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Abdullaeva et al. Language Testing in Asia
https://doi.org/10.1186/s40468-024-00309-w

Language Testing in Asia

Open Access

RESEARCH

Paper assessment or online assessment:
exploring the impact of assessment modes
on EFL students’ language learning outcomesand personal development
Barno Sayfutdinovna Abdullaeva1* , Fidel Çakmak2   and Diyorjon Abdullaev3   *Correspondence:
editory1001@gmail.com; barno.
sa2024@gmail.com
1
Tashkent State Pedagogical
University, Tashkent, Uzbekistan
2
Department of Foreign
Language Education, Alanya
Alaaddin Keykubat University,
Antalya, Turkey
3
Department of Scientific Affairs,
Urganch State Pedagogical
Institute, Urgench, Uzbekistan

Abstract
This research explores how paper and online assessments (OA) can affect EFL learners’ personal development variables such as self-esteem, mindfulness, demotivation,and language learning development. Sixty intermediate English as a foreign language(EFL) students participated in the current research and were randomly grouped
into the experimental group (EG) and the control group (CG). Before the intervention, the data collection tools assessing language learners’ self-esteem, mindfulness,
demotivation, and language learning development were administered as pre-tests
to all the participants. Subsequently, the EG was taught all lessons of the coursebook,
Top Notch 2, by utilizing OA while the CG was taught the identical lessons using a conventional (pen and paper) assessment. In the post-treatment phase, the two groups
completed the post-tests on self-esteem mindfulness, demotivation, and language
learning progress. The study demonstrated that the EG group outperformed the CG
group on the four post-tests. The findings indicate that the intervention of OA significantly enhanced language learning outcomes and psychological well-being regarding the measured personal development variables. The enhanced efficacy in the EG
group can be ascribed to the utilization of OA during the treatment phase, which
has a beneficial effect on academic and personal development. This study also posits
that integrating OA augments psychological engagement and language development
among EFL learners. It highlights the implications of the results associating teaching
EFL via OA with the observed personal development aspects and attributes themto effects of positive psychology.
Keywords: Online assessment, Pen-and-paper assessment, Learners’ self-esteem,
Growth mindfulness, Demotivation, EFL

Introduction
The research has given a lot of attention to how assessments affect instruction and learning (Coombe et al., 2020; Johnson & Shaw, 2019). Assessment pertains to exams andtasks which evaluate students’ performance to determine if they pass the entire subject
or just a portion of it. But this goes beyond just giving students grades, diplomas, or© The Author(s) 2024. Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0
International License, which permits any non-commercial use, sharing, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as longas you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if you
modified the licensed material. You do not have permission under this licence to share adapted material derived from this article or parts of
it. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise
in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted
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any other kind of recognition when it comes to exams. With the emergence of moreadvanced learning tools, language learning and assessment have become more popular in online education. The growing utilization of advanced learning technologies has
greatly impacted the implementation of language assessment, emphasizing the dynamic
relationship between assessment techniques and language learning results. The subject of online assessment’s impact is significant in this quickly evolving world, as many
experts contend that assessment and language learning processes are causally related.
As educators progress from conventional to digital methods, it is crucial to analyze
how these new technologies are changing assessment procedures and how they impact
outcomes, especially in comparison to conventional offline methods such as pen-andpaper examinations (Daniels et al., 2019; Galikyan et al., 2019; Gedil & Aydın, 2023). Thechange can manifest itself in a distinct way in an online vs non-OA (generally pen-andpaper type) environment. OA refers to “be any means of evaluating student achievement, providing feedback, or moving the students forward in their learning process infully online credit courses. These assessments can be completely online (such as online
exams) or just require online submission (such as essays) (Weleschu & Dyjur, 2019, p.
5)”. This kind of assessment has appeared in response to the increased demand for OA tocomply with the evolving requirements of the educational environment in the digital era(Ndibalema, 2021; Shah & Anshu, 2024). Non-OAs, on the other hand, could refer to theconventional oral and pen-and-paper in class examination (Perry et al., 2022).
Numerous advantages and difficulties have been noted from in-depth analysis of
the research literature on the implementation of OA in educational settings. Spivey
and McMillan (2014) stated potential benefits, justifying its effectiveness in terms ofimproved student performance and their efforts to access available resources. Theylisted five benefits: First, the exam may be administered in flexible testing cycles thanks
to online evaluation and multiple-choice format. Second, matching questions can havetheir response sets and question orders dynamically randomized by online software.
Third, there are many kinds of feedback that may be given, including test results, test
results with precise answers, and test results with thorough solutions. Fourth, instructors also have the authority to decide how and when feedback is supplied (for example, instantly, at a specific time after every question has been answered, etc.). Fifth, thepreferred online testing systems may be configured to provide hints or prompts about
where in the book or course notes support for a particular question can be found (Soffer et al., 2017). In a similar vein, Mohamadi (2018) contends that improving language
learning outcomes may be achieved by the successful integration of technologies andtechniques with suitable affordances such as OA tools.
It is crucial to consider that integrating technology and evaluative methods in education such as OA can enhance learning processes and outcomes (Johnson & Shaw,2019). However, a more comprehensive approach involves considering whether learning outcomes assessed through OA tools and systems interact with learners’ language
and personal development such as self-esteem, mindfulness, and attenuate demotivation. Self-esteem is commonly seen as the evaluative component of self-awareness thatindicates the degree to which individuals have a positive self-perception and confidence
in their abilities (Zeigler-Hill, 2013). It focuses on the learner’s perceptions of their own
strengths and qualities. Similarly, Richards and Schmidt (2002) defined self-esteem as

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an individual’s assessment of their value or worth, predicated on a sense of “efficacy,”or effectiveness with their own surroundings. They also emphasized the possibility ofa favorable correlation between the achievement level in a second language and selfesteem (Azmand, 2014). Some other researchers have also investigated the correlation
between self-esteem and language proficiency in relation to language abilities and foundthat self-esteem positively affected the language learning. (Faramarzzadeh & Amini,
2017; Kardaş, 2020).
In addition to self-esteem, using OA can affect EFL learners’ mindfulness. The Sanskrit term “Smrti,” which means “something remembered,” is where the idea of mindfulness first emerged. Langer (1990) stated that students who practice mindfulness may
develop into creative, open-minded thinkers who can observe the world from a varietyof angles. Therefore, in the field of education, it is recognized that practicing mindfulness has a positive impact on students’ physical and psychological well-being (Brown& Ryan, 2003; Rezai et al., 2024). As for the field of ELT, Wu and Zhao (2023) described
mindfulness as paying conscious attention to fleeting thoughts, emotions, and behaviors
by integrating intention, attention, and attitude. They presented significant evidence ofthe positive impact of mindfulness on lowering burnout and increasing engagement andthe students’ emotionally regulated presence, which is considered crucial for EFL learning. For example, studies have shown that mindfulness training has enhanced learners’
performance in the context of foreign language learning (Erdemir et al., 2024; Ghanizadeh at al., 2019; Sheikhzadeh & Khatami, 2017).
The other personal development variable that can be influenced by OA is the demotivation of EFL learners. Demotivation in the language learning process can be related toa variety of causes. According to Quadir’s (2017) review of the literature, a large numberof researchers link demotivation to both external and internal factors, such as teachingstrategies, students’ competence, school resources, textbooks, and specific classroom
activities. Internal factors include self-efficacy, personality, and attitudes towards the target language and culture. According to Dörnyei and Ushioda (2021), demotivation canalso be attributed to “factors in the social learning environment, such as the personality and attitude of the teacher or classroom counter-cultures and peer pressures” and“particular learning-related events or experiences, such as performance anxiety, public
humiliation, heavy work demands or poor test results” (p.148). Dörnyei (2001) assertsthat demotivation can result from a variety of circumstances and weakens the motivation behind a behavior or activity, thus affecting the overall performance of learners. A
student who was before motivated but has lost all or some of their drive or interest in
the process of learning is said to be demotivated. Researchers and language educators
can better understand why EFL learners struggle and why they are reluctant to devote
additional time to their language study by being aware of the causes of demotivation andimplementing potentially mitigating motivational techniques. Others concur that thisknowledge also aids EFL teachers in making well-informed decisions about the specificmotivation tactics they employ (Karaca & Inan, 2020).
OA can also exert positive impact on EFL learners’ academic achievement. Academic
accomplishment, as defined by Jin and Zhang (2019), refers to students’ topic familiarity and knowledge and specific skills that students have acquired which are assessed
and affirmed by valid and reliable assessments. Yurtsever et al. (2014) state that internal

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factors can have an impact on a learner’s performance and language achievement. In
addition to physical issues, impairments, and cognitive and affective factors such as
intelligence, attention, enthusiasm, aptitude, motivation, and burnout, students’ academic accomplishment and performance can be also affected by various social factors,
such as family background, instructional settings, and the particular cultural context(Namaziandost et al., 2024; Liu et al., 2021).
This study employs a pragmatic paradigm, considering the possible impact of internal and external influences on the academic accomplishment of EFL learners. Pragmatism enables a versatile and results-driven strategy that may include several approaches
to comprehend the intricacies of achieving academic achievement in educational environments This paradigm asserts that learning outcomes may be influenced by several
aspects, such as cognitive abilities, motivational moods, physical and mental well-being,and socio-cultural and environmental elements. Pragmatism offers a comprehensive
framework for examining how many elements impact academic achievement in EFL
settings.
The defined psychological variables have significant roles in language learning, and theobtained results can be useful for both EFL learners and teachers. The research is alsosignificant as it covers the psychological variables that aid personal development in relation to language skills and sub-skills. Regarding the importance of these variables, theresearchers aimed to examine the effect of OA on four dependent variables: self-esteem,
mindfulness, demotivation, and language development among EFL learners.

Review of the literature
Theoretical background
Online assessment

An essential component of every educational program is assessment. It measures performance against the established standard of instruction and learning. Webber (2012)
defined assessment as “activities designed primarily to foster student learning” (p. 201).
Thus, it is evident that understanding the design and use of evaluations is a crucial
aspect of the language teachers’ professional development. Indeed, due to the involvement of educators in both the formative and summative evaluations of their students in
educational settings, understanding their functioning and interaction with larger contextual and experiential elements becomes even more important (Zhang et al., 2021).
These days, OA has gained popularity in the EFL context (Ghanbari & Nowroozi,
2021). Furthermore, since OA benefits from the evaluation process and from utilizing
resources inaccessible in a traditional face-to-face setting, educators have begun incorporating an online examination alongside the conventional method of using paper andpencil for assessments (Al-Maqbali & Raja Hussain, 2022). OA designs can be synchronous or asynchronous, much like online learning. Synchronous OA can resemble feedback-assisted auto-scoring tests, simulations, or presentations. E-portfolios, discussion
boards, online exams and assignments, and projects are examples of asynchronous OA
methods (Weleschuk et al., 2019). Thus, technically, OA measures students’ language
abilities or skill acquisition using information technology or any other web-based assessment instrument.

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In the context of EFL, online testing and assessment are important for three main reasons. In the first place, since online testing and assessment are a natural byproduct of
rapidly advancing technology in education, they are well suited for teaching languages
in the twenty-first century. The students of today, referred to as Generation Z learners or I-Gens (Long et al., 2018), like using technology to aid in their language learning process. Language assessment activities should take into account the desire for OA
as a more acceptable and accessible assessment method for today’s students (Appiah &van Tonder, 2018). According to Long et al. (2018), language assessments conducted
online offer advantages in terms of practicality, logistical efficiency, and dependability. It
increases the flexibility of taking the test by enabling the taker to do so at any time andfrom any place with internet access. Furthermore, it improves practicality when scoring is done automatically by using computer programs to save time, labor, and improveaccuracy. Additionally, it saves time by instantly transmitting the results to the relevant
parties, making the task of test engineers easier since they may easily submit and change
test items with few time or geographical limits. The ability to sustain testing and evaluation processes in the EFL setting even during times of crisis is the last justification for
the importance of online testing and assessment (Alghammas, 2020). Even in situations
when in-person instruction and evaluation must end, language learning and assessment
activities can often go on without interruption thanks to OA techniques.
Even with its benefits, OA has its drawbacks. The difficulties are divided into three
primary categories: those pertaining to academic personnel, learners, and information
technology. The success of online learning in general and OA in particular is largely
dependent on the IT infrastructure. Inadequate technology, software, and network
connectivity might have major repercussions that overwhelm the learning process (AlMaqbali & Raja Hussain, 2022). Rahim (2020) emphasized that to successfully adopt OA
and address the difficulties facing education, it is imperative that all necessary assessment resources, including infrastructure such as network service, online platforms, andtechnological software be in good working order. In a similar vein, Slimi (2020) observedthat IT infrastructure and weak internet connection might potentially hinder the successful implementation of the OA. Thus, the availability of stable and sufficient IT infrastructure is the initial prerequisite for a successful online learning environment.
Once basic IT infrastructure is established, the effectiveness of the global shift toonline learning is primarily contingent upon the students. Nevertheless, several learnerrelated challenges such as the students’ potentially immoral actions, their sense ofisolation, and their personal technical barriers such as the inability to switch on cameras, and their general IT competence may impede the effectiveness and accuracy of
the assessment process. The following issues can be linked to these challenges (Adedoyin & Soykan, 2020): Students should possess enough know-how to meet the assessment requirements in an any setting whether online or traditional in the classroom.
For learners to be able to manage learning in an online setting, they must possess therequisite IT abilities. Regretfully, new research indicates that many students lack IT
capabilities (Tuah & Naing, 2021). This element has the potential to slow down the evaluation process and separate seasoned IT users from novices online. Learners’ inability
to manage their time effectively was another obstacle that emerged in OA environments(Mishra et al., 2020). This resulted in late or missed submissions for online assessment

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requirements. Planning appropriate assessment procedures should thus begin with ananalysis of the learners’ baseline skills.
Personal development variables

The academic success of EFL learners is influenced by several factors. Affective elements
are among the factors that are most important to their academic achievement. One of
the main motivations in humans is self-esteem. A person’s beliefs about themselves thatthey carry into the world are known as their self-esteem (Blascovich & Tomaka, 1991).
Individuals are greatly impacted by social elements as they construct their social identity depending on how others react to them (Koosha et al., 2016). According to Branden(2001), positive self-esteem is the perception that one is deserving of happiness andcapable of handling life’s fundamental obstacles through their physical and social abilities with self-respect. Self-esteem has also been recognized as a personality trait thatis relevant to any cognitive or emotional activity inside a foreign or second language
classroom, encompassing a positive relationship with EFL learning outcomes (Aydoğan,2016; Liu, 2012). According to Acosta-Gonzaga (2023), self-esteem is seen as a crucialcomponent in the process of academic and educational performance. Students with highself-esteem can be more willing to take chances and to learn from their mistakes, further
developing their foreign language skills.
Koosha et al. (2016) asserted that self-esteem can serve as a measure of self-concept,
which encompasses behavioral and cognitive characteristics and provides a more comprehensive presentation of an individual. According to some researchers, possessing arobust sense of self-worth facilitates the achievement of objectives (Leary et al., 2007).
Individuals possessing a strong sense of self-worth frequently set high standards forthemselves and have an increased ability to confront difficulties (Baumeister et al., 2003).
Self-esteem is crucial in motivating students to have confidence in their abilities, enjoy
learning, and participate in authentic communication (Abdumalikova, 2020).
Three types of self-esteem were identified by Brown and Ryan (2003): task self-esteem,
situational or particular self-esteem, and global self-esteem. As to Brown’s (Brown and
Ryan 2003) assertion, the formation of global self-esteem stems from the combinationof intra- and inter-personal experiences as well as the evaluation of the present environment. Situational or particular self-esteem is closely linked to an individual’s judgmentsof themselves in specific environment or context. Depending on the circumstances andissues someone is facing, their situational self-esteem level may vary. For example, a
student might have a high level of self-confidence at school but lower level of self-confidence in a larger social context. Task self-esteem refers to the judgments individuals
make about certain activities in different situations. An example of task self-esteem inthe domain of L2 learning occurs when individuals engage in self-assessment on a specific aspect of L2 skills (Aydoğan, 2016; Azmand, 2014). The fluidity of self-esteem, especially in relation to situational and task-based self-esteem, implies that an individual’s
perception of themselves may have a substantial impact on their actions and achievements in many areas, including foreign language education (Zhang, 2022). The relationship between how individuals see themselves and their academic performance has been
the subject of extensive research, revealing the significant influence of self-esteem on
language learning outcomes (Bouchareb, 2016; Kırmızı, 2015). For example, Lawrence

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(2024) 14:35(2000) noted that learning results are found to be significantly influenced by the selfesteem concept. Studies have demonstrated a positive correlation between individuals’
self-esteem and their academic achievements (Hisken, 2011). People with high selfesteem typically do more. Conversely, those who do not believe in themselves do notaccomplish as much (Faramarzzadeh & Amini, 2017).
Demotivation is another psychological factor that affects foreign language learning. By
examining practical strategies to increase learners’ motivation for learning a foreign language, a thorough knowledge of learners’ demotivation to learn a language is beneficial
to conceptually and practically enhancing the findings of psychological research on language acquisition (Gao et al., 2022; Gau & Lio, 2022; Namaziandost et al., 2023; Thorner& Kikuchi, 2020).
L2 demotivation is a diminished degree of L2 learning motivation rather than a total
loss (Dörnyei, 2001). Up until now, the majority of studies have concentrated on the
motivation behind language acquisition, with little attention paid to demotivation (Gao
& Liu, 2022). Investigating language learning demotivation might assist in offering strategies for increasing students’ curiosity about learning a second language. Consequently,
research on language learning demotivation is necessary. However, most research focus
on the variables that affect learners’ demotivation rather than highlighting the link
between demotivation as a negative emotion and self-esteem in the EFL context. Several
factors linked to students’ psychological changes may also contribute to their demotivation, including negative attitudes towards a language, reduced confidence, and excessive learning anxiety (Falout & Maruyama, 2004; Xaypanya et al., 2017). However, they
could also be linked to the educational setting, including teaching content and materials
and the gap between actual and required input (Ren & Abhakorn, 2022), difficulty withchallenging assignments (Lai, 2013), and unsatisfactory test outcomes (Sakai & Kikuchi,2009). Over the past 30 years, several academics have made significant progress in theirstudy of foreign language learning demotivation in a variety of circumstances, allowing
them to thoroughly examine possible demotivators in those circumstances (Gau & Lio,
2020; Kikuchi, 2015) with the aim to improve the quality of the foreign language education and elevate the well-being of learners.
Demotivation is explained by the Activity Theory, which is derived from the sociocultural theory of Vygotsky (Vygotsky, 1978). It contains the important notions ofmediation and contradiction. The indirect link that is created between an external
stimulus and an individual’s approval of different mediational resources is referred toas mediation (Guo et al., 2020). According to this theory, interactions between people
and their social environment are what make human activity real. Learning discourse,material conditions, and cultural artifacts, as well as the influence of significant social
agents, serve as mediational instruments in the actualization of this interaction (Gao,2010). Additionally, as supported by the theory, demotivation is characterized as asocially mediated process in which learners’ realization of the importance of language
acquisition is hindered or slowed down by inconsistencies between the elements of
the activity system in which they are participating. It arises from perceived inconsistency between the activity system’s constituent parts. This contradiction would
have a detrimental effect on the learner’s attempt to engage in the learning activity
system, which would consequently hinder or delay the learner’s realization of the

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activity’s significance (Kim et al., 2019; Wu & Zhao, 2023). In other words, when conflict results from the interplay of the constituent elements, it can either help or hinder
language learning activities from progressing smoothly (Kikuchi, 2017). This suggested analytical framework explains the social disposition of learning behavior fromthe subjects to the learning results, stressing the importance of appropriate mediation
tools and illuminating the formulation process of demotivation (Li, 2021). According
to Li et al. (2020), demotivation is a social behavior that occurs in a particular sociocultural environment and is a cognitive behavior that is the outcome of the interaction between contextual factors and individual cognition. However, Dörnyei (2001)
argues that demotivation is caused by several outside factors that have the potential
to erode a person’s behavioral intention and the driving force behind a continuous
action. Demotivated students were formerly very motivated to learn, but lost interest due to outside factors. Dörnyei and Ushioda (2021) elaborated on the concept ofdemotivation, asserting that it involves a detrimental process wherein an individual’s
motivation to act or carry out their intentions is diminished. Rather than stressing theexternal sources of demotivation, this concept describes demotivation as a negative
process that people go through on an individual basis, which can affect the overall
processes of learning and a feeling of well-being while learning.
This internal viewpoint redirects attention towards an individual’s encounters andemotional mechanisms, which can significantly impact their cognitive and emotional
condition. Comprehending these internal processes corresponds to the concepts ofmindfulness, as examined by Holas and Jankowski (2012) and Leary and Tate (2007).
In addition to fostering awareness and acceptance, mindfulness is also about having thecapacity to manage, guide, and refocus another person’s attention for the greater good
(Holas and Jankowski 2012) with an awareness of the present moment (Leary & Tate,2007). It can diminish the perception of negative thoughts about the past and future,
help one to accept and appreciate the present situation without attachment or rejection,and foster positive attitudes and pleasant emotions by improving communication skills.
It is well recognized that the elements of mindfulness, such as awareness and unconditional acceptance of the present moment, are effective treatments for a variety of distressing conditions, such as anxiety, panic attacks, sadness, and rage (Wang et al., 2023).
Several psychological studies have suggested that mindfulness has several advantages
for individuals. Thanks to mindfulness training and practice, students can reduce stress(Kriakous et al., 2021) and overthinking (Ramel et al., 2004). Furthermore, they can
become more autonomous (Goodman et al., 2021) and improve self-regulation (Schultz,
2015). In education, mindfulness is known as mindful learning, and it is used in theclassroom to help students focus and become aware of the present moment (Namaziandost & Rezai, 2024; Zeilhofer, 2023). Weare (2023) highlighted that mindfulness is theact of attentively monitoring one’s thoughts, emotions, and physical sensations without
any critical judgments. Engaging in this technique can facilitate individuals in cultivating a sense of self-awareness, alleviate tension, and augment their ability to concentrateand focus. Learning with awareness opens up new possibilities and fosters creativity andsensitivity to contemporary concepts. There are many different ways to see and comprehend an event when learning mindfully. Furthermore, Zhi et al. (2023) suggested that

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mindfulness practices might be employed as an effective means of overcoming difficult
situations.
According to certain research, mindfulness imparts advantages across a wide range ofindustries. It is used to increase focus and promote mental clarity (Anālayo, 2020). Additionally, it is strongly linked to cognitive functions that support creative thinking, decision-making, and the learning process (Henriksen et al., 2020; Whitfield, 2022). All theseadvantages really help to promote English language learning in a variety of ways. Initially, it facilitates concentration on the subject matter being studied, since mindfulness
motivates students to be present in the moment (Cerit, 2019). Secondly, conscientious
learners develop strong self-confidence, which wards off language anxiety (Pappamihie,
2002). Numerous professionals concur that practicing mindfulness helps to increase
self-efficacy and confidence (Glomb et al., 2011). Additionally, a feature of mindfulness
is a reduction in persistently unpleasant thoughts that cause anxiety in people (Williams
et al., 2024). Mindful learners avoid anxiety far more easily because they remain in the
now without dwelling on the past or thinking about the future.
Lastly, in a speaking exercise, attentive learners frequently recognize the emotional
phase they are in. Anxiety and emotions are intimately intertwined. Non-judgmental
acceptance of unpleasant feelings, a quality of mindfulness, aids students in managing
negative ideas that might impair their capacity to provide persuasive presentations (Hofmann et al., 2010) and can improve memory even in high-stress situations (Jha et al.,2010). People who practice mindfulness come to understand that all of their unpleasant thoughts and emotions may be gently accepted and let go of because they are only
fleeting emotions. Because of this, English language learners who are aware of this truth
might be able to more readily let go of their negative feelings and stop letting them affecttheir presentations. Studies have also shown that even in high-stress situations, mindfulness improves people’s memory (Jha et al., 2010). A number of studies have been done
to provide the benefits of mindfulness for learning foreign languages (Fan & Cui, 2024).
With its benefits such as improved mental clarity and the ability to maintain composure,
it can assist students in concentrating on the discourse at hand and organizing the text
more effectively when speaking in English (Brown & Ryan, 2003; Ersanlı & Ünal, 2022).
Empirical studies on the use of OA in EFL

Some empirical studies were done on the effects of OA on EFL learners’ English language
learning. Abdulrazzaq and Abdellatif (2023) looked at how willingness to communicate(WTC) and test-taking anxiety in L2 was affected by online and offline assessments. In
the study, a group of ESL learners was employed, and they were randomly placed into
the experimental and control groups. The results showed that the online assessment
condition had a good effect on learners’ WTC, leading to increased involvement andengagement in communicative activities. The findings suggest that online evaluations
have the potential to improve students’ motivation and confidence in oral communication in the target language and minimize test-taking anxiety. The study advocates for theincorporation of OA in educational environments because of their beneficial influenceon students’ academic achievement and psychological well-being.
Likewise, Cassady and Gridley (2005) investigated the effect of online and pen-andpaper assessments on test anxiety in language learners. Students who participated in the

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study were assigned to an online or offline assessment condition. The results showedthat students who participated in online testing reported decreased levels of perceived
test anxiety. Implementing online practice exams as a preparation tool has had a positive impact, mainly by reducing negative perception related to testing, thereby increasing student’s confidence and sense of fairness with relation to assessment (Nguyen et al.,2024). The findings showed that language learners might benefit from a more relaxed
and pleasant testing atmosphere while using online assessments.
Lee and Hsieh (2019) also looked at how communicative openness was affected byboth offline and online contexts. Their study investigates whether the mode of evaluation
has an impact on students’ inclination to participate in oral communication activities.
The findings indicated that students were more ready to talk when taking tests online
because it provided a less intimidating and more private environment. Nhu and Tan Tin(2019) investigated how students’ writing performance in a Schoology learning management system writing course was affected by online formative evaluation. Using theonline discussion board as the primary activity, a fifteen-week writing course included
two participant groups from an EFL context. The findings demonstrated a statisticallysignificant difference between the participants in the treatment group and the control
group. It was suggested that teachers use online formative evaluation while teachingwriting to help EFL students in Vietnam and other comparable environments obtain better writing outcomes.
Additionally, Shamshiri et al. (2023) presented a study evaluating the effects of offlineand online testing on L2 vocabulary learning in an EFL context. The results significantly
demonstrated that OAs produced a considerably positive impact on L2 vocabulary gains
as compared to offline evaluation. According to the findings, OA may enhance language
learning outcomes and promote vocabulary development in the target language.
As seen in the literature review, OA positively affects learning. However, even thoughseveral studies investigated on the effect of OA on English language skills and sub-skills,
few studies have been carried out on the effects of paper and online assessment on variables of personal development such as EFL learners’ self-esteem, growth mindfulness,experience of demotivation, and language learning development. So, this research was
conducted to contribute to the existing studies by posing the following questions:
RQ1: Do paper assessment and OA affect EFL learners’ self-esteem equally?
RQ2: Do paper assessment and OA affect EFL learners’ mindfulness equally?
RQ3: Do paper assessment and OA affect EFL learners’ demotivation equally?
RQ4: Do paper assessment and OA affect EFL learners’ language leaning development
equally?

MethodParticipants and design of the research

A quasi-experimental design with a pragmatism paradigm was applied in this study.
This research was conducted with the students at Urganch State Pedagogical Institute,Uzbekistan, in 2023–2024. In the study, convenience sampling was employed. According to the study by Mackey and Gass (2012), members of the target population werechosen for this kind of sampling provided that they satisfied certain practical requirements, such as being close by geographically, being available at a specific time, or being

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otherwise easily accessible. This study involved 60 intermediate EFL students who took
six-hour General English classes each week for three months. To confirm the level oflanguage proficiency and entry level of each participant, a placement exam (Preliminary
English Test) was given at the start of the course. Participants were found to have anintermediate (B1) level of language proficiency. These participants were males ranging
in age from 18 to 27. Thirty students were randomly assigned to either the experimental(EG) or control group (CG). During the study period, one of the researchers was responsible for instructing both of these two classes in the major courses.
Instruments

Four data collection instruments were utilized for this research. The Academic Demotivation Scale (ADS), which gauges academic demotivation, was the first instrument
employed in the research. An ADS was developed by Sakai and Kikuchi (2009) to gauge
participants’ demotivation levels. It is comprised of 35 items on the Likert scale, where
1 denotes total disagreement and 5 denotes total agreement. Six aspects are evaluatedby the ADS: instructors (6 items), classroom characteristics (7 items), environment (7items), supplies (6 items), disinterest (4 items), and failure experiences (5 items). Internalconsistency was then assessed using Cronbach’s alpha, which yielded a score of .81.
The Revised Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale was the second tool used to assess the participants’ degree of self-esteem (Rosenberg, 1965). Ten elements make up this metric,
which has been utilized and adopted in different contexts. The participants filled in thequestionnaire using a four-point Likert scale that ranged from “1= strongly disagree” to“4= strongly agree.” This measure’s reliability according to Cronbach’s alpha was .70.
A test on mindfulness served as the third tool. To measure mindfulness, Brown and
Ryan (2003) created the Mindfulness Attention and Awareness Scale (MAAS). The scaleconsists of fifteen questions and was used in its original form. A 6-point Likert scale wasused to assess all the questions in the original measure, with 1 representing very usuallyand 6 representing almost never. The purpose of the 15-item instrument scale is to demonstrate the participants’ level of awareness and attentiveness regarding their engagement in daily life. MAAS had an internal consistency of α = .92.
The fourth tool was a thirty-item objective exam designed for research purposes toassess language learner’s proficiency in grammar, vocabulary, and reading comprehension. The course materials for the participants were used to generate the test by the two
assessment experts working at the institute, where the data was collected. It was piloted
with a group of participants with intermediate level of English in another state institute,and some items were revised in terms of language mechanics. The validity of the exam
was confirmed by a panel of specialists in the field of English language learning, and its
reliability (α = .86) was calculated using the KR-21 algorithm. It is significant to notethat this exam was administered both before and after the intervention, together with
the questionnaires that were previously detailed. Together, they functioned as the study’s
pre- and post-tests, whose validities were confirmed statistically.
Data collection and analysis procedures

Thirty respondents were considered the CG, and thirty respondents were designatedas the EG for the purposes of this study. Then, to determine each participant’s level ofPage 11 of 24

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Table 1 All pre-test descriptive statistics

Self
Mind
Demotivation
Development

Group

N

Mean

Std. deviation

Std.
error
mean

CG

30

20.83

4.48

.81

EG

30

21.46

4.29

.78

CG

30

33.76

4.65

.85

EG

30

34.66

4.18

.76

CG

30

44.53

4.33

.79

EG

30

45.86

5.34

.97

CG

30

12.46

2.31

.42

EG

30

12.13

2.52

.46

Table 2 All pre-test inferential statistics (independent samples t-test)
F

Self

Df

Sig.
(2-tailed)

58

.57

57.89

.57

.53

−.78

58

.43

57.35

.43

Demotivation 1.44 .23

−1.06

58

.29

55.62

.29

Development .66

.53

58

.53

57.55

.39

.97

t

−.55

Mind

.00

Sig.

.41

−.55
−.78

−1.06

Mean
differenceStd. error
difference

−.63

1.13

−.90

1.14

−1.33

1.25

.59

.33

.62

.59

.33

.62

−.63
−.90

−1.33

1.13
1.14
1.25

95% confidence
interval of thedifference
Lower

Upper

−2.90

1.63

−3.18

1.38

−3.84

1.18

−.91

1.58

−2.90
−3.18
−3.85
−.91

1.63
1.38
1.18
1.58

p > 0.05

English proficiency and measure self-esteem, growth awareness, demotivation, and language learning development before the treatment, the four pre-tests described above
were administered. Then, using OA, all of the lessons from Top Notch 2 were given to
the EG, while the CG received the same instruction through a traditional evaluation.
Following the instruction of each lesson, the EG took one OA, and the CG took a paper
evaluation. When all lessons were taught to both groups and all assessments were taken,
the post-tests measuring self-esteem, growth mindfulness, demotivation, and language
learning development were given. Next, the scores of the pre- and post-tests were analyzed, using the one-way ANCOVA test and the independent samples t-test.

Results
Once a normal distribution was assured, the researchers employed parametric statistics to examine the information. The Kolmogorov-Smirnov test was used to confirm
the normal distribution of the data. The obtained findings for each variable’s pre- andpost-tests are shown in the tables that follow.

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Page 13 of 24

Table 1 demonstrates that both groups’ mean scores on every pre-test were essentially equal. The pre-test replies for the two groups did not differ statistically significantly, according to an independent samples t-test.
According to the results of the pre-test inferential statistics, the two groups do notdiffer statistically significantly. As all of the p-values in Table 2 are larger than 0.05, it
may be inferred that there was no significant difference between the two groups onany of the four pre-tests.
As indicated in Table 3, the average score for the EG is 26.10, whereas the averagescore for the CG is 23.20.
Table 4 demonstrates that there was a significant difference in the self-esteem post-testscores between the two groups, with p-value being .00, less than 0.05. As it transpired, inthe self-esteem post-test, the EG did better than the CG.
The descriptive outcomes for the two groups on the mindfulness post-test are shownin Table 5.
On the mindfulness post-test, it appeared that the EG group outperformed the CG
group. With p-value (.00) being less than 0.05, Table 6’s one-way ANCOVA testshows a significant difference in the mindfulness post-test outcomes for the twogroups.

Table 3 Self-esteem descriptive statistics
Group

Mean

Std. deviation

N

CG

23.20

4.18

30

EG

26.10

3.64

30

Total

24.65

4.15

60

Table 4 Self-esteem inferential statistics (ANCOVA)
SourceType III sum ofsquaresdf

Mean square

F

Sig.

Corrected model

324.79a2

162.3913.32.00

Intercept

595.371595.3748.84.00

Pre-test

198.64

1

198.64

16.29

.00

Group

103.451

103.45

8.48

.00

Error

694.85

57

12.19

Total

37,477.00

60

Corrected total

1019.65

59a

R squared = .319 (adjusted R squared = .295)

Table 5 Mindfulness descriptive statistics
Group

Mean

Std. deviation

N

CG

35.70

4.27

30

EG

43.36

8.49

30

Total

39.53

7.70

60

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Table 6 Mindfulness Inferential Statistics (ANCOVA)
SourceType III sum ofsquares

Corrected model

1544.57a

Intercept

172.23Df

Mean square

F

Sig.

2

772.28

22.43

.00

1

172.235.00.02

Pre-test

662.901

662.90

19.25

.00

Group

723.031723.03

21.00

.00

34.42

Error

1962.36

57

Total

97,280.00

60

Corrected total

3506.9359a

R squared = .440 (adjusted R squared = .421)

Table 7 Language development descriptive statistics
Group

Mean

Std. deviation

N

CG

13.76

1.88

30

EG

16.53

1.56

30

Total

15.15

2.21

60

Table 8 Language development inferential statistics (ANCOVA)
SourceType III sum ofsquaresdf

Mean square

F

Sig.
.00

Corrected model

149.75

2

74.87

30.50

Intercept

273.061

273.06111.25.00

Pre-test

34.93

1

34.93

14.23

.00

50.21

.00

Group

123.241

123.24

Error

139.90

57

2.45

Total

14,061.00

60

289.6559

Corrected total

Table 9 Demotivation descriptive statistics
Group

Mean

Std. deviation

N

CG

47.86

7.15

30

EG

74.60

17.49

30

Total

61.23

18.90

60

According to Table 7, the CG’s mean score is 13.76, whereas the EG’s mean score is
16.53.
The one-way ANCOVA test findings are in Table 8, with p-value being .00, less than0.05, showing that there were significant differences between the post-test of language
learning development of the two groups. Table 8 shows that the EG outperformed the
CG on the language learning development post-test.
Table 9 shows that the EG has a mean score of 74.60, whereas the CG has a mean scoreof 47.86.

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Table 10 Demotivation inferential statistics (ANCOVA)
SourceType III sum ofsquaresdf

Mean square

F

Sig.

Corrected model

10815.6525407.82

30.03

.00

Intercept

1618.541

1618.54

8.98.00

Pre-test

95.59

1

95.59

.53

.29

Group

10,241.33

110,241.33

56.87

.00

Error

10,263.07

57

180.05

Total

246,050.00

60

Corrected total

21,078.73

59

The findings of the one-way ANCOVA test in Table 10 showed that the EG scored better on the demotivation post-test than the CG. The table above indicates that the difference was statistically significant with p-value being less than 0.05 at .00.
This study investigated the effects of paper assessment and OA on EFL learners’ selfesteem, growth mindfulness, demotivation, and language development. The results inthe above tables reveal that on the pre-tests, the performances of the two groups were
the same, but they performed differently on their post-tests. The results highlight a significant difference between the post-tests of the EG and CG in favor of the EG students.

Discussion
According to the result of the present study, there was a significant difference between
the post-test scores on the four post-tests for EG and CG. Our findings are consistent
with Fitriyah and Jannah’s (2021) findings that OA can benefit EFL classes by raising student motivation and autonomy and enhancing the quality of feedback. Additionally, thefindings support Förster et al.’s (2023) findings that online quizzes can enhance student
engagement by providing students with regular feedback on their performance, which
motivates them to actively interact with the course content and maintain motivation andfocus on their learning objectives.
Furthermore, Stowell and Bennett’s (2010) assert that students in the OA condition
outperformed those in the paper-based testing condition on the examinations and thatparticipants reported relatively lower levels of test anxiety. They contended that this
could be the case because students feel more in control of the testing process when theytake exams online. Students may take online tests whenever and wherever is most convenient for them. Additionally, students may test in a more comfortable setting, whichmight lower their anxiety levels and thus enhance their performance on the test.
The results of our study align with Boukhentache’s (2022) study in that, due to OA’s
flexibility concerning time and location, as well as reported anxiety levels among EFL
students were lower. He clarified that because OA is so simple to use at home and eliminates the stress of taking an exam in class, it might provide learners with a more comfortable testing atmosphere.
Additionally, the present study’s results are consistent with those of Abdulrazzaq and
Abdellatif (2023) who presented quantitative proofs that OA is effective for improving
communicative willingness, lowering test anxiety, and accurately reflecting language
proficiency when compared to traditional assessment since it grants fairness because of

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the equal and precise time length allocated for each test taker and avoids subjectivity inscoring (Nguyen et al., 2024).
The results also align with other research demonstrating the benefits of OA for learners and instructors, which are frequently linked to its temporal and spatial flexibility(Annamalai et al., 2022; Fitriyah & Jannah, 2021). Research revealed that OAs permit theadministration of tests on dates and times that are flexible (Spivey & McMillan, 2014).
They also permit the direct preservation of data that is accessible from anywhere at any
time. This enables instructors to examine student work for any issues that may arise lateron or to track changes in students’ performance over time (Fitriyah & Jannah, 2021).
Moreover, Annamalai et al. (2022) discovered that students could relatively have moretime for revision since they were able to take examinations online instead of having tophysically go to test centers, which would mean saving time for preparation.
According to Poehner and Infante (2016), providing students with feedback that issuitable and based on their needs and gaps might help them to go beyond their baseline capacities and jointly develop new knowledge and awareness. This aligns with the
Vygotskian socio-cultural theory, which states that knowledge is first co-constructed
through social interaction in which students may engage with more experienced individuals (Lantolf & Poehner, 2014). The current investigation’s findings are consistent with
Harasim’s (2011) study of online collaborative learning, which presents the advantagesof online education and CALL for L2 acquisition. The theory states that students could
more readily collaborate to find solutions to their issues, which might improve theirEnglish language learning. Using the resources provided by the Internet, online collaborative learning creates learning environments that encourage cooperation and knowledge development.
One reason for the outcomes might be that learners are receiving continuous feedback
through OA. Students can receive continuing feedback from their exam results as wellas quick feedback when responding to auto-scoreable questions. Rahim (2020) stresses
the importance of giving students high-quality feedback through OA. It is importantto acknowledge that in order to improve learners’ comprehension of the desired goals
and inspire them to do better in the summative assessment, grades during formative OA
must be accompanied by corrective comments. Another benefit that OAs can offer isthe ability to give large student cohorts rapid, accurate feedback on each student’s performance, enabling them to concentrate on their particular areas of weakness and makenecessary improvements (Mate & Weidenhofe, 2022). The OA makes it easier to quickly
and clearly report on the progress and achievements of pupils. This makes it simpler toprovide applicants with insightful feedback on how they are doing, their strengths, andthe areas that still need improvement.
One possible explanation for the achieved outcomes is the economic benefit of OA.
Because OA requires far less administrative time to manage the entire test production,
distribution, and grading process, it is more cost-effective. When compared to administering tests on paper, there are notable cost savings. Paper exams can be very costly
because of the significant costs involved in structuring the testing. These include renting
the devices or testing facilities, printing and transporting the tests, securely storing thePage 16 of 24

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exams, and payroll for the required extra staff hours. All of these expenses are eliminatedby OA.
With OA, students can take their exams anywhere they like. Additionally, they canchoose an exam window during a convenient time and day. This capacity may be a hugecompetitive advantage, especially for students who are also working full-time jobs or
who are balancing other obligations. Since no printing is required, online assessments
provided to students are quicker to administer and grading OAs also goes much more
swiftly. Students usually appreciate getting their results quickly.
An additional rationale for the findings of this study is that OAs offer enhanced security in contrast to conventional paper-based tests. There is far less pressure to keep finished test papers safe and secure after the evaluation and during the grading process.
Since all online test data, applicant profiles, grades, and results are digitally recorded,
increased security is really one of the main advantages of OA. Furthermore, systemaccess can only be authorized to those who should have access to the information with
online exams. Paper-based tests make it far more difficult to handle results, ensure
secure storage, and to control access. Furthermore, OA portals frequently have featuresinstalled to identify questionable test behavior. They can turn off navigation options,making it impossible for students to access other applications or websites to look for
information to provide more secure testing conditions.
Convenience is another benefit of online exams that may have helped the EG group
score better on their post-tests. As noted earlier, the tests are online, and students may
choose the times that work best for them. This highlights the flexibility of online tests interms of scheduling and location, which may be a substantial benefit for students. This
flexibility can work to alleviate anxiety and enable students to do examinations when they
feel most ready and attentive. Additionally, after completing a test with automated scoring, students can receive their results online nearly instantly. Examining bodies are notlimited to providing tests in physical test centers when using OA, which allows them toprovide exams to applicants situated over larger geographic areas. This marks the start ofmass learning by facilitating the development of student learning globally. Giving students
more options for testing increases their chances of receiving an education, especially for
those who want to learn new things and further their education. Additionally, managing
all the duties required in designing tests is made easier for the examining body via online
learning. Authoring questions may now be done collaboratively online with well-definedprocesses for reviewing and approving questions before they are published to the question bank. This enables the teacher to supplement existing information and guaranteethat pupils are receiving high-caliber ability assessments to support each unique student.
The capacity to examine and evaluate data is another advantage of OA. OA tools provide strong insights and facilitate easier and more efficient interpretation of examination
data. Everything that has to do with taking the OA may be analyzed, such as how longthe examiner takes to grade, how many scores are often given for a certain topic, or how
long it takes students to complete a given kind of question. The analysis’ findings canhelp one decide what steps to take to further improve the online exam’s dependability
and efficiency while also making it better for upcoming students.
The administrative work associated with paper-based exams is significantly reduced
by OAs. For instance, scheduling the test is made easier for students, printing is not

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necessary, there is no dependency on the mail service, and remote proctoring andautomated scoring are possible. These elements all work together to expedite andsimplify the evaluation process, reducing the possibility of mistakes or unplanned
delays. Making the switch to OA will also help to increase fairness and inclusion forstudents with different needs and requirements. For the public, larger stakeholders,and students alike to continue to trust evaluations, impartiality, and accessibility are
essential. OA may increase equality via lowering instances of overt prejudice, increasing accessibility, and removing physical obstacles to participation that could impair alearner’s performance using other methods.
There are various consequences of this study for EFL students. To keep students
motivated and interested in their studies, OA might offer more involved and interesting assignments through optional assessments or ongoing formative evaluation.
One of the key justifications for using OA is that it may offer a more dynamic learning environment by combining instant feedback and interactive activities, which arecatered to students’ particular needs, preferences, and interests. This can increase
their engagement in language learning. Additionally, OA can provide a more customized and adaptable approach by allowing students to track their own development,
which promotes both autonomy and engagement.
It is critical to understand that OA may affect students’ anxiety in different ways andthat anxiety results from a variety of underlying causes. According to research, students’anxiety may be reduced by giving them clear instructions, offering a variety of practicechances, and acquainting them with OA techniques. Furthermore, the perceived fairness
and utility of OA materials might affect how anxious EFL students feel. To reduce anxiety and increase learning results for EFL students, educators and institutions must takethese aspects into account while creating and implementing OAs. The untethered natureof OA can also benefit EFL students who might be nervous about taking an evaluation ina regular classroom environment as perceived privacy might ease their anxiety.
Additionally, by providing learners with a clear picture of their strengths and limitations, OA may help learners feel more confident in their skills and minimize anxiety by providing them with rapid feedback. OA of students can also grant them someautonomy over the testing procedure resulting in relatively more time and opportunity
to study for the exam, which can help them to feel less anxious. For example, Förster
et al. (2023) found that online quizzes can improve student engagement because theygive students frequent feedback on their performance, which motivates them to actively
interact with the course materials and maintain motivation and focus on their learning
objectives. According to the study, receiving regular feedback enables students to keep
track of their personal progress and pinpoint their areas of strength and weakness. The
specific implementation of online quizzes, such as the instruction and timing of quizzes,
time span for testing, the types of questions utilized, the design and affordances of thetesting platform, and the availability of dynamic feedback, can all affect student interest.
The results of this study may be helpful to some educators and stakeholders as itsuggests that OA can help language teachers provide their students with dialogic,
progressive feedback that takes into account their zone of proximal development(ZPD). Additionally, it is advised that teachers conduct some of their class activities
online, such as writing assignments, because students may refer to and learn fromPage 18 of 24

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the teacher’s and other peers’ input regularly when it is available online. Additionally,
the current study can benefit teacher educators, who can use its findings to inform
instructors about the benefits of doing certain sessions online. The results of thisstudy may really be included by teacher educators in teacher education curricula, andthey can also enlighten teachers about how using online social networks can improve
feedback session efficiency while simultaneously saving them instruction time.
Instead of just using OA for summative assessments, teachers may also utilize it as atool for formative evaluation and feedback. Teachers may foster a more pleasant learning environment and support students in maintaining their motivation and engagementin the process by giving them regular and constructive feedback (Chen, 2023). Before
the exam, teachers can acquaint students with the testing platform and offer them clear
instructions and standards for OA. By doing this, teachers can lessen students’ nervousness and encourage a more assured and relaxed testing environment (Ahmad & Khan,
2022). The results can also be used by textbook publishers to encourage educators andstudents to take advantage of online resources for practice.
The study’s findings suggested that OA can have a positive impact on EFL learners’ language development, self-esteem, mindfulness, and attenuate demotivation. Thus, it canbe said that language teachers should carefully plan and carry out OAs that meticulously
consider learning environments and learners’ profiles in the design and implementationof the assessments. They should also make sure that students have access to the tools andresources they need to help them overcome demotivation and strategically increase motivation and sense of self-worth during the OA process. Taking such an approach to OA
may ensure that EFL students are at ease, motivated, and engaged in the learning process.

Conclusion
Through interactive, collaborative, and engaging exercises, OA may boost EFL students’motivation, mindfulness, self-esteem, and engagement without sacrificing customized
support. Nonetheless, teachers must carefully plan and execute the implementation of
OA such that it complements students’ interests and personal learning objectives. It isalso critical to take into account the unique, cultural, and contextual characteristics ofeach learner. By doing this, teachers may gain a better understanding of how OA affects
EFL students and create more useful plans to enhance student learning and engagement.
It can be inferred that OA provides EFL learners with a significant chance for personal
development. It is recommended that EFL teachers use a range of open educational
resources (OA) in their lessons and employ effective strategies to increase students’familiarity with OA. Furthermore, students engaged in OA report experiencing fewer
psychological problems than when taking physical exams. To help EFL learners learn
English more successfully, teachers are advised to integrate technology-driven pedagogy
and assessments into their English lessons.
The study is subject to several limitations. The small sample size of this study presents
significant limitations. Since the researchers limited the investigation to 60 EFL students at a single English institute, it is impossible to generalize the study’s findings, andresults should be evaluated cautiously. The quantitative information gathered from thepre- and post-test design of the study was also limited. Future research endeavors may
employ diverse methodologies, such as more extensive surveys, including a substantial

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participant pool from many nations and regions, to enhance the research’s representativeness and generalizability. Given that complete OA is still relatively new and something requiring facility with technology, it is suggested that more research be done witha larger sample size and additional supporting documentation to draw precise conclusions regarding the consequences of the online evaluation.
Abbreviations
OA	Online assessment
EG	Experimental group
CG	Control group
EFL	English as a foreign language
GDA	Group dynamic assessment
Non-GDA	Non-group dynamic assessment
PET	Preliminary English test
ADS	Academic Demotivation Scale
MAAS	Mindfulness Attention and Awareness Scale
Acknowledgements
Not applicable.
Authors’ contributions
BSA and DA made substantial contributions to conception and design. Data was collected by BSA. Data analysis andinterpretation was done by FÇ. BSA and DA conducted the intervention and participated in drafting the manuscript. FÇ
revised the manuscript critically for important intellectual content and finally approved the manuscript.
Funding
This study did not receive any funding.
Availability of data and materials
The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

Declarations
Ethics approval and consent to participate
The study involving human participants did not require ethical review and approval, as it complied with local legislation
and university requirements of Uzbekistan. Written informed consent was obtained from all participants prior to their
participation in the study.
Consent for publication
Not applicableCompeting interests
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
Received: 11 April 2024 Accepted: 8 August 2024

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