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Shamshiri et al. Language Testing in Asia
https://doi.org/10.1186/s40468-023-00259-9

Language Testing in Asia

Open Access

RESEARCH

Models of assessment in the classroom:
a comparative research of CALL‑based vs.
traditional assessment on vocabulary learning
among Iranian EFL learners
Fatemeh Shamshiri1, Fariba Rahimi Esfahani1* and Seyed Esmail Hosseini1*Correspondence:
rahimi_fariba@yahoo.com;
f.rahimi2023@yahoo.com
1
Department of English,
Shahrekord Branch, Islamic Azad
University, Shahrekord, Iran

Abstract
There are a few empirical studies on comparative effects of CALL-based assessment
and traditional assessment on Iranian EFL students’ vocabulary learning; therefore,
the present research tried to fill this gap. To achieve this purpose, the NELT was administered to 89 EFL students, and 58 of them whose level of English proficiency
was the intermediate were chosen for the target sample of the current research. Then,they were randomly divided into two groups of control and experimental, and a vocabulary pre-test was given to them. Next, the experimental group (EG) received a CALLbased assessment treatment, and the control group (CG) received a traditional-based
assessment instruction. After instructing 100 new words to both groups, a vocabulary post-test was conducted, and an ANCOVA test and a paired samples t-test were
utilized to analyze the scores of the pre- and post-tests. The gained outcomes indicated that the EG outstripped the CG on the post-test of vocabulary. It was concluded
that using the CALL-based assessment was more useful than the conventional assessment for learning English vocabulary items. The research findings can be beneficial
for EFL teachers, learners, and curriculum designers.
Keywords: CALL-based assessment, Traditional assessment, Vocabulary learning

Introduction
Utilizing novel approaches can be a helpful way to promote learning and teaching quality. Computer-assisted language learning (CALL) that is referred to the use of computer
in English learning and instruction is one such approach. CALL is the study about computer-assisted language learning and instruction, according to Levy (1997). Additionally,
Davies (2002) describes CALL as a technique for learning and teaching a language inwhich the computers are utilized to facilitate the reinforcement, presentation, and evaluation of learning materials while typically incorporating a significant amount of interaction. CALL is described by Levy as “the study and search of computer usages in language
learning and teaching” (1997, p. 15).

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CALL enables instructors to supply students personalized instructions so they
may work at their own speed (Nachoua, 2012). CALL can also encourage linguistic
exchange between instructors and students (Namaziandost et al., 2023; Tatiana Dina
& Ciornei, 2013). CALL can support the use of empirical practice and learning invarious settings, give students helpful feedback, promote pair and group work, foster
global and exploratory learning, increase students’ attainment, open doors to moretrue resources, promote better interactions, individualize instruction, and inspire students (Lee, 2000).
Computers are a vital part of any educational system nowadays. According to Prensky(2000), for today’s students, it is impossible to imagine the universe without the digital
media, the Internet, and the computers. Computers may assist pupils to customize theirinstruction, since it was shown that computers may be quite helpful in this regard (Vahdat & Eidipour, 2016). By personalizing material, using animated things on the screens,and offering exercises that integrate difficulties and interests in a specific setting, CALL
can increase students’ motivation. Additionally, Vahdat and Eidipour (2016) state that
CALL emphasizes how the learning process is student centered; students control thepace of learning and select what can be acquired and how it can be acquired, which helps
them have confidence about their academic progress.
Using CALL-based assessment can develop English language learning. Learning andassessment are not separable, and assessment tells us how much students achieve thetarget educational goals. Since it may impact both teaching and learning, assessment isa necessary component of education. When done in a genuine manner, it can offer helpful feedbacks and adjustments to improve the instructing and learning procedure. Furthermore, assessment may be motivational and encouraging by effectively involving or
engaging students in the learning process (Alderson & Banerjee, 2001). Based on Baniabdelrahman (2010), assessments can also assist teachers via aiding them in recognizing
the strong points and shortcomings of their learners. Moreover, it is stated that assessments are seen as moral, efficient, fair, and instruments to gauge a variety of students’characteristics (Mousavi, 2012; Namaziandost & Heydarnejad, 2023).
CALL-based assessment describes the assessment of students learning with methods
including information and communication technologies (Chen et al., 2021). This does
not restrict online assessment to fully online courses and can also be implemented ina blended learning format (Heil & Ifenthaler, 2023). CALL-based assessments may
take on different pedagogical functions as part of online learning environments (Tempelaar, 2020), for example, scaffolding students to complete a task and measuring how
much support they need (Schultz et al., 2022) or providing students with semantic richand personalized feedback, as well as adaptive prompts for reflection (Schumacher &Ifenthaler, 2021).
In addition to being more suitable in virtual classes, CALL-based assessments havegrown in importance in the field of education since they allow teachers to monitor students’ progress in real time (Aldosari et al., 2023). A digitalized learning environmentis developed in the classroom through the use of CALL-based evaluation tools. Additionally, CALL-based evaluation tools help teachers monitor student development andgive comments in response to such data. Teachers can monitor their pupils’ progress
and level of interest more closely when these exams are taken online (Teng et al., 2022).

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In this research, CALL-based assessment is used to help EFL learners develop their
vocabulary knowledge. As a crucial indicator of linguistic skill, mastering vocabulary is
critical (Schmitt, 2008). A lack of vocabulary terms makes it difficult to study any foreign
or second languages successfully. According to Macis and Schmitt (2017), lack of adequate vocabulary knowledge, EFL learners might not be capable to exhibit the necessary
outcomes in their language learning skills and process. According to Adam (2016), EFL
learners’ capacity to interact in everyday situations is significantly hampered by vocabulary ignorance. As a result, it is anticipated that EFL students will be familiar with therelevant terminology.
In recent years, the value of vocabulary development has been the most essential focus
in language instruction, claim by Dilek and Yuruk (2013). It is impossible to undervalue
the importance of acquiring and teaching vocabulary while learning a language. This
indicates that vocabulary knowledge is a necessary component to learn a foreign language. People cannot express their thoughts, communicate, or utilize language if they do
not know the words. Thus, being well-versed in a foreign language’s vocabulary is necessary to achieve high proficiency (Dilek & Yuruk, 2013).
The assessments are the most important component of the educational system since
they provide students with a precise image of where they stand. It serves as a catalyst
and provides learners with constructive criticism, which motivates them to do better.
Therefore, the focus of the current research, which has not received as much attention,is on the vocabulary learning of Iranian EFL students through the use of CALL-based
evaluation. The use of CALL-based evaluation in the educational system is a significant
technological advancement. Today’s testing procedures should not be difficult because
technology has completely transformed the way that education is delivered. Today, it issimpler to provide evaluations online because the paper and pencil option is no longer
necessary. Exams are conducted on a computer which ultimately saves not only time but
also the most important product that is paper. So, it was of great importance to know
how learners could improve their vocabulary learning through CALL-based assessment.
Consequently, the succeeding questions were raised:• RQ1: To what extent does applying CALL-based assessment produce positive effects
on developing vocabulary learning among Iranian EFL students?
• RQ2: To what extent does applying traditional assessment produce positive effects ondeveloping vocabulary learning among Iranian EFL students?
• RQ3: Does applying CALL-based and traditional assessment develop vocabulary
learning among Iranian EFL students differentially?

Review of the literature
It is common knowledge that incorporating technology into English language instruction entails the inventive use of strategies, tools, approaches, and resources that are
specifically relevant to English teaching and produce the attainment of desired goals(Hazaea & Alzubi, 2016). Since it offers numerous potential probabilities to improve
both the delivery and content of the pedagogy typically relevant to conventional English language education, social media networks are now typically regarded as significant educational tools in a number of learning and teaching settings. This is especially

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true for English language teaching (Obari & Lambacher, 2015). Using technology,
trainees are better able to acquire and enhance their language knowledge and abilities, according to established pedagogical theories and hypotheses. The application oftechnologies in English learning and teaching necessitates incorporating cutting-edge
technologies that assist students in achieving the desired goals (Ertmer, 2005).
One subcategory of technology is computer. Computers first appeared in schools inindustrialized nations in the late 1950s, and they continue to advance daily all acrossthe world. They can now process and store a lot more data and have improved interms of power, speed, use, convenience, and cost (Gündüz, 2005). The usage of computers for learning a language has changed since the turn of the century of twenty due
to the Internet computerized communications. Computers are being used for morethan just information processing and display; they may also be used for communication. Despite being there since the first part of the twentieth century, computerswere not really utilized in education until the 1960s (Chung & Choi, 2021). CALL
developed throughout the 1970s as a consequence of advances in investigation on theapplication of computer for language learning goals and for setting up favorable settings for language acquisition (Ratnaningsih et al., 2019).
CALL is a practical instrument that can improve the standard of language learningand instruction. The following factors may be the reasons:• Utilizing computers in the classroom for training four language skills to pupils
may be a good idea.
• Both outside and inside of the classrooms, CALL may assist children to learn.
• CALL can also accommodate the students’ need for ongoing, customized, andreal-world activities.
• CALL is a learner-centered strategy because it lessens students’ indifference andthe absence of engagement in the process of learning.
• CALL may incorporate four linguistic abilities.
• Students can receive rapid feedback from computers (Bani Hani, 2014).
Researchers and educators have frequently praised CALL, although CALL education has its own shortcomings. First, computers cannot accurately evaluate how wellpupils communicate with people verbally, and what a machine pronounces will neversound the same as what a person pronounces (Bas, 2010). Second, there are questions about the CALL software’s dependability and quality. The commercial materials which particular teachers rely on could not yield the desired pedagogical results.
Third, inadequate computer skills among certain teachers and pupils might hinder thelearning process (Bas, 2010).
Some instructors evade utilizing technology in their classes for the reasons listed
below:••••

Lack of CALL teaching experience
The absence of onsite technological assistance for instructors
Lack of computer accessibility
The absence of CALL-trained instructors to train pupils’ computer skills

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(2023) 13:43• The absence of computers, lacking in funding• The expensive cost of technological instruments and the quick pace of technological progress (Al-Kahtani & Al-Haider, 2010)
Furthermore, Levy (1997) identified particular drawbacks to using CALL in the language classes: (1) “materials generated by inexperienced instructors, (2) inadequate
improvement of regular language practices, (3) weak linguistic modelings, (4) false
starts and imperfect realizations of CALL, and (5) restricted abilities of computer inmanaging regular language (p. 2).
CALL has both benefits and drawbacks overall, but its benefits outweigh the shortcomings. It may be decided that CALL can help learning and teaching a language, andusing a computer can improve students’ performance (Hashemifardnia et al., 2021).
The researchers reach the conclusion that applying CALL cannot diminish the importance of instructors because they can aid learners to emphasis on the fundamental
purposes of language learning and communication (Bani Hani, 2009). As a result,teachers should not be disregarded or taken over by computers.
Using computer can accelerate the process of assessment. In the field of learningand teaching, assessment is a technique used via teachers and pupils within learning to offer the required feedback to change ongoing teaching and learning to help
students achieve specified educational goals (Robinowitz, 2010). Assessment, basedon Popham (2008), is a planned process in which educators use data on learners’
progress to adjust their current educational process or pupils use it to modify their
existing instructional approaches. By bridging the gap among pupils’ present learning environment and their favorite learning objectives, assessment aims to improvelearning (Heritage, 2012).
Irrespective of the instructional strategies applied, assessment has a crucial role in
the learning and teaching process and provides the students with constructive criticism (Alias et al., 2015). In fact, assessments might be used as a helpful strategy todevelop learning different aspects of a language (Ashraf & Mahdinezhad, 2015; Lee& Hannafin, 2016) owing to their focus on using real-world contexts, identificationof students’ strong and weak points, encouragement of people decision, and use ofopen disclosures of criteria and rating norms (Brown & Abeywickrama, 2010; Brown& Hudson, 1998). According to Cheng and Warren (2005), it is beneficial for bothstudents and instructors to be involved in the processes, techniques, and outcomes of
the assessment.
The literature on the value of CALL-based assessment examines how this techniquebenefits society by boosting educational opportunities and raising learning results.
Scalability, flexibility, and effective feedback mechanisms are just a few of the benefits that CALL-based assessment has to offer. These features help to promote accessibility and inclusion (Fitriyah & Jannah, 2021). Online evaluation has been proven tosolve some of the issues that traditional assessment methods have in terms of societal
value. Online assessment offers for more effective administration, grading, and feedback procedures by utilizing digital technologies (Abduh, 2021). This not only helps
teachers save time and money, but it also gives students timely feedback, allowing
them to evaluate their performance and make the required corrections right away.

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Additionally, online testing has the ability to reach more students, eradicating distance obstacles and granting equal access to assessment and evaluation. Individuals
and society as a whole gain from this inclusion, which helps to create a more equal
educational system (Yilmaz et al., 2020).
The philosophy that underpins our investigation is connectivism, which Siemens
and Downes initially introduced in their first online course in 2008. They believed that“learning is the act for linking a particular node and information resource,” and that“knowledge is shaped by networks” (Li, 2017, p. 11). In reality, connectivism is a worldview that encourages MOOCs since it holds that connections make knowledge transfer
easier, and that all students may contribute to information dissemination (Waks, 2016).
According to connectivism, learning takes place when students connect their knowledge to the collective wisdom of the society (Anderson & Dron, 2011). In social/external, conceptual, and biological/neural settings, these linkages are made (Siemens, 2008).
Theorizing on how knowledge is communicated via individual interactions, particularly
in web environments, connectivists believed that knowledge is not simply passed from
instructor to students, and that learning does not take place in a sole setting (Kop, 2011).
Connectivists held the view that pupils are accountable for their own education. Learners create and control their own learning according to connectivist principles (Kesima &Altinpulluka, 2015).
Regarding the usefulness of CALL on learning English language, several empiricalimplications were done, for instance, the effectiveness of online vocabulary instruction
vs. the conventional approaches used in upper-intermediate academic English classes
was compared by Kilickaya and Krajka (2010). Thirty-eight Turkish participants from a
private university in Ankara were chosen for this research sample, and they were separated into a control group (CG) and an experiment group (EG). Students in the CG usedvocabulary notebooks and cards to review words in 10 reading passages. The experimental group of students used WordChamp software to practice the identical vocabulary
words included in the texts. Furthermore, the vocabulary instruction was examined on aregular basis with the two classes. A test was used to assess the effectiveness of the twotechniques after the treatment. Their research found that the EG outstripped the CG,
and that the EG participants recalled the terms learned online better, as indicated via a
3-month follow-up post-test.
Al-Mansour and Al-Shorma (2012) conducted a research on sixty university students(an EG & a CG). The EG employed a computer in addition to the conventional approach,while the CG exploited only the conventional way. The two classes were given a pretest prior to the beginning intervention, and this exam was given as a post-test shortly
thereafter. The outcomes of the investigation demonstrated that pupils who were trainedusing computers outstripped those who were taught using the traditional techniquealone.
Kiliçkaya and Seferolu (2013) evaluated the influence of CALL instruction on theutilization of CALL-oriented tasks in the classrooms of in-service language instructors. Thirty-five pre-service English teachers were the participants of this research. The
data were collected via administering the questionnaires and holding an interview. The
results indicated that the CALL-based training assisted teachers in incorporating various CALL-centered contents and instruments into their teaching and classes.

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Khoshsima and Mozakka (2017) aimed to explore the influence of CALL as a methodof learning and teaching a foreign language on listening comprehension enhancement.
In this experimental study, 30 upper-intermediate EFL learners from two separate classrooms at an English language institute were chosen. Two groups, EG and CG, were chosen, and an FCE listening pre-test was administered to verify listening skill homogeneity.
A CALL-based instruction was employed in the EG, whereas a conventional teaching
was utilized in the CG. When the treatment ended, a listening post-test was administered to the two groups. In the listening post-test, the EG outstripped the CG. The findings demonstrated that using CALL generated a substantial influence on development oflearners’ listening ability.
Chen and Wang (2018) investigated the effect of online evaluation as a kind of CALLbased assessment on willingness to communicate (WTC) of EFL learners. The results
suggested that because online testing offered a less scary and more anonymous atmosphere, it increased students’ WTC. The study also emphasized how crucial it is to take
into account the particular characteristics and needs of online exams in order to facilitate efficient communication.
Alotumi (2018) investigated the effects of a CALL-based teaching model on EFL learners’ accomplishment on the TOEFL. The participants of this research were 30 pupils
haphazardly divided into the EG and the CG. The information was gathered during 8
weeks by using pre- and post-tests design. Furthermore, the researcher interviewed theexperimental respondents to extract information about their ideas about CALL. The
results of the research showed that an outstanding difference was observed between the
EG and the CG in gain score of speaking, listening, reading, and writing. The results
revealed that the experimental respondents presented positive opinions about CALL.
Grenner (2019) explored how CALL can inspire the pupils to enhance their language
learning. To achieve the objective, fourteen papers were investigated based on Dörnyei’s
motivation framework. The findings indicated that CALL as an instructional instrument
produced effective outcomes, via supplying genuine materials (materials students face intheir day-to-day lives) in the student-centered environments. Besides, the results demonstrated that the teachers’ and pupils’ perceptions toward CALL factors were positive.
Enayati and Pourhosein Gilakjani (2020) studied the impact of CALL on the word
knowledge development of Iranian intermediate students. The individuals were assigned
to two groups by the researchers: EG and CG. A pre-test of 80 items was given to theparticipants to assess their prior knowledge of English vocabulary. The EG was trainedby TEM software, while the CG was trained traditionally. A 65-item test was given after
12 sessions to measure the success of the instruction. The data was examined using thet-tests, and the outcomes displayed that the EG outdid the CG and had good opinions
regarding CALL.
In their study, Akmak et al. (2021) sought to determine how utilizing CALL-based
vocabulary software affected the L2 vocabulary learning enhancement of EFL learners.
In this study, 76 pre-intermediate EFL students were assigned to two groups: an EG anda CG. Before the instruction, both groups were given a vocabulary pretest. The EG was
obliged to utilize the mentioned vocabulary application on their mobile devices, laptops, and other portable devices at their leisure during the course of the treatment. They
were able to access and use many flashcards on a range of subjects such as languages,

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arithmetic, and science, by exploiting the application. The CG was instructed applying
a common method. The outcomes showed that in the vocabulary post-test, the EG outstripped the CG.
Emami and Amirghasemi (2022) investigated the influences of CALL on vocabulary learning of EFL students. Seventy Iranian English learners were recruited for thispurpose and divided into two groups of 30. The vocabulary knowledge scale was thenused to assess pre-exposure to the target items. Following the therapy phase, the learners’ vocabulary learning was assessed using the same teacher-created vocabulary exam.
The post-test findings revealed that this strategy might positively improve the word
knowledge of the EG respondents. The overall findings of the study may reject the null
hypothesis of this study, which predicted that CALL teaching had no influence on the
vocabulary development of Iranian EFL learners.
Hanafiah et al. (2022) attempted to examine the effects of CALL on vocabulary development, speaking ability, and speaking anxiety in Indonesian EFL learners. Sixty EFL
students were selected as the study’s respondents in order to achieve this goal. A control
group and an experimental group were formed from them. The groups were then given
the study’s pretests, which included a vocabulary exam, a speaking test, and the foreign
language classroom anxiety scale (FLCAS) questionnaire. After that, an online lesson
was used to teach the experimental group the discussions and vocabulary words fromsix lessons in Family and Friends Book 6. On the other hand, the control participantsreceived the same dialogues and vocabulary lessons through traditional education (faceto-face class). The post-tests for vocabulary, speaking ability, and anxiety were given to
the groups after the discussions and vocabulary items had been taught in order to ascertain the effects of the intervention on their vocabulary, speaking, and anxiety. Independent samples and paired samples t-tests were used to examine the data, and the results
showed that the experimental participants outperformed the control participants on the
speaking and vocabulary posttests. Additionally, the results of the questionnaire showedthat after receiving treatment, the experimental individuals experienced less speaking
anxiety than the control participants.
After doing an exact survey on the related literature, it was found that using CALLbased instruction can develop English language learning among EFL learners. In addition, it was found that most related empirical studies were conducted on male students
rather than female ones. Additionally, we discovered that there are few empirical studies comparing the effectiveness of CALL-based vs. traditional assessment on vocabulary
learning among Iranian EFL learners. Consequently, this paper intended to compare theimpacts of using CALL-based and traditional assessment on Iranian female EFL learners’ vocabulary learning.

Methodology
Subjects

The subjects in this study were Iranian female learners studying English as a foreign language at the Farghoyan Javid Institute in Isfahan that were selected using a conveniencesampling method. Prior to research, a Nelson English Language Exam (NELT) was conducted as a proficiency test for the goal of homogeneity, and research participants werechosen on the bases of the outcomes of this proficiency exam. As intermediate learners,

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58 students with scores ranging from one standard deviation minus to one standard
deviation plus the mean participated in the study. The researches’ participants were accidently separated into two groups of 28 people, one of which was designated as the experimental group (EG) and the other as the control group (CG). The respondents ranged inage from 17 to 29.
Instruments

The NELT was utilized to homogenize the research subjects. It is a battery of 40 distinct
examinations for measuring language skills ranging from beginner to advanced. The levels are labeled 50, 100, and 500. Each exam has 50 items. A test of intermediate level
250A was employed in this investigation. The test reliability (r = 0.80) was calculatedusing the KR-21 methodology, and its validity was validated by three English specialists.
The other tool was a pre-test vocabulary exam for the research. It consisted of 40
multiple-choice questions based on the book 504 Absolutely Essential Words. At theintermediate level, this book is the most often used vocabulary resource book in Iranian
foreign language institutes. According to the book’s level and content, it is intended forintermediate and high school students. The test’s reliability and validity were assessed.
After developing the exam, it was handed to three English specialists, who validated its
face and content validity. The test’s reliability was computed applying the KR-21 formula(0.87).
The last tool was a post-test of vocabulary which was essentially the same pre-test
described above with slight alterations to counteract the influence of memory in termsof the time period between the pre- and post-tests. The vocabulary post-test included
the same aspects as the vocabulary pre-test, including the contents of the items and thequantity of items. The researcher just altered the language and sequence of the items
and alternatives such that the difficulty level of the two exams did not vary. To guarantee
this, both pre- and post-tests were piloted on a small independent sample of people withthe same proficiency level and were determined to be similar, with difficulty indices of
0.42 and 43, respectively. The validity of the post-test was further proven by English specialists, who stated that because the exam assessed what it was designed to measure, thetest is valid. Finally, utilizing the KR-21 formula, the post-test reliability was calculated
to be r = 0.85.
Procedures for collecting data

To conduct the investigation, first, the NELT was administered to 89 EFL learners so
as to manifest their homogenous levels concerning English language ability. Then, 58
intermediate pupils were selected for the target sample of the current research. Next,
they were assigned to two classes of control and experimental, and a vocabulary pretest was given to them. After that, the EG received a CALL-based assessment treatment,
and the CG received a traditional-based assessment instruction. In each session, 10
new words were trained each group. The words were instructed to the EG via WhatsApp application as a kind of CALL-based instruction. Each session lasted 50 min; theteacher (researcher) sent 10 words on WhatsApp application and required them to practice them with their classmates. If they could not find the meanings or definitions of thewords, the teacher herself helped them and provided the meanings of the words. When

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all meanings and definitions of the words were provided, the teacher sent some related
vocabulary practices to involve students more in vocabulary learning. At the beginningof the new session, a vocabulary quiz was given to the students to measure their vocabulary development and also to encourage them practice new words.
On the other side, the words were trained to the CG traditionally in a real face-toface classroom. The teacher attended a real class personally and taught 10 words to the
CG in each week using pen and paper. The Persian equivalents of the words were provided for the students, and some related vocabulary practices were worked in the classroom. A quiz in the form of pen/paper was administered to the CG at the outset of eachnew session. Totally, 100 words were trained to both groups. After teaching all words, a
vocabulary post-test was administered to the two classes to measure the usefulness of
the intervention on their vocabulary learning enhancement.

Analyzing the data

After the data was collected, it was analyzed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) software, version 26. After ensuring that the data were normal using theKolmogorov–Smirnov test, a paired samples t-test and an ANCOVA test were used
to assess the influences of the treatment on the vocabulary knowledge of Iranian EFL
students.

Results
When the data were gathered via the stated instruments, we did analysis on them toobtain the ultimate findings. The following tables present the results’ details (Table 1).
As all sig. (2-tailed) values are above 0.05, we can conclude that the data distribution
on both vocabulary pre-test and post-test is normal. Accordingly, the parametric statistics are used to analyze the data.
On the vocabulary post-test, the conventional group scored 15.25, whereas the CALL
group scored 17.28, as shown in Table 2. The two groups appear to have performed differently in the post-test. Based on the mean results, it appears that the CALL group outstripped the conventional group on the vocabulary post-test.

Table 1 K-S test for normality distribution
Conventional preN

Conventional post

CALL preCALL post

28

28

28

28

13.53

15.25

13.96

17.28

Normal parameters

Mean
Std. deviation

2.57

3.15

2.51

2.08

Most extreme differences

Absolute

0.15

0.13

0.18

0.16

Positive

0.15

.09

0.18

0.11

Negative− 0.12− 0.13− .08− 0.16

Test statistic

0.15

0.13

0.18

0.16

Asymp. sig. (2-tailed)

.08

0.17

0.15

.06

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Table 2 The vocabulary post-test results (descriptive statistics)
Group

Mean

Std. deviation

N

Conventional

15.25

3.15

28

CALL

17.28

2.08

28

Total

16.26

2.84

56

Table 3 The vocabulary post-test results (inferential statistics)
SourceType 3 sum ofsquares

Df

Mean squareF

Sig

Corrected model

80.41a

2

40.20

5.84

.00

Intercept

293.031

293.03

42.60

.00

PRE

22.40

1

22.40

3.25

.03

Group

51.62

1

51.62

7.50

.00

Error

364.56

53

6.87

Total

15,265.00

56

Corrected total

444.9855

Table 4 Paired samples inferential statistics of pre- and post-tests of each group
Paired Differences
Meantdf Sig. (2-tailed)Std. deviation Std. error mean 95% confidence
interval of thedifference
Lower Upper

Pair 1 Conventional
pre/post− 1.71 3.44

0.65

− 3.04 − 0.37 − 2.63 27 .01

Pair 2 CALL
pre/post− 3.32 2.98

0.56

− 4.47 − 2.16 − 5.89 27 .00

According to the inferential results shown in Table 3, the CALL group outperformed theconventional group on the vocabulary post-test since sig. 0.00 is smaller than 0.05. This
improvement can be attributed to the CALL-based instruction that this group got (Table 4).
A paired samples t-test was done to see if the conventional group or CG improved on
their post-test, and the results show that there is a difference between the performances ofthis group before and after the treatment. We may conclude that this group improved intheir vocabulary post-test. Similarly, the results of the second paired samples t-test revealthat the CALL group or EG improved on their vocabulary post-test since sig (0.00) was lessthan 0.05.
In a nutshell, the results show that both CALL-based and traditional assessments generated positive effects on promoting vocabulary learning among Iranian EFL learners. It
should be noted that the results demonstrate that the CALL-based assessment was more
effective than the traditional assessment for enhancing the vocabulary learning of EFL
students.

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Discussion
We employed the ANCOVA test and the paired samples t-test to address the research’s
questions. The findings demonstrated that EG learners that were given teaching via
CALL performed better in their vocabulary posttest than the CG. The gained results
showed that in the vocabulary posttest, the EG outstripped the CG. The outcomes ofthis study are supported by Kiliçkaya and Seferolu (2013) who evaluated the influenceof CALL instruction on the utilization of CALL-centered tasks in the classrooms of inservice language instructors. Their results demonstrated that CALL training assisted
the participants in incorporating a range of CALL-oriented contents and tools into
their classroom practices. Moreover, the gained results lend support to Khoshsima andMozakka (2017) who explore and confirmed the positive effects of CALL as a method oflearning and teaching a foreign language on listening capability enhancement.
Additionally, our findings are endorsed by Enayati and Pourhosein Gilakjani (2020)
who explored the impact of CALL on the vocabulary development of EFL intermediate pupils. Their findings revealed that the EG outperformed the CG on the vocabulary
posttest. Furthermore, our outcomes are similar to the findings of Emami and Amirghasemi (2022) who investigated the influence of CALL on students’ vocabulary development. Their findings revealed that this strategy might positively improve the vocabulary
learning of the EG participants. Akmak et al. (2021) investigation into the impact of
employing a CALL-based vocabulary application on students’ L2 vocabulary enhancement also supports the outcomes of the existing research. Based on their findings, theEG outstripped the CG on the vocabulary posttest.
Additionally, our findings are in agreement with Chapelle and Voss (2016) who discovered that online assessment as a kind of CALL-based assessment created a morerelaxed and less stressful testing environment for language learners. Furthermore, Chen
and Wang (2018) who indicated that there were differences between the effects of online
and offline assessment on language learners’ motivation and engagement confirmed our
results. Besides, the results of this research are indorsed by Brown and Lee (2015) who
verified the effects of CALL-based assessment on EFL learners’ language achievement.
They stated that that online assessment positively influenced language achievement by
providing more opportunities for practice and feedback.
The findings of this study are consistent with Harasim’s (2012) theory of online collaborative learning, which established the benefits of using CALL and online instruction inlearning a language. According to the hypothesis, students may work together to resolve
their problems, which can enhance their ability to learn English. Online collaborative
learning focuses on the facilities of the Internet to provide learning environments that
foster collaboration and knowledge building. Additionally, Siemens’ (2005) connectivism
hypothesis, which claims that learners know when utilize online teaching and make connections with their peers, supports our findings. Moreover, our outcomes are indorsedby the social constructivism theory explaining that teaching and learning as complex
interactive social phenomena between teachers and students. Based on this theory, theteachers provide a social situation in which the learners can assemble or construct withothers the knowledge necessary to solve the problems. According to this assumption,
learning is a series of practical social experiences in which students learn by doing, collaborating, and reflecting with others.

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The new study’s findings are consistent with a number of other investigations. According to studies like those conducted by Abbasi and Hashemi (2013), Naraghizadeh andBarimani (2013), Thornton and Houser (2003), and Thornton and Houser (2005), using
technology like a CALL application helps students learn vocabulary. For instance,
Abbasi and Hashemi (2013) examined the effect of using a mobile phone on English language vocabulary retention and discovered that the students’ vocabulary learning was
positively impacted. In their studies from 2003 and 2005, Thornton and Houser examined the usage of mobile phones in English instruction in Japan. The findings showedthat pupils who used SMS in their learning process fared better on average than those
who received their instruction on paper. In this regard, Naraghizadeh and Barimani(2013) investigated the impact of CALL on the vocabulary acquisition of Iranian EFL
learners. The study’s findings showed a substantial difference between the experimental
and control groups in terms of vocabulary knowledge. In other words, CALL education
increased the vocabulary of EFL learners. Additionally, the outcomes demonstrated thatthe study’s CALL-based instruction group outperformed the other groups.
Since online learning might be appealing to EFL students, it is possible that online
teaching contributed to the vocabulary growth of Iranian EFL students in the posttests.
According to Gilbert (2015), online education is popular with many students and is getting increasingly prevalent in situations ranging from rudimentary schools to advanced
schools and postsecondary institutions. Different student groups find online teachingappealing and beneficial in situations when traditional training falls short or is unable
to suit their needs. The drive “to deliver quality instruction to all learners irrespective ofsituation or time” is what spurred the demand for online instruction (Chaney, 2010, p.
21).
Online instruction is a learner-oriented learning method which allows pupils to
exchange knowledge outside of the classroom without consideration of time or location restrictions. This strategy, which mixes self-study with asynchronous engagement
to enhance learning, can be applied in conventional on-campus instruction as well as
remote learning and continuing education. Online education gives students more freedom to complete their process of learning without being constrained by time or physicalarea (Ge, 2011).
Digital assessment tools are frequently enhanced with interactive aspects to makethem more interesting, such as multimedia information, gasification components,
immersive experiences like interactive quizzes, timed tasks, and others. Online progress
monitors for students and other real-time data, including time spent, grades, and areasfor growth, are features of online examinations that teachers can access. These cuttingedge reports assist teachers in giving thorough direction and modifying their lessonplans to meet the needs of each student. To assist students with special needs, online
tests can be made available with text-to-speech capabilities, scalable fonts, or alternative
formats. Digital tools for assessment can have an initial investment, but they can significantly reduce assessment costs in the long run.
Online examinations also offer the simplicity and efficiency needed in today’schanging economy. Without being restricted by time or place, the students can complete evaluation assessments at their own pace and on their own schedule. Additionally, teachers may simply keep track of student progress, create tests, and quickly

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mark quizzes and other assessments by using digital eLearning assessment tools. As
a result, assessments are made to meet the demands of the teachers and pupils. The
flexibility and ease of online examinations are their main advantages. For the majorityof students, the evaluation is perfect because it can be finished at any time and fromany location utilizing digital devices. This makes education more individualized andtakes into account different timetables and learning requirements (Noorbehbahani
et al., 2022).
Some advantages of online can be used to explain why the online group performed
better than the offline group. Online tests can aid instructors in checking the correctness of the responses and delivering answers in real time in less time. Online assessment tests are essential to the success of eLearning, and it is obvious that they haveseveral advantages over offline mode. However, given that most education nowadays
is self-paced and tailored to the individual needs of students, evaluations likewiseneed to be dynamic, individualized, and perfect to fit their needs (Helfaya, 2019).
The usage of online education can be appealing to students because it allows themto participate in learning outside the classroom, fosters cooperative learning among
pupils, promotes self-study among learners, and increases their self-confidence. The
reality that the EG outstripped the CG may be attributable to these aspects of online
training. Some students may feel nervous when they are learning a foreign language
in a face-to-face fashion since they do not like to face the teacher directly. Therefore,
using online learning may reduce their learning anxiety.
The flexibility of online learning allows students to study when and where it is mostconvenient for them. As a result, the kids’ linguistic anxiety can be decreased. Websites for learning the English language online, digital dictionaries, conversation ande-mail programs, presentation software, online games, and online means are just a
few examples of online resources that may be useful learning aids (Wood, 2001; Wu
et al., 2011; Zarei & Mahmoodzadeh, 2014). These resources can make learning easierby motivating students to concentrate on new words and their context-specific uses.
Additionally, the characteristics of CALL-based instruction, which adheres to practices that hold students accountable for their own learning autonomously prior togoing to the real class sessions via practicing contents and conversing in the groupssocial networking, can be credited with the results attained. Additionally, utilizing
CALL-based teaching can free up educational time and clear the way for engaging
learning tasks that boost learners’ communication skills.
One other reason for the results of this study is the fact that online learning cansave a large amount of money, time, and energy. Through online learning, students do
not have to use public transportation, and saving fuel costs can be substantial if they
do not have to commute. Students in virtual universities do not have to manage travel
and transportation issues because online classes may be taken from the convenienceof one’s own home.
The other justification for the results of this study can be due to fact that online
learning paves the way for the students to continue education and do their career at
the same time. Students can have their full-time job while educating. In addition, byusing online learning, students have freedom to learn at their own convenience, andthey can easily access the curriculum from the comfort of their home.

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(2023) 13:43“Time availability” is another argument that may be made, and it is a component thatshould be taken into consideration when speaking online. It implies that the timing of
online classes is up to the teachers and students, giving both groups of people freedom.
Another situation involving chat time is that participants have greater time and opportunities to amend, for example, their typed messages, when they make a mistake. Additionally, they can revisit the conversations and corrective comments made at a later time.
However, if they receive traditional written corrections, they are not given access to thecorrective feedback given to other students as they would in online sessions. Anotherelement that makes online sessions more interesting is the participants’ anonymity. Participants can rehearse and test what they have lately learnt while using other names forthem, making mistakes without embarrassment. When the instructor corrects them,
they are not stressed out either. We should concur with the findings and respond positively to the study’s second and third questions regarding the value of providing corrective feedback, whether through traditional methods or online sessions.
One of the most significant facilities of online learning is the recording of all online
classes and presenting to the students. Some students might miss the fortune to beonline in the special time or might not fully understand the lecture; they can easily use
the recorded of the classes for several times in order to learn effectively, while in traditional learning, students can only benefit the classroom once, and they do not have thesecond chance in their absence.
People today, especially students, are used to communicating online for many kinds of
purposes. Such people have a number of options, thanks to this way of communication,
including the ability to be anonymous, unhurried and less stressed, open to dialogue
with strangers, and the freedom to express their questions clearly and openly. Online
chatting appears to be interesting in contrast to face-to-face interaction or even traditional error correction, which is dull and out of date for the current generation of students and language learners. This applies generally to EFL students as well. Iranian EFL
students appear to like studying their subjects through interactions in online classes,
which makes sense given the current state of teaching and learning in Iran.
There is no denying the appeal of online communication and chat through CALL, particularly for the younger population and in particular language learners who desire everything to be simple and convenient. Nowadays, the majority of instruction and learning
takes place online, which has an impact on and has already had an impact on the TEFL
profession. For the convenience of both teachers and students, asking questions and distributing assignments are done online as well. The majority of communication between
educators and learners occurs online.
The positive features mentioned above for online learning can be the reasons why theEG outperformed the CG on the posttest. The results of the current study are in linewith other studies such as Rhema and Miliszewska (2014), Pilli, Fanaeian, and Al-Momani (2014), Liaw and Huang (2011), and Yaghoubi et al. (2008) who announced the positive effects of online learning on language learning development.
The advantages of CALL learning settings can also be used to support the findingsof the current study. Since they have access to various online resources and more
opportunities to communicate because CALL can offer a diverse and high-quality
learning experience, students in CALL learning environments are actively engaged inPage 15 of 22

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the learning process, which can aid in the development of vocabulary in the classroom (Lim et al., 2019). The tasks practised in the CALL environment were genuinely expected to foster higher mental processes like problem-solving, logical speech,
planning, and evaluation in the current study, in accordance with Vygotskyan (1978)
theories.
There were a number of elements in the CALL-based environment used in the current
study that appeared to support learners’ vocabulary growth. The CALL environment, inthe first place, might assist researchers and teachers in choosing from a variety of tasks inthe multimodal settings of CALL-based classes. Second, the teachers used a multimodal
approach, which, as Hampel (2006) has shown, promotes the use of oral/communicative language in a CALL context. According to Müller-Hartmann and Ditfurth (2010),
the multimodal CALL environment can also give teachers and students a richer context
to negotiate tasks, which can improve motivation and performance. They argued thattasks as processes could better be monitored in a CALL environment, and further task
support could be provided as multiple modes are available. Finally, in CALL-oriented
setting, scaffolding is of prime significance. Considering the sort of interaction among
learners, instructors, and computer in the current study, it can be stated that there exist
a kind of triadic interaction or triadic scaffold (Meskill, 2005).
The triadic scaffolds, thus, comprised the instructor’s role as a capable peer providing feedbacks, contribution of computer as an authentic means of receiving guided
feedbacks, and learners’ role in using strategic planning and their accomplishment in
the interaction. According to Meskill (2005), functions and forms of triadic scaffold(instructor, learners, and computer) are considered for their potential unique role insecond language and literacy instructions. In the current study, the teachers mainly
provided both technical and task support to help learners pursue their collaborativecommunicative tasks independently.
This left enough space for learners to scaffold each other more, and this way, they
expected less task monitoring from the teachers. This is in line with Al-Kahtani and
Al-Haider (2010) and Virdaus (2018). They argued that teachers’ support could help
revive communication, and the more communication is conducted by the learners,
the less monitoring is required from the teachers. Considering the role of computer
as an authentic means of interaction in triadic scaffold, conducted researches haverevealed that using computer motivates learners and anchors learners’ attention(Esfandiari Dehmajnoni & Amjadiparvar, 2022).
Hegelheimer and Tower (2004) also claimed that CALL offers an ideal medium forinteraction in an authentic way, and using computer provides unique learning opportunities for meaningful language use (Van Lier, 2002). Moreover, it has been observedthat interaction in a context that utilizes computer creates unique learning, and thetype of language produced there is linguistically different from the produced language
in more traditional contexts (Meskill, 2005). Mokhtari (2013) suggested that students
in general have positive attitude toward the integration of CALL into their language
learning course, and this will lead to increasing their tendency to communicate. As
suggested by Lim et al. (2019), language learning and literacy context that provide andsustain the social construction and negotiation of meaning-making are highly considered as optimal.

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This research has some shortcomings. One of them was the relatively modest numberof disciplines offered as a result of the difficulty in making courses accessible to students.
As a result, it is important to carefully consider the participants’ representativeness.
Next investigations can be conducted on students at tertiary level; the present one wasdone at a private language institution. Next researches are highly encouraged to employ
different instruments, including interview and attitude surveys, to gather more precise
data about the impact of CALL-based training on language learning. We might research
how CALL-based assessment affects vocabulary learning; further studies could look into
how CALL-based assessment affects other language abilities and sub-skills.

Conclusions and implications
The application of CALL-based education can have a constructive effect on vocabularydevelopment of EFL students in Iran, according to the study’s findings. We may conclude
that online training is an essential tool that must be used to support face-to-face EFL
instruction. It includes a variety of assignments and tools that, when used by students
under the guidance of teachers, can enhance their language proficiency. We should
employ technology and coordinate ourselves with the expanding universe. Additionally,
it may be inferred that a variety of online tools can have a significant influence on how
well students acquire different facets of language.
It can be concluded that different online tools may have differential effects on thelearning of the different aspects of language. This implies that adhering to any single
online tool may not necessarily bring about desirable results. Due to the fact that not
all Iranian institutions and schools have access to cellphones, tablets, or laptops, andbecause in certain areas the Internet speed is slow, hybrid programs that combine online
learning and in-person education are suggested to be used in Iranian settings.
There is no doubt that technology has a positive impact on the education industry.
Teaching and evaluating pupils are two tasks that should not be restricted to the four
walls of a classroom and can both be carried out whenever and wherever with the help ofcomputers and the Internet. It has been observed that students feel anxious and stressedout while waiting for the exam results. However, this is not the case with an online exam
because the results are released right away, relieving the worry and anxiety of the pupils.
Giving feedback soon after a work is finished helps a student or individual use it more
effectively. This not only enables the learner to assess their level of performance but
also to take better actions for the outcome optimization. The student can design theircourse load strategically and concentrate more on one subject. A person can also know
in advance which subject they should pay closer attention to.
The findings of this study may have some effects on students and teachers. Embarrassed students can use CALL to lessen their fear anytime they wish to speak English
and lessen their humiliation in face-to-face lessons. Classes that were formerly teacher
centered are now more student centered, thanks to CALL. Applying CALL enables students to actively learn at any time, before and after lectures. CALL promotes collaborative group work and integrates continual conceptual understanding assessments toprovide feedback to both instructors and learners.
The findings of this investigation may be applied by language learners to study whenever and wherever they choose. Traditionally, students must show up for class at a set

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time and location. However, if these locations have computers and the Internet, students
may study and learn the same topics from any location. If their personal computers areconnected to the network or system at their schools, pupils can even continue studying
outside of the classroom. Students can engage in a variety of entertaining games andconversational activities through the use of CALL, helping to reduce their anxiety andtension correlated to studying.
The outcomes of this research are useful to instructors because they highlight the significance of incorporating CALL in their lessons to assist students overcome their nervousness and boost their willingness to learn languages. Both teachers and pupils shouldhave some level of online media competence in order for CALL to be effectively incorporated into language programs. These results suggest that teachers must first get familiar with online instruction tools and set aside time in the classroom to instruct pupils inthese strategies.
Depending on the goal of the lesson, instructors can also promote the usage of more
efficient and productive online instruments while discouraging the use of ineffective or
counterproductive ones. The results of this study have implications on how to enhanceteacher-student communication. Online instruction, in contrast to traditional second
language classrooms, allows students to study more independently, giving teachers moretime to concentrate on aspects of foreign language instruction that are still challenging
or difficult to teach using computer (AbuSeileek, 2012). This tailored instruction can foster dynamic learning, improve understanding of what is being learned, and enable students to track their own development.
The outcomes of this investigation can assist syllabus designers to comprehend thevalue of online resources for learning the English language. Designers of course materials ought to stress the use of Internet resources for language acquisition. Furthermore,
people who are eager to perform study in the field of CALL may find that this examination broadens their perspectives. In other words, the investigation’s results may open
doors for later scholars. This study may be beneficial to anyone who teach and learn foreign languages, particularly EFL instructors and students. The findings of the current
study can offer complete direction to curriculum designers who believe in technology,
making it important to assess how well a new technology is taught in relation to the process of learning a new language.
Lastly, CALL-based testing and evaluations are advantageous for those with special
needs as well. Effective strategies have been devised, such as allowing pupils to enter
their responses by merely touching the screen rather of writing them down. Anotherexcellent choice and excellent remedy for those who struggle with essay writing are
speech to text.
Abbreviations
CALL	Computer-assisted language learning
EFL	English as a foreign language
EG	Experimental group
ANCOVA	Analysis of covarianceCG	Control group
NELT	Nelson English Language TestSPSS	Statistical Package for Social Sciences
Acknowledgements
Not applicable.

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Authors’ contributions
All authors had equal contribution.
Authors’ information
Fatemeh Shamshiri is a PhD Student at English Department, Shahrekord Branch, Islamic Azad University, Shahrekord, Iran.
Fariba Rahimi Esfahani is an Assistant Professor at Islamic Azad University of Shahrekord, Iran. She holds a Ph.D. degreein TEFL. Her fields of interest are second language acquisition, EFL teaching and learning, CALL, and applied linguistics.
Seyed Esmail Hosseini is currently an Assistant Professor at Islamic Azad University, Shahrekord Branch. He has been
engaged and interested in teaching and research in TEFL, discourse, and pragmatics.
Funding
No funding received.
Availability of data and materials
The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

Declarations
Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
Received: 19 March 2023 Accepted: 19 September 2023

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