White Paperon education reform

White paper on education reform

Summary
Our vision is for young people in Iceland to enjoy the same opportunities to live
and work in an ever-changing world as their counterparts in the countries towhich we wish to compare ourselves. To make this possible, Icelandic students
must be given access to education within an education system meeting thehighest international standards.

2

Summary

The main strengths of the Icelandic education system, compared to the general situation in the comparison countries, are relatively small achievement
gaps between schools, the fact that students
generally feel happy at school, and a school systemthat is both flexible and not overly centralised.

Two principal goals have been defined for education reform in Iceland until 2018:

On the other hand, the education system now
battles against declining literacy rates among
pupils leaving compulsory school and slow student
progress in upper secondary school. Thus, reading
comprehension and mathematical and scientific
literacy among Icelandic students have deteriorated in the past decade and their performance now
scores below the average of the OECD countries.
Only 44 per cent of students enrolled in Icelandic upper secondary schools graduate on time, amuch lower percentage than in the comparison
countries. Furthermore, relatively few students
enrol in vocational programmes, and those who
do, together with students enrolled in preparatory
programmes, are less likely to graduate on time.

One of the measures proposed in order to reachthis goal is to increase the time allocated to Icelandic in the reference timetable of the National
Curriculum Guide for compulsory schools. Furthermore, standards should be developed for the levelsof reading proficiency to be attained by pupils at
each stage of compulsory schooling, and reading
literacy should be measured regularly from thepreschool level to the final classes of compulsory
school.

Many nations have accumulated knowledge andexperience in the field of education reform. The
strategy that has been found to work best is to set
few but ambitious goals on which a wide consensus can be reached and which can be the focus of
long-term efforts. At the same time, it is importantto promote change in schools, enhance teachers’
professional awareness, increase the gatheringand dissemination of information and, last but notleast, to analyse and evaluate the results achieved
and draw appropriate conclusions.

> 90 per cent of compulsory school pupils tomeet minimum reading standards—up from79 per cent currently.

> 60 per cent of upper secondary students
to graduate on time—up from 44 per centcurrently.
This goal is to be reached by rethinking the duration of programmes and shortening studies leading
to final examinations, tackling drop-out, andrestructuring vocational education. A standard duration of three years is proposed for programmes
leading to the matriculation examination, andways to shorten vocational programmes are to beinvestigated. A screening of risk factors influencing early school leaving is to be conducted among
all upper secondary school students. Vocational
education is to be reviewed with a view to simplifying basic programmes and developing a tertiary
vocational education level.
This White Paper is intended as a starting point for
further discussion and consultation with all thosewith an interest in education. Within that framework, working groups will subsequently be set up
to develop and implement short- and long-term
action plans.

3White paper on education reform

Contents

Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Education and competence in the new century. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
The position of the Icelandic education system in an international context . . . . 8
Reading proficiency on leaving compulsory school. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Duration of upper secondary school studies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
International experience of carrying out reforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Reform in Iceland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
General measures to support reform. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

4

Introduction

Introduction
We live in a period of rapid technological development, globalisation and natural and societal change. Regardless of where we think the world is heading,most people agree that a good education is the best thing to bring on thatjourney. A solid education makes it easier for young people to find their way in
a complex and ever-changing world, besides being the foundation of a strong
economy and of the citizens’ wellbeing.
How can the Icelandic education system provide
the country’s youth with the education required
for life and work in a modern society?
The legislation applying to the three school levels—preschool, compulsory school and upper secondary school—and the recently updated National
Curriculum Guides contain, amongst other things,
guidance with regard to critical thinking, creativity, communication, and active participation in a
democratic society. These factors are sometimes
referred to as 21st-century skills. The White Paper
focuses on identifying where efforts to strengthen
the Icelandic education system need to be directed and which strategies are most likely to provide
students with the education mandated by law
and by the National Curriculum Guides. Work on
the White Paper has been based on international
studies of education reform, and attempts havebeen made to draw lessons from the experience of
those nations that perform strongest in international comparisons.
The White Paper discusses the current state of the
Icelandic education system and proposes priorities
and actions on the basis of that analysis. The mainweight is placed on the key goals of improving
reading performance and the progress of upper
secondary students. The paper lists the wheresand hows of reform directed toward this objective,
based primarily on comparable international data,compiled with regular intervals, although it is foreseen that the further development of such actions
will draw upon the large number of Icelandic studies relating to the national education scene.

It should be made clear that the main priorities andactions discussed below in no way exclude reformin other fields of education. Above all, they are adescription of certain priority projects on which
wide consensus is likely to be reached. The meas­ures to be developed in continuation of this will
no doubt be put to broad use in schools and havewidespread and positive effects.
The main purpose of this White Paper is to create abasis for discussion and action on education reformin Iceland. The intention is to call out to all thosewith a stake in education to contribute to further
work in this field. In that regard, the long-term
perspective is important given the complexity ofeducation systems and the fact that the results ofreform often take a long time to become evident,
although short-term benefits may certainly alsomaterialise in a limited number of fields.
The people of Iceland have shown that they arecapable of coordinating their efforts to achieve
successful change in schools. Without a doubt, oneof the best examples of this is the considerable
accomplishment of the past 20 years in reducing
tobacco and drug use among children of compulsory school age. This was made possible through theconcerted and well-founded action of the government, municipal councils, school administrators,
teachers, parents, pupils, sport and youth associations, various actors in the field of prevention, andexperts. The experience among other nations isthat this type of approach can be used to improveeducation with good results.

5White paper on education reform

Education and competencein the new century
A substantial policy effort in the field of education came to a close in 2008
with the adoption by parliament of new legislation on the three school levels—preschool, compulsory and upper secondary—and the Act on the education and recruitment of teachers and school administrators. In the years that
followed, new acts on continuing education and on school counsellors werealso adopted. Subsequently, work has been ongoing to implement these Acts,
and a range of Regulations have been issued, together with updated National
Curriculum Guides.
One of the main elements of the 2008 education
policy, as well as of the National Curriculum Guides
issued on the basis thereof, was an emphasis on
student competence and on giving schools the
freedom to cultivate the diverse talents of young
people. Municipal councils and schools were given
increased powers to shape course offerings andteaching practices. At the same time, the durationof the teacher training programmes was increased.
Although much has been achieved with the adoption of new legislation and the publication of the
National Curriculum Guides, there has been a lack ofadequate guidance regarding their implementationand the priorities to be followed. The recent findingsof the PISA survey conducted by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development(OECD) and the results of an analysis of the stateof the Icelandic upper secondary school unambiguously point to the need for further measures tostrengthen the Icelandic education system.
When the foundations of the Icelandic school system were laid in the first decades of the last century, questions arose—as they do today—regarding
the goals to be pursued in the education of young
people. Gudmundur Finnbogason, who contributed to the drafting of the Act on Education which
entered into force in 1907, provided the following
answer: “Each person’s education must be judged
by his ability to live and work in company with otherpeople, to live and work in a manner that day by
day increases the value of his life both for himself
and for others.” (Gudmundur Finnbogason, 1994
6

[1903], p. 33). Over a century later, a better answer isdifficult to find.
The main objectives pursued in formal educationin Iceland are outlined in the legislation in force onpreschools, compulsory schools and upper secondary schools, as well as in the National Curriculum
Guides.
Thus, according to the Act on Preschools, the role ofthe school is to promote the all-round developmentof children, lay the foundations for their participation in a democratic society, stimulate their
Icelandic language skills, cultivate their expressive
and creative aptitudes, and seek to strengthen theirpersonal identities, health awareness, safety, andhuman relations skills. At the compulsory level, thefocus remains on the all-round development of thepupils, their proficiency in the Icelandic language,
their understanding of Icelandic society, theircommunication and cooperation skills, their senseof initiative, independent thinking, and the harnessing of their creativity in the constant pursuitof education and maturity. The Upper Secondary
Education Act adds an emphasis on preparation forfurther studies, participation in the labour market,
disciplined and independent working methods,
and the acquisition of skills required for specialised
occupations.
All of these objectives are developed in more detailin the National Curriculum Guides for each schoollevel, as well as in individual school curriculum
guides and in municipal school policy documents.

Education and competencein the new century

The use of the term ‘competence’, meanwhile, isaimed at defining more precisely the results to beachieved by education.
The National Curriculum Guides define competence
as encompassing knowledge, skills and attitudes. Inturn, attitudes reflect morality, emotions and creativity, initiative-taking and social skills. Therefore,
competence consists not only in having acquired acertain knowledge, but also in knowing how to apply that knowledge (skills/proficiency) and in making use of attitudes (exercising judgment) in order
to apply the knowledge in different situations. One
might say that competence refers to the outcomeof education, i.e. the results produced, instead ofbeing only knowledge—for knowledge’s sake.
Within the education system, competence isnormally divided into levels within a so-called
competence framework. This means that students
are expected to acquire a basic competence in thefirst stages of their education, and a more specificcompetence as their schooling advances. However,competence is not acquired exclusively in a school
environment. Schools certainly provide an essential foundation, but learning is a life-long process,whether at the workplace or in each person’s daily
life. This explains the importance of learning competence: the skills required for lifelong learning.
The term ‘literacy’ is one of the measures of competence. Traditionally, literacy refers to the ability
to read and write. In OECD’s PISA survey, a wider
definition of literacy is used, referring to students’capacity to apply their knowledge and skills in key
subject areas, and to analyse, reason about, solveand explain the problems posed in diverse subjects,
effectively and in a variety of situations. Thus, theconcepts of mathematical and scientific literacy
have been introduced in addition to reading literacy.
Internationally, the education and the competencethat students need to acquire in the 21st century area prominent topic of discussion. Participation in theeconomy and society of the 21st century is seen as

requiring heightened adaptability and a constant
updating of knowledge in order to keep up withthe pace of development. Other skills highlighted
include creativity, health, communication, criticalthinking and sustainability, all of which have been
incorporated into the recently updated Icelandic
National Curriculum Guides. Finally, the attention
has been directed toward information and communications technology, the exploitation of which has
led to a fundamental shift in the requirements ofthe society and of the labour market.

“Each person’s education must be judged byhis ability to live andwork in company withother people, to live andwork in a manner thatday by day increases
the value of his life
both for himself and forothers.”When the foundations of the Icelandic education system were laid in the first decades of thelast century, both the society and the economic
activities pursued were quite different from thoseof today. The ideals of the pioneers of education in
Iceland as regards public education and opportunities for all to develop and to participate in a democratic society remain valid in this new century.
However, the required competencies have changed
and young people have to be prepared for participation in a society and an economy in constant flux.
In today’s international community, nations areengaged in never-ceasing competition where it
takes a strong economy and a flourishing society to
attract young and dynamic people. A good education is a key ingredient in the development of any
economy or society. The position of individuals
and nations—whether in relation to value-creation,
the encounter of different social groups, or general
welfare—is increasingly determined by their level of
education. In that respect, the point of reference
is not necessarily the length of schooling, but thecompetence which individuals have acquired onleaving school and their ability to use it to take on
new and challenging tasks for the rest of their lives.
The vision is for young people in Iceland to beon even footing with their counterparts in thosecountries that have the best education, and tohave the same opportunities for participation in
the society and economy of the 21st century.
7

White paper on education reform

The position of the Icelandic
education system in
an international context
Figure 1 – Impact of the school on
performance in mathematics
Finland

One of the mainstrengths of the Icelandic education system isequal access to education. Iceland is among
those countries wherestudent performancevaries the least between schools.

Iceland90
10

Norway83
12

SwedenDenmark
Estonia
IrelandSpain
CanadaPolandUnited States
MexicoNew Zealand
GreeceUnited Kingdom
Australia
Portugal
Chile
Switzerland
Korea
Austria
Italy
Luxembourg
Czech Republic
Japan
IsraelFactors explaining the distribution of mathematical
literacy:
Variance between school
averages

Variance between students
within each school
Source: OECD, PISA survey
2012; Educational Testing
Institute

8

77
6

Germany
Slovenia
Slovakia
TurkeyBelgium
Hungary
Netherlands

86
12

66
13
64
13

68
15
74
17

75
18

76
20

73
23

42
23

90
28
61
29

76
30

79
31
73
31

43
33

68
38

69
45

51
48
49
52

77
53

53
50
48
54

74
55

51
58
41
58
59
59

37
60
61
62

39
63

34
65

A comparison with other countries
makes it possible to identify a number of indicators of the state of the
Icelandic education system, both its
strengths and its weaknesses.
One of the main strengths of the Icelandic education system, based on such a comparison, is equal
access to education. Iceland is one of the countries
with the smallest achievement gaps between
schools (see Figure 1). As an example, Iceland camein second, after Finland, in OECD’s PISA survey
2012 on the measure ‘between-school variance inmathematical literacy’. On the other hand, student
performance varies more within individual schoolsin Iceland than in most other countries, a fact likely
explained in part by the ‘inclusive school’ policy.
Social status only has a small impact on theperformance of Icelandic students. Access to
education is high: nearly a third of the population,some 100,000 people, is enrolled in an educational
institution at each time, with participation extending to all age groups, from the preschool level tocontinuing education.
Another strength of the Icelandic education
system is its low level of centralisation. Municipal
councils, schools, and the communities they serve
all have considerable freedom to decide on course
offerings and the organisation of schooling, giventhat the National Curriculum Guides for preschool,
compulsory school and upper secondary schoolleave ample scope for shaping the work of schools
at the local level. Each municipal council sets its
own school policy and can build upon it to define
the priorities to be followed in its preschools andcompulsory schools, as well as each school’s curriculum guide. At the upper secondary level, schools
create course descriptions and make proposals for
programmes, which are subsequently confirmedby the Ministry of Education, Science and Culture
for inclusion in the National Curriculum Guide.

The position of the Icelandic
education system
in an international context

Thus, municipal councils and schools have thefreedom to adapt course offerings and school work
to local conditions, as well as to different student
groups and their needs.

Happiness at school is an important prerequisite
for successful education and for the acquisition by
students of competence in a variety of domains.
Happiness at school is high among Icelandic school9White paper on education reform

Figure 2 – Percentage of 15-year-olds
who report ‘high life satisfaction’96
90

NorwayFinland90
87

Denmark

90
84

Netherlands
Belgium (FL)Happiness at school ishigh among Icelandic
school children
compared to othercountries

Iceland
Spain
Switzerland
Estonia
Germany
Slovenia
ScotlandFranceNorwayArmenia
Macedonia
GreeceEngland
RussiaCanadaCzech Republic
United States
Austria
LatviaCroatia
Belgium (FR)Luxembourg
SwedenPortugal
Slovakia
Ireland
Italy
Lithuania
Greenland
Wales
Hungary

Boys (%)
Girls (%)
Source: World Health Organisation, HBSC study 2009/10

10

Figure 3 – Computer skills of individuals in the European countries

UkrainePolandRomania
Turkey

44

28

16

12

44

33

12

11

91
88

Iceland89
85

Finland43

27

Luxembourg

43

32

11

14

Sweden42

Austria

27

16

15

42

25

Denmark

39

34

United Kingdom

32

29

88
82

Netherlands

32

34

Hungary

32

23

87
82

Lithuania

32

18

9

41

Spain

32

19

10

39

Estonia

32

22

10

36

Slovenia

31

23

12

34

Latvia

29

22

11

38

France29

28

Portugal

28

Belgium

28

29

EU 27

27

25

14

34

Ireland

26

25

12

37

Italy

25

21

Germany

25

Czech Republic

25

23

15

37

Malta

24

25

13

38

88
84
88
84
86
84
89
81
87
82

89
80
88
81
85
84

88
80
89
79

86
71

87
80
87
80
85
81

88
80

83
83
87
78

88
77
87
77

88
77

84
80

83
80
84
78

85
77

77
75

81
69

81
68

63
58

12

23
16
32

16

27

11

41
16

27

44
18

24

24

Slovakia

23

Cyprus23

Poland18

Bulgaria

11

17

14

58

Romania

10

14

15

61

9

51

33
21

15

18

Greece

22

22

16

33

18

26

10

45

15

46

High level of computer
skills (%)

85
75

82
75

11

10

16

18

13

20

84
76
84
74

12

The percentage of
people with a high levelof computer skills washighest among Icelanders and Norwegians.

Medium level of computer
skills (%)
Low level of computer
skills (%)
No computer skills (%)
Source: Eurostat, 2011b; Information Society Statistics

The position of the Icelandic
education system
in an international context

children compared to other countries: according toan international survey of the health and wellbeingof 15-year-old school children, conducted by theWorld Health Organisation (WHO, 2012), Icelandranked fourth among the participating countries
with respect to children’s satisfaction with life (seeFigure 2). Interestingly, in all countries but one boys
reported higher life satisfaction than girls, and thiswas the case in Iceland as well.
Many believe that information technology skills
will soon be of crucial importance for the life andwork of individuals and the continuing development of human societies. The status of and accessto information technology, as well as widespreadfamiliarity with that type of technology, can havea huge impact on education and innovation, bothwithin the education system and in society atlarge. Iceland leads the way among the European
countries when it comes to the capacity of adults
to use information technology (see Figure 3).

A survey conducted among the general public
measured proficiency in using computer applications, as well as in carrying out more complicatedoperations, such as installing operating systems.
The percentage of people with a high level ofcomputer skills was highest in Iceland and Norway.
Similarly, Iceland had the lowest percentage of
people with no computer skills.

Challenges
The 2013 edition of OECD’s PIAAC survey measured literacy among adults (18 to 64 years of age),as well as their proficiency in problem solving intechnology-rich environments. The results of thesurvey have in many countries prompted lively
discussion on education and skills, one of theseresults being a strong link between literacy andeconomic and social standing. Thus, people withhigh literacy skills are much more likely than others
to enjoy good health, be employed, be well paid,
and be active participants in political life and insociety.

Figure 4 – Positive social and economic outcomes among highly literate adults
The likelihood of highwages, high levels ofpolitical efficacy,
participation in volunteer activities, highlevels of trust, employment, and good healthis higher among adults
scoring at level 4/5 in
the PIAAC survey ofadult literacy comparedwith adults scoring at or
below level 1.

3

2,5

2

1,5

1

High wages

High levels ofpolitical efficacy

Participationin volunteer
activities

High levelsof trust

Being employed

Good health

Odds ratio
Source: OECD, PIAAC survey
2012

11

White paper on education reform

Although Iceland was not covered by this survey, a strong correlation has been shown to exist
between the good performance of 15-year-olds
in the PISA survey and adult competencies (OECD,2013); that is, the better the performance in PISA,
the greater the competence in later life. Moreover,there is a strong correlation between people’scompetence and the level of formal education thatthey have completed. It can be assumed that thesame applies in Iceland.

as Figure 5 shows clearly. In addition to the deterioration of reading literacy performance ascompared to the first measurement in 2000, thecomparison with the average of other countries
is now less favourable than before. In the first
PISA test of reading literacy, Iceland exceeded theOECD average with a score of 507 points, but in thelatest test, conducted in 2012, the score fell below
the OECD average at 483 points. The difference
between 2000 and 2012 is 24 points.

The PISA survey examines the reading, mathematical and scientific literacy skills of 15-year-old
students. For many years, Icelandic students
performed above the OECD average in reading andmathematical literacy, but below the average inscientific literacy. The survey has been conductedamong this group of students every three years
since 2000, and the results of the 2012 edition weremade public recently.

To put this in perspective, OECD’s methodology
assumes that student performance improves, on
average, by 45 points every school year. Therefore,
the difference in performance between 2000 and2012 is the equivalent of the students who passed
the test in 2012 having fallen behind their predecessors from 2000 by one-half of a school year.

The PISA 2012 results demonstrate a negative
trend in the performance of Icelandic students,

While performance fluctuations from one year
to another must be interpreted with caution, theevolution since the beginning of the century showsthat Iceland must seek to improve the level of its

Figure 5 – Performance of Icelandic 15-year-olds in OECD’s PISA survey

The results of PISA 2012
show that the performance of Icelandic students in reading literacy
has deteriorated fromthe first measurementin 2000.

520

510

500

490
Mathematical literacy
Reading literacy
Scientific literacy
Source: OECD, PISA surveys
2000 to 2012; Educational
Testing Institute.

12

480

470

PISA 2000

PISA 2003

PISA 2006

PISA 2009

PISA 2012

The position of the Icelandic
education system
in an international context

students in reading, mathematics and science ifthey are to be on par with their counterparts inother countries. General education levels are another indicator of the capacity of young people in
Iceland to pursue employment and further studies.
A particularly remarkable fact is the high percentage of young people who never complete an upper
secondary education.
As shown in Figure 6, the percentage of Icelandic
adults (between 25 and 64 years of age) with noupper secondary education is the sixth highest
among OECD states at around 30 per cent. However, Iceland differs from the other OECD states in
one respect: most countries where this percentage
is high have improved their situation, which in turnis reflected in an improvement in the educationlevel of the younger generations. This is not thecase in Iceland, where the difference between theyounger and the older generations is small, a signof the slow progress achieved in raising the nation’s
education level.
It has been pointed out that this high percentage of
people with no upper secondary education is liable
to have serious economic and social consequences.
Judging by the experience of other nations, earlyschool leavers are more likely to lack the competence necessary to position themselves in the job
market, and run a greater risk of being exposed to
unemployment, social problems, risk-taking andpoor health. In the long run, the cost to society is
high.
Falling performances in the PISA survey and thelow upper secondary graduation rates in Iceland
are a reflection of a reality which must be taken
seriously and responded to immediately.
Changes in the education system, whether for the
better or for the worse, manifest themselves overa long period of time and have broad and far-reaching consequences, both for individuals and for thesociety as a whole.

Figure 6 – Percentage of people in
the age groups 25 to 34 and 25 to 64
with no upper secondary education
TurkeyMexicoPortugal
Spain
Italy

Iceland

GreeceNew ZealandUnited Kingdom
Netherlands
Australia
Belgium
OECD average
NorwayLuxembourg
FranceChile
Denmark
Ireland
Hungary
Germany
Estonia
IsraelUnited States
Austria
Switzerland
FinlandSwedenCanadaSlovenia
PolandCzech Republic
Slovakia
Korea

57
68
56
64
44
65

35
46
29
44

25
29

20
33
20
23
20
26

18
28
18
29

18
25

In Iceland, thepercentage of adults
not having completed
an upper secondary
education is around 30
per cent

17
28
17
23
16
18

16
23

16
26
15
27

14
11

13
14

13
18

12
28
12
18
11
11

11
14

10
17
10
16
9
13

8
11

6
16
6
11
6
9

6
8

2
19

25 to 64 years (%)
25 to 34 years (%)
Source: OECD, Education at a
Glance 201313

White paper on education reform

Reading proficiency on leaving
compulsory school
In order to shed more light on the state of the Icelandic education system, it
is appropriate to take a closer look at reading. The PISA survey distinguishes
between three forms of ‘literacy’, i.e. reading literacy or reading, mathematical
literacy and scientific literacy. It is assumed that reading literacy is a prerequisite for acquiring the competence to find one’s way in society.
In PISA’s theoretical framework, reading literacy
is divided into five levels of proficiency. Of these,level 2 can be considered as representing theminimum reading proficiency required if students
are to succeed later in life. Those performing belowthat level are not regarded as having no reading

14

skills whatsoever, but will be more likely to run into
problems when entering the next education level,
and will find it difficult to assimilate study material
and take advantage of instruction, and to become
active participants in society. This has often beenreferred to as having ‘no useful reading skills’.

Reading proficiency
on leaving compulsory school

The percentage of those with no usefulreading skills has increased from 15 per centin 2000 to 21 per cent in 2012.

As shown in Figure 7, the percentage of those performing below proficiency level 2 in reading literacy
has increased from 15 per cent in 2000 to 21 percent in 2012. Another cause for concern is that thepercentage of those scoring at the two uppermost
PISA levels in reading literacy has fallen from 33
per cent in 2000 to 25 per cent in 2012, or by eightpercentage points.

Norway and Denmark have managed to reduce thenumber of those scoring at the lowest PISA level inreading literacy. In Iceland and Sweden, however,the development has been negative, and thesetwo countries now trail behind the other Nordic
countries on this measure (see Figure 8). In mostcountries, a marked gender difference exists whenit comes to reading literacy, with boys performing

Figure 7 – Percentage distribution of Icelandic students between the PISA
proficiency levels from 2000 to 2012
PISA 2012
PISA 2009

5

PISA 2006
PISA 2003
PISA 2000

13

8

4

25
22

12

7

13

7

12
11

30

19

31

22

25

19

30

24

30

22

21

31

6
9
6
7

24

9

Below Level 1 (%)
Level 1 (%)
Level 2 (%)
Level 3 (%)
Level 4 (%)
Level 5 (%)
Source: OECD, PISA surveys 2000
to 2012; Educational Testing
Institute

Figure 8 – Percentage of boys and girls in the Nordic countries who have‘no useful reading skills’
35

Iceland and Sweden
now lag behind theother Nordic countries
in terms of reading
literacy.

30
25
20
15
10

Boys
Girls
OECD average

50

SwedenIceland

NorwayDenmark

Finland

Source: OECD, PISA survey
2012; Educational Testing
Institute

15

White paper on education reform

less well than girls. This is also the case in Iceland,
where in 2009 the percentage of those scoring at
the lowest proficiency levels was 24 per cent forboys, but only 9 per cent for girls. In 2012, the situation had deteriorated somewhat, with 29.8 percent of boys and 12.1 per cent of girls placing below
level 2.
Some disparities exist according to place of residence, and in recent years reading literacy has
deteriorated more rapidly in most regions outside
the capital area than within it (see Figure 9). The
West region is the only part of the country exhibiting an improvement in reading literacy between
2000 and 2012.
In recent years, the number of pupils with a foreign
background has risen considerably in Icelandic
compulsory schools. A particular cause for concern
is the fact that many of these children do not seemto do well in school, given that their reading literacy
16skills are much poorer than those of children whose
native language is Icelandic.
As the above observations illustrate, it is imperative for Iceland to pay particular attention to
strategies liable to improve reading literacy andreduce the number of students with ‘no usefulreading skills’. In this respect, the situation of boys
is a particular concern. Therefore, the remedies
chosen must take into account the different situation of boys and girls. Another important issue is
how to improve the performance of students living
outside the capital area or having an immigrantbackground.

Reading proficiency
on leaving compulsory school

Figure 9 – Average performance in reading literacy by region from 2000 to 2012
530
520

522

518

510

521
511

508

500
490

496

491

482

480

490

478

470

472

450

471

467

464

460

440

490

488

458

443

Reykjavík

Reykjavík
vicinitySouthwest
peninsula

West
RegionWest
FjordsNorthwest
Region

Northeast
RegionEast
RegionSouth
Region-28 PISA points -12 PISA points -29 PISA points +9 PISA points -24 PISA points -44 PISA points -44 PISA points -63 PISA points -19 PISA points

Figure 10 – Evolution of reading literacy among native and immigrant students
from 2000 to 2012
520
500
480
460
440
420

Source: OECD, PISA surveys
2000 to 2012; Educational
Testing InstituteIn recent years, thenumber of pupils witha foreign backgroundhas risen considerably
in Icelandic compulsory
schools. A particularcause for concern is thefact that many of thesechildren do not seemto do well in school,
given that their reading
literacy skills are muchpoorer than those ofchildren whose native
language is Icelandic.
NativeEntire country
Immigrant

400
380

Most regions outside
the capital area exhibit
greater deterioration of
performance in reading
literacy, and the differences between thoseregions and the capitalarea have become more
pronounced.

PISA 2000

PISA 2003

PISA 2006

PISA 2009

PISA 2012

Source: OECD, PISA surveys
2000 to 2012; Educational
Testing Institute.

17

White paper on education reform

Duration of upper secondary
school studies
Iceland differs from the main comparison countries in that a very low percentage of students graduate from upper secondary school on time. Only about 44
per cent of those having enrolled at an upper secondary school in the autumn
of 2003 graduated within the specified timeframe (usually four years in Iceland), and two years later only a total of 58 per cent had graduated.
Figure 11 – Percentage of students
graduating from upper secondary
school within the specified timeframe

Graduation within thespecified timeframe
Graduation within thespecified timeframe
plus two years
Source: OECD, Education at a
Glance 2013

18

Japan

92.8

Slovakia

88.1

Israel87

Ireland86.8

United States

85.5

Poland79.5

Slovenia

76.2

Estonia76.1

Canada

72.2

2.7

10

Sweden72.1

Austria

70.9

Finland

69.9

10.4

Belgium

69.4

15.9

Average

68.8

14.6

Hungary

67.9

United Kingdom

61.3

Netherlands

61.3

Denmark

59.3

France58.9

22.6

New Zealand

58.8

5.2

Spain

57.4

25.1

Norway56.7

Mexico54

Luxembourg

Iceland

45.1
44.2

7.1

18.7
13.3

14.9
29.2
14.1

An analysis of student progress has shown thatstudy duration varies considerably depending on
the programme of first enrolment. The paths of
4,161 students having enrolled in 2007 were examined. The distribution of these students between
programmes was as shown in Figure 12.
Around 27 per cent of the students enrolled in a
preparatory programme and around 60 per centenrolled directly in academic programmes (leading
to the matriculation examination), while only 14 percent chose a vocational programme. By comparison, about 50 per cent of students in the European
Union enrol in vocational programmes.
In the spring of 2013, six school years later, thegroup was divided as shown in Figure 13. Of 2,441
students having enrolled in academic programmes
in the autumn of 2007, 1,879 had completed thematriculation examination, or 76.9 per cent. This
group spent on average 4,1 years on the studies(it must be kept in mind that the students were
only tracked for six years, until the spring of 2013).
Of the 1,720 enrolled in other programmes, 395
completed the matriculation examination, or 23 percent. Students in this group spent 4,7 years on theirstudies. A fact that stands out is that almost 70 per
cent of the 1,124 students who enrolled in preparatory programmes had not graduated six years later.
Around 55 per cent of those enrolled in vocational
programmes had not graduated at the end of thesixth school year.

Duration of upper secondary
school studies

Approximately 70 per cent of those who enrolled in
preparatory programmes and around 55 per centof those who enrolled in vocational programmes
had not graduated six years later.

Figure 12 – Enrolment in upper secondary programmesof students leaving compulsory school, autumn 2007

27%

59%
14%

Preparatory programmes
Vocational programmes
Matriculation programmes
Source: Ministry of Education,
Science and Culture, data from
Inna, the information system
for upper secondary schools

The term ‘matriculation
programme’ designates
programmes leading
to the matriculation
examination. Vocational
programmes consist in
preparation for specificlines of work, such as
trades or certain healthprofessions, and usually
include practical training. Enrolment in preparatory programmes
is usually limited to
students who do notmeet the requirements
to enrol in other upper
secondary programmes.

Figure 13 – Students who enrolled in 2007, situation six years later
100
80
60
40
Matriculation examination

20
0

Vocational examination
No examination

Matriculation programmes

Vocational programmes

Preparatory programmes

Source: Ministry of Education,
Science and Culture, data from
Inna, the information system
for upper secondary schools

19White paper on education reform

The age distribution of students varies considerably between vocational and academic
programmes, given that fewer students in theformer group graduate on time. In 2012, students
in academic programmes were aged 18.7 years
on average, with 4.4 per cent over 25 years ofage. Vocational programmes had a very different
age distribution: the average age was 25.2 years,
with 35.5 per cent in the over-25 age group (Figure 14). This overview of study paths in one year
group, coupled with age distribution information,suggests a difference in study duration between
academic and vocational programmes. Many earlyschool leavers later enrol in vocational programmes
after spending a certain time working. Likewise,some of those who complete the matriculation
examination later enrol in vocational programmes
at the upper secondary level.
Low upper secondary graduation rates in Iceland
can probably be attributed in part to poor reading
literacy skills, a situation illustrated by the highpercentage (70%) of early school leavers in thegroup of students enrolling in preparatory programmes. Many in that group have completedcompulsory school with unsatisfactory results, anddo not seem to find their way in upper secondary
school. Another likely explanation is that students
fail to choose programmes suited to their abilities.
The above elements are an unequivocal indicationof serious shortcomings in the organisation andstructure of educational programmes, the counselling provided and students’ expectations in regard
to both themselves and the studies.
No generally recognised definition of early school
leaving exists for all countries and institutions. In
the OECD study of upper secondary graduation,referred to above, students were assumed to have
dropped out of school if they had not graduated
six years after enrolling and were no longer registered as students. In Iceland, 29 per cent of thoseenrolled had not graduated after six years and wereno longer registered as students, while 13 per centwere still registered as students without having
completed their education.

Figure 14 – Age distribution of students enrolled in matriculationor vocational programmes, autumn 2012
The average age ofstudents is 18.7 years inmatriculation programmes, and 25.2
years in vocational
programmes.

2.500
2.000
1.500
1.000

Matriculation programmes
Vocational programmes
Average age
Source: Ministry of Education,
Science and Culture, data from
Inna, the information system
for upper secondary schools

20

500
0

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

55

60

Duration of upper secondary
school studies

The percentage of early school leavers at the upper
secondary level in Iceland is one of the highest in
Europe.

Eurostat, the statistical office of the European
Union, collects information from those European
countries where labour market surveys include
data about early school leavers. In that context, thegroup of early school leavers is defined as the percentage of persons aged 18 to 24 who have neither
completed any further education after completingthe lower secondary level nor received any education or training in the four weeks preceding thesurvey.
Data published by Eurostat indicate that among
European countries Iceland has one of the highest
percentages of early school leavers at about 20 per
cent (see Figure 15).
A comparison with countries with even higher earlyschool leaving rates, such as Spain, Malta, Portugal or Turkey, shows that these countries haveachieved a much speedier reduction of early school
leaving than Iceland. According to Eurostat data,
early school leaving in Iceland dropped by only 1.2
percentage points between 2009 and 2012, justifying the conclusion that highly effective measures
are needed if Iceland is to have a chance to meetthe goal, pursued by most European countries, ofreducing early school leaving to below 10 per centby 2020.
In Iceland, work participation among young people
is high (see Figure 16), making early school leavingand slow student progress more likely. One of theconsequences of slow progress by upper secondary
students and of high early school leaving rates isthat many students return to school after the ageof twenty. This is manifested, for example, by thehigh average age of students enrolled in vocational
programmes, around 25 years, but also by the factthat the number of day-time students is 30 to 40
per cent higher than the size of each year groupof upper secondary age would suggest. This still
does not include those enrolled in distance-learning
programmes or evening courses.

Figure 15 – Early school leavers in theEuropean countries 2009 and 2012
Turkey
Spain
Malta

44.3
39.6

31.2
24.9
27.1
22.6

Portugal

31.2
20.8

Italy

19.2
17.6

IcelandRomania
NorwayUnited Kingdom
EU
Bulgaria
Belgium
Macedonia
FranceHungary
GreeceCyprusEstonia
LatviaGermany
IrelandDenmark
FinlandNetherlands
Luxembourg
Austria
SwedenLithuania
Switzerland
Czech Republic
Slovakia
Slovenia
Croatia

21.3
20.1

16.6
17.4

17.6
14.8
15.7
13.5

14.3
12.7
14.7
12.5

11.1
12.0
16.2
11.7

Percentage of young
people aged 18 to 24
who have neither
graduated from upper
secondary school nor
are registered as students. In Iceland, thisnumber was 20 per centin 2012.

12.2
11.6
11.2
11.5

14.4
11.4
11.7
11.4

13.9
10.5
13.9
10.5
11.1
10.5

11.6
9.7
11.3
9.1
9.9
8.9

10.9
8.8

7.7
8.1

8.7
7.6
7.0
7.5

8.7
6.5
9.1
5.5

5.4
5.5

4.9
5.3

5.3
4.4
3.9
4.2

2009 (%)
2012 (%)
Source: Eurostat Labour Force
Survey21

White paper on education reform

The slow progress of Icelandic upper secondary
students is a consequence of a number of flaws of
the education system, in combination with social
factors. Most importantly, large groups of pupils
leave compulsory school insufficiently preparedfor upper secondary studies and are unable to findsuitable programmes and services at that level.
Student progress is slowed down by working parttime with school or interrupting studies in order towork. Finally, it is worth mentioning that the majority of those pursuing vocational studies seemto enrol after the age of 20, and the average age ofstudents at graduation is high.

When implementing education reform, many factors need to be considered. However, the experience of other nations shows quite clearly that it isunwise to push through too many changes simultaneously. A more viable strategy is to concentrate
on a limited number of key issues that have thehighest likelihood of delivering considerable benefits, whether in the long or in the short term.

Figure 16 – Labour market participation by people aged 18 to 24—figures for the first quarter of each year
Slow student progress is
one of the consequen­ces of working withschool or interrupting
studies in order to work.

80%

75%

70%

65%

60%

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

Source: Statistics Iceland

Figure 17 – Day-time students in upper secondary schools as a percentage
of total population aged 16 to 20
The high proportion ofolder students explains
why the number of daytime students in upper
secondary schools is 30
per cent higher than the
total population aged 16
to 20.

150 %

130 %

110 %

90 %

80 %
Source: Statistics Iceland

22

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

International experienceof carrying out reforms

International experienceof carrying out reforms
The Icelandic nation is not the only one desirous to improve its education system; many countries have accumulated considerable experience and knowledge of development and reform work in this domain. They have conducted
research into education systems in an international context and gathered
large amounts of data, thus making it possible for scholars to compare thesystems in order to determine which methods work best and where the challenges lie (UNESCO/IIEP, 2012).
Although reform can be modelled on specificeducation systems, it is also necessary to keep
varying local conditions in mind, and to adopt a
strategy appropriate to the culture of each country
and the circumstances of its education system.
Furthermore, the same priorities do not apply
when attempting to improve an education systemfrom fair to good as when working to turn a great
education system into an excellent one (McKinsey,2010).
In this respect, Iceland has many things to learn
from other nations, both those who excel in aninternational comparison and those who havesucceeded in improving their position considerably. This includes a number of Asian countries,
such as Singapore, South Korea and Japan, but alsoWestern countries such as Finland, Germany, theNetherlands, Poland and some of the Canadianprovinces. Frequent references have been madeto the results achieved in Ontario, Canada, and theexperience gained there will be discussed at somelength below.
It is also worth mentioning in particular the improvements seen in Germany, where swift action
was taken in response to the poor results of thefirst PISA survey in 2000. Germans had previously
believed their education system to be one of thebest in the world, but the PISA results showed
German pupils to be performing below the OECDaverage in reading. The performance of German
pupils in reading literacy and the other PISA subjects has improved very considerably since, withGermany now scoring well above the OECD averagein all subjects.
The implementation and basis of education reform
cannot be conjured out of thin air; what is needed is a foundation solid enough to withstand thechanges brought by the reform. Worldwide, school
systems have to a large degree been the object of
unceasing experimental and development workover the past few decades. Iceland is no exception
to this. While it would be possible to assert that
this situation only indicates the sincere intent ofgovernments and educators to achieve reform, it
must also be admitted that the work carried out
has often been incoherent and insufficiently monitored, and the results achieved have reflected this.
The UNESCO guidelines on improvement in education list eight key elements of successful andlasting education reform. These principles will beillustrated shortly below by means of examples
showing how they have been implemented inother countries.

23

White paper on education reform

Authorities should have a small number of simple
and clear key goals so as not to dissipate theirforces and those of society.

1. A small number of ambitious goals, achievable,
well-grounded, and publicly statedAuthorities should have a small number of simple
and clear key goals so as not to dissipate theirforces and those of society. The goals should havea meaning in the public mind and for the education
system as a whole, and should be made public.
Furthermore, they should be measurable in someway, so that progress can be reported and appropriate responses applied. However, it is important
to avoid placing all focus on the measurements, as
there is a risk of thereby displacing the real goal, forexample by making it a top priority for everyone topass tests, instead of providing a solid and lastingeducation. Taken on their own, brilliant results
on a test are not worth much unless they correspond well with what precedes and what follows,
students’ real skills, and varied teaching practices
adapted to students’ needs and interests.

that this is likely to be conducive to a key goal suchas literacy. Finally, it is important to rememberthat the purpose of measurements is to be able
to respond in the case of slow implementation ofreform, and not to penalise the schools in question.
In the province of Ontario, two main measurable
goals were set for the reform launched in 2003: 75
per cent of elementary school pupils performing
at a high level in literacy and numeracy, and 85 percent of students graduating from high school in atimely way. The former goal is measured throughcoordinated tests in grades 3 and 6; the latter
through reported graduation data. Although thefocus was on literacy and numeracy, additional
emphasis was also given to physical activity andthe arts.

There is a risk that when pressed, schools will concentrate their efforts on this small number of key
goals, thereby neglecting other aspects of theirwork. For this reason, there should be a continued
emphasis on a broad offering of subjects, including
arts and crafts as well as physical activity, given

2. Constructive reform for all, in all schools
In the implementation of necessary reform, there
is often a tendency to send out negative messages: schools, teachers and students are not doing
well, making it necessary for the authorities to intervene. Experience shows that real improvement
cannot be achieved through centrally imposedchanges or by direct instructions from higher
authorities. A programme for education reform
should be designed and introduced in a way thatmakes its benefits clear to educators and motivates them to promote it within each school.
Otherwise, even the best intentions may cometo nothing.
24

On the other hand, a positive and motivating
stance does not preclude criticism. There is always
room for improvement, and both the education
system as a whole and individual schools should
welcome comments pointing out things that
could be improved. Moreover, care must be taken
to involve everyone in the reform work, instead of
focusing exclusively on low-performing schools. All
schools have students who could perform better,and efforts must be made to reduce achievement
gaps to a minimum, whether such gaps are related
to gender, region of residence, or ethnicity.

International experienceof carrying out reforms

At times there is a tendency to act as though theimplementation of a new policy, once developed,
can somehow take place automatically.

3. Building a capacity to change
The inputs required to achieve change are knowledge and competencies, financial resources andsupport, and steadfast motivation. In each school,
reform is dependent on having the capacity to implement such changes. That capacity may need to
be built alongside preparations for the actual goals.
At times there is a tendency to act as though theimplementation of a new policy, once developed,
can somehow take place automatically. This is ofcourse not the case: improvement is not a consequence of the change of policy as such, but of how
successfully it is implemented. In order to achieve
the intended result, it is necessary to boost theinterest, capacity and sense of responsibility of
those working in schools. It is therefore important
to apply positive pressure to build motivation andprovide appropriate support. Only thus can a callfor improved performance be justified.

The skills involved are complex and must therefore
be built using a variety of methods, while encouraging educators to learn from each other, bothwithin each school and through the cooperation ofschools. Professional development should focus on
this, without losing sight of the principal objective,
which is always to aim for positive change in students and better performances.
The building of knowledge and capacities in the
education system was a major focus of the reform
work in Ontario, with extensive support being provided to improve teaching practice by such means
as the professional development of teachers,
evaluation and planning guidance, and the provision of improved learning resources. New contacts
between schools and districts were created withthe active participation of teacher and school administrator associations.

A key to this is to give teachers the opportunity tolearn how to implement reform on their home turf.
25

White paper on education reform

Instead of wasting time organising reform indetail, the focus should be on implementing it
rapidly, while at the same time making sure thatlessons are learned both from changes that are
successful and from any failures.

4. Wide collaboration within the education systemand strong leadership
In order to achieve lasting reform, it is of consequence to build a consensus on that reform among
educators at all levels of the school system. Widespread support for the reform agenda, its introduction and implementation is important, even if
opinion may be divided on the strategies. There isthus a need for strong proponents of change, bothwithin and outside the school system. Althoughobtaining society’s support for the plans is neithera simple nor a quick task, it is absolutely crucial.
It is clear that the authorities must lead the reform work and its coordination at multiple levels.
It is also necessary to find leaders from among
teachers, administrators, members of municipal
councils, teacher unions, student associations andparent groups to follow up that work. The participation of a large number of people should be
encouraged.
Instead of wasting time organising reform in detail,the focus should be on implementing it rapidly,
while at the same time making sure that lessons
are learned both from changes that are successful and from any failures. Planning must not be
a substitute for action. A sharp focus on building
leadership contributes both to broad participationin the reform work and to making it sustainable.
Reformers often tend to believe that everyone isbound to share their opinions. Naturally, this is not
the case: people have diverging views and understand issues in different ways. A shared vision does
not come into existence automatically, but must
be created. Therefore, authorities must communicate actively with all those involved, and give themthe chance to express their opinions. An equallyimportant task is to communicate with the publicby providing information about the reform plans,
initiating public debates at regular intervals andmaintaining wide support for the agenda.
26

Any such communication must not be spin or aone-way communication from the authorities,
but should take place with the goal of soliciting
and taking into consideration different points ofview; learning from those aspects that meet withapproval and from those which are seen as not producing results. Regularly (and when the occasion
arises), appropriate information should be compiled
and made available to the media and the public.
That information should not only concern thereform programme, but also other aspects of theeducation system: this is to prevent such aspects
from being neglected at a time when the focus ison reform.
The role of teachers and their associations mustnot be ignored. Education reform will not succeed
without the participation of high-quality teachers,
and their support is very valuable. It is important
to be able to pay good teachers good wages andprovide them with satisfactory working conditions,but at the same time the teaching profession must
be strong and have society’s trust.
In order to build a consensus on the implementation of reform, Ontario set up a consultation forum
chaired by the Minister of Education and with theparticipation of all principal partners. Prior to thereform effort, teachers had not been seeing eye toeye with the authorities, but by investing considerable resources in the partnership and charging
teacher unions with the implementation of certain
aspects of the reform, trust between the partners
was restored. Another major area of priority wascommunicating information about the progress of
the reform to the public, and establishing cooperation with students and parents.

International experienceof carrying out reforms

In a well-functioning education system, the partners have access to reliable information providing
a perspective and from which conclusions can be
drawn.

5. Lessons to be learned through innovation and the useof research and data
In a well-functioning education system, the partners have access to reliable information providing
a perspective and from which conclusions can be
drawn. Such knowledge is the basis of well-executed changes and innovation. In contradiction
with this, many development projects have notbeen founded on sound knowledge, neither of thesituation to be dealt with nor of the solutions thathave worked best elsewhere. Proper assessmentof the results achieved also occurs too infrequently. Although there is growing knowledge about
education reform, that knowledge has not always
been put to good use. For example, it is importantfor educators to take advantage in this context of
research and the results of pilot projects in order toimprove teaching.
There must be greater emphasis on using researchand successful development work to shape school
priorities. Student achievement data can also be
used more effectively, not for the purpose of penalising schools or judging students, but to learn
from them in order to remedy specific problems.

This applies, for instance, to the results of screening tests, coordinated examinations and PISA.
In order to promote accountability for student
achievement by schools, municipalities and central
authorities, proposals call for a focus on:> progress based on students’ own capacityand goals;> comparisons with other schools and municipalities; and> performance relative to the best results
achieved at home and abroad.
Last but not least, schools, municipalities andcentral authorities should pay particular attention
to how satisfactory results can be achieved by agreater number of students.
Other countries have put an effort into building sophisticated student information systems, but havealso sought to establish collaboration between
schools and those involved in education research.

6. Focusing on key strategies without neglecting other issues
Experience shows that maintaining focus on a limited number of key goals over a long period of timeis very difficult, whether in individual schools or in
the education system as a whole. In spite of goodintentions, many distracting factors can intervene
in a long-term project; political leaders are replacedat regular intervals, and society can undergo profound transformation.

Therefore, it is important to try to predict thefactors that are most likely to distract the players
from the goals that they have set themselves,
and to take measures to prevent key leaders fromlosing sight of those goals. At the same time, otheraspects of schooling and any urgent issues need to
be properly channelled, so that they can be dealt
with as required.

27

White paper on education reform

There is sometimes a tendency to equate increased funding with reform. Additional money
can certainly tip the scales in the right direction
when it comes to achieving change. It is equallyimportant, however, to use existing resources inthe education system even more efficiently.

7. More effective use of financial resources in the education system
There is sometimes a tendency to equate increased funding with reform. Additional money
can certainly tip the scales in the right direction
when it comes to achieving change, bringing it topeople’s attention and creating incentives, butsuch resources must be used judiciously as theneed arises. It is equally important, however, to use
existing resources in the education system evenmore efficiently. Examples of this kind of priority
include increased direct support for learning andteaching and the introduction of financial rewards
for achievements. Thus, a number of countries
have made it possible for schools serving students
with special needs to reward their teachers accordingly and to hire teachers with more experience.

8. A strong implementation effort
The implementation of measures to reach the desired goals is often a delicate task. Implementationmust not be reduced to an inflexible action plan,but should adapt to the circumstances and allow
room for any necessary changes.
Two aspects of implementation are of particularimportance: one is the need to ensure general support for the implementation, and the other is theability of education authorities to lead and support
the work. Typically, these aspects are not given
sufficient attention.
While the development of a new policy involving
broad consultation can take a long time, follow-up
often receives short shrift. In order to implementchanges in an education system, those involvedin such projects must receive sufficient support.
In many countries this has been achieved byhiring advisers and project managers, as well as
by increased cooperation between the different
partners: teachers, school administrators and education authorities.

28

By approaching reform in this way, education
authorities in Ontario achieved considerable resultsin the period 2003 to 2009. The goals aimed for
were that 75 per cent of pupils in grade 3 and 6 ofelementary school would perform at a high level inliteracy and numeracy, and that 85 per cent of highschool students would graduate on time. Througha concerted effort, the percentage of those meeting minimum standards in reading, writing andmathematical literacy was raised from 54 to 67 percent over the six year period. In the same period,
the percentage of those graduating from highschool on time increased from 67 to 79 per cent.
The preceding pages contain an outline of the priorities which have formed the basis for successful
education reform in Ontario and a number of othercountries.
The following section discusses proposals on how
the Icelandic education system could be reformed.

Reform in Iceland

Reform in Iceland
Judging by the experience of other nations, there are many indications that
the Icelandic education system can be improved through systematic longterm measures.
The small size of the country makes it easier torally all stakeholders around a common agenda andcoordinate their actions. Furthermore, the innerstrengths of the education system and the Icelandic society’s modern infrastructure are also factors
making it more likely that young people can be
educated with the same level of success in Iceland
as in the best-performing countries.

We propose a strategy whereby Iceland would
follow the example of other nations by setting asmall number of clear goals, promoting positive
attitudes, and building a capacity to change. To thisshould be added a broad cooperation effort andmeasures to promote a unified leadership of thereform. Last but not least, a special focus should beplaced on research, the dissemination of knowledge, and support for schooling.

Goal with regard to reading

The percentage of those meeting basic standards (PISA level 2) in reading literacy should risefrom 79 per cent (2012) to 90 per cent by 2018.
It is important to create attitudes that are positive
toward reading and toward the view that everyone can learn to read successfully. This entails
encouraging young people to read a wide variety
of material, both at home and in school. Moreover,those involved in the teaching of reading skills
should take responsibility for ensuring that on
leaving compulsory school, all pupils have acquired
certain basic reading and reading comprehension
skills. This includes teachers and other school staff,
parents and school boards, municipalities and education authorities. At the same time, the education
system must allow for flexible approaches to meet
students’ varying needs, and systematic work
must take place to find the methods that deliver
the best results.
The factors crucial to improving reading andreading literacy are the subject of a report on theteaching of reading in Europe. While a multitude ofelements can impact on the acquisition of reading,international studies and comparisons between
countries allow for an analysis of the most impor­tant factors (Eurydice, 2011).

The foundations of reading acquisition must be laid
already in preschool through systematic linguistic
stimulation, regular reading to children, discussions
about the books read, and the promotion of interest in reading. In compulsory school, standards
must be defined either in the National Curriculum
Guide or otherwise, specifying the required reading
skills and how they should evolve gradually and ina variety of ways as the pupils advance into thelower secondary level.
The single most effective way of improving reading skills is simply to read. By reading more, andreading more varied material, pupils increase boththeir comprehension and their desire to read more.
Therefore, it is important to incorporate various
learning materials into the teaching, including
newspapers, magazines, novels, academic publications, and electronic texts. The central role
played by the home must not be ignored either.
It is important not only that parents read to theirchildren, but also that they encourage and help
them to read for themselves and that they set a
good example.
29

White paper on education reformA general appeal for more reading is all for the
good. However, it is more likely to be heard by
those who are already highly literate than by those
who have difficulty or little interest in reading.
It then becomes relevant to turn to electronicmaterials and new media, and to present material
in a variety of ways more likely to appeal to theyounger generations.
Children’s potential reading difficulties need tobe diagnosed at an early stage, as this makes itmuch easier to tackle those difficulties with specific teaching and training methods. Indicators ofpotential later reading difficulties can be discerned
already at the preschool level, and it is imperative
to use the time to avert them by cultivating pupils’
phonological awareness.
Intervention to remedy reading difficulties isoften ill-targeted. According to the PIRLS reading
literacy survey (2006), while 44 per cent of pupils
in the European countries had access to additional
support staff to help with reading difficulties, only
25 per cent had access to the services of a reading
specialist. In many cases, there is a long wait for
specialist services, such as to help with speechdisorders, but swift response to such problems isvital. Improving teachers’ ability to diagnose andrespond to reading difficulties is a powerful way to
produce results. In that respect, it can be of help
to have clear standards for the reading skills to beacquired at each level.
In order to improve teenagers’ reading skills andtheir comprehension of more complex and specialised texts, it is important to train their reading
skills in a variety of subjects. However, many things
indicate that not all teachers are equally well prepared for this task, and schools therefore need to
improve the coordination of this aspect from thefirst to the last year of compulsory education.
Considering the teaching schedules of Icelandic incompulsory schools, the time allocated to Icelandic as a proportion of the total is much lower thancorresponding figures in the neighbouring countries. Although the share of Icelandic was increased
somewhat in the new National Curriculum Guidefor compulsory schools, it is still much smaller thanthat of the relevant languages in the comparison
countries.

Figure 18 – Time allocated to pupils' mother tongue as a percentage of total
lessons taught, in Iceland and in a number of comparison countries, 2011
The proportion of Icelandic lessons in classes
1 to 7 of compulsory
school is much lower
than the corresponding
figures in the comparison countries.

35 %
30 %
25 %
20 %
15 %
10 %
5%
0%

30

IcelandDenmark

Finland

NorwayEU

Reform in Iceland

Potential remedies
1. To increase the time allocated to Icelandic in
the reference timetable of the National Curriculum Guide.
2. To define minimum standards for reading atdifferent stages of compulsory school, including with regard to reading speed, comprehension, vocabulary and writing skills, as stipulated
in the National Curriculum Guide.
3. To coordinate regular measurements of reading
literacy through the use of analytic tests at alllevels from preschool to the end of compulsory
school, and to make well-targeted use of theresults. To use mandatory coordinated examinations, as well as reading proficiency tests
at the upper secondary level, for the same
purpose.

5. To make it possible for each preschool andcompulsory school to respond immediately toindicators of individual pupils’ reading difficulties. To provide teachers with training andsupport for this purpose.
6. To encourage all preschools and compulsory
schools to set their own literacy policies in accordance with the National Curriculum Guides
and each municipality’s school policy.
7. To promote positive attitudes toward reading
in society, and to encourage students to readfor pleasure outside school hours.
8. To engage parents to kindle interest in reading
and support their children’s reading acquisition.

4. To provide special support to pupils with aforeign background so as to enable them toacquire equally good reading literacy skills asother pupils.
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White paper on education reform

Goal with regard to student progress

The percentage of students graduating from upper secondary school on time should
increase from 44 per cent (2011) to 60 per cent by 2018.
To attain this goal, the proposals call for anemphasis on three priority areas:> Reorganising the duration of studies> Implementing measures to tackle earlyschool leaving> Improving vocational study programmes
Reorganising the duration of studies
Iceland differs from other countries in respect ofthe duration of studies prior to the higher education level (see Figure 19). Only about 44 per cent of
those enrolling in upper secondary schools graduate at the age of 20 after completing fourteen
years of formal schooling. As a consequence, students who enrol in tertiary education are older thantheir counterparts in any other OECD country.
The low percentage of students graduating fromupper secondary school on time and the huge variation in student progress between programmes
indicate that there is a need to review the organisation of upper secondary studies, including theduration and structure of study programmes, notleast the vocational ones.
By reorganising the duration of upper secondary
programmes and paying greater attention to thediffering needs of various groups of students,
progress can be made in increasing timely graduation rates. Students spend varying amounts oftime in upper secondary schools, both depending on the programme in which the enrol and onwhether they choose a class-based or a unit-credit-based school. In addition, students have received
varying levels of preparation in compulsory school,and some upper secondary schools select students
based on their grades in academic subjects, whileothers accept all students.
32

The average duration of studies among those who
enrol in academic programmes varies relatively
little, and is usually around four years for the majority of students. The unit-credit-based systemallows for greater flexibility with regard to thecompletion of studies. Interestingly, in unit-creditbased schools, 22 per cent graduated in less thanfour years, while the corresponding figure was only
0.5 per cent for class-based schools. In those upper
secondary schools that have experience of operating three-year programmes, most students havechosen to complete their studies in three years,
or 70 per cent in Kvennaskólinn and 57 per cent in
Menntaskóli Borgarfjardar.
Kvennaskólinn offers its students a traditional
academic programme leading to the matriculation
examination, as well as a preliminary programme.
Students have the choice between completing
their studies in 3, 3½ or 4 years. In addition to
reducing the duration of studies, new programmes
were established, assessment practices werereviewed, and an effort was made to plan theschool year more efficiently. In matriculation
programmes, courses in core subjects are definedas from competence level 2, which reduces theoverlap with the compulsory school curriculum.
Menntaskóli Borgarfjardar has lengthened theschool year in a similar way as Kvennaskólinn andmodified its planning, while also reviewing study
programmes and assessment practices.
While the vast majority of students who enrol in
the academic programmes of class-based schools
graduate after four years, the experience from
Kvennaskólinn indicates that many of them could
complete their studies in three years. In the current
system, approximately one-fifth of students inunit-credit-based schools already graduate in lessthan four years.

Reform in Iceland

Icelandic students who enrol in tertiary studies
have completed fourteen years of formal schooling. As a consequence, they are older than theircounterparts in any other OECD country.

Student progress could be improved by restructuring study programmes and reviewing the durationof studies in different programmes. Another option
would be to enforce stricter study duration and age
limits. Most other countries have rules that stipulate a maximum age for graduation from upper
secondary school. In Norway, for example, students must complete their upper secondary studies before the age of 25, after which their studies
are reclassified as adult education and transferred
to other institutions. In Denmark, the duration of
upper secondary studies is three years. Students
older than 25 are classified as ‘adults’ and although
they can continue their studies in upper secondary
school they normally opt for programmes especially intended for adult students. In Sweden, students
must start their upper secondary studies at thelatest the year they turn 20, and must subsequently graduate within three years. Everyone is thenentitled to enrol in continuing education provided
by municipalities.
Recent reviews of Iceland’s economy by international organisations (OECD, 2013; McKinsey, 2012)
consistently point to the advantages of reducing
the duration of studies leading to the matriculation
examination by one or two years to bring it closer
to the duration of such studies in other countries.
The reviews mention that the duration of compulsory school and upper secondary school studies
could be reduced by one year each.
Neither the Compulsory School Act nor the National Curriculum Guide for compulsory schools containany provisions for the shortening of studies at thatlevel. Instead, the practice has been to allow for a
flexible transition between compulsory and upper
secondary school, thereby making it possible forcompulsory school pupils to take a shortcut, either
by attending courses in upper secondary schools
while still in compulsory school or by enrolling inupper secondary school directly after grade 9, subject to conditions laid down in the National Curriculum Guide for compulsory schools.

Figure 19 – Duration of academic
upper secondary programmes inthe European countries
Iceland

14

15

16

Age
17

18

19

20

NorwayDenmark
SwedenFinlandGermany
Italy

Estonia
LatviaLithuania

Luxembourg
Bulgaria

Hungary
PolandRomania
Spain

Malta

Slovenia
Slovakia

Czech Republic
Switzerland

United Kingdom
Ireland

Belgium
GreeceFrancePortugal
CyprusNetherlands
Austria

Source: Eurydice, The structureof the European education
systems 2013/2014

33

White paper on education reform

Most importantly, compulsory school should be organised in a way that supports action to strengthen reading and reading comprehension. Whenexperience has accumulated of the measures
proposed herein, the time will have come to takea closer look at the total duration of studies, fromthe beginning of preschool to the end of upper
secondary school.

Presently, a review is being carried out of the impact of the ‘inclusive school’ policy on compulsory
schools and on specialist services provided by municipalities in preschools and compulsory schools.
In addition, Iceland will participate in an OECD
comparative survey of the relation between the financial and other resources allocated to compulsory schools and the results achieved. These reviews
will no doubt deliver useful information about thestate of the compulsory school: how better toallocate financial resources and how well equippedindividual municipalities are to provide appropriate services to all pupils, support developmental
work and promote high-quality schooling. On theother hand, no studies have been conducted of the
impact of children’s leaving for upper secondary
school a year early on families living in areas where
no such school is operated.
Most importantly, compulsory school should be organised in a way that supports action to strengthen reading and reading comprehension. Whenexperience has accumulated of the measures
proposed herein, the time will have come to takea closer look at the total duration of studies, fromthe beginning of preschool to the end of upper
secondary school, and decide whether and in what
way to implement change.
Potential remedies
1. To organise academic programmes leading to
the matriculation examination based on a standard duration of studies of three years.
At the same time, to investigate ways to shorten vocational programmes.
2. To review standards regarding the maximum
duration of upper secondary studies, having
regard to the organisation of adult education.
3. To review the structure of vocational educationand training programmes.
4. To provide a greater choice of exit points fromupper secondary school in accordance with theobjectives of the National Curriculum Guide.

Implementing measures to tackle earlyschool leaving

34

In 2011 to 2012, the OECD compiled a report on earlyschool leaving in Iceland and possible strategies
to prevent it (OECD, 2012a). OECD’s experts divided
the causes of early school leaving into two groups:
institutional causes, those which concern theorganisation of the school system and the work
carried out in schools, and personal causes, such aslearning progress, social background and participation in the labour market.

number and tailored better to students’ needs,
and that consideration be given to whether it is
too easy for students to exit and re-enter theeducation system. Also, it must be ensured that
vocational education is relevant to labour market
needs. Finally, regarding the labour market specifically, the experts point out that wages and social
benefits should be revised so that they incentivise
completion of upper secondary education.

The experts suggest that greater attention be
given to the different learning levels of thosestudents who are beginning their upper secondary
education, that study programmes be reduced in

Similar suggestions can be found in a recent reporton early school leaving published by the European
Union. The report lists a number of factors in needof special attention:

Reform in Iceland> The age at which early school leaving occurs;> The relationship between early school leaving
and truancy;> Differences with regard to early school leaving
according to gender, academic performance andachieved education levels;> The social background of students or indicationsof its impact;> The migration or minority background and/or
mother tongue of the learner.
The report urges measures to collect evidence
about these factors and make it available, andpoints out that policies and analytic work mustbe followed up with prevention, intervention andsupport measures for those wishing to return tothe education system.
The results of these reports by the OECD and theEuropean Union have already been taken into
account in the Ministry’s work on a new plan toreduce early school leaving. The reasons for earlyschool leaving in all upper secondary schools are
already being systematically recorded, and threeschools now participate in a pilot project to screen
for students at risk of early school leaving throughthe use of special surveys. Newly enrolled students
are asked to respond to a set of questions witha view to identifying those at risk of early school
leaving, provide them with appropriate support,
and thus make them more likely to continue theirstudies.
The results of the survey of the reasons for earlyschool leaving make it clear that the schools willfind it difficult to tackle some of the reasons
behind student dropout. For example, a relatively
large group, or 18 per cent of the total, discontinued
their studies because of physical or mental healthproblems. Cooperation between the welfare, healthand education systems is needed to enable schools
to better serve the needs of students with various
mental health problems. A point worth remarking
is that poor attendance was by far themost frequent reason for the discontinuation ofstudies or expulsion from school.
The development of a policy in the field of school
counselling has just been launched within the Ministry. The aim is to come up with a comprehensive
policy and reach a consensus on future action.
In recent years, continuing education has becomea realistic option for older students who have left
upper secondary education. It has provided themwith the support needed to start studying again
and to achieve the required results. There is a needto improve the services for older students provided
by Lifelong Learning Centres around the country inaccordance with the Ministry’s lifelong early policy.
Moreover, the work of different education providers must be coordinated so as to ensure that education within one system is properly recognisedin others, in those cases where students wish tograduate from an upper secondary school.
Potential remedies
1. To develop the continuous recording of thereasons for early school leaving in all upper
secondary schools.
2. To carry out a screening of the risk factors
for early school leaving in all upper secondary
schools as well as at the lower secondary level.
3. To establish cooperation between schools
and health and social services on intervention
measures for students at risk of early school
leaving.
4. To provide special support and funding forschools serving students at risk of early school
leaving.
5. To collaborate with providers of continuing
education on the provision of counselling andsupport to those who have discontinued theireducation.
35

White paper on education reform

Both those interested in vocational educationand those already enrolled find it difficult to see
through the complexity and diversity of thecompeting programmes and course offerings.

Changes to vocational education and training
The OECD recently published the results of a review
of vocational education and training in Icelandwhich was carried out in the context of the organisation’s Skills beyond School project. The main
purpose of the review was to identify the principal
factors which could be used to shape an Icelandic
policy on vocational education and training. In addition, the Ministry conducted a major policy-making
effort in cooperation with interested parties all overthe country.
According to the OECD, the challenges which need
to be addressed include both the weak management of the pathways open to students and thestructure of advisory bodies on vocational education and training. By law, the role of the current
Occupational Committee is to act as a coordination
platform for the Occupational Councils and toadvise the Minister on vocational education andtraining at the upper secondary level. The review
pointed out that the composition of the Committee was not such that it would be likely to produce
a good overview of the evolution of vocational
education and training, and that it was limited toeducation at the upper secondary level. As a consequence, the Committee was unable to look into
coordination between different levels of the school
system, a key issue for the progression from upper
secondary to tertiary education.
The review recommended the setting up of aforum (such as a Vocational Education and Training Council), composed of senior officials from theministries, representatives of the labour market
and of schools, which would be responsible forpolicy-making and the nation-wide coordinationof vocational education and training. That forum
could decide on priorities in the development ofvocational education and training, on the basis ofsuch things as labour market needs, the organisation of basic and advanced vocational education,and the structure of workplace learning. This would
be accompanied by the harmonisation and36strengthening of assessment and quality assurance in vocational education. The OECD points tothe following problem in relation to the organisation of basic vocational education and training in
Iceland:Both those interested in vocational educationand those already enrolled find it difficult to see
through the complexity and diversity of the competing programmes and course offerings. According to the OECD, career guidance often has an
academic bias and is sometimes missing altogether. Employers are not clear about the competence
requirements which the students are expected tofulfil on graduation from vocational programmes.
If vocational education and training is not shapedby labour market needs, there is a risk that it reflects mainly the capacity of education institutions(often biased towards existing and cheaper programmes) and uninformed student preferences.
Workplace training provided as part of upper
secondary vocational programmes is of extremely
variable length, from three to 126 weeks. However, apprenticeship is not a sufficiently large partof course offerings in upper secondary schools,
although it has a strong practical nature and ishighly regarded as an element of education in the
trades. Workplace learning could be developed inother fields than the traditional trade professions
to make use of its strong learning model.
The OECD report highlights the need for a review ofpost-secondary vocational education and training. While it is not realistic to imagine that a large
proportion of students graduating from vocational
programmes will continue into tertiary education,
the steady increase in the level of skills required inmodern labour markets makes it necessary to open
pathways for vocational education and training at
the tertiary level to the greatest extent possible.

Reform in Iceland

In the view of the OECD, the articulation between
upper secondary vocational programmes andvocational education at the higher educationlevel is weak. In some cases, credits earned at
the upper secondary level could be evaluated forhigher education level credits, but are normally notrecognised by universities, which leads to problems
for students who wish to continue their education.
At the level of the Ministry of Education, Science
and Culture, the public administration of vocational education and training is currently handled bya total of 70 committees, comprising nearly 350
members. This includes the Occupational Councils,
the Occupational Committee, the Apprenticeship
Committees, and the Journeyman’s Examination
Committees. The Ministry has entered into contracts with private companies—Iðuna fræðslusetur
ehf. and Fræðslumiðstöð rafiðnaðarins ses.—tohandle the administration of many of these committees and councils, in addition to contracts on
workplace learning and the recognition of vocational education and training, where some of thetasks come under the heading of public administration. A proposal to review this arrangement iscurrently being considered.
The Ministry of Education, Science and Culture has
decided to enter into formal consultations with thesocial partners on future policy-making in the fieldof vocational education and training and the implementation of any changes decided upon. This work
will be guided specifically by the following aspects:

1. Vocational study programmes should be restructured with a view to simplifying the basic
programmes, distinguishing between levels,
reviewing competence requirements, andshortening the duration of the studies.
2. All vocational education and training should
include workplace learning, while the quality
assurance, accountability and funding aspectsof workplace learning should be reviewed.
3. The legal and institutional basis of post-secondary vocational education and training
should be reviewed, and a position should betaken on whether to introduce a separate tertiary vocational education level.
4. The management and administration of
vocational education and training should be
improved by reassessing the roles of commissions and councils and defining the roles of thedifferent partners.
5. School counselling and career guidance should
be strengthened, both at the lower secondary
level and in the first year of upper secondary
school, and a larger number of students should
be encouraged to choose vocational programmes.

37

White paper on education reform

General measures
to support reform
Those nations that can be said to have set an example with their reform work
have prioritised a certain number of key aspects (McKinsey, 2010; UNESCO/IIEP 2012; Hargreaves and Shirley, 2012). Although the circumstances of eachnation are different and reform has been approached in various ways, all education systems have common foundations which must be strengthened if
good results are to be achieved. This section will discuss general measures
which are necessary to strengthen the foundations of the Icelandic education
system and build a capacity to change.
The education and work of teachers
An extensive analysis carried out by McKinsey(2007) concluded that the two most importantfactors influencing the performance of an
education system were the education and thework of teachers. The same conclusion has beendrawn in recent academic writings (Hargreaves andFullan, 2012).
If we are to succeed in preparing young people
for life and work in the 21st century, the educationand competence of teachers must reflect theeducation and competence which we want theirstudents to acquire. Therefore it is important to lay
down clear standards for teachers’ competence,
knowledge, skills and attitudes, based on student
learning objectives (OECD, 2005).
In Iceland, the total teaching workforce at all schoollevels below the tertiary numbers approximately
12,000 people: nearly 1,900 in upper secondary
schools, about 4,800 in compulsory schools, andmore than 5,500 in preschools. At all these schoollevels, recruitment of new teachers is low. A large
percentage of the teaching workforce will reachretirement age in the next 10 years. Already, morethan half of all upper secondary school teachers areover 50 years of age (see Figure 20) and even if thatage group is a smaller percentage of preschool andcompulsory school teachers, the youngest groupof teachers is not growing. Thus, 7.1 per cent ofpreschool teachers were 29 years old or younger in
38

2012, and among compulsory school teachers thispercentage was around 5.6 in the same year.
The Icelandic teaching profession will necessarily
undergo a period of rapid renewal in the years
to come. This will provide a golden opportunity
to draw up a new policy for the education
and work of teachers, in accordance withthe reform programme. The same applies toteachers’ continuing education and professional
development.
By the Act on the education and recruitmentof teachers and administrators of preschools,
compulsory schools and upper secondary schools,
No 93/2008, the duration of teacher education
programmes was increased to five years,
making the possession of a Master’s degree arequirement for teaching at all school levels. The
Regulation on the content of the education ofpreschool, compulsory school and upper secondary
school teachers, No 872/2009, is very open andprovides considerable leeway to higher education
institutions to organise new teacher education
programmes. However, answers still need to befound to many questions regarding the content ofteachers’ professional education, the core subjectsof teacher training, classroom training, the scopeof teacher licences, the specificity of each schoollevel, and teaching certification across levels.

General measures
to support reform

Recently, an expert panel on the continuing
education and professional development ofteachers was set up. The panel’s tasks will be topropose ideas and priorities regarding the training
and support that teachers should receive intheir work, and develop new teaching methods.
The Ministry of Education, Science and Culture
has also started consultations with teacher
education institutions on the content of teacher
education and increased cooperation in this field.
A collaboration project is already underway aiming
at strengthening the preschool level, including byattracting more students to the preschool teacher
training programmes.
An option currently being considered is to set
up a formal cooperation committee on teacher
education in order to promote the coordination of
its organisation and implementation, as well as its
connection with teachers’ continuing educationand professional development. Another proposal
under consideration is to review the Regulation inorder to clarify some of its provisions on thecontent of teacher education and the certificationof different groups of teachers. This would
include the relative emphasis to be placed on
specific subjects, teacher specialisation, and theorganisation of classroom training. It is important
to connect any such work to the priorities laid
down by the expert panel on the continuing
education and professional development ofteachers.
Plans called for the increased duration of teacher
training programmes to manifest itself by suchthings as longer periods of practical training in theclassroom, better structured practice teaching,
and real-world research by teacher students into
schooling, learning and teaching. Granting limited
certification to teacher students after they havecompleted a defined part of their education could
serve to boost practical training and strengthen
the links between schools and teacher education
institutions.

Figure 20 – Age distribution of upper secondary school teachers
in 2000 and 201240

A large percentage ofthe teaching workforce
will reach retirement
age in the next 10 years.

30

20

10

0

2000
2012

29 years and younger

30 to 39 years

40 to 49 years

50 to 59 years

60 years and older

Source: Statistics Iceland

39

White paper on education reform

Teaching practices and learning materials
When deciding on key goals for the education andcompetence of students, it is necessary to examine current teaching and learning practices and thelearning materials available. It has become evident
that people’s life and work will increasingly be filledwith digital technology and new and complicatedchallenges. Learning and teaching must clearly be
guided by what follows upon formal schooling.
‘New Pedagogy’ is a concept created by scholars
in an attempt to provide an answer to this urgent
problem in the school system (Michael Fullan,2013). Its basis is the assumption that in a situation
where students show no interest in school and see
it as boring, the teacher is bound to react. Clearly,
the new and irresistible digital technologies must

be incorporated into the teaching. The solution
is to introduce, in the immediate future, radical
changes to teaching practices and learning materials, based on increased cooperation between
teachers and students.
The use of digital technologies for learning andrecreation has increased rapidly, although this has
happened outside schools for the most part. Thereis a risk that the response to this technologicalrevolution will consist in attempts to either holdstudents back or push teachers aside while putting
technology first. Neither approach will work, and itis therefore necessary to embark on a fundamental
review of teaching practices and the use of diverse
learning materials. The knowledge and skills of

Figure 21 – Teacher attitudes toward teaching practices—
constructivism and direct transmission
Icelandic teachers standout for their emphasis
on guiding students
in their own search forknowledge.

0.60
0.40
0.20
0.00
-0.20
-0.40

40

Italy

Malaysia

Bulgaria

Spain

Portugal

BrazilLithuania

Ireland

MexicoHungary

TurkeyPolandNorwaySlovakia

Slovenia

Korea

Malta

Estonia

Denmark

Australia

Belgium (FL)

Source: OECD, TALIS survey
2008

Austria

Constructivism
Direct transmission

Iceland-0.60

General measures
to support reform

It is a considerable challenge for a small island
nation to keep up with other nations in the domain
of innovation in schooling and the development oflearning resources.

students must be harnessed for the benefit of
their teachers and fellow students. At the sametime, a wealth of increasingly varied online teaching materials is now available at all times, whether
day or night, opening up many new possibilities.
The New Pedagogy aims at engaging students
to take advantage of these possibilities with
their teachers’ help, including for the purpose ofstrengthening various types of reading and reading
comprehension.
Although the TALIS survey of the practices andbeliefs of teachers, conducted by the OECD in
2008, did not assess teaching practices directly,
its conclusions contain some indications of thosepractices. The survey looked at teachers’ attitudes
toward teaching practices and compared so-called‘direct transmission’, where the teacher transmits
knowledge to students, with ‘constructivism’,
where the students are guided in their own processof acquiring knowledge. Interestingly, Icelandic
teachers have according to TALIS a much more pronounced preference for constructivist approaches
than teachers in the comparison countries (seeFigure 21).
In a comparative study of the teaching of mathematics in Finland and Iceland, Lasse Savola (2010)
made video recordings of mathematics lessons
in the two countries, and analysed the teaching practices using a specific methodology. His
purpose was to compare teaching practices in two
Nordic countries where one—Finland—has fared
well in PISA, and where the performances of theother—Iceland—have exhibited a downward trend.
Savola points out that teaching in Iceland has inrecent years been characterised by an emphasis
on individualised learning, and that this may havestood in the way of a deeper and more substantial discussion of mathematical concepts, andof the provision of strong and direct guidance tostudents. By contrast, both of these aspects are amore conspicuous feature of teaching in Finland.

The results of the TALIS survey with regard to
Icelandic teachers’ attitudes, as well as of Savola’s
analysis of mathematics teaching, only provide
indications of Icelandic teaching practices. It is important to examine these results more closely andlook into ways to improve teaching.
Available learning resources affect both teachingpractices and the possibilities of teachers and students to make use of varied learning and teaching
methods. A report on digital learning resources
and their application in innovation in Iceland (OECD,2008) pointed out that it is a considerable challenge for a small island nation to keep up with other nations in the domain of innovation in schoolingand the development of learning resources. Development projects rest on the shoulders of a small
number of individuals, and assessment, follow-up
and support systems are weak. A large proportionof Icelandic teachers do not see the value in using
computers for teaching, and are conservative
toward change and innovation. The report recommended that Iceland make a point of learning fromother countries and take advantage of the ideas
and experiences of others in the development anduse of learning resources.
The report also pointed out that the market for
educational content in Iceland is very small andoligopolistic. In order to promote a more varied useof information and communication technologies
in learning and teaching, the report recommended
that public entities, such as the National Centre
for Educational Materials, cooperate with privatecompanies on reform projects and the systematicuse of these technologies.

41

White paper on education reform

All too often, reform is reduced to an endlesssuccession of pilot projects without a basis inresearch, and no attempt is made to learn fromprevious projects before launching a new one.

Evaluation and research
When deciding on goals, it is important to haveclear and measurable criteria of performance, andthe right tools to measure that performance. A
2010 report by McKinsey pointed out that countries go to different lengths in terms of establishing standards and measuring performancewith standardised tests. Every country which has
seen a need to improve schools’ performance inbasic skills, such as reading, has established clear
standards and coordinated measurements tomeet those standards. In Germany, for example,
common standards were introduced for certain
subjects in grades 4 and 10 of compulsory school,
as well as for graduation from upper secondary
school. The standards were modelled on international benchmarks and used to measure the same
performances as the PISA survey. The standards
were followed up with examinations administered
to a sample of students from all federal states ofGermany, but each state also has to organise its
own tests.
In Ontario, a similar strategy of standardised tests
was implemented. Reading and mathematics tests
are conducted in grades 3 and 6. In the first two
years of high school, students take examinations
in mathematics and reading, and in addition all
17-year-old high school students take a comprehensive reading test. The tests are administeredby a special institution and a particular emphasis
is on communicating the results to school boards,
schools and parents, so that they can be taken into
account in any assessment of the reform work.
The external evaluation of the quality of schoolingand study assessment are both necessary elements of any work to follow up education reformin Iceland. National coordinated examinations in
Icelandic and mathematics have been administered in grades 4, 7 and 10 of compulsory school,
and in grade 10 an examination in English is added.
As the examination questions have been publishedand are only used once, the results do not
42lend themselves to a year-on-year comparison.
However, by adapting the tests to the competence
standards of the National Curriculum Guide and therequired reading literacy competences, they can beused to evaluate the success of the reform meas­ures and provide students, teachers and administrators with information about their performances
compared to others. The purpose and benefit of
the examinations must also be evident.
In a similar fashion, the external evaluation ofschools can be useful for the review and assessment of reform. It is important in the beginningto establish criteria for the assessment of themeasures to be laid down, and to solicit the help of
independent foreign experts in this respect.
The UNESCO/IIEP report on education reformemphasises the need for quality research into thestate and performance of the system, and into thechanges that need to be made to improve performance. Such research promotes innovation. Disciplined innovation starts from previous experienceand knowledge and draws lessons from what has
been accomplished. All too often, reform is reduced
to an endless succession of pilot projects without abasis in research, and no attempt is made to learn
from previous projects before launching a new one.
By organising each project as a thoughtful experiment and studying the outcomes, it is possible toimprove both the policy and its implementation.
A report published by the Ontario Ministry of
Education (Zegarac and Franz, 2007) discussed theimportance of research and data for education
reform. The report stated that as a consequence ofthe need to succeed, there had been a shift toward
a culture of evidence-based policy and practice, notonly at the Ministry, but extending to the schoolboard, school and classroom, in a relatively shortperiod of time.

General measures
to support reform

The process of merging the Educational Testing
Institute and the National Centre for Educational
Materials has now started, and the new institution
is expected to play an important role in providing
better support services for the education system,
strengthening quality assurance and assessment,collecting data on the education system, andproviding evidence-based reporting.

This widespread use of research, evaluation andindicator data gave rise to a shared ‘language’ thatcrosses all barriers within the education system.
This made place for a more informed discussion
and ensured that each decision was based onreliable data. Leaders received encouragement andthe ownership of student outcomes was shared by
all those involved in policy-making: administrators,
educators, parents and communities. A positive
stance toward demanding and using sound data
and research results was the key to the success of
the reform effort system-wide.
A review of research in the domain of educationand schooling (Rannís and Ministry for Education,2005) stated that a large number of players wereinvolved in research into education in Iceland. Apartfrom higher education institutions, this includes
ministries, municipalities, administrative bodies
serving schools, and research institutions suchas the Educational Testing Institute. In addition,schools conduct various studies and reviews of
their internal operations. Finally, interest organisations and related bodies often carry out researchand investigations in the field of education.
The abovementioned review of research in education recommended the setting up by all theseparties of a joint forum to discuss priorities in education research, research funding, the reporting ofresults, and their use. This would make it possible
to hold consultations between researchers, schools
and the public authorities on priorities and the useof research to assess performance. The Icelandic
Educational Research Association and the School
Development Association have in recent years put
in a good effort to raise the profile of education
research and the results of pilot projects.
In order to follow up education reform, it is important to have access to pools of data making it
possible for schools and municipalities to assess
their position in comparison to others and monitor
the success of reform measures.

Support services strengthened
in a new institution
The process of merging the Educational Testing
Institute and the National Centre for Educational
Materials has now started, and the new institution
is expected to play an important role in providing
better support services for the education system,
strengthening quality assurance and assessment,collecting data on the education system, andproviding evidence-based reporting. It will also be
responsible for curriculum development and learning resources, and will handle administrative tasks
in relation to vocational education.
No significant changes are foreseen as regards thetasks of the Educational Testing Institute in relation to coordinated examinations and surveys

conducted in compulsory schools, although thearrangement of the examinations may changein accordance with new priorities. The main taskof the National Centre for Educational Materials, which is to provide compulsory schools withlearning materials, will remain unchanged, andthis is where future policy on learning materials
will be shaped. The aim is to increase the use ofdigital resources and broaden the choice of learningmaterials. The planning of the new institution’s implementing phase is expected to take place during
the first half of 2014, and will include the draftingof a bill, to be presented to the Althing in the autumn. This should allow the institution to become
operable at the beginning of 2015.
43

White paper on education reform

Conclusion
Few aspects of life have greater significance for humans than education. The
education received by our children in schools shapes both their lives and how
they fare in their quest for maturity. The quality of that education is a mat­ter of concern for us all, and of consequence to society as a whole and todemocratic and economic development.
Politicians, labour market organisations, parents and, not to forget, educators, are becoming
increasingly concerned about education reform.
A variety of compelling interests are at stake,paving the way for polarising opinions and heateddebates. It is imperative to reach a consensus on
the principal goals and to work toward those goals
through a common and concerted effort.
This White Paper lays down the goals that by 2018,90 per cent of Icelandic compulsory school pupils
should meet minimum reading and reading comprehension standards, up from 79 per cent currently, and that 60 per cent of upper secondary students should graduate on time, up from 44 per centcurrently. A prerequisite for attaining these goals
is for a wide agreement to be reached, and for thelarge number of players in the field of education to
be prepared to contribute to their success.
It is necessary for authorities to send a clear
message on the reform, including on the increased
emphasis on Icelandic in the National Curriculum
Guides and the prioritisation of reading and reading
literacy, the reorganisation of the duration ofprogrammes through the shortening of upper secondary studies, and the restructuring of vocational
programmes. The necessity of implementing thesemeasures has been argued for by reference todata, international comparisons and the experienceof other nations. Opinion may be divided on someof the priorities, which then will need to be debatedfurther, but it is important for any such discussion
to be supported by facts and sound arguments.
This White Paper is intended as a contribution tothat discussion.
44

Many of the proposals herein still need to be developed in detail. This applies not least to general
reform in the domains of teacher education, teaching practices, learning resources, quality assurance
and assessment, and education research andschool development. These are areas that requirea long-term perspective and an effort to learn
from the nations which perform best in terms ofeducation.
A broad consultation with interested parties will
follow the publication of this White Paper. This
will include all those with a stake in education anda desire to contribute to its development. The
proposed strategy is to set up working groups on
specific areas of reform, and to build on the consultation to plan long-term and short-term measureson which a consensus can be reached. A priority
will be to reach out to the staff of schools and tothe communities, and to give them the necessary space and appropriate support to take on thereform agenda. All parties involved will come up
with ideas on possible solutions, which will need to
be tested, evaluated and reported. In that context,
an important role will be reserved for pilot projects,
the professional development of teachers, evaluation, and research.
The changes to the Icelandic education system
which have been discussed above are substantial
in nature and will take a long time to implement.
Therefore, it is necessary to reach a consensus
on how to sustain the reform work over a longer
period than one electoral term. The intention is torecruit the help of foreign experts capable of supporting decisions on further measures and advising

Conclusion

Iceland is capable of improving the education of its
young people so as to ensure that they enjoy thesame opportunities as their counterparts in othercountries to live and work in a modern society
and take on future challenges in an effective andcreative manner.

on their implementation. Their role will also be toprovide an independent assessment of the resultsof any implemented measures.
The experience of other nations shows that reform
can deliver good results within only a few years if aconsensus is reached on its goals and the work to
be carried out to achieve them. This is illustrated by
the fact that a number of countries with education systems that are many times larger and more
complex than the Icelandic one have succeededin constantly improving the performances andlearning progress of their students. Such successes
are not achieved automatically but are the resultof a concerted effort by many parties over a long
period of time.
Iceland has also demonstrated its ability to improve the position of young people throughwell-targeted and coordinated measures. Thus,
substance use among 15-year-olds in Iceland has
been reduced very considerably. As seen in Figure
22, the consumption of alcohol, tobacco and cannabis has fallen continuously since 1998, and thepercentage of teenagers using these substances
is now only a fraction of what it used to be. This
was achieved by gathering a broad group of people
to work together on a clear goal over a long periodof time, relying on research, and immediately
assessing the results of all measures. By using asimilar approach, Iceland will be able to improvethe education of its young people so as to ensurethat they enjoy the same opportunities as theircounterparts in other countries to live and work in amodern society and take on future challenges in an
effective and creative manner.

Figure 22 – Substance use among 15- to 16-year-olds
Consumption of alcohol,
tobacco and cannabis
has fallen continuously since 1998, andthe percentage ofteenagers using thesesubstances is now only
a fraction of what it
used to be.

50
40
30
20

Consumed alcohol in
the past 30 days
Daily smokers
Used cannabis at least once

10
0

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

Source: Rannsóknir og greining

45

White paper on education reform

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47

White paper on education reform

Ministry of Education, Science and Culture
June 2014

Published by: Ministry of Education, Science and Culture		
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101 Reykjavík
		
Telephone: 545 9500
		
Fax: 562 3068
		E-mail address: postur@mrn.is		Website: eng.menntamalaraduneyti.is
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