(2024) 14:9
Kirkpatrick et al. Language Testing in Asia
https://doi.org/10.1186/s40468-024-00284-2

Language Testing in Asia

Open Access

RESEARCH

A scoping review of willingness
to communicate in language education:
premises to doubt, lessons to learn, and future
research questions to examine
Robert Kirkpatrick1 , Hossein Vafadar2   and Hassan Mohebbi3*   *Correspondence:hassan.mohebbi973@gmail.com
1
Gulf University for Scienceand Technology, Mubarak
Al‑Abdullah, Kuwait
2
Canadian Institutefor Knowledge Development,
Vancouver, Canada
3
European Knowledge
Development Institute, Ankara,
TurkeyAbstract
The assessment encompasses essential concepts and their related measuresabout the information gathered. The conceptualization within a study becomes imperative to ascertain the corresponding variables and establish appropriate methodologies for their measurement. The willingness to communicate (WTC) concept, an individual’s engagement in communication when given the opportunity, has becomea crucial point in second language (L2) learning due to language use and communication. While studies have rendered valuable insights into the differing presentationsof L1 WTC and L2 WTC, the subject remains largely unexplored concerning the conceptualization and assessment of L2 WTC in the digital settings and English as a foreign
language (EFL) context. The scoping review can aid in advancing our knowledge in thisarea of investigation by exploring the scope of available research literature on a topic
by identifying key concepts and sources of evidence as well as identifying strengths,
weaknesses, and gaps in the research that inform practice in the field, deepen assessors’ knowledge in the field, and highlight areas that require further inquiry. This study
conducted a five-stage scoping review, including (1) establishing the scoping review
questions, (2) identifying the related research, (3) determining the inclusion criteriaof studies, (4) outlining the data, and (5) analyzing and reporting the results. Six databases, ERIC (ProQuest), APA PsycINFO, JSTORE, Elsevier (Scopus), Web of Science Core
Collection, and Semantic Scholar, were used for scoping data. Forty-seven studies were
included in the final analysis. The results discuss the WTC conceptualizations and theirdirections in L1, L2, and EFL contexts. Furthermore, the results discuss the conceptualization of classroom-centered and context-bounded WTC, operationalization of WTC
in digital and EFL contexts, methodological approaches applied for evaluating WTC,
the evaluation of teachers’ status in WTC conceptualization, and future directions.
The discussions would prove useful in expanding our understanding of how to act
toward L2 WTC and the assessment knowledge. Moreover, they would have significant
implications for teachers, researchers, assessors, and practitioners in this field. Further, we hope this paper sparks renewed interest in L2 WTC by generating new ideas
for researchers to conduct further research.

© The Author(s) 2024. Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permitsuse, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original
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Keywords: Willingness to communicate (WTC), Second language learning, Speaking
skill, Communication, Language use, Scoping review

Introduction
Premises to doubt

Measurement is commonly associated with assessment, which involves gathering information about a particular subject. However, the assessment also encompasses essential
concepts and their related measures about which the information is gathered. Whenassessing the outcomes of a program, the overarching goals and objectives are transformed into measurable entities. The insights gained from the assessment help makeinformed decisions on the program’s design or continuation. Consequently, the choices
made regarding the methods used to measure a particular subject or a program’s outcomes hold significant importance. Similarly, when conducting a research study, the definition and measurement of key concepts play a crucial role in evaluating the research’s
validity. In other words, once the concepts have been defined within a study, it becomes
imperative to ascertain the corresponding variables and establish appropriate methodologies for their measurement.
The concept of willingness to communicate (WTC) has become a subject of greatinterest in the field of second language (L2) teaching and learning over the past few decades. This interest is driven by the recognition of the crucial role that communicationand language use play in L2 acquisition (Cao, 2011; MacIntyre, Burns, & Jessome, 2011,
Zarrinabadi & Pawlak, 2021). WTC was initially described as the possibility for a person to initiate communication freely at a specific moment with a particular individual orgroup using L2 (MacIntyre et al., 1998; McCroskey & Baer, 1985). The two conceptualizations of WTC, namely, the trait-like and dynamic situational conceptualizations, wereidentified in the literature. The trait-like conceptualization is associated with the constant and durable patterns of behavior maintained in different contexts, such as students’personalities or the relationships shaped within a group (Cetinkaya, 2005; Kang, 2005;
MacIntyre & Legatto, 2011). WTC was initially treated as a trait-like conceptualization.
For example, some related studies examined areas such as a comparison of extroverted
students to introverted ones (Cetinkaya, 2005; MacIntyre & Charos, 1996), learners’
motivation (Yashima, 2002), and communication anxiety (Clément et al., 2003).
MacIntyre (2007) proposed a fresh outlook on L2 WTC, building upon the previous
WTC model (MacIntyre et al., 1998). This new perspective, referred to as dynamic situational conceptualization, highlights the dynamic nature of students’ WTC, suggestingthat it rapidly changes in response to various situations. In light of this ever-changing
situational perspective, it is argued that the fluctuating and non-linear processes of
WTC behavior evolve and transform dynamically over time, arising from the interconnectedness of internal and external elements (Baker & MacIntyre, 2000; Kang, 2005;
MacIntyre et al., 2001; Peng, 2007) including mood, physiological variables (e.g., statusthat facilitate or hinder performance), and environmental circumstances (e.g., the existence of recording devices).
WTC was initially developed from first language (L1) communication focusing on
trait-like variables (McCroskey & Baer, 1985), cross-cultural perspective comparing similar language groups (Barraclough et al., 1988), and distinct language groups

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(McCroskey et al. 1990) concerning their L1 WTC. However, the establishment of thelink between first language (L1) WTC and L2 learning occurred after the 1990s, as notedby MacIntyre and Charos (1996). Following this, MacIntyre et al. (1998) argued that the
manifestation of WTC in the L2 is not simply a reflection of WTC in the L1. They proposed a multi-faceted construct of L2 WTC, leading to numerous subsequent studies
that have explored L2 WTC in both in-class and out-of-class settings. These studies haveapproached L2 WTC from various perspectives, including individual trait-like perspectives (Baker & MacIntyre, 2000; Yashima, 2002) as well as situated and dynamic perspectives (McCroskey et al. 1990; Cao, 2014). Studies have rendered useful insights into thediffering presentations of L1 WTC and L2 WTC; however, there is still a need for further
research to explore different aspects and underlying variables of WTC in English as aforeign language (EFL) and digital settings.
Zhang (2022), in his study exploring WTC status, stated that a single situation cannot be universally applied. In contrast to English as a second language (ESL), English
as a foreign language (EFL) refers to the process of learning English in a country where
English is not the official or predominantly spoken language. Oxford and Shearin (1994)
explained the main distinguishing characteristic of EFL from the ESL context is the lackof opportunity for L2 use outside the class, and in most EFL classes, the curriculum isthe textbook. Therefore, the language classroom in EFL contexts is believed to be thebest place for L2 to communicate and practice. Furthermore, after the initial screeningof the literature and related data, charted data based on the themes explained in the following section, WTC has been treated somewhat differently in various settings. Therefore, this scoping review explores the areas explained below so that it helps to facilitate acomprehensive understanding of the breadth of existing research literature on a particular subject. However, two notable gaps in our current knowledge base are particularly
apparent. First, our understanding of how variables relate to WTC in the EFL context is
still sparse. Further exploring L1 and L2 WTC conceptualization can help us understandthe EFL WTC areas of inquiry. Second, little is known about L2 WTC in digital settings;
therefore, there is a need to further explore the L2 WTC in in-class and out-of-class settings so that this can give more insights into the areas of inquiry in L2 WTC in digitalsettings. While studies have provided valuable insights into the differing presentationsof L1 WTC and L2 WTC, little is known about L2 WTC in digital settings and EFL contexts. By conducting a scoping review, this study aims to enhance our comprehensionof this specific field of investigation by examining the extent of existing research literature on a particular topic. Scoping reviews involve comprehensive searches of literarysources, which serve to offer an initial evaluation of the potential volume and breadthof available research literature on a given subject. Through the identification of key concepts and sources of evidence, as well as the identification of strengths, weaknesses,
and gaps in the research, scoping reviews inform practice in the field, deepen assessors’ knowledge in the field, and highlight areas that require further inquiry (Arksey &O’Malley, 2005; Levac et al., 2010; Munn et al., 2018).
Adhering to the instructions outlined by Levac et al. (2010) for performing a scoping review, we examined WTC to come up with the research stream, findings, gaps, andrecommendations for future research. This paper discusses L1 WTC conceptualizationand its directions, L2 WTC conceptualization and its directions, classroom-centered

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and context-bounded WTC conceptualization, operationalization of WTC in a digitalcontext, WTC conceptualization in an EFL context, methodological approaches toward
evaluating WTC, evaluation of teachers’ status in WTC, and future directions.

MethodThis scoping review builds upon Levac et al.’s (2010) five-stage process. The processincluded the following five key stages: (1) establishing the scoping review questions, (2)identifying the related research, (3) determining the inclusion criteria of studies, (4) outlining the data, and (5) analyzing and reporting the results.
Establishing the scoping review questions

This work was guided based on the following questions: How is the L1 WTC conceptualized? How is the L2 WTC conceptualized? How is the classroom-centered and contextbounded WTC conceptualized? How is the WTC operationalized in digital contexts?
How is the WTC conceptualized in EFL contexts? How are teachers evaluated in WTC
conceptualization? What methodological approaches have been employed in the related
literature for evaluating WTC?
Identifying the related research

To locate articles for this study, the search was conducted across databases and literary
searches, including ERIC (ProQuest), APA PsycINFO, JSTORE, Elsevier (Scopus), Webof science core collection, and Semantic Scholar. To find the targeted articles, keywords
related to WTC were entered into each database and searched in December 2022. First,
each keyword followed by a star was placed between quotation marks, and then eachkeyword was separated by “OR.” The keywords included: “Willingness to communicate*” OR “L1 [+] willingness to communicate *” OR “L2 [+] willingness to communicate *”OR “EFL [+] willingness to communicate *” OR “online [+] willingness to communicate*” OR “digital [+] willingness to communicate *” OR “teachers [+] willingness to communicate *.” Some searching results showed that a couple of articles containing willingness to communicate keyword in their title were related to areas other than the language
area. Therefore, the search was refined by searching the databases for “willingness tocommunicate” ‘AND’ “Second Language/L2 learners” keyword. The search strings werealso replaced and searched again to find other relevant papers, such as willing-related
terms, communicate-related terms, English language-related terms, first languagerelated terms, and second language-related terms. Additionally, to find better results, weused [+], for instance, the keywords “teachers willingness to communicate” in the firstround and “teachers + willingness to communicate” in the second round. During thesearching stage, certain searching techniques that belonged to a specific database werealso used to help us refine the search results; for example, in the JSTORE database, weused [ti:(“Willingness to communicate*”)] to only search for titles including “willingness
to communicate.”
Determining the inclusion criteria of studies

The inclusion criteria consisted of empirical studies related to either (a) L1 WTC, or (b)L2 WTC, or (c) EFL WTC, or (d) WTC in a digital or online context, or (e) the teacher’s

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immediacy role in WTC, or (f ) classroom-centered and context-bounded WTC conceptualization, or (g) antecedents of WTC. All articles must have been written in English, and their full-text version must have been published in peer-reviewed journals andpeer-reviewed conference proceedings. We did not consider publications on websites,
handouts, or other passive publications from unclear publishers. We only selected one
conceptual work by MacIntyre et al. (1998) because it was critical in L2 WTC development. The selection process was based on not only the inclusion and exclusion criteria but also content investigation. For example, as presented in Fig. 1 with the title
of “Unmatched with the selection criteria,” for identifying L1 WTC or antecedents of
WTC, not only the above criteria were considered, but also the content of articles was
examined to determine whether they are related to the development of L1 WTC or thefactors contributed and led to WTC, and then the data were charted.
Outlining the data

The first search returned a total of 7140 from the six databases selected for this study.
The primary search output showed 44 articles that could fall within the inclusion

Fig. 1 Illustration of charting data

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criteria. Three more articles were included via manual search. A total of 47 articles wereselected for this scoping review. The final number of the articles was grouped based on
the following themes: L1 WTC conceptualization and its directions, L2 WTC conceptualization and its directions, classroom-centered and context-bounded WTC conceptualization, operationalization of WTC in digital context, WTC conceptualization in
EFL context, methodological approaches toward evaluating WTC, and the evaluation ofteachers’ status in WTC. Figure 1 displays the number of articles included and excluded
at each stage as well as the reasons for their exclusion. The inclusion/exclusion process
was checked, and disagreements were settled through consultants among the authors.

Results
Lessons to learn

The characteristics of the selected studies are presented and summarized in tables ineach section. The interpretation and results are organized based on research questions
in distinct sections as follows: How is the L1 WTC conceptualized? How is the L2 WTC
conceptualized? How is the classroom-centered and context-bounded WTC conceptualized? How is the WTC operationalized in digital contexts? How is the WTC conceptualized in EFL contexts? How are teachers evaluated in WTC conceptualization? What
methodological approaches have been employed in the related literature for evaluating
WTC?
RQ1: How is the L1 WTC conceptualized?

As presented in Table 1, seven out of the 47 studies were used to discuss the L1 WTC
conceptualizations. These studies show that the concept of WTC with respect to L1
was initially treated as a personality or trait-like orientation toward communication in
all the early studies (Burgoon, 1976; Chan & McCroskey, 1987; MacIntyre et al., 1999;
McCroskey & Richmond, 1982; Mortensen et al., 1977). The tendency to communicate
differs depending on the circumstances some variables such as introversion, self-esteem,
communication competence, communication apprehension, and cultural differences
contribute to WTC differences. McCroskey and Richmond (1990) discussed verbal
communication as a voluntary action that underscores the essential cognitive aspectsof communication behavior, which are impacted by the individual’s personality. Three
important studies that helped McCroskey and colleagues construct their primary
WTC concept were the work of Burgoon (1976) on the unwillingness to communicate (UnWTC), Mortensen et al. (1977) on predisposition toward verbal behavior, andMcCroskey and Richmond (1990) on shyness.
In his self-reported measure study, Burgoon (1976) examined the areas of anomie andalienation, introversion, self-esteem, and communication apprehension. The measureused the factors of approach-avoidance and reward. The results of his study did not confirm the supposed predisposition of UnWTC, but the results revealed that individuals
with communication apprehension are not involved in communication. Mortensen et al.
(1977) observed a fixed amount of speaking for a participant over different communication contexts. They called this consistency “predisposition toward verbal behavior”
and used it as a self-report scale labeling PVB. The results showed that only one factor measured a general WTC. However, the validity of the measure on considering thePage 6 of 31

Investigating WTC in terms of trait and state
aspects

Examining measures of communication
apprehension and shyness constructs for both
relationship and independence

Examining the relationships between WTC in L1
with communication apprehension, communication competence, and introversion in USA,
Sweden, Australia, Micronesia, and Puerto Rico

Examining a self-report tool (PVB) in measuring
verbal behavior tendency

MacIntyre et al. (1999)

McCroskey and Richmond (1982)

McCroskey and Richmond (1990)

Mortensen et al. (1977)

Data from other projects–

Self-report instrument

Questionnaire

Initial study: 606 college students
Major study: 590 subjects and observers–

Questionnaire

226 male and female university students

Questionnaire

Data of studies: McCroskey and McCroskey(1986a) and McCroskey et al. (1987)

The constructs initially identified by Burgoon(communication apprehension, anomie,
alienation, introversion, and self-esteem) were
examined as personality-based sources of WTC
in this study

MacIntyre (1994)

Questionnaire and observation

Examining the validity of the WTC scale

Chan and McCroskey (1987)

Questionnaire

Instruments

Three undergraduate classes

Developing unwillingness to communicate scale –Burgoon (1976)

Participants

Objectives

Authors

Table 1 Characteristics of studies that met inclusion criteria for L1 WTC conceptualization and its directions

PVB demonstrated satisfactory internal reliability
and validity. The participants exhibited a general
cognitive inclination toward their speech patterns,
which positively correlated with the quantity ofwords and duration of speech

They found various degrees of relations among
them as American students with high willing,
Micronesian students with low willing to communicate, Swedish students with the highest, andMicronesian students with the lowest perceived
language competence

The research outcomes substantiate the validityof the conceptual differentiation between these
constructs

Volunteering for the lab portion of the study was
found to be related to trait WTC, whereas initiatinga difficult communication task was associatedwith state WTC. Furthermore, the participants’ perceived competence in a particular state was foundto predict both the time taken and the numberof ideas generated during an easy speaking task.
Similarly, state anxiety was found to predict thetime taken and the number of ideas generated
during a difficult speaking task

The findings indicate that the occurrence of WTC
can be attributed to a blend of communication
apprehension and perceived competence, both ofwhich stem from introversion and self-esteem

The results reported the validity of the scale andsuggested for further research to consider trait
and situational factors

It is suggested to utilize a 20-item tool consistingof two factors, namely, reward and approachavoidance, for research purposes

Findings

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WTC or UnWTC was questioned. McCroskey (1997) claimed that the study’s results did
not indicate regularity in the amount of communication. McCroskey and Richmond’s(1982) study on shyness also influenced the WTC conceptualization. They defined shyness as “the tendency to be timid, reserved, and most specifically, talk less” (p. 460).
They designed a self-report measurement called McCroskey Shyness Scale (MSS) tomeasure the amount of participants’ talk engagement. The participants’ behavior was
also observed in order to identify the validity of MSS. The results confirmed the validityof MSS in terms of actual communication behavior based on the amount of speaking.
However, it did not support the predisposition of WTC or UnWTC.
Later, McCroskey and Richmond (1990) examined cultural aspects of WTC and foundvarious degrees of relations among participants, such as American students with high
WTC, Micronesian students with low WTC, Swedish students with the highest, andMicronesian students with the lowest perceived language competence. Therefore, they
concluded that culture should be taken into consideration.
Then, data collected from McCroskey and his colleagues led MacIntyre (1998) to suggest a causal model for explaining six factors as predictors of WTC: anomie, alienation,
self-esteem, introversion, communication apprehension, and self-perceived communication competence (SPCC). At the outset, his model incorporated more overarching personality characteristics (i.e., self-esteem and anomie), then continued with more specificfactors such as communication apprehension and SPCC, which are considered only two
immediate causal factors of one’s WTC (MacIntyre et al., 1999). It ended with WTC,
stating that it was the last stage before a person started communication. His model indicates that less anxious individuals and people with high SPCC are more willing to communicate and turn out to initiate communication. MacIntyre (1994) believed that themodel fitted best to the data as it explained approximately 60% of the variance in WTC.
Thus, MacIntyre suggested that personality-based factors were dealt with much in previous research; therefore, examining situational variables would be a potential area forfurther research. This view also paved the way for considering differing L1 and L2 WTC
presentations and, as a result, for developing a six-layered pyramid model in L2 WTC.
RQ2: How is the L2 WTC conceptualized?

As shown in Table 2, four out of the 47 studies were used to discuss the L2 WTC conceptualization. WTC was initially studied in terms of trait-like features in L1 communication, and then the focus was shifted to situational, linguistic, and social variables in L2.
MacIntyre et al. (1998) asserted that the presentation of L2 WTC is different from that of
L1 WTC. In the first model of L2 WTC presented by MacIntyre and Charos (1996), L2
WTC was still explored as a trait-like predisposition in which perceived L2 competence
and motivation were determined as directly affecting L2 WTC with L2 anxiety and integration as an indirect factor. According to MacIntyre et al. (1998), although the consent
is inferred by some studies about the pertinent independence between L1 and L2 WTC,
the variables that are believed to be influential in L1 WTC are more complex in L2 use,which led MacIntyre et al. (1998) to develop a broad L2 WTC model taken account of
linguistic, social-psychological, and communicative factors.
MacIntyre et al.’s (1998) six-layered pyramid model shows the antecedents of WTC inan L2 communication context, bearing trait-like and situational variables with enduring

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Table 2 Characteristics of studies that met inclusion criteria for L2 WTC conceptualization and its
directions
Authors

Objectives

Participants

Instruments

Findings

Baker and MacIntyre Examining gender
31 male and 39(2000)and immersion infemale immersion
communication and students
L2 orientations

Questionnaire

The relationshipbetween the perceived competenceof non-immersion
students and their
WTC was found tobe highly significant.
Conversely, for immersion students, communication anxiety
was found to have thestrongest correlation
with WTC. Furthermore, it was observedthat male nonimmersion students
had a less favorable
perception towardlearning French,whereas female nonimmersion students
demonstrated agreater inclination
toward three out of
the four language
learning orientations

MacIntyre andCharos (1996)

Investigating the
92 Anglophoneassociations among students
affective variables,such as attitudes,
motivation, perceived competence,
and anxiety, in anticipating achievementin L2 learning andcommunication

Self-report measures

Various factors werediscovered to havea notable impact on
the frequency of communication, including
the WTC in L2, motivation for language
learning, perceived
competence in L2
communication, andthe availability ofopportunities to interact with L2 speakers.
Additionally, findings
indicate that overarching personality
traits and emotionalvariables related tolanguage play a crucial role in establishing the psychologicalenvironment for L2
communication

MacIntyre et al.
(1998)

Conceptualizing L2WTC​–

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Table 2 (continued)
Authors

Objectives

Participants

MacIntyre et al.
(2002)The impact of
268 French immergender and age on sion students from
WTC, anxiety, pergrades 7, 8, and 9
ceived competence,and L2 motivation

Instruments

Findings

Questionnaire

Females had higher
WTC than males,
grades 8 and 9 hadhigher WTC thangrade 7, and generally,learners revealed
higher WTC in English(L1) than in French(L2). Grades 8 and 9
outperformed grade 7
in terms of communication frequency;
however, learners’
motivation decreased
from grade 7 togrades 8 and 9. Moreover, a relationshipwas found between
WTC, language
anxiety, communication frequency, and
SPCC, indicating thatstudents with highmotivation tended
to have higher WTC,
communication
frequency, and SPCC
with lower Frenchanxietyand situational or transient influences. The enduring influences refer to the contexts orindividuals’ state presented over a long time and considered stable, such as personality traits. Situational or transient influences are considered momentary and short-term
influences associated with the particular context in which an individual acts at a specifictime and tends to communicate with a specific person. As shown in Fig. 2, the upper
three layers of the model, namely, layer I (communication behavior), layer II (behavior
intention), and layer III (situated antecedents), are supposed to have situational or transient effects on L2 communication, whereas, the lower three layers of the model, namely,
layer IV (motivation propensities), layer V (affective-cognitive context), and layer VI(social and individual context) have enduring effects on WTC.
The layer I involves the variable “L2 use.” According to MacIntyre et al. (1998), thislayer is assumed to be the consequence of a complicated system of interconnectedvariables. They emphasized creating WTC as the final result of L2 learning. Layer II(behavior intention) is concerned with the “willingness to communicate” variable.
MacIntyre et al. (1998) state that communication behaviors result from a behavioral intention if an individual controls his behaviors. Layer III includes two variables,i.e., “desire to communicate with a specific person” and “state of communicative selfconfidence.” The former refers to a person’s tendency to speak with a specific person because of interlocutor’s familiarity or attractiveness in some ways. The latter is a
momentary feeling of confidence at a particular time in a specific situation. This also
refers to as “self-perceived communication competence” (SPCC) most frequently inthe literature, which is explained as how learners perceive or evaluate their L2 ability.

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Fig. 2 MacIntyre et al.’s (1998) pyramidal heuristic model of L2 WTC​

Layer IV, which is supposed to be transient to enduring influences on WTC, contains three variables, i.e., “interpersonal motivation,” “intergroup motivation,” and “L2
self-confidence.” Intergroup motivation is when an individual feels that he belongs to
a particular social group, whereas, in interpersonal motivation, an individual takes
a social role inside the group. L2 self-confidence is explained as when an individual
perceives himself as competent to communicate in L2 appropriately and efficiently(1998). Layer V has three variables, i.e., “intergroup attitudes,” “social situation,” and“communicative competence.” Intergroup attitudes show the learners’ attitude ofcooperation with the group and feeling contentment while acquiring a language. The
social situation variable deals with social factors in a specific context of communication happening in a community. Communicative competence refers to a person’s L2
proficiency which can significantly impact one’s degree of WTC. Finally, the last layer
VI deals with two variables, i.e., “intergroup climate” and “personality” variables. The
former variable signifies learners’ views toward the L2 group, the value they ascribe toit, and their tendency to increase closeness between the L1 and L2 groups. As MacIntyre et al. (1998) noted, personality is believed to indirectly affect intergroup climate
and individuals’ communication behavior.
Nevertheless, since developing the heuristic model in 1998, researchers have been
investigating its different aspects. They have indicated the strength of its predictions
and the adaptability of the theories, such as the investigation of immersion and nonimmersion students with English as L1 and French as L2 and the role of gender (Baker& MacIntyre, 2000), and WTC, SPCC, French anxiety, motivation, and integrativeness in the sense of gender and age (MacIntyre et al., 2002). Although these studies found differences in WTC behavior regarding gender and age, SPCC predicted
L2 WTC among beginning learners. At the same time, anxiety was the main predictor among advanced learners. It does not indicate that advanced learners are more

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anxious than beginning learners. But, those who use the L2 perceive themselves as
more or less competent regarding proficiency. Baker and MacIntyre (2000) claimed
that the effect of WTC antecedents is likely to change over time as learners become
more experienced in L2. The research shared up to this point has played a crucial rolein advancing our knowledge of L2 WTC. However, much attention should be directed
toward L2 WTC exercise in different contexts. The next section will cover classroomcentered and context-bounded L2 WTC development.

RQ3: How is the classroom‑centered and context‑bounded WTC conceptualized?

As presented in Table 3, 11 out of the 47 studies were used to discuss classroom-centered and context-bounded WTC conceptualization. The primary studies about WTC in
the classroom focus on single contextual variables influencing students’ WTC in class,including attitudes about the task and pre-task planning (Cao & Philp, 2006; Dörnyei& Kormos, 2000; Weaver, 2005). For example, Dörnyei and Kormos (2000) investigatedvarious affective and social factors, such as WTC, on L2 students’ participation in communicative tasks. They concluded that learners’ views on the task affected their WTC
in class. Also, the results revealed strong and positive relations between students’ WTC
and L2 production among students with positive attitudes while performing the task.
Weaver (2005) studied the impact of teaching and pre-task planning on learners’ WTC
while performing various communicative tasks inside the class. The results indicate apost-instruction increases regarding WTC, implying a positive effect of pre-task planning on WTC.
Later, classroom-based studies about WTC focused on the situational and contextual
factors (Azizi & Farid Khafaga, 2023; Cao & Philp, 2006; Clément et al., 2003; Khajavy
et al., 2016; Öz et al., 2015; Peng, 2007; Zangoei & Derakhshan, 2021). For instance, theimpact of scaffolding on the enhancement of language skills and components among EFL
learners, as well as its role in the development of psychological constructs like motivation, learning anxiety, and WTC, was investigated by Azizi and Khafaga (2023) throughthe implementation of group-dynamic assessment (G-DA). Their findings evidenced
significant improvements in motivation in the experimental group. Additionally, theexperimental group’s learning anxiety was significantly relieved due to the G-DA-basedteaching. The experimental group’s WTC was also significantly improved. Khajavy et al.
(2016) investigated university students’ WTC majoring in English in Iran. They foundthat classroom environment directly predicted WTC and influenced attitudes, communication confidence, and motivation; communication confidence directly affected WTC;
motivation and English language proficiency indirectly influenced WTC through communication confidence. Zangoei and Derakhshan (2021), in their study, tested students
using the Oxford Online Placement Test and only included those in the higher rangeof 90–120 (120 is the highest score). These 269 upper-intermediate and advanced-level
Iranian EFL learners reported that pragmatic listening comprehension has a significant
and positive relationship with language proficiency, self-regulated learning in listening, and WTC. However, further research is required to employ different assessment
tools such as proficiency tests, and also future research can evaluate the stated relationship using participants with a lower level of proficiency and considering the effect ofPage 12 of 31

WTC in L2: context, norms, and vitality effects 130 Anglophone (majority) and 248 Francophone (minority) students

Clément et al. (2003)

Questionnaire

Observation, interviews, and questionnaires

Ten students of a private language school

They investigated the eight students’ selfreports of their WTC in three circumstances:whole class, small group, and pair work

Cao and Philp (2006)

Questionnaire

124 grade 11 students

The impact of utilizing G-DA as a scaffolding
technique in enhancing the language skills
and components of EFL learners was investigated. Furthermore, the study explored thepotential benefits of G-DA in fostering psychological constructs like motivation, learning anxiety, and WTC among the learners

Azizi and Khafaga (2023)

Instruments

Participants

Objectives

Authors

Table 3 Characteristics of studies that met inclusion criteria for classroom-centered and context-bounded WTC conceptualization

They argued against the L2 WTC model
presented by MacIntyre et al. (1998), claimingthat it is unable to explain the context where
social pressures might cause L2 use against
the speaker’s will. Therefore, they combined
the model with Clément’s (1980) social context
model, considering social, contextual, and individual difference variables. However, the results
revealed that Francophones, the minority
group with less ethnolinguistic liveliness, had
high WTC in L2, L2 confidence, more frequencyof L2 interaction, and a higher identification
with the L2 group compared to Anglophones

The learners’ self-reports were found to beineffective in predicting their WTC behavior.
However, it is important to note that these selfreports could be affected by both trait-leveland state-level WTC factors- The WTC status varied across the threeinteractional contexts, and the classroom
observation appeared to be a proper way toinvestigate situational L2 WTC​
- Some factors were confirmed as influencing
L2 WTC, such as self-confidence, group size,
familiarity with conversers and discussing
topics, cultural background, and medium ofcommunication

Their findings evidenced significant improvements in motivation in the experimentalgroup. Additionally, the learning anxiety of theexperimental group was significantly relieved
as a result of the G-DA-based teaching. The
experimental group’s WTC was also significantly improved

Findings

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Impact of English teaching and pre-task
planning on learners’ WTC while performing
various communicative tasks inside the classStudied the WTC antecedents from a Chinese 174 college students
cultural perspective

Peng (2007)

Weaver (2005)

Examined students’ attitudes toward WTC
in Turkey

Öz et al. (2015)

490 Japanese university students

134

243 Iranian students in the English language

They investigated WTC using a microsystem
model

Khajavy et al. (2016)

Questionnaire

Questionnaire

Questionnaire

Questionnaire

Self-report questionnaires

46 Hungarian students

They investigated a range of affective andsocial factors, such as WTC, on L2 students’participation in communicative tasks

Dörnyei and Kormos (2000)

Instruments

Participants

Objectives

Authors

Table 3 (continued)

Post-instruction increase regarding WTC,
implying a positive impact of pre-task planningon WTC​

Students’ L2 WTC is influenced by Chinese
Confucian heritage
Communicative competence is considered adownplayed predicator and a less importantvariable in the Chinese context, whereas,classroom climate could be considered anenvironment developed by a larger number of“others” to which the person self is linked up
with directed. She also postulated that Chinese
students need linguistic, affective, cognitive,
and cultural readiness to tend to communicate

The students had improved WTC, communicative competence, and communication
apprehension. Communicative competence
and communication apprehension was strong
predictor of WTC, and motivational variables
indirectly affected WTC. The suggested model
explained 63% of the variance in WTC​Classroom environment directly predicted
WTC and affected perceptions, communication confidence, and motivation; communication confidence directly impacted WTC;
motivation and English language proficiency
indirectly influenced WTC through communication confidence

They concluded that learners’ views on the task
affected their WTC in class. Also, there werestrong and positive relations between students’
WTC and L2 production among students withpositive attitudes while performing the task

Findings

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Objectives

They examined the association of pragmatic
listening comprehension with language proficiency, self-regulated learning in listening

They conceptualized Chinese ESL students’
WTC​

The research focused on investigating theconnections between the antecedents atthe trait level, specifically the demographic
characteristics of students, and their second
L2 WTC​

Authors

Zangoei and Derakhshan (2021)

Wen and Clément (2003)

Li and Li (2022)

Table 3 (continued)

Discussion

Questionnaire

1502 university students

Questionnaire and multiple-choice test

269 Iranian EFL learners with advanced
proficiency in the language–

Instruments

Participants

The students’ socioeconomic status had a positive effect on their WTC in meaning-focused
activities

The researchers developed MacIntyre et al.’sframework by adjusting certain structural
relationships among variables and reevaluating them through a Chinese cultural lens. Theirstudy revealed that cultural values played asignificant role in shaping students’ attitudes
and learning outcomes in L2 communication.
Finally, they explained the linguistic, communicative, and social-psychological factors
contributing to learners’ WTC​

They found that pragmatic listening comprehension has a significant and positive relationship with language proficiency, self-regulated
learning in listening, and WTC​

Findings

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performance-oriented or exam-oriented learners as performance-oriented learners or
educate in such context are more willing to communicate in essence.
Wen and Clément (2003) asserted that WTC is not considered a simple presentation of a factor but rather an interaction of communicative, socio-psychological, andlinguistic factors. They emphasized sociocultural factors and argued against MacIntyre
et al.’s (1998) model, claiming it was oriented based on the study conducted in Western contexts. For example, Wen and Clément (2003) posited that Chinese learners prefer teacher-centered communicative and grammar-based approaches; they tend to keep
their distance from outgroup members and cultures, which they conceptualize as aninsider effect. In addition, they are anxious about the potential of damaging their public
image if they cannot speak English properly, which they refer to as significant others.
Their WTC model in the Chinese EFL context focused on societal context, motivational
orientations, personality types, and affective perceptions. In a recent study, Li and Li(2022) observed that the students’ socioeconomic status positively impacted their WTC
in meaning-focused activities. Öz et al. (2015) also conducted a study in EFL Turkish,examining students’ perceptions of WTC. They reported that the suggested model for
WTC explains WTC variability. Therefore, it is imperative to investigate the dynamic
fluctuations of WTC across contexts to produce WTC most effectively in a specified
context. All in all, on logical grounds, it could be argued that it is not only individual
difference factors that are believed to impact L2 WTC and L2 use but that the effect ofsocial and contextual variables should not be neglected in L2 communication. The next
section will cover the development of WTC in digital contexts.
RQ4: How is the WTC operationalized in digital contexts?

As presented in Table 4, 13 out of the 47 studies were used to discuss the operationalization of WTC in digital contexts. The emergence of novel technologies has brought aboutsignificant changes and the growing contribution of the digital world to L2 learning,young EFL learners are much more engaged in learning activities and communications
through out-of-class digital environments. The L2 communication in digital environments seems to have different characteristics compared to classroom communication.
For example, L2 learners have the opportunity to engage in informal communication
with unknown interlocutors through different channels and social media without physical presence, asynchronous mode of communication, various communication modes
such as texts and audio, and anonymous identity, which all can cause manifest different behaviors in L2 communication Lee and Lu (2023). Following the emerging line ofresearch on L2 WTC in digital environments, a mixed-methods study in Hong Kongwas carried out by Lee and Taylor (2022) to investigate the relationship between positive psychology constructs (specifically classroom enjoyment, grit, and growth mindset),
extramural English, and the primary school students’ WTC. The study involved a sample
of 160 students, and it aimed to determine whether these factors have an impact on students’ L2 WTC. They found that students’ L2 WTC was predicted by classroom enjoyment, grit, extramural English in the classroom, grit, growth mindset, and extramural
English outside the classroom. Lee and Dressman (2018) discovered that EFL university
students actively participate in extracurricular English activities using technology, leading to a notable enhancement in their online L2 WTC level. However, they employed anPage 16 of 31

They investigated the dynamicity of seven EFL Seven EFL university students
university students’ WTC in an online class

They developed a new scale of L2 WTC in
digital and non-digital EFL contexts

Lee and Liu (2022)

Lee and Drajati (2020)

114 Indonesian EFL students

Lee examined factors influencing L2 WTC in
digital contexts

Lee (2019)

98 Korean EFL university students

The researchers examined the affective factors Two Polish adult learners
related to WTC, motivation, language anxiety,and boredom within the context of complex
dynamic systems

Kruk (2022)

Participants

Objectives

Authors

Questionnaire

Stimulated recalls and semi-structured
interviews

In-depth interviews

Background questionnaire and a session log

Instruments

Table 4 Characteristics of studies that met inclusion criteria for operationalization of WTC in digital context

They validated L2 WTC scale

The results of their study revealed that the levelsof L2 WTC among EFL learners are subject toconstant change due to the interplay of different trait-like factors, such as their receptiveness to new online learning experiences, andstate-like factors, such as technical difficulties
encountered during the learning process

The researcher discovered that various factors,
including the context in which the students
were communicating (such as the people they
were talking to and the teaching methods usedby their instructor), as well as individual factors
like anxiety and self-confidence in their second
language, collectively influenced the students’ability to engage in L2 communication in adigital environment. This finding further supports the notion that L2 WTC is both contextdependent and subject to change over time.
Moreover, despite L2 WTC increasing popularity
among researchers in digital contexts, it requires
much attention to reveal various aspects of the
dynamicity nature of L2 WTC​

The findings showed fluctuations in the levelsof the variables under consideration, bothwithin individual interactions and across different visits. These variations in the variables were
influenced by various positive factors (suchas topics, opportunities for discussing sharedinterests and understanding the responses fromconversation partners) and negative factors (likeunfriendly SL users, boredom, uncooperative SL
users, and past negative encounters)

Findings

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Objectives

The researchers investigated the correlation
between L2 WTC and informal digital learningof English. This study focused on the growing
trend among self-directed EFL learners who
utilize English in digital environments outside
the traditional classroom setting

The investigation delved into the correlation
between the L2 motivational self system,
specifically the ideal L2 self and the ought-to
L2 self, and L2 WTC both within and outside
the classroom environment

The researchers investigated whether positive
psychology constructs such as classroom
enjoyment, grit, and growth mindset, alongwith extramural English, can be used to
predict students’ L2 WTC​

They surveyed the effect of affective factors
on learners’ WTC in conventional classroom
and digital environments

The researchers investigated the influenceof e-tandem on the speaking abilities of EFL
students, specifically focusing on speaking
fluency and coherence, vocabulary usage,
grammatical proficiency, pronunciation, and
WTC​

They explored the impact of engaging indigital game play on learners’ WTC​

Authors

Lee and Dressman (2018)

Lee and Lu (2023)

Lee and Taylor (2022)

Mulyono and Saskia (2021)

Rahimi and Fathi (2022)

Reinders and Wattana (2014)

Table 4 (continued)

Questionnaire and semi-structured interview

Questionnaire and semi-structured interview

Questionnaire

Questionnaire and semi-structured interview

417 Chinese EFL middle school students

160 EFL primary school students in HongKong

436 Indonesian EFL

22 EFL learners

Questionnaire

Questionnaire and interviews

94 Korean EFL students

30 Thai EFL learners

Instruments

Participants

The findings indicated a noticeable and substantial enhancement, as individuals reported
increased self-assurance, reduced anxiety,enhanced proficiency, and greater WTC​

The findings suggested that both e-tandem andtraditional classes contributed to the enhancement of EFL learners’ speaking abilities and WTC​

The study conducted revealed that self-confidence, speaking anxiety, and motivation werestrong predictors of students’ WTC. Additionally,
it was found that students exhibited a higher
level of WTC in digital settings

The researchers discovered that the L2 WTCamong students was influenced by factors suchas classroom enjoyment, grit, and the presenceof extramural English within the classroom.
Additionally, outside of the classroom, thestudents’ L2 WTC was predicted by their levelof grit, growth mindset, and engagement withextramural English activities

The findings indicated that the ideal L2 self had
a substantial impact on the L2 WTC in boththe traditional classroom environment and thedigital setting outside of the classroom

It was discovered that EFL students actively
participate in English activities outside of theclassroom using technology, resulting in a noteworthy enhancement of their online L2 WTC​

Findings

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A scale was created to assess the emailcommunication tactics utilized by students
to enhance their WTC with their teachers inonline settings

289 undergraduates

Questionnaire and self-reports

Questionnaire and interview

112 EFL learners
The impact of Google Assistant on the WTCamong adolescent EFL learners was examinedby the researchers

Tai and Chen (2020)

Waldeck et al. (2001)

Interview

50 Iranian EFL
The researcher conducted interviews to
explore the perception of Iranian EFL students
regarding WTC in an extramural digitalcontext

Instruments

Soyoof (2022)

Participants

Objectives

Authors

Table 4 (continued)

It has been discovered that students exhibit
a higher tendency to engage in online communication with teachers who utilize message
strategies that replicate behaviors associatedwith immediacy

The findings indicated that Google Assistant
played a crucial role in boosting EFL students’
WTC, improving their confidence in speaking,and decreasing their anxiety when speaking

The findings suggested that educational
methods (K-12), personal relationships withconversation partners and supportive communities, emotional factors such as confidence andanxiety in using a L2 in online environments
outside of school, and the social atmosphereamong different groups all play a role in impacting students’ L2 WTC​

Findings

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exploratory methodology with a single-item measure of L2 WTC online. It needs to befurther explored by using more developed and established measures in digital settings.
Later, Lee and Drajati (2020) conducted a study with a more developed questionnaire.
Recent studies exploring students’ L2 WTC in digital settings indicate that various
dynamic factors influence students’ L2 WTC (Kruk, 2022; Lee, 2019; Lee & Liu, 2022;
Mulyono & Saskia, 2021; Soyoof, 2022). For example, Lee and Liu (2022) investigated the
dynamicity of students’ WTC. They discovered that the levels of L2 WTC among EFL
learners are greatly influenced by trait-like factors such as openness to new online learning experiences, as well as state-like factors like technical issues. Their findings highlightthe highly dynamic nature of EFL learners’ L2 WTC. Soyoof (2022) also interviewed 50
Iranian EFL students’ perceptions of WTC in the digital context outside of the university. He found educational practices, familiarity with the interlocutors and supportive
communities, affective variables, and intergroup climate influencing students’ L2 WTC.
Mulyono and Saskia (2021) surveyed the effect of affective variables on 436 Indonesian
EFL students’ WTC in the conventional classroom and digital environments. They foundthat self-confidence, speaking anxiety, and motivation significantly predicted students’
WTC, and students revealed a higher level of WTC in digital settings. Lee (2019) examined factors influencing university students’ L2 WTC in digital settings. He found that
contextual elements like interlocutors and pedagogy, as well as individual factors such as
L2 anxiety and L2 self-confidence, collectively influenced the students’ L2 WTC in thedigital environment, which supports the situated and dynamic nature of the L2 WTC.
Moreover, despite L2 WTC increasing popularity among researchers in digital contexts,
it requires much attention to reveal various aspects of the dynamicity nature of L2 WTC.
Recent research has also been carried out to investigate the possible influence of technology on the development of L2 WTC such as the effect of interaction with intelligent
personal assistants (Tai, 2024), AI-mediated speaking activities, chatbots (Fathi et al.,2024), e-tandem, a language exchange application (Rahimi & Fathi, 2022), e-mail message strategies (Waldeck et al., 2001), Google Assistant (Tai & Chen, 2020), and digital
games (Reinders & Wattana, 2014). However, further research is required to explore thesubstantial contributions to our limited understanding of the potential role of technology in L2 WTC promotion in settings other than in-class and lab settings.
RQ5: How is the WTC conceptualized in EFL contexts?

As displayed in Table 5, five out of the 47 studies were used to discuss the conceptualization of WTC in EFL contexts. Given that a specific context of communication happening in a community might not be the same and L2 learners are exposedto the target language differently, learners’ WTC behavior might differ, for example,
in EFL and ESL contexts. In ESL, English is used in daily social interactions suchas mass media, education, and official institutions. On the other hand, English use
is restricted to the classroom, and it is not used socially. As Zhang (2022) claimed
that one situation does not fit all because of the WTC variability, the studies exploring the WTC variability are still sparse (Ebadi & Ebadijalal, 2022; Henry et al., 2021;
Lee, 2022; Vafadar & Chow; 2020; Zarrinabadi et al., 2023). For example, Vafadar andChow (2020) investigated the instruction effect of Dörnyei and Scott’s (1997) communication strategies (CSs) on Iranian intermediate EFL learners’ WTC. Their findings

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They examined the impact of CSs teaching on 67 Iranian intermediate EFL learners Questionnaire, observation, stimustudents’ WTC​
lated recall interviews

They studied the effects of praise for intelligence and praise for effort on learners’ language mindsets, perceived communicationcompetence, speaking anxiety, and WTC​

Vafadar and Chow (2020)

Zarrinabadi et al. (2023)

63 Iranian EFL learners

Questionnaire

Questionnaire

The role of grit (consisting of perseverance
647 Korean EFL learnersof effort and consistency of interests) andclassroom enjoyment in EFL learners’ WTC was
examined

They found that praising effort played a crucialrole in enhancing Iranian EFL learners’ WTC byfostering growth mindsets and reducing speaking anxiety

Participants who received CSs instructions
significantly improved regarding speaking timeor WTC and taking turns. The learners foundthe interactional and indirect CSs to be thestrategies that were most frequently used andbeneficial- Some interconnected factors such as contextual, individual, and communicative competence either facilitated or inhibited students’
WTC, what is referred to as the “tree-gyrate”
model

Lee found that grit, specifically perseveranceof effort, and classroom enjoyment were significant predictors of L2 WTC across all cohorts.
However, it was observed that grit, specificallyconsistency of interests, did not have a predictive effect on Korean EFL learners’ WTC​

Their study revealed the presence of interconnected influences that impact WTC andproduce effects at the system level

Lee (2022)

Seven participants

Questionnaire

Findings

They studied WTC in Swedish multilingual
contexts at the individual level

Instruments

Henry et al. (2021)

Participants

Video-recording and questionnaire The analysis of qualitative data demonstrated
that the implementation of the virtual reality
tool resulted in a notable improvement in theparticipants’ overall knowledge, motivation,enthusiasm, cultural awareness, and confidence

Objectives

Ebadi and Ebadijalal (2022) They investigated the impact of Google
20 upper-intermediate EFL learners
Expeditions virtual reality on EFL learners’ WTC
and oral proficiency

Authors

Table 5 Characteristics of studies that met inclusion criteria for conceptualization of WTC in EFL context

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revealed that students’ speaking time significantly increased, and they took moreturns in communication than the control group. In addition, the experimental groupused the interactional and indirect types of CSs most frequently and found them to be
the most useful strategies. They proposed a “tree-gyrate” model by describing interconnected factors such as contextual, individual, and communicative competencethat could foster or suppress participants’ WTC (Fig. 3). Vafadar and Chow (2020)
examined MacIntyre et al.’s (1998) heuristic pyramid WTC model in the EFL context.
They explained that a common perspective in both models was to consider the situational aspect of WTC. However, they argued that their model supports the context
of the EFL classroom, but MacIntyre et al.’s model does not focus on a specific context
and includes enduring and transient factors that affect WTC. Furthermore, there is a
one-dimensional and hierarchical relationship between these factors. While there is arecursive and interrelationship between factors in the tree-gyrate model, it is difficult
to distinguish the enduring and transient factors.
Ebadi and Ebadijalal (2022), in their mixed-methods study of 20 upper-intermediate
EFL learners, investigated the impact of Google Expeditions virtual reality on EFL
learners’ WTC and oral proficiency. Their quantitative data showed that the oral performance and WTC in the experimental group were significantly higher than the control group. The analysis of qualitative data demonstrated that the implementation of
the virtual reality tool resulted in a notable improvement in the participants’ overall
knowledge, motivation, enthusiasm, cultural awareness, and confidence. Henry et al.
(2021) conducted research on WTC in Swedish multilingual environments. Theirstudy revealed the presence of interconnected influences that impact WTC and produce effects at the system level. Zarrinabadi et al. (2023), in their study, found thatpraising effort played a crucial role in enhancing Iranian EFL learners’ WTC by fostering growth mindsets and reducing speaking anxiety. Lee (2022) discovered thatboth grit, specifically perseverance of effort, and classroom enjoyment were significant predictors of L2 WTC across all cohorts. However, it was observed that grit,Fig. 3 Tree-gyrate model of WTC for EFL classroom context (adopted from Vafadar & Chow, 2020)

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specifically consistency of interests, did not have a predictive effect on Korean EFL
learners’ WTC.
As the brief glimpse through the literature on WTC indicates ample support for theL1 and L2 WTC, based on the currently available evidence from EFL WTC literature,
it seems fair to suggest that further research is required to address this rather underresearched area and scrutinize different aspects of EFL WTC.
RQ6: How are teachers evaluated in WTC conceptualization?

As demonstrated in Table 6, seven out of the 47 studies were used to discuss teachers’
status in WTC conceptualization. The related literature on WTC shows that teachers
have a significant role in encouraging students’ WTC (Sheybani, 2019; Vongsila & Reinders, 2016). A positive classroom atmosphere can decrease linguistic limitations andanxiety and promote involvement and self-confidence (Peng & Woodrow, 2010). Further,
Zhong (2013) claimed that the mutual trust and relaxing environment teachers create
results in learners’ participation in the class. In other words, learners are more enthusiastic about communicating when they find the environment more friendly and supportive. Izadpanah et al. (2018) suggested that EFL teachers need to be aware of students’value orientations that might influence students’ performance and WTC in the classroom. For example, if a student remains silent in class, this might be because of theirvalue orientations, not the lack of proficiency or preparedness; accordingly, teachers candevelop the most suitable practice and help students balance their value orientations
by discussing the issue. Vongsila and Reinders (2016) conducted a study in New Zealand about teachers’ attitudes toward developing WTC. They compared data collected
through interviews and questionnaires with what they found through the observationsof students’ behavior. The results confirmed teachers’ significant role in fostering students’ WTC and identified several strategies they applied in class.
To briefly summarize, the literature on WTC indicates that there has been a growing
consensus that teachers’ views, involvement, and teaching style affect learners’ contribution and WTC (Cao, 2011; MacIntyre et al., 2011). For example, Cao (2011) noted thatstudents raise questions and interact more with their favorable teacher. MacIntyre et al.
(2011) highlighted that teachers could increase and decrease students’ WTC by externally regulating rules and meeting students’ needs. They called for further research toconsider the effect of teachers’ behaviors, activities, and practices on learners’ WTC.
RQ7: What methodological approaches have been employed in the related literaturefor evaluating WTC?

Examining 47 studies selected for the present scoping review indicates that studies haveinvestigated WTC by employing various data-collection instruments such as students’
self-reports (Cao & Philp, 2006), classroom observations (Vongsila & Reinders, 2016),
semi-structured interviews (Lee & Taylor, 2022), stimulated-recall interviews (Vafadar &Chow, 2020), reflective journals (Cao, 2011), and questionnaire (Azizi & Farid Khafaga,
2023). Altogether, the studies conducted in different contexts employing various data
sources indicate that L2 WTC can be affected by different individuals, social, and affective factors; thus, it is frequently seen that L2 WTC has been investigated as a dynamic
situational state. The widely used quantitative methods in examining relationships

Page 23 of 31

They examined EFL learners’ WTC in the
Chinese context

The researchers delved into the ambivalent 100 junior high school students Questionnaire, focused essay writing
attitudes toward communication among
students in a French immersion program

The researcher examined the correlation
256 EFL learners
between the WTC of EFL Iranian students
and the immediacy attributes displayed bytheir teachers

Peng and Woodrow (2010)

MacIntyre et al. (2011)

Sheybani (2019)

Zhong (2013)30 teachers

330 university students

500 Iranian university students

Interviews, questionnaires, observations

Questionnaire

Questionnaire

Questionnaire

In L2 classrooms, Zhong conducted an
Five Chinese immigrant learners Semi-structured in-depth interviews,
investigation into the learners’ WTC in bothlearning logs, classroom observations,teacher-led and collaborative learning
stimulated recall interviews
scenarios

Vongsila and Reinders (2016) They examined 30 teachers’ attitudes
toward improving WTC. They compared
the results obtained from interviews andquestionnaires with observations

They focused on the relationship between
Schwartz’s value orientation and WTC​Classroom observations, stimulated-recall
interviews, and reflective journals

Izadpanah et al. (2018)

Six students

Cao explored the ever-changing andcontext-specific aspects of WTC in L2
educational settings

Instruments

Cao (2011)

Participants

Objectives

Authors

Table 6 Characteristics of studies that met inclusion criteria for teachers’ status in WTC​

The study revealed that language-related
aspects, socio-cultural influences, selfefficacy, and learner attitudes collectively
impacted their WTC in a classroom setting
led by a teacher

The results confirmed teachers’ effect on
students’ WTC improvement and identified
some teachers’ strategies

The findings indicated that verbal and nonverbal immediacy significantly and positively
predicted all the subscales of WTC​

The findings brought to light intricate
relationships between the developmentof language proficiency, the growth of L2
self-development, and the nonlinguistic
concerns that adolescents usually encounter

A positive classroom atmosphere candecrease linguistic limitations and anxiety
and increase engagement and self-confidence

The results indicated that factors such as
openness to change, self-enhancement,
universalism, tradition, and self-direction
may serve as better indicators of WTC​

The development of situational WTC in L2
classrooms can be attributed to a combination of personal traits, classroom settings,
and linguistic elements

Findings

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between L2 WTC and its underlying factors include structural equation modeling,
path analysis, and correlation analysis. To date, the main technique of collecting datafor investigating WTC trait-like state was self-report questionnaires, and for WTC situational state were observation and interview techniques. However, in methodologicalsynthesis, Sudina (2023) conducted a study on the status of scale quality in L2 anxiety
and WTC. The analysis revealed a dearth of support for scale content and constructvalidity. This shows that future research needs to pay more attention to the measures
employed.
Some studies on L2 WTC (Cao, 2011; Cao & Philp, 2006; Lee & Taylor, 2022; Ebadi& Ebadijalal, 2022) favored a mix of quantitative and qualitative methods or mixed
methods in examining both trait-like and situational L2 WTC. One such attempt is amixed-method study conducted by Lee and Taylor (2022), who found that a correlation
between positive psychology constructs and extramural English has been shown to playa crucial role in determining students’ L2 WTC. Ebadi and Ebadijalal (2022) conducteda mixed-methods study and investigated the impact of Google Expeditions virtual reality
on EFL learners’ WTC and oral proficiency.
As per L2 learners, the interaction between positive and negative emotional/affective
variables plays a crucial role in explaining learners’ L2 WTC (Alrabai, 2022). Wang et al.
(2021) argued that a desirable academic outcome for teachers is not only restricted tothe use of new teaching methods and conveying content but also teachers’ integration of
positive psychology and its positive factors in the teacher education to enthusiasticallyteach and interact with learners (Xie & Derakhshan, 2021).

Discussion
The role of communicative approaches, language use, and interaction in learning a language highlights the significance of facilitating WTC (Swain, 1985). Skehan (1989) and
Swain (1985) describe this role as the students’ enthusiasm for communication, whichallows them to engage in classroom discussions, and L2 output, which is explained by
Swain’s (1985) output hypothesis. Similarly, Skehan (1989) describes that one must
speak to learn L2. Thus, it can be argued that students will not be able to complete tasks
fluently and accurately at the L2 level unless they are involved in communication. Furthermore, MacIntyre et al. (1998) believed that WTC mainly predicts production andlanguage use, which should be the main goal of language learning and teaching. Therefore, it is reasonable to argue for creating a learning environment conducive to fostering
students’ WTC. On the other hand, because of the interrelated factors influencing L2
learners’ WTC, more precise assessment tools and methods are required to be considered to reveal the novel aspects of the WTC.
An examination of relevant literature reveals that a significant number of studies havefocused on the determinants of WTC; however, there is a paucity of studies in related
literature that attempted to examine whether it is possible to foster WTC in practice (Jamalifar & Salehi, 2020; Vafadar & Chow, 2020; Vafadar et al., 2019). One suchattempt is Vafadar et al. (2019), who used the ideas generated by previous studies andexamined the effects of CSs on intermediate Iranian EFL low- and mid-willing learners’
WTC (LWTC and MWTC). They found that the LWTC learners’ WTC had significant
improvements because they used CSs more than MWTC learners did. Furthermore,

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learners applied the indirect types of CSs most frequently. They further indicated that
personality type was unrelated to the learners’ CSs choice. Additionally, they identified
interrelated factors of contextual, individual, and communicative competence that fostered or reduced learners’ WTC.

Conclusions
Future research questions to examine

There are still fewer unexplored areas that require further research to reach practicalsolutions for creating learners’ WTC and interaction in the L2. Recently, Allahyar et al.
(2022) called for more studies focusing on the effect of teachers’ attitudes toward learners’ WTC that may impact teachers’ communicative and teaching behavior. Further
studies are required to validate or question the available WTC research. More research
can also be conducted to examine factors promoting WTC in various settings, suchas EFL and digital contexts. Hopefully, future research will probe into the fluctuation,
related influencing factors, and consequences in various settings. Further work can also
elucidate how WTC fluctuates based on gender, age, and competency in the language.
Moreover, teachers’ WTC and its best practices are worth further exploration as thisis unexplored. Further, there is still a lot of uncertainty about comparisons of teachers’
WTC status, antecedents, and effects with learners’ WTC. Hopefully, future work will
provide greater insight into this area and deepen our understanding. One of the interesting areas would be to study students’ willingness to read, write, and listen and compare them with a willingness to speak. Another interesting research would be to examine
WTC in computer-mediated communication, social networks, digital settings, and chatterboxes to see what effects WTC has at work and whether the employment of such platforms can improve WTC.
It is proposed that learning be treated as purposeful, not accidental; therefore, before
we can understand the value of learning programs, we need a clear and easily understoodconceptualization and idea of what learning might be expected from this conceptualization and the extent to which these outcomes are in line with the goals of learning. WTC
is a category of learning for which the courses might be well-designed, and that category
need not be—arguably, should not be—narrowly and indefinitely defined. Additionally, conceptualization impacts the assessment as a learning process. Further, there aremany difficult questions yet to be resolved regarding the best practices of WTC as well
as of teaching and learning and assessing more generally. Rigorous investigation of WTC(appropriately conceptualized) and of the processes that generate it as well as of theassessment knowledge will be most meaningful. This scoping review can serve not only
to enhance implementation and contribute to the growing knowledge base on WTC but
also to strengthen support for the researchers with both general knowledge and needs
for related research in WTC and implementable measures to manage challenges. Furthermore, the outcome of this review may help practitioners, teachers, and researchers
know their current status and needs regarding WTC and related concepts and the mosteffective way to move forward with their developmental work and research.
It should be acknowledged that this study has some limitations. First of all, due tosome limitations to the present type of data collection method, all databases and relevant articles may not have been considered when searching for the data. Therefore,

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future researchers can incorporate other methods to collect data and deepen our
knowledge of the subject under focus. Furthermore, this scoping review focused on
specific trends and research questions. Many unanswered queries persist, underscoring the need for further investigations to furnish us with a more comprehensive
comprehension of WTC conceptualization. Therefore, it is highly recommended that
future researchers undertake a comprehensive investigation into the subject matter and other aspects, such as cultural factors in WTC development, cross-cultural
aspects, and WTC in other languages. It should be noted that the digital world andonline learning have gained well-deserved recognition in the realm of language education, offering numerous opportunities and possibilities for practicing the language.
This scoping review has only focused on WTC development in digital contexts.
Thus, future research may unravel various aspects of WTC in digital settings and its
representations compared to the traditional ones. Finally, this scoping review was
conducted based on 47 articles; it is noteworthy that more articles should be incorporated into future research.
The studies reviewed on WTC point out that it is not only a single factor that influences learners’ WTC behavior, but more interconnected factors involve learners’
WTC behaviors, which could either increase or reduce participants’ WTC. However,these factors have unequal strength of effects on different occasions and can also be
perceived differently by learners. The present paper began with the conceptualizationsof WTC and clarified two types of it: trait-like and dynamic situational. As discussed,
the manifestation of WTC in L1 differs from that in L2: The former is relatively stable and trail-like, while the latter is treated as dynamic situational. L2 WTC largely
depends on context, especially L2 communication is considered a context-dependent
phenomenon (MacIntyre et al., 2002). Although there may be a relationship between
L1 and L2 WTC, as MacIntyre et al. (1998) argued, L1 WTC does not simply translate into L2 WTC, which led MacIntyre et al. (1998) to develop an extensive modelof WTC in L2. In the EFL context, Vafadar and Chow (2020), with their so-called
tree-gyrate WTC model, examined MacIntyre et al.’s (1998) heuristic pyramid WTC
model and argued that the relationships between WTC influencing factors are recursive and interconnected, not one-dimensional and hierarchical ones. However, further research is required to provide more insights into this area of inquiry.
The related reviewed studies on WTC further revealed that WTC is context-bounded anddynamic-situational, which is affected by several interrelated factors. It is no exaggeration to
say that students’ strong WTC paves the way for L2 practice and use, facilitating language
learning. Therefore, it can be suggested that learners who are more inclined to initiate andengage in communication benefit from successful L2 interaction more than those less willing to communicate. Teachers are advised to contemplate how they can provide opportunities and an environment to improve students’ WTC and interaction in the L2 by considering
linguistic, psychological, and socio-cultural factors. The reviewed studies in this paper also
indicated that teachers’ role in improving learners’ WTC is undeniable. It is also necessary
for language teachers to consider students’ WTC systematically and what is suitable in thecontext and attempt to find ways to boost the factors that can enhance WTC as far as theycan. Given the dynamicity and context-dependent nature of WTC, language teachers need
to approach applying the results of WTC research to L2 pedagogy with caution.

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Last but not least, given the dynamic situational nature of WTC behavior, language
teachers need to develop the moment-to-moment ability and appropriate actions to deal
with unexpected occurrences in students’ participation in class. Additionally, further
research can shed light on the effects of digital environments on learners’ L2 WTC insettings other than in-class and lab settings and the role of computer-assisted language
learning practitioners in designing and implementing intervention programs for theirtarget participants.
Finally, a valuable future project would be to develop an easily administered testing
tool that assessed the “willingness to communicate.” The positive correlation between
success as a language learner and WTC would encourage learners to purposefullyincrease their ranking in such a test and result in success as language learners. Additionally, a stressful atmosphere in interviews, which is considered one of the widely used
tools in evaluating “willingness to communicate,” and also teaching language learners
with teachers with insufficient educational literacy leads to poor performance of language learners. The salient point that most of the past studies have paid less attention to
the performance of language learners that can be taken as valuable future projects is thatsome contexts and classrooms consider more test-driven tasks than performance-basedtasks. In a test-driven context, it is evident that both EFL teachers and learners place
greater emphasis on exam-oriented skills, namely, vocabulary, reading, and writing,rather than speaking skills. Therefore, students exhibit a greater readiness to engage incommunication in the performance-oriented tasks that are included as a part of the final
assessment criteria. This is where these challenges prompt us to look at “willingness tocommunicate” through the lens of testing with more accurate and multiple testing tools.
Abbreviation
WTC​	Willingness to communicate
Acknowledgements
Not applicable.
Authors’ contributions
Robert Kirkpatrick gave the idea of the work; Hossein Vafadar and Hassan Mohebbi conducted the scoping review; thepaper is written by Hossein Vafadar and edited and revised in different stages by Robert Kirkpatrick and Hassan Mohebbi.
Funding
Not applicable.
Availability of data and materials
No empirical data is collected for this study.

Declarations
Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
Received: 21 January 2024 Accepted: 24 February 2024

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