Daily Life as Poetry: The Meaning of the Pastoral Songsof the Karimojong in Northeastern Uganda

ITSUHIRO HAZAMA
Nagasaki University

The Karimojong have two genres of songs: eete and emong. Emong is a kind of song that
individuals other than the composer refrain from singing in public; these songs mention specificcastrated animals owned and herded by the composer/singer. A consciousness grounded in theideology ofidentification with a castrated animal has had a profound effect on the structural features of this creative endeavor. Nevertheless, references to oxen constitute only a small portionof the lyrics of these songs, which describe the life-worlds of singers as they engage in the daily
subsistence activities of pastoralism. This paper describes gender divisions of the singing situation characterizing emong and eete songs as well as the 'empirical' features of emong and examines:(1) how singing emong enables the singer to satisfy personal needs; (2) how visual images ofanimal coats function as a metaphoric source; and (3) how visual experiences, the sources of the
poetic imagination, are transformed into auditory illusions through the manipulation of color
and visual perception.

Key words: Eastern Nilotic pastoral people, imagination, memory, ox songs, visual perception

1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. Human-Animal Relations in East African Pastoral Societies
Haudricourt (1969) characterized human engagement with livestock among groups practicing wheat
agriculture in west Asian and Mediterranean regions as being built on collective intervention intoanonymous existence. His basic theory was that animals, particularly livestock, are generally anonymous to humans. However, observation of human-animal relationships in hunting and pastoral
subsistence societies reveals a unique familiarity between humans and individual animals in pastoral
societies. Knight {2005) suggested that hunters become familiar with the general behavioral patternsof an animal species through time and accumulated experience, but that hunters lack familiarity withindividual animals. In contrast, domestication provides the temporal and spatial conditions for familiarity to emerge between humans and animals. For example, identification and memory ofindividual
animals is a basic skill essential for herders to guide the herd, to assist mothers and infants for the
purpose of milking, and to establish the absence or presence of individual animals in the herd.
In contrast to reindeer pastoralism in north Eurasia, horse and sheep pastoralism in the steppes ofcentral Asia, sheep pastoralism in the mountains of the Mediterranean coast, camel, goat and sheep
pastoralism in the semi-desert region from North Mrica to the Middle East, yak and sheep pastoralism in the Tibetan plateau, and llama and alpaca pastoralism in the mountains of South America,
Mrican pastoralism tends to be less dependent upon, or related to, market-based transactions. O> In
Nilo-Ethiopian Studies 17: 27-49 (2012)

Copyright© 2012.Japan Association for Nilo-Ethiopian Studies

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Nilo-Ethiopian Studies

East Mrican pastoral societies in particular, economic co-existence between farmers and herders is
less developed than in West Mrican pastoral societies, and the tendency toward self-sufficiency isstrong. Sato (1984) studied social characteristics among East Mrican pastoral societies and founda heavy dependence on animal products as food and frequent use of animals as goods for social
exchange, rather than for sale as in a market economy. In East Mrica, cattle are the most importantof all pastoral animals, economically, psychologically, and socially. The mode of existence in pastoral
societies based on this close relationship between humans and cattle is well known among researchers
as the 'cattle complex.'
Homewood (2008) noted that the herds ofWest Mrican pastoralists can be regarded as commercialized herds, compared with the 'cattle complex' mode of East Mrican pastoralism. For example, in
East Mrica even old and skinny animals that have lost market value, by having lost weight or being
unable to reproduce or provide milk, are retained within herds. Pastoralists tend to maintain the largest herd possible, which may enable them to survive in arid regions in times of plague and drought.
East Mrican traditional pastoral societies are labor intensive. In general, many family members are
involved in animal husbandry. Furthermore, unlike the ranching system in which commercial value
determines livestock production, personalized ties are formed between people, especially men, andanimals (Galaty 1989). The Dodoth carry out a particular ritual to celebrate cows that have died ofold age (Kawai 2004). In Turkana, the expression 'old cow' is a term of respect, indicating that one
has survived many diseases and droughts (Broch-Due 1999).
Eastern Nilotic pastoral peoples keep adult male animals even after castration. Castrated animals
do not contribute to the reproduction of the herd, but they are a main source of blood, which is foodfor the herders. Individual castrated animals have personal value as important symbols; even theearliest ethnographies of East Mrican pastoral societies described the strong relationship between ox
and man in the context of ox songs.
The populations of northeastern Mrica compose, chant, and sing 'ox songs' in admiration of their
beloved oxen and in celebration of the peculiar connection between oxen and humans (EvansPritchard 1956; Gourlay 1972; Deng 1973; Ohta 1987). These practices can be interpreted as part ofthe overt behavior defined by Seligman and Seligman (1932) and Evans-Pritchard (1956) as 'identification.' Researchers have focused extensively on the altered state of consciousness characterizing
the singer, who identifies physically with his favorite ox while performing musically, and on the
linguistically nondeterministic phenomenon of whether the subject of the song lyrics is the singer or
his favorite ox.
Performances leading to self-surrender by singing aria-inflected songs about oxen in solemn voices
have been recorded among the Nuer (Evans-Pritchard 1956) and the Dinka (Lienhardt 1961). Bell(1949), who explored northeastern Uganda (Fig. 1) in the early twentieth century in order to huntelephants and trade ivory, wrote about how the Karimojong, an Eastern Nilotic pastoral people, imitated the behavior of oxen.
Several theories have been proposed to explain why the ox was selected as the object of identification. Among East Mrican pastoral societies, humans are often treated as analogous to oxen but
not to bulls. Indeed, oxen embody the virtues of ideal body size, strength, beauty, and sociability,
characteristics that are very different from the wiriness, boniness, and misbehavior associated withbulls (Beidelman 1966). Furthermore, the sexual ambiguity of castrated oxen enables these animals
to function as media for peak experiences in rituals designed for spiritual communication with supernatural and mystical worlds (Beidelman 1966; Hutchinson 1980).

1.2. Problem of Consciousness
The use of oxen as media for spiritual communion implies that this cultural phenomenon is strongly
related to religious beliefs (Evans-Pritchard 1956). However, as discussed below, Karimojong men
ubiquitously sing emong in a variety of everyday situations, apart from rituals. Lyrics referring to oxen
are only a small portion of all the lyrics in songs describing the life-worlds of singers as they engage inthe daily subsistence activities of pastoralism. Existing theories leave unanswered questions about the29

HAZAMA: Daily Life as Poetry*

Kapocta

ToposaLEGENDSUDAN Coumry
Toposa Ethnic group
Bokora Territorial group* Administrative center

N

t

SUDAN

KENYA

Turkana*

Lodwart

40

Kilometers

Fig. 1. Map of northeastern Uganda, Karamoja

structure of the lyrics used in ox songs and how the singers of these songs are related to the genre.
In "Imagery in Ngok Dinka Cattle-Names" (1934), Evans-Pritchard described how pastoralists
in southern Sudan referred to their cattle by color or by the relationships between colors and otherphenomena; he promised to publish a more complete account of the nomenclature used by thispopulation to refer to cattle. He repeated this promise in 7he Nuer (1940), but the linguistic culture
surrounding the conceptualization of livestock, which he described in 1940 as a neglected subject,remains to be elucidated (Coote 1992).
A number of relatively recent branches of literary research on various forms of art have adopted
an ideological approach with regard to ind ividuals and the societies in which they operate (Bakhtin1975). Studies o n the art of pastoral songs have not been exempt f rom this tradition. Indeed, in thisregard, the problem of the consciousness of the researchers, in addition to the ideology of identifying with a castrated animal, has had a profound effect on approaches to understanding the structuralfeatures at the heart of this creative endeavor (e.g., Gourlay 1972) .
I began my field research among the Karimojong people in August 1998 and among the D odoth
people in January 2003 in an effort to elucidate the herdi ng ecology among the pastoral societies of
Karamoja, northeastern Uganda. This paper is mainly based on data recorded between D ecember
1998 and March 1999 in Moroto, the main residence of the Karimojong people.
In my first phase of research in Karamoja, I identified each goat in the focal herd and recorded
and analyzed group membership during daylong herding trips based on proximity and interactions
between shepherd and goats, applying methods used in animal sociology (Hazama 2002). As boys
shepherded in the pasture grounds, they would sing tunes they had composed. Each Karimojong
herder and shepherd had his own songs that he composed on his own. Boys aged around 10 years

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Ni/o-Ethiopian Studies

sang basic songs listing animal names. <2>This paper explores what kinds of phenomena the Karimojong songs addressed and how they wererelated to daily pastoral activities such as herding, acquiring, watching, and celebrating animals. It
also explores how song lyrics have been integrated into the life-world of this culture and how the
lyrics mediate creative vision.

1.3. Overview ofthe Karimojongpeople
The language of the Karimojong people is calledNgakarimojongand is classified into the Teso-Turkanacluster of Eastern Nilotic (Nilo-Saharan) languages (Gregersen 1977). The cluster consists of theTeso, Karimojong,Jie, and Dodoth in Uganda, the Turkana in Kenya, the Toposa andJiye in Sudan,
and the Nyangatom in Ethiopia. With the exception of the Teso, all these peoples depend strongly
on livestock production and base their subsistence and social foundations on pastoralism.
These peoples used to be one group; they began migrating from the MoruApolon ('Big Mountain')region in northwestern Kenya 200 years ago and subsequently divided, forming the prototypes of thepresent groups {Lamphear 1976).
The Karamoja region, including Karimojong land, is remote and far from Kampala, the capitalof Uganda. Recently, violent conflicts between peoples in this area over cattle raiding and ambush
attacks against vehicles have resulted in social insecurity and increased isolation, more so than in otherregions of Uganda. Some youths who are school-educated and employed speak English, Italian, andKiswahili well, but the predominant language in Karimojong society is Ngakarimojong. Job Loor
published a Ngakarimojong dictionary, the Karimojong English Dictionary, in 1976. In 1985, Bruno
Novelli wrote a 541-page book, A Grammar of the Karimojong Language, which provides a detailed
syntax according to contexts and position class analysis of verbs.
The first monograph based on long-term fieldwork among the Karimojong was written by DysonHudson {1966), who carried out research in the 1950s on the cultural ecology of Karimojong politics. Dyson-Hudson reported that the segmentary lineage system plays a minor role in structuring
Karimojong society and that the society is decentralized. Karimojong political community is built
upon territorial segments divided according to neighborhood of residence. Dyson-Hudson explainedthat the goal of the political policy is to satisfy the cattle interests of the community, based on agreement among members under the authority of elders in an age-grade system.
Knighton (2005) demonstrated that the traditional Karamojong religion<3> is flexible and has
been altered in terms of both concept and ritual practice. Historical changes affecting religion haveincluded the social and psychological importance of marriage, the regulation of sex and kin by cattle,
and the cultural value of cattle. Sundal {2009) conducted medical anthropological research on indigenous practices related to health problems caused by physical violence during cattle raiding and by
structural violence.

2. GENRE, CONTEXT, AND REMEMBERING
2.1. Ox songs
The Karimojong begin composing pastoral songs when they start caring for herds. This practice iscontinued throughout their lifetimes, during which the songs are memorized and accumulated byrepeated singing. Attitudes about ox songs and the ways in which they are performed differ substantially from attitudes about, and the performance of, traditional songs associated with rituals for age
cohorts and territorial groups.
When the situation is appropriate, men always prefer to sing an ox song that they have composed
themselves rather than a group song. They demonstrate ecstatic behavior while singing aria-inflectedox songs but not while performing strong and rhythmic elephant dances. The singer makes a great
effort to identify the ox as the object of a song by jumping with raised arms, forming the shape of thehorns of the ox, and by locking 'horns' with others.

HAZAMA: Daily Life as Poetry

31

Among the Eastern Nilotic pastoral societies of northeastern Uganda, the song genre that refers
to a particular castrated animal is known as emong, which originally meant 'ox.' The term eoth, which
is derived from aeo, means the action of singing. It has been dichotomized into subcategories of eete
and emong (Fig. 2). Eete refers to a genre of songs in which the composer is unknown and the songis shared collectively by members of the society; it includes references to totems such as animals,
plants, and other objects that have special relationships with particular human populations, including
age cohorts, generations, territorial groups, and descendants. Emong refers to a genre of songs that
individuals other than the composer (elope) refrain from singing in public; the songs generally refer tospecific castrated animals that are owned and herded by the composer/singer.
Young men sing the emongs that they have composed to members of their own generation, whoclap their hands and sing along with the chorus while leaping upward (edonga) in the moonlightwhen the rainy season has ended and the community has an abundance of food and peaceful relationships with neighboring groups. Boys' emongs are rhythmical, but the songs sung by young men convey
a sense of regality; these are regarded as 'true' edongas, while the emongs of boys are regarded as 'ludic'
edongas. Eete songs are sung in unison, and choral renditions are very common. Most songs are sungin unison, punctuated by periodic solos, yielding music that includes both choral and solo portions.
At singing parties attended by unmarried women (abolia), eetes are sung in unison by singers
crowded into a hut, who sit on the ground with their legs extended straight out in front of them. At
assemblies involving the drinking of sorghum beverages, men chant individual songs in loud voices
into the middle of the night. Songs are also sung during daily subsistence activities such as harvesting
agricultural crops and daylong herding trips. Work songs accompany collective labor in cultivatedfields. Herders and shepherds sing emongs while they herd cattle and goats in the absence of otherhumans, claiming that singing encourages the animals to relax and graze better.
Males who covet the cattle owned by another person compose a song praising the animal's appearance and stand outside its pen for weeks or months, singing the song for the animal. I was informedthat initiation rites for generation and age sets involve singing directed at totems as well as dancing,
and that emong songs are sung when an ox is sacrificed as part of the male rite of initiation, but I was
unable to actually observe these events. Thus, emong songs, which are associated with a particular
individual animal, are sung not only during rituals but also during various segments of daily life
including subsistence activities, socializing, and entertainment.
Emong songs are composed the first time that a boy acts as a shepherd during a daylong herding
trip involving small livestock (goats and sheep). Men who have never acted as shepherds cannot

aeo(to sing)I
eoth(singing)

I

I

I

eete

emong

(singing totem,
shared generally )(singing an individual livestock, owned
personally)
Fig. 2. Category of song32

Nilo-Ethiopian Studies

compose emongs despite being male. Gender differences appear between emong and eete songs (Table1); females do not sing emong songs because daylong herding trips are conducted only by males.

2.2. Composition
I recorded, transcribed, and translated a total of 745 individual ox songs composed by 33 people toanalyze the lyrics. These songs were independent of each other and did not contain overlapping
lyrics. The number of songs composed by each man varied greatly, but averaged more than 20 songs.
One 8-year-old boy had already composed five songs, and a 54-year-old man had composed the mostsongs (158; see Table 2).
Emongs are composed by voicing lyrics while standing or walking alone in front of cattle, goat, andsheep herds in the pasture.
[Case]
At 3 PM, a young shepherd was standing and looking after some goats and sheep that were spread
across a flat pasture; they were browsing, slowly grazing, or ruminating while lying on the ground.
One breeding male goat approached, in front of the shepherd, and browsed with his head pointing
toward the shepherd. Mter a few moments, a faint melodic song including the name of this goat
emerged from the boy's mouth; beginning with brief utterances, the boy soon repeatedly whispered
longer phrases such as "epuki akim tomacaretei Lolinga-Tulya" in a high tone for a few minutes. (28Jan.1999}
This song's lyrics included, "Sending wind into fire, Lolinga-Tulya is branded," and it was thefirst emong this boy had composed. During the previous night, the young shepherd had held down
Lolinga-Tulya, a goat with large spots on his face and neck; it screamed as its skin was burned bya red-hot iron. On the following day, Lolinga-Tulya finished its morning grazing, drank water at awell, rested, and then grazed during the afternoon in one spot. The shepherd remembered how it
had struggled and screamed the previous night and how he had watched "our clan mark" (emacar; themark of the shepherd's clan) being branded on its body, while the goat grazed on ground that had
been fresh and unblemished the previous day. It was at this point that the shepherd produced thesong, by means of a relatively unusual process. <4>
The Karimojong do not refer to 'composing (or making) a song' but, rather, to 'remembering a song'[atamun (emong)]. During a song's composition, both the melody and the lyrics of an entire song
Table 1. Genre choice according to context
emong (ox song)

eete (general song)

song and dance party~·

Xsong partyX0drinking beer together~X

cultivation~

0~

grazing~X

begging of animal~Xwooing~X

wedding ceremonyX0

initiation?

?

a ritual for rain~~a ritual for treatment

X0*~ sung by men, 0 sung by women

33

HAZAMA: Daily Life as Poetry

Table 2. Age of composers* and number of his own songs
Informant Number

Age

Number of his own songs

1

8

5

2

10

5

3

10

11

4

11

2

5
6

11

17

7

16
18

26
61

8

20

26

9

21

10

10

21

11

11

21

12

23

55
12

13
14
15

23
23
24

26
18
4

16

25

18

17
18
19

25
25
26

46
32

20
21

32

13

32

8

22

32

23

39

30
21

24

40

22

25

40
40

26
31

27
28

54

158

56

11

29

56

1

30
31
32

56
56
57

9

33

69

26

2

1
5
22
745

*All of composers are male.

usually, unpredictably, 'visit' the composer at the same time, rather than emerge in pieces, as in thecase described above. Once the emong is remembered, it is memorized by repeated singing so that it
can be sung when appropriate.

Nilo-Ethiopian Studies

34

3. PERSONAL NEED
The most prominent and unique linguistic feature of emong songs is the 'empiricism' reflected in theirlyrics; the lyrics refer to visible and tangible external objects and events that the composer has direcdy
experienced. Lyrics may refer to herding, raiding cattle, begging, the appearance of livestock, andevents at sedentary settlements.
Herding, a daily activity, accounts for the greatest proportion (more than one-third) of song subjects (Table 3). Within this general category, songs in which the singer asks individual animals or
shepherds to do something are particularly common. Songs about goat herding are much more frequent among younger shepherds (aged around 10) than among males of other ages, because younger
shepherds are responsible for herding goats. This trend reflects the pastoral Karimojong's life-stages:
a career as a herder begins with herding of goats and sheep but not cattle.
For example, one song [Song: Herding 1] tells a particular castrated goat (Natuliangiro) to follow
a shepherd (who was shepherding a herd of goats and sheep together with the composer) wearing
sandals rather than walking barefoot, signaling the beginning of a daylong herding trip. Another[Song: Herding 2] introduces the composer's behavior ("I took it to graze") and mentions the hidecolor of the ox and its big hump, which is a physical feature of Zebu species (Bos primigenius indicus)
and indicates sufficient feeding.
[Song: Herding 1]
Natuliangiro 1 kiwapa
ngilewa.
Iteba iyong Lokinr a a/emu ngamuk.
1

2

Goat name: gray (ngiro) patch on the head (tulya)
Friend's name, in-law[Song: Herding 2]
Lolingapira1 a Dengelt?
eramiramaki
towo nyakiliri
1

Natuliangiro, you follow
the native warriors.
Do you see Lokiru wearing shoes?

Lolingapira of Dengel
I took it to graze.
Its long and big hump stood.

Ox name: color pattern like a ball (epira) with a white background around its neck and heart (elinga)

2 Cousin's nameSongs about cattle raiding are the most popular among those concerning the possession of animals.
Men aged in their 20s to 40s compose the largest proportion of raiding songs. These songs include
the names of the individual cattle that were raided or the name of their favorite ox (sometimes these
are the same), the names of those who accompanied the singer on the raid, and names of the raiding
sites.
The raiding song [Song: Raiding 1] below describes an instance in which the raiders (the composer, Nangoli, and Lokwang) were articulating the individual name of each animal and the names of
Nangoli's wife (akiwanga) in preparation to launch an attack against the Pokot, a neighboring pastoral society. Akiwanga also refers to the behavior by which the fighter's body is made "hot" enough to
be ready to fight. [Song: Raiding 2] includes five personal names of raiders; these raiders were told
by an elder before the attack that they should raid from the enemy, and they confirm their behavior
during the attack.
[Song: Raiding 1]
ikinyaritae Nyemeriakwangania 1•
oiyo, arimata ngataruku.
arimata na Upt?.

You are being called Emeriakwangan.
Oh! Vultures have flocked.
They have flocked to the Upe.

HAZAMA: Daily Life as Poetry

35

Table 3. Topic of songs
LARGE
CATEGORYMIDDLE CATEGORY
talking to their livestock

SMALL CATEGORY

117

behavior of livestock
behavior of human beings
grass
river
enemy territory/foreign landgrazing land

66

place of dust bathcattle camp (awi)airplanedrought
rainfallidentification
fighting
dust bathaccompanying
moving

Grazing295

feeding
bellowing/producing a soundbeings and doings of livestock65

sleeping
drinking water
annoying behaviorbirth
a coward
surprisedsicknesschasing a bird away
interpersonal relationshipbeings and doings of humanbeings37

armingsleep
wearing sandals

asking a question

10

280

268

12

6
7
3
1
1
1
6
1
10
25
1
1

calling the name12

giftingexchangebride wealthrelationship with owned livestock

1
3
1
4
3
18
9

birth

worrying about livestock
raidingacquisition and loss

3
4

1
9
183
52
23
5
4
1

cleverness of livestockbegging
Possession of
livestock

83
34
21
2
21
1
13
1

Nilo-Ethiopian Studies

36

Table 3. (Continued)

furappearance ofthe body of
livestock

horns

32

ears

15

brand

64

ritual21

cultivation

32
7

shine

3

beating

18

shape

14

cutting

14

shape

1

branding

3

figure

3

hump

1

size

1

20

10

13

dewlap1

collar5

cow bell3slaughter

19

treatment

2

visitor5

greeting

9family2

love, romance4

call livestock to action

7

description of behavior of livestock3

supporting election

5

meeting2

collecting blood2

shopping

2

smearing cow dung on the ground1

eating on the sly by a goat

1745

enyarito ngikilioko ngakecheberu.
oo, nyara dang nyeka mong emoriki ka ngalepono.
enyariti Nangoft"3 akepese,
Nangoli angina inoki akim nakware.
oo, nyara dang nyeka mong emoriki ka ngalepono.
enyariti Lokwant akepese,
Lokwang ngolo inoki akim nakware.
1

3

8

other

Ox name: spotted (meri) on white (akwan) body
Place name: the Pokot land
3
Friend Ks name4
Friend B's name26

decoration

human relationshipTotalpatterncolor

106----------------------------~-----------------------

body

Events at thesemi-permanent
settlement (ere)42

Men have been calling their wives.
Oh! I call also my ox and cows.
Nangoli called his wife,
the one who makes fire at night.
Oh! I call also my ox and cows.
Lokwang called his wife,
the one who makes fire at night.

HAZA.MA: Daily Life as Poetry

37[Song: Raiding 2]

e.foko kona akirworo a ngikakasikou.
aramu nyakirebe epolo Lotwalatwalameri1•
Lokwangfil topupi ngakiro ata papa, ata papa,
Makuk1.
ebala papa a Mangate4 taramu ngaatuk anariyiete.
Angolia5 topupi ngakiro ana.fore.
ana.fore ata Lomilio6, abasi inyakete oguma ngimoe
kibinoko
1

It's good now to be talking with my old men.
The army has driven Lotwalatwalameri alreadybig.
Lokwang, take heed of the words of the father,of the father, Makuk.
The father of Mangat said, "Raid the animals
from foreign areas."
Angoli, take heed of the words of the army.
The army of Lomilo said, "While runningup and down, let's shoot against enemies"
speaking.

Ox name: small spotted markings

2

Friend Its nameFriend B's name
4Younger brother's name5
In-law's name6
Friend Its name3

At the most abstract level, the structure of the lyrics demonstrates a general tendency to refer tocollaborative activities involving the composer and others, in addition to referring to the names ofindividual livestock. At first glance, comparisons among songs about only livestock, human beings,
or places underscored the prominence of songs centered only on livestock (Fig. 3). However, thevast majority of songs associate livestock with human beings and places; that is, specific livestock arepositioned in specific places that also include people.
An ethnomusicologist who conducted field research in northeastern Uganda during the 1960s
noted that composers sang about personal events in ox songs and that singing the composition satis-

livestock118

human beings

places44

14

Fig. 3. Number of Songs referring to livestock, human beings, and placesNilo-Ethiopian Studies

38

fied the personal needs of the singer as a composer {Gourlay 1971). This characterization appears to
be correct, insofar as the song refers to a real-life situation. Additionally, it is important to note thedichotomy between 'social' and 'personal' domains, which are so mutually exclusive that the satisfaction of a personal need cannot be understood or shared by other people. However, the personal satisfaction experienced by singing emong seems to be acquired in collaborative interactions with specificpeople and animals in particular places at particular times, which are unique in that they involve thesinger himself serving as one of the raiders, shepherds, and stockholders.
Karimojong men can beg for animals with their favorite hide color or color pattern. Each man has
a favorite coat color or pattern, and the word for their favorite color is adopted as part of his name.
[Case]
The favorite coat pattern and color of Alengia Apalongorok is ngorok {black and white spots thatare larger than other types of spots; see Photo 1). He begged for an ox with his favorite coat configuration and explained its appearance as follows: "I saw one head of cattle of the neighboring
territorial group at the watering place of the cattle camp (awi). The animal has a white part thatis smooth like a candle. It walks softly with a long stride without splashing water and mud, andthe white part does not get dirty. Black spots around the mouth move together with the lips when
sucking up water."
The animals that are typically the objects of begging, due to a favorite color or pattern, are oxen,premature male cattle, castrated goats, breeding goats, wethers {castrated sheep), and rams. The person
begging tries to collect animals with his favorite coat color and include them in his herd to exhibit 'hiscolor.' He goes to the owner's pen with his herd and begs by saying, "This is my color. Why haven't
I taken you {the animal) to graze and water? Why don't you {owner of the animal) give me thisone? Give it to me. You will get an animal and stay well." The beggar's attitude of self-confidence,
exemplified by statements such as "it is natural to give," is so strong that it may be more appropriate
to describe this interaction as 'pressing for giving' rather than begging. Then, the beggar goes into
the pen where the animal is and sings songs about his favorite coat color all through the night. The
beggar visits the owner's pen to sing repeatedly for a month to a year. Once the gift is conferred, thebeggar and the former owner invite and entertain each other. This mutual friendship through giftgiving is called the "tie of the friend" (aiyan ngina akone nu), and the partners use this term to refer toeach other. Once this friendship is established, the two friends continue to visit each other and give
each other gifts through begging. Their family members refrain from marrying each other.
Begging songs increase dramatically after the age of 50. In [Song: Begging 1], the composer,
whose favorite color pattern is ngole {white patch on the forehead), is going to Lotome where theowner resides. The composer and the animal's owner are already official friends through the gift of ananimal. In the last line, the composer asks a man who will visit Lotome to remind the owner of thecomposer's request for an ox with ngole.
In [Song: Begging 2], the composer sings his history mentioning each instance of begging fromthree different men and explains the reason for the recurring begging as a case of being captured byan endless, unsatisfied desire for cattle. In this society, begging for a favored animal can be performed
very proudly, as a cultural behavior, so 'stomach' or hunger for livestock naturally results in face-toface interaction with others and promotes the formation of social networks through each gift.
[Song: Begging 1]
am in elipu ngikiliok ngolo ti kamong ngole1•

omianakinos Aburti.
inakinae Nakoru NachodrJ ekakone.
amini elipu Ngitome,
omianakinos Abura.

I am going to beg men for an ox with a whitepatch on the forehead.
Let us give each other Abura.
I have given my friend, Nakoru Nachodo.
I am going to beg the people of Lotome,
Let us give each other Abura.

I-IAZAMA: Daily Life as Poetry

kimalakinae Tukei4 ekakone.

39

Greet for me, Tukei, my friend.

1

White patch on the forehead (ngole)
Friend Ns name3
Friend fils name (same person as Abura)
4
Friend B's name, who is going to visit Ns village

2[Song: Begging 2]

akameki Loseuni 1 Losilit walatwala'l.
eliputu Lokokt-J eche mong,abu otema kori cha alata ngaatuk ikwa emam ikwa
ekidioko.
elip Lokwakan Lopur eche mong.
abu otema kori cha a lata ngaatuk ikwa emam ikwa
ekidioko.
elipu Redarot Longor Nabw5 eche mong.

Ah! The hunger for cattle will never be satisfied.
L oseun has given me Losilitwalatwala.
Let's beg another ox from Lokoki.
I thought that the cattle had become many,(but) they were not. They were very few.
I begged another ox from L okwakan Loput.
I thought that the cattle had become many,(but) they were not. They were very few.
I begged another ox from R edarot L ongor

abu otema kori cha alata ngaatuk ikwa emam ikwa
ekidioko.

I thought that the cattle had become many,(but) they were not. They were very few.

aah, ngimwonene nyakook ngaatuk.

Nabur.

1

Friend Ns name

2 Ox name: white part overlaps the spine (sil) and there are like markings o n either side (twa/atwa/a)

Ns name (same person as Loseun)
Friend B's name5
F riend C's name
3 Friend
4

In [Song: Color Pattern 1], spots (ngameriyeki) are described as if they are liquid and spreading.
Abukoki is the verb for something liquid that expands to increase its surface area. 1he composer ofthis song explained that at the beginning of a rainfall, raindrops form spots on the body of the animal
as well as in the air, the surface of the ground, and the body of the shepherd, which is usually dusty.
Ngameriyeki, spots formed by raindrops, are associated with color patterns or the arrangement ofcolor, but not with color itself, as opposed to ngorok, meri (Photo 2), and koli on the bodies of oxen.
In songs, color patterns of animals are often associated with body ornamentation. For example, ananimal with many spots of various colors such as red, black, yellow, gray, and white may be compared

Photo 1. ngorok

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Photo 2. meri

with a beaded ornament. In [Song: Color Pattern 2], white lines on the body are compared with aleather anklet (epokoi) and the front-beaded apron worn by girls (etele) .
[Song: Color Pattern 1]
abukoni ngameriyeki1 nyakaua, akawua a Siliyil,o ngameriki.
abukokirri ngameriyeki L osilingorokrJ nyakawua.
abukokini ngameriyeki Lomeringoroko4 nyakawua.
abukokini ngameriyeki L oko/ingorokaS nyakawua.
abukokini ngangoroko6 L osilingoroko nyakawua.

The spots have spread at the back of Siliye.
Ooh! Spots!
Spots have spread L osilingorok, (at) the back(of it).
Spots have spread Lomeringorok (at) the back(of it).
Spots have spread Lokolingorok (at) the back(of it).
Spots have spread Losilingorok (at) the back (ofit).

1Small spots (meri)Ox name: white parr overlaps the spine (sif) on either side3
Ox name: white part overlaps the spine (sif) on either side with black and white spots (ngorok)• Ox name: small spots (meri) and black and white spots (ngorok)
5 Ox name: whitish with black spots (koli) and black and white spots (ngorok)
6 Black and white spots larger than meri
2

[Song: Color Pattern 2]ekoliyana1 epewoe ekosi mong ala Lokwangal
etokwanga rrgakepokoycr
Lorengesili4 a Losiktf,
Lorengengoro~ ikoni akuwana
nyatele, nyatele itakitae, enapito ngidwe kanakero.
1

Our ox with Lokwangwith a white hide isone-side spotted.
The body of Lorengesif of L osike,the body of Lorengengorok is likea beaded ornament that girls put on when they
are at a dancing ground.

Whitish with black spots (koli)
Ox name: white (akwan)
3
White leather band bound around the ankle as an ornament• Ox name: reddish-brown (arengan) with white part overlaps the spine (sif) on either side
5
Friend's name
6 Ox name: reddish-brown (arengan) with black and white spots (ngorok)
2

HAZAMA: Daily Life as Poetry

41

Herds and people migrate at the beginning of the rainy season. At this time, people and animals
are divided into those remaining at the semi-sedentary settlement (ere) and those migrating to thecattle camp (awi). The lyrics in [Song: Ceremony] explain that the composer's ox (Bilibilikan Ewalo)
migrates after the celebration (akiwudakin ngaatuk) that permits the herds to depart for migration
and blesses the herders who accompany them. In this ritual, an ox is sacrificed with a spear, andpeople dance and perform histrionic behavior in which they attack enemies. At the end of the ceremony, the cattle enclosure is opened, and the herd starts moving.
[Song: Ceremony]
kiriamanar ka ngasuban a lore.
ado nyaliru a nyakile.
ar Lomanasilt1
etara lochen ka Longoli? ka Lonyangalt?.

adoko Lolachat owatak ngalup Bilibilikan Ewalu'.
1

It met with a ceremony at home.
The spear of the man has landed.
Lomanasili has been killed.
It (ox) made the nephew of Longole and
Lonyangale kill itsel£
Bilibilikan Ewalo crossed Lolachat and I sprinkled soil on it.

Ox name: white part overlaps the spine (si/) on either side

2 Son's name3

Friend's nameRiver's name
5 Ox name: white, like feathers used for decorating the head (wale) like a pied wagtail bird (bilibilikan)
4

The Karimojong till the soil using oxen and barren cows to pull plows at the beginning of the rainyseason. Sorghum is the staple food; women play the main role in seeding, and men are in charge ofdriving the two oxen pulling the plow.
[Song: Cultivation]
kiriya nyemaleku Ekoribere1•
kingarak iyong ngalepono.
adolo nyetich akitare. (x2)kingarak toto a Nawotoni2nyakeet Lobeert?.
kingarak toto ka Angellttnyakeet Lobeere.
kingarak toto a Muron 5nyakeet Lobeere.

You pull the ox plow, Ekoribere!
Help other animals (cows).
The work of cultivation has come.
Help the mother of Nawoton to plant
her seeds, Lobere.
Help the mother of Angel/a to plant
her seeds, Lobere.
Help the mother of Muron to plant
her seeds, Lobere.

1

Ox name: red spots like giraffe (ekori) and color like a grasshopper (abere)
Daughter's name3
Ox name (same ox as Ekoribere)
4
Daughter's name (same person as Nawoton)
5 Son's name
2

4.ASSOCIATIONThe names of individual animals consist of the following visible characteristics of their coats: 1) asingle color, represented by a single word; 2) a combination of colors-distinct colors that gradually blend into the color next to them, and 3) a pattern of more than two distinct colors that interact
to produce a clear shape. In ox songs, these visual images are embedded within a typical pattern of
lyrics that move from references to the appearance of the animal's coat to references to other things

Nilo-Ethiopian Studies

42

encountered by the composer. In [Song: Single Color] below, a black ox inspires an association witha black ostrich, a black sandal made of used car tire, black cotton sheets of cloth, shade, and shadow.
[Song: Single Color]iriono ikoni ngamuku a Kenya 1 Erionokalei-.
ariamu nganangikae a lorental.
ariamu Eribolomamungole4•
ariamu EtolimirionoeS ebong.
ikiramuni a Loruyo6 ebong.

Erinokales is black like the shoes from Kenya.
I got the sheets of cloth of Kenya.
I got Eribolomamungole.
I got Etolimirionoe in the evening.
I drove it with Loruyo in the evening.

1

Used car tire sandals from Kenya are black(rionon) as an ostrich (ekales) feather
3Black calico toga
4
Ox name: black like shade of cloud (aribo) with white patch on the fore head (ngole)5
Ox name: black like a shadow (etolim)
6
Friend's name
2 Ox name: black

Visual experiences are transformed into visual illusions through reversals of figure and ground,
differences in scale resulting from varying sizes between objects, and adaptations to dark and light.
Manipulations of color and visual perception are the sources of the poetic imagination.
[Song: Figure and Ground]
Ekalees1
lokitela, akwap ngina anginya,
akuj, eyai apuwa, ecayeete, iyeliyelasi.
ibore ngini ikiboki akipany ngina kirionon2•
emong ngolo kirion ...
1

Ekalees,
the plateau, pasture ground,sky, dust, they are lightening, scattering.
A thing that bores a deep black hole.
A black ox ...

Ox name: black as an ostrich (ekales) feather

2 Color term: black (rionon)

Portions of this pastoral song, which could be entitled 'The black ox on the plateau,' describe black
as an 'absence' that appears to be deeply embedded within the scattered lights in space. A black ox ona plateau becomes a black area in the background of a vast blue sky in this verse, which 'visited' theshepherd in the context of the strong sunlight characterizing days during the dry season, spanning
January, which the Karimojong refer to as the "white season." The black ox exists as fog on a transparent space or as an absence of blue sky.
Typically, seeing involves unconscious concentration on a single object that is abstracted from thewhole. According to Rubin (1921) and Gestalt psychology, the differentiation between figure (Figur)
and ground (Grund) is a prerequisite for this sort of perception. If nothing within sight can be distinguished as a figure (e.g., 'a stark white snow-covered mountain' or 'the white season in dry land'),then perception and distance perspective cannot occur. Until a figure appears, the ground remains
seamless. Mter a figure, however small, appears, it is possible to perceive both ground and figure andtheir reversal. 'The black ox on the plateau' exemplifies this ability to reverse figure and ground in its
allusion to existence as the absence of absence, or to being as the nothingness of nothingness. 
[Song: Ever-changing Scale]oo, abukoki. oo, abukoki.
ngingoleele nakapet.
erengl nyelem2 lobolota.
oo, abukoki. oo, abukoki.
akuta ekwam kuj Longorr.

Oh, it has poured. Oh, it has poured.
Clots on leather mat.
Red one without horns, pure red.
Oh, it has poured. Oh, it has poured.
Wind has blown it up, Longori.

HA ZAMA: Daily Life as Poetry

ereng nyelem /obo/ota.
Longole4
aroko ekipt! L ongori
nlomu ann kipi Longori
nroko n/oknkinet Longori

43

Red one without horns, pure red.
LongoleIt's red like spirits, L ongori.
Longori has come out of water.
It's like (red of) the rainbow, Longori.

1

Color term: reddish-brown (arengang)
Horn shape: hornless (/em)
3
Ox name: dark- brown patches on the head (ngori)
4
Shepherd's names Spirit; Karimojong people believe that ekipe lives in the water and ekipe is red.
2

1he red color of the coat of the singer's beloved ox resembles the color of the blood that clotted
after dropping on the hide of a sacrificed animal (Photo 3). 1l1e protagonist in this song has no spots
and is "pure red" (/obolotn); clots are used as the figure and the leather mat is used as the background,indicating it is not in the singer's consciousness. This ox, named Longor, also resembles dust that
forms colored swirls in the sky as a result of wind (Photo 4). 1l1Us, the lyrics of this song proceedfrom a focus on the source of the association (the color of the hide of the red ox) to blood clots andthen from the color of blood to dust swirls.
Color as an abstract concept has no size. 1l1e Karimojong language has no word for color itself; a

Photo 3. lhe "pure red" of the fu r (/obolota)

Photo 4. Red coloured swirls in the sk]'

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Nilo-Ethiopian Studies

concrete concept such as ngajul, (originally meaning "fur") is used to express the abstract concept ofcolor. When color is projected onto the coat of animals, it is within a concrete frame, and it is real,with a definite expanse. In [Song: Ever-changing Scale], "pure red" lobolota becomes emancipatedfrom the particular frame projected on the hide, and, with the identification of color as a clue, istransformed using an ever-changing scale into large and small phenomena: a drop of blood on a hide,a sandstorm, a spirit, and a rainbow.
[Song: Color Pattern 3]
elimi kikoki nyakuju1-a.
an, Nyebeyt?.
elimi kikoki nyakuju-a.
emoli ka ngitopono-o.
akuju-a alopeduru-c?.
abu ayong oanywa ngitopon epotete
ayai tooma akim ngina elilim
1

Drizzling, like sky.
Aa,Beye.

Drizzling, like sky.
It is looking Like stars.
Sky of tamarind tree.
I saw stars coming.
I am inside a cold fire.

God, the blue sk')' (aluu)

2 Ox name: white with spots Like an egg (abeye)
3

Tamarind tree (Tamarindus indim)

The word elimi, which I translated as "drizzling", is a derivative of lim and is an onomatopoetic
representation of the sound of a falling drop touching the surface of water. Although the general
expression "it rains" is expressed as etepi, elim is used to draw attention to the mist accompanying
rain. Lim has also produced such derivatives as akilim (to drizzle) and lima (the tiniest spot), which
underscore the notion of tininess at the core of its definition.
1he above song, composed by a 14-year-old shepherd, was based on his discovery of the similarity
between his spotted ox, the spotted eggshell of a wild bird (Photo 5), the motif formed by the sky
and light when mist and rain appear, and by the motifs formed by the stars in the night sky and thesunbeams streaming through the leaves during the day. During the day, huge tamarind trees locatedat this latitude (2.N) cast long shadows on the ground. The song conveys the idea that the shepherd
had escaped from the strong sunlight and looked up from under the shade of a tree, which was covered by numerous leaves that obscured his full range of vision so that the glimmering light radiatingfrom the spaces between the leaves left the impression of a starlit sky.
When staring fixedly at a starlit sky, the human eye soon adapts, so that light appears where it wasonce too dark to see anything, and lighted areas appear to be brighter.<6> The e.x panded light of stars
makes the viewer feel as if the stars in the sky, and even the sky itself, are coming nearer. Finally, thePhoto 5. Spotted fur like the spotted eggshell of a wild bird

HAZAMA: Daily Life as Poetry

45

viewer is standing in the "cold fire" of the star.
[Song: Light Adaptation]
alimokin cha ekiro
Longorok Lotodongole1•
akimok eke ekiro awaldl
ngini euwoi alo siting
ngini euwoi alo siling.
alimok nyekone a Lemukol
ikenyit kebusan nachokakipP
ngini euwoi alo kipwor
ngini euwoi a nanam.
1

I've given just the name,Longorok Lotodongole.
I've given his name, crested crane, one
standing in the coin,
one standing in the coin.
I, a friend of Lemukol, have given
the name, beautiful bird, nachokakipi,
one standing in a water pond,
one standing in the lake.

Ox name: black and white (ngorok), small, white patch in the middle of the head (todongole)

2 Grey-crowned Crane (Balearica Regulorum)
3

Pied Kingfisher (Ceryle rudis)[Song: Light Adaptation] exemplifies the exact reverse of the process of light adaptation. The ox("Longorok Lotodongole"), which is the object being named and is the focus in the first three lines,
transforms as the song proceeds into the "grey-crowned crane,"which is the national bird ofUganda
and appears on the Ugandan Shilling coin. The ox with its white-on-black forehead shares its color
combination with the crane. When it is described as "standing in the coin," the poetic imagination
moves far away from the view before the composer's eyes because the crane appears in relief andbecause the body of the ox is decolorized into the monochromatic ground of the coin texture, thereby
ending its connection with Longorok Lotodongole.
Evans-Pritchard (1934) referred to the cattle-naming method used by the Bor Dinka as a double
analogy. Seligman (1932) reported, more specifically, that Ngok Dinka naming conventions involved
naming each animal according to the characteristic behavior of the wild animal most closely resembling it in terms of body color, and provided examples. The ox named "Grey-crowned Crane" in thepoem above is associated with the crane on the coin in a double sense: in terms of body color combination, and in terms of the silvery glowing scene of the lake where the ox is standing; in other words,
the landscape of which the focal animal is a part.
The association between the two individual creatures, the ox and the crane, is lost after the fifth line.
Here, the focus on separate, equally-expanding white-on-black areas on the heads of both animals
becomes senseless. From this point, the poem about the "coin of the Grey-crowned Crane" and "thesurface of the lake of the ox" focuses on the disappearance of obscure relics of existence. The reflection of a cold and hard coin is equivalent to the light-filled lake where the ox stands and the brighdy
shining landscape, the context of both beings.

5. DAILY LIFE AS POETRY
The source of the poetic imagination of emong is constituted by each individual's memory of actual
daily events. Of all the data I collected, the song that could be traced to the most distant past was
based on a memory of events that took place 46 years ago. Poetic imagination develops according to
the life stages of individuals. Herding songs about goats and sheep are sung most often by younger
boys, and make up the great majority of their repertoire. Young shepherds spend most of their day
accompanying a herd of goats and sheep. Men start joining cattle raids in their late teens and leadraids during their thirties. By this time, a man has not only accumulated experiences of raiding but
has also played a leading role in animal management for the survival of his family. Therefore, raiding
is the main topic of the songs sung by men in this age group. Begging songs are common among

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Nilo-Ethiopian Studies

men in their 50s. Begging is practiced only by experienced and open-minded elders; it is not a simple
expression of worldly desire but a cultural action that must be learned and practiced.
Some song references to the appearance of animal coats apply to the world more generally. For
example, haruspication (divination by reading animal entrails) involves removing the entire intestinefrom the body of a sacrificed animal and viewing it as a kind of map; imminent "fires" (attacks, fights),"enemies," "sacrifices," and "water" (rainfall) are predicted on the basis of clots of blood, gas bubbles,
and abnormal features on the surface of the intestine and mesentery. The positions of these featureson the 'map' indicate the presumed site of each event; the map is considered to represent an elongatedand contracted version of the entire Karimojong territory, so it can reveal the specific site of an event,the pasture, and the route of daylong herding trips.
The Karimojong sometimes use a single term to refer to a pattern of colors and its reverse image;at other times, they use different terms when the semantic content is reversed. For example, meri
means fine spots of a pair of contrasting colors such as black and white; this pattern can be observed
among cattle and goats. Even when the colors inside and outside the spots are reversed, they are still
called meri, which refers to contrasts between opposites. On the other hand, white-on-black spotsthat are slighdy larger than meri, which can also be observed among cattle and goats, are known askomol. If this pattern is reversed, black-on-white spots are known as ngorok. Such different usages ofterms referring to color patterns may draw the attention of the speaker to the reversal. [Song: Color
Pattern 3] exemplifies this linguistic practice, using metaphors in which black-on-white spots on the
body of an animal are compared to starlight in the darkness of the night sky and sunlight appearing
under a dark canopy.
The Karimojong's practice of reversing figure and ground can be observed in their habit of seeking individual livestock and enemies while herding in the bush and woods. They locate enemies andwandering livestock by concealing themselves and focusing 'between' the leaves and branches. Thisapproach, essential for shepherding, is taught by elders to young shepherds during their early training. It involves concentrating on the space between the leaves and branches, rather on these objects
themselves. <7)Lestel (1998) described domestication not as a condition pertaining to an animal but as a relationship between humans and animals within an integrated set of social and cultural structures, andemphasized that domestication is a reciprocal and cognitive process by which special techniquesdevelop through the mutual relationship. 
 Classification systems involving gender, developmental
stage, appearance {such as coat color), genealogy, along with the bestowing of individual names basedon the individual identification of domesticated animals yield a galaxy of vocabularies and are theresult of cognitive elaboration among pastoral peoples (Evans-Pritchard 1940). Herders maintainclose daily contact with pastoral animals, identifying and memorizing each of them individually.
For example, an indispensable and basic pastoral technique is that of helping mothers and infants
meet for nursing, which also prevents animals from getting lost during daylong herding trips. Useof individual names based on the identification of each of animal also plays an important role. For
example, a shepherd calls the names of the animals that will lead the rest of the herd. The animals
react obediendy and move in the direction indicated by the shepherd, which leads to a good pasture.
Haraway (2003) avoided using the term 'domesticated animals' and, instead, used the term 'companion species'--but this kind of companionship usually exists in partnership on a one-on-one levelwith a dog, horse, or cat; it is not applicable to a whole herd of animals in a context of pastoralism.
In East Mrican pastoral societies, all pastoral animals are identified individually and given individual names, and their histories and parent-child relationships are recognized. Additionally, pastoralists do not enumerate animals in front of the herd (Dyson-Hudson 1966) because enumerating
involves abstracting the individuality of objects and reducing them into interchangeable equivalents(Ohta 2002). The fact that pastoralists do not count heads demonstrates that they do not see herds
as gatherings of anonymous things; each pastoral animal is individually recognized as indispensable
and as having a unique existence (Ohta 2002).

HAZAMA: Daily Life as Poetry

47

The Karimojong's poetic imagination, which underpins their pastoral songs, is rooted in visions
that appear unexpectedly during daily activities and, which also serve to express a mutual commitment to others. Shikano analyzed data about the acquisition and loss of every animal owned by
one Samburu family, and found that the dynamics .of the herd resemble "a book" recording daily
pastoral life (2004: 299). Among the Karimojong, each individual animal consolidates all information relevant to pastoral activities, such as daylong herding trips and acquisitions. The recognition of
the uniqueness of each animal enables people to remember every interaction involving that specificanimal (Dyson-Hudson 1966; Ohta 1987).
In the Karimojong's poetic world of the imagination, animals play a significant role as hubs connecting events that occur at different times, and linking metaphorical phenomena according to colors
and patterns. Pastoralists receive creative visions, remember them as pastoral songs, and connect
individual animals to different times and spaces via concrete events and phenomena experienced by
the herders themselves. Thus, songs reflect what men have seen, what they have lived, and what they
have created but in a far richer form than conscious thought or record-keeping permits. This formof expression can be compared to a massive iceberg with a small tip supported by a huge base, which
represents daily life. In this sense, the lyrics of pastoral songs are exceptionally appropriate topics foranthropological research.

NOTES(1) Pastoralism in all its forms is more than just a mode of production. It involves a certain mode of socialorganization and certain cultural patterns and practices. Therefore, pastoralism is aptly described as "a way
oflife" (Markakis 2004: 4). This paper uses the term "pastoralism" in this sense.
(2) The individual name for each pastoral animal is called in the pasture during daylong herding trips, in pensduring milking, and in song lyrics. These names are derived from classificatory appellations to referent
animals and may include color and color patterns of coat and horn shape. However, not all attributes ofeach animal are included; each animal's name is expressed using a single classificatory appellation or a
combination. In either case, a particular expression of a particular attribute is used selectively, and otherpossible expressions are discarded. Each animal has a specific name, which is used to stimulate it when it
is a newborn, when the shepherd approaches it to aid in nursing or lactation, and when it is taken from its
mother at milking time in the mornings and evenings.
(3) "Karamojong" is Knighton's own artificial term and includes Karimojong,Jie, and Dodoth.
(4) Van Gennep (1902) analyzed the meaning of a brand used to mark domesticated camels, known as a wasm
or ousm, and stated that a wasm is a kind of coat of arms and that the names of wasm resembled thoserelated to the early period of heraldry.
(5) This structure of vision is repeated exactly in the structure of hearing, as illustrated by the following song
lyrics:nyakiriket, akosi kiriket Angarol nyakiriketl ekitet a Longolengitiriama anges kona erwo/ ekama cha, amoni
nyakiriket Angaro
Ritual grove, our ritual grove Angaro/ Ritual grove/ The bell of Longolengitiriama is the one sounding
now/ The bush, ritual grove Angaro, reflected
Here, cattle are grazing, creating a holy grove in which men pray that an enemy's advance is impeded andthat the enemy is driven away; it also serves as the site of rainmaking rituals. The bells hung around thenecks of oxen make sounds as the animals eat. This poem does not refer to the voice of the bell but, rather,to how the sound grows and then disappears. In other words, it refers to the quality or sound of silence.
In this case, the sound of the bell is a necessary sacrifice to achieve an awareness of the absence of sound.
Thus, this song is based on a reversal in which existence can be understood as the absence of absence.
(6) Eyes adjust to differences in lighting by modifying the pupil and photoreceptors; this process takes timeand explains why the process of light adaptation and dark adaptation makes one's vision more acute.
(7) Shepherds are also keen to observe changes in vision or sight. Two examples of narratives appear here.
First, one shepherd said, "If the anterior fontanelle (esiaduduk) is exposed to direct rays of the sun without
headwear (akopia), all things look small and of various colors. It is dangerous, but makes you enjoy herd-

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Nilo-Ethiopian Studies

ing." Second, shepherds also enjoy changing their vision; this process is called adiikin, when they close
one eye and cover it with one hand with the other hand rolled up into a kind of tube like a telescope to
see through. The changes in vision by adiikin are illustrated as follows: "Once the eye is squeezed, spotsof an animal's coat get smaller and once it is opened widely, they become bigger." "The whitish fur on thestomach looks very white. Mter stopping adiikin, dirty parts stand out and it becomes dark white. Bymeans of adiikin, it looks very clean as if it is washed. But if the eyes open, it looks dirty." "Brown colors
get darker and white colors brighter on the coats of animals by means of adiikin. Yellow spots get more
whitish, and red spots change into black. Gray colors become more intensely gray. If you see the color
black in the sunlight, a black coat shines yellowish." "If sunlight shines on white, that particular part emitsa beam of light." "If you see white and black small spots (meri), the contrast appears strong and the pattern
emerges as very clear meri." "The small spots look numerous and the big spots relatively small." "The whitepart looks striped."(8) Karimojong shepherds try to make goats lower their heads and engage in grazing on the plateau at good
pasture ground with scrubs of thorn trees in bud, and where the ground gently rises and falls. The shepherd will stand in front of the herd and, in a deep bass voice, utter the names of animals that will follow
from the rear of the herd without slowing the speed of the herd, alternately calling them with a velar plosive that sounds like "zuuui zuuui." At that point, the goats stop to browse and, as a result, the herd avoids
rushing forward in a synchronous reaction to a few animals.

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