iafor

journal of education
inclusive education
Volume 9 – Issue 1 – 2021
Editor: Tamsin Hinton-Smith
Editor-in-Chief: Yvonne Masters

ISSN: 2187-0594

iafor
IAFOR Journal of Education: Inclusive Education
Volume 9 – Issue 1 – 2021

IAFOR Publications
The International Academic ForumIAFOR Journal of Education: Inclusive Education
EditorTamsin Hinton-Smith
University of Sussex, UK
Editor-in-Chief
Yvonne Masters, Australia

Published by The International Academic Forum (IAFOR), Japan
IAFOR Publications, Sakae 1-16-26-201, Naka-ward, Aichi, Japan 460-0008

Executive Editor: Joseph Haldane
Publications Manager: Nick Potts
IAFOR Journal of Education: Inclusive Education
Volume 9 – Issue 1 – 2021
Published February, 2021
IAFOR Publications © Copyright 2021
ISSN: 2187-0594
ije.iafor.org

IAFOR Journal of Education: Inclusive Education
Volume 9 – Issue 1 – 2021
Edited by Tamsin Hinton-Smith
Associate Editors: Leda Kamenopoulou & Pearl Subban

Foreword(Musings from the Editor-in-Chief)
Inclusive Education is our first issue for 2021. The issue’s editorial team have worked hard, indifficult global conditions, to work with reviewers and authors to bring this issue to publication.
Many thanks go to the editor, Tamsin Hinton-Smith, and her two Associate Editors, Leda
Kamenopoulou and Pearl Subban.
When we first settled on the timing of this issue (late 2019) little did we know that our first
Inclusive Education issue would be published with the world gripped by a pandemic that haslasted more than 12 months. Prior to 2020, thinking global was a catch cry, now countries are
becoming more and more insular as borders close, and thus more exclusive than inclusive.
Education has also been challenged and being inclusive while teaching online has proved to bea big issue for many. Online learning necessitates computers and internet access. For some,
this is not a reality of their lives. Also, with students separated by distance, how do we include
all? Inclusive education, for the young and not so young, has never been more important.
Diane Richler, Inclusion International, stated:
Inclusion is not a strategy to help people fit into the systems and structures
which exist in our societies; it is about transforming those systems andstructures to make it better for everyone. Inclusion is about creating a betterworld for everyone.
Inclusive education is not just for educational institutions, it has to be for the world! We needto include all regardless of ethnicity, colour, gender, sexual preference, religion, age … and thelist could go on. Everyone needs to be included and acknowledged for who they are. We don’t
yet have this. Perhaps the last thought should be that of Ajaypal Singh Banga:
We have the Internet of Everything but not the inclusion of everyone.
My thanks, as always, to the authors, the editor, the associate editors, the publications manager,
Nick Potts, and to all the reviewers for bringing this issue to you, the readers.
Enjoy,
Yvonne Masters,
Editor-in-Chief

Editorial Advice
Preparing a submission to the IAFOR Journal of Education is more than writing about yourresearch study: it involves paying careful attention to our submission requirements. Different
journals have different requirements in terms of format, structure and referencing style, among
other things. There are also some common expectations between all journals such as the use ofgood academic language and lack of plagiarism. To assist you in reaching the review stage forthis or any other peer-reviewed journal, we provide the following advice which you should
check carefully and ensure that you adhere to.
1. Avoiding Plagiarism
Plagiarism is a practice that is not acceptable in any journal. Avoiding plagiarism is the cardinalrule of academic integrity because plagiarism, whether intentional or unintentional, ispresenting someone else’s work as your own. The IAFOR Journal of Education immediately
rejects any submission with evidence of plagiarism.
There are three common forms of plagiarism, none of which are acceptable:
1. Plagiarism with no referencing. This is copying the words from another source (article,
book, website, etc.) without any form of referencing.
2. Plagiarism with incorrect referencing. This involves using the words from anothersource and only putting the name of the author and/or date as a reference. Whilst not as
grave as the plagiarism just mentioned, it is still not acceptable academic practice.
Direct quoting requires quotation marks and a page number in the reference. This isbest avoided by paraphrasing rather than copying.
3. Self-plagiarism. It is not acceptable academic practice to use material that you havealready had published (which includes in conference proceedings) in a new submission.
You should not use your previously published words and you should not submit about
the same data unless it is used in a completely new way.
2. Meeting the Journal Aims and Scope
Different journals have different aims and scope, and papers submitted should fit the specificjournal. A “scattergun” approach (where you submit anywhere in the hope of being published)
is not sound practice. Like in darts, your article needs to hit the journal’s “bullseye”, it needs
to fit within the journal’s interest area. For example, a submission that is about building bridges,
will not be acceptable in a journal dedicated to education. Ensure that your paper is clearly
about education.
3. Follow the Author Guidelines
Most journals will supply a template to be followed for formatting your paper. Often, there will
also be a list of style requirements on the website (font, word length, title length, page layout,
and referencing style, among other things). There may also be suggestions about the preferred
structure of the paper. For the IAFOR Journal of Education these can all be found here:
https://iafor.org/journal/iafor-journal-of-education/author-guidelines/

4. Use Academic Language
The IAFOR Journal of Education only accepts papers written in correct and fluent English ata high academic standard. Any use of another language (whether in the paper or the referencelist) requires the inclusion of an English translation.
The style of expression must serve to articulate the complex ideas and concepts being presented,
conveying explicit, coherent, unambiguous meaning to scholarly readers. Moreover,manuscripts must have a formal tone and quality, employing third-person rather than firstperson standpoint (when feasible), placing emphasis on the research and not on unsubstantiatedsubjective impressions.
Contributors whose command of English is not at the level outlined above are responsible forhaving their manuscript corrected by a native-level, English-speaking academic prior to
submitting their paper for publication.
5. Literature Reviews
Any paper should have reference to the corpus of scholarly literature on the topic. A review ofthe literature should:
•
•
•
•
•

Predominantly be about contemporary literature (the last 5 years) unless you are
discussing a seminal piece of work.
Make explicit international connections for relevant ideas.
Analyse published papers in the related field rather than describe them.
Outline the gaps in the literature.
Highlight your contribution to the field.

Referencing
Referencing is the main way to avoid allegations of plagiarism. The IAFOR Journal of
Education uses the APA referencing style for both in-text citations and the reference list. If
you are unsure of the correct use of APA please use the Purdue Online Writing Lab (Purdue
OWL), – https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/560/01/ – which has excellent examples
of all forms of APA referencing. Please note APA is used for referencing not for the generalformat of the paper. Your reference list should be alphabetical by author surname and include
DOIs whenever possible.
This short guide to getting published should assist you to move beyond the first editorial review.
Failure to follow the guidelines will result in your paper being immediately rejected.
Good luck in your publishing endeavours,
Dr Yvonne Masters
Editor-in-Chief, IAFOR Journal of Education

Table of Contents
From the Editor
Tamsin Hinton-Smith1

Notes on Contributors

3

School’s Perspectives on Educational Programmes under Corporate Social
Responsibility Initiatives. Case Study: Malaysia
Athirah Azhar
Azlinda Azman

7

Understanding Cross-National Differences in Inclusive Education Coverage:
An Empirical Analysis
Steve R. Entrich

21

Educational Experiences of Adolescent Mothers while Studying College
in the Philippines
Ryan Ray G. Gatbonton

41

African Immigrant Teachers Teaching Young EFL Learners:
A Racial Discrimination Study
Chinaza Solomon Ironsi

59

Exploring the Potentials of Robotics in Supporting Children with
Autism Spectrum Disorder
Susan T. Mostajo
Olivia M. Legaspi
Manuel G. Camarse
Royce A. Salva

77

Exploring Implementation of National Special Needs Education Policy
Guidelines in Private Secondary Schools
Gift Mbewe
Elizabeth Kamchedzera
Esthery Dembo Kunkwenzu

95

Engaging, Affirming, Nurturing Inclusive Environment: A Grounded
Theory Study in the Philippine Context
Princess Zarla J. Raguindin
Zhanina U. Custodio
Ferdinand Bulusan

113

Employability and Inclusion of Non-traditional University Students:
Limitations and Challenges
María Aurora Tenorio Rodríguez
José González-Monteagudo
Teresa Padilla-Carmona133

Maltese Educators’ Perceptions of Democracy, Equality and Justice inMulticultural Education
Jacqueline Żammit

153

Reviewers

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IAFOR Journal of Education: Inclusive Education

Volume 9 – Issue 1 – 2021

From the Editor
Welcome to the IAFOR Journal of Education: Inclusive Education. What a journey it has been. It
has been an immense privilege to work with a team of international colleagues so committed toincreasing the inclusivity of educational opportunities, experiences and outcomes within theirdiverse contexts. This issue would not have been possible without all of the wonderful contributions
from submitting authors, the expertise of our team of international reviewers, and the editorial
teams for the issue and wider IAFOR journal. When we got together as an editorial team for thisissue, one of our priorities was that this special issue should live up to the values of its focus. We
know that minority world researchers are under-represented in international journal authorship and
we did not want that to happen here. We are overjoyed to have worked on bringing this collection
with researchers and research contexts including Cyprus, Germany, Malawi, Malaysia, Malta,
Nigeria, the Philippines, and Spain.
The field of inclusive education encompasses a vast spread of issues and experiences globally, as
testified by the array of submissions we have received for this issue. This issue addresses theinclusivity of pedagogic and curricula practices in learning contexts from mainstream and special
needs from nursery through to secondary education, to university students and employability.
Articles explore the inclusivity of education experiences for diverse groups that include foreign
language learners; adolescent mothers; and autistic spectrum learners. Authors draw on insightsfrom diverse intentional theorists of the social role of education, from Freire, to Bourdieu. Articles
explore themes and problematise concepts including multicultural education, democracy, equality,
justice, citizenship, meritocracy, human capital, inclusion as corporate social responsibility, andthe potential of robotics to further special needs inclusion. Experiences of educators and educatedare explored through multiple quantitative and qualitative research approaches from cross-national
quantitative analysis across 52 countries, through to in-depth case study and narrative approaches
utilising teacher and learner surveys, interviews, and classroom observation.
Corporate social responsibility programs are examined through a case study approach by Azhar
and Azman in their article, “School’s Perspectives on Educational Programmes under Corporate
Social Responsibility Initiatives. Case Study: Malaysia.” The article explores both the benefits andthe challenges from a school's perspective, and from the perspective of students from at-riskbackgrounds.
Steve Entrich’s “Understanding Cross-National Differences in Inclusive Education Coverage: An
Empirical Analysis” analyses cross-national differences in inclusive education approaches in over
50 societies. His research identifies the extent to which educational inclusion in different national
education systems is affected by the definition of special educational needs (SEN) in each national
context.
Ryan Gatbonton’s “Educational Experiences of Adolescent Mothers while Studying College in thePhilippines” uses reflective journals to develop understanding around vulnerabilities, potential anddetermination in the lived experiences of this group of learners, as they navigate educational
journeys amongst new parenting responsibilities, social stigma, and further challenges such as
domestic abuse.
“Students call me ‘Arap’ which means slave in Turkish language” – Chinaza Solomon Ironsi
identifies inequalities that include around workload, promotional opportunities, and respect fromstudents; in his research on experiences of “African immigrant teachers teaching young EFL
learners: A racial discrimination study.”

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Contemporary research often considers the use of robotics in enhancing social skills amongchildren with autism spectrum disorder. This approach is the focus of “Exploring the potential ofrobotics in supporting children with autism spectrum disorder” within the context of thePhilippines. Mostajo, Legaspe, Camarse, and Salva have utilized a systematic literature review to
identify significant studies in this field.
In “Exploring Implementation of National Special Needs Education Policy Guidelines in Private
Secondary Schools,” Mbewe, Kamchedzera and Kunkwenzu focus on the National Special Needs
Education Policy Guidelines (NSNEPG) in Malawi that was first implemented in 2009. They use
a phenomenological methodology, identifying a lack of knowledge, resources and insufficient
support for learners with SEN. They stress that communication with school stakeholders is key forthe effective implementation of the policy guidelines in this context.
In, “Engaging, affirming, and nurturing inclusive environment: A grounded theory study in thePhilippine context,” by Raguidin, Custodio and Bulusan, the authors set out to develop acontemporary framework which will enhance understanding regarding inclusive environments
within the Philippine setting.
In “Employability and Inclusion of Non-traditional University Students: Limitations andChallenges,” Maria Tenorio-Rodriguez explores experiences and impact of inequalities inopportunities to develop employability skills in Spain, identifying the tension between neoliberaland transformative agendas for higher education.
Jacqueline Zammit’s “Maltese Educators’ Perceptions and Good Practice in Multicultural
Education” takes a qualitative case study approach to exploring Maltese teachers’ understandings
around taking a multicultural approach to teaching Maltese as a second language to learners from
immigrant backgrounds. This is a relatively new space as teaching Maltese as a second language
has only emerged as a significant area in recent years.
Now more than ever, there is an imperative that we, as an international community of education
experts, remain attuned to the impact on inclusivity of our ever-changing circumstances, andopportunities to maximise the equity of participation opportunities. The global pandemic has forced
sweeping changes to education experiences that have posed both challenges and opportunities forinclusivity. These range from the challenges of effectively creating inclusive learner engagement
and communities online; through to the impact of technology access inequalities; and the challengeof ensuring that the most socially precarious have adequate food, heat and physical space to learn
effectively from home, and how bringing the online classroom into the home may expose
inequalities in living conditions.
It is our hope that the contributions here will spark reflection, debate, further research anddevelopments to practice for fellow educators around the world. We hope you will enjoy this andfind it as valuable as we have.
Editorial team, IAFOR Journal of Education: Inclusive Education
inclusive.editor.joe@iafor.org
Lead editor:
Dr Tamsin Hinton-Smith, University of Sussex, UK
Associate editors:
Dr Leda Kamenopoulou, University of Roehampton, UK
Dr Pearl Subban, Monash University, Australia

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Notes on Contributors
Article 1: School’s Perspectives on Educational Programmes under Corporate Social
Responsibility Initiatives. Case Study: Malaysia
Dr Athirah Azhar received her PhD in Social Work (2018) and Masters in Social Work (2013)
from Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM). During her doctoral study, she became an exchange
student under Erasmus funding, in the Department of Asian and African Studies, Humboldt
University Berlin. She is now attached with Universiti Malaysia Sarawak (UNIMAS) as alecturer in the Social Work Programme and is currently Social Work Programme Coordinator.
Prior to joining UNIMAS and her postgraduate studies, she spent seven years organisingreaching out programmes for children and communities in rural areas. Her research interests
include child and adolescent development, CSR and social work program evaluation.
Email: aathirah@unimas.my
Professor Azlinda Azman is the first Social Work Professor in Malaysia. She was among the
few selected and awarded the Fulbright Scholarship to pursue a doctoral degree in Clinical Social
Work in New York University. She chairs the National Joint Council Committee on Social Work
Education Malaysia, is an Executive Committee Member of the Malaysian Association of Social
Workers (MASW), and an Assistant Honorary Secretary of the Malaysian AIDS Council (MAC).
She is actively involved internationally in advocating for social work education and practice. She
is also the Convenor of the AIDS Action and Research Group (AARG), Universiti Sains Malaysia(USM). For her contribution in rehabilitation of inmates in the country, she was awarded Pingat
Bakti Setia by the Ministry of Home Affairs, Malaysia. Her research interests include, social work
education and practice, HIV and AIDS, psychosocial assessment and clinical social work.
Email: azlindaa@usm.my
Article 2: Understanding Cross-National
Coverage: An Empirical Analysis

Differencesin

Inclusive

Education

Dr Steve R. Entrich is acting professor for inclusion and organizational development at the
Department of Education, the University of Potsdam, Germany. Following his studies
in Education, History and Japanese in Potsdam and Berlin, he conducted research on social andeducational inequality in Japan and attained his PhD in educational sociology in2016. Research interests include social inequality and gender disparities in formal andsupplementary educational attainment, heterogeneity and inclusive education, transnational
education, educational decision-making, education over the life course, and education policy
analysis in Germany, Japan, the United States, and in cross-country comparison.
Email: entrich@uni-potsdam.de
Article 3: Educational Experiences of Adolescent Mothers while Studying College in thePhilippines
Dr Ryan Ray Gatbonton is a professor of graduate studies in Adamson University and aregistered nurse in the Philippines. He earned his PhD in Education at Adamson University,
MA Nursing at University of Santo Tomas, and BS Nursing at Chinese General Hospital
Colleges. His research interests include educational technology, comparative education,
instructional evaluation, and vulnerabilities in education. Some of his research works on these
topics have been published locally and internationally.
Email: ryan.gatbonton@gmail.com

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Article 4: African Immigrant Teachers Teaching Young EFL Learners: A Racial
Discrimination Study
Chinaza Solomon Ironsi is a PhD candidate and teaching assistant. He was a research assistantat the department of English language teaching, Near East University, and currently teaches
English language at Rauf Denktas University. His research interests are in all areas of language
teaching and education.
Email: Solomon.chinaza@neu.edu.tr
Article 5: Exploring the Potential of Robotics in Supporting Children with Autism
Spectrum Disorder
Dr Susan T. Mostajo, a licensed Psychologist and Guidance Counselor, is a Full Professor
and currently the Director of the Human Resource Management Office of De La Salle
University – Dasmariñas, Cavite, Philippines. Her research interests are in areas related topositive psychology, education, and human resource management particularly on resilience andwellbeing, children with special needs, service science, and experience design. She is currently
affiliated with professional organizations in the fields of Psychology, Counseling, and Human
Resources Management such as the American Psychological Association (APA),
Psychological Association of the Philippines (PAP), Philippine Guidance and Counseling
Association (PGCA), and Asian Association of School HRMD Practitioners, Inc. (AASHPI)
where she served as two-term President.
Email: stmostajo@dlsud.edu.ph
Dr Olivia M. Legaspi is the former Vice Chancellor for Academics and Research of De La
Salle University- Dasmariñas (DLSU-D) in Cavite, Philippines. She is now a full-time
professor at the College of Education teaching undergraduate and graduate courses incurriculum and instruction, educational technology, and educational management, which also
serve as her research interests. She obtained her EdD major in Educational Management degreein DLSU-D. At the moment, she is a consultant of a school under the Lasallian Schools
Supervision Office (LASSO), a member of the Commission on Higher Education (CHED)
Region IV-A Regional Quality Assessment Team (RQAT), and an assessor of the CHED
Institutional Sustainability Assessment (ISA).
Email: omlegaspi@dlsud.edu.ph
Dr Manuel G. Camarse, RGC, LPT is a Full Professor in the College of Education and
Director of the College of Education Graduate Studies at De La Salle University- Dasmariñas(DLSU-D) in Cavite, Philippines. He holds a doctorate degree in Educational Psychology fromthe University of Santo Tomas and Master’s degree in Guidance and Counseling from DLSUD. His research interests include educational psychology, and the teaching and learning
process. He is currently affiliated with professional organizations in the fields of Psychology,
Counseling, and Education. Presently, he is an assessor of schools under the Lasallian Schools
Supervision Office (LASSO) and a member of the Commission on Higher Education (CHED)
Region IV-A Regional Quality Assessment Team (RQAT)
Email: mgcamarse@dlsud.edu.phRoyce A. Salva is an inclusive education advocate and a full-time university faculty at De La
Salle University – Dasmariñas. Through and through, he is a special education (SpEd) majorfrom his bachelor’s degree up to his ongoing PhD at the University of the Philippines-Diliman.
Prior to his current teaching assignment, he worked as a SpEd consultant for two consecutive

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years. At present he teaches SpEd subjects focusing on the introduction of disability concepts,
development of individualized programs, and execution of instructional adaptations. He hasinterest in research related to study habits, curricular programming, and other areas of disability
studies that hope to stir a never-ending impact to the lives of persons with special needs.
Email: rasalva@dlsud.edu.phArticle 6: Exploring Implementation of National Special Needs Education Policy
Guidelines in Private Secondary Schools
Gift Mbewe (PhD student, Dongbei University of finance and Economics) is a teaching
Assistant in the school of Education, University of Malawi. He holds a Master’s degree in
Education. His research interests include education policies on inclusive education andeducation management.
Email: giftmbewe56@gmail.com
Dr Elizabeth Tikondwe Kamchedzera holds a PhD in Education (University of Warwick,UK). She is a senior lecturer in Special Needs Education and Inclusive Education in the
Department of Education Foundation, School of Education, University of Malawi, Chancellor
College. Her research areas of interest include Disability Issues; Special Needs Education;
Inclusive Education; Inclusive Curriculum Development; Building Inclusive Culture; School
and Society; School Improvement; Gender Issues; and, Early Childhood Education andDevelopment.
Email address: etkamchedzera@gmail.com
Dr Esthery Dembo Kunkwenzu is a senior lecturer in the School of Education, University of
Malawi. Her research interests include Curriculum and teaching studies, Girls’ education,teacher education and development studies.
Email: ekunkwenzu@cc.ac.mw
Article 7: Engaging, Affirming, and Nurturing Inclusive Environment: A Grounded
Theory Study in the Philippine Context
Dr Princess Zarla J. Raguindin is a Professorial Lecturer at the Institute of Education of Far
Eastern University, Philippines. She obtained her PhD in Curriculum and Teaching
Methodology as an international student at Shaanxi Normal University, Xi’an, China. As a
researcher and practitioner by heart, she is a consultant to various organizations engaged in
instructional material development, teacher training, and disability ministries. Her researchinterests include inclusive education, emergency remote teaching, and teacher education.
Email: praguindin@feu.edu.ph
Dr Zhanina U. Custodio holds a PhD in Special Education and is an Assistant Professor at
the Philippine Normal University. She is among the Technical Working Group on Inclusive
Education (TWG-IE) for Special Education and Inclusive Education Bills, Senate of thePhilippines. She is mainly engaged in the study of inclusive education, gender, and disability.
Email: custodio.zu@pnu.edu.ph5

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Dr Ferdinand Bulusan is a university research consultant and director of research anddevelopment, extension and training. He is an assistant professor of English and professional
education at Batanes State College, Philippines. A book author on education in the Philippines,
he holds a PhD in Language Education (Magna Cum Laude) from Saint Louis University. He
was also one of the educational consultants in crafting the curriculum for the gifted in thePhilippines. He is a perennial trainer on educational research. His research interests include
pedagogical strategies and contexts, language teaching, and materials design.
Email: fgbulusan@gmail.com
Article 8: Employability and Inclusion of Non-traditional University Students:
Limitations and Challenges
María A. Tenorio-Rodríguez has a PhD grant at the Department of Research and Assessment
Methods in Education in the University of Seville. She is currently preparing her PhD on thereality of non-traditional students and graduates in the labour market and their stay at theuniversity.
Email: mtenorio@us.es
Dr José González-Monteagudo is a Senior Lecturer in Education Theories in the University
of Seville, Spain. His research interests span educational theory and policy at all levels, lifelong
learning and adult education, intercultural education and mediation, migrations, social
inclusion and biographic research methods.
Email: monteagu@us.es
Dr Teresa Padilla Carmona is a Full Professor at the Department of Research and Assessment
Methods in Education (University of Seville, Spain). Her teaching and research areas include
qualitative research and assessment methods, widening participation in higher Education, andsocial and educational inclusion.
Email: tpadilla@us.es
Article 9: Maltese Educators' Perceptions and Good Practice in Multicultural Education
Dr Jacqueline Żammit is a lecturer in the Pedagogy of Maltese, with a specialization in theteaching of Maltese as a Foreign Language within the Department of Languages andHumanities, Faculty of Education at the University of Malta. She holds a First-Class B.Ed
(Hons) Degree in Maltese and Early and Middle Years, a Masters of Arts Degree with
Distinction in Maltese Linguistics, and a PhD from the University of Malta. Her areas ofinterest comprise multiculturalism, interculturalism, adult education, second language
acquisition, cross-cultural communication, plurilingualism, applied linguistics,
psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, artificial intelligence, and, in particular, the learning ofMaltese as a second language. Jacqueline has more than twenty years of pedagogy experience
working with Primary, Secondary and Tertiary schools to teach Maltese as a first and foreign
language. She introduced Maltese and presented Second Language Acquisition pedagogies atseveral universities such as the Universities of Edinburgh, Cork and Antwerp.
Email: jacqueline.zammit@um.edu.mt

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School’s Perspectives on Educational Programmes under Corporate Social
Responsibility Initiatives. Case Study: Malaysia
Athirah Azhar
Universiti Malaysia Sarawak
Malaysia
Azlinda Azman
Universiti Sains Malaysia
Malaysia

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Abstract
This study explores the impacts of the Corporate Social Responsibility educational programmefrom the schools’ perspectives towards their pupils and school. A qualitative approach waschosen from a case study of these programmes conducted in Malaysia. The method used fordata collection was semi-structured interviews. Purposive sampling was adopted to collect datafrom headmasters/mistresses from 10 primary schools and was analysed using narrative
analysis. Findings shows that these programmes have impacted pupils through educational
exposure, a holistic approach, academic improvement, feeling motivated, encouraging
creativity and assisting in pupils’ future career development. One of the impacts that wererelated to the educational programmes was the teaching and learning knowledge that was
gained by the teachers. Other than that, the educational programmes also eased the financial
burden of the school as well as providing benefits to the surrounding community. Schools
suggested that the programmes should be improved by creating better and more programme
type content, being more academically focused, allocating more funding, being conducted overa longer period for sustainability, and conducting the programme more regularly. Corporate
Social Responsibility educational programmes in future are suggested to be academic related
which should include an English language programme, information technology, 21st century
learning, a green programme, basic skills (read, write, count), a motivational programme, anda study visit. In conclusion, CSR educational programmes initiatives must be sustainablebecause it had great impact on pupils, teachers, schools, and the community surrounding theschool.
Keywords: corporate social responsibility, CSR initiatives, educational programme, education,school, social work

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Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) is social obligation of business organisations towards
wider society and local community (Sinha & Chaudhari, 2018) Corporate companies have theawareness in giving back to the community through their CSR initiatives. Besides, each of thecompanies have their own niche areas in implementing CSR particularly based on the products
supplied and service provided. Corporate companies need to see that becoming involved in
CSR, particularly education, is not just a one-off donation, providing scholarship or internshipfor the students, but goes beyond that.
According to Banks et al. (2016), it is crucial to surpass materialistic flows that establishes aconnection between the community and companies by gaining the community’s perspective on
CSR. Corporate companies need to get involved in implementing CSR programmes to provide
a better impact to community. Nodoushani et al. (2014) added that education investments are
one positive way to give back to the communities which are consequently connected with
employees having better health. One of the beneficial investments in education is byimplementing CSR educational programmes in school. Why educational programmes inschool? School will be the best place to inspire children so that children can see the upside ofgoing to school. This is the case particularly for children in rural areas, who did not have achance to finish high school as they could not see the purpose of going back there. The top
CSR practice in Malaysia is education which focuses on scholarship and internship (Ismail etal., 2015). Types of CSR in Malaysia ranged from school infrastructure, such as computer labs,
to the provision of the learning materials for students, as well as professional development forteacher s. Therefore, this study addressed the following research questions:
1. What are the impacts of CSR educational programmes on pupils?
2. What are the impacts of CSR educational programmes on schools?
3. What are the suggestions from schools for future CSR educational programmes?
Previous studies on CSR have concentrated more on the corporate side. This study is focusing
on CSR from the perspectives of stakeholders which are the schools. This study also makes
novel contributions on CSR from the community perspectives. CSR educational programmes
have been organised by the corporate companies and it has given a great impact to schools.
Ismail et al. (2013) stated that educational programmes in CSR has indeed acted as a medium
for nurturing knowledge outside the classroom due to its multi-dimensionality in practice
involving fields such as information and communications technology (ICT), the environment,
languages, and life sciences. Besides that, Ismail et al. (2015) suggested future research should
occur on CSR programmes in schools, and to also consider looking at the impact of CSR inschools.
This paper highlights the impacts of CSR educational programmes from the schools’
perspectives towards their pupils and schools. Findings are organised by recording theperspectives from headmasters / headmistresses (HM) and teachers who had been involved in
CSR educational programmes in their schools. Recommendations from these perspectives arealso presented which might be useful for both the schools and corporate companies. Corporate
and school ties or public and private partnerships, will be beneficial as rural schools are notable get any other resources in their area. In fact, the impact needs to be highlighted so that the
programme could be implemented on a long-term basis to benefit all children enrolled in thatparticular rural school every year. Investing in future education is important for the long-termsustainability of a company and the economy (Nodoushani et al., 2014).

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Literature Review
Corporate Social Responsibility Contributions in School
Businesses lack a relationship with the school’s children and this has been detailed ininternational affairs and academic analysis (Collins, 2014). In fact, according to Collins (2014),
businesses are stated to provide influences that are positive to children. This is achieved byproviding access to education, and rest and play. In addition, it also supports parents, ensures
the product’s safety and supports environment stewardship. The nature of CSR activities
delivered to schools depends on the type of business they are operating. This is logical becausethrough CSR programmes, a specialist from the companies transfers the core knowledge andtechnologies with the purpose of benefitting the school (Ismail et al., 2013). These CSR
programmes have shown that the students who took part in it were able to read, did well inarithmetic, and engaged in discussion after they participated in said programmes (Sinha &Chaudhari, 2018). This would really help in providing exposure to children, especially the ones
in rural or underserved areas.
O’Donnell and Kirkner (2014) added that family’s involvement programmes, reading
programmes and parent-teacher collaboration programmes were positively predictive of
academic improvement for both elementary and secondary students. Building partnership withprivate sectors here are important. Moreover, “the surrounding communities, teachers,
administrators and government officials are accountable for the inclusion of all children
through formal institutional mechanisms, community members become more interested inschool improvement and more willing to commit their own resources to the task” (The United
Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation [UNESCO], 2009, p.16). However,though it involves many outsiders, the programme has to be suitable to the children in that
school area. O’Donnell and Kirkner (2014) stated that in partnership with community-basedorganisations, programmes should be culturally appropriate within the community.
Educational programmes such as an environmental programme can lead to positive changes instudent knowledge awareness, skills, attentions, intentions and behaviour (Stern et al., 2014).
Also, through CSR, corporate companies have developed a school computer lab which has
made the school environment more conducive to students (Ismail et al., 2013). Ismail et al.
(2013) also added that teachers have gained hands-on skills relating to computers and students’positive changes were also felt by teachers. In addition, there was also a wide range in student
achievements in examinations and in co-curricular activities involving soft skills, plus CSR
programs in school have multiplied the effects on the students, teachers and society (Ismail etal., 2013).
Inclusivity in Education
Inclusive education is a “core element of teacher preparation, continuing professional learning,
and a domain within education policymaking and practice” (Slee, 2020, p.5). It is also statedin a fourth core of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG). “Inclusion involves improving
inputs, processes and environments to foster learning both at the level of the learner in his or
her learning environment and the system level to support the entire learning experience”(UNESCO, 2009, p.7). Inclusivity discussed here is not the inclusivity of the children, but theinclusivity of the education for children. As mentioned by UNESCO (2009), there are threejustifications which are educational justification, social justification and economic
justification. The educational justification requirement is to develop ways of teaching that
respond to individual differences and that therefore benefit all children (UNESCO, 2009).
Unfortunately, most of us consider inclusivity as social justification.

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In ensuring children get the best education, it should be inclusive not only in terms of thelearning process, but the place should also be taken into account, and not just by the teachers,
but also by the surrounding community. More can be done in a creative way and one course ofaction is by conducting more educational programmes which involve collaboration fromdiverse stakeholders. Ballantine et al. (2017, p.29) suggested an open systems model that canhelp to conceptualise a whole system in addition to understanding which pieces would fit or do
not fit together. Inclusive education could not be achieved if the school is not willing to include
individuals or groups from a diverse background with diverse learning styles. With varieties oflearning, an educational programme could also be included as part of inclusive education.
Myriad educational programmes can be organised in school and one is through Game Based
Learning (GBL). According to Trajkovik et al. (2018), collaborative environment in traditional
games through GBL can increase motivation in introvert children for the extrovert measure
influence. When traditional games were used as an instructional tool, it enhanced students’learning to use available technology to search more information on the traditional games which
subsequently acts as an intrinsic motivational factor (Trajkovik et al., 2018). Ranieri and Bruni(2013) stated that students who were not responsive in class but started talking, showedcollaborative attitudes and engagement when given mobile phones.
GBL is not just an educational programme but it encompasses a variety of programmes andactivities that can be conducted in school by engaging with individual or agencies outsideschools. Therefore, school curricular should be interdisciplinary, represent diverse interests andenhances critical thinking skills that could assist children in reaching their common goal via a
different path (Ballantine et al., 2017; p.29). In fact, with participation from the adults such as
the surrounding community and parents, educational programmes in school would be thrilling.
Adams et al. (2016) said that, inclusivity, is the process of collaboration of the people andeducational programmes which the source of strength is to accomplish a singular goal. These
could not be accomplished by managing individually (Adams et al., 2016). Supposedly, notlooking at the child as the problem but to identify that the education system is the problem(UNESCO, 2009)
Programme Theory
This research adopts ‘programme theory’ as it has been used by evaluators to develop the best
outcome to a programme (Rogers et al., 2000). Programme theory describes programme
content, predicts the end result of the programme, specifies what needs to be done based on theaim of the programme, and outcomes of the programmes by domain (Reynolds, 1998; Sidani,1999). The relevance of the theory to this study is that it evaluates CSR educational
programmes. The evaluation is from corporate companies’ perspectives. It is wide-ranging toconceptualise and evaluate the programme that covers all the factors. Furthermore, Rogers etal. (2000) added that it is impossible to design an evaluation that covers all the identified factors
in programme theory. In these research findings, it describes school’s perspective on CSR
educational programmes towards pupils and schools.
Methods
Research Design
This study used a qualitative research approach and selected a case study of the Adopt-a-School(AASC) Programme as it was conducted in most of the rural primary schools throughout
Malaysia. The AASC Programme involves corporate companies and government-linkcompanies (GLC) that work together to adopt a school in the rural areas for the period of three
years. Once this period ends, the company will then leave to adopt other rural schools.

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Sampling
The CSR educational programmes are conducted throughout Malaysia but only 10 schools
were selected as samples for this study. These schools are from three different states in thenorthern region: Kedah, Pulau Pinang and Perak. Purposive sampling was used whereinterviewed schools have completed three years of adoption with a corporate company under
CSR educational programmes initiatives. During the adoption, the corporate companies haveorganised varieties of CSR educational programmes based on the school needs. Theinterviewees included headmasters/mistresses (HM) and some of them were accompanied byteachers who acted as programme coordinators when the CSR educational programme in theschool took place.
Data Collection
The technique of data collection was semi-structured interviews while the research instrumentused was a questionnaire. The interview questions were nine open-ended questions comprisedof three sections, which were the educational programme, pupils and school. It was conductedin the Malaysian language. With the consent of the HM, the interview was recorded.
The interviews were transcribed and translated into English. Each of the interviews took
between 40 and 45 minutes maximum. More than 50% of the questions were derived from
(Wall & Sage Solutions, 2014) that has guided the suitable questions for summative evaluation
to ensure the validity and reliability of the questions. Refer to Table 1 below, questions thathave been ticked ( / ) were used as the interview questions.
Table 1: Summative Evaluation Questions after the Educational Programme has beenCompleted• What did the programme accomplish?
• Did the program reach its goals and objectives?
• What impact did the program have on its recipients?
• What were the outcomes?
• Who benefited the programme?
• How much was the benefit?
• Was the benefit greater with this program as compared with another programme?
• Did all the types of students or clients benefit from the programme?
• What were the positive outcomes?
• What were the negative outcomes?
• What should be improved or changed in the programme?
• Does the benefit of the programme warrant the cost?
Source: (Wall & Sage Solutions, 2014)

Schools
/
/
/
/

/
/
/
/

Data Analysis
Narrative analysis was used for case study as a method for “describing and critiquing different
positions present in narratives” (White & Taket, 2000; p. 702). The researcher needs to decide
which stories provided answers to the research objectives rather than provide everything
participants conveyed (Wong & Breheny, 2018).

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Ethics
Ethical clearance was ensured through an approval from Ministry of Education Malaysia andState Education Department as the samples were HM from schools. Before the interview
started, interviewees were informed that the interview will be recorded. The school name was
not stated but only stated as Respondent.
Findings
This section presents the findings from respondent about their perspective on CSR educational
programmes in the rural school. There were three questions related to CSR educational
programmes.
Question 1: What are the impacts of CSR educational programmes towards the pupils?
From the interviews conducted with 10 respondents, 90% said that the CSR educational
programme has benefitted the pupils in their school. A respondent said that it has given
exposure and helped pupils holistically through gaining their self-development, hobby andfuture jobs. Pupils were exposed to robotic programmes which have brought them up to therobotic national level competition. According to a respondent, pupils who could not do well inacademics were taught about a computer’s technical side such as how to mantle and dismantle
the computers CPU. As for other pupils, they were taught the basic software such as Microsoft
Office. Pupils were also exposed to the quizzes in computer programmes. Another respondent
stated that if no outsiders came to their school, especially corporate companies, schools would
not be able to organise all sorts of educational programmes for their pupils. With so much
exposure from CSR educational programmes, it has allowed pupils to have a much better
attitude.
A respondent stated that by bringing outsiders to the school, pupils had benefitted throughmotivational talks as well as on better learning methods. In fact, a respondent said that pupils
were motivated, thrilled and excited to come to school upon hearing about the CSR educational
programmes organised in their school. This would help pupils who are always absent fromschool to come back to school to join the programme. A respondent added that CSR educational
programmes have given benefits towards school achievement, pupils understand better about
green environment, encourage creativity and helped pupils in their career development.
Respondent 5 said about how the educational programme benefitted participating pupils:
Good. Because pupils here lack exposure. When it comes to the programme
the students get excited and thrilled. Games or whatever right. We want tomake the pupils excited and happy to come to school to learn. Have to givesomething to motivate them to come to school as here also a lot of pupils
always absent” (Respondent 5).
A respondent suggested that CSR educational programmes ought to include more programmesthat are related to computers and technology to attract the pupil to learn: For example, by
having computers in each of the classrooms. With the addition of a projector and screen, thiswill benefit pupils during the learning process. A respondent stated that pupils needmotivational programmes such as talks and academic additional classes before they sit forPrimary School Achievement Test (PSAT). Other than that, a respondent added that pupils
need study visit programmes so that they would have more of an open mind. One of the study
trips suggested is a historical visit. Pupil would learn more and understand better by visiting
the historical places, besides, they themselves would search for more information on their own

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initiative to get further information. This would also help pupils in their essay writing. A
respondent also mentioned out-of-class learning such as camping or during science subjects,
where a teacher would bring pupils out from class, but still in the school compound, to learn
about plants and trees. Other suggestions on suitable CSR educational programmes for pupils
are 21st century classes, exam-focus for PSAT pupils, and green programmes.
Question 2: What are the impacts of CSR educational programmes towards the schools?
Teachers were sent for courses to update their knowledge and teaching methods. CSR
educational programmes did not just benefit pupils and teachers but also parents and thecommunity surrounding the school. According to a respondent, corporate companies did
conduct computer classes for the community. Parents and the surrounding community havegiven their full support in all CSR educational programmes conducted in school by attending
programmes conducted by corporate companies and sending their children to school forparticipation at any time. When their children attended school during a weekend, the wholecommunity got together to cook and prepare food for everyone from the budget allocated forthe programmes.
From all ten respondents who were interviewed, six respondents stated that CSR educational
programmes provided were insufficient. A respondent was surprised that pupils who did not
do well in class could express themselves very well in the programme conducted. The activity
requires pupils to choose their ambition, which one pupil chose to be a newscaster. A
respondent was surprised to see most of the pupils’ showed their hidden talent:“If you can see how my students who have low IQ become a newscaster in
one of the programmes, with his own style, I was shocked when I saw that. It
was a very interesting programme. There are a lot more programmes but thetime was too short and we could not let other students experience this”(Respondent 1).
Despite the insufficient funds, schools could not organise their own educational programme
for their pupils. Besides, a respondent stated that in rural areas, the community only depends
on school to educate their children. Thus, school also needs support from outsiders to assist
schools. Another respondent stated that they fully utilised the resources that they have aroundthem: for example, inviting agencies to school and requesting to use the agency’s facility forthe pupils’ benefit.
“From here we can see that we need a good network with private sector andoutsiders. If here you can see that we need assistance from the prisoner’s
department, army, police and government agencies and private for us to
produce the student based on what the ministry has requested. For sure wereally need contributions from outsiders especially through this programme”(Respondent 1).
After the CSR educational programme was completed, schools were back to normal and they
were not in contact with the companies any longer. Moreover, the school’s ranking has dropped
down in a year or two after CSR educational programme had completed, as the school could
not afford extra intensive classes for their pupils. An interviewed respondent stated that CSR
educational programmes should continue as they are really in need of financial assistance,
another respondent said they need to let other pupils experience it as well as it has assisted
teacher’s in teaching. A respondent also added that even from the Parent Teacher Associations

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(PTA), it could not provide that much funding because most of the parents who sent theirchildren to school are working in agriculture, selling food in stalls or working in a factory, that
do not earn that much. A respondent prefers that corporate companies to continue their CSR
educational programmes and do not stop. This is because pupils enrol to school every year andthe school would want the new pupils to benefit from the same programmes. Besides, pupils
always look forward for CSR educational programmes by corporate companies.
“If it’s possible, to have it every year because new students comes in every
year that means the programme should be continued. We really encourage
corporate agencies or government themselves come together and assist theschool” (Respondent 1)“We have already gotten the assistance/programme for 3 years and thensuddenly it disappears just like that. At least they still send the motivator thatthey have sent before once in a while. Meaning that they do not leave theschool just like that” (Respondent 2)“If we can have a programme every month it will be much better. Because
children will always look forward for more programmes” (Respondent 4)
Question 3: What are the suggestions from schools for future CSR educational
programmes?
Respondents were asked on future programme suggestions that best suits their pupils. The
respondents suggested academic foci such as night tuition and intensive classes. Moreover,intensive classes should be conducted by schools’ once examinations are closer. This is because
sending children to the paid tuition classes outside would be expensive for their parents and far
away in town. There was also a suggestion for the pupils to come to school at night to do their
homework with other classmates and discuss homework amongst them. A respondent agreed
that by learning from each other, students would understand better.
A respondent stated that it is imperative for CSR educational programmes to provide basic
skills for pupils who have learning difficulties such as difficulty to focus on reading, writing
and counting. According to a respondent, if there is extra funding, schools would subscribe to
one year’s worth of educational magazines or buy new books for the benefits of pupils. Indeed,reading projects should be continued so that pupils have an open mind. A respondent alsoemphasised an English language programme. According to a respondent, English language is
one of the main issues in the rural schools. Besides, in the PSAT, it is compulsory for pupils topass the English language subject. Other than that, a holistic programme is also essential todevelop pupils to a high level of knowledge.
“For me is to each pupil to be holistic. Whatever the curriculum is depends
on the student holistically. Let’s say the school performs well, is a greatschool, famous school, but when the results come out they did not reach theaverage school grade that is required by the state education department sothey didn’t get anything. But when we focus on student holistically teachers
will help the student individually” (Respondent 3)“Can I say English language? I want to focus more on the English
proficiencies, if you talk about education I really want to focus that first. We
really have to put a lot of effort for English language. I could not depend on

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just one schedule but the most challenging part was pupil’s interest to learn
English language. How to make them like/enjoy English language is quitedifficult” (Respondent 7)
The respondent did give some suggestions for the CSR educational programmes for future
improvement. According to a respondent, the programme must be suitable for rural schools
and the community surrounding them. Moreover, any programmes that will be organised inschool should involve at least one whole classroom instead of just 10 pupils from the whole
school. This was when there were 10 students selected along with selected teachers to the cityof Kuala Lumpur. Other than that, the facilitator that will be involved in the CSR educational
programmes should also be among the teachers or university students as they could convey themessages in an easy manner at the pupils’ level of understanding. Another respondentemphasised that CSR educational programmes should be offer variety and focus more on
academics related subjects. Furthermore, a respondent suggested that it would be good if thecompanies could focus more on 21st century learning. A respondent also suggested that schools
and corporate companies should work together for the sustainability of the programmes infuture. Finally, schools’ suggestion on future programmes must be academic related whichshould include an English language programme, information technology, 21st century learning,
green programme, basic skills (read, write, count), motivational programme and study visit.
Discussion
This aim of the study was to highlight the impacts of educational CSR programmes from theschools’ perspectives towards their pupils and school. CSR educational programmes’ flaws
and future programmes are also discussed in this section.
Perspective on CSR Educational Programme towards Participated Pupils
From the findings, CSR educational programmes assuredly have provided positive impact tothe pupils. It has impacted them through educational exposure, holistic approaches, academic
improvement, motivation, encouraging creativity and assisting in pupils’ future careerdevelopment. As stated by Ballantine et al. (2017) school curricular should be interdisciplinary,
represent diverse interests and enhance critical thinking skills that could assist children inreaching their common goal. From the findings, one of the pupils who was quiet and did not
do well in academics, was very expressive in one of the CSR educational programmes
conducted in school. Ranieri and Bruni (2013) stated pupils that did not react when asked orally
about themselves started talking and discovering the cell phone’s multimedia functionalities
when prompted by mobile phones. The new generation indeed preferred the new style oflearning in which CSR educational programmes can incorporate. A myriad of styles of learning
can be applied in educational programmes under CSR initiatives based on the company’s
expertise. Ismail et al. (2013) stated that teachers have gained hands-on skills relating
computers and students’ positive changes also felt by teachers. In addition, there was also awide range in student achievements in examinations and in co-curricular activities involving
soft skills, plus, CSR programmes in school have multiplied the effects on the students, teachersand society (Ismail et al., 2013). Through CSR initiatives, some companies do bring pupils fora study visit and this should be continued to provide another side of learning to pupils. Walanand Gericke (2019) gave examples of out of school activities: learning experience is different
from school, topics selected will attract pupils, and high cognitive activities.

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Perspective on CSR Educational Programme towards Participated School“Leaders from a successful rural school have said that to maintain school-wide is to focus on
instruction and high expectations; development of multiple support systems for students, andwork with teacher’s strength to improve students’ outcome” (Masumoto & Brown-Welty,
2009, p.15). School should take note that the focus is not just for the pupils but also for thedevelopment of the teachers. As Slee (2018, p.5) stated, “inclusive education in school is a coreelement of teacher preparation, continuing professional learning, and policy making andpractice”. During CSR educational programmes, some of the teachers were sent for courses onteaching as well as to keep updated on teaching and learning methods. Schools were delighted
that corporate companies were willing to reach out to them in the rural areas. Through corporatecompanies’ CSR educational programmes initiatives, extra tuition classes can be conducted toassist pupils that are weak in certain subjects. Everyone was happy when school academic
ranking went up during this time. Besides, extra tuition classes are also emphasised for thepupils that will be sitting for PSAT. Sinha & Chaudhari (2018) stated five major impacts on
school academic programme in CSR initiatives. The sustainability attributes to the pupils after
the programme are, pupils are able to understand and participate in the discussion after the
programme, pupils can read a paragraph, pupils can read sentence, pupils can read a story; andpupils can subtract arithmetic numbers (Sinha & Chaudhari, 2018). It is evident that the CSR
educational programme initiative in school has helped pupils to improve their academic
performance. The surrounding community was supportive and they are willing to send theirchildren anytime to school. Sometimes when the school is running a CSR educational
programme for their children during weekend, the rural community also gathered in school toprepare food for everyone using the budget that has been allocated to schools for the
programme. This is how we can see that the rural community is very warm and welcoming
when conducting programmes for their children. This is supported by O’Donnell and Kirkner(2014) that stated family involvement impact on student achievement, followed by parentteacher collaboration and communication programmes. More, Adams et al., (2016) stated thatcollaboration is important to accomplish goals in educational programmes.
CSR Educational Programmes Challenges
The CSR educational programmes conducted were not consistent and occurred for only acertain period of time or just as a one-off. It would be wiser for pupils to be enrolled in the
program every year, so that they can gain continued benefit, especially in the rural areas. It istrue as Collins (2014) said that the relationship between businesses and children are stilllacking. Child rights are significant to businesses and offer an opportunity to improve businessefforts in relation to sustainability, ethics, CSR and societal progress generally (Collins, 2014).
If the corporate sees the importance of education for all children, corporate will encourage
more and other corporates to carry out CSR educational programmes in rural school. There
should have a continuity of the CSR educational programmes. Even though rural schools fully
utilise the resources surrounding them, few resources can be found in their areas. Rural school
need corporate companies’ continuous support. In the SDG fourth core, it is also stated that all
stakeholders including a business can leverage their resources and core competencies tosupport governments in delivering on their promise of education for all (UNESCO, 2009).
Future Suggestions for CSR Educational Programmes in School
From the findings, all respondents stated that CSR educational programmes in school should
be continued. Finally, the schools’ suggestion on future programmes must be academic related
which should include English language programme, ICT, 21st century learning, green
programme, basic skills (read, write, count), motivational programme and study visit.

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Conclusion
The results reveal that the CSR educational programmes have given good perspectives to thepupils, teachers, school and the surrounding community. The programmes have impacted
pupils through educational exposure, a holistic approach, academic improvement, feelingmotivated, encourage creativity and assist in pupil’s future career development. The school’s
perspective on an educational programme’s impact is improved as is teaching and knowledge.
The programme has benefitted the community surrounding and assisted in financial assistance.
The school suggested that CSR programmes should be improved by providing a variety ofeducational programmes, that it should be more academic focused and is to be sustained inschool. CSR educational programme types in future are suggested to be academically related
which should include an English language programme, information technology (IT), 21st
century learning, green programme, basic skills (read, write, count), motivational programmeand study visits.
The CSR educational programme initiatives in school are subsequently preparing rural children
to enter to higher education so that the children are well-prepared, matured and broad-minded.
This would also help children to realise their dreams and what they want to pursue in the future.
In fact, this would help to generate the quality of future generations and quality of workforce.
Numerous CSR educational programmes have been conducted involving pupils, teachers andthe surrounding community. It should be noted that, school is not just to teach but also touch
pupil’s hearts by engaging with their family and rural community around. After all, in rural
primary school, students are keen to obtain a formal education, followed by sustainableeducational programmes (collaboration with community, companies and agencies), highly
trained teachers and good teacher-student relationship. To emphasise, schools are not justgetting good results, but they also equip their pupils holistically with little resources that they
have. In conclusion, CSR educational programmes initiatives must be sustainable because it
had great impact on pupils, teachers, schools, and the community surrounding the school.
We acknowledge the limitations of this study. The results of the study might appear to notreflect all participated schools in CSR educational programmes as the number of respondents
were 10 which represents 10 schools from approximately 500 schools that participated in CSR
educational programmes in throughout Malaysia. However, the sample was the representativefrom participated schools in CSR educational programmes. Another limitation was some of theinterviewed HM were not fully involved in CSR educational programmes. Their response wasfrom feedbacks given by the teachers in the school.
For further research, CSR educational programmes in rural school must be investigated interms of the programme sustainability after the company has left. This is to ensure that new
pupils that enrol in primary school could also get the benefit as well as to keep the privatepublic-chain in education.

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Corresponding author: Athirah Azhar
Email: aathirah@unimas.my

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Understanding Cross-National Differences in Inclusive Education Coverage:
An Empirical Analysis
Steve R. Entrich
University of Potsdam
Germany

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Abstract
With the adoption and ratification of the United Nations’ Convention on the Rights of Persons
with Disabilities in 2006, inclusive education became an international human right and a global
norm. But, “Education for All” remains a worldwide challenge. It appears that some countries
achieved higher inclusive education rates than others. Why this is the case has barely been
empirically investigated. To address this gap, this study analyzes cross-national differences ininclusive education coverage in over 50 societies. First, the data gap is addressed by providing
an overview of inclusive education rates in 52 societies. In the theoretical part of the paper,
hypothetical causes for the cross-national differences are discussed from a new institutionalist
perspective, before concrete, testable hypotheses are derived. Third, a secondary meta-analysis
based on self-assembled data from national and international sources is conducted predicting
the cross-national differences by means of ordinary least squares regressions. Findings showthat national income or educational expenses have no impact on the level of institutionalizationof inclusive education in a society; the cross-national differences in school inclusion are mainly
due to the structural conditions of the school system and its own institutional logic (especiallythe degree of institutional differentiation); and the definition of what is recognized as special
educational needs and promoted in a national education system largely affects the extent of
inclusive education coverage. The findings of this analysis prove to be a good start for futureendeavors in macro-sociological and educational analyses of international inclusive educationand have major policy implications.
Keywords: cross-national comparison, country-level analysis, inclusive education, newinstitutionalism, secondary meta-analysis, special education

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With the adoption and subsequent ratification of the United Nations’ Convention on the Rights
of Persons with Disabilities (UN-CRPD) in 2006 (United Nations, 2006), inclusive education
became an international human right and a global norm. Most of the 182 countries that signed
the petition also ratified it soon after, thus expressing their commitment to reducing theexclusion of pupils with special educational needs (SEN) (United Nations Office of Legal
Affairs [UN-OLA], 2020). Nevertheless, “Education for All” remains a worldwide challenge
and is seen as a process and goal rather than an achieved status (Powell, 2018; United Nations
Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization [UNESCO], 2015). Whereas some societies
with comparatively advanced inclusive education systems (e.g., the Nordic countries ofEurope) were praised for their efforts to provide education for all, in countries with highly
stratified education systems, such as Germany and Switzerland, students with special
educational needs remain predominantly or exclusively schooled in special schools (Biermann& Powell, 2014; Powell, 2016, 2018; Werning, 2014).
The objective of this study is to find explanations for the cross-national difference in the levelof institutionalization of inclusive education. Therefore, this study for the first time analyzes
cross-national differences in Inclusive Education Coverage (IEC) in over 50 societies. The
article is structured as follows. First, the still existing gap in valid and reliable data on inclusive
education provision across the world is addressed by providing self-assembled inclusive
education rates for 52 societies. Second, hypothetical causes for the cross-national differencesin IEC are discussed from a neo-institutionalist perspective, before concrete, testable
hypotheses are derived. Third, the cross-national differences in IEC are empirically analyzed
by means of ordinary least squares (OLS) regressions using self-assembled data from national
and international sources. Finally, findings are discussed for their meaning and significance forthe further development of inclusive education, before future directions and policy implications
are discussed.
Literature and Data Review
Mapping Inclusive Education Coverage
The need for reliable data on inclusive education to enable evidence-based policy-making forlong-term development of inclusive education systems is well recognized (Ramberg &Watkins, 2020). However, although more attention is devoted to collecting data on crosscountry special and inclusive education coverage (European Agency for Special Needs andInclusive Education [EASIE], 2020; Organisation for Economic Co-operation andDevelopment [OECD], 2005; UNESCO, 2015), serious gaps in data and research remain.
First of all, the data collection related to inclusive education is still quite problematic (Watkins
et al., 2014). Apart from the European Agency Statistics on Inclusive Education, whichcollected longitudinal, comparative national data of 31 European societies, data collected byother international organizations (e.g., OECD, UNESCO, World Health Organization [WHO],
United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund [UNICEF]) are rarely harmonizedor suited to fill the existing data gap for countries outside Europe (Ramberg & Watkins, 2020).
Second, there is still a lack of systematic and sophisticated empirical studies examining thedifferences regarding inclusive education provision. Comprehensive cross-national analyses ofthe determinants and effects of Special Education Coverage (SEC) significantly contributed to
our knowledge about the influence of economic and educational factors on the level of special
education provision in a country (Anastasiou & Keller, 2014; Anastasiou et al., 2018).
According to this research, whether more or less special education is generally provided in a

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country depends on economic resources (i.e. gross national income per capita) and educational
context (e.g., adult literacy rate, net enrollment in primary education, pupil teacher ratio, andschool life expectancy). However, this kind of study provides few answers to the question why
more pupils are schooled in inclusive settings (in the sense of the UN-CRPD) in some countries
than in others. To answer this question, valid and reliable cross-national data on inclusive
education coverage are necessary to enable evidence-based education policy-making.
Based on the data at hand, in most countries there has been a noticeable improvement in theprovision of special needs education (EASIE, 2020; UNESCO, 2015). However, more than adecade after the adoption of the UN-CRPD, the worldwide transition from an exclusive to an
inclusive organization of special education must be described as rather slow. A large proportionof SEN students is still either schooled in special schools (segregation: students are enrolled infully separate special schools) or special classes (separation: students are enrolled in specialclasses in mainstream schools for more than 20 % of their time). Sometimes this kind of
instruction within the regular schooling system allows for shared lessons (integration), but only
if SEN students receive 80% or more of their instruction in regular classes among students
without SEN can we truly speak of inclusive education according to international standards(EASIE, 2020; Ramberg & Watkins, 2020). Often, what is officially recognized as inclusive
schooling does not necessarily comply with this definition (D’Alessio & Watkins, 2009;
Ramberg & Watkins, 2020). In societies where the more exclusive forms of special education
are socially deeply rooted and have been institutionalized over many years, it is likely that they
prevent the further expansion of inclusive education (Powell, 2018). Although inclusive
educational structures have been developed in all regions, there are currently very few
educational systems around the world in which all pupils learn together in inclusive settings
within the mainstream schooling system (Ramberg & Watkins, 2020).
Following the definition of EASIE (2020), Figure 1 reports inclusive education participation
rates of SEN students based on self-assembled data from 52 societies (details on data collectionin the methodology section). The data show that the proportion of SEN students in inclusive
settings has considerably increased between 2008 and 2018 in many societies. In Australia,
Czech Republic, Germany, Hungary, France, and Turkey, for example, this proportion
significantly increased. In other societies, not much seems to have happened since 2008. In
many societies with traditionally high inclusive education rates (over 90%), such as Italy,
Norway, Portugal or the United States, continuation is observed. In other societies withtraditionally low inclusive schooling, such as Japan or, especially, Switzerland, only marginal
or no improvement is visible. Surprisingly, in Finland, Estonia, and, especially, Sweden,
inclusive schooling rates considerably decreased even.

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XKX
CHE
HKG (CHN)
DNK
SWE
BEL
JOR
JPN
RUS
NLD
EST
LVA
FIN
WAL (GBR)
DEU
LUX
ENG (GBR)
CHN
KOR
ISR
MAC (CHN)POLFRANIR (GBR)
SVK
HUN
CZE
AUT
AUS
MYS
GBR
GRC
QAT
SVN
VNM
IRL
ESP
BRA
BGR
CYP
HRV
TUR
CAN
PRT
ALB
TAP (CHN)
LTU
ISL
NOR
THA
SCO (GBR)
USA
MLT
ITA
TUN
RWA

0%

2018
2008

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

Figure 1: Percentage of students with official SEN-status attending inclusive classes inregular schools as a proportion of all students with SEN status in 52 societies, 2008 and 2018
Note: Data for 2008 for Albania from 2012; for Brazil from 2009; for China from 2007; Data for 2018 for Korea,
Russian Federation, and Vietnam from 2017; for China, Canada (Ontario), Croatia, Cyprus, Denmark,
Hungary, Macao and Thailand from 2016; for Brazil from 2015. Data for Rwanda and Tunisia are based
the actually schooled number of students with SEN status; it is unclear whether all SEN students areenrolled in education.

The data presented imply a higher level of commitment to the provision of inclusive education
opportunities in some countries compared to others. Why this is the case and these massive
cross-national differences occur is all but clear. To address this issue, I apply neoinstitutionalism in the following section and derive testable hypotheses.

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Theoretical Approach: New Institutionalism
In order to clarify under which national conditions inclusion is implemented or institutionalized
more comprehensively, the present work draws on theoretical assumptions of the new
institutionalism. Although this theoretical perspective has so far found little application in thediscussion on inclusive education, it still offers important insights for the introduction andinstitutionalization of inclusive school systems (Nohl, 2018). According to Berger andLuckmann (2003), institutionalization takes place as soon as habitualized actions arereciprocally typified by types of agents. Every typification that is carried out in this way is an
institution (p. 58). Hence, instead of simply accepting the existence of institutions, the new
institutionalism points to the importance of institutions as connecting structures between
society and the individual actor. Only then, the formation, nature and change of institutions canbe understood. The institutional development and establishment of inclusive education
therefore depends on the overall societal recognition of instruction for all students as a common
good. In most societies, however, the learning environment appropriate to the needs of students
with SEN was – if at all – for the longest time located in exclusive settings such as special
schools rather than in regular schools.
The institutionalization of special education support systems took place in three phases.
Around 1900, guiding and structural principles of the general school system for theestablishment of “institutions” for the schooling of children with disabilities were adopted (e.g.,
auxiliary schools in Germany; special classes in the United States). Between 1900 and 1970,
schools for children with disabilities were expanded and institutionalized, with a following
differentiation in the course of educational expansion. It was not until 1970 that options forcommon lessons for all children were pursued in different school experiments and models.
However, these new concepts often found it difficult to assert themselves. Instead, theinstitution “special school” was accepted as necessary or even inevitable in many countries(Powell, 2009, p. 216). In these societies, the institutionalization of the special school system
was extremely effective, because schools orient themselves in their organizational form on theinstitutionalized expectations of their environment (Meyer & Rowan, 2009): that is, in the
segregating or separating schooling of children classified as possessing disabilities or SEN.
With the inclusion of SEN students, schools often fear to risk their own legitimacy and thus
their continued existence, regardless of whether school inclusion is more effective or not (Nohl,2018).
Without a doubt, the resolutions passed by the UN-CRPD became a powerful instrument of
global educational governance, which made inclusive education a new element of the “world
culture” of education (Meyer et al., 1992) and thus part of the globally institutionalized
expectation structure for education (Biermann & Powell, 2014). The effective implementationof inclusive education ultimately depends on forms of isomorphism; that is, processes ofaligning school organizations to this globally institutionalized expectation structure. Threedifferent types of isomorphism can be distinguished (Powell, 2009): the imitation of highly
successful inclusive schools (mimetic isomorphism); the change of standards, classifications
and expectations within special education (normative isomorphism), which led to a global
diffusion of school inclusion (Biermann & Powell, 2014); and the pressure on states and theireducation systems to introduce inclusive education (forced isomorphism). The latter case isquite problematic, as it deviates from Berger and Luckmann’s concept of institutions. Here thecreation of institutions underlies no longer reciprocally typified habitualized actions, but rather
explicit rules that have been internationally and/or nationally codified (Nohl, 2018).

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The UN-CRPD is a perfect example of forced isomorphism, because all countries that ratified
the UN-CRPD are obliged to guarantee inclusion in schools. However, school organizations
are still confronted with the respective historically grown expectations and previously
institutionalized support systems, which can conflict with the resolutions of the UN-CRPD.
There are therefore different forms of coupling: close coupling where the school’s educational
practices correspond to institutionalized environmental (and policy) expectations; loose
coupling wherein expectations in educational practice are reinterpreted by the schools; anddecoupling which is when educational practices are completely detached from the externallycommunicated image of the schools and the postulated policy goals (Nohl, 2018).
The replacement of the special school system as an institution by the inclusive school istherefore a lengthy process and strongly dependent on the willingness to consistently
implement inclusion. The different ways in which organizations deal with inclusion, which is
influenced by internal logics and practices and carries the risk of lip service, is particularly
problematic. To reduce the risk of decoupling of schools from the official goal of providing
education for all and thus explain cross-national differences in IEC, four national factors are
deemed especially important: economic resources, education system, political conviction, andclassification of SEN in a country. The hypothetical impact of these factors on IEC is briefly
discussed and the derived hypotheses to be tested in the analysis section.
Hypotheses
Economic resources. The implementation of inclusive instruction in mainstream schools is
believed to be quite a costly endeavor. Whether more or fewer children receive any form ofspecial education was found to be positively related to the economic resources of a country, inother words, to the gross national income (GNI) per capita. With higher mean income, theproportion of SEN students who receive education increases (Anastasiou & Keller, 2014;
Anastasiou et al., 2018). However, these arguments fall short in countries in which an extensive
special education system is already in place. In fact, cost arguments speak against themaintenance of special needs schools and in favor of inclusion. Not only is the average cost oflessons per pupil in mainstream schools lower than in special schools; human resources can be
distributed differently and transport, possible accommodation and operating costs can be savedby closing special schools. Overall, it can be seen that rising costs for teachers and othereducational staff are foreseeable, but falling investment and operating costs for special schools
and student transport costs should more than compensate for this. In addition, demographic
change is making special schools less profitable, as falling numbers of pupils per school
increase operating costs, while space is freed up in mainstream schools (Sibanda, 2018). Hence,in contrast to SEC, no significant effects of national education expenditure or the mean income
per capita of a country on the level of inclusive schooling are to be expected. This leads to thefirst hypothesis:
Hypothesis 1. Higher mean income and educational expenditure in a country does not
significantly enhance IEC.
Education system. The implementation of inclusive schooling is ultimately a question of theinstitutional logic with regard to selection criteria of the established school system. Educational
institutional differentiation in the form of tracking and standardization arguably influences theextent to which the principle of “Education for All” is supported or prevented by theinstitutional logic of the education system. Tracking describes the level of stratification of an
education system (Bol et al., 2014). External tracking refers to the formal differentiation ofschools by tracks (school types), school maintainer (public versus private) or specializations,27

IAFOR Journal of Education: Inclusive Education

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or the informal differentiation according to reputation (ranking), resources, or student
composition. Internal tracking (within schools) often refers to formal specializations and ability
grouping, among others (Blossfeld et al., 2016). Based on in-depth evidence covering the fullrange of educational differentiation and institutional arrangements across 17 countries,
Blossfeld et al. (2016) developed a framework to categorize four dominant models of
secondary schooling with different levels of institutional differentiation, including tracking andage of first selection (from least selective to most selective): the Nordic Inclusive Model, theIndividual Choice Model, the Mixed Tracking Model, and the Early Tracking Model. Entrich(2021) extended the number of societies covered by this classification to over 60. In countries
with lower levels of differentiation, inclusive education should be more readily accepted andeasier to integrate and implement than in highly stratified education systems. In combination
with higher levels of differentiation, centrally administered high-stakes exit or entrance
examinations as a form of rigid standardization of learning contents should foster higher
competition for placement in elite educational tracks or the most prestigious institutions (Bolet al., 2014). Based on these institutional differences and underlying institutional logics inrelation to selection criteria, varying organizational forms of learning support are to be
expected (Powell, 2018). Countries with higher levels of differentiation and standardization
are thus expected to have experienced more difficulties in the implementation of inclusive
education.
Hypothesis 2. In societies with higher levels of differentiation and standardization of
education, IEC will be significantly lower.
Political conviction for inclusion. Whether inclusion is actively pursued and how many
resources are made available to achieve the internationally set goal of education for all is ofcourse largely related to when and to what extent the representatives of a country decided to
introduce inclusion. Countries in which the resolutions of the UN-CRPD were signed andratified immediately after they were presented in 2007 and in which the additional protocol
was also ratified show a heightened interest in meeting the international expectations of aschool for all. Although other countries have also ratified these resolutions, this may have been
more a result of international pressure than based on the conviction that inclusion is absolutely
necessary and should be implemented as soon as possible. There are still examples where the
UN-CRPD has been ratified, but exclusive forms of special education continue to dominate
and were even expanded in recent years (e.g., Switzerland). In many societies, the rhetoric is
more ambitious than school realities (Powell, 2018).
Hypothesis 3. In societies where the UN-CRPD was ratified earlier, the conviction to
implement inclusive education is higher and thus IEC will be significantly higher as
well.
Classification of SEN. In order to enjoy inclusive school education, pupils with disabilities
must be officially classified as SEN students. According to estimates by the World HealthOrganization, around 15.3% of people across all age groups are counted in the category“moderate and severe disabilities” (WHO, 2011, p. 30), which refer to severity classes III andabove. Of the 0–14-year-old population about 5.2% have SEN of this severity. However, there
are very large differences in the proportion of students with SEN among the consideredsocieties. Who ultimately receives a SEN status and who does not depends largely on what is
officially recognized as SEN (D’Alessio & Watkins, 2009; Kim et al., 2019; Mithout, 2016;
Ramberg & Watkins, 2020). Hence, it is not surprising that the proportion of students with an
official SEN-status can vary greatly from country to country (see Figure 2).

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Figure 2: Special Education Coverage (SEC) and Inclusive Education Coverage (IEC) in
52 societies, 2018
Note: Data for 2018 for Korea, Russian Federation, and Vietnam from 2017; for China, Canada (Ontario),
Croatia, Cyprus, Denmark, Hungary, and Macao from 2016; for Brazil from 2015; for Albania from 2012.

While in Sweden and Korea, for example, only about 1% of all students possess an attested
SEN status, about 14% of US students are recognized as SEN students. Contrasting to countries
like Korea or China, for instance, in the US almost 40% of all SEN students are recognized ashaving specific learning disabilities – a category that is marginal in Korea and completely
missing in China (Kim et al., 2019). These significant differences in SEC between countries

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refer in particular to the internal logic according to which a SEN status is assigned at all. How
many students in a country receive inclusive schooling basically depends on the intrinsic logicof the system, that is, on the conditions under which someone is certified with the special SEN
status and can accordingly qualify for special educational support. Perhaps unsurprisingly, theoverall IEC rates shown in Figure 2 imply a clear relationship between SEC and IEC. In
countries with larger proportions of students with an official certification of SEN, the potential
proportion of inclusively schooled students is larger as well. Of course, the difference between
SEC and IEC can be quite enormous across countries. Still, there seems to exist a generaltendency. In sum, higher IEC is expected in countries where the SEN classification covers alarger range of disabilities and learning disadvantages and thus more students receive the SENstatus.
Hypothesis 4. In societies with generally higher special education coverage (SEC), IEC
will also be significantly higher.
Methodology
Data
The data used in this analysis cover 52 societies and come from different international (World
Bank, UNESCO, United Nations, and EASIE) and national sources (ministries of education as
well as national statistics bureaus). Data were targeted for the year 2018 or the closest available
to that year. Table 1 provides a detailed description of all variables.
Measures
Outcome Variable: Inclusive education coverage (IEC). This measure reflects the overall
percentage of students who are schooled in inclusive settings as a percentage of the overall
student population in a country. Data was obtained from the European Agency Statistics on
Inclusive Education (EASIE) for the 31 European countries in the sample and supplemented
by data from national ministries of education and their statistics bureaus for 21 societies forother regions of the world, including the Chinese special administrative regions of Hong Kongand Macao. To achieve comparable measures of IEC, instead of the postulated inclusive
schooling rates in the considered societies, which do not necessarily match (D’Alessio &Watkins, 2009; Ramberg & Watkins, 2020), the operational definition of an inclusive settingfrom the UNESCO and the EASIE was used. Accordingly, the IEC rate for all consideredsocieties “refers to education where the child/learner with SEN follows education inmainstream classes alongside their mainstream peers for the largest part – 80% or more – ofthe school week” (EASIE, 2020, p. 11). Furthermore, the IEC rates used are restricted tocompulsory schooling, that is, to primary and lower secondary education in most societies.
According to these data, the proportion of students schooled in inclusive settings within themainstream schooling system varies between 0 % (Hong Kong/Switzerland) and 14.53 %(Canada) with a mean of 3.75 %.
Economic resources. To test the economic argument, 2018 data on Gross Domestic Product[GDP] per capita as direct measurement of the level of national economic development wereused. Data was obtained from the World Bank (https://data.worldbank.org) and national
statistics. According to these data, the GPD per capita is lowest in Rwanda (782.62 US Dollar)
and highest in Luxembourg (116654.26 US Dollar), with a mean of 29,702.1 US Dollar. The
data on GDP were transformed into a natural logarithm (logged GDP) to resemble normal
distribution. To also control for governmental spending on education as a proxy for national
value of education, national educational expenditure on education as a percentage of GDP was30

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used. Data were obtained from the UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS:
http://data.uis.unesco.org) showing that governmental spending on education among theconsidered societies is lowest in China (1.89 % of GDP) and highest in Norway (7.91 % ofGDP), with a mean of 4.72 % of GDP.
Educational differentiation and standardization. To account for educational institutional
differentiation across societies, following the framework put forth by Blossfeld et al. (2016)
and the work of Entrich (2021), a series of dummy variables was created for the different
secondary schooling models. Based on in-depth evaluation of data on educational
differentiation, the most selective secondary schooling model (Early Tracking) was assigned
to those 9 societies where the first major selection occurs very early (age 10 or 11) and whereformal external differentiation into different school types is found. The second most selectivemodel (Mixed Tracking) was assigned to those 32 societies where selection typically occurs at
age 14 or 15 and is followed by strong formal and/or informal external differentiation. For
another 5 societies, the second least selective model (Individual Choice) was classified. Hereformal internal differentiation is the norm. Finally, the least selective model (Nordic Inclusive)
was assigned to those 6 societies with comprehensive systems focusing on informal internal
differentiation.
To control for educational standardization, the existence of centrally administered high-stakes
exit or entrance examinations is included drawing on the framework and data of Bol et al.
(2014) and Entrich (2021). Additional data was obtained from national reports of UNESCO(http://www.ibe.unesco.org/en/resources/world-data-education) and national ministries of
education. In total, 36 societies possessed central exams (1), 12 did not (0), whereas in 4
countries these exams were present only in subnational regions and are represented byrespective proportions (i.e., Australia: 0.81, Canada: 0.51, Germany: 0.44, and the UnitedStates: 0.09).
Political conviction for inclusion. To measure when and to what extent the representatives ofa country decided to introduce inclusion, 2 variables were introduced based on data from theUnited Nations (https://indicators.ohchr.org): years since the ratification of the UN-CRPD: thatis, the number of years which have passed since the resolutions of the UN-CRPD were ratified
referencing the year 2007, where the first ratifications are documented (0 to 11 years); andratification of the optional protocol (1 = yes; 0 = no).
Classification of SEN. The proportion of students counted as SEN students reflects the special
education coverage (SEC) of a country and is thus measured as the percentage of students
schooled in any special education context: in special schools, special classes, andintegrated/inclusive settings. In most of the considered societies, all students with SEN areschooled in one way or the other. In some, however, there may be students with SEN not
counted in these statistics, because they are not schooled in state recognized institutions but at
home or elsewhere. Nevertheless, the author is confident that the data used cover the actual
situation of special education in the considered countries quite well.

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Table 1: Descriptive statistics
Country
code

Country/
Society

ALB
AUS
AUT
BEL
BGR
BRA
CAN
CHE
CHN
CYP
CZE
DEU
DNK
ESP
EST
FIN
FRA
GBR
GRC
HKG
HRV
HUN
IRL
ISL
ISR
ITA
JOR
JPN
KOR
LTU
LUX
LTA
MAC
MLT
MYS
NDL
NOR
POL
PRT
QAT
RUS
RWA
SVK
SVN
SWE
TAP
THA
TUN
TUR
USA
VNM
XKX
Mean

Albania
Australia
Austria
Belgium
Bulgaria
BrazilCanadaSwitzerland
China
CyprusCzech Rep.
Germany
Denmark
Spain
Estonia
FinlandFranceUnited Kingdom
GreeceHong Kong
Croatia
Hungary
Ireland
IcelandIsraelItaly
JordanJapan
Korea, Rep.
Lithuania
Luxembourg
LatviaMacao
Malta
Malaysia
Netherlands
NorwayPolandPortugal
Qatar
Russian Fed.
RwandaSlovak Rep.
Slovenia
SwedenTaiwanThailandTunisia
TurkeyUnited States
VietnamKosovo, Rep.

IEC
(totalinclusive
students)
0.55
5.30
2.29
1.13
2.41
1.73
14.53
0.00
0.95
6.68
6.95
2.37
0.26
2.97
2.75
2.91
2.00
3.28
4.49
0.00
5.09
4.99
5.51
14.08
6.16
3.52
1.98
0.82
0.41
12.05
0.75
2.62
1.19
9.47
0.93
1.13
7.20
2.15
6.09
3.35
0.65
0.68
9.45
5.72
0.64
4.89
1.83
0.10
2.26
13.41
2.16
0.00
3.75

SEC
(total
SEN
students)
0.64
7.70
3.34
8.25
2.96
2.14
17.30
3.86
1.80
8.10
10.19
5.45
5.13
3.69
7.38
7.45
3.39
4.59
6.25
1.16
6.13
7.47
6.93
15.34
11.00
3.55
10.00
3.50
0.77
13.48
1.50
6.71
2.10
9.90
1.32
3.20
7.84
3.77
7.21
4.60
2.40
0.68
15.07
7.75
1.02
5.62
1.97
0.10
2.72
14.10
2.81
0.08
5.60

GDP
per capita(in US$)

Educational
expenditure(% of GDP)

Model ofsecondaryschooling

Centralexams

5284.38
57395.92
51525.05
47491.32
9423.56
9001.2346313.17
82818.11
9976.6828689.71
23046.95
47639.00
61390,69
30337,68
23258,47
50021,29
41631,0943043,2320324,3148542,89
14920,19
16150,77
78621,23
72968,70
41719,7334520,094241,7939159,4233340,27
19080,62116654,26
17805,28
87208,5430133,47
11373,2353048,10
81734,47
15460,64
23461,57
68793,78
11370,81
782,62
19428,1226054,5454589,06
22294,00
7295,48
3438,79
9370,1862840,02
2566,60
4419,91
35038.48

3.61
5.12
5.36
6.41
4.09
6.32
5.27
5.13
1.89
5.78
3.85
4.91
7.82
4.21
4.97
6.38
5.45
5.44
3.96
3.33
3.92
4.67
3.51
7.66
6.09
4.04
3.03
3.18
4.33
3.81
3.57
4.40
2.74
4.82
4.48
5.18
7.91
4.56
5.02
2.86
4.69
3.07
3.94
4.78
7.57
5.05
4.12
6.60
4.37
4.99
4.17
3.30
4.73

Mixed Tracking
Indiv. Choice
Early Tracking
Early Tracking
Mixed Tracking
Mixed Tracking
Nordic Inclusive
Early Tracking
Mixed Tracking
Mixed Tracking
Early Tracking
Early Tracking
Nordic Inclusive
Mixed Tracking
Mixed Tracking
Nordic Inclusive
Mixed Tracking
Indiv. Choice
Mixed Tracking
Mixed Tracking
Mixed Tracking
Early Tracking
Indiv. Choice
Nordic Inclusive
Mixed Tracking
Mixed Tracking
Mixed Tracking
Mixed Tracking
Mixed Tracking
Indiv. Choice
Early Tracking
Mixed Tracking
Mixed Tracking
Mixed Tracking
Mixed Tracking
Early Tracking
Nordic Inclusive
Mixed Tracking
Mixed Tracking
Mixed Tracking
Mixed Tracking
Mixed Tracking
Mixed Tracking
Mixed Tracking
Nordic Inclusive
Mixed Tracking
Mixed Tracking
Mixed Tracking
Mixed Tracking
Indiv. Choice
Early Tracking
Mixed Tracking
—

1
.81
0
0
1
0
.51
0
1
0
1
.44
1
0
1
1
1
1
0
1
1
1
1
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
0
0
1
1
1
1
0
1
1
1
1
.09
1
0
.73

UN-CRPD
Years
Rat.
of opt.
since
prot.
rat.
5
No
10
Yes
10
Yes
9
Yes
6
No
10
Yes
8
No
4
No
10
No
7
Yes
9
No
9
Yes
9
Yes
11
Yes
7
Yes
2
Yes
8
Yes
9
Yes
6
Yes
10
No
11
Yes
11
Yes
0
No
2
No
6
No
9
Yes
10
No
4
No
10
No
8
Yes
7
Yes
8
Yes
10
No
6
No
8
No
2
No
5
No
6
No
9
Yes
10
No
6
No
0
Yes
8
Yes
10
Yes
10
Yes
10
No
10
Yes
10
Yes
9
Yes
0
No
3
No
0
No
7.25
—

Analysis Strategy
In this secondary meta-analysis, first, correlation statistics for the country-level predictors arepresented. These correlations allow statements about fundamental relationships between
variables and are important for the subsequent identification of possible mediation effects.
Second, using the percentage of IEC per country as a dependent variable, hypotheses are tested
using the most popular quantitative approach to analyze country effects: OLS regressions.

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IAFOR Journal of Education: Inclusive Education

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Although many multi-country data sets contain thousands of individuals, most include rarely
more than 30 countries. With more than 50 cases (societies) the data used here offer acomparatively high number of cases and greater reliability than most other studies (see Bryan& Jenkins, 2016).
In Table 3, the different predictor groups are independently tested before they are combined in
one overall model. This way, the hypotheses are tested individually before checking which
factors best describe the differences in IEC across countries.
Finally, to ensure the reliability of results, robustness and multicollinearity checks are briefly
discussed.
Findings
Bivariate Correlation Statistics
Correlation statistics between all country-level variables are reported in Table 2. Cross-national
differences in IEC are positively correlated with Nordic (r = .279) and Individual Choice
schooling models (r = .367), and, above all, SEC in a country (r = .900), but negatively
correlated with the Mixed Tracking schooling model (r = -.278). These bivariate statistics
provide first support for hypotheses 1, 2, and 4.
Table 2: Bivariate correlation statistics(1) DV: Inclusive Education Coverage (IEC)

(1)
1.00

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

(8)

(9) (10)(2) Mean income (logged GDP per capita, in US$) .265 1.00
(3) National educational expenses (as % of GDP) .194 .327 1.00
(4) Nordic Inclusive Model (vs other).279 .325 .649 1.00

(5) Individual Choice Model (vs other).367 .217 -.037 -.118 1.00

(6) Mixed Tracking Model (vs other)-.278 -.466 -.425 -.457 -.413 1.00

(7) Early Tracking Model (vs other)-.164 .156 .027 -.165 -.149 -.579 1.00

(8) Standardized exit/entrance exams (vs no)-.147 -.222 -.256 -.120 .040 .157 -.132 1.00

(9) UN-CRDP: Years since ratification-.150 .074 -.013 -.142 -.189 .223 -.020 .052 1.00

(10) UN-CRDP: with optional protocol (vs no)-.075 -.038 .245 -.014 .053 -.049 .033 -.126 .378 1.00

(11) Special Education Coverage (SEC).900 .311 .231 .293 .292 -.328 -.053 -.111 -.102 -.028

Note: Significant correlations (p < .05) are printed in bold and highly significant correlations (p < .01) in bolditalics.

Correlations between the predictor variables are mostly weak to moderate. Notable positive
correlations exist between national mean income and educational expenditure; Nordic
inclusive model and mean income and educational expenditure; both UN-CRPD variables,(time since the resolutions of the convention were ratified in a country) and whether the
optional protocol was ratified at all correlate with each other; and SEC and mean income,
Nordic Inclusive and Individual Choice Models. These correlations indicate that while SEC isclearly related to the economic resources of a country, thus confirming past findings(Anastasiou & Keller, 2014; Anastasiou et al., 2018), IEC is not. Furthermore, in societies withmore egalitarian schooling systems, SEC and IEC are generally more advanced.

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Multivariate Regressions
To explain the cross-national differences in IEC, OLS regressions test the impact of national
characteristics (Table 3). In model 1, the possible impact of economic resources on IEC istested. Results show that neither with higher mean income (logged GDP per capita) nor withlarger proportions of educational expenditure in a society the proportion of students receiving
education in inclusive settings increases, thus confirming hypothesis 1.
Table 3: OLS Regression predicting cross-national differences in inclusive education
coverage (IEC) (showing standardized beta-coefficients, N=52)
M1
Predictor groups:

M2

Economic Education
Resources System
B
p
B
p

M3

M4

M5

Political
Conviction
BpClassificationBpAll
predictors
Bp

Economic resources
Mean income(logged GDP per capita, in US$)National educational expenses(as % of GDP)
Educational differentiation andstandardization
Model of secondary education(Early Tracking Model omitted)
Nordic Inclusive Model
Individual Choice Model
Mixed Tracking Model
Standardized exit/entrance exams
yes (vs no)
Political conviction for inclusion
UN-CRDP: Years since ratification
UN-CRDP: with optional protocol
yes (vs no)
SEN classification
Special Education Coverage (SEC)

.226

-.039

.120

.015

Adjusted R²

.046

.360*
.455**
.095
-.136

.121
.199*
.126
-.085

-.142
-.022

.198

-.017

-.007
-.060

.900***.851***

.805

.809

Note: ***P<0.001; **P<0.01; *P<0.05

Model 2 then tests the influence of educational differentiation and standardization on IEC,
showing that in societies with lower educational institutional differentiation (Nordic Inclusive
or Individual Choice Models) the likelihood that students will be schooled in inclusive settings
is significantly higher than in societies with highly differentiated systems (Early Tracking
Model). Evidence for the suspected relationship between standardized examinations and IEC
is not found.
As already reported in the correlation statistics, a clear impact of the official political conviction
for inclusion as expressed in the speed of ratification of the UN-CRPD and its optional protocolcannot be confirmed (model 3).
Model 4 tests the assumptions related to the classification of SEN in a society. Results show
similar effects to those reported in the bivariate correlations, thus further supporting hypothesis 4.

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Model 5 brings together all predictors, testing for dominant effects. Results show robust effects
for Individual Choice Model and SEC. It appears that SEC largely mediates other effects in themodel, such as those previously found for societies with the Nordic Inclusive model of
education. This model provides clear support for hypotheses 1, 2, and 4.
Robustness and Multicollinearity Checks
Given the limited number of observations, the difference in measurement of the variables fromdiverse data sources (possibility of noisy data), and the considerable correlations between
several predictor variables, robustness and multicollinearity checks are in order. First, to checkfor country outliers and influential cases which could considerably affect the results due to the
low number of cases (N = 52), robust regressions were carried out using the STATA routine
for robust regressions (rreg). Results show no indication of biased results through the selectionof countries.
Second, to make sure the estimation of coefficients is not biased due to strong correlations
between predictor variables (multicollinearity), collinearity statistics were carried out and show
a variance inflation factor (VIF) between 1.166 (standardized tests) and 2.240 (Nordic
Inclusive model). Hence, the tolerance for all measures was well beyond the critical 0.1 level(.446 to .858), wherefore multicollinearity can be ruled out for this analysis.
Discussion
The results of the OLS regressions confirmed that there are generally no higher rates ofinclusion in high-income countries or those with higher educational expenditure (hypothesis1). It is true that there is a connection between national income and the provision of special
education (Anastasiou & Keller, 2014; Anastasiou et al., 2018). However, this connection
cannot be extended to inclusive education. In fact, resources that have already been provided
and are thus available for special education can be redeployed for effective schooling ininclusive settings. This way, exclusive forms of special education, such as special schools andclasses, could be shut down, while at the same time enhancing inclusive education provision.
Ultimately, this requires conviction and the will to effectively implement and expand inclusive
education in a country.
Analyses also showed that less differentiated education systems generally have higher rates ofinclusion (Hypothesis 2). Institutional differences and underlying institutional logics in relation
to selection criteria clearly affect the degree to which education for all is implemented. Even
though no evidence was found that standardization in the form of central exams results in lessinclusive schooling, the basic principles of inclusion seem to gain more recognition in countries
with less stratified education systems than in those with more stratified systems.
In contrast, neither the earlier ratification of the UN-CRPD nor the additional ratification of
the optional protocol, contrary to the assumptions of Hypothesis 3, lead to a noticeable increase
in IEC. This implies the possibility of decoupling educational practices from fixed politicalgoals. The effectiveness of already established special education support systems may actually
prevent or at least slow down the implementation of inclusive education. Whether the politicalconviction regarding the absolute necessity of inclusion in school is sufficiently well coveredby the two indicators chosen remains questionable though. In future work, more reliableindicators need to be used, such as national directives and reform plans with concretely
formulated milestones.

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The general SEC of a country is the most powerful influencing factor. The extraordinarilystrong effect of the coefficient as well as the high R2, which alone explains 80% of the variance,are proof of the decisive connection between the inclusion rate and the general belief in theimportance of special needs education in general. In countries with a higher proportion ofschoolchildren with certified SEN, after the adoption of the UN-CRPD, a higher proportion ofinclusively schooled schoolchildren can be found on average.
Taking into account the results of the bivariate correlations, an important mediation effect canbe isolated: SEC mediates significantly the effects of the secondary schooling model. Thissuggests that the cross-national variation in IEC is not only highly linked to SEC in a country,
but that higher SEC and IEC are generally more common in societies with lower educational
institutional differentiation (e.g., societies employing the Nordic Inclusive or Individual Choice
Models).
For future research, it will become increasingly important to clarify whether increasing
inclusive education rates are actually due to improved conditions and organizational change or
due to the softening of the SEN classification.
Conclusion
The findings of this work lead to the following conclusions. Firstly, the theoretical approach
employed in this analysis, the new institutionalism, proved beneficial for the understanding of
the institutional development and establishment of inclusive education based on the societal
recognition of “Education for All” as a common good. The further development of education
systems towards this goal largely depends on determined educational policies, which can only
have success if politics and public commonly value and push inclusive education. Since the
UN-CRPD and other similar agreements are examples of forced isomorphism, the danger of
decoupling the set goal of education for all from educational practices in school is likely. So
long as school systems are characterized by high educational institutional differentiation andits immanent institutional logic, a fully inclusive education system will not be achieved. Hence,
whether a shift towards full inclusion becomes reality largely depends on how willing policymakers and societies at large are to change their education systems, focusing stronger on
equality instead of competition, stratification and excellence. Comprehensive education
reforms targeting the whole education system are necessary to enable fully inclusive education.
Second, and connected to this point, the cross-national differences in inclusive education are
not least due to what is officially recognized as SEN and promoted in an education system. The
national differences in the classification or attribution of what is considered SEN are highly
problematic and often serve to overlook students with actual need for inclusive schooling. The
results of this work thus call for an international measure of SEN and corresponding
international standards and subsequent education reforms targeting the general education
system.
Third, this analysis also shows how different factors generally assumed to be influential (e.g.,
economic resources, political conviction) were found to exert no effect on the provision ofinclusive education. Additional financial expenses due to the change from an exclusive to an
inclusive school system are not necessarily required. Instead, policy makers need to create legal
and administrative options for a dovetailing and reallocation of existing resources. Politicalpostulates must ultimately be followed by action in order to fully establish inclusive education.

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In sum, the findings of this analysis are a good start for future endeavors in macro-sociologicaland educational analyses of international inclusive education. The quite challenging collectionof data to meet the international standard definition of inclusive education was and remains a
prerequisite for this kind of comparative analysis. Future studies should extend the range ofcountries, consider different and other country-level measures as well as multi-level modelingto connect macro- with micro-level data, and stronger concentrate on the collection andanalysis of trend-data.

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coverage: An empirical analysis. Exceptional Children, 80(3), 353–367.
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Bryan, M. L., & Jenkins, S. P. (2016). Multilevel modelling of country effects: a cautionary
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D’Alessio, S., & Watkins, A. (2009). International comparisons of inclusive policy andpractice: Are we talking about the same thing? Research in Comparative andInternational Education, 4(3), 233–249. https://doi.org/10.2304%2Frcie.2009.4.3.233
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statistics on inclusive education: 2018 dataset cross-country report. (J. Ramberg,
A. Lénárt, and A. Watkins, eds.). Odense, Denmark: European Agency for Special
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Watkins, A., Ebersold, S., & Lénárt, A. (2014). Data collection to inform international policy
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Corresponding author: Steve Entrich
Contact email: entrich@uni-potsdam.de40

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Educational Experiences of Adolescent Mothers
while Studying College in the Philippines
Ryan Ray G. Gatbonton
Adamson University
Philippines

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Abstract
Adolescent pregnancy is a significant societal issue that results in lost opportunities for teenage
girls in both developed and developing countries. This phenomenological research study
explored the lived experience of adolescent mothers during their college years. Eightparticipants were asked, via unstructured interview, to share their experiences as college
students in the midst of pregnancy. Data was analyzed using Collaizi’s method, while member
checks and expert audits of interview outputs were done to ensure trustworthiness. Results
show that the participants went through several stages in their plight: they faced thecomplexities of adolescent pregnancy alongside college education; dealt with life andeducational conflicts; appreciated the importance of education; found the resolve to carry on
for their child; and dreamt of a better future for their families. These findings were clusteredinto themes and related to Parson’s Adaptation, Goal Attainment, Integration, and Latency
theory, as adolescent pregnancy paved the way for teenagers to assimilate society’s
expectations of responsible adulthood. Consistent with academic literature, the participants’experiences show that adolescent mothers are vulnerable in the education setting, and needproper guidance to achieve their full potential. This research can serve as groundwork forinitiating several educational reforms. A multicomponent intervention program was developedthat is rooted in school and community partnerships.
Keywords: adolescent development, educational resilience, inclusive education

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Adolescent pregnancy is an issue with significant societal impact worldwide. Around 16
million girls aged 15 to 19 years old give birth every year (World Health Organization, 2014).
In the Philippines, it is estimated that 1 in 10 Filipino teenagers get pregnant (Philippine
Statistics Authority, 2018), making the country the only Asia Pacific nation with a significant
rise in teenage pregnancy. Poverty is inextricably linked to adolescent childbearing because ithinders young mothers’ ability to attend school and find good job opportunities.
Several studies have been undertaken to shed light on the issues pertaining to adolescentpregnancy, but most of them have explored the matter with little regard for its human element.
This study is particularly relevant today, particularly in the Philippine setting given the risingnumber of teenage pregnancies in the country and the less-than-ideal circumstances they haveto deal with in the course of their childbearing.
This study, therefore, seeks to take an in-depth look at adolescent pregnancy, with a focus on
its human element. It aims to answer the research question, “What is the lived experience ofcollege students who are adolescent parents?” Such understanding is key to implementing truly
meaningful programs that will benefit this vulnerable and disadvantaged group.
Literature Review
Education as a tool for social progress is an important solution to global challenges as it gives
people access to science and technology (Hang-Chuon, 2017), familiarizes them with social
norms and develops moral sense (Shah et al., 2016), and fosters innovative work attitudes(Overtoom, 2000). Furthermore, educating people improves personal (Shogren et al., 2017)and professional outcomes (Benett et al., 2011) that transcend nations (Ampofo et al., 2015)
and lead to sustainable development (Chey & Khieu, 2017).
Education drives the movement of the social conditions of these changing times as long as it is
implemented in an inclusive manner that will not contribute to the collective destruction ofnations and communities (UNESCO-MGIEP [Mahatma Gandhi Institute of Education for
Peace and Sustainable Development], 2017; United Nations, 2015). In particular, education
should be made accessible to everyone regardless of gender and vulnerabilities. This inclusivity
can be actualized by streamlining curriculums and integrating inclusive educational policies
for female students (Bericat & Sánchez Bermejo, 2016; Hsiao-Chin & Shu-Ching, 2014;
Karam, 2014). In the Philippines, several steps have been considered to ensure that all women
will get equal access to quality education, notably the institution of laws that discourage
oppression of women, such as the Magna Carta of Women, Responsible Parenthood andReproductive Health Act of 2012, and Gender Streamlining of Higher Education.
Research shows that causes of adolescent pregnancy are rooted in the interplay of many factors.
In particular, family, peer, community, and societal influence are among the major reasons forearly pregnancy of adolescent girls (Asnong et al., 2018; Campero et al., 2014; Fuller et al.,2018; Krugu et al., 2016; Morón-Duarte et al., 2014; Sámano et al., 2017; Sycharuen et al.,2018; Yakubu & Salisu, 2018). Economic and situational circumstances also discourage young
women from early pregnancy due to the perceived consequences of childbearing (Charlton etal., 2018; Psaki, 2016). Other precursors of early parenthood include the presence or lack offormal schooling (Almeida & Aquino, 2011; Devkota et al., 2018; Glynn et al., 2018), parental
supervision and involvement (Copeland, 2017), aggressive behavior and substance abuse(Allen & Walter, 2018), and knowledge of oral contraception (Burr et al., 2013; Caffe et al.,2017).

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According to literature, choices in resolving issues of adolescent pregnancy revolve aroundthree options: parenthood, abortion, and adoption (Derlan et al., 2018; Gama Ibiapina et al.,2016; Gomez-Scott & Cooney, 2014; Lohan et al., 2013; Mann et al., 2015; Mokwena et al.,2016;). These options are guided by personal, religious, filial, and educational orientation (Bellet al., 2013; Biney & Nyarko, 2017; Challa et al., 2017; Chi Watts et al., 2015; Loke & Lam,
2014; Ndjukendi et al., 2017; Shahabuddin et al., 2017).
There are several implications to early pregnancy. Physically, it affects the adolescent motherbecause the pregnancy stresses both her body and the growing baby (Jeha et al., 2015; KansuCelice et al., 2017; Loto et al., 2009; Pauli et al., 2013; Pires et al., 2014; Sokulmez &Ozenoglu, 2013; Xavier et al., 2018). Socially, adolescent pregnancy results in significant
changes to family roles and to community functioning (Annang et al., 2014; Aparicio et al.,2016; Dalton, 2015; Epstein et al., 2018; Hindin, 2014; Kleine, 2005; Shpiegel & Cascardi,
2018; Yussif et al., 2017). Educationally, teenage pregnancy poses difficulties to students asparenting roles can sometimes come into conflict with academic tasks (Almeida & Aquino,
2011; Glynn et al., 2018; Kleine, 2005). Ultimately, social stigma arises, further complicating
the already complex circumstances the adolescent mother has to deal with (Banerjee et al.,2009; The National Campaign to Prevent Teen Pregnancy, 2002). Interspersing the literature,
the findings of this research were understood in the lens of Parson’s theory of Adaptation, Goal
Attainment, Integration, and Latency or the AGIL model (1970).
The majority of research cited was quantitative in nature and failed to explain the whole
phenomenon of adolescent pregnancy. The interplay of the many factors and stories leading toyoung motherhood were not documented properly and adequately. The meaning of the teenage
pregnancy experience was reduced in richness because of the quantitative understanding of it.
This is the reason why a more nuanced exploration of this issue is needed moving forward.
MethodResearch design and settingThis study used the phenomenological approach that explored the lived experiences ofadolescent mothers during their college education. In particular, this study took a descriptive
phenomenology approach, which discovered the invariant or universal essence of schoolingwhile being pregnant and parenting. It was conducted in the context of Philippine higher
education, with all participants living and studying in urban areas within Metro Manila.
Sampling and sample size
Eight participants were recruited through purposive sampling. Maximum variation was
employed in selecting adolescent mothers who have shared demographic characteristics thatcut across cases and have emerged out of heterogeneity. The following characteristics wereconsidered: experienced teenage pregnancy while in college, current age, type of school
attended, religion, and life circumstances. The only exclusion criterion is adolescent pregnancy
outside college education. Preliminary interpretation of responses was done vis-à-vis datacollection to identify data saturation. No new themes and significant statements were identified
after the 8th participant was interviewed. At this point, the sample size was deemed sufficientsince data saturation had been reached based on the inductive thematic saturation model
proposed by Saunders et al. (2017).

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Data Collection Procedure
Prior to data collection, the researcher kept a reflexive journal on his own feelings andprejudgment of the phenomenon. In this way, judgmental attitudes were kept in check and were
not conveyed to the participants. They were interviewed in-depth in an unstructured manner tofind out the answer to the question: “What is the lived experience of college students who areadolescent parents?” Follow-up questions were asked such as, “What was your initial reaction
when you learned of your situation?” and “What was the reaction of your significant others
when they learned that you were pregnant?” Contextual questions were also asked as theinterview unfolded naturally.
Some adolescent mothers were selected based on the researcher’s knowledge of them meetingthe aforementioned criteria. Others were selected based on referrals from previous participants.
Interviews were conducted in private, with the participants’ convenience and comfort in mind.
The researcher listened to the participants and offered neither advice nor personal experience.
A psychologist was also on standby to provide psychological support where necessary. The
participants were allowed to have a support person with them throughout the interview.
Data Analysis
Conversations were transcribed and assigned codes using a scheme. Data were analyzed using
Collaizi’s method for procedural interpretation of phenomenology. The steps involvefamiliarization with the narratives, identifying and assigning codes to significant statements,
formulating meanings, clustering themes, developing exhaustive descriptions, producing thefundamental structure, and verifying the fundamental structure. Themes ultimately emerged asdata were sorted and perused. Total immersion in the data gathered was necessary to ensure athorough description and understanding of the phenomenon.
Trustworthiness of Data
Trustworthiness of data is an important cornerstone of qualitative research. Its four dimensionsof credibility, transferability, dependability, and confirmability were given carefulconsideration. Strengthening these aspects is necessary to properly portray the phenomenon ofadolescent pregnancy. Credibility, or the confidence in the truth of data and its interpretation,
was ensured through member checking. Each participant was given a chance to review theoutputs of the analysis. Interview transcripts were appended in the full manuscript to ensuretransferability, or the extent to which the findings can be applied to other settings.
Transferability provides a paper trail from which other researchers can get ideas to transfer theconclusions of this study to other circumstances. Independent expert auditing was conductedto ensure confirmability (objectivity of data) and dependability (stability of data over time andconditions).
Ethical Considerations
Ethics approval was secured for this study from the University Ethics Review Committee ofAdamson University (Protocol Number: 2018-04-GRA-01). The participants were asked ifthey were willing to participate in the study. The processes, risks, and benefits of this researchwere explained thoroughly to the participants, and their written consent was obtained. They
were assigned pseudonyms to keep their identities private, and the interviews themselves wereconducted privately. The interview transcripts were kept confidential, audio records weredeleted after transcription, and personal information were not disclosed to anyone.

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Limitations of the Study
This study has potential limitations. Transferability, or the extent to which qualitative findings
can be transferred to other settings, may be limited due to the sample size. However, the indepth interviews generated significant descriptions of observed transactions and processes.
Data transcription and management can dilute the richness of data, as expected, in handling
qualitative information. This was addressed by thoughtful transcription of narratives.
Findings
The participants shared their thoughts, feelings, and rationalizations on the circumstances,complexities, struggles, challenges, worth, and meaning of life as a pregnant young woman
enrolled in college. They come from different family backgrounds, religious orientation, andsocioeconomic classes. Table 1 describes the profile of the participants.
Table 1: Summary of the participants’ demographic profile
Age atParticipant
First
Pregnancy
Aliyah17

Current
Age

SchoolAttended24

Private,non-sectarian
Private,non-sectarian
Private,non-sectarian
Private,non-sectarian
Private,sectarianBettina18

22

Candice19

21

Denise

18

23

Erich

18

31

Florence

18

25

Geneva19

21

Halima19

24

ReligionLife Circumstances

Catholic

Eldest among 4 children; notallowed to be in civil union
Catholic Lived with the child’s father
and eventually got married
Catholic Mother also experienced
teenage pregnancy
Iglesia ni Lives with foster parents; a
Cristo victim of partner violence
Catholic Supported by relatives in her
studies and eventuallyobtained her doctoral degree
Private,Iglesia ni Stopped studying during her
sectarian
Cristo first pregnancy; lived withhusband after giving birth
Public,Catholic Mother and sister also had
non-sectarianadolescent pregnancy
Public,BornGot pregnant in
non-sectarianagain
cohabitation; stopped
Christian studying due to parenting

Data from the interviews revealed five significant themes: Facing the ordeal, Path toparenthood, Embracing the value of education, Standing up and being strong, and Envisioning
the family. These themes were related to each other to capture the full meaning of thephenomenon.
Theme I: Facing the Ordeal
Facing the ordeal describes the college students’ experiences, including gender and sexuality
issues, during the pregnancy. The complexities and circumstances of adolescent pregnancy
were narrated and related to their college education. They explained the different emotional
challenges they faced during the pregnancy, such as fear of what will happen, uncertainty with46

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the future, anger to oneself, denial, social stigma, prejudice from family and friends, anddiscontinued education.
This theme is best described by Aliyah’s statement:
I was apprehensive of my child’s future. Of course, I was anxious because thisis what I did. I don’t want this to happen also to my child. I thought of how I
will raise my child if I go abroad, with my boyfriend. I will bring him.
Erich also aired her similar concern:
My initial response was fear. I felt afraid that I won’t be able to fulfill my
dream. I got afraid to the point that when I had an ultrasound and I learned
that I was pregnant, I cried because I want to finish my studies.
Theme II: Path to Parenthood
Path to parenthood describes the college students’ experiences during and immediately after
the pregnancy. It explains the internal and external battles of the young mothers duringchildbearing and after giving birth. It is characterized by health issues (their own and theirchild’s), socioeconomic sacrifices, educational struggles, and family adjustments. The
participants described how they struggled with the demands of motherhood and the difficulties
they continuously face to fulfill this role. It also portrays the totality of the life lived by theparticipants after their pregnancy.
Bettina talks about her hardships in balancing studies and parenting roles:
It’s really staying late. It’s really about sleep. Sometimes, I cry already.
Because during duty, you need to wake up early. My baby’s awake in theevening. That’s why my husband and I seem to get colds and cough every
month. Every time I go to our clinic, the doctor says it must be due to fatigue.
Denise shared her experience as a battered wife:
He punches me. One time, I even went to the police because I had bruises all
over. It’s like this, there was no one at their place, and a relative died.
Relatives came to help at the wake, like in bayanihan [community
cooperation]. Then the kids and our child were left with us. When it was justthe two of us, we had an argument. The kids saw us quarreling. He hit me withan arnis [cane], which the tanods [public safety officers] use.
Theme III: Embracing the Value of Education
Embracing the value of education explains how the young mothers developed a deeper
appreciation of their college education after their pregnancy. It also tackles issues about theirindividual worth and how they view the significance of completing their college education visa-vis providing a quality family life.
Geneva’s view best reflects the essence of this theme:
Now, my plan is to finish school. Hopefully, I really can finish for my family’s
future.
Denise’s statement also supports this theme:
It’s like this, Mama said that she will petition us in the US when I am donewith my schooling. What I plan is to go abroad also so I can provide for mychild’s needs.

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Theme IV: Standing up and Being Strong
Standing up and being Strong reveals the adolescent mothers’ resolve to carry on for the benefitof their child. It highlights the different support systems that have helped them better navigate
this unexpected and difficult period.
Bettina considers this life event as transformative, noting:It’s life-changing. Because before I got pregnant, I sleep in anyone’s home(cries). I am closer with my friends. I am always at my friend’s house, likethat. Because my Mama is not looking for me anyway. But when I got
pregnant, it suddenly became okay. My approach in life became better.
Before, I really don’t care. Now, I know how to decide and am more
responsible (smiles).
Candice’s sharing captures the support she received during her plight:
It’s my father. He was the one who supported me. Even now, it’s a good thingthat he is supportive. I thought he will send me away. But I am thankful thatmy father gave me a chance to study.
Theme V: Envisioning the Family
Envisioning the family encapsulates the adolescent mothers’ dream for a better future for theirchild and family. It takes a look at their mental picture of their family’s bright future and thereconciliation of all conflicts and grief during the pregnancy.
As Erich shared:
I continued with my studies but he stopped. Now, he is the one studying. He is
taking Criminology. I continued because I thought, what if I become the dean,or be the university president? My husband might get insecure that I have
many achievements but not him. I’ve enrolled him at San Sebastian.
Halima’s religious belief helped in her experience:
But there were times that fate tests us. But thank God, we still remained
together.

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Table 2: Summary of emerging themes, categories, and subcategories
Theme
I:
Facing theordealCategory
Emotional challenges

Consequencesof actionII:
Path toparenthood

Health concerns
Socioeconomic
sacrifices
Educational struggles
Family adjustments

III:
Embracing thevalue ofeducation
IV:
Standing up andbeing strong

Key to progress
Key to independence
Support of partner andfamilyLessons learned
V:
Envisioning thefamilyA bright future
Resolution of conflicts

Subcategory
Fear of what will happen
Uncertainty with the future
Anger to self
DenialStigma from community
Prejudice from family and friends
Discontinued education
Carrying the child to term
Effects on general wellbeing
Finding ways to provide for the childFewer social meetups
Difficulty in studying
Unable to continue studying
Frequent absenteeism
Isolation from partner
Co-parenting
Violence or neglect
Transition to parenthood
Search for better living conditions
Moving forward in life
Emancipation from current situation
Freedom to decide for the child’s future
Educational support
Affective support
Financial support
Caregiving support
Accepting the things that will not change
Maturity in one’s outlook
Motivation for self-improvement
For my family
For myself
Forgiveness
Marriage and togetherness

Discussion
Theme I: Facing the Ordeal
Emotional challenges include fear of what will happen, uncertainty with the future, anger tooneself, and denial. These emotions were identified because of the seemingly insurmountable
adversities that these women experienced during their pregnancy (Asnong et al., 2018; Chi
Watts et al., 2015; Ndjukendi et al., 2017).
Perceptions of emotional burden on the part of the adolescent mothers emanate from thethought of communicating their situation to their parents (Lloyd, 2010). Consequently, thefeelings of the young mothers correspond to the stages of grieving, where humans undergo thestages of denial, anger, bargaining, depression, and acceptance in the face of losing something

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(Kübler-Ross, 1969). The thought of losing academic opportunities due to early pregnancy
evokes feelings of fear, uncertainty, anger, and denial, which also correspond to the five phasesof grief. The consequences of adolescent pregnancy, on the other hand, include stigma fromthe community, prejudice from family and friends, and discontinued education.
Early pregnancy outside of marriage also begets social stigma (Banerjee et al., 2009; Copeland,
2017; Mokwena et al., 2016). This stigma is likely a direct consequence of conservative
cultural sensibilities shaped by Catholic doctrines in a predominantly Christian country.
Theoretically, the participants’ reactions to their pregnancy can be best explained by, and are
related to, Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development.
Identity formation is a primary task that adolescents are expected to learn. During this stage,adolescents are concerned with their individuality and how others would perceive them
(Erikson, 1959). Their perceptions of what other people would say would explain thesubcategories of stigma from the community and prejudice from family and friends thatemerged from the interviews.
Theme II: Path to Parenthood
The health concerns of adolescent mothers include carrying their child to term and their own
wellbeing. Many research studies suggest that adolescent pregnancy increases the risk ofmaternal complications, such as anemia, preeclampsia, depressive episodes, and other severe
health conditions (Jeha et al., 2015; Loto et al., 2009; Pauli et al., 2013; Sokulmez & Ozenoglu,
2013).
Additionally, adolescent pregnancy and motherhood were predictors of poor economic
outcomes, as the young mother would need to find means to support childbearing andchildrearing expenses (Banerjee et al., 2009; Shpiegel & Cascardi, 2018; The National
Campaign to Prevent Teen Pregnancy, 2002).
Educational struggles experienced by adolescent mothers include difficulty studying, inability
to continue schooling, and frequent absenteeism. The demands of motherhood can divide theattention of college students (Almeida & Aquino, 2011; Glynn et al., 2018; Kleine, 2005), andnot getting a college degree can, in turn, impact the adolescent mothers’ immediate and futurefamilies (Tang et al., 2016). A vicious cycle is inevitably created even as it can be remedied byeducation.
Family adjustments include the subcategories of isolation from their partner, co-parenting,violence, and neglect and/or transition to parenthood. Several changes in family dynamics
occur during adolescent pregnancy. Firstly, some adolescent men may opt not to accept thechallenge of growing into teen fatherhood; hence, they neglect their responsibilities, abuse theirpartner, or isolate themselves from their partners (Derlan et al., 2018; Lohan et al., 2013;
Uengwongsapat et al., 2018). This unfortunate plight is to be expected because these arestressful life events (Holmes & Rahe, 1967; Lazarus & Folkman, 1984) that force adolescentmothers to learn practical life skills and wisdom (Goodman, 1995).
Theme III: Embracing the Value of Education
Education as a key to progress is viewed as one of the main reasons many adolescent mothers
are determined to continue their education. It also helps that they receive support andencouragement from their significant others (Copeland, 2017; Krugu et al., 2016; Sycharuen
et al., 2018; Uengwongsapat et al., 2018; Yakubu & Salisu, 2018). Achieving independence is50

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important to adolescent mothers who come from troubled households, and it may be explainedby their desire to break free from the stressful situation they are living in (Campero et al., 2014;
Dalton, 2015; Hindin, 2014). Completing one’s education is the motivation of adolescentmothers, as they are likely aware of how a college education can help them better adapt to life’s
challenges (Lewin, 1947; Roy, 1980).
Theme IV: Standing up and Being Strong
Support from their partner and family includes but is not limited to educational, affective,
financial, and caregiving. This category demonstrates the power of support systems in enabling
adolescent mothers to overcome difficult situations (Bell et al., 2013; Challa et al., 2017;
Derlan et al., 2018; Loke & Lam, 2014; Mann et al., 2015; Morón-Duarte et al., 2014;
Shahabuddin et al., 2017). Lessons learned include the subcategories of accepting things thatwill not change, maturity in one’s outlook, and motivation for self-improvement. The
meaningful life experiences of adolescent mothers influence them to have a more positive
outlook that can serve as springboard for self-improvement (Gama Ibiapina et al., 2016).
The appreciation of education’s value helps adolescent mothers actualize life lessons toimprove their current state. With the difficulties they have faced, the young mothers haverealized their responsibilities to ensure the welfare of the child and then develop an educational
resilience despite the emotional, social, psychological, economic, and educational challenges
they have faced and are likely still facing (Duckworth & Gross, 2016).
Theme V: Envisioning the Family
Adolescent mothers yearn to realize their full potential towards family development. The
participants’ experiences molded them to anticipate challenges in the future, and act in asocially acceptable manner (Challa et al., 2017; Gomez-Scott & Cooney, 2014; Tang et al.,2016). Resolution of conflicts reflects the reconciling experiences they experienced during thecourse of their pregnancy. The ideation of a united family is a common attitude among
adolescent parents, as it is viewed as an important element in correct social functioning (Derlan
et al., 2018; Lohan et al., 2013). These views are manifestations of what the adolescent mothers
have learned after overcoming hardships (Dweck, 2000; Mezirow, 2009).
Validating the Phenomenon
The lived experiences of adolescent mothers and the stages they went through reflects Parson’s
AGIL paradigm. Ordeals, challenges, and hardships were perceived by the participants ascircumstances they must “adapt” to. These mothers endured emotional setbacks, social
disapprovals, educational struggles, economic sacrifices, domestic violence, abuse, and neglectthat strengthened their worldview of education. With the life episodes they had, the adolescentmothers embraced the value of education and built their “goals and aspirations.” They realizedthat their life is no longer centered around them, but on the welfare of their children. Adjusting
to their new role, the adolescent mothers “integrate” themselves to society by standing up andbeing strong for their families. Having a firm resolve, they envisioned a sustainable andmaintained future for their significant others. These actions have enabled the adolescentmothers to assimilate to society’s expectations of responsible adulthood.
Conclusion
Consistent with the literature reviewed and social theories mentioned, it can be concluded thatthe lived experiences of being a pregnant adolescent while in college can be ascribed into
themes, and that the adolescent mothers have evolved to become enduring and responsible

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adults. They have realized the importance of continuing their college education as a key toprogress, independence, and improved life quality. This qualitative research shows thatadolescent mothers are vulnerable in the education setting and need proper guidance to achieve
their full potential.
Recommendations
This phenomenological research affirms the many struggles young mothers faced during thissignificant life event and its positive impact. Educational administrators can learn from theseyoung mothers in formulating inclusive and pluralistic school policies. The following
recommendations are presented, considering the adolescent mothers’ lived experiences:
1. Establish a sustainable teenage pregnancy program for college students who hadadolescent pregnancy by identifying a core group.
2. Develop a network of support systems that can serve as an information and assistanceresource for childrearing adolescents.
3. Create avenues for continued training and livelihood to augment for lost educationaland economic opportunities brought by adolescent pregnancy.
4. Assimilate the educational circumstances of teenage motherhood into school policies
and curriculum.
5. Design mechanisms to monitor and refer incidences of adolescent pregnancy in school
and in the community.

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Karam, A. (2014). Education as the pathway towards gender equality. UN Chronicle, 50(4),31–36. https://doi.org/10.18356/cac203b4-en
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7. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12978-017-0443-x
Corresponding author: Ryan Ray G. Gatbonton
Email: ryan.gatbonton@gmail.com

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African Immigrant Teachers Teaching Young EFL Learners:
A Racial Discrimination Study
Chinaza Solomon Ironsi
Near East University
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Abstract
Teaching English language to young learners in an English as a Foreign Language/English asa Second Language context could be challenging especially for African immigrants, as they
face varying arrays of challenges ranging from low wages, staff abuse, and other racial
discriminations. A lot has been written about racially related issues in our school system yetthere are limited works of literature that focus on the challenges of African immigrant English
as a Second Language teachers with regards to racial discrimination. To investigate this, a
mixed-method research design was used to elicit information from 68 African immigrantEnglish as a Second Language teachers, teaching young English as a Foreign Language
learners in 3 countries. The participants were purposively chosen after obtaining written andoral consent from them. A structured questionnaire and semi-structured interview questions
were instruments for data collection. Reliability and validity checks were carried out before
administering the questionnaire. After analysis, a notable finding was that African immigrantteachers felt unaccepted by the host communities and this made it difficult for the English as a
Second Language learners to listen to classroom instructions given by these immigrantteachers. Again, the parents of these learners find it difficult to accept African immigrantteachers teaching their children as they deemed them incompetent to teach them. Other findingsof the study were vital in making pedagogical conclusions on racial discrimination issues
encountered by African immigrant English as a Second Language teachers. The ways forward
for an all-inclusive educational system devoid of ethnic, religious, sexuality and racial issues
were suggested.
Keywords: African immigrants, English as a foreign language, English as a second language,
inclusive education, racial discrimination, racism

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Introduction
Research on all-inclusive education has a long tradition, yet it seems that a lot of these studies
focus on learner- centered issues of color, gender, sexuality, ethnicity, culture, religion,
disability and many more. For decades, one of the most popular ideas in social justice related
educational literature is the idea that everyone, regardless of color or race, should benefit
equally from educational services without discrimination or any form of social injustice (Shumet al., 2020). Recent developments have revealed that African immigration statistics increased
over the years resulting from individuals of other countries moving from their location todifferent destinations especially to the US, UK, and across Europe (Clemens et al., 2018; Fouka
et al., 2020; Ousey & Kubrin, 2013). It is recorded that in the United States alone, the African
immigration population grew to over 47 million in 2015 which represents over 18% of 244
million immigrants all over the world (Organization for Economic Co-operation andDevelopment, 2015). Switzerland and Canada have 24.9% and 21.9% of the entire world
immigrants (Österreichischer Integrationsfonds, 2016) which shows the popular destinationsof these immigrants. Because of this growing African immigrant populace, there is a highdemand for job and employment even though a lot of countries promulgate special labor
policies that make the employment of these African immigrants difficult (Huot et al., 2020;
Udah et al., 2019).
In the past several decades, the United Nations has played an important role in ensuring that
immigrants all over the world are treated with care as they acknowledge that most of them
could be victims of war and economic hardship from Syria, Afghanistan, Nigeria, Libya,
Somalia and many other countries (OECD, 2015; Rattansi, 2020). The calls for equality andsocial justice have continued, especially with regards to employment and acceptance of these
African immigrants into the societies into which they have migrated. Though these calls havebeen consistent, little has been achieved, especially in education, as stories of forced labor,
payment inequalities, abuse, rape and racism continue to hover. Many writers have written inthis field in a bid to expose the ills happening to migrant parents and their children living
abroad, yet it seems that little or nothing is being done to minimize the level of abuse,discrimination and educational social injustice meted out to these African immigrants (DeCuirGunby, 2020; Maguire-Jack et al., 2020; Park et al., 2020). This field of study is sometimes
referred to as educational social justice, yet it is a field of study that deals with issues of abuse,
racism, and violence against people of color. This field has gradually broadened to cover
African immigrants’ children and their parents living abroad. A new dimension of this study
focuses on African migrant English as a Second Language (ESL) teachers who are living andworking abroad, facing terrible working conditions while working with their colleagues ofdifferent races and ethnicity.
Specifically, it is tougher for immigrants from an ESL country (English is a national language)
who are to teach children from an English as a Foreign Language (EFL) country (English is
not a native language) as there have been several recorded issues of abuse and racist
discrimination in these areas (Kachru, 1992; Woo et al., 2020). Several countries havepromoted employment policies which specify jobs that migrants can do and the ones theycannot do (Hayes et al., 2020; Wingfield & Chavez, 2020), again emphasis being placed on
certain salary ranges of African immigrants and working conditions while working abroad(Shum et al., 2020). Studies have shown that these policies have never considered educational
qualification or different arrays of competencies before making such policies (Bastos et al.,2014; Joseph et al., 2020; Rattansi, 2020). A previous study suggests that countries hosting
African migrants deserve a right to protect and provide jobs/ employments to their citizens yet

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embracing the doctrine of equality and social justice to treat others equally and in fairness(Henson et al., 2013; Renyet al., 2020).
A myriad of problems continues to arise from underpayment, abuse, long hours of work, andissues of discrimination in the workplace (Bayor, 2018; Esses, 2020; Zhou et al., 2016). Thisis a complex problem that requires urgent attention as there is little or no previous research
focusing on issues affecting African immigrant ESL teachers and their challenges. There has
been less previous evidence in the literature that unveils these issues as it seems that mostworks of literature focus largely on discrimination and abuse related issues as affecting
immigrants from different ethnic groups. One way to overcome these problems is throughthorough research which may help alleviate if not eradicate these issues of racial discrimination
among African immigrants. The aim of this study was to examine and investigate thechallenges of African immigrant ESL teachers teaching EFL learners, eliciting informationfrom them on their challenges at work. This will foster social justice and ensure all-inclusive
education both for the students and the teachers.
Literature Review
Literature on all-inclusive education strongly suggests embracing equity and equality for all
across the educational sector. Many authors have argued that maintaining ethnic homogeneitywith regards to citizens working in their country versus immigrants working abroad has
continued to be an issue of serious debate (Arendt, 2020; Small & Pager, 2020; Wingfield &Chavez, 2020). For example, recent research suggests that job applicants with foreign-sounding
names have 30% of less chances of getting jobs in Belgium as compared to the ones with
African-sounding names (Statistik Austria, 2017), yet previous research showed that in the
Netherlands, especially around 2015, out of 4 recruiting agencies, three are likely to recruit
white employees rather than foreigners whereas African immigrants are less likely to be
employed in same job regardless their qualifications (Arseneault, 2020; OECD, 2016; Park etal., 2020; Statistik Austria, 2017). Again, seminal contributions have been made by educational
researchers on social justice related topics and they assert that in countries like Finland, United
Kingdom and other European countries, job and employment opportunities do rely mostly on
tedious and informal process that are difficult for ethnic minorities (Edwards & Ortega, 2016;
Statistik, 2017).
Furthermore, certain labor policies ensure that qualified African immigrants are not employed(Arendt, 2020; Bevelander, 2020; Brell et al., 2020).For example, in Denmark, United
Kingdom, and Spain, high rates of over-qualification cases exist, African immigrants areusually under-represented in managerial positions and in Germany they are represented inlowest ranks of the earnings with 25% income less than the national net income (Devakumar
et al., 2020; Maguire-Jack et al., 2020;Statistik Austria, 2017). There have been numerous
studies that investigated and unveiled that people of African descent and immigrants in
Portugal are over-represented in the secondary labor market with low skills, fewer
opportunities, job insecurities, and low salaries (Wingfield & Chavez, 2020;Small & Pager,2020), yet it is reported that 28% of migrant women of African descent hold a university degreecompared to 28% of Spanish women without appropriate competencies and qualifications(Huijnk & Andriessen, 2016; Kim et al., 2020; United Nations, 2015; Small & Pager, 2020).
Previous studies have also shown clearly that in Poland and Cyprus, African immigrant
workers do earn less as compared to citizens (Department of Industrial and Employment
Relations, 2014; United Nations, 2015).

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However, while there are other looming issues in language teaching and learning like student
engagement strategies for online education, anxiety related issues, and the need for improved
language teaching methodologies (Diane, 2019; Hanifa, 2018; Ironsi, 2020), several studies
reiterate that racial prejudice and discrimination issues continue to loom. Prior researchsuggests that in Estonia and Hungary, African refugees have been severely exploited by theiremployers and colleagues, and there are other cases where African refugees experience racial
abuse at work (Edwards & Ortega, 2016; United Nations, 2015). In Ireland, there are 31% ofracism –related issues, 40% of these cases are affiliated with victims being Muslim or African(BBC News, 2017; Department of Industrial and Employment Relations, 2014). Studies have
explored challenges of ESL teachers working abroad, and they affirm that issues of racial
discrimination are still lingering in developed countries which should be leading in the fightagainst racial injustices in their societies (Arseneault, 2020; Newton et al., 2020). Yet it is well
documented in studies that racial related issues are visible among non-native teachers teachingabroad, most of these studies have claimed that ESL teachers experience difficulties while
trying to teach abroad, these difficulties are mainly on issues of injustices at workplace,underpayment, racial abuse and other social injustices (Newton et al., 2020; Rao & Chen, 2020;
Schlein, 2020).
Present Study
Literature has shown that issues of racial discrimination in workplaces, as faced by African
immigrants, continue to grow rapidly over the years. Some authors have also suggested thatwhile host countries of African migrants ensure adequate employment opportunities for theircitizens, employment opportunities with equitable salary scale and appropriate working
conditions should be made available for migrants (Kang & Harvey, 2020; Park et al., 2020).
Several authors have recognized that proper labor policies should be made to reduce andpossibly eliminate issues of racial discrimination among the African teaching workforce inother countries (DeCuir-Gunby, 2020; Starck et al., 2020). Studies of equity in the workplace
are well documented, it is also well elaborated in literature that special positions, either
administrative or managerial, should not be open for only citizens rather for all in the workforce(Pizarro & Kohli, 2020; Starck et al., 2020). For example, research has provided evidence forthe disparity in wages, working hours, and conditions of African immigrant workers (Bastos etal., 2014; Henson et al., 2013; Sheehan et al., 2019). While a lot has been written on social
injustices affecting African immigrants, it seems that little has been known with regards toAfrican immigrant ESL teachers teaching young EFL learner at EFL countries. Several
questions regarding racial discrimination and social injustice among African ESL teachers
teaching in EFL countries to a larger extent remain to be addressed. One way to address thesegaps would be to conduct a study that investigates the challenges of African immigrant ESL
teachers teaching EFL learners in EFL countries. Additional studies to understand more
completely the key tenets of all-inclusive education focusing on African immigrant ESL
teachers, especially with regards to racial discrimination related issues, are required. This willassist in ascertaining if these cases of racial discrimination are experienced by African
immigrant ESL teachers or not. To discuss this topic thoroughly, 3 research questions were
investigated:
1. What are racial discrimination related issues at your workplace as an ESL teacher?
2. What are your opinions as an ESL teacher on racial discrimination at your workplace
while teaching English to young EFL learners?
3. What are your personal experiences as an ESL teacher concerning racial
discrimination in the workplace while teaching EFL learners?

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MethodResearch Design
A mixed-method research design that makes use of questionnaires and interviews in collecting
both qualitative/quantitative data was adopted for this study. This research design was deemed
fit for this study as it will assist in eliciting information from the participants on theirexperiences and opinion on racial discrimination in the workplace especially as teachers ofAfrican descent. The study was carried out over two years to ensure adequate data collection
from the participants residing in different EFL countries. Three immigration destinations for
African immigrants were chosen for this study: Turkey, North Cyprus, and Luxembourg. The
study made use of research assistants for data administration and collection.
Participants
Three groups of participants were recruited for the study; they include African immigrants
residing in Turkey, North Cyprus, and Luxembourg. 68 participants were purposively chosen
to participate. Inclusion criteria for participants to be selected were:
•
•
•
•
•
•

All participants must be African immigrants;
The participants must be residents of Turkey, North Cyprus, or Luxembourg;
The participants must be English language teachers;
The teachers must have been teaching English language for a minimum of 5 years;
All participants must have originated from African ESL countries;
All participant must provide oral and written consent to participate in the study before
its commencement.

During the interview session, the identities of the participants were coded for anonymity
purposes as G1 to G23 for participants from Turkey, D1 to D15 for participants from North
Cyprus, and B1 to B30 for participants from Luxembourg.
Data Collection
Questionnaires and interviews were the major instruments for data collection. The
questionnaires were adapted from the workplace discrimination inventory (WDI) and everyday
discrimination scale (EDS). The inventory was restructured and re-worded to meet theobjectives of this particular study. The questionnaire was divided into two parts. Part A focusedon eliciting information about racial discrimination-related issues in the workplace, while Part
B focused on the opinions of participants about racial discrimination in the workplace. Part A
was a Likert scale of Always (5) Often (4) Sometimes (3) Rarely (2) Never (1) while part B
was a Likert scale of (5) Strongly agree (4) Agree (3) Neutral (2) Disagree (1) Strongly
disagree.
This instrument was face validated by three experts from a private university residing in thethree countries adopted for this study. Afterwards, the instrument was piloted with 15 African
ESL immigrant teachers residing in North Cyprus who were randomly chosen. After analyzing
the result from the pilot study, a Cronbach alpha index of 0.88 was obtained which was anindication that the instrument was reliable to measure what it intended to measure. This was
finally adopted as the instrument and utilized for the study.
The interview questions were also reviewed by 2 university lecturers before use. The interview
questions were derived from the last research questions which focus on the personal
experiences of the participants on racial discrimination at work. 15 participants randomly
chosen from the three countries were recruited for the interview session. The researcher

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ensured that 5 participants were equally chosen across the 3. They were coded for anonymity.
The interview sessions were carried out through the use of Zoom due to the distance between
the researcher and the participants. Permission was obtained from the interviewees to record
all the sessions before commencing the interview. An extra recorder was used to prevent data
loss, and the interview lasted for 2 hours 56mins 20 secs.
Data Analysis
After administering the questionnaire, data were collected and analyzed using descriptive
statistics to determine mean responses of the participants on the question items. while theinterview was analyzed through thematic analysis. The questions were transcribed andanalyzed by uncovering themes that occur at regular frequencies. The researcher familiarized
himself with the themes, then the themes were coded, analyzed, and presented in tables. The
results obtained from the study are presented below.
Findings and Results
RQ 1: What are racial discrimination related issues at your workplace as an ESL
teacher?
Table 1: Mean responses on racial discrimination related issues at the workplace
Scale
Parents of student ask question and complain about my competence
I am accepted easily by the educational community
I work more hours than other colleagues at my workplace
More duties are assigned to me than to other colleagues
There is a disparity in wages paid to me compared to others
I experience racism from other colleagues
I experience racist comments from student
I am treated differently from others by the management
I am not promoted like others from a different race or ethnic group
Labor policies are implemented equitably across all race/ethnic groups

N
68
68
68
68
68
68
68
68
68
68

M
4.12
2.25
4.80
4.72
4.37
4.52
4.23
4.54
2.08
2.66

SD
0.32
1.76
0.49
0.52
0.54
0.63
0.58
0.34
1.72
1.34

N: Number of Participants, M: Mean, SD: Standard Deviation

Table 1 presents the mean responses of participants on the racial discrimination related issues
they faced at their workplace. When the participants were asked the extent to which parents ofstudents asked questions or complained about their competence, a mean value of 4.12 (0.32)
was obtained which was an indication that the participants thought that parents of students
often did so. With regards to how easily they are accepted by the educational community, amean value of 2.25 (1.76) was obtained showing that they were rarely accepted by theeducational communities of their host countries. In terms of working hours, assigning more
duties and disparity in wages paid to African migrant teachers, a mean value of 4.80 (0.49),
4.72 (0.52), and 4.37 (0.54) were obtained which was an indication that the participants
experienced these racist attitudes and dispositions at their workplace. Again, with regards toissues of racism by colleagues, racist comments by a student, being treated differently bymanagement, a mean value of 4.52(0.63), 4.23(0.58), and 4.54 (0.34) was obtained for these
items.

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A mean value of 2.08(1.72) was obtained when the participants were asked if they were
promoted as compared with other colleagues. Their response does show that they were notgiven promotions as compared to other colleagues. With regards to equitability inimplementation of labor policies across all races and ethnic groups, a mean value of 2.66 (1.34)
was obtained which indicates that there was never fairness and equitability towards theimplementation of labor policies in their host countries.
RQ2: What are your opinions as an ESL teacher on racial discrimination in yourworkplace while teaching English to young EFL learners?
Table 2. Mean responses on opinions of participants on racial discrimination at workplace
Scale
I can express different opinions without major conflict at work
I witness issues of racial discrimination at my workplace
I have problems talking with co-workers who are different from me
I have problems being listened to by students different from my color
My students adhere to my instructions while teaching
I feel comfortable discussing with my students’ parents
My students’ parents accept the way I teach their children
I am treated fairly regardless of my color and identity
We receive equal wages with other colleagues
I am treated fairly with regards to extra working hours

N
68
68
68
68
68
68
68
68
68
68

M
2.50
4.52
4.62
4.11
1.80
1.19
1.45
2.60
2.57
1.65

SD
1.58
0.66
0.52
0.42
1.57
1.82
1.58
1.52
1.59
1.75

N: Number of Participants, M: Mean, SD: Standard Deviation

Table 2 presents the responses of participants on their opinions on racial discrimination in theworkplace. The table shows that when the participants were asked if they were able to express
different opinions without major conflict at work, a mean value of 2.50 (1.58) was obtained
which indicates that they could not express their opinions without conflict at the workplace.
With regards to witnessing issues of racial discrimination at the workplace, having problems
talking with co-workers different from them, and listening to by students of a different color,a mean value of 4.52(0.66), 4.62(0.55), and 4.11(0.42) was obtained which shows that theparticipants agreed that they faced racial discriminations at the workplace, had problems
talking with co-workers and had issues were students would not listen to them as a result of
their color. Also, it is obvious through the table that the participants thought that the students
did not adhere to their instructions, the participants did not feel comfortable discussing withparents of student neither did the parents of the student accept the way they teach, a mean valueof 1.80(1.57), 1.19(1.82) and 1.45(1.58) was obtained for these items. With regards to being
treated fairly in the workplace and receiving equal wages with other colleagues, a mean valueof 2.60(1.52) and 2.57(1.59) was obtained for these items which is a suggestion that theparticipants disagreed on these items. Also, they were not treated fairly with regards to extra
working hours at the workplace, a mean value of 1.65(1.75) was obtained which indicates this.

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Interview Results
RQ3: What are your personal experiences as an ESL teacher concerning racial
discrimination in the workplace while teaching EFL learners?
Table 3. Personal experiences of African ESL teachers concerning racial discriminationin the workplace?
ThemesDifferent labor policies across race/ ethnic groupMore working hours for African teachers
The disparity in wages across race/ ethnic group
Acceptance among colleagues
Students do not listen to African teachers

f
11
9
9
6
8

A careful observation of Table 3 shows that 5 themes were extracted from the interviewees’
responses to their experiences about racial discrimination at the workplace. The themes
extracted include: different labor policies across race/ ethnic groups; more working hours for
African migrant teachers; disparity in wages across race/ ethnic groups; acceptance amongcolleagues; students listen less to African teachers. The table shows that there were different
labor policies across different race and ethnic groups, a further indication of this is shown inthe comments of interviewees.
It was so glaring that they implemented different labor laws on us becauseof our race and color… this is unacceptable (G20).
…a lot has been said about racial discrimination but it is obvious that
their labor laws do not replicate that (G17).
while protecting jobs for your citizens, you must take care of the working
class regardless of their color and race but this is practiced here (B26).
Again, while the participants complained about the differences in labor policy across race andethnic groups, they emphasized that it was so evident that they work for longer hours thanothers in the same workplace yet most labor policies tend to favor others.
We are here working for longer hours and yet we get little or nothing as
pay compared to our colleagues with similar competence andqualification like us, they get well paid (D14).
We are not different in any way, we all are humans and deserve to betreated fairly, I put in more hours at the workplace than my colleagues yet
it seemed they are better favored than me, this demotivates me but there
is nothing I can do about it (D1).
It is unfair to think that we put in more working hours as compared to ourcolleagues yet they get a fair wage than us, yet most policies favor them,this is not appropriate (G4).
It was obvious that the African migrant teachers put in longer working hours yet they feelcheated by the labor policies. Their comments were pointers to the fact that despite the long67

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hours of work, there were issues of wage disparity. An interviewee narrated his ordeal withregards to wages:
I worked severally in a lot of institutions here and it is so clear that there
are differences in the wages of migrants especially blacks as compared to
the white. I worked in a school and they paid me less regardless of myqualification as a Master of Art holder and while I was embarking on my
Ph.D. program. I was seriously underpaid and made to work more thancolleagues with little or no qualifications. I can say that I was competentand qualified to be the head-teacher yet the head-teacher had only B.SC
in education which was equivalent to my BSC (ED) that I had. (D15).
By and large, the issues of racial discrimination continue in our society as experienced by theinterviewees. There are also cases where students of color do not adhere to instructions ofAfrican migrant teachers. Sometimes there were cases where students even made racist andderogatory comments to the African migrant teachers and when reported to the school
management, appropriate disciplinary measures were not taken to inhibit such attitudes anddispositions.
I constantly experienced students disregarding my instructions while I
was teaching and nothing was done when this was reported to the
management (D15).
The management always have a way to deal nicely with issues of racism,disobedience, and disrespect to African teachers (D8).
I was constantly called an abusive name by some of the students especiallywhen I give simple instruction while teaching (G8).
Students call me “Arap” which means slave in Turkish language and thiswas very disrespectful yet the management implements little or no
disciplinary measures (D10).
I am often being neglected when I give certain instructions, most times I
threaten to call other white skin teachers when they disrespect me. Thisshows that they are more scared of the white teacher than we black, that’s
terrible (D8).
Students often write me derogatory emails and when I report this to
management, they often do nothing to mitigate this act (D18).
Students neglect my instructions and in most cases report to higher
departmental officers who write me to question my actions instead ofreprimanding them for their unruly actions (G22).
I must say that this country accepts all race and ethnics into theirworkforce, there is little or nothing about racial issues here to be honest
(B4).

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A careful and critical review of these comments does show that issues of racial discrimination
at the workplace, especially in our educational institutions are prevalent regardless of the callsby non-governmental agencies to end racism in our societies.
Discussion
From the data, key findings emerge. The findings show that the participants thought thatparents of students often question and complain about their competence. These results gobeyond previous reports, showing that such racial discrimination exists and is usuallyexperienced by African immigrant teachers (Bastos et al., 2014; Kang & Harvey, 2020). It wasevident that ESL learners do not listen to their African immigrant ESL teachers as a result of
their color which invariably would result in negligence to teacher’s instructions as well. While
this is a novel finding, literature on social injustices has failed to capture this. Surprisingly thestudy was able to show that African migrant ESL teachers were uncomfortable discussing with
their students’ parents. While this may be new, it is well documented in studies that inabilityof host communities of immigrants to accept immigrants into their society affects the level ofworkplace acceptance and integration among immigrants, especially Africans (Esses, 2020;
Mosuga, 2020; Tesfai & Thomas, 2020). This study presumes that this lackadaisical attitude
towards acceptance of African immigrants into societies may be likely reason for the
discomfort experienced by African ESL immigrant teachers while discussing with the students’parents. More clearly, this presumption is reliant on another remarkable finding of this study
which pinpoints that African immigrant teachers were of the perception that their students’parents do not accept the way they teach their children. Yet clearly, studies have shown that
there is no justification that the ability to teach is dependent on issues of color, race, gender or
immigration status (Dee, 2005; Parks & Kennedy, 2007). These were some novel findings ofthis study.
Our findings on issues like acceptance of African teachers by the educational community,
assigning more duties, and disparity in wages paid to African immigrant teachers, at least hint
and support the opinion of similar studies that these issues exist at the workplace (Henson etal., 2013; Sinclair & Warikoo, 2020). This suggests that there is the possibility of racial
discrimination among colleagues at a workplace and the present study confirmed the findingsof this as there were issues of racism by colleagues, racist comments by the students which isin tandem with the findings of similar studies asserting that some African immigrants doexperience racial abuse by their colleagues at the workplace (Park et al., 2020; Sinclair &Warikoo, 2020). Again, it was indicated that in a country like Luxembourg, racial related issues
especially as it concerns African immigrant teacher are at the barest minimum. Furthermore,
the study unveiled that African teachers were being treated differently by management as asimilar conclusion was reached by other studies which suggest same treatments are observedin some workplaces abroad (Bastos et al., 2014; Henson et al., 2013; Sheehan et al., 2019).
Another finding was that African teachers were not given equal promotion as compared with
their colleagues at the same workplace and this is consistent with what has been found inprevious studies that there are usually disparities with regards to the promotion of immigrants
to a particular position as such positions are only reserved for citizens (DeCuir-Gunby, 2020;
Kang & Harvey, 2020). Generally, it seems that labor policies did not favor African teachers
teaching abroad. Overall, these findings are in tandem with findings reported by statistics andstudies carried out on immigration policies and racially related issues across Europe (Park etal., 2020; Pizarro & Kohli, 2020).

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It is obvious that the issue of racial discrimination is existent even in our educational systems
as teachers of color continue to be victims of these racial dispositions by colleagues, students,
and the management. It could be deduced through the comments of the interviewees that
African teachers teaching abroad were disadvantaged in many ways while teaching in most
European schools despite the continuous call to put an end to racism in the society. This result
highlights that though little is being written with regards to racial discrimination among Africanteachers, the results of this study show that a lot of racial issues exist among African immigrantteachers who are well qualified and experienced yet facing racial discrimination at theirworkplace. This study upholds that such discrimination does not foster an all-inclusive
education which is essential in 21st-century society and thus needs implementation of serious
measures to curb these societal inequalities.
Conclusion /Recommendations
The aim of the study was to examine workplace racial discrimination issues among African
immigrant teachers in a bid to determine possible ways of enhancing an all-inclusive education
for all. The author concluded that African immigrant teachers who are well experienced andqualified experience issues of racial discrimination at the workplace. In summary, this paperargued that though immigrant African ESL teachers are well qualified, they are not promoted
like other colleagues at their workplace and while putting in longer hours of work, disparities
in wages exist at the workplace with Luxemburg as an exception. In conclusion, it would appear
that the labor policies of these host countries are not fairly implemented across different racialand ethnic backgrounds rather enforced to favor their citizen. This allows the conclusion thatmost host countries formulate labor policies that would favor their citizens more than African
immigrants.
Reasonable as it may seem, there is a need to ensure that societies of these immigrants arepolitically and economically stable to reduce the level at which individuals immigrate fromone place to another. Proper labor policies should be formulated to promote the right of African
immigrants and other immigrants so that issues of racial discrimination and abuses atworkplaces will be reduced to minimal. The remaining issues are subject to fairness as there isa need for immigrant African teachers to be treated fairly among their colleagues at aworkplace, after all, works of literature have shown that a correlation does not exist between
race and workplace performance. This further validates the conclusion that while there is aneed for special workplace positions to be reserved for citizens, competent African immigrants
or other immigrants should be allowed to occupy such position and encouraged to work withother towards achieving organizational goals. More generally, issues of racial discrimination
should be frowned at especially while fostering an all-inclusive educational system thatprovides appropriate/conducive teaching and learning environment for all; both for the learnerand the teachers.
Limitations of the Study
The major limitation of this study was the sample size of the participants which was relatively
small. Also, studies should be conducted which would discuss issues of workplace
discrimination among African immigrant teachers teaching at different countries in different
continents, this would give a better world perspective on this topic. Again, this study was aperception-based study and like every other perception based studies, perceptions ofparticipants can be influenced by other groups or may lead to a situation where the perceived
may not be the factual.

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Acknowledgement
Special thanks to all the participants that participated during this research, I really do appreciate
your efforts. Special thanks to participants from North Cyprus, Turkey and Luxembourg. A
special thanks to Prof Mohammad Kesharvaz for your constant encouragement and advice.

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Corresponding Author: Chinaza Solomon Ironsi
Email: Solomon.chinaza@neu.edu.tr

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Exploring the Potentials of Robotics in Supporting Children with
Autism Spectrum Disorder
Susan T. Mostajo
De La Salle University – Dasmariñas
Philippines
Olivia M. Legaspi
De La Salle University – Dasmariñas
Philippines
Manuel G. Camarse
De La Salle University – Dasmariñas
Philippines
Royce A. Salva
De La Salle University – Dasmariñas
Philippines77

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Abstract
Technological advances have facilitated robots to perform a variety of human-like functions
which have steered the interest of educators, researchers, and practitioners to discover the
potential advantage of using robots as an intervention for individuals with autism spectrum
disorder. Through meta-analysis, this study provides research-based information with regards
to the potentials of robotics in supporting children with the disorder, particularly with regard
to their skills and its implications to their learning performance. A total of twenty-five peerreviewed articles published in international journals are included - the majority of them use
humanoid robots with social skills as the focus of their study. The majority of these articles
declare the commendable potentiality of utilizing robots in supporting children with autism
spectrum disorder to improve their target skills and enhance their present level of
performance. It is recommended that future studies could investigate the use of robotics in an
inclusive educational setting focused on the supervision and improvement of cognitivebehavioral skills of children under the spectrum.
Keywords: autism, humanoid, learning performance, meta-analysis, robots

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Introduction
The World Health Organization [WHO] defines autism spectrum disorder (ASD) as a gamutof mild to severe conditions with "impaired social behavior, communication and language, anda narrow range of interests and activities that are both unique to the individual and carried out
repetitively" (WHO, 2019, para 1). The prevalence of young learners being diagnosed with
ASD continues to rise every year. This could be accounted for by expanded diagnostic criteria,
improved assessment tools, or even increased societal awareness that several advocacy groups
have championed over the last decades. The WHO (2019), in particular, published that one in
160 children is identified as having ASD, which concerns countries in the world regardless of
economic stability or degree of industrialization. In the United States of America, an estimateof 222 per 10,000 children have the said condition, for Asian countries like Japan and China,
there are 181 and 23 in 10,000 children, while for European territories comprising Belgium,
the Netherlands, and Germany, it is approximated that 60, 48, and 38 in 10, 000 children aredetected of manifesting ASD respectively (Elflein, 2020).
In the fifth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual for Mental Disorders (DSM 5), themost recent edition that the American Psychiatric Association has released, ASD is described
as a neurodevelopmental condition manifesting persistent deficits in social competence andnotable recurring behaviors that significantly affect the other domains of functioning(American Psychiatric Association [APA], 2013). Considering these characteristics, it can beconcluded that implications could be present in the learning performance of children with ASD.
Their lack of socio-emotional reciprocity can hamper special and general education teachers
from making collaborative learning feasible. Due to the existence of stereotyped motor
movements in some children with ASD and the manifestation of difficulties in processing
sensory information, acquiring meaningful academic experience could be challenging for them.
This is confirmed in the work of Sanz-Cervera et al. (2017), declaring that children who are
diagnosed with ASD are more likely to display issues related to sensory and higher functioning
in the school settings. The struggles of children with ASD to receive and respond to a specificsensory stimulus may impact their academic performance and learning experiences in school.
A study by Kumazaki et al. (2019) claimed that children who have ASD often deliver better
performance when a robot is present and is accompanied by a human partner. The results ofthis research revealed an intensified social communication ability of the participants involved,
whose ages ranged from five to six. This situation pushes both the special education and general
education teachers in trying several pedagogical methods to stop this from happening.
Extended efforts are even being exhausted outside school hours to assure families that teachers
are doing their job the best way possible. Evidence-based techniques are being tested one after
another to ascertain that no children with ASD would be left behind, resulting in teachers andresearchers exploring the potentiality of technology-driven interventions. Several experts havealready seen this enormous invasion of technology in special and inclusive education as a
powerful tool. Specifically, the help of assistive devices such as sensory aids, computer
software, and augmentative and alternative communication has shown some effectiveness in
improving the present level of functioning of students with special needs. Learners with ASD
benefit also from other latest advancements in technology such as robotics, as it enables
children in the spectrum to respond to feedbacks when exposed to social contexts andinteractive settings. Robotics are progressively becoming the center of attention in the realmof educational and clinical research. It is now being used to assist children with ASD, andstudies are revealing positive reviews regarding this matter.

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On the other hand, like any other emerging tool or technique, robotics is criticized for its
limitations in transferring skills and supporting learners with ASD to succeed in school further.
Citing the work of Alcorn et al. (2019), arguments were given focusing on three conclusive
points: robots being perceived as unspontaneous yet freely participative in responses; robots
performing a similar function to existing tools and, therefore, seen as indifferent to what
teachers are currently using in the classroom; and the need for robots to be subjected topersonalization depending on the curricular aims to target prior its adoption. The argument
raised in this research somewhat balances the overwhelming remarks of other researchers in
the utilization of specified technology in the classroom. The same authors emphasize that
although the use of robots is likely to deliver intricate cost-benefit trade-offs and might
intensify the readiness level of children to process information, it may also inhibit them frominteracting with their teachers and peers, thus leaving a gap for educators and practitioners todecide if robotics could realistically result in statistically significant outcomes in the learning
process of children with ASD, especially in the context of inclusive education.
The identified gap and the mixed results disclosed above paved the way for the present
researchers to conduct a systematic review of literature. Considering the newly available
studies focusing on robotics from 2016 to the present, the researchers examined the possible
implications of its effect on the learning performance of children under the spectrum with theperspective that even though ASD is not a learning disability, it can still impact on students’learning. The consolidated peer-reviewed research studies were thoroughly scrutinized to
explore the possibilities of employing robotics in inclusive educational and clinical settings.
Hence, the following specific questions were asked:(1) What is the typology of the robots used in assisting children with ASD
in terms of type, target age of the participant/s, and the participants’ level ofdisability?
(2) What are the effects of robotics in supporting children with ASD?;(3) What could be the implications of these effects to the learning
performance of children with ASD?
Methodology
This study was conducted using the meta-analysis method through the accumulation of
information, knowledge, and research findings. According to Gurevitch et al. (2018), metaanalysis has two distinct central goals, and the first “is to assess the evidence for theeffectiveness of specific interventions…often over a relatively small number of studies (fewer
than about 25). The second, quite different, fundamental goal is to reach broad generalizations
across larger numbers of study outcomes” (p. 176). The researchers systematically combined
significant data from several articles selected to develop more complex analyses and come up
with several inferences and conclusions. Several international studies with valid and reliable
results were included following the inclusion criteria. The goal of employing meta-analysis asa research method was taken into consideration in this current study to establish pertinent
results and recommendations. Consequently, this research examined 25 studies in total that
explored the potentials of robotics in supporting children with ASD, the latter goal was
intended to appraise how robotics could be an impactful tool in involving children under the
spectrum in the general education setting. The study, likewise, aimed to “estimate theheterogeneity of the effects, which indicates the consistency of the effect across studies”(Cheung & Vijayakumar, 2016, p. 122).

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Inclusion Criteria
The criteria used for studies that were included in this recent study are:(a) it has to be an article published in a peer-reviewed journal;(b) its publication should be between 2016 -2020;(c) at least one participant of the study is a child with ASD;(d) the study used robotics in supporting child/ren with ASD;(e) there is/are specific skill/s for improvement addressed in the study.
Data Analysis
The appropriate form specifically designed for this study was developed by the researchers.
This form examined individual studies found in the research, aligned with meta-analysis andits suitability, compared the studies, and determined the statistical information and narrative
data used in the research. Homogeneity was determined and differences between the studies
were analyzed. The result sections of the included papers were examined for recurring ideas in
the findings that were stated as criteria for potentials. These findings were analyzed using ameta-summary technique. Recurring ideas in the findings were labeled into criteria forpotentials and the frequency of the found criteria was examined. This was done to develop a
more accurate appraisal of the support of robotics to children with ASD in terms of skill
development and its implication to their learning performance despite their sensory processing
difficulty. Different variables were identified in which the potentials of robotics in supportingchildren with ASD were addressed. Analyses of these variables were made, and their results
were reported. In this research, the authors focused not on the statistical significance ofindividual studies, but on the magnitude of the effects of robots in supporting children with
ASD.
Results and Discussion
Research Question 1. What is the typology of the robots used in assisting children with ASD
in terms of (a) type and (b) target age and level of disability?
Table 1: Characteristics of Robots and the Participants
Study
Number1.

AuthorAryania et al.
(2020)

Type/Given
Name of Robot
Humanoid robot
(Arc)

2.

Berk-Smeekens
et al. (2020)

Humanoid robot
(Nao)

3.

Pennazio &Fedeli (2019)

Humanoid robot
(Nao)

4.

Zhang et al.
(2019)

Humanoid robot
(Nao)

5.

Conti et al.
(2018)

Humanoid robot
(Nao)

81

Age
Nine to 11
years oldThree toeight years
oldNine years
oldFive toeight years
oldFive to 10
years old

Participant
Level
With high-functioning ASD
and intelligence quotient scoresof ≥70With total intelligence quotientscores of ≥70
With high-functioning ASD,
but with cognitive and language
deficits
With intelligence quotient of
104.90With concomitant
manifestations of mild toprofound intellectual disability

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6.

Desideri et al.
(2018)

Humanoid robot(Nao)

Nine years
old7.

Feng, Y., Jia, Q.
& Wei, W.
(2018)
Koch (2018)

Humanoid robot(Nao)

Five to six
years old

Humanoid robot

Five to 12
years old

Kumazaki et al.
(2017)
Mengoni et al.
(2017)

Humanoid robots- Tele-operated
Humanoid robot(KASPARKinesics andSynchronisationin Personal
Assistant
Robotics)
Humanoid robot(Nao)
Humanoid robot(Zeno)
Social robot

10 to 17
years old
Five to 10
years oldNot
specified

8.
9.
10.

11.
12.
13.

Palestra et al.
(2017)
Schadenberg etal. (2019)
Scassellati et al.
(2018)

Eight to 19
years old
Five to 12
years old
Six to 12
years old

14.

Pennazio (2017)15.

Simut et al.
(2016)

Social robot(IROMEC Interactive
Robotic Social
Mediators as
Companions)Social robot(Probo)16.

Attawibulkul etal. (2018)

Automatic mobile
robot (Bliss)

Four to 12
years old17.

Valadão et al.
(2016)

Automatic mobile
robot (Maria)

18.

Kumazaki et al.
(2018)
Lebersfeld et al.
(2019)

CommU robot

Seven toeight years
oldFive to six
years old
Four to 14
years old

19.

20.

Bharatharaj etal. (2017)

Five toseven years
oldAnimal-like robot(SAM - Socially
Animated
Machine);monkeyAnimal-like robot(KiliRo) System
Architecture;parrot)82

Six to 16
years oldWith severe to profound ASD
due to intellectual disability andhearing loss
Not specified
With concomitant
manifestations of no to mild
cognitive impairment
With high-functioning ASD
With intelligence quotientscores of ≥70

With verbal and/or nonverbal
ASD
With moderate ASD
With nonverbal intelligencequotient scores of ≥70 (asdetermined by the Differential
Ability Scales)
With profound ASD

With intelligence quotientscores of ≥70 and performancelevel of 80 % in a preference
under- standing task
With scores of ≥ 18 in
Pervasive Developmental
Disorder Screening
Questionnaire
Not specified
Not specified
With severe to high averagecognitive abilities

Not specified

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21.

Fachantidis etal. (2020)

22.

Kärnä, E.,
Dindar, K. &Hu, X. (2020)
Kostrubiec, V.
& Kruck, J.
(2020)
Knight, V.,
Wright, J. &DeFreese, A.
(2020)

23.
24.

25.

Albo-Canals etal. (2018)

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Threedimensional
educational Lego
robot
Robots withmultipletechnology
Spherical
prototype robot

Nine years
oldWith concomitant
manifestations of dysgraphia

Six to 12
years oldWith concomitant
manifestations of intellectual
disability
With low-functioning ASD

Hand-held smart
robot (Ozobot)

10 years
oldProgrammable toy
robot (Kibo)

Six to 14
years old

Five to 10
years oldWith mild to moderate ASD
and concomitant manifestationsof attention
deficit/hyperactivity disorderand emotional behavior
disorder.
With severe ASD and cognitive
impairments

Table 1 shows the characteristics of the robots and the participants of the study. From the 25
articles reviewed, it can be seen that different kinds of robots were used to provide support
to children with ASD.
As regards the kinds of robots used, Figure 1 shows that 12 or 48% of the articles utilized
humanoid robots in their experiments in handling children with ASD, such as Nao, Arc, Zeno,
and KASPAR, and tele-operated robots. Typically, a humanoid robot has a physicalappearance that is very appealing to children as it resembles the features of a small child andis also attentive to children (Ismail et al., 2019). Furthermore, Pennazio and Fedeli (2019)emphasized that humanoid robots with favorably interactive features can elicit more
responses from children with ASD in terms of distinguishing and duplicating emotions. The
presence of a robot resembling a human person, in this case, a small child, is important forchildren with ASD since they are generally characterized as having deficits in social skills.
These robots can function as a playmate and companion to these children and can contributeto the development of their social skills. Cho and Ahn (2016) stated that technologicallydesigned robots could develop suitable social interaction skills and behaviors among students.
The other types used were social robots, automatic mobile robots, animal-like robots, Legorobots, toy robots, CommU robots, and robots that can be held and programmed with multiple
technologies. These types normally resemble animals or toys that children with ASD are
familiar with. According to Cho and Ahn (2016), the robots may be presented in various
designs provided that the purpose for their use is identified to target the deficits of children
with ASD, such as improving concentration, facilitating joint attention, and modelingappropriate social behavior.
Moreover, the participants of the articles reviewed were children with ASD from ages three
to 19 years old. They had either mild/moderate to severe/profound intellectual ability, low tohigh functioning ASD, verbal or non-verbal ASD, with cognitive and language impairments,
dysgraphia, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, and emotional disorder.

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Figure 1: Kinds of Robots Used in Different Studies
Research Question 2. What are the effects of robotics in supporting children with ASD?
Table 2: Robotics and Its Effects on the Targeted Skills of Children with ASD
Research
Number1.

Targeted Skill/s

Effects

Social (engagement
behavior)

2.

Social and Emotional(treatment adherence, childaffect, and likability)

3.

Cognitive and Social(emotional ability and selfconfidence)4.

Social (learn distrust anddeception)
Social (eye gaze, imitation,and educator involvement)Child–robot interaction improved the social
engagement of some children diagnosed under the
spectrum.
With the aid of the robot, participants displayed
adherence during the treatment protocol and positive
child affect. Also, commendable likability scores werenoted due to robot movements, speech, and games.
The humanoid robot and the further virtual interaction
through avatars represented a highly adaptive method tosimulate social stories that engaged the child on a
cognitive and emotional level.
Involvement of humanoid robots in social rules training
for children with ASD had a notable potential.
Four out of six participants exhibited progress in all thevariables before and after the robot training. Only twoparticipants struggled during the experiment due to thepresence of a profound intellectual disability.
The robot gave different effects on the participants
involved in the study. The improvement level frombaseline to post-intervention of the two participantsvaried depending on the variable tested.

5.

6.

7.

Social and Language(vocal imitation, motor
imitation, expressive
language, receptive
language, react to name,and spontaneous request)
Social (robot awakes
children’s interest/attention
by dancing, singing,
dialogue, etc.)

Robot-assisted intervention, through the proposed
control architecture, was considered efficient andsuccessful in strengthening the socialization skills of theparticipants with ASD.

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8.

Social and Emotional

9.

Social (interaction /response)

10.

Social11.

Social and Language(social communication andsocial skills)
Social (interaction)

12.
13.
14.

15.

16.

17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.

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Findings disclosed unfailing high ratings of happiness,
improved comfort ratings, and only slightly declined
ratings of desire for further interactions through time.
The suitability of specific robot types (on the levels ofASD) and appearance (more human-like humanoid
robots over mechanical or mascot-like) were preferred
for therapeutic use.
The robot gave positive effects, offering the children
the possibility to improve their social skills.
The presence of a robot helped facilitate in prompting
triadic relations in ASD.

Design of deliberate robot behavior and autonomy over
the robot’s behavior encouraged engagement andenabled more learning prospects for children with ASD.
SocialThe joint attention and communication competence ofthe participants were enhanced as the robot encouraged
engagement.
Social (eye contact, touch,
The participant exhibited a remarkable increase in joint
facial expressions, humaneye contact and facial expressions. Significant touch
interaction)
was also recorded, as the participant showed interest in
hugging the robot. Imitation and interaction with therobot, teacher, and peers were demonstrated, which
validated the affirmative effects of the robot inenhancing human interaction.
Social and Language (eyeNo other significant differences were attained for thecontact, initiating joint
following: initiating joint attention, verbal utterances,attention, verbal utterances, positive affect, no-response, and evading task
positive affect, nobehaviors. Therefore, the robot showed a significant
response, evading taskdifference in an eye-contact variable when juxtaposed
behaviors)
to the human partner.
Cognitive (theory of mind
There was no significant difference in supporting theand attention time)
theory of mind and the attention time during thesession. However, the response time of the participants
with the BLISS robot was shorter compared to when the
robot was not present, which gave the parents an easier
job when doing the storytelling activity.
SocialThe robot was useful in improving both the socializationand general quality of life potentials of the participants.
SocialThe children’s interaction with robot CommU displayed
better Joint Attention (JA) tasks with a human.
Social (child’s enjoyment,
Robot-based interventions were useful for skills
motivation, and willingness acquisition of children with ASD because they found it
to interact)encouraging and interesting.
Cognitive, Social, andGenerally, participants showed a gradual increase in
Language (Learning andterms of their satisfaction (happiness) level and degreesocial interaction abilities) of social interaction.
Social, Language, andThe use of educational robotics was a promising tool to
Emotional
develop the social, communicational, and emotional
skills of children with ASD.
Social and Cognitive
The use of adaptable technologies during educational
activities offered wide-ranging opportunities for theparticipants to practice communication and interaction
skills.

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23.

Social24.

Psychomotor (acquisitionof three skills: calibrating,drawing track lines, andcoding)Social25.

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The robot’s sensory rewards produced more positive
reactions from the participants compared to the verbal
praises from humans. Likewise, educators had apositive view/attitude towards robotic support forevidence-based practice on children diagnosed withASD.
The participant demonstrated the ability to reach 100%
precision for all the skills tested. Further, he was able togeneralize the coding skills to a novel exemplar with
100% correctness.
The participants were able to play individually andcontrol the robot, which implied impressive
engagement. Moreover, the children connected wellwith the adults present inside the room.

Table 2 reveals the targeted skills in all the articles gathered and the effects disclosed after the
exposure of the participants to robots. In terms of skills, it could be seen that there were studies
that addressed multiple skills in one research and others focused only on a specific skill.
Considering the 25 studies included in this meta-analysis, 23 examined the use of robotics insupporting the social performance of children in the ASD category. This was more than threefourths of the total number of papers analyzed for this present research. This was followed withlanguage and cognitive skills, which were only directed in five and four studies, respectively.
Children who are diagnosed with ASD are known for their recognizable deficiencies insocialization, mainly in the aspect of socio-emotional reciprocity, interaction, and nonverbal
communicative behaviors. The diagnostic criteria in DSM 5 support this as it accentuates the“persistent deficits in social communication and social interaction across multiple contexts”
among children with ASD (APA, 2013, p. 50). This is followed by specific manifestations toclearly characterize people with the said condition, such as lack of eye gaze or contact,
restricted imitation skills, reduced adherence, limited engagement, rigid emotions, and poor
facial expressions. Remarkably, these manifestations were purposely targeted under social
skills in some of the studies counted in this meta-analysis. This allowed the participants
included in these studies to be more able regardless of their restraints, in establishing ageappropriate social competence. The intention to improve the most problematic skill amongchildren with ASD gave an array of opportunities for them to attain a higher level of functional
performance.
Concerning the language and communication skills, Wittke et al. (2017) indicated that children
who are diagnosed with ASD may also manifest impairments or problems in language,
predominantly in the component of pragmatics. More so, the presence of language delays
among students in the spectrum is normal (Marrus et al., 2018) considering the struggles they
are experiencing in processing language codes and in analyzing the social context of thesituation. In relation to the cognitive skills, the inability to understand information and learn
concepts is not listed as diagnostic criteria for ASD. Still, it cannot be disregarded that there
are students with ASD who struggle in maximizing their executive functioning, such asplanning, problem-solving, and reasoning (Center for Autism Research, 2020). These
aforementioned arguments validate the language and cognitive problems of people with ASD,
and therefore, being used as variables in some of the accumulated robotics-based studies canfurther fulfill the potentials of this disability population, particularly when the results of thesestudies gave general positive effects after the introduction of the robots to children with ASD.

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The majority of the 25 articles declared the commendable potentiality of utilizing robots insupporting children with ASD. This technology-driven tool can improve the target skills andenhance the present level of performance of the individual studied. This finding is similar to
all types of robots. The overall effects verify the applicability of robots in handling children
with ASD, irrespective if the robots appear with humanoid features, automatic mobile
elements, social components, animal-like structure, or spherical prototype. The study by Fenget al. (2018) highlighted not just the effectiveness of a robot-assisted intervention in
intensifying the socialization skills of the participants, but also the decreased responsibilitiesof the supervisors or teachers in assisting children. This also aligns with the results ofScassellati et al. (2018) who mentioned the strengthened communication abilities and attention
span of the participants with ASD, which included alleviated prompts of the caregiver since
the existence of the robot during tasks. The social interaction and engagement of theparticipants were also enhanced during or after the sessions (Aryania et al., 2020; Bharatharaj
et al., 2017; Kärnä et al., 2020; Palestra et al., 2017; Schadenberg et al., 2019), which
contributes to the possible adaptation of robots in an environment where children with ASD
are placed for therapy, education, or even in independent training. However, some studies
provided limitations about the effects of a robotics-based intervention on children with ASD.
The research of Desideri et al. (2018) specified that robots do not have an analogous degree ofeffect, as the conducted experiments produced varied results by the participants. Conti et al.
(2018) agreed, as two of the six children with ASD included in their experiments encountereddifficulties due to profound intellectual disability. Furthermore, the studies of Simut et al.
(2016) and Attawibulkul et al. (2018) mentioned that the possible restriction of robotics canalso include the definite skills to be addressed as no improvements were seen in the following:
initiating joint attention, verbal utterances, positive affect, no-response, evading task behaviors,and supporting the theory of mind. These data with marginal differences between the pre-and
post-intervention imply that the effects of robotics-based intervention may be dissimilar andreliant on the severity of the condition and the subskills under a target skill.
Research Question 3. What could be the implications of these effects on the learning
performance of children with ASD?
Aside from the applicability of robots for therapy-related concerns, the results show an evident
and effective way to facilitate different skills for children with ASD. Many different skills weretargeted in the majority of studies scrutinized for this research. As a result, there is a significant
increase in the previously seen problematic subskills of the participants.
Children with ASD find it difficult to communicate and interact with other people. With thepremise that effective learning and teaching presumes effective social communication, thestudies substantiated that the enhancement of socialization skills and communicative intents ofchildren with the presence of robots is significant for the effective learning of students with
ASD. The results show significant improvement in the interaction with humans after theinteraction with robots, which equates to more successful communication and interaction
which is the main concern of children with ASD. During educational activities, robots provide
children with ASD with a variety of opportunities to practice communication and interaction
skills. This may be regarded as key to better learning performance since it has been establishedthat there is a significant correlation between communication in the classroom and academic
performance of students (Fernandes, 2019). Based on the different articles examined, several
factors contribute to the increase in performance of children with ASD in the classroom. An
increase in motivation and attention is emphasized in many of the studies. Children with ASD
are more motivated and more attracted to robots, which is useful for skill acquisition

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(Lebersfeld et al., 2019). The attractive appearances of the humanoid robot seem to get more
attention from children with ASD and help prevent fearfulness. This leads to a more engaging
interaction where even if the attention time maybe the same, even without the robot, theresponse time is shorter (Attawibulkul et al., 2018), which will establish more interaction andlearning.
Through the use of robots, there is an evident improvement in communication and social
interaction. As a result, challenging behaviors that may limit the facilitation of learning are
significantly lessened (Fachantidis et al., 2020). In relation to this, the result of interaction withrobots is in the aspect of attention. Children with ASD give more attention to other people,
following their previous experience of interacting with robots (Kumazaki et al., 2018).
The use of robots is an effective way to facilitate social skills for children with ASD, thus
leading to the improvement of social skills and eliciting effective interactions. For instance,eye-contact is strengthened when the robot is partnered with a human (Simut et al., 2016).
Interaction with robots promotes better adjustment to and understanding of change in what ishappening in the surroundings, and this helps in better understanding of situations and inpromoting learning in children with ASD (Pennazio & Fedeli, 2019).
Fundamentally, what is interesting to note is that robotics, aside from the improvements insocialization and improvement in learning performance, is useful for the improvement of thequality of life (Valadão et al., 2016) and satisfaction (happiness) level (Bharatharaj et al., 2017)of children with ASD.
Conclusions and Recommendations
The growing population of children diagnosed with ASD has been a pressing concern ofeducators and practitioners, which has led them to explore ways to create programs andinterventions to improve the adaptive and functional skills of these children. One of thepromising tools in therapeutic and educational interventions for children with ASD is theapplication of robotics. This perspective motivated the present researchers to conduct a metaanalysis to explore the potentials of robotics in supporting children with ASD and to determine
its possible implications to the children’s learning performance.
Based on the analysis of the identified variables in the current study, the researchers concluded
that humanoid robots were largely used in experimental studies included in this meta-analysis
for children with ASD irrespective of ages, levels of disability, and target skills. This robot
typology was most likely appealing to the participants because of its physical appearance
resembling the features of a child which may have been perceived as a playmate and companion
that help prevent fear in interacting with others, thus contributing to the development and/or
improvement of their social skills. Likewise, social skills were remarkably the foci of most of
the studies conducted relative to the use of robotics in supporting children with ASD, followed
by language and cognitive skills. The authors of the reviewed articles noted that technologicallydriven tools, such as robotics, have a commendable potentiality as an intervention in improving
the target skills and in enhancing the present level of performance of the understudied.
Although humanoid robots were mostly preferred, similar positive outcomes were attained withthe other types of robots in the studies conducted, which implies that a robot with appropriately
designed features according to its purpose, regardless of appearance, can be used as anintervention in supporting children with ASD. Moreover, the improved social, language, andcognitive skills of the children with ASD using robotics as intervention also indicate a

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promising effect on their learning performance. Notably, the development of these skills has
an impact on the learners’ performance during the teaching and learning process since these
could increase their ability to interact, establish positive relationships, communicate, pay
attention, and improve self-esteem – factors that are highly necessary for improving theirfunctional skills and learning performance. The robots can aid in increasing the motivation andattention of the students with ASD and provide them with a variety of activities to engage,
communicate, and respond during educational activities.
Lastly, future research could delve into the use of robotics in an inclusive educational setting
focused on the supervision and improvement of cognitive-behavioral abilities of students with
ASD since literature is scarce in this aspect. Additionally, future studies may also investigate
the use of robotics for a specific level of severity of the disability and subskills under a target
skill/domain.
It is the hope of educators, practitioners, and researchers that various interventions being
studied and implemented such as robotics will not only develop and enhance the adaptive,functional, and cognitive skills, and learning performance of the students with ASD, but mostimportantly to better their state of life that would eventually allow them to experiencehappiness in their existence.

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Elflein, J. (2020). Prevalence of autism spectrum disorder among children in select countries
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Kumazaki, H., Warren, Z., Muramatsu, T., Yoshikawa Y., Matsumoto Y., Miyao, M.,
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Valadão, C. T., Goulart, C., Rivera, H., Caldeira, E., Bastos Filho, T. F., Frizera-Neto, A., &Carelli, R. (2016). Analysis of the use of a robot to improve social skills in children
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Corresponding author: Susan T. Mostajo
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Exploring Implementation of National Special Needs Education Policy Guidelines in
Private Secondary Schools
Gift Mbewe
University of Malawi
MalawiElizabeth Kamchedzera
University of Malawi
MalawiEsthery Dembo Kunkwenzu
University of Malawi
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Abstract
The implementation of the National Special Needs Education Policy Guidelines in Malawi
began in 2009. There is limited literature on how the guidelines are implemented in secondary
schools, particularly in private secondary schools of Malawi. Therefore, the study aimed at
exploring the implementation of the guidelines in private secondary schools. The study used aphenomenological design and qualitative methodology. Data were generated through atriangulation of methods including semi-structured interviews, observation and document
analysis. The data generated were analysed thematically. The findings revealed that there wasa lack of thorough knowledge of the guidelines, resources for implementing the guidelines inprivate secondary schools were not available, and support for learners with special educationneeds was not sufficient. The results of this study indicate that communication with key school
stakeholders is key for the effective implementation of the National Special Needs Education
Policy Guidelines.
Keywords: inclusive education, private secondary schools and policy, special needs education

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Education is a human right for all people. To realise this right, Malawi has made a number ofsignificant efforts. The National Special Needs Education Policy Guidelines (NSNEPG) havebeen formulated to guide the implementation of inclusive education (IE) at all levels of
education. The government formulated the NSNEPG in 2009, which are aimed at regulating
provision of education to learners with special education needs (SEN). This action by thegovernment indicates that it values special needs education (SNE). Before the development of
NSNEPG, Malawi had the National Special Needs Education Policy (NSEP) which wasintroduced in 2007. The NSEP provided a framework for SNE in Malawi (Ministry of
Education [MoE], 2007).
The NSNEPG were developed to support the implementation of the NSEP (MoE, 2009). This
is in tandem with global trends that advocate for implementation of inclusive education (IE).
International legal frameworks such as the Salamanca Statement concerning SNE advocacy for
IE (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization [UNESCO], 1994). The
NSNEPG are meant to guide all stakeholders providing SNE (MoE, 2009).
The NSNEPG have six objectives. The first objective is to provide appropriate quality
education and/or vocational training to all learners with SEN. Secondly, the NSNEPG are
aimed at ensuring equitable access to education for all learners with SEN at all educational
levels. Thirdly, the policy guidelines aim at providing education facilities with necessary
provisions to support the education of learners with SEN. Another objective is to ensure that
all education institutions create and provide supportive learning environments. Furthermore,
the NSNEPG aim to increase provision of SNE services by all education stakeholders. In
addition, the NSNEPG seek to improve co-ordination and networking among SNE
stakeholders. The last objective is to provide standards and ethical practices to be adhered toin the provision of SNE services in Malawi (MoE, 2009).
In order to effectively guide the stakeholders of SNE, the NSNEPG have spelled out four major
needs of learners with SEN. Learners with SEN need a conducive learning environment (theclassroom should be well maintained, ventilated, effectively maintained and well equipped).
The second need is modified teaching, learning and assessment resources. The content andways of teaching must accommodate the needs of each learner. Another need of learners with
SEN is specialised assistive devices such as hearing aids, wheel chairs, and others. The lastneed spelled out in the NSNEPG is regular medical check-ups (MoE, 2009).
The NSNEPG have three priority areas. The first priority area is referred to as access andequity. The policy under that section states that the MoE shall promote easy access to
education at all levels for learners with SEN, eliminate the imbalances between learners with
SEN and those without, put in place systems for early identification assessment and placementof individuals requiring SNE, bring awareness to the public about individuals with disabilities
and their right to education and ensure that learners with SEN receive adequate care andsupport services. The objectives and strategies are outlined in the policy (MoE, 2009).
The second priority area is quality and relevance. It is stated that the Ministry of Education
shall establish and maintain agreed minimum standards for the provision of quality education
for learners with SEN and ensure that the national curriculum responds to the needs of learners
with SEN. The third priority area is about governance and management. It is stipulated that
the MoE shall ensure that SNE has a proper governance and management structure (MoE,2009). The policy guidelines also contain implementation arrangements. They describe roles
and responsibilities of various stakeholders such as teachers, MoE, and the Private School97

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Association. The policy guidelines have stipulated the roles of various stakeholders inprovision of education of learners with SNE. The Ministry has been charged with the roles ofproviding policy guidance to all stakeholders on SNE, encouraging public and private
institutions to establish libraries with instructional materials, SNE supervision and inspection,and developing tools for identifying learners with SNE. The Private Schools Association,
which is a body that represents private schools in Malawi, has been given the role ofcomplementing the government in provision of SNE (MoE, 2009).
Historical Background of SNE in Malawi
SNE in Malawi was started in the 1950s by faith-based organisations. They offered to help
learners with visual and hearing impairments (Mwale et al., 2010). Mkandawire et al. (2016)noted that the government did not assume responsibility of educating children with SEN.
Instead, religious organisations shouldered the responsibility. Research indicates that SNE
was started by the Scottish and South African Evangelical Missionaries in Kasungu andNsanje. It was in 1968 when SNE began at Montfort campus (Chavuta et al., 2008). Montfort
College, which is found in Chirazulu district, performs the role of training learners with SEN
and specialist teachers from Malawi and other Southern Africa Development Community
countries (Mwale et al., 2010). Later on, the government began to assist the faith-basedorganisations with grants (Mwale et al., 2010).
Success in SNE Provision due to Policy Development
The efforts in promoting SNE through policy development appear to have borne some fruits.
There are some success stories. Enrolment for learners with SEN has increased. Resource
rooms have been opened in regular schools (Mwale et al., 2010). The MoE also issued adirective that all of its institutions should have structures that are disability friendly(Mkandawire et al., 2016).
Another success is that Malawi has specific government structures looking into disability
issues. Malawi has a Ministry of Gender, Youth, Disability and Welfare, and under this
Ministry, there is a Department of Disability which looks into the issues of disability. Special
education modules have been introduced in teacher training institutions of higher learning(Mkandawire et al., 2016). Further success has been the opening of the SNE Directorate in theMoE (Mwale et al., 2010).
Background of Inclusive Education
According to UNESCO (2009), IE is a process of strengthening the capacity of the education
system to reach out to all learners. It is a key strategy to achieving “Education for All Goals”
which were adopted in Jomtien, Thailand in 1990. It is based on the fact that education is ahuman right and it is a foundation for a just and equal society. The major support for IE wasgiven at the World Conference on SNE in Salamanca, Spain 1994. More than 300 participants,
representing 92 governments and 25 international organizations, attended the conference(UNESCO, 1994). They considered the fundamental policy shifts required to promote theapproach of IE, thereby enabling schools to serve all children, particularly those with SEN(UNESCO, 1994).
The Salamanca conference concluded that SNE cannot advance in isolation, but rather byreforming the ordinary schools. IE is seen as an effort of preventing discriminatory attitudes,
forming a welcoming society, creating an inclusive society and achieving education for all. It
is also believed that IE is cost effective as it does not require construction of new schools
accommodating learners with various special needs (UNESCO, 1994). The World Education

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Forum which took place in Dakar in 2000 was held to review the progress made on IE. The
forum declared that education must consider the needs of the poor and disadvantaged
including working children, nomads, ethnic and linguistic minorities, children, young people,
adults affected by conflicts, HIV, hunger and poor health and those with disabilities andspecial learning needs (UNESCO, 2009). IE is a move towards trying to address the diverse
needs of children. It involves changing the content, strategies, and structures. It is based on
the conviction that education of all children is the responsibility of the regular education
system (UNESCO, 2009).
One of many goals of SNE is to give students a chance to participate in the least restrictive
environment so that they receive as much education as possible with students without
disabilities (Mark et al., 2012, as cited in Mkandaire et al., 2016, p.13). When learners with
SEN are given the required support in an inclusive setting, they are able to develop a morepositive concept (Schmidt, & Cagran, 2008, as cited in Chavuta et al., 2008, p.17).
Inclusion is important as it encourages the school to review its structures, approaches toteaching, pupil grouping and use of support to enable the school to meet the diverse learningneeds of all its pupils. It is regarded as political struggle against exclusive attitudes (Farrell,2003).
This study focused on the implementation of NSNEPG in private secondary schools of
Malawi. It was meant to guide the government and all stakeholders on how to include learners
with SEN in education interventions. The guidelines have been made to promote inclusion oflearners with SEN as a way towards attaining a more inclusive society, bearing in mind their
existence in the schools. The rationale of the policy guidelines is to provide procedure on how
government and other stakeholders can effectively mainstream learners with disabilities(MoE, 2009).
Statement of the Problem
Malawi has attempted to develop adequate policies and the legal environment for promoting
and upholding the rights of people with SNE. Some of these policies include the National
Special Needs Education Policy and the National Policy on the Equalisation of Opportunities
for Persons with Disabilities among others. Although Malawi has relatively good policies on
IE, most of the contents have not been fully implemented (Mkandawire et al., 2016). The
education of those with SNE has not significantly improved since the policies were formulated.
In addition, there is a critical shortage of literature on SNE (Munthali et al., 2013; Mkandawire
et al., 2016). Previous studies (Ishida et al., 2017; Kamchedzera, 2010; Mwale et al, 2010) havebeen conducted to assess the implementation of SNE policies in public schools. The studies
conducted in the public secondary schools have clearly highlighted that implementation of SNE
and IE is a challenge in Malawi. The gap in literature from private schools represents a formof lack of inclusivity as private schools in Malawi have a different governing system from thatof public schools. The results from public schools cannot adequately address SNE issues inprivate schools. Currently, it is not very clear what private schools are doing with respect tofollowing government SNE policies. Similarly, there is little known about how private
secondary schools implement the NSNEPG.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to explore how private secondary schools in Zomba district(Malawi) implement the NSNEPG that advocate for IE.

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Main Research Question
How do private secondary schools implement the NSNEPG?
Specific Research Questions
1. What do the teachers in private secondary schools know about NSNEPG?
2. What resources do private secondary schools use for the effective implementation of
the NSNEPG?
3. How do private schools support learners with SEN?
4. What factors affect the implementation of NSNEPG in private secondary schools?
Significance of the Study
This study has attempted to contribute to the body of knowledge on SNE by filling the gap inliterature on policy and practice regarding the implementation of NSNEPG in private
secondary schools. This study further shows how private secondary schools in Malawi
implement the NSNEPG.
Secondly, this study is significant because it provides information on the implementation ofpolicies of SNE in the private sector. Specifically, this study has potential to inform policy
makers and implementers on the necessary improvements that are required to support theimplementation of NSNEPG in private secondary schools in the country.
Literature Review
This study reviewed both local and international related literature on SNE and IE which helped
to identify research gaps that this study was attempting to explore.
International Standards and Frameworks that Advocate for IE and SNE Policies
NSNEPG is a response to international standards and frameworks. It is a strategy that Malawi
has formulated to fulfil its international obligations. The NSNEPG cannot be fully understood
without first reviewing the international standards. The international standards and frameworks
lay a strong foundation for NSNEPG and other SNE policies. One of the significant standards
that Malawi has committed itself to is the Salamanca Statement and Framework for Action on
SNE (UNESCO, 1994), which seeks to promote access to education for all learners with SEN.
Principles were adopted reaffirming what was found in various legal instruments such as the
Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UNESCO, 1994). Furthermore, other national
instruments that promote education for all learners are the National Education Sector Plan(NESP) and Malawi Development Growth Strategy (MDGS) (Itimu & Kopetz, 2008).
Knowledge of Special Needs Education and related Policies
International findings on knowledge concerning SNE related policy slightly vary. A study donein Namibia revealed that some teachers lacked knowledge about inclusive education policy.
This situation had been attributed to lack of training by the Ministry of Education on policy
issues. Furthermore, the study revealed that some teachers had not even read the policy on
inclusive education. This situation has led teachers to implement the policy in their own way.
For instance, they made the learners with SEN sit in front so that they are able to see the
chalkboard and enlarged letters for those who are short sighted (Hausika, 2017). Mantey (2014)
affirms the Namibian findings in his study done in Ghana. The study established that teachers
in the schools studied had limited or no knowledge of the Act for people with disabilities. Some100

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did not know the details of the Act. Another study done in Tanzania by Pima (2012) observedthat of the six teachers who were interviewed, only one knew the National Policy on Disability.
The presence of one teacher out of six who were knowledgeable about the policy indicatedsome limitations in the implementation process. In the study by Pima (2012), it was pointed
out that when policy stakeholders have not directly interacted with the policy statements
themselves, the result is confusion and gaps in understanding of the phenomenon.
In Malawi, Mwale et al. (2010) found out that many teachers in Malawi were ignorant of the
SNE policies. In the study by Mwale et al. (2010), it was further discovered that Primary
Educaton Advisers and District Education Managers were exceptional as they demonstrated
that they knew the policy by stating its strategies. This study was conducted in public primaryschools in Malawi. This study left out the voices of secondary school teachers in private
secondary schools.
Despite widespread lack of knowledge of SNE related policies, a study in Kenya by Muhombe
et al., (2015), revealed a different scenario. It was found that a majority of the participants were
aware of the SNE policy and believed that it was being implemented. Only 27.27% of theteachers who took part in the study indicated that they were not aware of the SNE policy
framework. The authors observed that the policy is still in its early stage of implementation,with many of its contents yet to be implemented. From the literature reviewed, it shows thatpolicy awareness is an issue in some countries in Africa including Malawi. However, thestudies conducted did not include private schools.
Suitable Resources for Implementing SNE Policies
Farell (2003) outlined suitable resources for learners with SEN as follows: adaptive equipment,
aids to learning and braille, journals and other publications and play games. Learners with SEN
also need technologies to facilitate access and participation in the general classroom (Smith &Tyler, 2011). Learners with SEN also need hearing aids, sign language, picture boards, audio
and other visual devices. These are important since children with SEN learn through hearing
and touching. The other resource is mobility equipment such as wheelchairs. They help thechild to move independently in his or her environment (Kirk et al., 2009, as cited in Pima,
2012, p. 20).
Apart from the resources outlined above, policy implementation needs human resources.
Hausika (2017) had argued that the largest challenge to policy implementation is lack oftraining of teachers. Ukpepi and Opuwari (2019) argued that teachers are implementers ofcurriculum at any level of education. Hence there is a need for adequate staff to teach in an
inclusive class. Furthermore, to meet the education needs of children with SEN, there is needfor a special education teacher. Teachers need the support of special needs teachers to assist
them in providing equal opportunities to students with SEN. Teachers of learners with SEN
also need time for planning (Swarup, 2006).
Despite the significance of resources outlined above, it has been observed that inclusive schools
in developing countries lack resources (Mariga et al., 2014). A study in Namibia revealed that
schools lacked physical and human resources to implement inclusive education policy
effectively (Hausika, 2017). Similarly, a study done in Zambia revealed that there was a lackof adequate resources for implementing the inclusion policy. Schools in the study lacked
specialised support staff such as education psychologists, sign interpreters and braille experts.
This situation was due to the lack of adequate funding for schools (Ngulube, 2016). A study
done in Nigeria revealed that most teachers were not qualified and were not committed to101

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achieving the goals of inclusive education (Ukpepi and Opuwari, 2019). Studies conducted in
Malawi public schools by Banks and Zuurmond (2015) and Chataika et al. (2017) found outthat schools were ill-equipped to meet the needs of the learners with disabilities.
Support for Learners with SEN
The NSNEPG advocate for support for learners with SEN (MoE, 2009). Learners with SEN
need support for them to reach their potential academically. In an inclusive class, teachers
employ a number of strategies that enhance learning for all learners and provide specificsupport to those learners who experience barriers to learning (Walton et al., 2009).
Maathuis (2016) argues that in order to support learners with SNE, the teaching methods to be
used should be those ones that encourage students to think and express their opinions. In an
inclusive class, children learn through discovery and working together. Therefore, teachers alsoneed to adjust the standard curriculum to the learning needs of the learners with SEN.
Furthermore, learners with SEN need a clean environment. Maathuis (2016) further contends
that the families and community should render similar support to learners with SNE.
According to Mariga et al., (2014), learners with SEN can also be supported by teachers
through identifying the challenges the child experiences in learning and then drawing up a planon how to overcome those difficulties. This is known as an Individual Education Plan (IEP).
All students with SEN should therefore have an IEP started. The IEP should contain thestrategies that have proved useful in helping the child to cope at school (Mariga et al., 2014).
When teaching the learners with SEN, teachers should make their communication clear. They
should be clearly seen by all pupils and stand closer to learners with SEN. This is necessary sothat the learners with SEN can hear and see the teacher. The teacher should also project
his/hervoice and repeat important messages (Mariga et al., 2014).
Studies indicate that support for learners with SEN is not enough in independent schools. For
example, a study in South African private schools showed that support was not enough (Walton
et al., 2009). A learner or a visitor who uses a wheelchair may find it difficult to access theindependent schools of South Africa. Less than half of the Independent Schools of South Africa(ISASA) are accessible to learners who use a wheelchair (Walton et al., 2009). Findings fromSouth Africa are similar to a Kenyan study conducted by Ireri et al. (2020). The schools studied
were reported to have inaccessible buildings. There were physical barriers such as lack oframps and wide doors; and this was making learning difficult and unsafe for learners with SEN.
This was attributed to lack of regular monitoring and evaluation of school physical resources.
Similar findings were found in Ghana by Mantey (2014). The study revealed that the buildingsof the schools studied were inaccessible to those who use mobility devices. Learners needed
personal assistance to get around the school. There were no specific toilets for children withdisabilities in all the schools visited.
Challenges Faced when Implementing IE and its Related Policies
A number of studies indicate that the implementation of IE faces challenges. The challenges
point at teachers not receiving any training on SNE. For example, in a study in Zimbabwe
which sought to find the perceptions of teachers towards inclusion, it was discovered thatteachers lacked competence on how to handle learners with disabilities. Teachers hadcomplained that they had never been trained on how to handle pupils with different disabilities(Kurebwa, 2014).

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Chavuta et al. (2008) conducted a baseline study in Malawi which showed that there was a lackof skills on the part of teachers as they were failing to provide adequate and relevant support
to learners with disabilities. Lack of training was cited as a major challenge as it makes it
difficult for the teachers to identify SEN and to teach in an inclusive manner.
Another challenge affecting the implementation of the SNE policies is lack of resources. The
schools reported in most of the literature do not have enough specialised teaching and learningmaterials such as braille and resource rooms (Banks and Zuurmond, 2015; Chavuta et al., 2008;
Munthali, 2011; Mwale, 2010; Udoba, 2014). Udoba (2014) observed that lack of resources is
associated with budgetary constraints allocated to schools. A study conducted in the USA
found that the average cost for educating a child with disability is 1.9 times the cost for
educating a child without disabilities (Stubbs, 2008). The cost could be even higher indeveloping countries where it is even more difficult to reach all children in need of education
regardless of disability. National budgets in developing countries, like Malawi, are often
limited and families cannot always afford the cost of education (Stubbs, 2008).
In summary, studies conducted in public secondary schools have highlighted that
implementation of IE is a challenge. However, studies to investigate the implementation of
National Special Needs Education Policy in private schools in Malawi are limited. In light of
the literature reviewed, it was necessary to do a study to understand how private schools
implement the policy guidelines that advocate for IE.
This study was guided by the task model of policy implementation by Brinkerhoff and Crosby(2002). According to Brinkerhoff and Crosby (2002), there are a number of tasks under
implementation that can be done once a policy has been adopted. The six strategic tasks arepolicy legitimisation, constituency building, resource accumulation, organisation design andmodification, mobilising resources and monitoring progress and impact (Crosby, 1996). This
theoretical framework was used to guide data collection as well as the analytical framework of
the study.
Study Design and Methodology
The study used phenomenology as its study design and a qualitative methodology to explore
the implementation of the NSNEPG. Phenomenology is an approach to qualitative researchthat focuses on the commonality of a lived experience within a particular group (Creswell,1994).
This study aimed at understanding the human lived experience of the teachers in private
secondary schools (Lester, 1999). Lester (1999) contends that the aim of phenomenology is to
identify phenomena and how they are perceived by the actors in a situation. The study involved
detailed examination of the participants’ life in the world (Smith & Osborn, 2007). Smith andOsborn further indicate that phenomenology is concerned with personal perception of an event
and an object. The goal of this study was to describe the lived experiences of teachers in private
schools based on the research questions (Streubert & Carpenter, 2003).
Qualitative research methodology studies the everyday life of different groups of people andcommunities in their natural setting (Bogdan & Biklen, 2007). This research design was ideal
for the study since it aimed at understanding human lived experience of the teaching in private
secondary schools (Lester, 1999). As such, this study followed private secondary school
teachers in their work place and asked them to explain their everyday life in implementing

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NSNEPG. According to Myers (2009), qualitative research is designed to assist researchers
understand people and their social and cultural context.
Sampling
This study used a non-probability sampling method called purposive sampling (Kothari, 2004).
Purposive sampling is selecting participants of a study based on their anticipated richness andrelevance of information in relation to the research questions (Yin, 2011). Through purposive
sampling, four private schools, four Head teachers and sixteen teachers were identified. The
schools were selected purposively because they had learners with SEN and therefore, they werevaluable sources of relevant and rich information about implementation of the NSNEPG. The
headteachers of the schools were therefore automatically included in the sample. The teachers
who took part in this qualitative study were those who could provide the necessary information
because they had learners with SNE in their classes. Table 1 shows details of the study sample:
Table 1: Sample of this StudyName of school Head Teachers
pseudonyms
A
HTI

Teachers pseudonyms

B

HT2

C

HT3

(i) Mrs Makaka(iii) Mrs Bowa(ii) Mr Nandolo(iv) Mr Kapinga(i) Mr Mapira(iii) Mr Sapanga(ii) Mr Mabilinganya (iv) Mr EngDHT4(i) Mr Mtedza(ii) Mr Chimanga(i) Mr Mango(ii) Mr Tomato(iii) Mr Mbewu(iv) Mr Mbatata(iii) Mr Masuku(iv) Mr Kamba

Data Generation Methods
The first data generation method was document analysis. Document analysis is the study ofhuman recorded communications such as books and websites (Babbier, 2010). Document
analysis in this study was important because it provided background information andcontextualised this research (Bowen, 2009). The documents that were analysed in this study
were the international standards on SNE and the NSNEPG.
The second data generation method was semi-structured face to face interviews. The interviews
were conducted using an interview guide made up of open-ended questions (Brikci &Green,2007). The study interviewed sixteen teachers and four head teachers individually. Semistructured face to face interviews were used in the study because it is a quick method to collectrich data directly from the participant. An interviewer can probe deeper into the situation. One
does not only adhere to the detailed interview guide. Furthermore, semi-structured interview
gives the interviewer an opportunity to rephrase or elaborate the question (Kajornboon, 2004).
The study used observation to triangulate the interview data. Observation helped in seeing how
the study participants actually behave in class with learners with SNE. The data generated wasused to verify information provided during the face-to-face interviews Hancock et al., 2007;(Kajornboon, 2004). This study observed teachers in the classrooms and the school
environment. Twelve lesson observations were conducted in each of the four schools thatparticipated in the study. At this time, it was felt that saturation was reached and no new data

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was being generated. The strength of the observation method is that subjective bias iseliminated. The information generated is not complicated by either past behaviour or future
attitudes, it gives first-hand information and it is independent of the respondent’s willingness
to respond (Burgess, 1982).
Ethical Considerations
As a researcher, there was an obligation to respect the rights, needs and values of the study
participants (Cresswell, 2003). They were assured of their right to participate freely (Brikci &Green, 2007). Participants were not forced to participate in the study. They first signed an
informed consent to participate in the study. To ensure confidentiality and anonymity, thenames of the participants have not been used in this study. Pseudonyms have been used toprotect the identity of the study participants (Brikci and Green, 2007)
Data Analysis
Data was analysed thematically. The data analysis was guided by the research questions andthe theoretical framework of the study in relation to previous related literature. Data analysis
proceeded through six phases: familiarisation with the data, coding, codes sorted into potential
themes, constructing themes, naming themes, and reporting (Braun & Clarke, 2006).
Findings and Discussion
The findings of this study are presented based on the five themes which emerged from theanalysis of data from the four specific research questions, namely: knowledge of policy,
resources for effective implementation of the NSNEPG, support given to learners with SEN
and factors affecting the implementation of the NSNEPG.
Knowledge of the Policy
The findings of the study revealed that the nine teachers from private secondary schools who
took part in this study lacked knowledge of the NSNEPG. Mr Mtedza gave the following
response when asked if he was aware of the policy:
I have never heard about this policy; this is my first time to hear about it (MrMtedza).
For the teachers who admitted that they had knowledge of the NSNEPG, it was found out thatthey did not know the details of the NSNEPG. Teachers and head teachers, who had heard
about the policy, heard it through TV, radio, friends and workshops about SNE, and not about
the specifics of NSNEPG. All the four private secondary schools that took part in this study
did not have the policy document in their school.
The findings of this study concur with the finding of another study conducted in public primaryschools by Mwale et al. (2010). It was found that teachers did not have knowledge of SNE
policies. The study also found that although some teachers were aware of the policies, they
were unable to state the policy contents. Lack of knowledge of the policy indicates that thepolicy cannot fulfil task two of constituency building of the theory by Brinkerhoff and Crosby(2002). The effectiveness of a policy depends on how it is disseminated and understood by its
stakeholders (Ntombera, 2006, as cited in Pima, 2012, p.16). In order to implement a policy,
people need to understand the content (including definitions and key terms) of the policy. If
people do not understand the contents of a policy, implementation becomes a challenge. Thiswas found to be true with other education policies in Malawi such as repetition, pregnancy and105

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teacher-ratio policies (Wolf et al., 1999). For the NSNEPG to be known by their stakeholders
there is a need to fulfil task number two of policy implementation developed by Blinkerhoff
and Crosby (2002). The task involves constituency building.
Resources for Effective Implementation of the NSNEPG
The private secondary schools studied lacked special resources required for the implementationof the NSNEPG. This was reported by all the sixteen teachers. Mr Sapanga had this to say:
We do not have resources. This is a private school. There is shortage ofresources. We just improvise (Mr Sapanga).
All the four schools lacked assistive devices which is one of the needs of learners with SEN(MoE, 2009). The books were not modified in any way: they had a regular font size of twelve.
It was observed in school B that the learners with albinism placed their books close to theireyes when reading. Furthermore, none of the four private schools visited had resource rooms.
In addition to that, the four schools did not have sporting grounds in a condition supportive forlearners with SEN.
Apart from the special resources for learners with SEN, there is also a shortage of general
resources such as books. For the teachers who teach literature, it is a great challenge. This
makes it difficult for learners who may need to have the book in their hands to understand.
The findings on resources by this study do not come as a surprise. The findings are consistent
with a study in public schools of Malawi. It was found out that lack of resources for learners
with SEN is a major challenge affecting implementation of SEN policies (Mwale et al., 2010).
Observations confirmed what emerged out of the interviews. Both classroom and school
observation showed that the schools did not possess any special resource specifically forlearners with SEN. Blackboards being used in the four private schools studied were notdisability friendly. They were faint and unclean such that those with visual difficulties found it
difficult to see what was written on the chalk board. The library did not have visual impairment
friendly books and those that correspond to the secondary school curriculum.
The unavailability of resources for implementing is working against the task model of policy
implementation by Crosby (1996) which was used in this study. The third strategic task of themodel is resources accumulation. This involves securing funds. To implement a new policy,
human, technical and financial resources must be set aside (Crosby, 1996). The theory of
Brinkerhoff and Crosby (2002) recognises the need for resources for successful implementationof a policy.
Support Given to Learners with SEN
The four private secondary schools were providing support to learners with SEN in thefollowing ways: offering extra teaching, changing sitting plan and modifying assessment. Mrs
Makaka had this to say:
If I know that a student has a problem, I allow him or her to sit in front where
he can see. This occurs when the learners with SEN have been identified (Mrs
Makaka).

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Lesson observations revealed that all 12 teachers who were observed used the question-andanswer method and lecture method. Hayes and Bulat (2017) argued that teachers should use
multiple strategies to present content to learners with SEN. These strategies include casestudies, role play, group work and peer learning.
The evidence from the school observation showed that little support is being provided to thelearners with SEN in the four schools studied. The school buildings, beginning from theadministration, classrooms, library, laboratory and toilets, had no ramps for easy mobility bylearners with physical impairments. The toilets in all the four schools studied were inaccessible for learners with physical impairment.
Another study in Malawi also indicates that there is lack of suitable resources to support
learners with SEN. In a study conducted by Chavuta et al. (2008), it was revealed that schools
lacked friendly infrastructure such as classrooms and sanitation facilities. It was reported thatmost schools had steps and were without ramps to ease the mobility of learners with SEN toand from the classrooms.
The findings of this study are consistent with several other studies from outside Malawi whichindicate that support for learners with SEN is not enough in private schools. For example, a
study done in South African private schools showed that support was not enough (Walton etal., 2009). This is an issue of concern as it affects access and quality of education for learners
with SNE.
Findings of this study in this section suggest that the four private schools in this study have notfulfilled task number four of the theoretical framework guiding this study. Task number fourof Brinkerhoff and Crosby (2002) indicates that the implementation of any new policy is more
likely to cause changes in the implementing organisation. The private secondary schools in thisstudy did not make the required changes for the implementation of the NSNEPG.
Factors Affecting the Implementation of the NSNEPG
The study has found that the following factors are affecting the implementation of NSNEPG
in the four private schools: lack of resources, failure to identify learners with SEN, lack of
coordination between teachers and parents, lack of commitment from school directors andteachers, frequent changing of teachers, increased work load and lack of monitoring of the
NSNEPG.
Conclusion
The study results show that nine of the sixteen teachers in this study in the four private
secondary schools lacked knowledge of the NSNEPG. Seven teachers indicated that they “hadheard” about the NSNEPG. However, these teachers heard about the NSNEPG throughunofficial means such as media and friends. Although they had heard about the NSNEPG, itemerged that the teachers did not know the contents of the NSNEPG in detail. Yet it isstipulated in the policy that the MoE should provide policy guidance to all stakeholders. Thisfinding represents a serious communication problem “when policy hits the ground”. The lackof adequate knowledge of the NSNEPG by teachers is a serious barrier to promotion of IE andto implementation of SNE.

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The findings of this study from the four private schools shed light on how private schools are
performing in terms of implementing government policies on special needs. The findings revealthat the private schools are not following government policies on SNE.
The study findings reveal that the four schools in the study have not fulfilled the tasks modelof implementing a policy as developed by Brinkerhoff and Crosby (2002), which was theanalytical framework of the study. According to the tasks model, to implement a policy, thereis need for gathering support for a new policy and accumulation of resources, the organisation
implementing the policy has to be modified, putting the policy into action and monitoring
progress and impact. However, the findings reveal that there was little support for the
NSNEPG, the four schools did not have resources for implementing the NSNEPG.
Furthermore, the schools did not modify their practices and environment. Consequently, the
NSNEPG was not put into full implementation.
Recommendations
In light of the findings of this study, the researchers would like to make the following
recommendations:Firstly, the government should sensitise private school stakeholders (including Headteachers,
teachers and learners) about the NSNEPG in order to increase knowledge of the policy. School
based in-service training can be utilised for this under the guidance of education experts to
support schools. Other means of sensitisation can include use of media through jingles andradio programmes.
Secondly, the government must monitor the implementation of the policy especially inprivately run schools. Routine inspection of schools must include finding out how schools are
doing in relation to national policies on SNE.
Thirdly, private schools themselves should take a leading role in supporting learners with SEN.
They should be able to buy some of the materials needed to effectively assist learners withSEN.
Lastly, the government should include private schools in its SNE programs. When thegovernment organises special needs workshops, private schools should be fully involved.

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Ishida, Y., Banda, D., Moyo, A., & Mgogo, C. (2017). A case study of SNE resource center
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Corresponding author: Gift Mbewe
Email: giftmbewe56@gmail.com

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Engaging, Affirming, Nurturing Inclusive Environment: A Grounded Theory Study in
the Philippine Context
Princess Zarla J. Raguindin
Far Eastern University
Philippines
Zhanina U. Custodio
Philippine Normal University
Philippines
Ferdinand Bulusan
Batanes State College
Philippines

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Abstract
Implementing the tenets of inclusive education in different countries may be diverse becauseof varying interpretations, contexts, and ways of application. In the Philippines, studies thatdelve into the kind of environment involving Filipino children with special needs are scarce.
Thus, through a grounded theory approach, this qualitative paper aims at developing aframework as a means of understanding inclusive environments thriving in an inclusive
Philippine setting. Thirty-two special education teachers from three private schools wereinterviewed, the data being triangulated through class observations. The emerging theory
encapsulated three major dimensions to understand concepts of inclusive environment:
engaging environment, affirming environment, and nurturing environment. An engaging
environment points to having high-standard learning outcomes, promoting collaboration andcommunication among learners, teachers, and parents, and involving them in decision-making.
An affirming environment, on the other hand, denotes practicing expressive and receptive
languages, imbibing the sacred worth of class members, and celebrating diversity. Finally, anurturing environment can be achieved through interdependence and care for the needs ofeveryone. These dimensions are inter-related and are not standalone. This paper advances thatsuccess in the diversified Philippine inclusive classroom context can be achieved through theinterdependence of school community members. The question of the significance of the
inclusive practices and principles should not be the primary concern of a particular context.
Rather, involvement and interdependence to achieve an engaging, affirming, and nurturing
environment matter. Ramifications to micro and macro integration of inclusion that support
inclusive environments are also discussed.
Keywords: inclusion in the Philippines, inclusive education, inclusive environment, inclusive
pedagogy

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Introduction
Inclusion has been a focus of several technical papers, as it enjoins educational systems tointegrate the framework in their curricula, instruction, programs, and other capacity-building
mechanisms (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization [UNESCO],
2005). Inclusive education (IE) is implemented by states as a response to increasing
heterogeneity in school communities. It is entrenched in providing similar classroom
experiences for the diverse learners and further eliminates attitudes and values that seek to
exclude and discriminate (UNESCO, 1994).
Policies create the context; however, schools make them happen (Winter & O’Raw, 2010).
Hence, inclusion means more than the mere physical presence of learners with special
education needs (SEN) in the inclusive classroom. A learner may thrive in an inclusiveclassroom, but can be excluded because of the attitude of those around him/her. A successful
inclusion prompts an environment where the learner with SEN is treated as a full member orcitizen of the school community (De Silva, 2013).
Inclusive education, may be seen as idealistic and unrealistic, yet it is achieved throughmechanisms where presence, acceptance, participation, and achievement of all class members
is valued. However, governments and nations face many challenges in achieving a justinclusive practice because of variations on how countries interpret and implement inclusion.
For example, in the Southeast Asian context, there is a paucity of research on approaches forthe participation of children with special needs (CSN) in the general education setting (Hosshan
et al., 2019). In the same way, the kind of environment where Filipino children with special
needs are involved is not explicitly addressed in the existing literature.
To narrow the chasm between theory and practice, there is a need to revisit and re-evaluate theinclusive environments. Through a grounded theory approach, this paper documents theinclusive environments offered to Filipino leaners with SEN. An interview with teachers
handling inclusive classes and classroom observation of classes with children with disabilities(Autism and ADHD from Nursery to Grade 6) were conducted to gather data to address theresearch questions. Insights from this study will summarize a model for how schoolcommunities can provide and strengthen inclusive environments for diverse learners.
Literature Review
The Inclusive Agenda
As an educational agenda, inclusive education was institutionalized in response to the needs ofdiverse learners with particular emphasis on those with perceived difference (UNESCO, 1994).
The school community should be a context where the learners’ presence, participation, andcollaboration are the top priority (Sharma & Sokal, 2015). Baglieri and Shapiro (2017)
similarly claimed that IE enables children to be valued, to be considered in inclusive learning,
and to be encouraged toward purposeful participation in the classroom. The policy stemmed
from the mandate which asserts that quality education is a basic human right (United Nations,1948). Through the Salamanca Statement (UNESCO, 1994), government signatories adopted
the framework of action and implemented IE in their own context. Inclusive educationnecessitated a fundamental shift in infrastructure, systems and structures, and state-wide school
curricula (UNESCO, 1994). On a larger scale, IE has challenged cultures and values that
continue to marginalize. In the school context, it has altered the landscape of curriculum,
pedagogy, teachers’ training and preparation, other delivery modes, and cultures.

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Some researchers believe that IE is idealistic and unrealistic. For instance, Florian (1998) andHornby (2014, p. 2) claimed that achieving IE is a struggle, while the latter argued that IE is“theoretically unsound and practically impossible.” Nonetheless, Florian (1998) explained thatthe full inclusion of learners with SEN could be possible in the long run. The success of
inclusion is a gargantuan task that entails the cooperation of stakeholders, especially those in
the classroom. Inclusive approaches happen through the transformation of school cultures,
where the learners with SEN become full members of the school community.
Inclusive Education in the Philippine Context
Philippines is a signatory of international inclusive education policies, but despite thesemilestones in the practice of IE, Mori (2015) argued that a significant number of Filipino
learners were not able to go to school because of either financial challenge faced by households
or lack of access to educational facilities. School buildings, roads and transport systems in thePhilippines are generally not person with disability [PWD]-friendly, especially for themobility-impaired (Reyes, 2014). In the National Disability Prevalence Survey (NDPS)
conducted by the Philippine Statistics Authority (PSA) in 2016, around 10,000 individuals
were classified as disabled, with different levels of disability nationwide (Technical Educationand Skills Development Authority [TESDA], 2020). Women and children with disabilities
were found to have lower literacy and school participation rates, and generally have lower
educational attainment, than males with disabilities (Reyes, 2014). With this data, it could be
reputed that the country needs to improve on creating less restrictive environments for people
with disability.
Policies are heading toward inclusion of learners with SEN in the educational system. The
Republic Act 10533 or the Enhanced Basic Education Act of 2013 implements programs
designed to address diverse learners, including those with disabilities. In fact, theimplementation of IE is at the core principle of the K to 12 basic education programs. The
ordinance mandates schools to deliver inclusive, quality, relevant, and accessible education toover 22 million Filipino learners (Albert, 2016). Of these students, 308,321 are learners withspecial needs being accommodated by 448 recognized Special Education (SpEd) centers and
173 regular schools with SpEd classes (Department of Education, 2015). However, government
funded schools in the country, where most Filipino children are enrolled, are challenged withpoor outcome quality, large class sizes, teacher shortage, dearth in resources, unsustainablecurriculum, and contradicting perspective of lawmakers (Alegado, 2018). The country
subsequently struggles in the implementation of IE due to compounded misconceptions onwhat IE is about, inadequate resources, knowledge and self-preparation of teachers (Muega,2016).
To ensure excellent delivery of the inclusive agenda, intensive training on inclusive pedagogies
has been organized with the aim of helping teachers effectively meet the needs of learners withSEN (DepEd, 2015), but Mina and Agbon (2017) claim that school participation among
learners with SEN is generally low. Initiatives toward the attainment of IE are undertaken;
however, Villamero and Kamenopoulou (2014) argue that in a country where resources are ahuge challenge, IE becomes a difficult effort. In a country where resources are scarce,
promoting welcoming and affirming practices is a viable option toward achieving the goal of
the inclusion agenda.
An Inclusive Environment for the Diverse Learners
Inclusion is fundamentally a question of ethos and attitude. IE is not just a matter of policy andprogram implementation, but it also has an emotional aspect which involves the whole

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community (Florian, 1998). Florian's claim (1998) is affirmed by Baglieri and Shapiro (2017)as the authors posited the need to reshape attitudes and social arrangements for effective
inclusion. The environment should be a facilitator of acceptance, belongingness, andcamaraderie (Vuorinen et al., 2018). However, as with the complexities that constituteinclusion, challenges and disagreements remain.
Avramidis (2010) described a positive situation in terms of the participation of learners with
SEN in the inclusive classroom. Among the students with Intellectual Developmental Delay(IDD), findings from a large number of research studies show a positive effect of inclusion
which include: higher expectations for student learning (Jorgensen et al., 2007); improved
communication and social skills (Beukelmanet al., 2013); and better academic outcomes(Cosier et al., 2013). Despite these studies, many findings contradicted this notion and forced
reassessment of this widely held belief. Kennedy (2018) and Valenzuela-Zambrano et al.
(2016) opined that learners with SEN are often the subject of ridicule, bullying, and belittlingof their typically developing peers. Consequently, they face problems in terms of social
participation (Bossaert et al., 2011). Vuorinen et al., (2018) also claimed that finding friends isa struggle for those with a perceived difference. Studies above may have contradictory notions
on inclusion, but such contradictions only show that environment plays a vital role in thedevelopment of learners with SEN.
The school communities’ failure to promote inclusive philosophies and uphold inclusive
practices can be attributed to values and cultures that seek to exclude (Baglieri & Shapiro,
2017). Behavioral, social, and emotional patterns arising in the inclusive classroom are among
the most challenging dimensions in achieving the inclusive goals (Raguindin, 2020). To hurdle
this predicament, a transformational notion of inclusion should be instituted (De Silva, 2013).
A common feature of a transformative inclusive practice is providing a shared space where alllearners can thrive. For example, these can be learning environments that promotecollaboration, interaction, positive peer relationship, and support toward school success (DeSilva, 2013). There is a need to challenge traditional cultures, remove biases, and replacepotential barriers that impede belongingness and participation.
IE is cogent in this statement – active involvement of each member in an inclusive classroom.
It implies different levels of being part of a learning environment, from being informed, being
consulted, taking part, and producing output. A quintessential inclusion is a context where
belongingness, participation, and engagement of diverse perspective, background, and ability
is valued, embraced, and celebrated. Through a grounded theory approach, this paper sought
to develop a framework as a means of understanding inclusive environments thriving in an
inclusive setting.
Methodology
DesignThe context of this paper necessarily calls for an emerging theory to explain the phenomenon
under study. Hence, this paper is inspired by constructivist grounded theory because it allowed
the researchers to follow the lead of the data and trace what happened at any point in the
research process (Glaser & Strauss, 1967; Hallberg, 2006; Wertz et al., 2011). Data tracking
employed in a constructivist grounded theory is facilitatively done through encoding andcategorizing along the way (Thornberg & Charmaz, 2014). Therefore, collection and analysisof data by employing constant comparison methods occurred in the process. The researchers
also enriched simultaneous data collection and analysis by memo-writing to construct

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conceptual analyses, and theoretical sampling to refine the researchers’ emerging theoreticalideas. Moreover, the use of constructivist grounded theory enabled the exploration of thefactors and their implications for the research. This approach was deemed appropriate because
flexibility in data collection was obtained.
Through the use of this strategy, nuances in the interpretation of meaning were basically
influenced by the accentuation of social context from which the data was extracted (Thornberg& Charmaz, 2014). It, therefore, allowed a reciprocal relationship between the researchers andparticipants (Chong & Yeo, 2015), and situated the researchers as contributors in the data
construction (Karpouza & Emvalotis, 2019). In this way, the design of this study foregrounded
the tenets of constructivist idea that knowledge is constructed by interaction (Crotty, 1998).
Data Source and Collection
The data yielded from this study were initially drawn from accounts of participants from threeprivate elementary schools. A semi-structured, open-ended interview was conducted to gather
insights from purposively selected informants (profile is shown in Table 1). The interview
approximately lasted for 30-40 minutes. The interview was audiotaped and transcribed.
Table 1. Profile of Participants (N=32)
Demographics
Educational Attainmentn
Master’s Degree
Bachelor
Total

25
7
32

0-3 years
4-7 years
8 – 11 years
12 and above
Total

7
9
10
4
32

SpEd Coordinator
Adviser (Preschool)
Adviser (Grade 1)
Adviser (Grade 4)
Adviser (Grade 5)
Adviser (Grade 6)
Subject Teacher
Total

5
4
5
7
4
6
1
32

Years in the Profession

Position/ Classes assigned

To facilitate iteration and constant comparative analysis, another set of interviews was
conducted from selected informants from the previous pool for a more in-depth conversation.
Additionally, the researchers conducted a series of class observations where the participants
are teaching (Table 2). The simultaneous interview and observation allowed the researchers to
reinforce theoretical sampling. Theoretical sampling facilitates the saturation of data needed toestablish theories relating to the phenomena under study (Glaser & Strauss, 1967; Thornberg& Charmaz, 2014). The data collection was carried on until well-defined and refined data were
finally saturated (Glaser & Strauss, 1967; Thornberg & Charmaz, 2014).

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Table 2. Profile of the classrooms observed
Classroom
Number
C1
C2
C3
C4
C5

Grade Level
Nursery
Kindergarten
Grade 4
Grade 4
Grade 6

Total Number of
Pupils
M=6,F=5
M=8,F=7
M= 4 , F = 5
M= 12 , F = 14
M = 10 , F = 12

Number ofobservations
1
1
1
1
1

Number of CSN in theclass/ Exceptionality
1/ Autism/ADHD
1 /Autism)
1/ Autism
1/ Autism and ADHD
1/ Autism

Note: M = Male, F = Female

Validity and Reliability
To ensure the trustworthiness of the study, the authors applied credibility, dependability,
confirmability, and transferability measures (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). Credibility was ensured
as the researchers utilized the appropriate methods in collecting data and in selecting
participants as key informants. Further, the transcribed interviews were returned to theinformants for member check (Creswell & Creswell, 2018) to increase the credibility of thedata gathered. Meanwhile, the dependability of the data was ensured as the researchers
conducted a series of observations and informal conversations (Thornberg & Charmaz, 2014).
The iteration reinforced the accuracy of the data gathered. Third, confirmability was reinforced
by involving external researchers to validate the codes and categories generated from the data
(Burnard, 1991; Graneheim & Lundman, 2004). Finally, the transferability of the study is
prompted as the researchers outlined components like data collection methods, data
participants, and means of data analysis. Thus, it can support other researchers to determine if
there is transferability of the data gathered and the theory generated (Creswell & Creswell,
2018).
Ethical Considerations
A permit to conduct the study was secured from the gatekeepers before the researcherscommenced the data gathering (Creswell & Creswell, 2018). Further, consent to take part in
the study was secured to establish a clear relationship between the participants and theresearcher. The consent also emphasized confidentiality and privacy in handling the data
gathered.
Data Analysis
The theory generated from this study was yielded through analytical induction and constantcomparison of qualitative data gathered (Glaser & Strauss, 1967). The researchers utilized lineby-line coding as a preliminary analysis (Thornberg & Charmaz, 2014). The preliminary codesfrom the memo-writing (Thornberg & Charmaz, 2014) were used to determine additional dataneeded to ensure that categories are well-defined, and data saturation is reached (Chong & Yeo,2015). During the simultaneous data collection, a focused coding was conducted (Wertz et al.,2011) to bridge the initial codes and the newly gathered data. The partial codes and categories
were refined through “memo sorting” (Thornberg & Charmaz, 2014, p. 167). Sorting thewritten memo allowed a comprehensive constant comparison analysis (Glaser & Strauss, 1967;
Thornberg & Charmaz, 2014). As the relationship between the codes, categories, and subcategories was juxtaposed, the theories from the phenomenon studied were illuminated(Thornberg & Charmaz, 2014). The generated theory was validated through comparison withliterature (Chong & Yeo, 2015). The researchers made use of MAXQDA in the data analysis.

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Findings
Following the tenets of a constructivist grounded theory approach, an interrelated set of
dimensions that formed an emerging theory for understanding concepts of inclusive
environment has surfaced in this study. Openness, flexibility, and constant comparison of
extracted data from various sources yielded the following dimensions: engaging environment,
affirming environment, and nurturing environment (Figure.1). Under each dimension are somequalifying descriptions that necessitate the existence of each environment to make up a macrocontextual inclusive milieu.

Figure 1: Model of the emergent theory of an inclusive environment
An Engaging Environment
Shreds of evidence from the data gathered construed notions that an engaging environment isconsequential in implementing inclusive approaches. The participants believe that emphasis on
high-standard learning outcomes, collaboration and communication, and participativedecision-making are essential components to ensure that the schools achieve the inclusive goals
by providing an engaging environment.
High-standard learning outcomes. The participants believe that learners with SEN and theentire class should be engaged in the teaching-learning process. For example, the participantsemphasized that the multi-domain needs of the learners with SEN, as stipulated in theirindividualized educational plans (IEP), should be achieved. Task analysis is done to make theacademic responsibility of the learners become more manageable and attainable.
It is my task as the class adviser to remind the CSN of tasks for the day. I do
it on a daily basis so it will not be overwhelming for the child and it will be

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easier to digest. […] not just to get the perfect score, but to finish the task
(P1).
When I give modified worksheet, parents would ask me why it is different.
[…] I communicate the task to the child that in order to finish the task sheshould cooperate with me and knows that she needs extra help from theteacher (P14).
The core of the inclusive agenda is to allow the learners with SEN to reach their potential andexperience success. This inclusive environment compels teachers to actively take part in
implementing inclusion no matter how tasking it is. Implementing IEP is already a multilayered task, let alone other needs that go beyond what is outlined in the IEP.
Collaboration and communication. To promote an engaging environment, the research
participants emphasized the vital role of significant others working with the learners with SEN.
Hence, to reach the common goal of the inclusive classroom, engagement of the learners with
SEN, is a collective effort which necessitates parents, teachers, and peers as collaborators.
I communicate with other teachers, and the rest of the class to make sure that
we champion for the CSN. We keep close communication with parents. They
are hesitant to involve their CSN in programs and other academic matters.
But I remind them that we work together for the success of their child (P26).
Working in constant collaboration and communication with other teachers allows a series ofbest practices to provide an engaging environment for the diverse class consistently. While
there is scarcity in materials, the participants share their best practices for more efficientdelivery of their tasks, as evident in the following quotes:
Part of our routine is to gather and plan for effective strategies (P8).
I made it a part of my schedule to be in consultation with other teachers to be
guided as to how to provide rich experiences for the CSN in our class (P4).
Involvement in decision-making. Involving the CSN in the decision-making process that
affects their lives, including academic endeavor, encourages and facilitates their full
involvement in the diverse school community. The participants in the study attest to this:To challenge the CSN in my class, I would make her decide how much work
she has to do. I will not require her to work on three items only. I leave thedecision to her. But, I supervise and make sure the child is still working on
her task (P22).
The participation of the learners with SEN in decision-making to reach their academic goals
extends even in peer-support arrangements (for example, groupings during collaborative
activities), individual work, and other processes. Peers are encouraged to provide significant
support to their classmates with special educational needs. The typically developing peers
know that they work alongside the CSN within their group to achieve common goals. These
insights are evident in the following statements.
I partner (CSN) with peers who are mindful of their classmate (CSN) (P3).

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I assign a responsible pupil to be my little teacher. […] classmate works as
shadow teacher to the CSN. […] I love doing this because the CSN
accomplishes much while the little teacher becomes more focused andresponsible as well (P10).
To sum, the data exhibited an engaging community for the diverse learners through theprinciples, strategies and partnership employed to help the CSN achieve their goals alongsideinstitutional goals.
An Affirming Environment
The best facilitator of school success is the recognition of the potential of each learner. An
exemplary affirming environment is a context where everyone is equally valued. This study
implies that the learners with SEN are given opportunities for expressive and receptive
expressions, the sacredness of each class member is honored, and diversity is aggressively
pursued and celebrated.
Expressive and receptive languages. The data yielded pieces of evidence of raising culturesby which language is used to affirm the involvement of learners with SEN.
I make sure that they have the chance to discuss and answer questions.
[….]I would start calling the CSN’s classmates, then ask the CSN torepeat the answer. Then, the group will know that the CSN participatedin class (P16).
Sometimes, the CSN in my classroom is not ready to answer myquestions […] I would modify the level of difficulty of my questions.
When I ask the class to spell the word, metamorphosis I would ask the
CSN to spell the word fruit. And I can really see the sense ofaccomplishment in them (P21).
Accounts with which the CSN in the inclusive classroom are sometimes intimidated and left
behind in terms of expressing their thoughts and ideas in a distinct form, were elucidated by
the participants.
During discussion, there are instances when the CSN would start towithdraw, especially when they see their peers contributing a lot. That
is when the CSN is silent (P17)
It is sometimes risky to involve the CSN. I have this experience in myclass when the CSN was so much frustrated and started to shout andcry. Then, kicked the trash bin, and it landed on another classmate. I
heard some classmates said, “let us transfer him to another section
because of his behavior (P30).
These accounts explain why the class withdraws communication with the classmate withspecial needs for several reasons: (a) the CSN throws tantrums during deep frustrations, (b)they do not perform like their non-disabled peers all the time. There are factors that create an
unfavorable environment for the CSN like intimidation and difficulty to process emotions,which can be directly attributed to their exceptionality. Data also showed that bullying,demeaning, and threatening do not flourish in their classrooms. There are no accounts where

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language is used as a weapon of assault. However, learners in the standardized curriculum
might distance themselves from classmates in the inclusive curriculum.
The sacred worth of class members. Another means of affirming the diversity in the inclusive
approach is valuing the sacredness of each class member. School communities must pursue afair community. Hence, learners with SEN should be regarded as members of the schoolcommunities who can attain their fullest potential.
Participants agreed that inclusive education is a challenging task. The burden of providing
scaffolding for the learners in the standardized curriculum and inclusive curriculum
significantly rests on the teachers. Thus, internalizing the goal of inclusive education, which isto provide success for all learners from a diverse group, is very important and should be given
utmost consideration.
I would set up the physical environment in such way they everyone hassomething to do especially during free time (time to go around thelearning centers). When the shadow teacher is not present, I do one-onone approach to support the CSN […] I would assign “little teachers”
to help their classmate (CSN). The CSN is provided with the muchneeded support (P9).
One time, we had this inter-school intramural. I made an arrangementwith other coaches to put into the game those CSN from our teams. We
had to do this so they will also succeed in several co-curricular
activities without being intimidated. Their teammates agreed. They did
perform well in the game. In fact, they were cheered the most (P3).
Although interviewees shared an ideal experience, pieces of evidence from the observation
conducted showed that Pupil 3 exhibited significant difficulty in accomplishing the paperwork.
Pupil 3 is in full inclusion and does not have a shadow teacher. The teacher checks on the CSN,
but no scaffolding is done. Also, no clear directions are given on how to proceed with theworksheet. During the entire course of working on the worksheet, the CSN just stared at his
paper and even had an episode of suddenly screaming. According to the Coordinator (P8), thechild is new in the school. They attribute the misbehavior to the apparent lack of guidance
provided in his past school, and he had difficulty following classroom routines implemented
by the new school environment.
An affirming environment ends not only with tolerance. Tolerance on how the CSN performs
in the class every day because of what she/he can do and cannot do is not enough. There existed
some documented misgivings in the involvement of the CSN in the inclusive classrooms. At
the moment, this tolerance may not be enough, but it is a good starting point of a high-quality
inclusive education practice, especially in the context of a developing country.
Celebration of diversity. Finally, an affirming environment is a community that pursues andcelebrates diversity. The most cogent means of achieving an affirming environment is
integrating diversity at the core of the schools’ philosophy, vision, and mission statements. The
participating schools affirmed the sacred worth and human dignity of each learner as enshrinedin their philosophy and undertakings. The class members are valued and equally treated.

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We believe that this is our ministry. We want to extend help to everyone,
including those with special needs. We want our students to be part inpromoting what we believe as Jesus’ ministry to children (P7).
We would have annual social activities. This is the time where we showcase
the talents and potential of our students. The CSN in the class become part of
the activity. Every year we witness how our school celebrates diversity. In
this way, we tell our students and their families that everyone matters (P31).
Communities are being re-created through rituals and unique traditions. The schools visited forthe data gathering continue with their rich traditions as they fuse innovations brought about by
the increasing diversity in the school community. The CSN is brought into a celebrative
community as they are catered for in a circle where opportunities for connections andparticipation are reinforced. These opportunities are facilitated through culminating activities,classroom programs, intramural, annual gatherings, and many more.
A Nurturing Environment
Prioritizing the well-being of class members in the pluralistic school community and caring fortheir needs is pivotal in a nurturing environment. An inclusive community can be engaging andaffirming, but the nurturing and caring gestures expressed and extended hold these values
intact.
Interdependence. CSN is involved in a supportive and collaborative class, where interrelatedness and inter-connectedness occur. Children and youth with disabilities experiencesignificant difficulties in developing independence in their social life. However, with the schoolcommunities being sensitive in providing scaffolding and valuable opportunities for the CSN,
they powerfully champion for the CSN.
Children have different perceptions of the CSN in their class. They ask
questions like, “Why is our classmate slow?” Why is our classmate
making that sound?”. I would tell them that their classmate is not yet
ready to talk. “Maybe they just want to have friends with you” I would
reply (P21).
Some children also share experiences with their parents. Then, parents
start to question “why do you have such classmates, and why is he likethat”. Then, their classmates would tell their parents, “Mommy,
because he has difficulty talking (P22).
Support comes in many forms. The most important type of support to facilitate the involvementof the CSN are children supporting children, teachers supporting teachers, parents supporting
their children, and communities supporting their schools (UNESCO, 2016).
Care for the needs of everyone. While children are still focused on reaching individual
accomplishments in the class, they exhibit awareness of others’ needs and presence as well.
For instance, the observation conducted showed how the classmates of the learner from C1
become sensitive to their classmate’s needs.
In an inclusive setting, you will have to choose whom to leave,
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attend to the CSN in my class who suddenly throw tantrums, their peers
would automatically keep silent and are behaved. They know we haveto help their classmate in such episodes. Even parents would tell themas well. Everyone becomes an advocate (P11).
Inclusive education practices become quintessential when they create strong and meaningfulconnectedness and belongingness in a community. The school community should view
inclusive cultures like high-standard learning outcomes, collaboration and communication,
involvement in decision-making, opportunities for receptive and expressive languages, sacredworth of each member, celebration of diversity, interdependence, and caring for the needs ofother not as secondary to the implementation of the school curriculum but a central part of it.
Discussion
The findings of this paper advance an assertion of an inclusive nurturing, engaging, andaffirming environment. In the parlance of inclusive approach, vital inclusive community is one
that inspires shared spaces. The growing diversity in every classroom today should ensure an
environment that shall facilitate, sustain, and uphold essential qualities of an inclusiveclassroom (UNESCO, 2017).
Comparison with Previous Studies
This paper provided some evidence for the results of previous studies. The core dimension of
an inclusive environment that has emerged from the study has been repeatedly proposed byseveral research, position papers, and international policies.
Themes like acceptance, presence, and participation are at the core of every initiative about
inclusion (UNESCO, 2017). The findings of this paper reiterate the strong call of UNESCO toalter cultures of exclusion and marginalization in the school communities. There will always
be exclusionary themes that will arise in the school communities (UNESCO, 2017), thus, aconstant appeal to educational systems to make inclusion a substantive concern.
The findings of this paper likewise accorded importance in co-opting learners as coimplementers of the inclusive agenda. Despite the wealth of literature available in the field,
there is a lack of investigation on how children can be active implementers of IE (Raguindin& Ping, 2020). Including all children in the inclusive agenda expands the experiences of all.
Jorgensen et al. (2007), for example, gave evidence to higher expectations for student learning
as a positive effect of inclusion. The school community should view inclusive cultures likenurture, acceptance, tolerance, and empathy not as secondary to implementing the school
curriculum but are a central part of it (Baglieri & Shapiro, 2017).
The study also corroborates the important role of teachers as main implementers of the
inclusive agenda. It further affirms the importance of pedagogical decisions teachers have to
make and implement steps toward a more inclusive classroom. The teachers’ multi-layered andcomplex role in the inclusive agenda necessitates them to acquire inclusive philosophies andimplement inclusive pedagogies (Raguindin et al., 2020; Sharma et al., 2018).
On a micro aspect, the previous study of Custodio (2019) claimed that Filipino teachers haveknowledge on the principles of IE, but they implement placement of learners with SEN basedon certain standards that appear to be exclusive. This practice reflects a barrier to participation

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and achievement of learners with SEN. On the contrary, this paper supported findings that afunctional inclusive environment can thrive in a diverse classroom in the Philippine setting.
New Knowledge Generated
This study warrants a better understanding of the interconnectedness of three important themes
which are vital in building inclusive environment. This paper argues that an engaging,affirming, and nurturing environment is a place where learning is pervasive. Despite thecontested definition of inclusion, through the model, we assert that it should be implemented
in the context of belonginess and collective journey of all members of the school community.
Moving towards inclusivity is believing that all children can learn, and all children can engage
in learning with rigor. It also means that all children can learn, grow, and benefit from a widearray of experiences and ideas that may be offered in the academic (Baglieri & Shapiro, 2017)
and social setting (Martínez & Porter, 2020). Thus, it compels educational institution to
innovate strategies for inclusive pedagogies such as forging high-standard learning outcomes,
collaborating and communicating with all stakeholders, and placing all learners on top of theiracademic journeys. Like their typically developing peers, learners with SEN have their needs
and thinking preferences that necessitate quality, interactive, and engaging instructional
environment (Liasidou, 2015).
The model also highlights the importance of an atmosphere where plurality is affirmed, andheterogeneity is celebrated. Success in the inclusive classroom is not the struggle of learners
with SEN alone, but it is also the responsibility of their peers, teachers, the entire schoolcommunity, and even their families (De Silva, 2013). Rendering the concept of inclusion isunderstanding the role of the society to denounce collectively values and cultures that seek to
exclude and marginalize. Upholding inclusionary themes like being sensitive to expressive andreceptive languages, respecting the sacred worth of the class members, and celebrating
diversity is a powerful means of combating discrimination.
The realization of interdependence and care for the needs of everyone is also a common theme
in practicing IE. In a nurturing environment, the issue of access, equity, equality of support,
resources, and opportunity is a normative part of the school culture (UNESCO, 2016). In acontext where diversity is substantial and belongingness can be tenuous, it is primarily theconcern of inclusive education to bring to the school community practices that shall promote
an engaging, affirming, and nurturing environment for the sake of all learners.
The context discussed in this paper catalyzes the foundation on which a vital community oflearning is formed, a context where the educational experience of all learners is extended. A
school that is neatly based on an inclusive and cooperative structure utilizes the capacity of all
members of the community and creates possibilities of stimulation and enrichment. When thisis realized by the community, it will facilitate learning, encourage positive attitudes, andexplore ways of doing things (UNESCO, 2016). This will subsequently yield all learners,
regardless of perceived difference, to have a better chance of joining in the structures andprocesses taking place in their communities and societies.
Conclusion
Although a necessity for a wide-scale participation of schools to firm up the emerged theory
should exist, this paper only observed from classes with children with disabilities. It did notseek to cover other components of inclusion like cultural, gender, language, and socio-

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economic differences. Furthermore, this work is also limited by its consideration of urban
context and did not tend to investigate phenomena that arise in inclusive classrooms in the ruralcontext.
As inclusive education is based on values and principles, the question whether it will work is
insignificant. We should rather argue more on how to make it happen. One factor that will
make inclusive education palatable is by ensuring genuine involvement of the learners with
SEN in the classroom “as exclusion remains a real and present danger” (Hardy & Woodcock,2015, p. 896). It is said that pluralism is a social practice while diversity is a curricular practice(Baglieri & Shapiro, 2017), hence, a strong directive for educational institutions to undergo
fundamental shift towards “education for all”.
Inclusive education strives toward the pedagogies that support each member in the community
to perceive themselves as capable of achieving in the path of learning. This will eventuallyfacilitate meaningful participation in their community (Baglieri & Shapiro, 2017). This
research is a step towards a more profound understanding of an inclusive environment, thus,
forward the following recommendations. First, involvement has a profound effect in thecapacity of the CSN to participate and succeed in accessing the school curriculum. Schools
practicing inclusion should ensure the full involvement and sustain as well as strengthen theparticipation of learners through effective and relevant pedagogies. Second, the entire schoolcommunity should be prepared to extend adequately their repertoire of capacities to respondeffectively to the heterogeneity of the school population. Specifically, teachers, who directly
deal with every learner in the inclusive classroom, should be provided with enablingmechanisms to internalize inclusive philosophies and implement inclusive approaches to thebuilding of a community of learners. Third, schools should promote a strong sense ofcommunity and positive expectations for the learners with SEN to become active classmembers through their enabling policies, pro-active student support, meaningful parental
involvement, holistic and relevant curriculum, and instructional practices. Finally, as inclusion
should be a national agenda, there is a need to craft initiatives and policies that shall encourage
and support inclusive environments.

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Corresponding author: Princess Zarla Raguindin
Email: natin81@gmail.com

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Employability and Inclusion of Non-traditional University Students:
Limitations and Challenges
María Aurora Tenorio Rodríguez
University of Seville
Spain
José González-Monteagudo
University of Seville
Spain
Teresa Padilla-Carmona
University of Seville
Spain

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Abstract
In recent decades employability has become more visible and is part of the agenda of European
universities, leading to a closer link between higher education and the labour market. In thiscontext, the objectives of this study are: to analyse the approach to employability developed by
the university; to find out the influence of employability policies on non-traditional students;
and the alignment of the development of employability with the democratic mission of theuniversity. Qualitative research has been carried out at one public university in Southern Spain,
based on 40 in-depth interviews, undertaken with non-traditional students and graduates,
employers, and university staff. The main results obtained are: the employability approach isbased on the acquisition of key skills, in the framework of neoliberal policies; the opportunities
offered to students to improve their employability are unevenly distributed and, therefore,
scarcely available to underrepresented students; and the market-oriented concept of
employability damages non-traditional students. The development of the democratic andinclusive role to be developed by the universities requires challenging the policies and practices
on employability, that are based on neoliberal perspectives. This involves the visibility of thepower relations at stake as well as the promotion of critical and reflective pedagogies, with theaim of questioning and reducing the inequalities faced by non-traditional students.
Keywords: employability, higher education, inclusive education, neo-liberalism, nontraditional students134

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Employability is a key objective of the Bologna Process. In the last decades, employability has
become more visible, and currently it is a central element in the agenda of European
universities, with a greater focus on the labour market and the relationship between training
and employment (Hernández-Carrera et al., 2020). On the other hand, today’s university hosts
an increasing volume of “non-traditional students” (Crosling et al., 2008), who present
different characteristics from the traditional historical profile of middle-class students. The
results of a Europe-wide survey (Hauschildt et al., 2019) show that 37% of students are over
25 years old, 23% have a migration background, and 43% are first-generation students. In
different international and disciplinary contexts, the category of non-traditional students
includes older adults, women, people bringing different levels of cultural or economic capitals,
people with disabilities, first-generation students, people of immigrant origin, or belonging to
ethnic minorities.
Although there has been a significant expansion and massification of higher education, this is
not always reflected in equal opportunities for access to graduate employment. Research
indicates that some students, particularly from non-traditional profiles, face specific difficulties
in achieving effective labour market transitions (Brown & Hesketh, 2004), need more time tofind high-skill jobs, are more likely to find employment below their skill level and are paid
lower wages (Purcell et al., 2007). The question of whether students with vulnerable profiles
gain the same benefits from higher education as their middle and upper-class peers is central
to discussions on employability. Employability policy managers do not always take into
account the needs presented by the heterogeneity of the student body (Reid, 2016). Moreover,equity policies have focused mainly on access to the university system, with little attention tograduate outcomes (Bennett, 2019). The social dimension of the European Higher Education
Area (EHEA) implies the need for all groups of students, regardless of their personal or social
circumstances, to have the opportunity to access university and complete their studies. The
London Communiqué (European Higher Education Area [EHEA], 2007) states that the EHEA
is based on institutional autonomy, academic freedom, equal opportunities and democratic
principles, pointing out that higher education must play a key role in promoting social cohesion,
reducing inequalities and contributing to a sustainable, democratic and knowledge-basedsociety.
It is essential to take into consideration the inequalities present in the student body and thesocial effects of higher education if it is to prosper as an inclusive institution and contribute to
the deepening of democracy (Williams, 2016; Giroux, 2016). In this context, some questions
arise, to which this study attempts to provide answers:•••

how is employability developed by universities?
to what extent does the dominant conception of employability reproduce inequalities?
in the specific case of non-traditional students, does the current approach to
employability take into account the goals of social inclusion and the democratic role ofthe university?

It is, therefore, necessary to understand the approach to employability developed byuniversities, to consider whether these institutions are actively developing the social anddemocratic function that is championed in many discourses on the current challenges facing
universities.

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Literature Review
Development of Employability from the University and its Challenges for NonTraditional Students in Neo-Liberal Contexts
Employability was introduced into the European Union strategy in the late 1980s, becoming
one of the main guidelines for education policies and active employment policies (Moreau &Leathwood, 2006). The concept of employability uses a combination of two perspectives: afirst perspective, focused on employment, which refers to access, maintenance and progress inwork; and a second perspective, focused on skills acquired during training (European
Commission/EACEA/Eurydice, 2014). Human capital theories consider that investment ineducation brings both social and individual benefits. The social benefits are the creation of ahighly-skilled workforce, which will drive economic growth. Individual benefits are describedin terms of career progression, earnings and increased labour market mobility (Valadas et al.,2018). The role of higher education in this context is twofold: to equip students with the skills
and attributes (knowledge, attitudes and behaviours) they need in the workplace, and to ensurethat graduates have the opportunity to maintain or renew the expertise and attributes demandedby the market throughout their working lives (Clarke, 2018).
The European projects CHEER (1998-2000) and REFLEX (2002-2004) were relevant to thedevelopment of research on higher education and employment. They were devoted toresearching the transition from university to the labour market, and the skills and professional
profiles required by employers in different sectors of work. Subsequently, the promotion of
employability has been one of the focal points of the Bologna Process. In addition, theEuropean project EMPLOY (2014-2017) aimed to improve the transitions of non-traditional
students into the labour market. Thus, in recent decades employability has become more visible
and is part of the agenda of European universities, developing a closer link between universities
and the world of work. This context has led to the development of several employability
initiatives, including external placements, international mobility programmes, extracurricular
activities such as volunteering, courses and career guidance services (Clarke, 2018; O’Connor& Bodicoat, 2017). In this context, it is assumed that students are willing and able to invest
money and time in such initiatives to improve their skills and employability (Vallina, 2014).
Both the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and theEuropean Union have highlighted the importance of higher education in creating a more skilledworkforce, capable of contributing to economic competitiveness and social development(European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice, 2014). This implies understanding education as asource of human capital formation, for which training has to be adapted to current social
developments and changing labour markets. In this context, education is anchored in a mainly
economic perspective, focusing on costs and benefits. This perspective emphasises therelevance of the rate of return or profitability of the investment made in education (Laval,
2004). The theory of Human Capital assumes that an individual increases his or her
productivity by investing in his or her education. This gives access to better salary levels andto socially valued jobs, which makes his investment in education profitable (Becker, 1993).
Although human capital theory has shown that investment in human capital is often profitableand productive, this approach simplifies the complexity of factors that interact in therelationship between training and work, and ignores both the importance of social inequalities
and the unequal starting positions of students (Dubet, 2011). Human capital theory, which has
generally been accepted uncritically, is not a valid tool for addressing issues such as the
reduction of inequalities in access to training or the social and educational inclusion of students

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with low cultural and economic capital. This approach forgets and overlooks the fact that aperson’s relationship with working life brings is strongly connected to identity characteristics
including social class, gender, ethnicity and more (Laval, 2004). Therefore, it is necessary toresort to socio-critical theories, which can help to understand much better the relevance ofsocial structures in relation to university education, the acquisition of skills and the successfultransition to the qualified labour market (Giroux, 2016).
A risk when researching non-traditional students is to overcome the potential danger of
adopting a labelling and deficit-based perspective. Although references from a variety of
approaches are cited in this paper, it is important to emphasise that this research aims to
overcome this pitfall. In this sense, it is relevant to highlight and recognise the capacity foragency and initiative of groups that are under-represented or suffer from structural inequalities.
Non-traditional students may go to university in more significant numbers than before, but they
are less “successful” than traditional students. This is especially true when measured inneoliberal terms, emphasising individual success and the student consumer model (SandersMcDonagh & Davis, 2018). Different authors allude to an increase in inequality, produced by
the application of neoliberal policies in education systems, mainly affecting non-traditional
students. According to Torres (2016), the legitimation of neoliberalism that is spreading fromuniversities has legitimised the increasing concentration of wealth in the last hundred years andan extraordinary increase in inequality. Neo-liberal policies based on market “solutions” canhinder true inclusion and reproduce traditional class and ethnic hierarchies (Apple, 2001).
Giroux (2015) argues that, in neoliberal societies, there are voiceless and powerless groups,
such as low-income groups, ethnic minorities, the unemployed and immigrants. Giroux argues
that neoliberalism feeds on inequality, making it the antithesis of democracy. To improve theliving conditions of individuals, it is necessary to break the link between “poverty andinequality” on the one hand and “economic development” on the other. It is not possible tospeak of social development if inequality is not progressively reduced, as development implies
the full realisation of all human rights (Martínez, 2013). Development is about transforming
people’s lives, not just the economy. For this reason, education and employment policies must
be considered through the double lens of how they promote economic growth and how they
directly affect individuals (Stiglitz, 2006).
Higher Education as a Democratic, Inclusive Sphere
Reclaiming higher education as a public good gives relevance to a set of both economic andsocial effects, which contribute to the formation of more informed citizens, the deepening of
democracy and a more inclusive society (Giroux, 2016; Williams, 2016). Already in 1998, theWorld Conference on Higher Education, organised by the United Nations Educational,
Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), declared that higher education institutions
should respond to this challenge by making human and social development an integral part oftheir daily activity (Corbett, 2008). The higher education sector must identify and implement
the type and extent of change needed to prepare students for their economic, but also social,commitment (Bennett, 2019).
With the influence of neoliberalism on higher education, the notion of higher education as apublic good is mostly reduced to a private good. Consequently, there is not always interest in
higher education to understand pedagogy as a deeply civic, political and moral practice; thatis, pedagogy as a practice for freedom (Giroux, 2016). The success of non-traditional students
is not necessarily a key issue for those who develop and regulate higher education policy froma neo-liberal approach (Sanders-McDonagh & Davis, 2018). Giroux (2015) states:137

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Only through such a formative and critical educational culture can students
learn how to become individual and social agents, rather than disengaged
spectators or uncritical consumers. At the very least, they should learn how tothink otherwise and to act upon civic commitments that “necessitate areordering of basic power arrangements” fundamental to promoting thecommon good and producing a strong democracy (p. 10).
To encourage this critical approach and integrate it into universities, it is necessary to develop
the teaching of critical thinking skills. In the specific case of non-traditional groups,
progressive and innovative methodologies, based on reflection, involved writing, and groupnarrative methodologies, can improve the skills to analyse, interpret and evaluate the structuraland personal factors that operate in the development of university careers and in the transitions
from training to the labour market (González-Monteagudo, 2010).
The dominant concept of employability represents a neo-liberal vision that is based on
individual characteristics and ignores the role of the set of institutions involved (Brown et al.,2003). Employability understood as the attainment of skills and attributes for employment
overlooks the needs of learners (Tronto, 2013). Therefore, a vital issue is to understand who
defines the need for employability and from what point of view. It is necessary to question
whether employability is an economic imperative and one of individual responsibility, or
something that requires collective agreement, based on notions of reciprocity, democracy,
concern for the common good and responsibility. This perspective raises the debate about theideological power at stake and the limited influence of the voice of students, taking into accountthe structural dimensions of both broad society and higher education systems (Reid, 2016).
Considering critical perspectives is crucial to open up spaces for both social transformationand the reconsideration of the role of higher education regarding inequalities and social
inclusion. In this context, the theory of cultural reproduction (Bourdieu & Passeron, 1977) can
be a helpful tool for understanding social actors in educational contexts, including precarious
groups. The context of the social spaces that Bourdieu calls “field” is comparable to a gamewith its own rules. The field of higher education institutions would be linked to factors such as
the characteristics of the education system, access opportunities, qualifications, material
resources and teaching processes. In relation to employability, other factors are added, such as
the possession of key competences, time available for the acquisition of merit, participation in
extra-curricular activities and understanding of labour market dynamics. Therefore, “players”
or students need strategies, resources and dispositions to “play”. In this game, they havedifferent dispositions or habitus, that lead them to act or react in a specific way in the social
field, and that are the result of personal, family, social and academic experiences that constitutethe students’ stories. The habitus is strongly conditioned by social class and economic capital.
Bourdieu (1993) defines cultural capital as “a form of knowledge, an internalised code or acognitive acquisition which equips the social agent with empathy towards, appreciation for orcompetence in deciphering cultural relations” (p. 7).
The contributions of Bourdieu and others are not limited to identifying the factors that constrainsocial actors, since the ultimate objective of the sociology of cultural reproduction is to provide
tools to subordinate groups so that they can develop a social agentivity that transforms andovercomes the conditions of domination existing in societies of cognitive and neoliberalcapitalism (Giroux, 2015; Laval, 2004).

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Purpose of the Study
This study set out to understand the development of employability at the university level andits impact on non-traditional students. To do this, the following objectives were employed:•••

To identify the employability approach developed by the university, based on
the opinions of students, managers and teachers.
To understand the influence on non-traditional students of the employability
policies and practices developed by the university.
To analyse the development of the university’s employability, concerning its
democratic mission.
Methodology

A qualitative and interdisciplinary approach has been used to analyse the university’s approachto employability, the influence of employability measures on non-traditional students and theconsistency of employability development with the university’s democratic mission. The study
was carried out in one of the Spanish public universities with the highest number of enrolments.
This institution has a significant presence of non-traditional students and is located in southern
Spain, the Spanish region with the greatest mismatch between supply and demand of highly
qualified employment.
This is a biographical-narrative study (Elliott, 2005), which captures the richness of nontraditional students’ experiences and the broader meanings of those experiences (Benson et al.,2010). This method allows us to delve into the complex interactions that people make day today, in time and space, shaping their individual and social identities, constructing andreconstructing personal and social stories (Connelly & Clandinin, 1995).
ParticipantsIn-depth biographical interviews were conducted with 40 participants. Firstly, 23 students andgraduates were interviewed, belonging to the different branches of knowledge (Health,Engineering and Architecture; Social and Legal Sciences, Arts and Humanities; and Sciences).
These participants met one or more characteristics that define the profile of non-traditional
students (adults; working-class and part-time students; people with dependent children;
students with disabilities; people from immigrant origins or ethnic minorities; first-generation
students; students from a family with low economic capital). A second group, composed of 17
participants from the same city were interviewed and included the following profiles: public
and private employers, guidance and support service technicians, curriculum practicemanagers, and university professors working on the employability of their students.
Non-traditional students are not identified in Spanish universities, making it difficult to selectthem for the research interviews. Participants were invited using a purposive sampling method:
the authors made an initial contact with those students and staff that they already knew, as wellas through academic and social networks. Additionally, participants were also selected using
the snowball sampling technique, inviting the already selected participants to identify further
candidates. The search for participants was carried out until saturation was reached, whichmeans that the information collected no longer contributed to deepening the analysis.

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Data Collection and Analysis
In-depth biographical interviews were used to collect the data from students and graduates. Aninterview script was created following the model developed by González-Monteagudo (2010),
addressing issues such as the social context of origin, academic and personal paths, and thetransition to the labour market. Discussion in this article focuses on three key dimensions:experiences at university, university training, and employability at university. Semi-structured
interviews were used for employers, curriculum practice managers and lecturers. The script, in
this case, was focused on specific topics related to the research goals.
The analysis was carried out using two perspectives: deductive and inductive. The deductive
approach consisted of identifying textual fragments related to the review of the literature. The
inductive approach was based on the construction of emerging categories derived from theinterview data. A qualitative analysis programme, NVivo 11 software, was used to organise,manipulate, classify, and analyse the data.
Ethics
The study was conducted in compliance with ethical standards. Participants were informed
about the purposes of the research and gave their consent to participate voluntarily. Their data
is kept confidential, protecting their anonymity and privacy. The rights and integrity of theparticipants were guaranteed at all times (Erickson, 1986).
Results
Employability Approach Developed by the University
Several studies confirm the need to adapt university training to the needs of the labour market,
providing its recipients with the necessary knowledge and skills (Walsh & Powell, 2018). In
line with this, participating employers identified that the university must provide students with
the necessary skills to respond to the needs of the market.
And a university needs to be much closer to the real world of business to really
start preparing students who really have what it takes. (Gel, private employer,male).
According to Kascak et al. (2011), key skills have become mandatory elements in educational
planning at all levels, essential to produce the human capital needed for the labour market. The
testimony of Albert, university technical staff, reflects the relevance of this issue.
...there are skills that are general, that we notice a lot that students lack. As soon
as they join a work team, they have to know how to work in a team, they have toknow how to adapt to a change. (...) When a company needs a trainee, rather
than selecting them by degree, we will try to select them by competences (Albert,
university technical staff, male).
With this approach, students go through the process of transformation from “raw materials” to“finished products” (Pitan, 2017), which are presented to employers (Holmes, 2013), offering
them the product they expect (Clarke, 2018). In the following quote, a teacher explains anactivity they carry out in their subject to work on employability:...they have to offer themselves, to address the company to tell them what they
can bring to the company (…). I think that this initiation to the professional side140

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is crucial (...) that they look for a place, and that in this interview they prepare
themselves well so that they give the best of themselves so that the employer does
not say no to them; they cannot go with a no, they must prepare the first interview
very well (Debono, university professor, male).
Employability, understood as the acquisition of key competences, is an unrealistic approachand does not fully capture the complexity of preparation for work (Jackson, 2016), as it does
not take into account the influence on the employment of individual characteristics, the impactof perceived employability or labour market factors (Clarke, 2018). Bourdieu (1988) argues
that a student’s responsiveness to employability is not merely a matter of skills of a particular
type for employment, as it involves his or her social and educational history, cultural
understanding and customs. If it is assumed a reductionist approach to employability based on
a “toolbox” that students must acquire, the social dimension tends to be circumvented. In thisway, issues of cultural capital and unequal power relations between individuals and groups are
not taken into account (Kendall & French, 2018).
The dominant discourse on employability places the responsibility for maintaining
employment on graduates as individuals (Veld et al., 2015). In individualising the social, allsocial problems and their effects are interpreted as individual errors, rooted in the lack ofindividual responsibility (Giroux, 2014). Employers, academics and university technical staff
hold students responsible for improving their employability. Thus, university technical staff
state that students should participate in extracurricular activities and be oriented for work
before finishing their studies.
A student has to know the services that his unit provides and maybe he has tospend some time to find out because there are many students who don’t knowthat they have a career guidance service and they are missing out on many things(...) I would dare to tell you that students miss out on almost everything, in thesense that, man, they are focused on their studies (Albert, university technicalstaff, male).
We operate on demand; that is, until the time comes, I am not going to worry
about moving around and seeing what services there are. I think that work
should be done well before the last year to get my CV on track. If I don’t look
for a job orientation until the last year, maybe I haven’t been doing volunteer
work that would be of interest to me (Cai, university technical staff, female).
Extracurricular initiatives can emphasise student responsibility to ensure the success ofgraduates (Burke et al., 2017). According to Bennett (2019), most employability enhancement
activities offered at higher education institutions are extracurricular, tend to be unpopular andattract students who need them least.
The influence of Employability Measures on Non-Traditional Learners
O’Connor and Bodicoat (2017) state that opportunities for graduates to improve theiremployability are not equally available to all. Indeed, students who are disadvantaged or who
have low social, cultural and economic capital are not in a position to take advantage of suchopportunities (Bathmaker et al., 2013).

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The case of international mobility is illustrative. Universities call for international mobility
placements to study at international universities. Stays abroad can confer a competitive
advantage in the labour market (Zuhäl, 2015). However, non-traditional students may not takeadvantage of international mobility opportunities in the same way as their peers (Reid, 2016).
Legna is a graduate with a dependant, and Gioser is a student with a physical mobility
limitation. Both argue that they have encountered difficulties in undertaking an international
mobility experience during their studies.
The thing is that now, because of my family situation, it can’t be; otherwise, I
would have already left with an Erasmus, a year off learning language and newthings. I would have left, I am very clear about it (...) my mother is already old,
I don’t have any siblings either, she is alone, she is sick, that is to say, I cannot
leave her alone like that (Legna, graduate, male).
I didn’t want to ask for it, because I didn’t feel comfortable to do it (...) I took along time to shower and dress a lot, to soap my head I couldn’t raise my arms, I
got tired (...) how can I go outside to depend on myself? In my house, there isalways my mother or someone who can give you a hand, but going off by
yourself? I didn’t dare (Gioser, student, male).
Some universities stipulate that students enrolled in bachelor’s degrees must prove, before
finishing their studies, that they have obtained a level of linguistic competence in a foreign
language. One of the objectives of this measure is to promote employment among university
graduates in the European labour market. Those who have family or work responsibilities have
limited time to study the language during their studies, so they usually leave it until the end of
their university career, often delaying the achievement of the degree. Adult students, who often
enter the university system with a lower level of English, face many difficulties in acquiring
this competence. Also, some students report that the cost of tuition, class attendance andexaminations is a significant financial hardship.
If it is so compulsory for me, to get my degree, to have English, if it is as
important as organic chemistry, put it in the same plan, in the curriculum. You
put organic chemistry and B1 in English, but don’t tell me “take your B1 andbring it from an academy” (...) to pay for all those things, I have to pull mysavings (Botico, student, male).
To carry out the curricular practices, the university establishes measures for students withspecial academic needs, to try to adjust to their needs. Most students say that these measuresare essential. The employers interviewed consider that internships can be a positive measurefor the insertion of non-traditional students, as they bring the business world closer to profiles
that are more difficult to insert.
They have a problem when they come in. Now, once they enter and are known,
they usually have no problem again. That is to say, at the moment they haveproblems... “this one is Dominican, this one is from I don’t know where, we’llsee”, but when you know him, and you see how he works, you see how he gets
involved in that company, if there is work he’s not going to miss it (Arte, private
employer and university teacher, male).

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As Tomlinson (2017) points out, the formal and informal experience at university cansignificantly improve students’ employability. However, the literature shows that nontraditional students face financial pressures, family responsibilities and other significant study
constraints (Reay et al., 2009), which result in more time constraints than traditional students(Devlin et al., 2012). In addition, non-traditional students have few opportunities to socialiseor gain alternative social and cultural experiences (Crozier et al., 2008). Boti, an adult student,says that he has difficulty participating in such activities because of time constraints, as hecombines work and study.
I have not asked to participate in more things because of lack of time, because I
come here in the afternoon, and in the morning I work. Besides, I’ve had to adapt
my schedule, that’s a tremendous story. I come in at a quarter to seven in themorning (...) so that I can leave at two or so so that I can be here at three. Thatway, for four years; and at the weekends, to study and prepare your work (Boti,
student, male).
Improving employability by focusing on extracurricular activities implies a deficit model thathighlights the shortcomings of working-class students. It fails to recognise the structural
constraints faced by the most disadvantaged and vulnerable students (O’Connor & Bodicoat,2017).
The Development of Employability under the Democratic Mission of the University
Universities are committed to economic goals and market interests which perpetuate inequities
and fail to address the needs of diverse student groups (Apple, 2005; Wilderson III, 2012).
While some participants argued that the functions of the university should be above the needsof the market, they made no mention of an approach to employability that takes into accountfactors such as social class, gender or ethnicity.
... to train people for the productive system, no, no. The university has to be
above that. The productive system, what companies need, depends on factors
and policies that do not necessarily coincide with the politics of what we do at
University (Popy, university technical staff, male).
The concept of meritocracy is detrimental to non-traditional students (Gibson, 2015), obscuringthat opportunities for graduates to improve their employability are not equally available to all.
There is evidence that inequality in higher education persists for many students after graduation(Finnegan et al., 2014; Pitman et al., 2019), suggesting that inequalities found in universities
are reproduced in the labour market. According to Martínez (2013), higher education
institutions must avoid competitive efficiency and discriminatory academic excellence, more
typical of technocratic models that rely on assumptions of school meritocracy. Claudia is a
recent graduate, who has taken courses and obtained accreditation for language skills to “fillout” her curriculum and be able to meet demands that respond to external interests. Her
testimony also reflects the lack of professional objectives and a lack of meaning in her actions.
Well, the truth is, I have no idea. I know that this year I’ve been studying English,
I’ve been taking courses to “fill in”, so to speak, my CV, but I don’t exactly knowwhat to do (Claudia, graduate, female).
Sanders-McDonagh and Davis (2018) confirm that radical pedagogies increase students’critical skills, personal awareness, knowledge and confidence, enabling them to perform better143

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in the academy and the labour market. The university can promote the reflection of individuals
on their past life experiences and their impact on the present self, with the awareness of classand gender inequalities as “being different”, as well as reflection on their future self and its
transformations (O’Neill et al., 2018). Non-traditional students have stories that reflect theexclusion and invisibility they have suffered:
I come from X [the neighbourhood with the highest poverty rate in the city], I
live there, my parents are from there (...) People studied knowing that the normalthing was to have a career, but I studied knowing that it was the abnormal thing(...) it is strange that you, being a woman, being a Roma, and from a marginalneighbourhood, it is strange that you are intelligent and you like science (Lore,graduate, female)
For Freire (2009), education as a political project of freedom is key the oppressed developing
a discourse free from the domination of their cultural heritage, while for Giroux (2014), criticalthinking is the backbone of true democracy. Sanders-McDonagh and Davis (2018) argue thatcritical pedagogies work to disrupt the neoliberal narrative and help correct the persistentinequalities faced by non-traditional students. In this context, innovative and progressive
teaching methods are crucial. The students interviewed emphasised the need to carry out
activities that encourage reflection and participation, as they consider that these activities havebeen very scarce during their training. For example, Alejandro describes a good practice of aphilosophy class, in which students develop an active role in their learning, favouring criticalthinking and involvement:
The speaker gives his or her vision of these texts, and then there is a round tablediscussion around what is going to be talked about so that the speaker becomes
one more of the classroom. A little bit we distort the idea of teacher-student, that
hierarchy that is sometimes unfavourable to education (...) philosophy can begiven in a different way to how it is usually given at university (Alejandro,
student, male).
Botico states that, during his time at the university, he has never engaged in debates orperceived the values traditionally associated with this institution.
What there is a lot of books, notes, slides; but I have not seen the values that are
traditionally associated with the university, I have never seen them encourage adebate, not only on the political issue but on the very subject of our work as apharmacist (Botico, student, male).
Conclusion
The purpose of this study has been to understand the development of employability at theuniversity level and its impact on non-traditional students. This has included identifying theapproach to employability developed by the university. Employers and university staff believethat education must adapt to evolution and change caused by market dynamics through humancapital formation (Walsh & Powell 2018). Employers and university staff consider that theuniversity has shortcomings in this respect. To address this situation, they propose thedevelopment of policies and practices to improve relations between universities and the labour
market. According to Jackson (2016) and Kendall and French (2018), employability,
understood as the acquisition of key competences, does not fully capture the complexity of144

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preparation for work and eludes the social dimension, issues of cultural capital and unequal
power relations between individuals and groups.
The employers interviewed put the responsibility for access to employment on the university
graduates themselves. This is consistent with the contributions of Veld et al. (2015) and Giroux(2014). Of particular relevance is the participation in extracurricular activities, following the“rules of the game” and the meritocracy present in the labour market. Thus, non-traditional
students must commit themselves to an organisational plan that responds to external interests,
with those who do not understand or respond to these rules being considered guilty or
problematic. This situation reflects the ideological power at stake and the limited role ofstudents (Reid, 2016). Furthermore, according to O’Connor and Bodicoat (2017), basing
improved employability on extracurricular activities is reduced to a deficit model of whatworking-class students lack and does not recognise the structural limitations faced by thoseless advantaged.
This research has further sought to understand the influence of employability measures on nontraditional students. These students often face financial pressures and family and work
responsibilities that make it difficult for them to participate in the activities offered by theuniversity, thus placing them in a precarious position in today’s labour market. Therefore,
opportunities for students to improve their employability, such as international mobility
experiences or language proficiency accreditation, are not equally available to all.
Internships can be a measure for the insertion of non-traditional students, being important toestablish internships in all degrees and to dispose of indicators that guarantee their quality. The
university has established measures aimed at alleviating the difficulties encountered by nontraditional students, such as having priority in the choice of the internship centre or adaptations
for obtaining linguistic competence. However, the development of employability should not
be limited to such measures and should recognise the power relations in which it is embedded.
Lastly, it was analysed the development of the university’s employability according to its
democratic mission. The participants recognised that the role of the university must go beyond
the demands of the market. However, they do not refer to the influence of social factors,
individual characteristics or unequal power relations on the employment outcomes of graduates(Clarke, 2018; Kendall & French, 2018). This reflects a market-oriented concept of
employability and the fact that issues related to social inclusion are overlooked in debates on
employability. Non-traditional students are disadvantaged if universities perpetuate themeritocracy of labour market dynamics. Institutions would inadvertently reproduce social
inequalities if they respond only to economic objectives above any mission as a democratic
public sphere.
Non-traditional students often try to “fill in” their curricula by adapting to ideals of meritocracy
and competitiveness prevailing in the labour market without attributing meaning to theiractions. Thus, students reflect a lack of sense of agency, confidence and self-awareness. The
attitude of critical thinking necessary for a truly democratic society is often not promoted at
University (Giroux, 2014). Too often it does not offer a space for debate and for promoting
self-reflection on life experiences, the influence of context of origin, class and genderinequalities on present and future “self”. These practices foster students’ critical skills, selfmanagement of their own lives, and help correct the inequalities that non-traditional students
face (Martínez, 2013; O’Neill et al., 2018; Sanders-McDonagh & Davis, 2018).

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Neo-liberalism permeates the current political, economic and social project of our societies, so
the inequality it causes transcends the field of action of universities. Reducing this influence
would be a much more global political task. Nevertheless, it is fair to recognise that themeasures being taken in institutions to respond to non-traditional students help to resolve
specific barriers for those students, always within neoliberal frameworks.
The dominant concept of employability represents a neo-liberal version (Brown et al., 2003)
that assumes subtle mechanisms of exclusion and prevents true inclusion. It is necessary toreconfigure this concept and apply an alternative lens that makes visible the power relations atstake. If universities are to have a social impact and prosper as inclusive institutions, they must
promote practices that are in line with their democratic mission. Consequently, in the words ofFreire (2009), critical pedagogy must be understood as a practice of freedom, for the awarenessand liberation of the oppressed. In this way, students can learn to become individual and social
agents and, in doing so, help to correct persistent inequalities.
This research has some limitations. One of them is the difficulty to get the employers’
responses go beyond political correctness and describe their companies’ actual practices, when
dealing with non-traditional graduates. In this sense, cross-checks (Bogdan & Taylor, 1975)
have been used to ensure the greatest possible sincerity in the responses. In addition, the study
is based on interviews from one single university in Spain, which make it difficult to generalise
based on the findings. However, the opinions and experiences presented in this paper may betransferable to other similar contexts, considering two complementary dimensions. On the one
hand, neoliberal policies are having an increasing impact on many institutions and national
governments worldwide, so the findings of this study could be useful in national andinternational debates on higher education. On the other hand, contrasting the opinions ofstudents/graduates with those of employers/staff can help to better understand the problem of
the employability of non-traditional students and assess the existing challenges to their fullinclusion.
Acknowledgments
Study carried out as part of the EMPLOY project, Improving the employability of nontraditional students in higher education, funded by the Erasmus+ Key Action 2 Programme(Ref. 2014-1-UK01-KA203-001842). The information and perspectives provided in this article
reflect only the authors’ views, not the official opinion of the European Union. Neither the
institutions nor the individuals of the European Union can be held responsible for the views
expressed in this text.

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Pitman, T., Roberts, L., Bennett, D., & Richardson, S. (2019). An Australian study ofgraduate outcomes for disadvantaged students. Journal of Further and Higher
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Zuhäl, Y. (2015). Overseas education process of outgoing students within the Erasmus
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Corresponding author: María A. Tenorio-Rodríguez
Email: mtenorio@us.es

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Maltese Educators’ Perceptions of Democracy, Equality and Justice inMulticultural Education
Jacqueline Żammit
University of Malta
Malta

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Abstract
The perceptions and attitudes of educators towards multicultural education are strongly
correlated to the manner in which multicultural education is applied. Previous research
indicates that culture undeniably has an effect on education, nonetheless, education
administrators may not have enough knowledge about multicultural education practices. The
aim of the study was to identify the perceptions and interpretations of multicultural teachingfrom seventeen respondents employed as educators. These educators were all Maltese, teaching
Maltese as a second language to adult learners who originated from diverse cultural
backgrounds and were living in Malta. The researcher used a qualitative case study design of
online interviews to identify the practices that educators perceive to be the best in promoting
effective multicultural education. Based on content analysis, the key concepts and activities
defined as effective in maintaining multicultural education performance include equality,
democracy and justice. Multi-ethnic teaching offers the opportunity to equitably consider andaccept divergent viewpoints, which in turn allows proper cohesion not only among students
but also educators. Indeed, multi-ethnic education is essential; individuals with varying
backgrounds and experiences deserve equality, and community groups need proper
representation. This research thus concludes that the majority of teachers agree that practices
such as ensuring equality, democracy and justice for all learners regardless of their ethnic,
gender, or religious context are of high significance in encouraging inclusion, multicultural
education, and student success.
Keywords: democracy, equality, good practice, justice, multicultural teaching, teachers’
perspectives

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Introduction
With the disappearance of boundaries due to globalization and migration, the concept ofhomogeneity amongst nations has been extremely fragmented, resulting in most of thecountries becoming multicultural. For generations, Malta has used its strategic location in thecentre of the Mediterranean between the European continent and Africa to support the Maltese
people as a remote small island on the outskirts of Europe, with basically minimal natural
resources. Owing to abundant collaborations with Europe at all levels, Maltese students,
teachers, and administrators, among others, have been introduced to new concepts, current
thoughts, and novel methodologies (Tabone & Nardelli, 2014).
In the last decade, Malta has seen a rise in the number of immigrants arriving by sea, with 2019
being quite a milestone year in relation to the number of people who disembarked in Malta
upon being rescued in the Central Mediterranean. Most of the refugees, fleeing from North
African countries such as Libya, Tunisia, and Egypt, sailed over on smugglers’ boats.
Crammed into overcrowded, dangerous boats, thousands drowned, causing the Mediterranean
Sea to become a mass graveyard. As a result, Mediterranean countries such as Malta, Italy, andSpain were required to enhance their rescue operations. Sudan, Bangladesh, Eritrea, Libya,
Nigeria and Somalia are among the main nationalities of individuals disembarked in Malta(United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees [UNHCR], 2020). Over 25,000 refugees
have arrived on the shores of Malta since the beginning of the twenty-first century(Schumacher, 2020). This figure equates to 5% of the population of Malta, which is currently
close to 500,000. Given the small size of the country, this influx can be understoodgeographically as 250 refugees per square mile (Schumacher, 2020). To put this in perspective,
this nominal figure would be equal to 18 million refugees landing in the US. The foreign
population in Malta was 98,918 in 2019, which is more than eight times its foreign populationin 2005 of 12,112, or 3% of the total population (UNHCR, 2020).
Both the significant migration of people from all over Europe and beyond and the global
economic recession have been viewed as significant threats to the well-being of the Maltese
population (Baldacchino, 2009). As Mitchell (2002) argues, developing their own national
identity required the Maltese to rise from the darkness of centuries of colonial rule, and many
worry that they could once again lose their hard-earned identity. While humane understanding
and respect for one another is one of the greatest ethical principles, literature suggests that, “thepersistent barriers of racism, fear, ignorance and imaginative stereotypes remain constantobstacles to fruitful human relations” (Cuccioletta, 2001, p. 1). These barriers, which could
arise in Malta, often lead to cultural inequity, xenophobia, and economic instabilities within
and across social classes (Lee, 2007).
Owing to this influx of immigrants to Malta, the racial and cultural make-up of schools,
workplaces and communities has risen. Social shifts in the school system have also beenreported, calling for changes in educational methods and approaches (J. Banks & C. Banks,2019). Only in recent years have many expatriates felt the need to learn Maltese as a second
language (ML2). Although foreign adults have demonstrated an interest in ML2 classes andthus increased their demand, there is a notable lack of linguistic and multicultural research andno previous large-scale examinations on ML2 teaching and learning (Żammit, 2019).
Moreover, before the influx of expatriates in Malta, Maltese teachers were trained to teachMaltese as a first language to Maltese mono-cultural native speakers. It was only in 2014 thatmany teachers began extending it to students from diverse cultural backgrounds. A

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postgraduate training programme in Teaching Maltese as a Foreign Language started recently
in 2018.
Multi-ethnic teaching aims to prepare learners for a constantly diversifying society and toelevate their ability to communicate with other people by engaging them fully in the learning
process and supporting their encounters in a safe classroom environment. Successful teachingin multicultural class settings calls for culturally sensitive approaches and the creation of an
equal chance for academic accomplishment and victory and individual development for eachlearner (Kahraman, 2017). According to Polat and Kiliç (2013), multicultural teachingincorporates tasks purposed to move away from a culturally dependent mentality, generatesensitivity for different approaches to life, create respect for other people, and the potential offorming neutral opinions by assessing evidence and arguments, self-criticism and intellectual
curiosity. According to Kahraman (2017), teachers have a primary role in implementing
multicultural teaching that involves opinions like peace, respect, equality and equal chances ofsuccess. The teachers’ attitudes and perceptions concerning multi-ethnic teaching are openly
linked to how they enact multi-ethnic teaching; that is, how they incorporate the variations in
the class into the teaching procedures on mutual principles (Kahraman, 2017). Depending on
this information, it is right to deduce that educators’ awareness and desirable outlooks on multiethnic teaching will permit them to attain a higher success level for each learner.
Problem and Purpose Statement
The overall problem and purpose of this research is to ensure multicultural education andteaching effectiveness. Teachers need to assess and constantly change their approaches (AcarCiftci, 2019). Sharma (2005) stated that the most efficient educators are the ones that can learn
the learners’ cultures and beliefs. Teachers have the task of assessing their attitudes, views andpartiality that can influence the learners’ educational encounter. In the ML2 setting, the purposeof this research is to assess the views and attitudes of the educators’ multicultural teaching.
Research demonstrates the great impact of culture on education; however, several Maltese
teachers do not have enough awareness of multicultural teaching since this immigration issue
is current (Triandafyllidou, 2016). The information collected from this research is expected tocontribute to the existing studies on the implementation of multi-ethnic teaching methods
through the study of ML2 teaching and learning programme.
Literature Review
By reviewing the literature, the current research reflects on the philosophy and experience ofdefining multicultural education practices among educators. The literature review section
assesses the advantages and disadvantages of the approach and the practices of multicultural
teaching programmes.
Multiculturalism
A diverse community should be represented in each institutionalised learning system, including
students, curricula, values, norms, and staff (Aydin & Tonbuloglu, 2014). This concept was
the foundation of multicultural teaching, with the objective that each learner should have
similar opportunities for learning regardless of language, gender, race, or social class. By
providing comprehensive models focused on the goal of fair opportunity for education andsocial progress, researchers developed teaching hypotheses based on a bed of critical thought,
social justice and equal opportunities (Tarman & Tarman, 2011). Currently, inclusive teachersaffirm the objectives of inclusive education to improve curricula, encourage multiculturalawareness, create multicultural cultures in learning institutions, cultivate self-concepts,

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enhance understanding and establish relationships (Ruggs & Hebl, 2012). These objectives canbe accomplished as cultural diversity is perceived to be a resource in the teaching industry andcan also enable educators to recognise and embrace differences while building a unified andsecure learning organization.
The multiculturalism notion involves cultural aspects like awareness of religious dimension,education, social class, disability, age, gender, sexual orientation, language, ethnic backgroundand race. According to Aydin and Tonbuloglu (2014), while there are several types ofmulticulturalism, there is usually a possibility of integrated thinking as it identifies theavailability of ethnic groups in a state and that such situations imply a community thatencourages different ethnic groups to develop on their own. Recognising and accepting
diversity, instead of just denying it, and not dragging all populations to one level is a better
approach compared to the former. There are several examples of multicultural teaching fromvarious academics working in this field (Aydin & Tonbuloglu, 2014; J. Banks & C. Banks,
2019; Basbay & Kagnici, 2011).
Banks and Banks (2019) defined inclusive teaching as teaching purposed to acknowledging
and introducing tolerance and respect for variations in cultural aspects, language, religion,
colour, ethnicity, social class, disability, sexual orientation and age. Depending on thedescription, it is justified to describe inclusive teaching as a procedure for developing
equivalent teaching chances which enable ethnic diversities to set democratic aspects throughopposing other forms of assimilation and racism and valuing all variations (Basbay & Kagnici,
2011). Ultimately, multicultural teaching means being sensitive to multiculturalism in teaching
and considering diversities by allowing multiculturalism in teaching approaches and not
specialising in formal teaching for every cultural population (Basbay & Kagnici, 2011). Malta
is a nation with a cogent educational structure that is beginning to incorporate more inclusive
approaches.
The research was conducted in Malta. The age group for compulsory education in Malta is
between 5 and 16 years old. This is described in Chapter 327 of the Laws of Malta (The
Education Act, 1988) and subsequent reforms. Mandatory education includes six years ofprimary education followed by five years of secondary education. At the completion ofcompulsory schooling, students can continue their education in post-secondary and tertiary
schools. This study focuses on ML2 in tertiary or post-secondary education. Research on ML2
within the post-secondary/tertiary education sector in Malta is sorely lacking, with minimal
evidence of notable data within the field (Camilleri Grima, 2015; Camilleri Grima & Żammit,
2020; Żammit, 2019a; Żammit, 2019b). This study is therefore imperative in providing anddiscussing educators’ perspectives and attitudes towards adults’ multicultural education.
The Benefits and Limitations of Multiculturalism in Teaching
According to Ameny-Dixon (2004), the strengths of multicultural teaching include
emphasising concepts such as justice, equality and democracy; preventing intercultural
disagreements by enabling and promoting the existence of varying populations of thecommunity and creating a societal system where individuals live in harmony; increasing
productivity and ensuring the ethical and intellectual growth of each person; increasing the
productive problem-solving competencies by adopting several varying views to address theissue; increasing the desirable associations between individuals by attaining common values
and goals; decreasing prejudice by bringing together various people and allowing them tointeract; and revitalising communities with the richness of varying cultures and assisting in thecreation of a refined world view.

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The most disapproving view of multicultural teaching in previous research is its incomplete
definition. The most solid definition by the advocates of the term is Banks’ (2015) description
which asserts a concept, a change drive and a procedure. Since the definition is so universal, it
develops a fault permitting the experts to translate it when and however they want. Several
researchers who have studied multicultural teaching have stressed ethnicity and race andneglected other variations like social class, language, religion and gender (Furman, 2008).
Additionally, several types of research conducted with educators who are implementing
multicultural teaching have demonstrated that they do not believe in multicultural teachingpractices, they are not given substantial aid from the learning settings in which they work, andthey do not have enough awareness of how to practise multicultural teaching (Banks, 2015).
However, placing an overemphasis on defining multiculturalism might have unintended andinequitable outcomes. Although people have several identities, overstressing racial and ethnic
individualities makes the characters primary and separates the minority groups from the
majority ethnic group, which results in threats against the integrity of the social and state order.
Multiculturalism is a concept dependant on ethnic beliefs and states that no ethnic group isbetter. However, each culture sees its own beliefs, perspectives, norms and values to be better
than the others. In spite of these contradictory perspectives, establishing a multicultural attitude
among people is significant in keeping the social order and safeguarding state unity and honesty(Banks, 2015).
The Role of Teachers in Multi-ethnic Education
According to Basbay and Kagnici (2011), along with individuals who view multiculturalism
as a desirable and reactive procedure, individuals are criticising the approach by stating that it
could result in worsening the social system. Just as all procedures are linked to education,
educators have a vital task in comprehending and enacting multicultural teaching. Sharma(2005) asserted that educators might intentionally or unintentionally participate in traditional
educational activities and procedures as they do not comprehend the linguistic, social and racial
diversities of the learners.
Mansikka and Holm (2011) in their assessment of educators’ perceptions asserted that
educators invest too little time in knowing more about their adult learners; therefore, they haveextremely limited knowledge about them. They also asserted that teachers make assumptions
about learners’ encounters from cultural minority populations because of other educators’
opinions and the fact that they might not have educated such learners in their past lessons.
Aydin and Tonbuloglu (2014) stressed the significance of training teachers that can create
educational schemes beginning from preschool to identify an educational infrastructure thatwill enact a multicultural educational structure. According to Washington (2003), educators
require three vital fundamental competencies, including personal comprehension,
comprehension of other people’s cultures and multicultural academic requirements. According
to Basbay and Kagnici (2011), out of the qualifications identified by the National Education
Ministry, the ones linked to valuing, respecting and comprehending learners, getting to know
more about the learners, educational diversification by considering people’s variations andconnecting significance to international and state values require that educators are at aparticular level regarding multiculturalism. Sharma (2005) pointed out the importance ofteacher candidates’ potential to improve class environments by recognising and unifying
diversity, and that educators should be required to have these attributes.
According to Mansikka and Holm (2011), education aims to concentrate on rather than regulate
the learners, accepting them as they develop their skills, and that, as a result, learners require158

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teachers to naturally consider multiculturalism and provide multicultural teaching. The primaryteaching and learning principles necessitate defending learners against any form of
discrimination, including sexism, prejudice and racism. Therefore, educators constantly
examine their perceptions, partiality and prejudices which can impact learners’ encounters. To
become a successful teacher, one has to examine and continuously transform him/herself.
Bigatti et al. (2012) stated that for teachers to practice multiculturalism, they have to present
more than just course content about diversities. It calls for enabling a progressive and inclusiveclass environment, feeling the interaction between the learners, and promoting the learners’
potential of learning by assisting varying educational approaches and analysis. Aydin andTonbuloglu (2014) posited that teachers can develop the learners’ ethnic, linguistic and cultural
knowledge, substantiate their confidence and growth, educate them on the significance oftolerance and inclusiveness, inspire them to interact and work with individuals who differ fromthem and offer them more efficient teaching by the stated methods. Depending on thesestatements, it can be deduced that educators have an important task in the initiation andenactment of multicultural teaching, depending on the environment and schedules.
Educators’ Perceptions of Multicultural Teaching
Educators’ opinions and their trends concerning culturally different learners in the classroom
are vital elements in education, inspiration and making differences in teaching among learners
irrespective of their beliefs, language, ethnicity, gender and age. The attitudes and opinions
impact the educators’ expectations and treatment of the students.
Nadelson et al. (2012) identified that the majority of their study participants comprehended andwere knowledgeable of the varying concerns in multicultural teaching, and that they anticipatedhaving culturally different learners in their classes. Despite being knowledgeable of theimportance of the competencies in working with diverse student groups, new educators wereindecisive of how well their teaching programmes had prepared them to teach learners withvarying spiritual upbringings and cultures or to interact with the learners’ families. According
to Sharma (2005), educators who bring powerful biases and undesirable stereotypes concerning
different populations have limited possibilities of developing the forms of professional
behaviour and belief most related to multicultural responsiveness and sensitivity.
A different pertinent result from the research is that professional and personal opinions andviews are notably linked to learners’ cross-ethnic encounters. Potential educators with morecross-ethnic encounters have higher possibilities of developing positive professional andindividual beliefs concerning different students (Sipra, 2013). Sipra (2013) asserted that
educators who have an undesirable view of cultural subgroups have also demonstrated biased
and differential treatment of learners depending on labels of gender variations and learners’
last names. Educators should know the ethnic sensitivities by participating in the continued andcritical procedure of assessing their perceptions, prejudices and biases that impact learners’
learning encounters (Sipra, 2013). Since there is a lack of research in multicultural teaching
and learning among multicultural adults learning ML2, this study aims to illustrate someteachers’ perspectives on multicultural education.
Research Question
The aim of this study is to address the following question: What are the attitudes andperceptions of Maltese educators towards multicultural teaching?

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MethodStudy Design
In this study, the researcher used a qualitative case study design. The case study methodology
is especially helpful when it is necessary to acquire an in-depth comprehension of a problem,
occurrence, or phenomenon of concern in its natural actual setting (Yin, 2009). The primarychallenge of using case studies is coming up with a comprehensive, complete and rich researchthat involves all study variances (Denzin & Lincoln, 2011). In this research, the conceptuallyrelated case study approach was used to describe in detail the participants’ perspectives ofmulticultural education, and to explore the educators’ attitudes and experiences of amulticultural initiative in their class, including their awareness of how their pedagogy
developed in regards to multicultural education within the real-life context of the ML2 class.
The researcher selected the qualitative interview method as it provides a unique,comprehensive understanding that is hard to obtain from closed survey research (Stoyanova,2012). Participants were able to freely disclose their encounters and feelings without
restrictions. While the figures and facts produced by quantitative studies are undoubtedly
important, one can often be left searching for the “why” behind the statistics. This is the reason
qualitative studies are important, as participants have the chance to freely elaborate on their
responses.
Study Sample
The purposeful sample was used to select the participants for the online interviews. The
research respondents comprised 17 educators teaching ML2 to adult learners from diverse
cultural backgrounds in the beginning of the 2020–2021 scholastic year. The researcher knew
these teachers would provide her with the most accurate and useful information concerning
multiculturalism in ML2 adults’ classes because most of them were her ex-colleagues and havebeen teaching ML2 to adults from diverse cultural backgrounds for more than eight years. Oncethe researcher obtained ethical permission from the Faculty Research Ethics Committee of the
University of Malta, she approached these 17 teachers via email, where she provided an
explanation of the study. Each participant was able to understand the nature of the study andsubsequently approved their participation.
Each respondent willingly provided written consent, allowing the researcher to collect datafrom them and use it for academic purposes. The information was gathered based on thevolunteering rule. The researcher selected teachers above 30 years old because they are moreexperienced and usually take on leadership roles in addition to their classroom duties (McHugh,2019), and thus are more familiar with the bureaucratic, logistic, economic, and social
structures of the school. Younger teachers, on the other hand, are usually incapable ofproviding adequate information, pertaining particularly to the issue in question as well as toteaching expertise (McHugh, 2019).
Study Tool and Process
In this research, the participants were asked both structured and unstructured inquiries during
the interview. The inquiries were mainly purposed to identify the points of attitudes, views andopinions concerning multicultural education and multiculturalism. The interviews wereconducted online due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Each interview lasted roughly one hour,
totalling seventeen hours of interviews.

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The following were the interview questions:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

How long have you been teaching Maltese as a second language to adults?
What do you understand by multicultural teaching?
How do you teach Maltese as a second language to different cultural groups?
Do you use multicultural teaching when teaching Maltese as a second language?
Do you enjoy teaching multicultural students? Why do you enjoy/not enjoy?
What do you think are the benefits of multicultural teaching and learning?
Which challenges do you experience when teaching multicultural learners?
Does the Maltese as a second language curriculum contents cater for multiculturalism?
Should teachers vary their teaching approaches when teaching multicultural adultlearners?
10. How do you deal with culturally-sensitive topics in class?
11. Do you try to understand the different background of the learners you teach?
12. What can be included in Maltese as a second language teaching to reach multicultural
adult learners?
Validity and Reliability
The researcher used the member-checking tool after interviewing the respondents to determine
construct validity by distributing the transcripts to the participants to check them out. In thisway, the researcher tried to minimise any case of personal bias. According to Thomas (2017),
member checks are vital in obtaining respondents’ approval to use quotations especially where
the anonymity of the respondents cannot be guaranteed.
The researcher also used purposeful sampling of the population to obtain a reliable sample size.
The participants were teaching ML2 to adult learners who achieved different levels of learning,
and were either teaching in schools or in private lesson formats (Patton, 2002). The researcher
also ensured procedural precision and applied self-correcting techniques when using themember-checking tool. Verification strategies and systematic procedural precision are vitalreliability tests in both qualitative and quantitative research (Morse et al., 2002).
Data Analysis
The interviews were recorded between the 19th and 22nd October 2020 and were latertranscribed. The gathered information was analysed using the content evaluation approach andthe findings were combined into reports. Identified themes have been proved by the Nvivo 10
software, which enables the researcher to explore more of the qualitative results, uncover
deeper observations and create explicitly expressed, plausible conclusions supported byempirical evidence, while saving time and operating more effectively (Zamawe, 2015).
Findings
The interview evaluations indicated that the respondents agreed on the need for multicultural
teaching and have a desirable outlook towards it. The most stressed concepts included
democracy, justice and equality, and each respondent settled that individual variations have to
be considered and are the richness of diversity and ethnicity. Among the most repeatedpractices were peace, respect and tolerance.
Equality as a Good Practice in Multicultural Teaching
The interview assessments identified that the word “equality” was reiterated thirty-eight times
by the respondents, and it is the most utilised definition. Almost all of the seventeen

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respondents stressed the concept of equality and addressed that multi-ethnic teaching promotes
equality. Six respondents described multi-ethnic education while stressing equality. When I
asked the participants what they understand by the term “multicultural teaching” during
language lessons, a participant (P1) described multicultural teaching as follows:
By “multicultural teaching”, I understand that during language lessons,teachers embrace all types of learners’ distinction. This implies equitableteaching for all learners, regardless of their emotional, cognitive, physical,
ethnicity, race, gender, language and religion variations (Participant 1,
Interview: 19/10/2020).
Another respondent’s (P4) description of multicultural teaching once again stresses the conceptof equality by stating:Multicultural teaching in Maltese as a foreign language course provides, inthe most general sense, the same opportunities for Maltese language learning
to learners of diverse cultures, languages, religions and nationalities(Participant 4, Interview: 19/10/2020).
All of the seventeen respondents asserted that the main strength and advantage of multicultural
teaching is “making sure there is equality” (participant 5, Interview: 19/10/2020) and that it
also results in peace. For instance, one respondent (P2) who views equality as a great benefitof multi-ethnic teaching claimed:
The main advantage of multi-ethnic education is to include every member ofsociety in the educational system and to apply the inclusive approach to every
learner (Participant 2, Interview: 19/10/2020).
Likewise, another respondent (P3) explained the idea that the main benefit of multicultural
teaching is ensuring equality with the statement:
I believe that the greatest benefit is not to abandon the learners of minority
groups in our society to their fates but rather to support them and therefore
to enable them to enjoy equivalent educational rights (Participant 3, Interview
19/10/2020).
Various respondents argued that by creating a multicultural calendar for comprehending andcelebrating diversity, they would encourage each group to voice their views equally andhighlight the importance of major events in their country. One respondent (P5) indicated thatthe language course could contain topics such as equal rights of expression for each group/race
and avoidance of prejudice and the traditional teaching method of using only the target
language. At the same time, P7 asserted:
During my lessons, I try to reach varying societal groups/races equally. In
fact, in my classroom, I encourage my students to translate Maltese words
into their native language. I also allow them to show the way they write intheir native language on online chats when the lessons are delivered online
or on a whiteboard when the lessons are delivered in the classroom. Many
students tell me that they see associations between Maltese and their native
language but they cannot find any associations with regards to grammar as

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Maltese grammar is too Semitic whereas their native language grammar is
not Semitic (Participant 7, Interview 20/10/2020).
P7 used a translanguaging process whereby P7’s multilingual learners used some of the
vocabulary of their first language as an integrated communication mechanism (Canagarajah,2011). Multilingualism is no longer seen as a limitation to acquiring a second language but as
an opportunity (Hult, 2012). P7 is right in stating that since Maltese grammar is of a different
language family and, according to Mifsud (1995), 95 percent of Maltese grammar is Semitic,
it follows that learners cannot use the tranlanguaging process concerning Maltese grammar andtheir first language grammar.
A different respondent (P6) demonstrated his views concerning curriculum content as follows:
The language learning curriculum should respect differences, should giveequal opportunity to all learners, and the substance of aspects such as social
justice and democracy should be substantially addressed in the language
curriculum. As a result, I do my utmost to be objective, unbiased and fair tomy students (Participant 6, Interview: 20/10/2020).
The respondents also mentioned the equality aspect of their training which can be encouraged
to facilitate and spread multicultural teaching. One respondent (P11) asserted:
Teachers should be trained on the significance and advantages ofmulticulturalism in learning institutions, including concepts such as universal
values, equality, culture and diversity. In addition to treating all students
fairly, teachers should also treat all their native languages equally andencourage students to use and see connections between their native language
and Maltese (Participant 11, Interview: 21/10/2020).
Another respondent (P9) stressed, “Systematised, structured and equitable multicultural
teaching must first be implemented at school and then we teachers must adopt the same systemin our language class” (Participant 9, Interview: 20/10/2020).
Every respondent argued that different methods and activities should be extended to different
social groups and stressed their significance. The respondents found that cases should still
include the definition of equality and include comparisons. Respondent 14 gave her notion bystating:
There are many things that may be included in the language teachingenvironment for various students. Customs and public holidays in various
religions (including Christmas Day, Vasanta Panchami, Eid Al-Fitr, Makar
Sankrat, the Prophet Muhammad’s birthday, the Ramadan Feast) for
different ethnic classes (Syrians, Serbian, whites, blacks, Asians, Indian,
Kurds, etc.). All types of tasks opposed to prejudice; and reinforcing culturalequity should take their place in the classroom (Participant 14, Interview:
22/10/2020).
A different respondent (P13) stated what can be done for varying groups as follows:

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In project-dependent learning surroundings, all students can create
homework and projects expressing their mother tongues and cultures. The
United Kingdom is conducting this perfectly, so can we. Besides, teachers
could stop utilising social studies classes as an instrument for assimilationand transforming them into higher-value classes where universal principles,
including equality, social justice, pluralism and democracy, are promoted(Participant 13, Interview: 21/10/2020).
An overall evaluation of the respondents’ responses indicates that the concept of equality isemphasised and that there is an agreement on multi-ethnic teaching’s significance in promoting
equality.
Democracy as a Good Practice in Multicultural Teaching
The interview assessments indicated that all respondents stressed the idea of democracy andaddressed the significance of multi-ethnic teaching in creating a democratic community. Two
respondents stressed the concept of democracy while describing multicultural teaching.
Respondent 8 described multicultural teaching as follows:
Multicultural teaching is a democratic reform initiative in which learners
with various differences, including gender, language, religion and race, haveequal rights to education (Participant 8, Interview: 20/10/2020).
At the same time, P1 stated that it is the potential of people from varying cultures irrespectiveof their genders, races, religions and languages to carry on with their learning in the sameeducational institutions in the setting of social justice and democracy.
Five of the seventeen respondents said they were worried that multicultural teaching could leadto societal division and deteriorate solidarity. However, twelve teachers remarked that multiethnic teaching could, on the contrary, contribute to the development of democraticenvironments. One respondent (P1) demonstrated his perception by stating:Multi-ethnic teaching does not separate a society or a community. Instead, in
communities with variations, it assists them in surviving in more democraticmodels and settings (Participant 1, Interview: 19/10/2020).
One of the most stated strengths and benefits of multicultural teaching is the potential offorming democratic environments. One respondent (P6) stated “to be capable of applying
concepts like democracy and equality in a healthier manner” as a benefit of multicultural
teaching, while respondent 12 stated “to assist in developing notions like democracy, rights,
brotherhood and tolerance” and respondent 15 stated that “it enables a democratic social
order”. Again, respondent 16 stated that “Attempting to utilise it in communities where
democracy is not properly used might result in social conflicts”, stating the significance indemocratic societies of the availability for multi-ethnic teaching to be implemented. The ideathat integrating multi-ethnic teaching in the teaching curriculum can result in the creation of
democratic consciousness was proposed by respondent 17 stating the benefits as follows:
There can be a chance of benefitting from varying ethnic groups, ademocratic mindfulness for everyone will improve, a setting of peace andtrust will be created away from issues and fear, it will result in ethnic164

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interactions and result in social changes and advancements (Participant 17,
Interview: 22/10/2020).
A different respondent (Participant 10, Interview: 21/10/2020) demonstrated his/her
perceptions on the issues by stating, “I believe that a change to a more egalitarian teaching
structure considering personal needs and variations can be the greatest benefit”. In stating
what is suitable for a multi-ethnic teaching training curriculum for learning a second language,
the concept of egalitarianism was stressed again. Egalitarianism is the doctrine that all people
are equal and deserve equal rights and opportunities (Dworkin, 2000). Respondent 16 claimed
the following:
Our language academicians who train the educators need to share thatteaching should be done in democratic, social justice, respect and lovesettings, and these should be practised accordingly (Participant 16, Interview:
22/10/2020).
An assessment of the respondents’ remarks identifies that the concept of democracy is very
often emphasised and that multicultural teaching’s impacts on creating democratic societies
and settings are frequently repeated.
Justice as a Good Practice in Multicultural Teaching
All ML2 teachers who participated in this study stressed the concept of justice and stated thesignificance of multi-ethnic teaching in enabling justice. Two respondents stated the notion
while describing multi-ethnic teaching, and two others posited that multi-ethnic teaching isconnected to the concept of social justice. Respondent 5 stated:
Multi-ethnic teaching involves accepting every student in our language class,irrespective of their race, gender, cultural backgrounds, languages andreligions with their principles. It is the potential of approaching everyone
with neutrality, tolerance and justice (Participant 5, Interview: 19/10/2020).
Concerning the concepts that multi-ethnic teaching is connected to and its connection inestablishing justice, two respondents expressed the following perceptions. Respondent 3 said:
Multi-ethnic teaching is linked to concepts like social justice, equality anddifferences, and it is asserted that multi-cultural teaching should be practisedfor communities and societies staying in peace (Participant 3, Interview:
19/10/2020).
Respondent 9 stated that it is a model that initially appeared in the United States after the Civil
War, yet it is also a hunt for solutions to eradicate social injustices in countries like the UK,
Canada and the US, where the demographics shift with the growth in minority groups.
Respondent 4 stated that teaching is linked to concepts like integration, minority rights, social
injustices, differences, immigration, citizenship and democracy in this setting. The fact thatmulti-ethnic teaching emphasises the concept of justice and that it has a value that can identify
justice in the community was identified as a strength of multi-ethnic teaching by four
respondents. Respondent 13 stressed multi-ethnic teaching’s significance for social justice andhuman rights; respondent 14 asserted that multi-ethnic teaching instils the statement of justiceand equality to a participatory community; respondent 16 claimed that multi-ethnic teaching is
the introduction of social justice in society; and respondent 17 defined the contribution to the165

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attitudes of self-esteem and justice. Social justice was defined as one of the appropriate aspectsof enacting multi-ethnic educator training schedules. Respondent 6 stated as follows:
Respect to variations, equality of opportunities to learning and contents ofaspects like social justice and democracy should be addressed abundantly inthe language curriculum (Participant 6, Interview: 20/10/2020).
An overall assessment of the responses indicates that the significance of multi-ethnic learningof a second language in creating social justice is frequently emphasised and considered to bevital. All respondents had favourable thoughts on multi-ethnic teaching. The majority of the
respondents stressed that multi-ethnic learning contributes to creating communities withdemocratic values, equality and justice for everyone. Therefore, language educators should
undergo training on multi-ethnic teaching for democratic communities.
Discussion
Multi-ethnic teaching is a research sector that helps learners acquire the awareness andcompetencies suitable for engaging in the democratic world and helps people of different ethnic
groups to have equal chances for learning (Halvorsen & Wilson, 2010). This study aims to filla gap in research by assessing teachers’ perceptions of multi-ethnic teaching and practices andtranslating the findings in order to devise a training plan that will contribute to the developmentof just, democratic, and equal educational systems. Particularly, the evaluation of the researchfindings notes that each respondent asserted that multi-ethnic teaching is vital and suitable, andthe seventeen educators stressed justice, democracy and equality on the issue of multi-ethnic
teaching of a second language. The study results indicate that in addition to several otherbenefits, multi-ethnic learning promotes equality. This equality not only cuts acrosspedagogical areas, but also within social strata, ultimately helping to build cohesive relations
among various nationalities.
The results concur with Sharma (2005), who identified that multicultural education considers
each culture as equal and that no culture is superior to the others. Kahraman (2017) linked
successful teaching in multi-ethnic classes to offering equal chances for academic successes
and individual growth. Multi-ethnic teaching can be considered the first point in eliminating
inequality in society because of the certainties in handling the existing educational curriculum’s
challenges and errors. In concurrence with the literature, the current research identifies the moststated practice in multicultural education as equality, and it was identified that multi-ethnic
teaching would promote equal chances and the right to education for every learner.
The research also identifies democracy as one of the most repeated practices by the
respondents. Likewise, Aydin and Tonbuloglu (2014) defined multi-ethnic teaching as ateaching and learning strategy founded on democratic elements and notions and identified theethnic diversities in an interlinked society with ethnic pluralism. According to Mansikka andHolm (2011), the value of multi-ethnic teaching is usually proportionate with the democratic
practices of the country. Banks (2015) asserted that among the multicultural teaching’s
strengths is its stress on practices like justice, equality and democracy. Multiculturalism in the
education curriculum aims to democratise the curriculum and teacher’s training to giveeveryone a more neutral and free perspective (Banks, 2015). Likewise, in the current research,
the respondents claimed that multi-ethnic teaching would promote a democratic society andresult in a democratic educational setting.

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Justice is a different practice that most participants stressed in the current research. Sharma(2005) stated that multi-ethnic teaching helps the community become more just and tolerant
and identified that it is richer than any of the constituents. According to Banks (2015), among
the primary aims of educational systems that encourage multi-ethnic literacies is to assist
students to develop democratic societies; develop knowledge and sensitivity and allow
response. In the current research, the respondents, as in the literature findings, stated thesignificance of multicultural teaching in promoting justice, included the concept of justice intheir descriptions of multi-ethnic teaching and connected multicultural teaching to the social
justice concept.
Limitations
The study’s limitation is that the researcher only used the approach of qualitative design togather information, therefore limiting the validity and reliability levels. However, future studies
should consider using a triangulation of different qualitative methods, including a combinationof interviews, focus groups and discussions, thus reducing the limitations of using one
approach.
Recommendations
The teachers in this study claimed that they were not given training in handling learners ofdifferent nationalities, given that this situation of immigration happened after the participants
graduated. Properly created multi-ethnic training is important for pre-service educators’knowledge and outlook concerning multi-ethnic teaching and to successfully educate thelearners. Thus, appropriate research should observe a plan that aids in the procedure so that
educators are prepared both professionally and personally to work with learners from different
cultural settings. Such training will offer frameworks to educators to think and talk about
cultural diversities. Through awareness and the development of competences in multi-ethnic
teaching, new educators will be empowered to strive to create systems and social arrangements
in learning settings that encourage the practice of equality in and out of schools (Gorski, 2009).
The findings of the research are new, interesting and important, considering the lack of researchin multicultural education for adult ML2 learners with different nationalities. This study raises
some inquiries that should be addressed in future studies. Another limitation in this study isthat language teachers talked about the importance of multicultural education that could happen
in any subject, not just in ML2. Future researchers should interview educators concerning their
ML2 teaching approaches, methods and learning surroundings before and after finishing theirtraining programmes. This information will assist in establishing the impact of multicultural
teaching specifically in ML2. Educational researchers should also assess learning institutions
that have enacted strong multi-ethnic programmes and quality multi-ethnic professional
educator development. Such research would offer samples of how multi-ethnic teaching isenacted in practice, both at the personal and school levels. It is vital to comprehend how
learners and parents perceive the ML2 teaching programmes.
Conclusion
The desire for individuals of varying cultures and aspects to live with the same entitlements
and each societal group to have similar and democratic structures make multicultural ML2
teaching necessary. Multi-ethnic teaching develops the possibilities of accepting that there are
varying perspectives that are equal and helps people comprehend how each side feels.

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Moreover, due to pressing circumstances such as the sporadic and growing pace of migration
as experienced in recent years, the need for inclusive spaces has become more apparent.
Changing demographics heighten the need for a multicultural shift in people’s way of thinking
among nations that embrace multiculturalism, especially as it relates to pedagogy. The current
study identifies that most teachers acknowledge that practices like ensuring equality,
democracy and justice among all learners irrespective of their cultural, racial or religious
backgrounds is of great importance in promoting multicultural education and student success.
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank the seventeen participant teachers for their useful comments concerning
their perceptions and interpretations to multicultural education.

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Reviewers – Volume 9, Issue 1
The editorial team would like to thank the following reviewers for their contributions to thepeer review of this issue. Their dedication and assistance are greatly appreciated.
Sylvia Abu-Gyamfi
Joycelyn Azueta
Noah Chirwa
Barbara Crossouard
Emily Danvers
Pankaj Das
Maria Efstratopoulou
Yasuko Futaba
Rosa Marvell
Debbie Merhag
Jessica Nerren
Nancy Nisbett
Donald Nongola
Sudha Pingle
Penny Round
Gideon Sappor
Smriti Singh
Genevieve Thrave172the iafor

journal of education

ISSN: 2187-0594