutral solar fuels or electro-fuels.

Inspired by Source [61]Electro-fuels are primarily produced from electricity, during the reduction process to convert
spent combustion/oxidation products back into reactive fuel.

Potential metal fuel candidates. The element must be oxidized by
O2 from air, with high specific energy, be cheap and non-toxic [62]30Metal fuels

Emerging Sustainable Technologies…so metal fuels can be used forlong-distance transport andlong-term storage of renewableenergy!
For practical reasons (low cost & safety),
Iron seems to be the best candidate[Fe= 15,8 kWh/l (57 MJ/l) – 7,9 kg/l]

Inspired by Source [63]31Metal fuels

Emerging Sustainable Technologies

Advantages

METAL FUEL PROCESSo Iron easy to transport

H2 + Iron oxide  Iron

Iron + O2  Iron oxide

EnergyEnergyo CO2/NOx/SOx free cycleo Iron oxide easy to collecto Metal fuels present higher energy density andspecific energy than liquid fuels when oxidized

CARBON NEUTRAL PROCESS
CO2 needs to be captured

H2 + CO2 CH4
EnergyCH4 + O2  CO2
EnergyAdapted from source [61]32Metal fuels

Emerging Sustainable Technologies

TRL 3-5
Particle emissions
Safety during handling

Availability of the powder:→ 100 kW burns 50 kg/h Fe. So 1 GW during 8000 h would require 4 millions tons Fe but iron would berecycled!(global iron powder production in 2017=1,4 Mt [64] versus global coal production =7 545 Mt [65])Metal regeneration and overall efficiency→ What about powder cycling/lifespan?

Diameter change during process [66]33Metal fuels

Emerging Sustainable Technologies

Metal powder

Oxidationo Pometon powder (IT)o TUEindhoveno Doosano Laiwu (CN)o Shello Vattenfalo JFE Steel Corp (JP)o Unipero Swedish steelo Hoganas (SE)o EMGroup

o Wuhan iron & steel (CN)o Romico Holdo Rio Tinto (US)o Airbuso MA Steel (CN)o McGillo Kobelco (JP)o Ruhr Universität Bochum

o CNPC powder (CN)o + all other players using
metal powders as
propellantso Hangzhou Ytong New Material (CN)o Anshan Iron & steel (CN)TRL 5

Reduction

TRL 3Power plant
project
examplesI
2019-2020
Lighthouseburner100 kW

I
2024
WSG
Rotterdam
5 MW

I
2030?
MPP3
Maasvlakte
30x74 MW34

35

Emerging Sustainable Technologies

Fusion Power

Emerging Sustainable Technologies

REMINDER

Fusion Power36

Fusion Power

Emerging Sustainable Technologies

Fusion occurs in high-temperature confined plasma,
an ionized gas, composed of ions and free electrons.

But other reactions are possible (at higher temperature)
Deuterium - Deuterium (D-D)

The « easiest » fusion reaction for power production
is Deuterium - Tritium (D-T)
o Fission of 235U versus Fusion deuterium - tritium

Deuterium - Helium-3 (D-3He)*

Proton - Boron-11 (P-11B)*

FissionFusion* Aneutronic reactions =no radioactive waste

37

Fusion Power

Emerging Sustainable Technologies

ALL CONFINEMENT

1. Magnetic confinement fusion (MCF): the plasma is confined thanks
to magnetic fields using superconductors.
o Tokamak: bestdeveloped approach,driving hot plasmaaround in amagnetically confined
torus, with an internalcurrent (e.g., ITER)

Iter design [67]o Spheromak: ano Stellarator: twisted
arrangement ofrings of hot plasma,
plasma formed into a
attempting to create a
toroidal shape similar natural twisted
to a smoke ring, using plasma path, using
external magnets (e.g. external magnets
Sustained Spheromak (e.g. Wendelstein 7-X,
Physics Experiment)in Germany)

Liquid wall spheromak reactor [68]Wendelstein 7-X [69]

ALL COMPRESSIONCOMBINATION

2. Inertial Confinement
Fusion (ICF): using lasers,
ion beams or projectiles
to heat and compress thefuel inserted into a target

3. Other technologies:
magnetized target fusion(MTF), magnetic or electric
pinches, inertial electrostatic
confinement,…

Inertial Confinement Fusion [70]Magnetized target fusion [71]38Fusion Power

Emerging Sustainable Technologies

Advantageso Exceptionally high-density energy

Challengeso Achieve the triple product for the reaction:o Process intrinsically safe: no uncontrolled
fission reactions, no risk of fuel meltdown orlarge radioactive releases

T°C: very high temperature (~100k°K) toheat plasmao No production of high-level radioactive wastes;
Neutrons involved in the D-D and D-T reactions
will create low-level radioactive waste

t: sufficient confinement time (minutes formagnetic confinement, microseconds forinertial confinement)o Virtually limitless energy supply:• Hydrogen, deuterium and boron are abundanton earth• Tritium can be produced (using lithium)• Helium-3 can be found on the moon(or produced)

ρ: sufficient plasma particle density

o In parallel maintain low-temperature (<30°K)
superconductors for magnetic confinement• New types of superconductors, including hightemperature (70-100°K) superconductors arebeing developped
o Find resistant material able to sustain hightemperature + radiations + neutron
embrittlemento Reach energy gain* by managing the triple
product: never been reached experimentally sofar.
* Energy output should be higher than energy input

Triple Product vs Peak Temperature Achieved [72]39

Fusion Power

Emerging Sustainable Technologies

Project

Organisation

Project

Organisation

ITER

ITER Org

Magnetic

HL-2A

SOUTHWESTERNINSTITUTE OF PHYSICS

Magnetic

WEST

CEA

Magnetic
Inertial

HL-2M

SOUTHWESTERNINSTITUTE OF PHYSICS

Magnetic

Divertor Tokamak
DTT Consortio
Test Project

Magnetic

J-TEXT

Hubai University

Magnetic

KTX

Hefei University

Magnetic

Neutral Beam Test
Consortio NFX
Facility

Neutral beam
injection testing(heating theplasma)

JT-60

Japanese Atomic Energy
AgencyMagnetic

JT-60SAJapanese Atomic Energy
AgencyMagnetic

AdityaInstitute for plasma
research

Magnetic

SST-1

Institute for plasma
research

Magnetic

T-15MD

Kurchatov Institute

Magnetic

Laser Megajoule

Wendelstein 7-X

CEA

Max Planck InstituteInternational
Fusion Materials IFMIF/DONES
Irradiation Facility

Country

Confinement

StatusMagnetic
Only material
testing

Country

Confinement

StatusConception
Construction

Hiper

EU (10 countries)

Inertial

MAST upgrade

UKAEA

Magnetic

Jet

Joint European Torus

Magnetic

Inertial

ShenGuang-III

Laser fusion research
centerNational Ignition Lawrence Livermore
Facility
National Laboratory

Inertial

DIII-D

General Electric (DOE)

Magnetic

EAST

Institute of Plasma
Physics, Academy of
Sciences

Magnetic

NSTX-U

Princeton Plasma Physics
Laboratory

Magnetic

KSTAR

Korean Institute for Fusion

Magnetic

Commissioning
Operational
Shut down

40

Fusion Power

Emerging Sustainable Technologies

Confinement

Fusion reaction

First Light Fusion

Inertial

D-T

D-T

CTFusion

Magnetic

D-T

Magnetic

D-T

Compact Fusion Systems

Magnetic

D-T

General Fusion

Magnetic+Inertial

D-T

EMC2

Inertial electrostatic

D-T

Tokamak Energy

Magnetic

D-T

UKAEA

Magnetic

D-T

TAE Technologies

Magnetic

P-11B

HB11 energy

Inertial

P-11B

Helion Energy

Magnetic+Inertial

D-3He

Marvel Fusion

Inertial

P-11B

Electric pinch

P-11B

Type One Energy

Magnetic

D-D

Inertial

D-T

Renaissance Fusion

Magnetic

D-T

Magnetic+Inertial

D-T

Zap Energy

Electric pinch

D-T

Confinement

Fusion reaction

Lockheed Martin

Magnetic

D-T

Institute of Plasma Physics,
Academy of Sciences

Magnetic

Commonwealth Fusion
SystemOrganisation

LPP Fusion
Hyperjet Fusion
Magneto-Inertial Fusion
Technologies

Country

In blue: significant announcement observed in 2021

Organisation

CountryMore than 25 fusion start-ups planning to
produce a demonstrator by 2030s using
approaches different from ITER (compact andsimple reactors, different technologies,…).
Will they reach commercial viability?

Number of Companies
Pursuing Fusion Energy [73]Funding to Fusion Energy
Companies by year (USD) [74]41

Fusion Power

Emerging Sustainable Technologies

CFS and MIT hopeto produce net
energy in acompact tokamak
device known as
SPARC by 2025,
on track forcommercial
fusion energy inthe early 2030s.
Source [75]Source [76]

42

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Emerging Sustainable Technologies

What about the technologies we reported
on in previous editions?

Sustainable energies

Energy uses

Enabling technologies

44

Emerging Sustainable Technologies

Sustainable energies
Strong R&D activity and business increasing
Active research and first emerging businessWork in progress
Decreasing R&D activity

What about the technologies we reported on in previous editions?

Emerging Sustainable Technologies

SUSTAINABLE ENERGIESTechnologies

Description

What has happened?

Generating powerfrom electricity inthe air

Energy harvesting technologies use energy
from the ambient environment as a primaryenergy source and convert it into electricity.
Power can be taken from the air via various
radiation conversions: e.g., ultrasonic sounds,
infrared beams, magnetic radiation for
induction, radio frequency signals, Wi-Fi,...

The number of start-up companies in the field of electro-magnetic wave
energy harvesting and energy transport through the air increased significantly
few years ago. However, ultrasonic and radiofrequency still present low
performance and have not experienced any significant development.
Conversely inductive and infrared technologies are doing well withapplications currently dedicated to the military sector (charging of submarine
batteries, PV panel in space to charge devices in desert locations...). Source [80]Hydrothermal
gasification of
biomass & waste

Conversion of liquid organic waste into
Synthetic Gas (methane, hydrogen) under
supercritical conditions.

We continue to observe technological divergence in Europe with high activity
in The Netherlands, whilst Switzerland is favouring more mature technology.
New concepts are continuing to emerge (low TRL) in France. A couple of pilot
projects are under discussion for the future.

Pyrogasification ofwaste (Solid
Recovered Fuel)

Conversion of dry waste (as opposed tobiomass) into energy carriers at hightemperature (~1000°C) in a low-oxygen
environment.

Pyrogasification is now a mature technology now with commercial projects
ongoing all over the world (SWINDON, Cameleon...). In Europe, the challenge
is to produce synthetic gas from Solid Recovered Waste. This trend is driven
by the European legislation to greatly reduce landfilling (no more than 10%
landfilling by 2035). The ENGIE GAYA platform was producing biomethanefrom waste (SRF) at the end of 2020 - a world first on a semi-industrial scale.
Source [81]Biotechnology forenergyBiotechnology utilizes biological systems,
living organisms or parts of them to develop
or create different products. Emerging
biotechnology enables next-generation"advanced" hydrocarbon fuels to beobtained from industrial gas recycling.

Biotechnology for energy production is experiencing strong growth with alarge amount of pilot units having been established since 2019. LanzaTech, a
Chicago-based company launched in 2005, takes carbon-rich gases fromindustry to make ethanol, which can then be used for a range of low carbon
products, including jet fuel. The company is involved in a couple ofsustainable aviation fuels projects. In parallel, Electrochaea’s two-stepbiomethanation process starts with the production of hydrogen byelectrolysis using renewable power. The renewable hydrogen is combinedwith carbon dioxide and fed into the reactor which houses a methanogenic
archaea to produce methane. Sources [82], [83]

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What about the technologies we reported on in previous editions?

Emerging Sustainable Technologies

SUSTAINABLE ENERGIESTechnologies

Description

What has happened?

Photovoltaics (PV)PV gets its name from the process of
converting light (photons) toelectricity (voltage), which is known as
the photovoltaic effect.

Today, electricity from solar cells has become cost competitive in many regions andphotovoltaic systems are being deployed on a wide scale to help power the electricgrid. The vast majority of today's solar cells are made from silicon and offer bothreasonable prices and good efficiency. These cells are usually assembled into larger
modules that can be installed on the roofs of residential or commercial buildings or
deployed on ground-mounted racks to create huge, utility-scale systems.

Artificial
photosynthesis

Artificial photosynthesis refers toprocesses that convert direct solar lightinto sustainable fuels. These processes
imitate natural photosynthesis, theprocess by which plants produce
biomass from water and carbon
dioxide. In artificial photosynthesis,
water is split into hydrogen and oxygenand combined with CO2 to producehydrocarbons.

It comprises 3 approaches: electrochemical conversion with solar power, directconversion via photo(electro)chemical systems and direct conversion via biologicaland biohybrid systems (i.e., living photosynthetic cell factories).
Around 100 research groups worldwide are working on understanding basic
relationships and developing prototypes. Most of the available systems show low
solar-to-chemicals conversion efficiencies and need significant improvements inorder to serve as industrial-scale production platforms. The goal in the near future is
to increase performance to 10% solar-to-hydrogen efficiency. Efforts are aimed atincreasing the efficiency to 30% by 2050. Furthermore, artificial photosynthesis
could benefit from progress in the field of CO2 capture and from the development ofphotovoltaic components. Source [84]Solar Energy
storage in organic
molecules (Photon
Energy Storage
Materials –PESM)PESM are able to capture and store
solar energy using thermal‘switchable’ molecules. During
charging, the sunlight is absorbed by
the molecule which either modifies its
bond or switches its atoms to anotherposition. During discharge, themolecule releases energy using acatalyst, a low level of sunlight energy
or a low heat input.

The smart utilization of photons is attracting attention at a global level with respect
to renewable energy and information technology. However, it is still impossible tostore photons as batteries as condensers do for electrons. Present technologies
utilize the energy of photons in situ, such as solar panels, or in spontaneous
relaxation processes, such as photoluminescence. Experiments are still at thelaboratory stage, but they are in competition with thermal storage and phasechange materials. Stability of the molecule remains a main issue. Source [85]

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Emerging Sustainable Technologies

SUSTAINABLE ENERGIESTechnologies

Description

What has happened?

Floating offshore
wind (FOW)FOW are wind turbines mounted on floating
structures rather than fixed structures thatallows the turbine to generate electricity inwater depths where fixed-foundation
turbines are not feasible.

Following the first successful prototypes and demonstration projects, floating
offshore wind is now taking its first steps towards
commercialization. European companies are the pioneers with three quartersof the 50+ FOW projects at different stages of development worldwide
followed by the USA and Japan. There is still a need to minimize the risk toincrease confidence in projects. Source [86]The ocean asa primaryrenewable energy
source

It includes energy from currents (tidal
stream), energy from differences in sea level
between high and low tide (tidal range) andenergy from wave movement.

In the case of tidal energy, the main challenge is to succeed in operating invery harsh conditions although the potential remains very high. Technologies
are now tested on a large scale in real sea conditions with a convergence forhigh current areas (e.g., MeyGen, ENGIE). For waves, the industry took a stepback a few years ago in order to focus on components (e.g., Drivetrain), andis now moving back towards testing full devices. For combined tidal and wave
energies, developments and tests are increasing namely outside of Europe(Japan, Faroe Islands, China, Chile, etc.).

Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) isa process where energy is generated thanks
to the difference in temperature between
deep cold water and warm surface water. It
includes Sea Water Air Conditioning (SWAC).
Salinity Gradient Energy is generated thanks
to the difference in salt content between
freshwater and saltwater.

Ocean geothermal energy is still a non-mature technology. However, the firstFrench demonstrator Thassalia is now finished. Installed at the Grand Port
Maritime de Marseille in 2016, this plant is the first of its kind to use marine
thermal energy both in France and in Europe. It supplies heating and coolingto all of the buildings connected to it via a 3 km network, which will
eventually cover 500,000 m² in an eco-district which represents 70% fewer
greenhouse gas emissions.
Regarding salinity gradient energy, major operational issues related to themembrane persist. Source [87]

Airborne Wind Energy Converters (AWEC)
consist in tethered aircrafts that extract highdensity wind energy at high altitudes (200600m) with 90% material savings comparedto horizontal axis wind turbines (HAWT).

Airborne wind demonstrators are emerging alongside new pilots. We
continue to observe a multitude of new concept whilst market players are
faced with unknown, external challenges. Technological convergence has not
yet happened. Source [88]Airborne highaltitude windenergyTrend

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Emerging Sustainable Technologies

What about the technologies we reported on in previous editions?

SUSTAINABLE ENERGIESExample: Small Modular
Nuclear
Where are we in 2021?

Trend

DESCRIPTION
SMR are nuclear fission reactors of up to 300MWe equivalent, designedwith modular factory fabrication (current nuclear power stations are larger
than 1,000 MWe in current net capacity).

WHAT HAS HAPPENED?
The commercial phase has begun: Canada is very active in SMRdevelopment and has made its commitment official. Ontario Power
Generation has chosen the BWRX 300 designed by GE-Hitachi for its
Darlington project. In July, China began building the first commercial SMR
onshore nuclear project using its own "Linglong One" SMR design with a
125 MW capacity. Finally, in October, French President Macron announceda €1 billion investment in the building of SMR as part of the "France
2030" five-year investment plan to drive industrial development.

In April, Terrestrial Energy contracted with ENGIE Laborelec for technicalservices relating to its nuclear fuel salt qualification program for the IMSR
(Integral Molten Salt Reactor).

Construction of the first commercial nuclear SMR project ‘Linglong One’ in China in July 2021 [77]Sources [78], [79]

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Emerging Sustainable Technologies

Energy uses
Strong R&D activity and business increasing
Active research and first emerging businessWork in progress
Decreasing R&D activity

What about the technologies we reported on in previous editions?

Emerging Sustainable Technologies

ENERGY USES

Technologies

Description

What has happened?

Power-to proteins

Production of a protein thanks tobacterial and electrolytic H2 as anenergy source.

Creation of proteins, lipids, and functional ingredients for meat, egg, and dairy alternatives
is one of the newest and most promising applications for fermentation. Non-conventional
stakeholders are beginning to get involved in this domain (e.g., Total invests in Deep Branch,
March ‘21), whilst for several oil & gas companies (Chevron & Shell) and energy utilities(Uniper & Drax) this field is already chartered territory. Despite the high activity level, thealternative protein industry is immature and needs to be tested thanks to demonstrators.
Source [90]Pumped Hydro
Compressed Air

Hybridization of a mechanicalsolution (CAES) with a thermodynamic cycle (PHCA) for energy
storage.

In 2020, this technology has been selected by ENGIE as one of most promising technologies
to tackle the storage issue in developing of deep-water wind farms. However, thistechnology is not mature enough for large investment. A PHCA pilot, developed by PackGy,is closely followed by ENGIE and the company Triballat is interested in testing it. Source [91]Multi-purpose
offshore platforms

Constellation and synergies ofvarious (far-)offshore economic
activities, such as renewableenergy generation (wind, solar,
wave,...), energy storage,
aquaculture, desalination, marine
research, security, etc.

Today, multi-purpose offshore platforms do not yet exist. Only a few calls for tenders havebeen launched in Europe, e.g. Marseille harbour for offshore bunkering. Bunkering is the
supplying of fuel for use by ships and includes the shipboard logistics of loading fuel anddistributing it among available bunker tanks.
The consortium C-NERGY conducted a feasibility study with a view to creating offshoreislands on the Belgian coast. Source [92]Green ammonia
and green
fertilizer

Production of sustainableammonia and nitrogen based
fertilizers by integrating
renewable feedstock into theconventional process.

The current focus is on green ammonia production as energy vector by making it with green
electricity and no longer from gas. The production is now driven by the potential demand ofmaritime transport. For green fertilizer, the main challenge is the down scaling in order todecentralize the production at an affordable price. Indeed, the production of a few
thousand tons per day isn't adapted to a renewable electricity production at a local level.
Research is active in this sector.

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Emerging Sustainable Technologies

ENERGY USES

Technologies

Description

What has happened?

CO2 cycle

CO2 cycle replaces the classical
NET Power has constructed a 50 MW demonstrator plant in Texas that is up and running,water steam cycle. The Allam cycle with plans to bring a full-scale 300 MW plant into service in 2025. The success of its zerotechnology burns natural gas with emissions natural-gas power plant has opened the way for NET Power to plan thepure oxygen. The resulting CO2 is construction of similar plants around the world. Few additional players are involved in thisrecycled through the combustor,
field. Toshiba, Parametric solutions, SwRI (South West Research Institute), the Gas Turbine
turbine, heat exchanger, andInstitute and GE are working together to design of a CO2 turbine.
compressor, creating lower-cost
Lastly, the potential for captured CO2 in industry is growing: companies are pioneering new
power with zero emissions. The
ways to use CO2 in concrete and cement production, fertilizer production, e-methanol,
main advantage is the ‘Free’ CO2
e-jetfuel, e-methane... Sources [93], [94]capture which is ready for use asa resource rather than a waste.

Electrochemicalstorage: what's
new in batteries

A lithium-ion battery is a typeof rechargeable battery in whichlithium ions move from thenegative electrode throughan electrolyte to the positiveelectrode during discharge, andthan back again when charging.

Batteries are still widely studied with multitudes of publications every week relating to theincreasing charge rate for electrical vehicles and increasing energy density suppressing
cobalt (using graphene, silicon,..). As regards, lithium-ion batteries, Europe is moving toestablish a lithium-ion battery (LIB) industry with European and Asian players, facing
competition from the US and Asia. Silicon doped anodes are gradually appearing on thebattery cell market, offering an energy density of 330 Wh/kg. In parallel, some producers
are broadening their technological portfolio to focus on Na-ion batteries. We continue toobserve that technology evolution is driven by safety aspects and critical materials (e.g.,
Tesla has decided to move towards lithium-iron-phosphate-based battery).

Towards more sustainable andsafer battery chemistry: Redox
Flow Batteries and Solid-statebatteries

Redox-Flow: this technology is still slow to penetrate the market although a big project has
recently been announced (100-500 MWh in China).
Solid State Lithium Batteries: car manufacturers are still believing in solid state battery
development- cells should be ready to be validated by labs in 2022. Sources [95], [96], [97], [98]

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Emerging Sustainable Technologies

ENERGY USES

Technologies

Description

What has happened?

Green mobility:what’ new?
Hyperloop

Hyperloop is described as a sealed tube or
system of tubes with low air pressure
through which a pod may travel
substantially free of air resistance orfriction.

Hyperloop is now a mature technology. The Virgin Hyperloop tested human travel ina hyperloop pod for the first-time in November 2020. The high-speed transportsystem will become a reality in many parts of the world by the end of this decadeaccording to the CEO of DP World. Initial projects will be probably be freight-related.

Hydrogen in aviation: a hydrogenpowered aircraft is an airplane that useshydrogen fuel as a powersource. Hydrogen can either be burned ina jet engine or can be used to power afuel cell in order to generate electricity topower a propeller.

Research has intensified over recent years. But the road to hydrogen-powered
aircraft still requires significant efforts on the part of the aviation industry andbeyond. From hydrogen storage, cost and infrastructure to public perceptions on
safety, the aviation sector is working to mature this technology whilst tackling major
challenges.
However, only one aircraft manufacturing company Airbus has promised hydrogen
airplanes for 2035 for short haul and limited passengers transport (e.g., ZEROe
project). Source [101]Bio-jet-fuel in aviation: biomass-derived
synthesized paraffinic kerosene (SPK)that is blended into conventionallypetroleum-derived jet fuel to power
aircraft.

Due to the limited options for carbon reduction and the significant capital cost of
fleet replacement, “drop-in” alternatives with bio-jet-fuel is key for greenhouse gas
emissions mitigation strategies in the aviation sector. This is reinforced by European
ambition which will be gradually ramped up to 2% of SAF by 2025 and to 5% by 2030
as part of the European Green Deal. In the US, the Energy department is
empowering energy companies and aviation stakeholders to launch a bio-jet-fueldemonstration plant while used cooking oil is already being blended with kerosene.

Sustainable
Aviation Fuel(SAF)

Sources [99], [100]Sources [102], [103]Direct Current(DC) grids

DC distinguishes itself from Alternating
Current owing to the electric charge
flowing in a constant direction. Direct
Current is native to solar PV electricity
generation, battery storage, low-power
domestic and commercial applications.

Currently known as nanogrids, the number of projects implemented is very low.
Returns on investment seem too low in developed countries: gains in terms ofenergy efficiency are too low compared to the classical AC solution, voltage quality
issues may arise, there are significant losses in wiring.
However, the benefits also depend on the penetration rate of IoT, battery, PV panels,
EV, smart power systems etc, in domestic settings. Nanogrids are solutions that are
definitely being considered in emerging countries due to their ability to be off-grid.

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What about the technologies we reported on in previous editions?

Emerging Sustainable Technologies

ENERGY USES

Technologies

Description

What has happened?

Electricity storage
in the sea

To store excess wind energy, thistechnology makes use of a pumpwhich empties the watercontained in an underwater
concrete sphere; electricity isreleased by a turbine which refills
the sphere with ocean water.

This technology, among others, will be evaluated in the European project FORWARD2030.
Development of new bio concrete and 3D concrete printers in collaboration with Holcim
could increase the interest in this technology. For now, there isn’t enough deep offshore
wind farms to create a significant breakthrough. Source [104]Electricity storage
inside windturbine tower

Pumped Storage Hydro is
integrated into wind turbines inorder to store excess electricity inturbine towers.

The GE and Max Bögl wind-hydro hybrid project for the world's tallest wind turbine in
Gaildorf (DE) hasn't been developed. However, recent publications by GE and Holcim on thedevelopment of a 178m high wind turbine support using concrete 3D printers could point toa simple delay in the project as opposed to its standby.

(Ambient) CO2 tofuels using
HydrogenE-fuels are synthetic fuels,
resulting from the combinationof ‘green or e-hydrogen’
produced by the electrolysis ofwater with renewable electricity
and CO2 captured either from a
concentrated source (e.g. fluegases from an industrial site) orfrom the air (via direct air
capture, DAC). E-fuels also called
PtX, include a broad range ofmolecules: e-methane, emethanol, formic acid, e-jet
fuel…

In Europe, more than 220 e-fuels research and demonstrator projects have either beendeveloped, completed, or are currently being planned with a peak reached in 2018.
Installed electrolyzer capacities are getting higher and higher, indicating that consolidation
is taking place, as fewer projects are closer to commercialization. Projects involve a large
amount of partners in order to meet significant investment costs to develop theseindustries. Technical demonstrators and systems integration are of major importance for
integrating PtX into energy systems and qualifying the business model: processes are highly
dependant on the costs of electricity for electrolysis and of CO2.
• E-methanol: the e-CO2Met project at the Hydrogen Lab Leuna, North-C-Methanol…
• E-methane: still at demonstrator phase with several megawatt scale pilots mainly basedin Europe with Jupiter 1000, Methycentre, GRHYD, ZSW, Store & Go, Audi & Mann…
• Formic Acid: BASF (TRL 2)• E-jetfuel: Westküste 1000, Air to fuelsTM, Haru Oni (Siemens Energy)• DME: C2FUEL, ALIGN-CCUS, CO2FOKUS, TNO, GTI (membrane-based reactor)…
Sources [105], [106], [107], [108], [109], [110]

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Emerging Sustainable Technologies

What about the technologies we reported on in previous editions?

ENERGY USES

Example: Direct Air Capture

Where are we in 2021?

Trend

DESCRIPTIONo Carbon dioxide can be removed from ambient air via chemical processes usingacid base reactions at high or low temperature. Direct Air Capture (DAC) is
comparable to the human respiratory system or the photosynthesis where theprocess releases captured gases from the material.
o CO2 can be permanently stored in deep geological formations or used to
produce fuels, chemicals, building materials or other products containing CO2.
When CO2 is geologically stored, it is permanently removed from theatmosphere, resulting in negative emissions.

WHAT HAS HAPPENED?
o Significant acceleration after the last IPCC report release in August 2021. DAC
will be part of Carbon Dioxide Removal technologies for carbon sequestration.
o A first commercial unit, the Orca unit belonging to Climeworks has been set
up in Iceland; certificates trading is in the development stageo The project currently requires several more large-scale demonstrations to be
developed in order to fine-tune the technology and reduce capture costs.

The world’s largest climate-positive
direct air capture plant: Orca!, 4kt/ywith sequestration [89]

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Emerging Sustainable Technologies

Enabling technologies
Strong R&D activity and business increasing
Active research and first emerging businessWork in progress
Decreasing R&D activity

What about the technologies we reported on in previous editions?

Emerging Sustainable Technologies

ENABLING TECHNOLOGIESTechnologies

Description

What has happened?

Biomimicry for
Cybersecurity

Cybersecurity refers to hardware
and software components that
protect computer devices fromunauthorised access, but also to
non-technical measures such as
legislation and user training. The
challenge is to keep systems cybersecure by using bio-inspired
techniques.

A couple of trials are in place which make use of biomimicry in response to cybersecurity
challenges. Cybersecurity includes a multitude of different aspects such as defense layers,counter attack, misleading attackers, protection strategies and also human error, which isoften referred to as the weakest link.
This domain is still at the research project stage. At this moment in time, no breakthroughs
relating to biomimicry have been observed.

Sustainablecatalysts as energy
transition
enablers

Catalysts increase the reaction
rate without being consumed inorder to achieve the chemical
equilibrium at a suitabletemperature.
A catalyst is specific to each final
product, reaction conditions andtype of process.

Platinum group metal (PGM) catalysts dominate today’s applications with the vastdevelopment of electrochemical processes, that build a bridge between the moleculebased economy and green electricity production. Alternative catalysts to replace iron, nickel
and copper also exist, but they are rare and costly. As such, a significant scientific effort isbeing devoted to the development of low-PGM and PGM-free catalysts.
Research is currently focusing on these sustainable catalysts with non-transition metals.

Water harvestingfrom the air basedon theatmosphericwater generator(AWG)

AWG is a device that extracts
water from humid ambient air.
Dew water collection systems are
divided into three categories: i)
dew water harvesting using theradiative cooling surface, ii) thesolar-regenerated desiccantsystem and iii) active
condensation technology.

Atmospheric water harvesting (AWH) is emerging as a promising means of overcoming thewater scarcity in arid regions, particularly for inland areas lacking liquid water sources.
These technologies haven’t increased as such but now offer new possibilities thanks to their
combination with Direct Air Capture research programs. Some challenges remain in order to
optimize efficiency and ensure the delivery of good quality water at an affordable cost.

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What about the technologies we reported on in previous editions?

Emerging Sustainable Technologies

ENABLING TECHNOLOGIESTechnologies

Description

What has happened?

Artificial
Intelligence:dueling neuralnetworks or
Generative
Adversarial
Networks GANs

The generator takes simple
random variables as inputs andgenerates new data. The
discriminator takes “true” and“generated” data and tries todiscriminate them, building aclassifier. The goal of thegenerator is to fool thediscriminator (increase theclassification error by mixing up
generated data with true data asmuch as possible) and the goal ofthe discriminator is to distinguishbetween true and generated data.

GAN is an already mature & usable technology, but more progress is expected in the coming
years. The main uses are: fake data generation (images, text, video,...), fake data detection,
automatic data classification. This technology could have an important impact on society,being used to generate "deep fakes“ for example.
It can either be used as a "base brick“ in classification solutions (e.g., detect asset defects
from photos) or to generate dummy data to avoid transferring "real data" protected by
GDPR for example. Ethical and policy issues still need to be resolved.

Quantum
computing

Quantum computing harnesses
the phenomena of quantum
mechanics to provide a huge leap
forward in computation in orderto resolve certain problems. It
uses qubits (quantum bits) which
are associated with the quantum
state of a physical component(e.g., spin of an electron,
polarization of an ion).
Calculations are made using lawsof quantum mechanics.

Quantum computing will open door to more efficient algorithms, but it remains animmature and very complex technology which, for now, cannot be used in an industrial
setting, although progress is constant. In coming years, hardware development will focus on
increasing the number of quantum bits and in particular on further reducing, and ideallycompletely correcting errors that can occur in calculations. In terms of applications,
intensive efforts are being made to develop algorithms to resolve optimization problems in
the chemical, financial, pharmaceutical, logistics, transport and other industries. The
challenges are so complex that the next steps in the development of quantum computing
will most likely be led by large research collaborations and industrial research centers.

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Emerging Sustainable Technologies

What about the technologies we reported on in previous editions?

ENABLING TECHNOLOGIESTechnologies

Description

What has happened?

3D metalprinting

New concepts & applications combining
design freedom and tailor-made materials.

The 3D Printing of metallic materials is now reaching its maturity for critical and highend applications. For example, Ariane Group is currently integrating qualified 3D
printed metallic components in Ariane 6 launchers. Different 3D printing technologies
for ceramics (zirconia, alumina...) have shown significant progress during recent years
with the production of small-size demonstrators with complex structures. Significant
improvement is still required to ensure stable fabrication and increase the targetedbuild volume.

3D to 4D
printing

4D printing uses the same techniques as 3D
printing. However, the resulting 3D shape isable to morph into different forms in
response to environmental stimulus, withthe 4th dimension being the timedependent shape change after the printing.

This technology is also known as 4D bioprinting, active origami, or shape-morphingsystems. Although a variety of stimuli-responsive microstructures have beenreported, 4D printing technology still requires a significant amount of effort at thelevel of the development and improvement of new materials and printing methods,
as the majority of current demonstrators still remain at lab scale. Source [80]Self-healingmaterials

Material with the ability to automaticallyheal (recover/repair) damages without any
external (human) intervention.

Self-healing materials cover a wide range of materials (polymers, composites,
concretes…) and healing mechanisms. A series of products are already commerciallyavailable on the market but feedback from the field is still required (bio-concretes,
polymers with intrinsic healing) whilst self-healing composites are still in the researchphase and require upscaling efforts at the level of the production process.

Internet ofThings (IoT)

The IoT describes physical objects that areembedded with sensors, software andother technologies, and that connect andexchange data with other devices andsystems over the Internet or via othercommunications networks. The result is themerging of the physical and digital worlds
with the possibility of creating new
products and services (e.g., smart mobility).

Numerous IoT applications have already existed for several years. Nevertheless,manufacturing companies are finding it difficult to tap the potential of the IoT. The“digitalization paradox” describes the worldwide phenomenon according to which
the high investments made in connectivity do not generate the expected revenues.
However, be it for highly automated vehicles, smart houses, medical fitness trackers
or connected production systems, the disruptive power of the IoT will fundamentallychange the business logic of many sectors.

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Emerging Sustainable Technologies

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ENABLING TECHNOLOGIES

59

Example: Radiative cooling

Where are we in 2021?

Trend

DESCRIPTIONo Radiative cooling is based on the radiative emission of heat energy, leading to thespontaneous cooling of any body.
o The system rejects heat from earth systems, sending it into space, using it as an
infinite cold radiator or reservoir at -270°C. Through selected infrared radiations,it acts like a greenhouse effect in reverse.

WHAT HAS HAPPENED?
o Radiative cooling panels can provide cooling for industrial or tertiary installation,
help fight urban heat islands and be coupled with photovoltaics panels.
o Deployments have occurred on the retail market in the US and in South East Asia
on skid or airport roofs and in Europe with the “cool island“ system.
o Good medium-term prospects for air conditioning, sub-cooler refrigeration, small
network district cooling but also data centers, PV trigeneration (heating, coolingand electricity), clean rooms and industrial cooling.

Cool island installed by ENGIE at La
Defense business district in France© ENGIE

Bibilography

Emerging Sustainable Technologies

Natural Hydrogen[1] Zgonnik V., 2020. The occurrence and geoscience of naturalhydrogen: A comprehensive review. Earth-Science Reviews, v. 203.
<https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2020.103140>[2] Worman S. et al., 2020. Abiotic hydrogen (H2) sources and sinks
near the Mid-Ocean Ridge (MOR) with implications for thesubseafloor biosphere. PNAS, 117 (24) 13283-13293.
<https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2002619117>[3] Rights reserved[4] Moretti I. et al., 2021. Long-term monitoring of naturalhydrogen superficial emissions in a brazilian cratonic environment.
Sporadic large pulses versus daily periodic emissions. International
Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 46 (5).

[9] Youtube, 2021. Sun'Agri agrivotaism on apple trees LA PUGERE.
<https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5SAlbk1dI5Q>[10] Youtube, 2016. Opening of the photovoltaic solar plant ofWalon Rivesaltes.
<https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PG5kcHsEPE0>[11] Youtube, 2021. Solstex® by Elemex - Solar Facade System
Installation. <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bI2mRnL41_M>[12] SolarPower Europe, 2021. Agrisolar Best practices guidelines.
<https://www.solarpowereurope.org/wpcontent/uploads/2021/05/1721-SPE-Agrisolar-Best-PracticesGuidelines-02-mr.pdf>[5] Rosanne M. et al., 2020. PARHyS System: a new approach to H2concentration measurements in the subsurface. RST Lyon, Oct
2020.

[13] World Bank Group, ESMAP and SERIS, 2019. Where Sun Meets
Water: Floating Solar Handbook for Practitioners. Washington, DC:
World Bank.
<http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/4189615722934381
09/Where-Sun-Meets-Water-Floating-Solar-Handbook-forPractitioners>

PV Everywhere[14] Ranjbaran P. et al., 2019. A review on floating photovoltaic(FPV) power generation units. Renewable and Sustainable Energy
Reviews, Volume 110,332-347.

[6] Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems, ISE, 2021.
Photovoltaics Report.
<https://www.ise.fraunhofer.de/content/dam/ise/de/documents/p
ublications/studies/Photovoltaics-Report.pdf>[7] Youtube.com, 2020. ENGIE Solutions: Sibelco, the largest
floating PV system in Belgium.
<https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SEQuxq8KWiE&list=PLiVbl5R
HtOSKzRXjYgByC7RpBgC7jY1YE&index=48>[8] Youtube.com, 2021. Lightyear One Performance Testing — Why
it's the most efficient electric vehicle.
<https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lnEPjJBBjFg>[15] BIPV boost, 2018. Update on BIPV market and stakeholder
analysis.
[16] SUPSI/ SEAC status report, 2017. Building Integrated
Photovoltaics: Product overview for solar building skins.
[17] Defaix P.R. et al., 2012. Technical potential for photovoltaics onbuildings in the EU-27. Solar Energy 86, 9.
[18] PVSites report, 2016. BIPV market and stakeholder analysis
and needs.
[19] Lehmann J. et al., 2017. An in-depth comparison of PV modules
in a BIPV façade test setup”, 33rd EU PVSEC.

[20] pveurope.eu, 2017. New Heliatek solar energy façade on
Engie’s research center. <https://www.pveurope.eu/solarmodules/new-heliatek-solar-energy-facade-engies-research-center>[21] IMEC, 2018. The key to a sustainable building façade:Successful BiPV installation in Antwerp at end of EU project PVme.
<https://www.imec-int.com/en/articles/the-key-to-a-sustainablebuilding-faade>[22] Equans, 2020. Engie Solutions construit le plus grand parc
solaire flottant de Belgique. <https://equans.be/fr/engie-solutionsconstruit-le-plus-grand-parc-solaire-flottant-de-belgique/>[23] Solar Highways, 2021. Final report of the Solar Highways
Rijkswaterstaat project.
<https://www.solarhighways.eu/sites/all/files/default/documents/S
olar%20Highways%20Final%20Report%202020.pdf>[24] U-Solar, 2020. Solar Power for Ctrls Data Center Mumbai.
<https://usolar.in/solar-power-for-ctrls-data-center-mumbai/>[25] PV-magazine.com, 2020. Giant agrivoltaic project in China.
<https://www.pv-magazine.com/2020/09/03/giant-agrivoltaicproject-in-china/>[26] PV-magazine.com, 2020. Another 120 MW of solar aquaculture
in China. <https://www.pv-magazine.com/2020/04/17/another120-mw-of-solar-aquaculture-in-china/>[27] Heinrich M. et al., 2020. Potential and Challenges of Vehicle
Integrated Photovoltaics for Passenger Cars. 37th European PV
Solar Energy Conference and Exhibition. Vol. 7. 2020.
[28] PV-magazine, 2021. South Korea wants to deploy another 2.1
GW of floating PV by 2030. <https://www.pvmagazine.com/2021/03/08/south-korea-wants-to-deploy-another2-1-gw-of-floating-pv-by-2030/>

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Emerging Sustainable Technologies

Road to 30% efficiency PV cells[29] Cherradi N., 2019. Solar PV technologies what’s next?,
Becquerel Institute, Brussels, Belgium[30] International Technology Roadmap for Photovoltaics (ITRPV)
roadmap 2020[31] ENGIE Renewables Global Business Line RENEWABLESTECHNOLOGY ROADMAP 2025 and beyond[32] PV-magazine.com, 2019. Swiss researchers claim 29%
efficiency for residential CPV panel. <https://www.pvmagazine.com/2019/02/21/swiss-researchers-claim-29-efficiencyfor-residential-cpv-panel/>[33] HYPERION Project - Panels with embedded lenses
to revolutionize PV industry. https://www.laborelec.com/researchdevelopment/hiperion-panels-with-embedded-lenses-torevolutionize-pv-industry/[34] Nardin G. et al., 2020. Industrialization of hybrid Si/III–V andtranslucent planar micro-tracking modules. Progress in
Photovoltaïcs Res Appl., 29:819–834. <10.1002/pip.3387>[35] Deppe et al., 2020. Nighttime Photovoltaic Cells: ElectricalPower Generation by Optically Coupling with Deep Space” ACS
Photonics, 7, 1−9.

[36] Raman A. P. et al., 2019. Generating Light from Darkness. Joule3, 2679–2686.
[37] Tervo A. J. et al., 2020. Solar Thermoradiative-Photovoltaic
Energy Conversion. Cell Reports Physical Science, 1-12.
<https://doi.org/10.1016/j.xcrp.2020.100258>[38] Horowitz K. A. W. et al., 2018. A Techno-Economic Analysis
and Cost Reduction Roadmap for III-V Solar Cells. National
Renewable Energy Laboratory, NREL/TP-6A2072103.<https://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy19osti/72103.pdf>[39] EU Publications, 2020. Study on the EU's list of Critical Raw
Materials. http://dx.doi.org/10.2873/11619[40] Oberbeck L. et al., 2020. IPVF's PV technology vision for 2030.
Prog Photovolt Res Appl., 28: 1207– 1214.
[41] Kulkarni S. et al., 2014. Band-gap tuning of lead halide
perovskites using a sequential deposition process. J. Mater. Chem.
A. 2.

[42] Li Z. et al., 2018. Scalable fabrication of perovskite solar cells.
Nat Rev Mater 3, 18017.
[43] Messmer C. et al., 2020. The race for the best silicon bottom
cell: Efficiency and cost evaluation of perovskite–silicon tandem
solar cells. Prog Photovolt Res Appl., 1– 16.

[49] PV-magazine.com, 2020. The world’s sunniest PV testing field.
<https://www.pv-magazine.com/2020/07/15/the-worlds-sunniestpv-testing-field/>[50] PV-magazine.com, 2017. ENGIE teaming with Heliatek to install
HeliaSol lightweight technology at French school. <https://www.pvmagazine.com/2017/11/16/engie-teaming-with-heliatek-to-installheliasol-lightweight-technology-at-french-school/>[51] PV-magazine.fr, 2020. Le CEA-INES et Enel Green Powerannoncent un rendement de 25 % pour une cellule solaire à
hétérojonction. <https://www.pv-magazine.fr/2020/08/27/le-ceaines-et-enel-green-power-annoncent-un-rendement-de-25-pourune-cellule-solaire-a-heterojonction/>[44] Qi Z. et al., 2018. Perovskite solar cells: must lead be replaced and can it be done?. Sci Technol Adv Mater.19(1):425-442.

[52] PV-magazine.com, 2019. Hanergy hits 25.11% efficiency with
HJT cell. <https://www.pv-magazine.com/2019/11/20/hanergysets-new-heterojunction-module-efficiency-record/>[45] pv-magazine-australia.com, 2021. Sunday read: Unlocking
lightweight, flex applications. <https://www.pv-magazineaustralia.com/2021/03/07/sunday-read-unlocking-lightweight-flexapplications/>[53]PV-magazine.com, 2020. Panasonic claims 16.09% efficiency forlightweight perovskite solar module. https://www.pvmagazine.com/2020/01/21/panasonic-claims-16-1-efficiency-forlightweight-perovskite-solar-module/[46] Oxford PV, 2020. Oxford PV hits new world record for solarcell. <https://www.oxfordpv.com/news/oxford-pv-hits-new-worldrecord-solar-cell>[54] ENGIE, 2021. Q1 Results and Strategic Update, 18 May 2021

[47] PV-magazine.com, 2021. Solliance hits 28.7% efficiency onperovskite/silicon tandem solar cell. https://www.pvmagazine.com/2021/04/22/solliance-hits-28-7-efficiency-onperovskite-silicon-tandem-solar-cell/Wind Turbine Blade Circularity[48] Solliance.eu, 2021. World record efficiency of 26,5% on atandem solar cell based on a flexible CIGS solar cell: The
architecture combines two thin-films solar cell technologies.
<https://www.solliance.eu/2021/world-record-efficiency-on-atandem-solar-cell/>[55] Joint Publication WindEurope, Cefic, EuCIA, 2020. Accelerating
Wind Turbine Blade Circularity. Image from TPI Composites[56] Values provided by blade manufacturer to ENGIE[57] BloombergNEF, 2020. 35 MW Wind Turbines to Lower
Material Demand.
[58] Marylise Schmid, 2020. End-of-Life Issues and Strategies(EoLIS), WindEurope Seminar, November 18-20 2020, Online

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Emerging Sustainable Technologies[59] ETIP Wind, 2020. How wind is going circular.
<https://etipwind.eu/files/reports/ETIPWind-How-wind-is-goingcircular-blade-recycling.pdf>[69] Klinger T. et al., 2019. Overview of first Wendelstein 7-X highperformance operation. Nuclear Fusion 59, vol. 11.
<https://doi.org/10.1088/1741-4326/ab03a7>

What about the technologies we reported
on in previous editions?

[60] Youtube, 2019. ENGIE Green : Démontage du plus ancien parcéolien de France à Port-la-Nouvelle (Aude).
<https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OabXwNgIHCM>[70] Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, LLNL. Inertial
Confinement Fusion: How to Make a Star.
<https://lasers.llnl.gov/science/icf>[77] CNCC, 2021. World's first commercial Linglong One onshore
small reactor starts construction. <https://en.cnnc.com.cn/202107/14/c_642603.htm>

Metal fuels[71] Deezen.com, 2020. AL_A reveals plans for world's firstmagnetised fusion power plant.
<https://www.dezeen.com/2020/10/22/ala-general-fusionmagnetised-fusion-power-plant/>[78] GE, 2021. GE Hitachi Nuclear Energy Selected by Ontario
Power Generation as Technology Partner for Darlington New
Nuclear Project. <https://www.ge.com/news/press-releases/gehitachi-nuclear-energy-selected-by-ontario-power-generation-astechnology-partner>[61] Berghthorson J. M., 2018. Recyclable metal fuels for clean andcompact zero-carbon power. Progress in energy and combustion
sciences 68 (2018) 169-196[62] Berghthorson J. M., 2017. Corrigendum to ‘‘Direct combustionof recyclable metal fuels for zero-carbon heat and power”. Appl.
Energy 160 (2015) 368–382[63] MEZECAPO – project proposal submitted to EU in 2018, H2020[64] iFUEL – project proposal submitted to EU in 2019 (EC-H2020FETPROACT-EIC-05-2019)[65] IEA, 2021. Coal Information: Overview - Production.
<https://www.iea.org/reports/coal-informationoverview/production>[66] Personal communication from Shell, November 2019

Fusion Power[67] ITER website. <http://www.iter.org>[68] Moir R.W. et al., 2003. Spheromak magnetic fusion power
plant with thick liquid-walls. Fusion Science and Technology, 44,317-326.

[72] Fusion Energy Base, 2019. Measuring Progress in Fusion
Energy: The Triple Product.
<https://www.fusionenergybase.com/article/measuring-progressin-fusion-energy-the-triple-products>[73] Fusion Energy Base, 2020. Funding to Fusion Energy
Companies Since 2000.
https://www.fusionenergybase.com/article/funding-to-fusionenergy-companies-since-2000[74] Fusion Energy Base, 2020. The Number of Fusion Energy
Startups is Growing Fast – Here's Why.
<https://www.fusionenergybase.com/article/the-number-of-fusionenergy-startups-is-growing-fast-heres-why>[75] NuclearNewswire, 2021. MIT ramps 10-tons magnet up to 20
tesla in proof of concept for commercial fusion.
<https://www.ans.org/news/article-3240/mit-ramps-10tonmagnet-up-to-20-tesla-in-proof-of-concept-for-commercial-fusion/>[76] neimagazine.com, 2021. Targeting a Fusion Demonstration
Plant. https://www.neimagazine.com/features/featuretargeting-afusion-demonstration-plant-9225188[79] Power Engineering International, 2021. Macron commits to
SMR reactors and green hydrogen by 2030.
<https://www.powerengineeringint.com/renewables/strategicdevelopment/macron-commits-to-smr-reactors-and-greenhydrogen-by-2030/>[80] ENGIE R&T Division, 2017. Emerging Technologies expected tochange ‘our’ world - Report from 2016 watch[81] European Parliament, 2018. Circular economy: More recyclingof household waste, less landfilling.
<https://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/en/pressroom/20180411IPR01518/circular-economy-more-recycling-ofhousehold-waste-less-landfilling>[82] Lanzatech website. <https://www.lanzatech.com/>[83] Electrochaea website. <https://www.electrochaea.com/>[84] SATW, 2021. Technology Outlook 2021.
[85] Naito T., 2021. Prototype Material for New Strategy of Photon
Energy Storage. Inorganics 2020, 8(10), 53.
<https://doi.org/10.3390/inorganics8100053>

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Emerging Sustainable Technologies[86] Wind Europe, 2018. Floating offshore wind energy – A policy
blueprint for Europe. <https://windeurope.org/data-andanalysis/product/floating-offshore-wind-energy>[96] PushEVs, 2021. Farasis Energy reaches 330 Wh/kg with newbattery cell <https://pushevs.com/2021/04/11/farasis-energyreaches-330-wh-kg-with-new-battery-cell/>[87] ENGIE Website. ENGIE, innovateur en matière de Géothermie
marine. <https://www.engie.fr/energies-renouvelables/geothermiemarine/>[97] bestmag.co.uk, 2021. Sodium-ion trends as CATL announcesplans to diversify into the technology.
<https://www.bestmag.co.uk/content/sodium-ion-trends-catlannounces-plans-diversify-technology>[88] AWE - Airborne Wind Europe website.
<https://airbornewindeurope.org/>[89] Climeworks website. < https://climeworks.com/roadmap/orca>[90] TotalEnergies, 2021. Deep Branch raises EUR 8 million Series A.
<https://ventures.totalenergies.com/en/deep-branch-raises-eur-8million-series>[91] ENGIE Research, 2020. Emerging Sustainable Technologies –Report from 2020 Technology Watch.

[92] Tractebel Engie, 2020. C-NERGY consortium investigated thepotential of energy islands off the Belgian coast. <https://tractebelengie.be/en/news/2020/c-nergy-consortium-investigated-thepotential-of-energy-islands-off-the-belgian-coast>[93] GTI, 2018. GTI, SwRI, and GE Break Ground on $119 Million
Supercritical CO2 Pilot Power Plant. <https://www.gti.energy/gtiswri-and-ge-break-ground-on-119-million-supercritical-co2-pilotpower-plant/>[94] Powermag.com, 2021. UK’s First Gas-Fired Allam Cycle Power
Plant Taking Shape. <https://www.powermag.com/uks-first-gasfired-allam-cycle-power-plant-taking-shape/>[95] CNBC, 2021. Tesla will change the type of battery cells it uses
in all its standard-range cars.
<https://www.cnbc.com/2021/10/20/tesla-switching-to-lfpbatteries-in-all-standard-range-cars.html>[98] VRB Energy announces agreement for China’s largest solar
battery; a 100MW solar & storage project in Hubei Province.
<https://vrbenergy.com/vrb-energy-announces-agreement-forchinas-largest-solar-battery-a-100mw-solar-storage-project-inhubei-province/?smclient=7d197149-27ea-11eb-867818cf24ce389f&smconv=fa1f25d1-26a2-496b-b8ba-a84b920574c7>[99] theguardian.com, 2020. First passengers travel in Virgin's
levitating hyperloop pod system.
<https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2020/nov/09/firstpassengers-travel-in-virgins-levitating-hyperloop-pod-system>[100] swarajyamag, 2021. Hyperloop Would Be A Reality In India Or
Saudi, Before Its Introduction In UAE: DP World CEO.
https://swarajyamag.com/news-brief/hyperloop-would-be-areality-in-india-or-saudi-before-its-introduction-in-uae-dp-world-ceo[101] Airbus, 2020. Airbus reveals new zero-emission concept
aircraft. <https://www.airbus.com/en/newsroom/pressreleases/2020-09-airbus-reveals-new-zero-emission-conceptaircraft>[102] Doliente S. et al., 2020. Bio-aviation Fuel: A Comprehensive
Review and Analysis of the Supply Chain Components, Front.
Energy Res., 10 July 2020.
<https://doi.org/10.3389/fenrg.2020.00110>[103] European Cmmission, 2021. Proposal for a REGULATION OF
THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF THE COUNCIL on ensuring alevel playing field for sustainable air transport, 2021.
<https://ec.europa.eu/info/sites/default/files/refueleu_aviation__sustainable_aviation_fuels.pdf>[104] Ocean Energy Europe, 2021.Orbital secures €26.7m
FORWARD-2030 EU project. <https://www.oceanenergyeurope.eu/industry-news/orbital-secures-e26-7m-eu-project/>[105]Audi, 2015. Audi e-fuels. <https://www.audimediacenter.com/en/audi-future-performance-days-20155097/audi-e-fuels-5104>[106] Wulf C. et al., 2020. Review of Power-to-X Demonstration
Projects in Europe. Front. Energy Res., 25 September 2020.
<https://doi.org/10.3389/fenrg.2020.00191>[107] South China Morning Post, 2020. China’s carbon neutral goal:
Hitachi to build world’s biggest plant in Shaanxi to mix carbon
dioxide, hydrogen into methane.
<https://www.scmp.com/business/companies/article/3115473/chinas-carbon-neutral-goal-hitachi-build-worlds-biggest-plant>[108] STORE&GO project website.
<https://www.storeandgo.info/about-the-project/>[109] Westküste 100 project website.
<https://www.westkueste100.de/en/>[110] North-C-Methanol project website.
<https://northccuhub.eu/north-c-methanol/>[111] Ariane Group, 2020. ArianeGroup successfully tests firstcombustion chamber produced entirely by 3D printing.
<https://www.ariane.group/wpcontent/uploads/2020/06/ARIANEGROUP_3D_combustion_chambe
r_test_ETID.pdf>

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Research

Discussion / Questions
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