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iaforThe IAFOR Journal of Education
Volume III – Issue II – Summer 2015

IAFOR Publications
Executive Editor:
Joseph Haldane
The International Academic ForumThe IAFOR Journal of Education
Editor:Bernard Montoneri, Tamkang University, Taiwan

Published by The International Academic Forum (IAFOR), Japan
IAFOR Publications. Sakae 1-16-26-201, Naka-ward, Aichi, Japan 460-0008

Executive Editor, IAFOR Publications: Joseph Haldane
Design: Bernard Montoneri

The IAFOR Journal of Education
Volume 3 – Issue 2 – Summer 2015

IAFOR Publications © Copyright 2015
ISSN: 2187-0594 (Online) http://iafor.org/educationjournal.html

Cover Image by: Bob Cotter, Photography / Flicker.
https://www.flickr.com/photos/gibsonsgolfer/6429187737/in/photolist

The IAFOR Journal of Education

Volume III - Issue II - Summer 2015

Notes on Contributors
Miri Shonfeld has played an influential and instrumental role in many changes in teacher
education in Israel. She was the head of ICT at Kibbutzim College of Education and as the headof the forum for ICT coordinators in teacher education she worked to integrate technology in
education. She was involved in writing the national program for the 21th century, as well as
numerous position papers. She has been invited by universities all over the world to present her
philosophy and pedagogy on using ICT in education. Her research deals with online learning
environments, collaborative work, and intercultural links. She is currently the head of theTechnology, Education, and Cultural Diversity (TEC) Center at Mofet Institute and a faculty
member in the Education department at Kibbutzim College of Education in Tel-Aviv.
E-mail: miri.shonfeld@smkb.ac.il
Dr Ilana Ronen earned her PhD in Science Education from Tel- Aviv University. Following five
years of biochemistry research focusing on bile acid synthesis and recovery of hepatic clearance
in the rat liver, she began her educational career. She headed the excellent program and theScience specialization at Kibbutzim College of Education, Technology and Arts. She establishedcommunities of learners as part of service learning and led changes in the practice of pre-service
students in line with the PDS model. As a member in the science faculty she is teaching physics
and chemistry courses and supervising M.Ed students who conduct research in environmental
education. Her research interests including alternative conceptions in science education; emergent
knowledge in communities of learners; improving science education via professional
development schools access; community service learning; collaborative learning; and ICT
implementation in education.
E-mail: klima.ronen@gmail.com
Nuning Catur Sri Wilujeng is currently a Lecturer in the Faculty of Languages and Arts at
Yogyakartya State University, Indonesia. Her research interests include foreign language
teaching and learning, TELL, computer assisted instruction, applied linguistics, and culture
studies.
E-mail: nuning@uny.ac.id
Yu-Ju Lan is an Associate Professor at the Department of Applied Chinese Language andCulture at National Taiwan Normal University, Taiwan, ROC. Recently she has been awarded the
Honor of Distinguished Professorship. She currently serves as the Chair of Special Interest Groupon Technology Enhanced Language Learning in the Asia-Pasific Society for Computers in
Education. Her research interest include technologi enhance foreign language learning (TEFLL),
online synchronous teacher training, language learning in virtual world, and mobile learning(ML).
E-mail: yujulan@ntnu.edu.tw
Yoshihiko Yamamoto is currently teaching English at Shizuoka University and has lived in both
Australia and New Zealand for more than 10 years. He holds a PhD (Education), University ofCanberra, MA in TESOL, University of Canberra, BA in Education & in Linguistics, Victoria
University of Wellington. His research areas are Discourse Analysis (gender talk),
Sociolinguistics (gender stereotypes) and Applied Linguistics (in general).
E-mail: yamamoto.yoshihiko.b@shizuoka.ac.jp1

The IAFOR Journal of Education

Volume III - Issue II - Summer 2015

Akinori Usami is a lecturer of English at Mukogawa Women's University. His research interests
include the development of ESP courses, Business English as a Lingua Franca, and business
communication.
E-mail: akiusami@mukogawa-u.ac.jp
Lisa Wen-Chun Chen is an MA student in the Department of English at National Taiwan
Normal University. Her research interests are computer-assisted language learning, corpus
linguistics and mobile-assisted language learning.
E-mail: winginsn@hotmail.com
Dr Daniel Velasco earned his B.A. in both English and French from UCLA, and his M.Ed. from
National University. He spent the first part of his career in the field of international/cross-cultural
education as an instructor, administrator, student counselor, and academic director at a variety of
post-secondary institutions. His role as an international student counselor prompted him todiversify his education, and he soon earned an M.A. in psychology from Antioch University, andstarted a private practice specializing in positive psychology. He continued on to The Chicago
School of Professional Psychology, where he earned a PhD in International Psychology. Dr
Velasco currently resides in Japan, where he is a mental health counselor, associate professor,
researcher, and public speaker. He regularly lectures on intercultural communication, teachingstrategies, positive psychology, and counseling strategies with a focus on adaptation andacculturation. He is an active member of the Japanese Psychological Association (JPA), theAmerican Psychological Association (APA), the International Council of Psychologists (ICP), theInternational Mental Health Professionals Japan (IMHPJ), the Japan Association for Language
Teaching (JALT), and Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL).
E-mail: dvelasco@thechicagoschool.edu
Mrs. Jeerisuda Khumsikiew received Master’s degree in Clinical Pharmacy from Khon Kaen
University, Thailand. Now, teaching in pharmaceutical science faculty, Ubon Ratchathani
University, Thailand. Research interests are: pharmacy practice, community pharmacy andpharmacy education.
E-mail: oat_otani@hotmail.com
Mrs. Sisira Donsamak received Master’s degree in Clinical Pharmacy from Khon Kaen
University, Thailand. Now, teaching in pharmaceutical science faculty, Ubon Ratchathani
University, Thailand. Research interests are: pharmacy practice and community pharmacy.
E-mail: sisira.don@gmail.com
Mr. Manit Saeteaw received Board Certified of Pharmacy Specialties in Pharmacotherapy fromThe Pharmacy Council of Thailand. Now, teaching in pharmaceutical science faculty, Ubon
Ratchathani University, Thailand. Research interests are: pharmacy practice and oncology.
E-mail: manit_tee@hotmail.com
Dr Marcel Lebrun has been an educator for 36 year as a classroom teacher, administrator,
school counselor, and special education teacher. He is presently a professor and Chair of the
Educational Leadership, Learning and Curriculum Department at Plymouth State University. He
teaches classes in Special Education, Behavior Management, Ethical Leadership and Advocacy.
He is a member of the professional organizations (IASE, DISES, CCBD and CEC). He has taught
abroad and traveled extensively (81) countries and counting throughout the world. He has
published 12 books and numerous articles on special education, mental health and leadershipissues.
E-mail: mrlebrun@plymouth.edu

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Volume III - Issue II - Summer 2015

Dr Anna Toom is Associate Professor of Psychology and Education at Touro College Graduate
School of Education, USA. She earned a M.S. in Computer Science from Moscow Institute ofRadio Engineering, Electronics and Automation in 1972 and a MS in Psychology from Moscow
State University, Russia, in 1978. In 1991, she attained her PhD in Psychology from Moscow
State University of Management, Russia. After graduation, for twelve years, she worked as auniversity researcher and taught psychology from time to time. In the USA, teaching became her
permanent activity. She is a pioneer of distance education in New York City. She has been
designing, developing and instructing various online psychology courses for 17 years. A few
years ago Anna Toom left the traditional classroom to devote her teaching and research to online
education. Now, Anna teaches Child Development and Learning in Cultural Context and Historyof Education Internet-based courses. Her primary scientific interest concerns learning in thevirtual environment. She studies online students’ adjustment, motivation, cognitive activity, andcommunication in the virtual classroom.
E-mail: annatoom@gmail.com
Dr Andrzej Sokolowski earned his PhD in Curriculum and Instruction with emphasis in
Mathematics Education from Texas A&M University. He advocates the teaching and learningof mathematics that integrates elements of scientific inquiry. Andrzej has published several
journal articles, and book chapters. He is also a reviewer for journals such as Review of
Educational Research, International Journal of STEM Education, and Journal of Research in
Mathematics, Science, and Technology Education. He recently published a book Mathematical
Modeling; Synthesis of qualitative Research.
E-mail: Andrzej.Sokolowski@lonestar.edu
Dr Paul C. Corrigan joined City University of Hong Kong in 1994 as Lecturer. Over twenty
years, he has taught for different academic units as well as worked on program and education.
His teaching has mostly been in the areas of English for Specific Purposes, English literature, andteacher education. Paul has also taught at universities in Japan and the United States and has
published in areas including ESL, EMI, CLIL, research ethics in education, and the teaching ofliterature. He holds advanced degrees in English, TESOL, and education from universities in the
U.S., the U.K., and China.
E-mail: Paul.Corrigan@cityu.edu.hk

3

The IAFOR Journal of Education

Volume III - Issue II - Summer 2015

Journal of Education Editors
Editor: Dr Bernard Montoneri
Tamkang University, Taiwan
Bernard Montoneri is the co-founder of the Journal of Education. He earned his PhD (African,
Arab, and Asian Words; History, Languages, Literature) and his BA in Chinese from the
University of Provence, Aix-Marseille I, France. He taught Literature (European, Children,
American, and British) and languages (French, English, and Italian) at Providence University for
16 years. He is currently an Associate Professor at Tamkang University, French Department,
Taiwan. Bernard has around 40 publications, including journal papers (including SSCI, SCI, and
THCI), conference papers, and books and has obtained many teaching and research projects. His
research interests include French literature, children literature, English writing, automated scoring
systems, teaching and learning evaluation, data envelopment analysis, networking, and teaching
methods. He is a reviewer for top academic journals such as Review of Educational Research(ranked #1 in Education), American Educational Research Journal, Teaching and Teacher
Education, and European journal of Operational Research.
E-mail: montonerishu@gmail.com
Associate Editor: Dr Cassandra Atherton
Alfred Deakin Research Institute, Australia
Cassandra Atherton is an award winning writer, critic and senior lecturer at the Alfred Deakin
Research Institute. She has a Harvard Visiting Scholar's position from August 2015 - September
2016 to work on a project concerning public intellectuals in academe. A Visiting Fellow at
Sophia University, Tokyo in 2014 and an affiliate of the Monash Japanese Studies Centre in 2015,
Cassandra is currently working on a book analysing Miyazaki Hayao's anime. Cassandra has
published 8 books and was invited be on the judging panel of the Victorian Premier's LiteraryAwards, Prize for Poetry in 2015.
E-mail: cassandra.atherton@deakin.edu.au
Associate Editor: Vasileios Paliktzoglou
University of Eastern Finland, Finland
Bahrain Polytechnic, Bahrain
Vasileios has several years of experience in universities such as the University of Pisa, theAegean University, Robert Gordon University, Mediterranean University College and the
University of Wales having an active role as: Researcher, Tutor, Supervisor, Lecturer andProgram Manager. He is active in research with papers presented at international conferences,and published at academic journals. His research interests are in the fields of social media, web2.0, communities of practices, e-learning in which he is actively involved in several international
research projects. He is currently a doctoral researcher at the University of Eastern Finland andfaculty member at Bahrain Polytechnic.
E-mail: paliktzoglou@gmail.com

4The IAFOR Journal of Education

Volume III - Issue II - Summer 2015

Members of the Editorial Board
Dr Askhat F. Safiullin
Chonbuk National University, South Korea
Askhat F. Safiullin earned his PhD (International Studies) and his BA in International Relationfrom the Yonsei University, Seoul, South Korea. He is currently an Adjunct Professor at
Chonbuk National University, Jeonju, South Korea and Adjunct Professor at the Graduate Schoolof International Studies at Yonsei University, Seoul. South Korea. He is also a Visiting Professor
at Sonkyunkwan University, Seoul, South Korea. He teaches a wide spectrum of subjects inInternational Relations ranging from Diplomacy and Global Governance to the Korean Research
Design. Askhat has published a number of journal and conference papers and a chapter in a book.
His research interests include International Relations and related spheres, and effective teaching
and learning methods.
E-mail: koktube@gmail.com
Associate Professor Yilin Chen
Providence University, Taiwan
Yilin Chen (PhD in Drama and Theatre, Royal Holloway, University of London) is an Associate
Professor at the Department of English Language, Literature and Linguistics, Providence
University in Taiwan. She studies Shakespeare and theatre history from 1600 to the present. She
has published in several drama and theatre journals. Her most recent publication is “Staging
Sexuality in an All-male Adaptation of Romeo and Juliet” in Studies in Theatre and Performance(Routledge 2014), which investigates the audience’s receptions and diverse erotic tensions
generated in the contemporary cross-gender Taiwanese Shakespearean production. Her current
research interests are the global dissemination of Japanese manga Shakespeare and therepresentation of gender and sexuality in manga adaptations of Shakespeare. She is also fundedby the Ministry of Education to undertake a MOOCs (Massive Online Open Courses) project on
the subject of Global/Local Shakespeare in 2014.
E-mail: yc276@yahoo.com
Assistant Professor Massoud Moslehpour
Asia University, Taiwan
Dr Moslehpour is assistant professor of Business Administration and Foreign Languages at Asia
university. He has obtain his Doctorate of Philosophy, University of Missouri-Columbia,
Missouri, in December 1995 (Support Areas: Higher and Adult Education; Curriculum
Development; Spanish). His major areas of interest are: Marketing, Management, Culture andForeign Languages. During the past ten years he has written several textbook related to: Internet
English, Culture through Movies and Presentation Skills. He has also published several journal
articles in various international peer-reviewed journals in the areas of: Purchase Intention,
Customer Satisfaction, Customer Loyalty, and Freshman English and Internet Addiction.
E-mail: writetodrm@gmail.com
Jillian MarchantJames Cook University, Australia
Jillian Marchant holds a Master’s Degree in Public Administration with a major in Policy and ispresently a PhD Candidate with the School of Education at James Cook University in Australia.
She is a published author of several articles that seek to appreciate the unfolding association
between increasingly accessible formal adult learning and social development in remote andsparsely populated areas. As a resident of a community that is relatively isolated and has a low
5The IAFOR Journal of Education

Volume III - Issue II - Summer 2015

population density, Jillian remains committed to exploring the ways in which adult tertiary
education may be facilitated to assistant the inhabitants of these fragile areas. She is an invited ad
hoc reviewer for Australian education conferences as well as recently contributing as an associate
editor at Common Ground Publishing. Her research interests include the impact of adulteducation on the life chances of individuals and other practices that interrupt social and politicalstratification.
E-mail: jillian.marchant@my.jcu.edu.au
Dr Santosh Kumar Behera
Sidho-Kanho-Birsha University, India
Dr Santosh Kumar Behera is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Education, SidhoKanho-Birsha University, India. After completion of a Graduate Degree from Fakir Mohan
University, Orissa, he was admitted to the M.A. in Education program at Vinaya Bhavana, Visva
Bharati and then did his PhD entitled “An Investigation into the Attitude of SC and ST Childrenof Southern Orissa towards Education” at Vinaya Bhavana. He has also published several
research papers and articles in various journals and edited volumes of national and international
repute across the country. He is the Editor-in-Chief, EDUQUEST, An International Refereed
Journal in Education (ISSN: 2277-3614), International Journal of Academic Research in
Education and Review (ISSN: 2360-7866) and Academic Research Journal of History andCulture (ARJHC).
E-mail: santoshbehera.jkc@gmail.com, santoshbehera.skbu@gmail.com
Dr Andrzej Sokolowski
Texas A&M University (Integrated Math & Sci. Department)
Andrzej Sokolowski earned his PhD in Curriculum and Instruction with emphasis in Mathematics
Education from Texas A&M University. He advocates the teaching and learning of mathematics
that integrates elements of scientific inquiry. Andrzej has published several journal articles, andbook chapters. He is also a reviewer for journals such as Review of Educational Research,
International Journal of STEM Education, and Journal of Research in Mathematics, Science, andTechnology Education. He recently published a book Mathematical Modeling; Synthesis ofqualitative Research.
E-mail: Andrzej.Sokolowski@lonestar.edu
Dr Richard Mather
Buckinghamshire New University, United Kingdom
Richard Mather is a Course Leader in the Department of Computing where he teaches software
engineering and co-leads research in Technology Enhanced Learning (TEL). He holds
postgraduate qualifications in software engineering (MSc, Oxford) and in environmental sciences(DPhil, Oxford; MSc, UCNW). His pedagogic research and Ph.D. supervision include adaptive
assessment practices, technologies and collaborative behaviours for learning computer science
subjects. For the past twenty years he has also provided services to education, governments andindustry concerning the development and use of Geographical Information Systems (GIS) andRemote Sensing for environmental management. In 2010 he was awarded The Institution of
Analysts and Programmers Prize for Software Engineering after developing a system to automate
vegetation mapping from aerial imagery. His geospatial project outputs provide a rich source ofcase studies for undergraduate and postgraduate teaching.
E-mail: Richard.Mather@bucks.ac.uk

6

The IAFOR Journal of Education

Volume III - Issue II - Summer 2015

Table of Contents
Notes on Contributers

pp. 1 - 3

Journal of Education Editors

pp. 4 - 6

Editor Introduction

pp. 8 - 11

Online Learning for Students from Diverse Backgrounds:
Learning Disability Students, Excellent Students and Average Students
Miri Shonfeld
Ilana Ronen

pp. 13 - 29

Online Comic in Mandarin Chinese’s Vocabulary Learning:
A Case Study of Budi Utama Multilingual School in Yogyakarta, Indonesia
Nuning Catur Sri Wilujeng
Yu-Ju Lan
pp. 31 - 52
Exploring Learner’s Patterns of Using the Online Course Tool
in University Classes
Yoshihiko Yamamoto
Akinori Usami

pp. 54 - 66

Taiwanese EFL learners’ perceived use of online reading strategies
Lisa Wen Chun Chen

pp. 68 - 80

Evaluate, Analyze, Describe (EAD): Confronting Underlying Issuesof Racism and Other Prejudices for Effective Intercultural Communication
Daniel Velasco
pp. 82 - 93
A Model of Small-Group Problem-Based Learning In Pharmacy
Education: Teaching in the Clinical Environment
Jeerisuda Khumsikiew
Sisira Donsamak
Manit Saeteaw

pp. 95 - 108

Healthy Children, Healthy Minds:
Creating a Brighter Future
Marcel Lebrun

pp. 110 - 124

Students-Enthusiasts in Online Classes:
Their Contribution To the Educational Process
Anna Toom

pp. 126 - 140

The Effect of Math Modeling on Student’s
Emerging Understanding
Andrzej Sokolowski

pp. 142 - 156

English For the Medium of Instruction (EFMI) at a
University in Hong Kong
Paul C. Corrigan

pp. 158 - 170

7

The IAFOR Journal of Education

Volume III - Issue II - Summer 2015

Introduction
It is my great pleasure and honour to introduce Volume 3, issue 2 of IAFOR Journal of Education.
This issue is a selection of papers submitted directly to our journal as well as studies presented
during:
1. The Sixth Asian Conference on Education and The Second Asian Conference on Society,
Education & Technology, ACE & ACSET 2014, “Transforming and Changing Education:
Individuals, Communities, Societies”, held in Osaka in October-November 2014.
2. The IAFOR International Conference on Education - Dubai 2015 (March 8-10, 2015).
IICE2015.
This edition focuses, like our summer special edition, on emerging technologies in education,
principally online courses; it also discusses self-harming behavior at school, the issue of racism
as well as the problem dysfunctional children and adolescents. Our journal is proud to introduce
scholars from all over the world. Most of the studies presented in this issue discuss theapplication and impact of new technologies:
The first paper, co-authored by Miri Shonfeld and Ilana Ronen, is entitled "Online Learning forStudents from Diverse Backgrounds: Learning Disability Students, Excellent Students andAverage Students". The advantages of an online science education course to pre-service students
from diverse backgrounds: students with learning disabilities (LD students), excellent students
and average students are presented in this study. The assumption was that adapting the online
course for these students by using information and communication technology following
formative assessment will improve students’ self-learning ability as well as broaden their scienceknowledge, their lab performance and teaching skills. The findings based on students’ perceived
evaluation pinpointed the advantages of the online course to the three groups of students. Yet it
carefully reports a slight but explicitly marginal advantage of the LD students’ perceived
evaluation and achievements in comparison to the other students. Moreover, the study shows afive year gradual improvement in the online lab performance, and suggests synchronized lecturesand forums for increasing effectiveness and learning.
The second paper, entitled “Online Comic in Mandarin Chinese’s Vocabulary Learning: A Case
Study of Budi Utama Multilingual School in Yogyakarta, Indonesia”, is co-authored by Nuning
Catur Sri Wilujeng and Yu-Ju Lan. In this study, a quasi-experiment was conducted to develop
Mandarin Chinese learning through online comics for elementary school students and toinvestigate students experience in applying online and collaborative learning. As a Multilanguage school, Budi Utama, Yogyakarta has been offering Mandarin Chinese as a facultative
subject from Kindergarten. Three classes of grade 5 students participated in this study. Mixed
methods were applied to collect and analyze the quantitative and qualitative data. The result
obtained from the study showed that (1) the Mandarin Chinese of the grade 5 students developed
sharply and successfully for the collaborative learning, individual comics, and the control groupsand (2) comic learning satisfies the students and they feel the application is useful for them inlearning Mandarin Chinese, and (3) collaborative learning shows great advantages for the
students as is demonstrated by their achievement in online comic activity.
The third paper, entitled “Exploring Learner’s Patterns of Using the Online Course Tool in
University Classes”, is co-authored by Yoshihiko Yamamoto and Akinori Usami. This article
explores what extent university students actually use their online course tools throughout thesemester. Although online course tools are useful for both teachers and students, some paststudies such as Petrides (2002) and Ngai, Poon and Chan (2007) showed that online course tools

8The IAFOR Journal of Education

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were not effectively used. The authors of this study encourage their students to use one of online
course tools in their classes. However, the authors of this study realize that some students often
use it but other students hardly ever access to it throughout the semester. There are two aims ofthis study. Firstly, this study investigates what extent students actually use the online course tool
through the semester. Secondly, it tries to find some suggestions of how teachers can promote
their students to maximize making use of the online course tool. The authors of this study codednumbers of actual access to the online course tool by their students and also questionnaires wereused. The total of 380 students’ access was coded and total of 335 responses of questionnaires
were analyzed. The results reveal that students tend to use the online course tool when homework
was given though it and when teachers posted important messages for the assignments on it. As aresult, it is important for teachers to extract students’ external motivation in order to encourage
students to use online course tools.
The fourth paper, entitled “Taiwanese EFL learners’ perceived use of online reading strategies”,
is written by Lisa Wen Chun Chen. Reading strategies, such as global reading strategies, problem
solving strategies and support strategies, are beneficial to reading comprehension. Most previous
studies investigated paper-based reading strategies while relatively few studies examined online
reading strategies and their effects on reading comprehension. Online reading materials are
crucial for EFL students since an increasing number of learners read texts and learn through theInternet. Taiwanese EFL learners, unfortunately, are reported to be overwhelmed with English
online materials on the Internet. Therefore, this study intends to examine EFL learners’ perceived
use of online reading strategies and whether their perceived strategy use is different in terms of
proficiency levels and gender to offer some insight pedagogically. After analyzing students’
responses of Online Survey of Reading Strategies (OSORS) adapted from Anderson (2003), theresearcher found that EFL online readers tend to use more global strategies, such as using
contextual clues and observing tables, figures and pictures in online texts to increase
understanding. High-level learners used more global and problem solving strategies than lowlevel learners. Additionally, there is no gender difference of strategy use. Several pedagogicalimplications, such as the need to raise students’ awareness of strategy use, are addressed in thepresent study.
The fifth paper, entitled “Evaluate, Analyze, Describe (EAD): Confronting Underlying Issues ofRacism and Other Prejudices for Effective Intercultural Communication”, is written by Daniel
Velasco. Although more countries are becoming culturally diverse, racism and other prejudicescontinue to hinder efforts to diversify and further many fields. Although there are many ways toconfront and reduce these prejudices, intercultural communication continues to be a vital
component in assisting individuals and groups with this task. This article provides an overview of
pertinent research and theories related to racial identity and communicating with people ofdifferent cultural backgrounds. It also helps to shed light on underlying issues of racism anddiscontent by looking at two specific populations living in one country—Japanese and Nigerian
populations within Japan. The article concludes with a description of a new interculturalcommunication exercise called the E.A.D. (Evaluate, Analyze, Describe), which has been provento increase cultural awareness and open the lines of communication between individuals fromdifferent cultural backgrounds.
The sixth paper, entitled “A Model of Small-Group Problem-Based Learning In Pharmacy
Education: Teaching in the Clinical Environment”, is co-authored by Jeerisuda Khumsikiew,
Sisira Donsamak, and Manit Saeteaw. A model of small group Problem-Based Teaching was
implemented for 5th year pharmacy students in the clinical environment that facilitated bypharmacy instructors. Then, 15 weeks after running program. Pharmacy students' self-assessment
rating scales on their competencies and satisfaction have been explored compared with baseline

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by paired sample t-test. Problem-Based Learning (PBL) activities consisted of providing
pharmaceutical care service, collecting patients based clinical data, evaluation therapeutic
regimens, developing SOAP note, peer feedback and case wrap-up sessions. The result indicatedthat pharmacy student's competencies have been increased through PBL course in every clinicalskill items (P < 0.05) such as identifying, prioritization, solving therapy-drug related problem aswell as clinical communication. Moreover, most of students were satisfied with theimplementation of PBL. Overall concluded that the PBL model enhances pharmacy student
competencies and students were satisfied with PBL course.
The seventh paper, entitled “Healthy Children, Healthy Minds: Creating a Brighter Future”, iswritten by Marcel Lebrun. Researchers have been overwhelmed with the amount of data that has
been collected on dysfunctional children and adolescents. Failing schools have contributed tofailing students. The breakdown of the family and lack of parental support has contributed to
growing numbers of depressed, suicidal, anxious, confused and fundamentally troubled youth.
We need an ongoing campaign for all educators, adults and citizens to take responsibility to raise
healthy, mindful children of the 21st century. The goal of this article is to help all educators andany adults who work with children to use healthy and successful strategies to shape the minds offuture generations, by modeling healthy behavior and encouraging and showing children how to
be healthy and mindful, so that they can become positive, caring citizens of the world. Hands-on
strategies such as exercise, attention, focus, mindfulness etc that can help turn the tide ofproblematic, ultimately self-harming behavior that is happening in our culture to create a better
place for us all to live. There are many successful strategies that have proven evidence based
results that are highlighted and recommended as interventions and next steps.
The eighth paper, written by Anna Toom, is entitled “Students-Enthusiasts in Online Classes:
Their Contribution To the Educational Process”. Students’ enthusiasm was explored in a
population of current and prospective school teachers. The research methodology included
graphical and mathematical analysis of students’ discussions as well as analysis of “Help me!”messages and responses. It was found that enthusiasts created a positive psychologicalatmosphere at discussion forums which allowed their classmates to develop a “sense ofcommunity”. Stimulating dialogues, helping others to adjust to a new learning environment, andsharing information with less knowledgeable classmates–these were features distinguishingstudents-enthusiasts. Dr Toom concludes that students-enthusiasts’ communication styledescribed in the study goes on to their own classrooms where they work as instructors. It helps toappreciate teachers-enthusiasts’ role in the society.
The ninth paper, written by Andrzej Sokolowski, is entitled “The Effect of Math Modeling on
Student’s Emerging Understanding”. The paper The Effect of Math Modeling on Student’s
Emerging Understanding is a report of study about using modeling to eliminate students’
misconceptions about the effects of optimization. A sample of 28 high school students was undera treatment of investigating different areas enclosed by a fixed length perimeter that was rooted ina scientific inquiry process. The result of the study showed that scientific modeling not only
helped students understand the mathematics underpinning of the optimization process, but alsothat is has a potential to model other math concepts typically found in high school mathcurriculum.
The tenth paper, written by Paul C. Corrigan, is entitled “English For the Medium of Instruction(EFMI) at a University in Hong Kong”. Owing to their aspirations to climb the ranks of the best
universities, many universities are turning to English for some or all of their courses as a policy
initiative. The paper points out some of the difficulties in doing so, drawing on the experience ofuniversities in the U.S. which have relied on International Teaching Assistants for many years.

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Included in the paper is a discussion of an initiative on pre-service teacher education, in English
as a teaching medium, at a large university in Hong Kong. The article includes a profile of new
Ph.D. students at the institution who needed to develop their skills in English before they could
teach at that EMI university and the course which was developed in order to help them do so anddetails the feedback which they provided on that course.
Please note that we welcome original research papers in the field of education submitted byteachers, scholars, and education professionals. They may send their manuscript even though they
did not participate to one of the conferences held by IAFOR.
We also welcome book reviews, reviews of the literature in the field, and contributions
introducing key educational scholars. The next issue scheduled for February 15, 2016 will also be
a selection of papers submitted during the above mentioned conferences. IAFOR publications arefreely accessible on the website (Open Access).
Moreover, there is no publication fee for authors. Please find the guidelines at this end of thisissue and follow our guide for authors before submitting your paper.
Best regards,
Bernard Montoneri

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Volume III - Issue II - Summer 2015

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Volume III - Issue II - Summer 2015

Online Learning for Students from Diverse Backgrounds: Learning
Disability Students, Excellent Students and Average Students

Miri Shonfeld and Ilana Ronen

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Abstract
The perceived contribution of science education online course to pre-service students (N=121)
from diverse backgrounds - students with learning disabilities (25 LD students), 28 excellent
students and 68 average students is presented in this five years research. During the online course
students were asked to choose a scientific subject; to map it and to plan teaching activities; tocarry out the proposed activities with students in a classroom experience; and to reflect theprocess. The assumption was that adapting the online course by using information andcommunication technology following formative assessment will improve students' self-learning
ability as well as broaden their science knowledge, their lab performance and teaching skills.
Data were collected using quantitative and qualitative tools including: pre and post questionnaires
and nine (three students from each group) depth interviews upon completion of the course.
Findings, based on students` perceived evaluation, pinpointed on the advantages of the online
course for students of the three groups. LD students’ achievements were not inferior to those of
their peers, excellent students and average students. Yet, it carefully reports on a slight but
explicitly marginal perceived evaluation of the LD students in comparison to excellent students
and average students regarding: forum participation, authentic task and water lab performance.
The article discusses the affordance of the online course via additional features that can begrouped into two categories: knowledge construction and flexibility in time, interaction andknowledge. Further research is suggested to extend the current study by examine the effect ofother courses and different contents and by considering various evaluation methods of online
courses, such as: observation, the think aloud, text and tasks analysis, and reflection.
Keywords: Online learning; students with learning disability; excellent students; scienceeducation.

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Introduction
The advantages of an online Science Education course to pre-service students (students in theirsecond grade toward B.Ed degree) from diverse backgrounds are presented in this study. In lightof the importance of online learning as a teaching tool, an ongoing five-year study was designed
to face the challenge of adapting a course for three groups of students: students with learning
disabilities, excellent students, and average students. The "Science Education" on-line course ispart of the teacher-training program for K-2 pre-service teachers which focuses on constructing ascience teaching unit and is based mainly on learning scientific concepts, including fostering lab
skills, and practicum. Adapting a science education online course by using information andcommunication technology following formative assessment was a challenge for students withdifferent needs and capabilities as well as for their lecturers. The study will describe students`
evaluation of the perceived advantages of the online course and the way it dealt with thechallenge.
Literature Review
Accessibility of online learning
During the last twenty years, studies focusing on the integration of Information andCommunication Technology (ICT) in teaching (Chazan, 2001), shows teacher and student lackof knowledge of technology (Wegner, Holloway, & Crader, 1998), and hardware limitations(Goldstein, Shonfeld, Waldman, et al., 2011; Kreka, 1996) .During this time new technologybased teaching methods and processes have been developed and incorporated in active learning
processes (Venezky & Davis, 2002). Additionally, a great number of studies on theappropriateness of the learning styles (Fuller, Norby, Pearce, & Strand, 2000), and thecharacteristics of students who benefit from online courses (Lockee, 2001) have also been made.
Tthere are no conclusive answers to the nature and extent of the impact of online learning forstudents with diverse backgrounds. Researchers agree that students taking online course are
required to possess self-learning abilities, maturity and high self-discipline, high motivation, thecapability of expression and communication in writing, time organization skills (Leasure, Davis,& Thievon, 2000), as well as the ability to manage an online learning environment (Buchanan,
1999; Diaz & Cartnal, 1999; Trentin, 2002).
Furthermore, Cavanaugh, Barbour & Clark (2009) pointed to greater improvement in criticalthinking, researching, use of computers, independent learning, problem solving, creative thinking,decision-making, and time management skills of online students compared to their counterpartsin traditional classroom settings. Not surprisingly, the online learning environment poses somechallenges to student learning as well as numerous benefits. The challenges most often reported
in the research literature generally fall into two broad categories: challenges due to a mismatch
between students' specific learning style preferences and the online learning environment andchallenges in communication. With respect to these challenges, researchers suggested that in an
online environment extroverted students may miss the face-to-face interaction with peers andstudents who do not have strong verbal/reading skills may experience a disadvantage in a textheavy online environment. In addition, using problem solving and computer-mediatedcommunication, such as the MindTool software (essentially any computer program the learneruses to engage and facilitate critical thinking and higher order learning, such as: databases;
semantic networks -concept maps; spreadsheets; expert systems; system modelling tools; microworlds; search engines; visualization tools; multimedia publishing tools; live conversation
environments; and computer conferences), may encourage critical thinking and can help in
implementing cooperative learning based on technology (Jonassen, 2005).
Diverse background students
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Policies to promote widening participation, benchmarks, and incentives to recruit students from
more diverse backgrounds and those with disabilities have led to a doubling of the declared
number of students with disabilities entering higher education over the last 10 years (NLCLE,
2007). Counterpart to the students with learning disabilities is the excellent students who are an
integral part of higher education (see Methodology).
Students with learning disabilities
Students with learning disabilities might be affected by a group of disorders that affect the ability
to acquire and use listening, speaking, reading, writing, reasoning, or math skills (National Center
for Education Statistics, 2000). Profiling individuals with LD is not easy because the most citedcharacteristic of this group is that each individual is unique. However, despite the diversity, mostindividuals with LD share some common patterns of behavior. They have decreased motivation
to learn, are inactive in learning, need tasks to be broken into smaller units, have problems withgeneralizing, and are poor in problem-solving and thinking skills (Smith, 1998). The Internet has
the potential to dramatically change the way students continue with their formal education (Hill& Buerger, 1996), particularly students with learning disabilities who need the convenience of
Web Based Instruction (WBI). WBI allows students to be self-directed and self-paced, with thepossibility of repeated reiteration, giving instructors the tools necessary to organize and deliver
content in well-defined teaching systems and expand the learning process by providing activities
such as discussion forums (Kesselman & Tobin, 1999).
In addition, electronic texts offer many advantages over print-based materials for students wholearn in a web-based environment (O'Neil, & Fisher, 2008). However, for students with learning
disabilities, these advantages were not realized (Kwesi, 2002; Skylar, Higgins, & Boone, 2007).
On the other hand, Simoncelli & Hinson (2008) employed Universal Design for Learning (UDL)
methods that can be used for all students, including those with learning disabilities, and how
proper use of UDL can benefit these learners in the ever-changing online learning environment.
The findings reflected no apparent differences between two students with learning disabilities andthree without disabilities in regard to the use of instructional media.
Researchers (Brunvand & Abadeh, 2010; Skylar et al., 2007) reviewed a variety of tools andtechniques that teachers can use to help make online learning more manageable for students withdisabilities. Tools such as ShareTabs and TrackStar (Web sites for an interactive, online lesson),are designed to make it easier for teachers to share multiple Web sites, but for some students thetask of having to work through multiple sites may still be overwhelming, even with the support
and guidance provided by these resources. To accommodate these students, teachers can use avariety of tools designed to annotate and highlight individual Web sites rather than looking toshare a collection of different sites.
Excellent students
The excellent students are part of a selective, demanding, and rewarding program for thoseseeking an intellectual challenge and who are prepared to invest the extra effort required to meetthat challenge (NLCLE, 2007). Thomson (2010) states that online programming can be aneffective means of meeting the needs of many gifted students, based on in-depth qualitative andquantitative investigation of the perceptions and experiences of gifted students and their teachersof courses offered through an online program designed specifically for them. Students were able
to work at a pace consistent with their rate of learning, had more time to reflect, felt more incontrol of the learning process, and engaged in more self-directed and independent learning. The
online course described here is a general course which enables learning in heterogeneous groups
made up of excellent students, students with learning disabilities, and average students (Ronen &Shonfeld, 2008).
Online science education course

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Science plays a key role in preparing K-2 pre-service teachers. Nonetheless, most of them arereluctant to get involved in science (Ashenhaimer, Kashtan, Gur, Zymerman, & Eldad, 2001).
The question of quality and comparability of online learning naturally arises, mainly in relation toworkshop courses based on labs, which are typically (Face to Face) F2F oriented. Trying tohighlight the advantages of online labs for diverse background pre-service teachers, Ronen &Shonfeld (2008) designed an online course which is based on hands-on labs. The online course
challenges the attempts to promote science instruction and foster student-teachers’ lab skills. In
addition, the online science education course provides a model to follow in the field.
The purpose of this study is to examine the extent to which an online science education course
works for pre-service students of diverse backgrounds, including students with learning
disabilities, excellent students, and average students.
Methodology
The purpose of this study was to examine the extent to which the online course "Science
Education for K-2" is the appropriate learning environment for different student teachers ─ "LD,""Average," and "Excellent" students ─ based on learners’ perceived evaluation in these aspects:(1) The contribution of the online course to learning, (2) the degree of coordination between
online tools for learning, and (3) the degree of interaction between participants in the course. The
findings reflected the adjustment of the course to the learners, as it was perceived by them,
despite the possible bias which limits self-reporting and the trend to answer according to what is
considered desirable (Paulhus, 2002). Nevertheless, researchers argue that exploring personality
features (such as the emotional intelligence trait) in a study can be measured by self-reported
questionnaires (Petrides & Furnham, 2001). Similarly, the present study examined the potential
behavior of students, via self reported questionnaires, i.e., capabilities (such as self-learning) andbehaviors (such as time organization). Data was collected through attitude questionnaires
distributed to all students attending the course and through interviews with three representativesof each group. The quantitative findings allowed comparison between the three groups ofstudents, and the interviews revealed students' attitudes and abilities, as is customary inqualitative research (Shelsky & Alpert, 2007).
The online "Science Education for K-2"
The online "Science Education for K-2" is intended to expose students to a variety of scientifictopics taught in early childhood classes and focuses on constructing a science teaching unit. It
was based on project-based learning (PBL), most of which took place in small groups (pairs or
threes) and was involved solving authentic problems and tasks for the study of the selected topic.
During the course the building of a scientific subject using the Science, Technology and Society(STS) approach is demonstrated to students while focusing on the process: collecting andorganizing information, mapping the topic, and planning activities. It also emphasizes the solvingof everyday life problems through research for the development of inquiry skills and theadaptation of scientific-technological changes, such as:
1.
2.

Water Lab: Laboratory dealing with water. Students were asked to perform experiments,
summarize, and draw conclusions.
Tiltan: Science kit that includes scientific equipment which enabled performing physics
experiments related to everyday life. The activities included participation in the forum,
forum management, attending meetings, and learning synchronously - asynchronously via
the course website. Each student was required to conduct a study discussion group on the
topic chosen and participate in discussion groups managed by colleagues in the course.

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The online course was based on the Highlearn platform which enabled ICT learning
synchronously through InterWise. The course included peer teaching: students conducted group
discussion and peer feedback; individual monitored learning.
All students were instructed by the lecturer in developing their project andself-learning: students read articles and sent comments on tasks related to them. At the end thestudents tried the activities in class and reflected on their experience. A variety of learning tools
was provided, using an interactive site that contained the information (presentations, articles,
videos, recordings of lectures and exercises, handouts, forum, chat, survey, testing, training, andannouncements), which allowed learning through discussion groups (forums) and asynchronous
audial discussion. The course evaluation included formative assessment, including peer review
and teacher evaluation, and summative evaluation, which included scores on assignments and a
final grade for the work.
The study population
The five-year study population included 121 students in their second year in the Early Childhood
program: participants in the online course "Science Teaching for Early Childhood," 25 "LDstudents" (with learning disabilities, diagnosed as ADHD - Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity
Disorder), 28 "excellent students" (enrolled in the Honors program including top 10% students`
academic achievements), and 68 "average students" (not identified as LD or excellent). Everycourse included about 20 students, including representatives of all three groups, and was taught
by the researchers.
Research tools
Pre–Questionnaire: The questionnaire included 12 closed questions and three open questions. Allof the closed questions included 3 or 4 choices, most of them rated on a Likert scale. For example,
when asked "how important was your relationship with the Instructors?" respondents had tochoose between “to a great extent," "moderately," or" not at all.” To assess the degree ofcommunication with the online course instructors, the students had to choose between"more\equal\less” than the relationship with regular lecturers. Questionnaire items related to thecomputer skills of learners, assessing their individual learning ability, the importance learners
attached to communication with lecturers and students in the course, their assumptions for the
online course communication they will attend, their work habits, and their degree of satisfaction
with the online course in various areas.
Post-Questionnaire: The questionnaire included 15 closed questions and three open questions andwas similar in its structure to the pre-questionnaire. Some of the questions of the prequestionnaire also appeared to test if students' attitudes changed after the online course.
Additional questions related to the students' evaluation of their individual learning and tocommunication with others in the course. Additional questions related to satisfaction with tasks
and activities, the degree of participation in discussion groups, and their evaluation of uniqueelements of online teaching. For example, "To what extent does knowledge sharing among forum
participants contribute to learning?" Possible responses included "to a great extent,""moderately," or "not at all."Interviews: Semi-structured interviews, lasting about forty-five minutes, were conducted withnine students - three from each of the three groups - based on questions set in advance, whichenabled an open dialogue with the interviewees. The interviews were conducted, recorded, andtranscribed by the researchers.
The research process
The five-year study was conducted by the researchers, who were careful to be uniformed about
which group the students belonged to ("LD", "average", and "excellent"). The Pre- and Post-

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Volume III - Issue II - Summer 2015questionnaires were completed at the beginning and end of the course by participants via theInternet. The students’ course grades were determined by evaluating the following components:(1) Student activity and tasks performance, (2) participation in forums and chat rooms, (3) student
feedback in their peer forum, (4) information search in the chosen topic, (5) building learning
centers, and (6) project summary. Data was collected and analyzed separately each year. After thefive years of the study, the results were combined and analyzed to compare the three groups.
Analysis
Descriptive statistics were used to analyze the results of the questionnaires using SPSS software.
To check if the students’ responses from the three groups, "LD," "average," and "excellent,”
differed in various aspects of the course, an ANOVA test was conducted to examine differencesamong the three groups regarding their perceived contribution of the online course to theirlearning. In addition, a multivariate analysis was made between the three groups. Naralizer
software was used for content analysis of in-depth interviews, organizing the data according tocriteria defined by the researchers in advance or during analysis. In this study, four categories
were defined in advance (see sections 1, 2, 4 in Findings) and two additional categories emerged
from interviews with students (see sections 3, 5 in Findings).
Findings
Several aspects of the perceived contribution of the online learning course were reviewed in: (1)Students’ self-learning ability and participation in the online course; (2) Students` satisfaction
with the online course activities and skills; (3) Suitability of the online environment for learning;(4) Online course interaction; (5) Online course availability; and (6) Online course student
achievement.
1. Students' self-learning ability and participation in the online course
Figure 1 shows the LD, Average, and Excellent students` evaluation of their self-directed
learning abilities. As can be seen in the pre-questionnaires, the LD students reported lower levelsof self-directed learning in comparison to the average and excellent pre-service-teachers.
However, in the post-questionnaire they reported higher levels of self-directed learning incomparison to the others. The biggest improvement can be seen in the LD students' selfevaluation.

SDL Abilities
4
3.5
3
2.5

Pre

2

Post

1.5
1
0.5
0
LD

Average

Excellent

Figure 1. Students' Evaluation of their Self-directed Learning (SDL) Abilities: LD, Average, andExcellent students (N=121)

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The interviews clarified the perceived contribution of the online course to the students' selflearning ability. As one LD student, N, said, "In the online course I needed to learn independently,
all by myself. At first I had difficulties in information processing, but I had to manage, so I
overcame. I managed in-time planning, I learned to take responsibility, and I feel much more selfdisciplined."
An excellent student, A, said, "Although I am a self-learner and I know how to learn by myself, I
mainly learn from my lecturer in a traditional lesson. The online course contributed to my selflearning skills, responsibility, and time planning."
And an average student, T, claimed, "Self learning is a necessary condition for online learning.
Students who need to see and hear their lecturer can`t be online learners."
Figure 2 shows the differences between the three groups in lesson participation. The excellent
students reported equal participation in an online course and in a traditional one. The average
students reported lower participation in an online course than a traditional one, while the LD
students reported higher participation in an online compared to a traditional course. LD students’
self-reported participation in the online course was virtually equal to that of the excellent students
and is not statistically significant.
4
3.5
3
2.5
Forum Participation

2

Class Participation

1.5
1
0.5
0
LD

Average

Excellent

Figure 2. Students' Evaluation of Participation Level in a Traditional Course and in an Online
Forum: LD, Average, and Excellent students (N=121)
2. Students' satisfaction with the online course activities and skills
The post-questionnaire required students to evaluate and rank the activities conducted in thecourse and the skills they acquired, including planning and execution processes and laboratorywater lab, forum management and participation, and an authentic task activity.
The analysis distinguishes (p <0.05) between LD student group and the other two groups on thefollowing activities: an authentic task, water lab, and forum management (Table 1). A
multivariate analysis in the form of discriminant analysis performed on the data revealed one
significant function which differentiated between the LD students and the other groups. The
results are presented in Table 1.

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Table 1. Structural Coefficients Discriminating between LD Students and the Other Groups(N=121)The Subjects

Structure Coefficients

Authentic task
Water Lab
Forum M
Forum P
Mabat
Science kit
Eigenvalue
X²
Wilks-lambda
Centroids:
LD
Average
Excellent.47***.47***.29***
.199
-.137
-.044
.69
27.72***
.41
-1.43
.46
.76

***P˂.005

A detailed assessment of LD, excellent, and average students’ standard measures distinguished(an authentic task, water laboratory, and forum management) is shown in Figure 3.
3

2.5

2
LD
1.5

A
EX

1

0.5

0
FORUM MANAGEMENTWATER LABAUTHENTIC

Figure 3. Students' Evaluation of Forum Management, Water Lab, and Authentic Task: LD, AAverage, and Ex-Excellent students (N=121)
Figure 3 and Table 1 show higher satisfaction expressed by the LD students compared with theirpeers regarding the three distinguished indices: an authentic task, water laboratory and forum
management. Moreover, it can be seen that the average students’ evaluation is also higher thanthat of the excellent students in all three indices, although the difference is not significant.
3. Suitability of online environment for learning
To study the contribution of online tools (tools for synchronously teaching, voice supported
software, multimedia, forums, online practice, and messages) to the learning of students withdiverse background (LD, excellent, and average students), the researchers relied on these tools:
questionnaire, criteria defined in the interview, and other criteria that emerged from the content
analysis of personal interviews.
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Volume III - Issue II - Summer 2015(a). Synchronic lessons’ adjustment for learning:
During synchronous lessons, students could determine the learning place for themselves, at homeor elsewhere. They were able to see slides and exercises the professor presented and hear thevoice of the instructor and other participants. Students could take part by asking questions,express opinions by voting, and participate in the discussions. The students were able to listen torecorded lectures in their spare time.
Students noted the following synchronic learning benefits:
1. Synchronous instruction allows immediate interaction with the teacher and peers:"A synchronous lecture is important. It really helped me to have immediate response, and I likean immediate response. It is even well than a traditional lesson in which I almost do notparticipate and do not ask anything" (N.).
2. A synchronous learning environment allows privacy for learning, supporting learners withlearning disabilities who are sensitive to environmental disturbances:"It's like in a synchronous lecture. I was sitting in a lecture class with everyone, but it's neater andless noisy. This is important, particularly for students with attention deficit problems. Noise takes
you out of focus" (S.).
3. Learners could return to recorded materials for extra training according to their needs. Thisadvantage is particularly crucial for LD students and was noted as supportive of learning: "I could
hear the whole lesson over again, just the teacher talking to me. That is as if you are again in class,
if you did not understand something, if not the material was not provided, you can return to therecorded lesson" (S.).
Likewise, excellent students and average students noted the advantage of the recorded lessons: "Iparticipated at home always. Sometimes a move from the computer or something interfered and I
had to hear it, it bothered me. By using the recorded lesson I could listen again, even for cases
where I was absent from class or if I were unable to participate synchronously…."(H.).
4. Synchronic learning defines the time frame within which a learner is required to encounterlearning lesson. The possibility of designing the learning contributes mostly to LD students.
"I could read the lecture in advance, prior to the synchronic meeting, so I knew exactly whatquestions to ask. I was ready; it's an advantage over traditional lecture….It is the only place you
get an immediate response. We need much more synchronous sessions" (T.).
Several of the excellent students noted the specific time frame as an advantage:"I think we need more synchronous lessons… more frequently. There is a kind of framework andtime frames, which helps us not get lost" (R.).
(b). Asynchronous lessons’ adjustment for learning:Students performed tasks and responded to their colleagues in an asynchronous forum. They
could do it any time they chose, up to the date set for performance of the task. There was no
significant difference between the three groups regarding the degree of their participation neither
in the forum nor with their degree of satisfaction with participation in the forum (Table 1).
However, significant differences were found between the LD students and the other two groups
regarding their level of satisfaction with the task which they had to manage (see Table 1 andFigure). The LD students expressed greater satisfaction compared with their counterparts with the22

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discussion group management and sharing ideas with peers and lecturers. This finding was
reinforced in interviews with LD students:"Members’ participation in the forum helped me run the forum and do well in my personal
mission. I saw sequences of peer teaching, I learned from colleagues` ideas, and I used thematerials of the members. I consulted with colleagues and lecturers, which helped me to a great
extent" (T.). In contrast, average and excellent students reported that participation in thediscussion group did not help them, and they were able to cope with learning individually andindependently, without the participation of colleagues or professors: "I didn't participate much in
the forum. Requirement to respond to five colleagues is exaggerated" (R.).
The essence of the discussion group is teamwork, designed to clarify questions and discuss
concepts and content. The researchers feel that online course discussion groups can help provide
the personal and social support of colleagues and thus were valuable for the majority of LD
students.
4. Online course interaction
The degree of online interaction between the students themselves and with the lecturers wastested in three aspects: (1) Students’ assessment of the expected interaction in the online course(pre-questionnaire), (2) The importance that students attribute to the interaction with participantsin the online course (pre-questionnaire), and (3) Students’ evaluation of the actual degree ofinteraction took place in the online course (post-questionnaire).

Figure 4. The degree of online interaction between the participants: before (Pr) and after (Po) thecourse, between students (S-S), and with the teacher (T-S), and their expected interaction (Exp)before the course started: LD, A-Average, and Ex-Excellent students (N=121)
The findings indicate no significant differences between the three groups. All students attach
great importance (over 3.3) to interaction with lecturers and among peers. Everyone expected amoderate degree of interaction (less than 2) in the online course, and at the end of the course allreported a moderate degree of interaction (less than 2).

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The graph also reveals that LD students ranked the importance of the degree of contact, theexpected degree of contact, and the degree of actual contact higher than the excellent or regularstudents. From tracing the discussion groups and from interviews with students, it can be said that
the LD students reacted to discussion groups more than their peers and they demanded andreceived a larger number of responses from colleagues and lecturers. As one of the LD students
said, "…I had time to prepare my response properly and to send it in my time. I felt more
confident with my answers."
Most LD students prefer more intensive interaction with the lecturer than their peers. For
example: "I could contact the lecturer at any time and every time, not like a regular class teacher I
see only once a week, during class. That the course contributes to the self-learning, while
processing information. Initially, I had a problem and then I learned and developed. I learned touse more collaboration, more contact with professors, to ask relevant questions. These arequestions that make thinking "(N.).
The online course interaction allows topic discussion while each of the students presents theiropinions and reactions, without any preferential treatment or modification and without distracting
irrelevant stimuli (such as looks, dominance in class, or unusual behavior). The fact that online
course participants were treated equally, without discrimination among the groups, was reflectedin the words of an excellent student:"There were students who responded more or less, but since everyone has to respond there isuniformity. In a regular class there are always those who stand out" (N.).
In summary, in an online course students can choose the extent, date, and nature of the interaction
with other participants. Online course interaction is personal; allowing an intimacy between thestudents and lecturers and among the students, and students saw it as one of the strengths of thecourse.
5. The online course affordancesInterviews with students revealed additional features of the online course that can be grouped into
two categories: Flexibility and Knowledge Construction.
(a). Flexibility in time and knowledge: Flexibility in the online course allowed time management
and was reflected in access to information and in students' selection ability. This flexibility
allowed students with learning disabilities to plan learning and the availability of information at
the appropriate dose for their attention spans and concentration limitations. Hypertext wasanother tool mentioned by the LD students as contributing to the teaching and learning, providing
instant answers to questions that arise during the study and completing their knowledge gaps.
Hypertext supports knowledge construction in a complex, non-linear, and changing environment
based on the cognitive flexibility theory. But this flexibility in selecting the content could also
lead to a lack of focus in the learning process (Brunvand & Abadeh, 2010).
The special structure of the course described here assists students to focus on the task until
completion. The fact that the course is constructed of small teaching units contributed to target
specific learners' attention to relevant content while simplifying the route to finding information.
This structure helped all the students, especially those with learning disabilities, who prefer along process-phase, including memorization, training, and practice (Heiman, 2006). The excellent
students also emphasized that flexibility was the most successful aspect of the course, since itenabled a faster pace of learning and individual time management.
The findings showed that the online course enabled all students to take responsibility, to devote
the time necessary for learning, and to develop self-discipline that led to learning. As a LD

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student said, "The online course contributed to my learning. The fact that I had to sit alone withmyself and process information…developed my own learning. At first I had problems, and then I
learned from the questions that require thinking. I feel that I have evolved" (N.).
(b). Conditions for knowledge construction: Transfer of responsibility to the learner: Online tools
have changed the place and role of the teacher by reducing dependency on the teacher as a sourceof knowledge and by enabling social interaction in the learning environment. These were reported
in the literature as supporting construction of knowledge (Beldarian, 2006; Simpson, 2006).
Thinking and learning discourse: The LD students reported the value of a study group found in
the online forum in meeting their needs. Even the excellent students, who tend to learn
independently in a traditional course, enjoyed the benefits of group discussion, even though they
did not choose it. Indeed, despite their differences, the various students participated in the
discourse, contributed and donated, and showed responsibility for the online learning process (c.f.
Rotem and Peled, 2008), which became effective, high quality, and purposeful.
Customized personal support: All of the students received personal instruction tailored to theirneeds. Factors identified in this study as contributing to success in learning, such as self-learning,interpersonal communication, group discussion and discourse, and flexibility in time, figure inadvancing learning (Bray, Aoki, & Dlugosh, 2008), especially when they fit the manner of
performance and style of thinking and learning of the learner (Brunvand & Abadeh, 2010;
Dwyer& Moore, 2001).
6. Students’ achievements in the online course:
Students' grades were given by lecturers at the end of the course and were based on theassessment of the following activities: participating in forums, task performance, forum
management, and quality of the final project. The findings showed that the LD students' average
grade was higher (89) than their counterparts, the excellent (87) and average (80) students. No
comparison was made between students' grades and scores in the online course and traditionalcourses.
Discussion
The advantages of an online science education course to students of diverse backgrounds (LDstudents, excellent students, and average students) are presented in this study. The ongoing fiveyear findings pinpointed the advantages of the online course to all three groups of students, yet it
carefully reports a slight but explicitly marginal advantage in the LD students` achievements incomparison to the excellent and average students. The unexpected LD students` achievement is
not in line with previous research (Kwesi, 2002; Woodfine & Wright, 2008). The LD students'
success was expressed by their final course score given by lecturers as well as the improvementin the students` evaluation of their own self-learning ability following the online course, theirsatisfaction level regarding content learned, participation in discussion groups, and performanceon tasks. A significant difference was found between the LD students and their peers regarding
the authentic task, the water lab, and their forum management. Dealing with everyday authentic
subjects, as well as the opportunity to conduct an online study forum, was particularly significant
for the LD students.
Moreover, the LD students reported higher participation in the online course in comparison to
traditional ones and high interaction with the lecturer and their classmates. A striking result
indicating the accessibility of online learning for disabled students was also pointed by Badge,
Dawson, Cann & Scott (2008), regarding disabled students using significantly more “user control”
features than the non-disabled group while actively seeking out information by selecting
appropriate portions of the material (Badge et al., 2008).

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Similar benefits of interaction and collaborative learning in online learning are also reported in
the literature (O'Neil & Fisher, 2008; Shea, Pickett, & Sau Li, 2005), while the low benefits frominteraction involving excellent students in this research contradicts others (Olszewski & Lee,2004). These differences may result from various characteristics of the courses; for example,
teaching methods of the online course (working in pairs, cooperative learning, peer review),
course content (theoretical issues or authentic topics related to everyday life), online tools (forum,
chat, practice, videos, simulations, audio lecture, learning through texts), type of task required(reading, forum participation, hands-on lab) and the assessment of learning (formative assessment,summative assessment). When online learning is used just for knowledge transfer and mainly as
a communication platform, the online learning advantages that lead to the success of the learners
are likely to be minimal (Means, Toyama, Murphy, Bakia, & Jones 2009). In this case, theexcellent students are capable of coping with the educational content on their own and therefore
rarely use discussion groups or supervisor support.
In contrast, using a variety of online tools in online courses probably contributes to the learningof students from all backgrounds, and especially LD students, as was described in this research.
The online tools used in this research were synchronous classes using audio and visual means(supporting primarily the LD students), students forum management (supporting cooperative
learning and peer review), computerized follow-up submission of assignments (allowing tasks to
be divided into small units and helping students with time management), online documentation of
the products (continuous and intensive formative assessment), forum support (for questions,guidance and assistance).
In an online discussion forum, discourse lies at the heart of knowledge construction sincelearning is social, collaborative, consensual and negotiated. Recognition of learning discourse asa meaningful key component in knowledge construction (Teo & Webster, 2008) is also describedby the Model III theory, which refers to online tools under the term Web 2.0 (Kesselman & Tobin,
1999; Rogoff, Matsuov, & White, 1998).
Students describe unique features of the online course as flexibility and choices in utilization of
the information and in time management; interaction, including the availability of cooperative
learning and peer review; duration of lessons determined by the learners; and knowledge
construction based on the transfer of responsibility to the learner, thinking and learning groups,
and individual and customized learner support.
Adjusting instruction to students from different backgrounds is a challenge facing colleges andschools of education. The combination of excellent students with LD and average students
intensifies the challenge. However, the encouraging findings of this study suggest that an online
course contributes to the education of students from different backgrounds (Shonfeld, Hoter, andGaneyam, 2013). To establish the trend apparent from this study’s findings, more online courses
should be examined and the sample increased. Other methods (such as observation, thinking
aloud, report analysis, and report communication tasks) should be examined to deepen theassessment of online course effectiveness.

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Online Comic in Mandarin Chinese’s Vocabulary Learning: A Case Studyof Budi Utama Multilingual School in Yogyakarta, Indonesia

Nuning Catur Sri Wilujeng and Yu-Ju Lan

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Abstract
This study was aimed to investigate 1) the improvement of CFL elementary-school students’ skillin learning Mandarin Chinese (hereafter referred to as Mandarin) vocabulary through creating
comic without online resources, creating online comics individually and collaboratively, 2) the
CFL elementary-school students’ attitude towards the application of comics in learning Mandarin
vocabulary, and 3) the CFL elementary-school students’ attitude towards the application ofcollaborative activities in learning Mandarin vocabulary. The research design was based on aquasi-experiment using both qualitative and quantitative approaches. Three classes participated inthis study: one class was the control group using text-based instruction without online resources;
the other two classes were the experimental groups 1 and 2. In the experimental group 1, students
worked individually on online comic whereas in the experimental group 2, students worked
collaboratively on online comic. All participants were Grade 5 students of Budi Utama
Multilingual School in Yogyakarta, Indonesia. The collected and analyzed data included
performances on Mandarin vocabulary, in-class observation, questionnaires, and interview. In
Mandarin vocabulary performances, the experimental group 2 outperformed the other two groups
and the experimental group 1 performed better than the control group. In the students’ attitude,
the experimental group 2 behaved more positively than the two other groups, and the control
group behaved more positively than the experimental group 1.
Keywords: Online comic; Mandarin; collaborative learning; computer supported collaborative
learning (CSCL); technology enhanced language learning (TELL).

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Introduction
At the present, Mandarin is an increasingly popular language to learn around the world and it has
the largest number of people who speak it as their first language. Saville-troike (2006) noted thatthe four most commonly used languages in the world are Chinese, English, Spanish, and Hindi.
In Indonesia, there were more than 620 Mandarin schools between 1965 and 1966. Due to thepolitical problems, most of those schools were forced to close in 1967 (Wen, 1997, p.1). After
reformation began in 1998 under President Abdurrahman Wahid, a new policy was implemented
that would improve the status of Chinese-Indonesians by allowing them to acquire Chinese
names and learn/speak Mandarin.
In early 2000, a number of private multilingual schools were established in Indonesia. Budi
Utama is one of these multilingual schools where three languages (Indonesian, English, andMandarin) are used daily as the languages of instruction. Established in 2007, this is the only
multi-language school in Yogyakarta, Indonesia. Mandarin is taught in Budi Utama Multilingual
School from kindergarten to secondary school. Presently, grade 7 is the highest level in that
school. The school uses a Chinese Language textbook (小学华文) from Singapore for teaching
primary school students. The students from Grade 5 who participate in this research have highcompetence in both pronunciation and speaking. According to the interview with one of the local
teachers, some of the students have already achieved level 3 on the Youth Chinese Test (YCT).
The school supports the students to take this Chinese proficiency test which is an internationallystandardized test launched by Hanban in Mainland China. YCT is directed at examining nonnative primary and secondary school students’ capability in applying Chinese language in theirstudies, personal lives, and work. This would mean that the students already have acquired morethan 300 words and characters in their vocabulary (Hanban, 2010). Yet, they still have somedifficulties in dictation and writing Chinese characters, particularly because these students havebeen accustomed to writing in pinyin. These students may attempt to apply techniques used when
they were brought up learning the Indonesian language, which is written using the Latin alphabet.
Therefore, students find it difficult to write Chinese characters (Cook, 2003; Larsen-Freeman &Long, 1991; Jiang, 2008). The use of technology to enhance language learning, especially in
writing Chinese characters (Zhao, 2003) can potentially improve their ability.
Based on the preliminary survey, Grade 5 students at that school stated that they have a PC
computer at home, a laptop, tablet, and/or smart phone. The school also provides a computerclass of two periods a week (total 80 minutes). However, the technology has not been integrated
in supporting their Mandarin language learning. Therefore, many students rely on Google
translate to help them complete their homework assignments.
According to New Media Consortium (NMC) Horizon Report (2012), the workplace isincreasingly collaborative, which subsequently leads to changes in the way student projects are
structured. Moreover, the abundance of resources and relationships made easily accessible via
internet is increasingly challenging us to constantly refocus on our roles as educators. Therefore,
the education paradigms are shifting to include online learning and collaborative models. As aresult of these conditions above, there consequently will be a new emphasis on more challengebased and active learning in classrooms. In regards to comics as a learning activity, a research
work done by Clark (2000) shows that comics have positive effects on students. Comics engage
our attention and serves as entertainment; moreover, it presents information in a non-threatening
manner. Doring (2002) adds that comics can also be used as stimuli to encourage thinking anddiscussion skills. Other research by Rule and Auge (2005) shows that students who learn using
comics achieve higher test scores and can provide examples of why they enjoy learning in thismanner. By using comics, the students engage themselves in self-motivated practice.

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Mandarin Teaching in Indonesia
According to the Ministry of National Education of Indonesia, Curriculum of 2013 has been
applied throughout the levels of education in Indonesia. Mandarin has the similar status as thoseof local languages and/or foreign languages; therefore, it is integrated into the local content of thesubjects of Culture and Art Crafts (Group B) provided in Table 2-1 (KPK, 2013, p.3). Schools areallowed to teach Mandarin for Grade 5 students up to 5 periods in a week. Each period lasts forroughly 35 minutes. The integrative thematic learning is implemented in this 2013 curriculum.
Table 1. Curriculum 2013 for Elementary School (KPK, 2013, p.3)
Subjects

Time Duration of Learning in a Week
I

II

III

IV

V

VI

Religion and Moral Education

4

4

4

4

4

4

Pancasila and Citizenship Education

5

5

6

4

4

4

Indonesian Language

8

9

10

7

7

7

Mathematics

5

6

6

6

6

6

Natural Sciences

-

-

-

3

3

3

Social Sciences

-

-

-

3

3

3

Culture and Arts Crafts

4

4

4

5

5

5

Sports Science

4

4

4

4

4

4

30

32

34

36

36

36

Group AGroup B

Total

However, the school forms the learning unit, meaning it has the right to develop its own
curriculum based on the needs of the students. It precisely means that the school may reduce or
add the period’s number and/or the time duration of subjects belonging to Group B in Table 1.
Budi Utama School develops its curriculum and gives 7 periods of Mandarin for 5th gradestudents. Each period consists of 40 minutes. There are 3 Mandarin teachers, two of them being
native Mandarin -speaking teachers and only one of them being a local Mandarin teacher. The
component of material and/or language skills is listed in Table 2.
Table 2. Mandarin Teaching Composition for 5 Grade Students
Language Skills/ Contents

Periods per Week Teacher

Mandarin Speaking

3

NativeChinese Culture

2

NativeMandarin Reading and Writing

2

Local

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People in Yogyakarta are either bilingual or multilingual (Margana, 2009). Somehow, Mandarin
is a foreign language to most Indonesians, as it plays no major role in the community and it isprimarily learnt only in the classroom. The students are getting language exposure only during
the school period. During the class break, the students soon switch into Javanese or Indonesianlanguage in oral communication with other students. Therefore, there is a lack of writing activity
using Chinese characters.
Despite this, Budi Utama is flexibly allowed to modify the periods of teaching the subject inGroup B in Table1; however, the language skills listed in Table 2 does not reflect the needs of thestudents. Students encounter more language differences in writing skills rather than otherlanguage skills (Sutami, 2008). Furthermore, since students in Budi Utama are used to using
Hanyu Pinyin, the experiment would consist of both Chinese characters and Hanyu Pinyin. Thisis also stated by Saville-troike (2006) about the learner characteristic and circumstances.
Collaborative Learning
Collaborative learning has been found to beneﬁt students in various disciplines as it contributes tostudent learning. Liao (2014) states that the contribution can be divided into two aspects:
academic and social. In regards to the academic aspect, studies ﬁnd that collaborative learningbenefits students in academic achievement, as well as positive attitudes toward the subject matter,
commitment to learning, critical thinking, and problem solving skills (Liao, 2006; Wong &Abbruzzese, 2011; Huynh, Jacho-Chaves, & Self, 2010; McDuff, 2012; Xie, 2011). In terms of
the social aspect, researchers ﬁnd that collaborative learning sharpens and strengthens students’
overall communication skills, such as team working skills, emotional skills, and conﬂict
resolution skills (Jarvenoja & Jarvela, 2009; Prichard, Stratford, & Bizo, 2006; Yates, 2006).
Other advantages are also shown by Liao’s (2014) research towards high school collaborative
learning students in public speaking. The students managed to increase speech efficacy anddecrease their speech anxiety.
Another set of researchers find that collaborative learning that includes groups working together
and peer assistance have been widely used in reading programs to create the necessary intensity
and strong support for learning (Lan, Sung, & Chang, 2007). Collaborative learning (or peerassisted learning) can improve their reading outcomes (Ranker, 2007; Cary, 2004; Liu, 2004).
Collaborative learning does not only promote the development of positive attitudes towards othergroup members and learning material, but also builds social relationships and group cohesion(Kreijns, 2004). CSCL is synchronous cooperation/collaboration through shared workspaces(Baker & Lund, 1996). However, most of the empirical studies using innovative CSCL-specifictools (beyond windows sharing as part of video conferencing periods, etc.) were usually based on
selective experiments that were often conducted in a laboratory (Fischer & Mandl, 2001).
Online Comics
Persha and Nawvi (2004) state that vision is the primary sensory system for most people. Vision
plays an important role in all areas of development, especially the cognitive area, whereintellectual function is the product of this early sensory input through the eyes. Furthermore, thesimplified visual representation and the recurrent plot typical of comics help to elicit children's
interest in them (Jylhä-Laide, 1994). Students have assessed comics positively as they make thecourse more entertaining and make learning easier. They can reduce repetition and allow teachers
to run classes without the need of textbooks. They also make remembering words easy andpromote creative skills and motivate students to learn. In addition, Liu (2004) states that because
comics are highly visual texts, they have been shown to be especially effective for increasing
reading comprehension for second and/or additional language learners. Figure 1 presents an
example of an online comic.

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Figure 1. Example of an Online Comics
Previous comics’ research conducted by France (2010) based on the different foreign language
learning style provides learners with a prototype. An experiment toward high school students
shows that the approach attracts the students to learn foreign languages. The findings shows thatbesides the positive side, however, the online comics have some limiting aspects such as limited
collection, that users cannot easily identify the best characters, the different poses, or different
moods to represent their ideas.
Based on the explanation above and the literature reviews the potential of online comics incollaborative learning in improving vocabulary learning will be confirmed by answering and thefollowing questions:
1. What are the different improvements of CFL elementary-school students’ Mandarin vocabulary
among the three comics creation approaches (paper-based learning, individually online comics,
and collaborative learning online comics)?
2. What are the different attitudes among CFL elementary-school students towards application of
three comic creation approaches (paper-based learning, individually online comics, andcollaborative learning online comics) in learning Mandarin vocabulary?
3. What are the different attitudes of CFL elementary-school students towards the online comics
application between individual and collaborative creation in learning Mandarin vocabulary?
Online Comic in Mandarin Vocabulary Learning
ParticipantsStudents of Grade 5 from Budi Utama Multilingual School were the participants of the research.
There were three classes participating in this study: students in the control group were taught
under a text-based instruction and created comics individually without online resources; those in
the experimental group 1 created online comics individually; and those in the experimental group
2 created online comics collaboratively.

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Table 3. Students’ Profile

Items

Criterion

ControlGroup(N=16)

Individual Collaborative
ComicsLearning(N=14)(N=16)

M

5

7

6

F

11

7

10

9,79 yrs.

10,1 yrs.

GenderAge(in average) 10.07 yrs.

Have computer, tablet, or smart
phone

Yes

16

12

16

No

0

2

0

Experience in using computer,tablet or smart phone in learning
Mandarin

Yes

1

6

7

No

15

8

9

Research Design
The research design was based on the quasi-experiment design. Qualitative and quantitative
approaches have been used to collect and analyze data.
Instruments
Vocabulary Performance Test
A vocabulary performance test consists of both a pretest and posttest. This parallel test between
pre and posttest was developed based on the Student Book and Student Activity Book. It was also
combined with the Standard test YCT and TOCFL beginner level.
Comic Lesson Plan
The lesson plan was arranged based on the school curriculum for grade 5 students (日惹崇德三
語國民學校 課程活動安排表) and Mandarin writing activity for lesson 1 (學習寫字:完成活動本 1 頁到 2 頁寫字練習一課時).

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Table 4. Comic Lesson Plan
Task
Topic

Grammar
Point

Pre-Activity

去野餐

回答這些 疑問詞；什麼時候去?， 去哪裡野餐?，怎
麼去?，跟誰去?，帶了什
麼東西?，看什麼?，幾點
回家?

Control group: teacher distributes paper,and asks the students to create comics;
they can create a story by answering thequestions that have been prepared by theteacher; teacher uses PPT to expose somepictures that would stimulate students increating the story.

Students’ Main Task
Student manuallycreate comics

Example: 1)
The teacher asks the students about theweather of that day,”今天天氣怎麼樣?or
今天天氣好不好? This question tends tostimulate students in creating a story.

1) Students may
answer,”今天天氣很
好” or ,”今天天氣好”2) 去哪裡野餐?
2) Students cananswer “去山下野餐”, “去海邊野餐”or“去公園野餐”
Experiment Group 1: the students need tomove to the computer lab; students operate
the computer in the laboratory and go to
www.toondoo.com to create comics
individually using online resources;
teacher also uses PPT to expose somepictures that would stimulate students increating the story

The students create
comics individually
online on
www.toondoo.com

Experiment Group 2: the students workin small groups; the teacher gives ananimal name to the groups such as 青蛙，貓，蛇子，狗，兔子和老虎; the student
also needs to move to the computerlaboratory, 1 set computer for 1 group; theteacher also uses PPT to expose somepictures that would stimulate students increating the story

The students work ingroups to create thestory. In the group,
students willcommunicate eachother before deciding
the story. Students
also negotiate prior to
making groupdecision.

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Students answer thequestions by choosing
character, background,and accessories
provided in
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Toondoo Online Comics
Toondoo (www.toondoo.com) is a free comic website which will be used as a media source in thelearning of Mandarin during the course of this research. The website says, “Toondoo is a cool,
comic-creating tool from Jambay, a fun site for kids. Jambay is devoted to creating a unique arrayof free and customizable online games of educational value for children of all abilities.”
In-Class Observation List
The observation list was revised from the previous research proposed by Lan, Sung, and Chang(2007). The list consists of three learning-related behaviors and learning-unrelated behaviors.
Questionnaire about Students’ Attitude towards Applying Comic in
Learning Mandarin
The questionnaire is based on Lund (2001) Measuring Usability with the USE. Initially, thequestionnaire was adapted from a document that consists of three dimensions: usefulness,satisfaction, and easiness.
Interview List
There are 6 questions about the application of online comic and collaborative learning.
PC Computers
There were 18 sets of computers in the computer lab which were connected to the internet. On the
keyboard, the Simplified Chinese Language feature has been added to the language choice.
Procedure
To obtain both qualitative and quantitative data, the mixed method has been applied in thisresearch. Figure2 shows the cycles about this mixed method in collecting data.

Figure 2. Mixed Research Model
Data Collection
The quantitative data was collected from scores of students’ pre and posttest vocabulary
performance.

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The qualitative data will consist of 1) students comic creation of two teaching units, 2) a video
recording to document in-class activity, 3) an in-class observation in an observation checklist, 4)
questionnaire, and 5) interview.
Data Analysis
The quantitative data were students’ scores from pretest and posttest on Mandarin vocabulary
performance. A two-way analysis of covariance was conducted, while the covariate is thestudents’ summative score in the previous semester. The score of comics creation will beanalyzed using a one-way Anova. Qualitative data consists of an in-class observation about
students’ behaviors. Data were collected from the video recording, and then rated by two raters,
which is noted on the in-class observation list; later, the data was analyzed by using Chi-Squareanalysis to investigate the comparison between three nonparametric data. Descriptive statistics
were conducted to analyze the qualitative data.
Results
Pretest and Posttest of Vocabulary Performance
Table 4 lists the descriptive statistics results of both pre and posttest. Regarding the scores ofpretest and posttest, the homogeneity test was significant (F(4.790)=.001, p<.05).
Table 5. The Mean and Standard Deviation (SD) of Pretest and Posttest’s Score
Control Group(N=16)

Individual Comics(N=14)

M

SD

M

SD

M

SD

Pretest

60.68

17.12

60.00

12.61

60.25

13.65

Posttest

63.43

19.57

62.21

15.64

68.18

11.37

Test

Collaborative
Learning (N=16)

Table 5 presents a summary of the two-way analysis of covariance on students’ scores in pre andposttest of vocabulary performance, with the score of previous semester as the covariates. The
table shows that the interaction effect between test and group is not significant. This means that
there are no differences varied according to levels. The group factor is not significant(F(0.88)=0.41, p>.05). This means that no difference exists between the scores between pretestand posttest in the three groups. The test factor is significant (F(9.67)=0.007, p<.05), meaningthat the grouping of control group, individual comics, and collaborative learning gives
significantly different scores between pre and posttest.
Test within group (1) or control group is not significant (F(0.85)=0.359, p>.05); neither is the test
within group (2) or individual comics group (F(0.48)=0.489, p>.05). This means that both groups
still made some improvements due to the training, yet does not vary. While the test within group(3) or the collaborative learning group is significant (F(7.10)=.009, p<.05), meaning that theexperiment significantly benefited students’ vocabulary performance in the collaborative learninggroup.

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Table 6. Two-Way Analysis of Covariance of Vocabulary Performance
Type III sum
of squares

df

Mean
squareWithin Cells

6037.8485

71.03

Test by Group

135.98

2

67.99

.91

.409

Group

131.97

2

65.99

.88

.419

Group within Test (1)

2.69

2

1.35

.02

.981

Group within Test (2)304.422

152.21

2.14

.124

Test

458.111

458.11

9.67.007**

Test within Group(1)

60.50

1

60.50

.85

.359

Test within Group(2)

34.32

1

34.32

.48

.489

Test within Group(3)504.031

504.037.10.009**

Error

710.7915

47.39

Source of Variation

F

Sig.

Note *p<.05 **p<.01 ***p<.001`
Comic Creation
This section provides the comics creation done by control group, individual comics, andcollaborative learning. First, each comics creation will be scored based on a writing rubric(Jacobs et al., 1981); then, after being scored by two teachers, the final comics score stood as thedependent variable in a one-way analysis of variance.
Comic creations done by the control group, the individual group, and the collaborative learninggroup are then being commented by the teachers and also scored based writing rubric. Figures 3
to 5 show some examples of students’ comic creation and the teacher’s comment based on thewriting rubric.

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Writing Rubrics
Content/ Idea Development

The plot of the unclear scene is delivered. The
female student wanted to tell that after her friend
left. She met a new friend. They became closefriends.
They used 我的 xin* instead of 新.

Organization

Opening, development, and closing is developed,
although was so limited.

Vocabulary/ Word Choice

There was no feeling of expression (難過，開心)Language Use/ Grammar

搬到……*

Mechanics

All sentences were written using Chinesecharacters (except for the word xin*)

Figure 3. Example of Control Group’s Comic Creation

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Writing Rubrics
Content/ Idea Development

The student is a female student. The idea is notabout 搬家, but rather 旅行.
新家破* should be 新加坡.

Organization

There is no completed story.

Vocabulary/ Word Choice

The student mixed 要 and 有; mentioned 新加坡,
真的啊, but no other vocabulary words.

Language Use/ Grammar

我也有去* should be 我也要去.

Mechanics

There is no development in the story. It is also
impossible for people to say goodbye when too
close to the aircraft.

Figure 4. Example of Individual Comics’ Creation

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Writing Rubrics
Content/ Idea Development

The main character is chosen by a male student
Story can be developed a bit longer
Some exclamation word was not written in
Mandarin such as “yipi” or “uh”

Organization

There is an opening, development, but still needs aclosing

Vocabulary/ Word Choice

There is no feeling expression (開心，難過)Language Use/ Grammar

No related story between picture 4 and 5

Mechanics

More Chinese characters are applied in the comics

Figure 5. Example of Collaborative Learning’s Comic Creation
Table 7 presents a summary of the one-way analysis of variance on students’ scores of comics
creation. This analysis is then followed by the post hoc analysis in Table 8.

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Table 7. One-way Analysis of Variance of Comic Creation
Source of Variation

Sum ofSquaresdf

Mean
SquareF

Sig.

Between Groups

428.8262

214.41333.523.000***

Within Groups

275.027

43

6.396

Total

703.85345

Note *p<.05 **p<.01 ***p<.001`
Table 8. Post Hoc Analysis(I) Students_Group

Tukey
HSD

ControlGroup

Individual
ComicsCollaborative
learning(J)
Mean
Students_Group Difference
(I-J)

Std.
Error

Sig.

95% ConfidenceInterval

Lower
Bound

Upper
Bound

Individual
Comics-0.64286

0.925530.768-2.8895

1.6038Collaborative
learning-6.68750*

0.89415 .000***-8.858-4.517

Control Group

0.64286

0.92553-1.6038

2.8895Collaborative
learning-6.04464*

0.92553 .000*** -8.2913-3.798Control Group

6.68750*

0.89415 .000***

4.517

8.858

Individual
Comics

6.04464*0.92553 .000***

3.798

8.29130.768

Note *p<.05 **p<.01 ***p<.001
In-Class Observation
There are 2 categories of students’ behaviors in the classroom: learning related and learning
unrelated behavior (Lan, Sung, & Chang, 2007). In-class observation is based on their activities
in the classroom that has been recorded and then decoded by 2 raters. The Pearson correlation
was 0.000 and it is significant at the 0.01 level.

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Table 9. Chi Square Analysis Result
Value

df

Asymp. Sig.
(2-sided)Pearson Chi-Square

495.000

25.000***

Likelihood Ratio

230.067

25.000

Linear-by-Linear
Association

72.0941.000

N of Valid Cases

99

Pearson Chi-Square

500.000

25.000***

Likelihood Ratio

319.851

25.000

Linear-by-Linear
Association

84.0171.000

N of Valid Cases

100

Pearson Chi-Square

400.000

25.000***

Likelihood Ratio

235.901

25.000

Linear-by-Linear
Association

76.320

1.000

N of Valid Cases

100

GroupsControl Group

Individual Comics

Collaborative
Learning

Note *p<.05 **p<.01 ***p<.001
Table 10. The Frequency of the Learning Behavior (in %)Group

Learning-Related Behavior

Learning-Unrelated
Behavior

CreateComicCreatecomic
withdialogue

Createcomic with
dialogue inChinesewriting

PlayingwithothersControl
Group

64.89

12.33

8.47

5.08

6.28

2.94

Individual
Comic

38.13

23.47

10.59

12.5

8.91

6.41

Collaborative
Learning

39.06

29.50

29.41

0.94

0.47

0.63

Note *p<.05 **p<.01 ***p<.001

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Students’ Perception about Comics Learning
Students’ perspective about Comics learning is presented in Table 11. Based on the mean of eachgroup, the collaborative learning group students show the highest in every dimension. The
individual comics group students show the highest mean at every dimension in comparison withthe control group students. The data also notes that the satisfaction dimension was the highest
mean among the three groups. The control group and individual comics group have the same
preference; that is, usefulness of comics learning has the lowest mean. In regards to thecollaborative learning group students, the easiness was at the lowest dimension.
Table 11. Usability of Comic Learning
Questionnaire Dimensions

Control Group(N=16)

Individual
Comics(N=14)

Collaborative
Learning (N=16)

M

SD

M

SD

M

SD

The whole questionnaire

3.122

0.678

3.259 0.652

3.396

0.626

Usefulness

2.990

0.692

3.208 0.649

3.426

0.606

3.185

0.693

3.223 0.692

3.262

0.692

3.188

0.658

3.381 0.597

3.574

0.535

Easiness

Ease of Using
Ease of
Learning

Satisfaction

The questionnaire also provided the essay section. There are 12 students expressing theirsatisfaction in operating online comics; 2 students did not give any other comments. There are 8
students, who also said that the internet connection was too bad, and 1 student said that thecomputer needed to be upgraded; 3 students said they need much more time to create online
comics. In the collaborative learning group, 10 students showed their satisfaction by rating online
comics as being fun and interesting, and that they love working on online comics. 7 students
stated that the internet connection was very unsupported, 7 students mentioned about the limited
time given; 2 students said that online comics was easy, and 1 student declared that online comics
is fun, but a bit difficult.
Interview
Table 12. Interview Reports
Questions

Q1. Can you create comics
using Toondoo?

Individual
ComicsGroup(N=14)

Collaborative
Learning Group(N=16)

Yes

No

Yes

No

100

0

100

0

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Q2. Do you like create
comics using Toondoo?

100

0

100

0

Q3. Do you practiceToondoo at home?

71

29

75

25

Q4. Do you like theactivity?

50

50

54

44

Q5. If you are interested in
Toondoo, will you tell
about it to yourfriends? How?

42

58

75

25

Note *p<.05 **p<.01 ***p<.001`
Conclusions, Limitation, and Recommendations
Conclusions
There is development in students’ Mandarin vocabulary, the collaborative learning group shows
the uppermost result, followed by the individual comics group and control group. The mean
between pre and posttest for the control group is 60.68 and 63.43 respectively; individual comics
group is 60.00 and 62.21 respectively; and collaborative learning group is 60.25 and 68.18
respectively. This performance was also reinforced by their comic creation performance where
the collaborative learning group got the highest score based on the rubric writing score with themean of 5.90, followed by the individual comic group with the mean of 1.14, and the control
group with the mean of 1.02.
Students from three group who created comic in different approaches showed that satisfaction is
the highest dimension (Mean= 3.381). Control group and individual comics students declared thatthe easiness dimension is better than the usefulness dimension. Students from the experimentalgroups stated that they are satisfied about applying online comic in learning Mandarin. The
satisfaction dimension showed the highest percentage (28.26%), followed by the usefulness
dimension (26.80%), and the easiness dimension (22.34%). From the essay section, students alsomentioned about adding some periods of time and increasing the stability of internet connection
during the experiment.
The general attitude among students about collaborative learning was strongly positive. They
managed time to accomplish the task, and showed no signs of distractions such as playing around,chatting with other, etc. For most of the time, they would discuss about which character theyshould choose, how to deliver the story, etc. This attitude also reinforced their comics creation
performance that they can do better than the other 2 groups. Based on the further interview, there
were 5 students who preferred to work individually, 7 students who preferred to work
collaboratively, and 4 students who can work both individually and collaboratively.
These findings mentioned above imply that 1) working collaboratively is more beneficial for the
students to accomplish a project/task, 2) time duration and internet stability are inevitable inonline activity, and that 3) creating story or writing activity is hard for any children of that age.
Limitations
This research does not cover the different preference about male and female students in creating48

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their character in comics creation, nor the different styles between male and female students indelivering dialogue. Some comic creations showed the tendency that male students prefer adding
the animal character into their comic creation, while the female students prefer the female
character to represent them in the story. Male students use more interjection (oh, yipi, wow,
arghhghgh, etc.) than female students. In the future, it will be more sounding if both terms were
included in the research area.
It was the first time for the students to practice typing Chinese characters. Therefore, it is ideal forthe need of more training towards typing Chinese characters. Students were still confused when
they tried to switch into typing Chinese characters, in which case they asked the teacher forassistance. After typing the Chinese character, they still chose which one was deemed the mostcorrect. A student typed xīn 新 jiā 家 pò 破* instead of xīn 新 jiā 加 pō 坡 given the same Hanyu
Pinyin. If only learning strategy was incorporated into this scope of research, the finding would
be more abundant. A student opened Google Translate to know whether his typing was correct ornot; other students checked their textbook to confirm the Chinese character. This phenomenon
implies that even the Hanyu Pinyin system is still needed in learning Mandarin, yet when typing acharacter, there is always another application that they can use to support their writing. Based on
the school curriculum, the higher the level of Mandarin learning, the more writing activity
students will practice.
This research also neglected the learning style of the students. Some students may have visual
style, audio style, or kinesthetic style. For higher level of education, the regrouping based on the
different learning style in creating comics may give better impact not only in learning language,
but also in developing skills in the animation business in the future.
Recommendations
It is recommended for the schools in Indonesia, especially in Yogyakarta, to integrate technology
in learning language, for example apply online learning.
Collaborative learning, especially CSCL, should be applied in daily activity, as it is significantly
beneficial for students to excel in a learning activity, learning behavior, and learning products.

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Exploring Learner’s Patterns of Using the Online Course Tool in
University Classes

Yoshihiko Yamamoto and Akinori Usami

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Abstract
Online course tools such as WebCT or Manaba+R are popularly used in university classes andenhance learners’ understanding of their course contents. In addition, teachers try to utilize these
online course tools for their students such as giving their students online discussions, providing
students with additional materials and so forth. However, based on the authors’ observation of
students, students often do not see these additional materials and messages on Manaba+R. The
authors encourage their students to use it and, in fact, they put a lot of additional materials of thecourse or useful messages for their students on Manaba+R. The aims of this study are here.
Firstly, this study investigates what extent students actually use Manaba+R through the semester.
Secondly, it tries to find suggestions of how teachers can promote their students to maximize
making use of Manaba+R. To collect the data, coding actual access to Manaba+R by students andquestionnaires were used. The total of 335 responses of questionnaires were collected and total of
380 were coded for actual access to Manaba+R. The questionnaire results show that many
students showed positive attitudes towards using Manaba+R. The results of coding numbers ofaccess reveal that using Manaba+R was part of their assessment of their course, students tended
to use it.
Keywords: Online course tools; Manaba+R; university education.

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Introduction
Thanks to rapid growth of technological devices such as smart phones and tablet devices, thesetechnological devices are widely used in university classes. Online course tools such as WebCT,
Moodle or Manaba+R are often used for many courses at university. These online course tools
provide both teachers and students with a better learning opportunity when they are usedeffectively (For example, Harris, 1999; Mende, 1999; Morss, 1999; Burgess, 2003). Although
online course tools are useful for both teachers and students, several studies report problems withthese tools such as lack of student’s motivation (Ngai, Poon, and Chan, 2007) and technicalproblems which make student’s access unavailable for using online course tools (Petrides, 2002).
The authors of this study encourage their students to use Manaba+R in their classes. They also
post some messages and homework on Manaba+R. However, the authors of this study realize thatsome students often access (delete word) Manaba+R but other students hardly access to it
throughout the semester. Thus, there are two aims of this study. Firstly, this study investigates towhat extent students actually use Manaba+R throughout the semester. Secondly, it tries to findways teachers can promote the use of Manaba+R to their students so they maximize its use.
Literature review
Past studies of use of online course tools for university students explains several advantages ofthese online course tools. For example, Ngai, Poon and Chan (2007) explains that online course
tools such as WebCT allow students to access learning tools such as discussions boards, chatrooms and course content management. Hagler (2004) suggested the benefit of WebCT is likebuilding rapport with other students through discussions and chart features. Picciano (2002) also
claims the advantage of using online course tools for students. They provide students with a senseof being in and belonging in their course, and the ability to interact with their classmates and theirlecturers outside a face-to-face class.
Willette (2002) points out the flexibility of using online course tools. For example, if students
cannot come to the class or if they miss things in class, then they can access online course tools tocheck lecture notes anywhere online access is available. Also instead of using Emails or phone
calls, if a lecturer thinks a question by one of students is useful for other students, then thequestion and answer can be posted on bulletin board at anytime. Petrides (2002) found that online
discussion rooms provide students with an opportunity to discuss more details with other students
than face-to-face interactions. However, online course tools sometimes do not work effectively
for students. Ngai, Poon and Chan (2007) found that their student’s attitude towards online course
tools was important for them to use online course tools. They conclude that their students used
WebCT because their lecturers told them to use it as a specific subject requirement. Therefore, if
lectures do not ask students to use online course tools, then students may not show their interestin using online course tools. In addition, Ngai, Poon and Chan (2007) point out that using online
course tools should be easy for students to use. If those online course tools are too difficult for
students to use, then students lose their interest in using them.
Further et al. (2002) argued that unless a Web-based learning tool was professionally developed,
implemented, maintained and administrated, the positive support to learning could go in adifferent direction. Petrides (2002) found that some students were disadvantaged due to technicalproblems. Some students had slow modems at home which made it difficult for them toparticipate in online discussions. Other students were only able to access to the Internet outside of
the class at their workplace and thus it was difficult for them to use online course tools outside of
the class.

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Methodology
In order to collect the data for this study, the authors used questionnaires for their students andcounted numbers of views of Manaba+R by participants. All questions on questionnaires arelisted below.
Q1: How often did you bring your PC in class?
1: every time, 2: almost every time, 3: sometimes, 4: hardly, 5: neverQ2: How often did you use your PC in class?
1: every time, 2: almost every time, 3: sometimes, 4: hardly, 5: neverQ3: How often did you use Manaba+R?
1: every time, 2: almost every time, 3: sometimes, 4: hardly, 5: neverQ4: Did you have homework through Manaba+R?
1: every time, 2: almost every time, 3: sometimes, 4: hardly, 5: neverQ5: Did you read messages on Manaba+R?
1: every time, 2: almost every time, 3: sometimes, 4: hardly, 5: neverQ6: Reasons for Q5
Q7: Do you think that Manaba+R is useful for your classes?
1: Strongly agree, 2: agree, 3: not really, 4: neverQ8: Where do you normally look at Manaba+R?
1: in class, 2: at home, 3: outside the class but on campus, 4: on a bus or train, 5: others
Q9: Do you think that Manaba+R is useful to communicate with your teacher?
1: strongly agree, 2: agree, 3: not really, 4: neverParticipants in this study are mainly both 1st and 2nd year students at a private university in Japan
who are majoring sport and health science and economics. Due to repeating the same course, 3rdyear students are included in Economics department classes. Each department has different
programs. In the sport and health science department, two English subjects: project-based English
and skills workshop are offered for students. The data is collected from all project-based English
subject. In economics department, there are English classes covering the four skills, such as
Listening, Reading, CALL and Communication & Writing. The data is taken from Listening and
CALL classes. In addition, the data is also collected from the Introduction of Economics inEnglish 1 (for 2nd year students).
A total of 380 responses to questionnaires were collected. Questionnaires were distributed to
students who belong to both the Sport and health science department, and the Economics
department. The authors of this study coded numbers of the total access to Manaba+R. The totalof 159 (80 first year students and 79 second year students) students of Sport and health science
department and 220 (121 first year students, 61 second year students and 38 third year students)
Economics department were coded. The total of 379 students from both departments was coded
to show the numbers of actual access to Manaba+R.

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Results
Results of questionnaires
Results of all questions are put into graphs below. Here after, SPORT for Sport and healthscience department and ECON for the department of Economics are used.
Graph 1. Results of Q1

Graph 1 shows the results of Q1 (how often did you bring your PC in class?). It shows asignificant difference between the two departments. Most of those who belong to SPORT brought
their PC into their class. 81 % of students answered every time and 13% of students answered
almost every time. On the other hand, most of those who belong to ECON did not bring their PC
into their class. 94% of them answered that they never brought their PC in their class and 4 % ofthem answered that they hardly brought their PC.
Graph 2. Results of Q2

Graph 2 shows the results of Q2 (how often did you use your PC in class?). The results of thisquestion links with the results of Q2. SPORT students used their PC a lot in their class. 80% ofthem answered every time and 16 % answered almost every time. Since SPORT students
answered 94% brought their PC into their class in Q2, the ratio of using PC in class was very high.
As opposed to ECON students, 71% of them answered they never used their PC in class which is
linked with their answers in Q2. In Q2, 94% of them never brought their PC into their class which
made them unable to use their PC in class. However, there is an exception for ECON students in
Q2. 17% of them answered that they used PC every time. This is because these students were in
CALL classes where each student accessed a PC provided by their university.

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Graph 3. Results of Q3

Graph 3 shows the results of Q3 (how often did you use Manaba+R?). Similarly to the results ofboth Q1 and Q2, SPORT students lead ECON students in Q3. 93% of SPORT students answered
every week. However, positive results for ECON students are seen here. 49% of ECON students
answered every week and 17% of ECON students answered almost every week. Over 66% of
ECON students checked Manaba+R frequently through the semester.
Graph 4. Results of Q4

Graph 4 shows the results of Q4 (did you have homework through Manaba+R?). Once again,
94% of SPORT students answered every time and only 4 % of SPORT students answered almost
every time. There is an interesting trend for ECON students. While 43% of ECON students
answered every time, 31% of ECON students answered never. This depends on English classes.
Some English classes for ECON did not require students to do homework and thus students did
not have to do their homework on Manaba+R. As for SPORT students, homework was assigned
every week on Manaba+R and thus a quite high ratio of positive answers were seen in thisquestion.

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Graph 5. Results of Q5

Graph 5 shows the results of Q5 (did you read messages on Manaba+R?). 45% of SPORT
students answered every time and 34% of SPORT students answered almost every time. In total,
79% of SPORT students frequently read messages by their teachers on Manaba+R. Messages for
SPORT students on Manaba+R were something important for their study, such as some tips fortheir assessments and feedback for their presentations and homework by their teacher. As for
ECON students, 35% of ECON students answered never and 15% answered hardly. Thus 50% of
ECON students negatively answered this question. This is because their teacher did not often post
messages on Manaba+R as Table (shown earlier) in the section of coding actual access shows.
Table 1. Q6: Reasons for Q5- SportSPORT
Positive# ofcomments

%

44

42%

19

18%

9

9%

9

9%

6

6%

6

6%

5

5%

2

2%

The teacher put useful information for this class
It shows some important tips for assignments in this class.
Every week, there is homework to do
To make sure if there is any message or homework
I didn't understand some parts in class but Manaba+R explained them
To download lecture notes
It shows presentations I have to do
If I don't check it, then I'll be in trouble later

Negative55%

It made me annoyed to check it, I was being lazy.
There were too many messages for me and I was being lazy
Explanation in class was enough for me without checking Manaba+R
I don't really know how to use it
I was being lazy

TOTAL 105 comments

Table 1 shows that reasons for Q5. A total of 226 reasons was written (SPORT: 115 and ECON:
121 comments). SPORT students tend to answer positive reasons more than negative reasons.
For instance, 42% of SPORT students said “the teacher put useful information for this class”.
18% of SPORT students said “It shows some important tips for assignments in this class”. These
two reasons suggest that Manaba+R helped student’s study. 9% of SPORT students answered“every week, there is homework to do”. This reason suggests student’s external motivation tocheck Manaba+R. 6% if SPORT students answered “to download lecture notes”. There are also
negative reasons from SPORT students. Mostly they showed their laziness on their answers. For
example, “it made me annoyed to check it, I was being lazy”, “it was too many messages for me
and I was being lazy”.

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Table 2. Q6: Reasons for Q5- SportECON
Positive# ofcomments

%

21

17%

14

12%

12

10%

3

2%

To check the class information.
To check test score.
I must submit homework through Manaba+R
Important information was posted on the Web.

Negative
15

12%

14

12%

14

12%

11

9%

I didn't know how to use it, what to do.
No chance to use Manaba+R
No need to check it.
No information was posted.

Comments
17

16%

OthersTOTAL 121comments

As for ECON students, there are both positive and negative reasons. Concerning positive reasons,
17% of ECON students answered “to check the class information”. This is a similar answer to
SPORT student’s “the teacher posted useful information for this class”. 10% ECON students
answered “I must submit homework through Manaba+R”. 12% of ECON students answered “tocheck test score” which was not seen among SPORT students. This is because SPORT students
did not have any test type assessments through their subjects. On the other hand, there were
negative reasons among ECON students. 12% of ECON students said “I didn’t know how to use
it, what to do”. 12% answered “no chance to use Manaba+R” and 12% answered “no need tocheck it”. 9% answered “no information was posted”. There were some reasons such as “I can’t
use computer in class” from ECON students, “I didn’t know how to use Manaba+R” from both
departments.
Graph 6. Results of Q7

Graph 6 shows the answers for Q7 (do you think Manaba+R is useful for your class?) Both
SPORT and ECON students gave positive answers. The total of 97% (61% for strongly agree and
36% for agree) of SPORT students answered this question positively. As for ECON students,
92% (31% for strongly agree and 61% for agree) answered this question positively. Thus basedon the results of this question, students think online course tools are useful for their study.

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Graph 7. Results of Q8

Graph 7 shows the answer for Q8 (where do you normally look at Manaba+R?). Interestingly,
both SPORT and ECON students checked Manaba+R at home the most. 61% of SPORT students
and 53% of ECON students answered at home. As for SPORT students, most of them brought
their PC in class as seen in graph 1 they tend to check Manaba+R at home at most. In addition,
19% of them checked Manaba+R outside of their class while only 14% of them checked
Manaba+R in class. This result suggests that although students were able to access to Manaba+R
in class, they did not check it in class. As for ECON students, because most of them did not bring
their PC in class as seen in graph 1, the result of this question makes sense.
Graph 8. Results of Q9Graph 8 shows the results of Q9 (Do you think Manaba+R is useful to communicate with yourteacher?). Both SPORT and ECON students answered this question positively. The total of 83%
of SPORT students (24 % for strongly agree and 59% for agree) see Manaba+R as a usefulcommunication tool with their teacher. Also a total of 81% of ECON students (15% for strongly
agree and 66% for agree) see it as the same way as SPORT students do.
Coding numbers of actual access to Manaba+R by students
Table 3 explains names of subjects which the authors used for this study. For Sport and Health
Science department, although there are only two kinds of subjects, there are seven classes in total(P1: 3 classes and P3: 4 classes). For the Economics department, three kinds of subjects were
examined but the total of six classes are examined (L1:3 classes, CALL1: 1class and Economics
in English: 2 classes)

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Table 3. Name of the subjects used for this study
Name of the subjects

Department

P1 (Project English 1 for 1st year students)

Sport & Health Science

P3 (Project English for 2nd year students)

Sport & Health Science

L1 (Listening English 1 for 1st year students)

Economics

CALL1 (for 1st year students)

Economics

Introduction of Economics in English 1 (for 2ndyear students)

Economics

Table 3 summarizes actual access to Manaba+R by students. First of all, there is a trend thatwhen teachers posted messages on Manaba+R, students tend to access to Manaba+R more thanwhen teachers did not post messages (seen as P1: A, B, C, P3: A, B, C, D, E (EEb and EEd)).
Messages on the tables were useful for students to get higher marks on their assignments.
Secondly, when teachers posted homework which was as a part of assessments, students tended
to access to Manaba+R more compared to when teachers did not post homework on Manaba+R(seen as P1: A, B, C, P3:A, B, C, D, E (EEb and EEd)).
Table 4. Rate of access to Manaba+R per student

P1A
P1B
P1C
P3A
P3B
P3C
P3D
D(L1B)
E(English ECON -A）
D(L1A)CALL(LL)
E(English ECON -B）
D(L1B)

Total Access

Access rate of one person/semester

The number of message
posted on the web

The number oftest score posted on Web

The number ofhomework through Web

18373
22010
18343
9367
11213
7771
9566
994
10290
994
17323
5761
819

680
847
679
446
561
409
503
36
165
40
541
156
24

16
14
14
16
16
15
15
0
3
0
0
3
0

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
22
25
23
53
23
23

16
15
15
15
15
15
15
0
14
0
69
12
0

Table 4 shows the rate of access to Manaba+R per student through the semester. Students who
access the Internet in class tend to check Manaba+R frequently. For instance, those who are inclasses such as P1: A, B, C, and P3: A, B, C, D and CALL, access Manaba+R over 400 times
through the semester. In these classes, teachers encouraged students to use computers in class.
However, those who are in classes such as D: L1A and B, and EEd did not access Manaba+R
frequently. In these classes, students did not have an opportunity to access their computer in class.
Discussions
First of all, Manaba+R tends to support student’s study, as results of Q6 (reasons for whether
students read messages on Manaba+R?) show. There are positive reasons such as “the teacher put
useful information for this class” and “It shows some important tips for assignments in this class”.
These positive answers suggest that Manaba+R helps students’ learning and it was effectively
used by students.

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On the other hand, there were negative answers such as “I didn’t know how to use it” and “I can’t
use the computer in class”. The authors of this study explained how to use Manaba+R at the
beginning of the semester in class and also students should have had an opportunity to learn how
to use it over orientation week. In order to make sure whether every student understands how to
use online course tools, teachers need to confirm every student knows how to use it at the
beginning of the semester and try to encourage them to use it through the semester. As for thereason “I can’t use computer in class”, it can be a problem for students to use online course tools.
Fortunately, the university where the authors of this study work offers both students and staff free
WIFI connection everywhere on campus. Therefore, those who have a device to go online canuse Manaba+R anywhere on campus. However, some universities do not offer such anenvironment which discourages students to use online course tools. As a result, in order toencourage students to use online course tools, it is important for educational institutions toprovide an environment for students where they can easily access online course tools.
Secondly, based on the results of the numbers of access to Manaba+R by students, there are sometrends of student’s access to Manaba+R. Students tend to access Manaba+R when something,which is related with their final grades, was posted on Manaba+R. For example, when homework,
test results, quizzes and important messages for their assessments are posted on Manaba+R by
their teachers, then students tend to check Manaba+R. This result is a similar result of Rovai’s
study (2003). Rovai (2003) found that when online discussion was adopted as a part of final
grades, students were motivated to post their discussions. He emphasizes the importance ofstudents’ motivation to engage in online discussions. As Rovai explains, students in this study
also showed their motivation to get higher scores or to pass their subjects by checking Manaba+R.
On the other hand, the results of numbers of access Manaba+R showed, when students’ externalmotivation is lost, students tend to miss their opportunity to use these modern technology devices
for their study. In addition, the results of Q7 (Do you think Manaba+R is useful for your classes?)
show that students see the value of usefulness of online course tools for their study. However,once again, the numbers of access to Manaba+R showed, they only tend to use these online
course tools when something which was a part of their final grades was posted by their teachers.
Thirdly, there is another trend that when Manaba+R was not effectively used as a part of course
assessments, students did not tend to check it as much as they were expected. As both figure andtable of actual access to Manaba+R showed, when the teacher posted more important messages,
more access to Manaba+R by students was seen. More homework was posted on Manaba+R,
more access to Manaba+R by students was observed. Thus, based on our results, students’external motivation to use online course tools was important for them to use online course tools.
As Sánchez (2004) claimed, the teacher can be a determining factor for utilization of WebCT. In
other words, it is important for teachers to use online course tools effectively and frequently. In
particular, as the results of coding numbers of actual access showed, when teachers use online
course tools as a part of course assessments, these online course tools tend to be used effectively
by students.
Fourthly, there was a trend that when computers are available for students in class , where either,computers are provided in class or students are encouraged to bring their own computer to classby their teachers, students tend to check Manaba+R more than those who do not accesscomputers in class. The results of Q8 on our questionnaires (Where do you normally look at
Manaba+R?) show that many students in this study are able to access Manaba+R outside of thecampus. This is probably because many students own their mobile phones which allow them touse internet almost anywhere as long as internet is available. However, the results of Q 8 alsosuggest that both SPORT and ECON students tended to miss opportunity to use online course
tools in class. In particular, most of SPORT students had their own PC in class but they did notsee much online course tools.
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In addition, the university where the authors of this study work, offers both staff and students free
Wi-Fi anywhere on campus. Therefore, students can connect to Internet on campus as long as
they have access to computers. As the results showed, in the environment where free Internet
connection is available, when teachers encourage students to use online course tools in class,students tend to use online course tools. Thus, it is important for teachers to utilize theenvironment where online course tools are available in order to encourage students to use them.
Conclusion
This study investigated the use of online course tools by Japanese university students. In order tocollect data, both questionnaires and coding numbers of actual access to the online course tool
were used. There were two aims of this study. Firstly, this study investigated what extent students
actually used Manaba+R through the semester. Secondly, it tried to find suggestions of howteachers could promote their students to maximize making use of Manaba+R. Results of bothquestionnaires and coding numbers of access to Manaba+R give answers for the aims.
The results of questionnaires showed many positive answers by participants in this study. Manyof students answered that Manaba+R was useful for their subjects and was a useful tool tocommunicate with their teachers. In particular, many of SPORT students in this study answeredthat messages on Manaba+R were important for their assessments and therefore they read thosemessages.
Coding numbers of access to Manaba+R showed some interesting results. First of all, whenteachers posted messages considered useful for assessments of the course, students tended to readthese messages. However, when teachers did not post those messages on the online course tool,
students did not tend to check them. Secondly, when homework was part of the assessments
towards the final grade, students tended to access Manaba+R. However, when homework was notposted to Manaba+R, then students did not tend to access to it. As a result, to use online course
tools effectively for the class, it is important for teachers to extract students’ external motivation.
It is also important for educational institutions to create an environment for students where theycan easily get access to online course tools.

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References
Burgess, L. A. (2003). WebCT as an e-learning tool: A study of technology students’ perceptions.
Journal of Technology Education, 15(1). Retrieved July 20, 2015, fromhttp://scholar.lib.vt.edu/ejournals/JTE/v15n1/burgess.html.
Harris, J. (1999). First steps in telecollaboration. Learning and Leading with Technology, 27(3),54-75.
Mende, R. (1999). Learner reactions to college English on WebCT, ERIC Document
Reproduction, Service no. ED 437997.
Morss, D. A. (1999). A study of student perspectives on Web-based learning: WebCT in theclassroom. Electronic Networking Applications and Policy, 9(5), 393-408.
Ngai, E. W. T., Poon, J. K. L., and Chan, Y. H. C. (2007). Empirical examination of the adoptionof WebCT using TAM. Computer & Education, 48(2), 250-267. Retrieved July 20, 2015,
from http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2004.11.007.
Petriedes, L. A. (2002). Web-based technologies for distributed (or distance) learning: Creating
learning experiences in the higher education classroom. International Journal of Instruction
al Media, 29(1), 69-77.
Picciano, A. G. (2002). Beyond student perceptions: Issue of interaction, presence, andperformance in an online course. Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks, 6(1), 21-40
Rovai, A. P. (2003). Strategies for grading online discussions: Effects on discussions andclassroom community in Internet-based university courses. Journal of Computing in higher
Education. 15(1), 89-107.
Willett, H. G. (2002). Hybrid course delivery using WebCT. The Electric Library, 20(5), 413-419
Storey, M. A., Phillips, B., Maczewski, M., & Wang, M. (2002). Evaluating the usability of Webbased learning tools. Educational Technology & Society, 5(3), 91-100.
Hagler, B. E. (2004). WebCT Can Benefit You and Your Students. Journal of Adult Education,
33(2), 24-29.
Sánchez, R. A., Hueros, A. D., & Ordaz, M. G. (2013). E-learning and the University of Huelva:
a study of WebCT and the technological acceptance model. Campus-Wide Information
Systems, 30(2), 135-160.

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Taiwanese EFL Learners’ Perceived Use of Online Reading Strategies

Lisa Wen Chun Chen

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Abstract
Reading strategies are beneficial to learners’ reading comprehension. The strategies can bedivided into different categories, such as global reading strategies, problem solving strategies andsupport strategies. Most previous studies investigated the importance of reading strategies in thepaper-based reading. However, relatively few studies examined online reading strategies andtheir effects on reading comprehension. Online reading materials are important sources for EFL
students since an increasing number of learners read texts and learn through the Internet. EFL
learners in Taiwan, unfortunately, are reported to be overwhelmed with English online materials
on the Internet. Therefore, this study intends to examine EFL learners’ perceived use of online
reading strategies and whether their perceived strategy uses are different in terms of proficiency
levels and gender. There are 94 Taiwanese EFL learners (43% of them are males, n=40 and 57 %of them are females, n=54), who received the Online Survey of Reading Strategies (OSORS)
adapted from Anderson (2003) in the study. The result showed that EFL online readers tend touse more global strategies, such as using contextual clues and observing tables, figures, andpictures in the on-line text to increase understanding. High level learners used more global andproblem solving strategies than low level learners, which corresponds to previous studies.
Additionally, there is no difference of strategy use between males and females. Several
pedagogical implications, such as the need to raise students’ awareness of strategy use, areaddressed in the present study.
Keywords: Online reading; L2 reading strategies; reading comprehension; gender differences;proficiency-level differences.

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Introduction
Reading strategies are beneficial to learners’ reading comprehension (Huang et al., 2009). The
strategies can be divided into different categories, such as global reading strategies, problem
solving strategies and support strategies. According to Sheorey and Mokhtari (2001), global
reading strategies refer to intentional techniques by which learners monitor their reading, such aspreviewing the text for its organization. Problem solving strategies are localized techniques thatreaders use when problems form in understanding textual information, such as guessing themeaning of unknown words. Additionally, support strategies are seemed as using some
supportive mechanisms, such as consulting an online dictionary. These reading strategies arecommonly discussed in previous research. Readers utilize these strategies to help them improvetheir reading comprehension. Most previous studies investigated the importance of reading
strategies in the paper-based reading (Bereiter and Bird, 1985; Singhal, 1999; Sporer et al., 2009;
Mokhtari and Reichard, 2004; Sheorey and Mokhtari, 2001; Ikeda and Takeuchi, 2006; Spörer,Brunstein and Kieschke, 2009; Huang, 1999). However, relatively few studies examined online
reading strategies and their effects on reading comprehension (Anderson, 2003; Foltz, 1993;
Huang et al., 2009; Singhal, 1999).
Online reading materials are important sources for EFL students since an increasing number oflearners read texts and learn through the Internet. EFL learners in Taiwan, unfortunately, arereported to be overwhelmed with English online materials on the Internet (Chen, 2003). Online
materials are usually composed of hypertext which is non-linear information, differing fromtraditional reading and resulting in difficulties for learners. The different feature of online
materials compared to paper-based reading may also lead to different online reading strategy uses,
which suggest that there is a need to conduct more research to further explore this issue.
Moreover, most of previous studies discussed EFL learners’ strategy use between learners in
different levels but relatively little research investigates gender differences in online reading
strategy use. This study intends to examine EFL learners’ perceived use of online reading
strategies and whether their perceived strategy uses are different in terms of proficiency levels
and gender.
Literature Review
In this section, previous studies of reading strategy use will be discussed in terms of electronic
literacies, paper-based second language reading strategies and online second language reading
strategies.
Electronic literacies
As technologies have evolved, the nature of literacy is changing rapidly. The definition of literacy
has expanded from traditional reading and writing to the ability of learning, comprehending andinteraction with technology meaningfully in online reading (Pianfetti, 2001). Electronic literacies
referring to screen-based literacies include understanding hypertext and multimedia information
as well as evaluating online resources by using computers (Park and Kim, 2011). Online readingmaterials are usually composed of text information, hypertext or hypermedia. Hypertext andhypermedia can provide annotations for readers to know more related information about theonline text. Hypertext refers to text with links which can provide additional information and also
make readers read between different sections or pages (Warschauer, 1999). These links, or
annotations, can allow readers to leave the primary material temporarily and then return after
finishing the annotation (Nielsen, 1995). Additionally, the term hypermedia is hypertext withmultiple forms of media, which can provide extra information in the form of pictures or videos.
The most prominent feature of hypertext is its nonlinear organization of presenting the text
(Akyel and Ercetin, 2009). Readers can choose their own pace when reading this online text

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either sequentially or non-sequentially, that is, learners’ reading orders are unpredictable andunstable (Patterson, 2000). Therefore, readers should know how to integrate the text informationand non-text information in online reading (Coiro, 2005; Schmar-Dobler, 2003), which is more
complex and also differs from the traditional reading process. The different reading process may
result in different reading strategies in online reading environments, which will be discussed in
the review of studies about online reading strategies.
Paper-based second language reading strategies
Most of the previous studies exploring reading strategies have focused on readers’ use of penpaper reading strategies rather than online reading strategies in reading comprehension. Thesestudies discussed the effects of teaching reading strategies and the different use of reading
strategies between EFL learners and native speakers when they read texts. Some research hassuggested that when teachers conduct the training of reading strategies for learners in EFL
classrooms, it can be effective to enhance learners’ reading comprehension. For instance,
according to Bereiter and Bird (1985), they found that the group who received the explicit
instruction of reading strategies showed a significant gain in reading comprehension than thegroup without explicit instruction. In addition, Singhal (1999) observed that metacognitive
strategy training is effective in enhancing second language reading and the effectiveness ofstrategy training depends upon the way reading is measured. Similarly, the students who received
the intervention of training reading strategies gained higher scores on an experimenter-developed
task of reading comprehension and strategy use than the control group (Sporer, Brunstein andKieschke, 2009).
Other studies have investigated the similarities and differences of reading strategy use between
native speakers and EFL learners or discussed EFL learners’ individual differences towards
reading strategy use. A few researchers indicated that EFL learners may use certain reading
strategies more than native speakers. Mokhtari and Reichard (2004) stated that Moroccan
students reported using certain types of strategies more often than their American counterparts
did while Sheorey and Mokhtari (2001) found that both native and nonnative groups applied asimilar number of reading strategies. In terms of learners’ individual differences in reading
strategies, many studies revealed the different use of strategies among learners from various
proficiency levels. Ikeda and Takeuchi (2006) noticed that the differences between students in thehigh and low proficiency level are attributed to: (1) understanding the purpose of strategies; (2)effectively using strategies; and (3) knowing how to combine strategies. Additionally, highproficient readers tend to use global strategies while low proficient readers appeal to local
strategies (Huang, 1999).
Online second language reading strategies
Although many studies discussed paper-based reading strategies, relatively few studies discussed
online reading strategies. Readers have different mental processes when reading printed texts andonline texts since readers need to integrate text, visual and non-textual information, including
pictures, footnotes and links in online reading. In this way, they have more active engagement ofreading in online texts, which leads to deeper processing of information (Patterson, 2000). Whenreaders are involved in online reading, they not only interpret the writers’ stances and viewpoints,
but also integrate abundant materials by utilizing online strategies (Coiro, 2005; Schmar-Dobler,
2003), which indicates the important role of online reading strategies to help readers understandonline texts.
Previous research explored online reading strategies in terms of different perspectives, such ascomparing paper and online reading strategies, examining the relationship of online reading
strategies and web-based learning and discussing the individual differences in strategy use. In

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terms of comparing online and paper-based reading strategies, readers may transfer their printbased reading strategies to hypertext reading but they will also need to use additional strategies inhypertext reading (Shapiro and Niederhauser, 2004; Schmar-Dobler, 2003). Similar results arealso found in other studies. Foltz (1993), for example, compared the strategy use by learners
when they read the text in the form of linear text and hypertext. He proved that readers use thesimilar numbers of strategies when reading these two types of texts but when they read thehypertext, they not only got involved in a reading process but also developed problem solving
strategies when dealing with unfamiliar texts. Additionally, Park and Kim (2011) investigated
ESL learners’ use of online reading strategies from a sociocultural perspective and they observedthat learners adopted their paper-based reading strategies in online reading, such as setting up
reading purposes and previewing. At the same time, they also adjust their strategies and use newstrategies for online reading materials, such as using hypermedia. Akyel and Ercetin (2009),
similarly, indicated that hypertext readers applied similar reading strategies as paper-based
reading but they used some other strategies, such as using navigation strategies or referring toannotations in their hypertext reading.
As for the relationship of online reading strategies and web-based learning, Singhal (1999)
showed that online reading strategies have a positive effect on Web-based learning and reading
comprehension. He investigated hypertext reading strategies among university students in a Webbased reading class and discovered that after Web-based reading instruction, students’ reading
comprehension made progress and their use of reading strategies increased as well. In Coiro’s(2007) study, the finding also revealed that successful Internet reading experiences appeared torequire complex applications of inferential reasoning strategies. Both studies suggested thatonline reading strategies play an important role in the success of web-based learning.
Some research discussed EFL learners’ use of online reading strategies and whether individual
differences will influence learners’ strategy use. Amer, Barwani and Ibrahim (2010) examined
whether there is a difference of online reading strategy use between Omani EFL university
students in a high proficiency level and those in a low proficiency level. The result found thathigh proficient readers used more global strategies than low-proficient readers did, corresponding
to Huang’s study (1999). In addition, a few studies discussed the role of prior knowledge inlearners’ online strategy use. Coiro and Dobler (2007) suggested that skilled readers usuallyreferred to their prior knowledge of the topic and printed informational text structures to guidetheir online reading. Moreover, previous research asserted that low knowledge participants
benefited more by following a high coherent reading order, whereas high-knowledge participantstended to read the hypertext in a low coherent order and read based on their interests (Salmerón,
Cañas, Kintsch and Fajardo, 2005; Akyel and Ercetin, 2009). These studies revealed theimportant role of students’ prior knowledge in exploring online reading strategies.
Although previous studies discussed online reading strategies broadly from different perspectives,
relatively few studies investigated Taiwanese EFL learners’ perceived online reading strategies.
Since EFL learners are reported to be overwhelmed with English online materials on the Internet(Chen, 2003) so their online reading strategy use would be our interest to further analyze.
Additionally, a lot of previous research explored the different uses of online reading strategies
between different proficiency levels but the factor of gender was seldom mentioned as well. Dueto these issues, there is a need for us to further discuss EFL learners’ perceived online reading
strategies and the differences of strategy use between learners in different levels and genders. The
following are the three research questions addressed in the present study:
1. What is the pattern of online reading strategy use by EFL learners?
2. Are there any differences of online reading strategy use between learners in the highproficiency level and low proficiency level?
3. Are there any differences of online reading strategy use between males and females?
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Methodology
Participants
The subjects consisted of 94 EFL learners (43% of them are males, n=40 and 57 % of them arefemales, n=54) in the study. The average age was 22 years old, ranging from 19 to 26. Over halfof them were undergraduate or graduate students (n=58) and the rest of them just graduated fromuniversities (n=36). 72 learners have participated TOEIC test before and their data were analyzed
to see whether there was a difference of strategy use between learners in different proficiency
levels.
Instrument
The Online Survey of Reading Strategies (OSORS) adapted from Anderson’s (2003) study wasused in the study. The OSORS measured three dimensions of reading strategies, including global
strategies, problem solving strategies and support strategies. One support strategy, which refers towhether learners click on annotations when they read online English materials, was added in thepresent study because learners tend to use additional strategies when reading online materials andclicking on hyperlinks or annotations would be one of these additional strategies. Anderson (2003)
demonstrated the reliability of items in OSORS, proposing that the Cronbach’s alpha for theoverall OSORS was .92. There were 37 items in the survey, containing 16 items as global
strategies, 11items as problem solving strategies and 10 items as support strategies. Eachstatement in OSORS could be responded by the 5-point Likert Scale, ranging from 1 (never oralmost never use this strategy) to 5 (always or almost always use this strategy).
Procedure
The researcher collected data by online Google questionnaires. The link of questionnaire wasposted on the college social networks and also sent through instant messages and emails. The dataof participants above 26 years old would be eliminated since the focus of the participants in thepresent study were mainly college or graduate students. Then the mean scores of the items would
be calculated and the paired t-test would be conducted to observe whether there is a significant
difference of strategy use regarding proficiency differences and gender differences.
Results
The top ten and the bottom ten frequently used online reading strategies
Among the top ten most frequently used online reading strategies, half of them were global
strategies, three of them were problem solving strategies and two of them were support strategies,
as shown in Table 1. Although it seemed that learners seldom used support strategies compared toother two kinds of strategies, the most frequently used strategy was using an online dictionary tohelp readers understand online texts, which is a support strategy. It was not surprising that EFL
learners most frequently looked up an online dictionary when they read online reading materials
since previous L2 research showed that vocabulary is perceived to be the most difficult task
among EFL learners (Cheng, 1998; Chi & Chern, 1988) so it was no wonder that EFL learners
tended to look up new words when they encountered difficulties.
Table 1. Mean scores of top ten frequently used online reading strategies

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The top ten frequently used online reading strategies

Meanscores14.

I use reference materials (e.g. an on-line dictionary) to help me

4.03

understand what I read on-line. (Support strategy)
19.

I use context clues to help me better understand what I am reading on-

3.99

line. (Global strategy)
10.

I try to get back on track when I lose concentration. (Problem solving

3.90

strategy)
29.

When I read on-line, I guess the meaning of unknown words or phrases.

3.88(Problem solving strategy)
17.

I use tables, figures, and pictures in the on-line text to increase my

3.80

understanding. (Global strategy)
25.

I try to guess what the content of the on-line text is about when I read.

3.78(Global strategy)
20.

I paraphrase (restate ideas in my own words) to better understand what I

3.78

read on-line. (Support strategy)
26.

When on-line text becomes difficult, I re-read it to increase my

3.68

understanding. (Problem solving strategy)
4.

I think about what I know to help me understand what I read on-line.

3.66(Global strategy)
31.

I scan the on-line text to get a basic idea of whether it will serve my

3.64

purposes before choosing to read it. (Global strategy)

As for the bottom ten online reading strategies used by learners, three of them were global
strategies, three of them were problem solving strategies and six of them were support strategies,
as shown in Table 2. Most of the infrequently used online reading strategies were support
strategies so EFL learners seldom used support strategies except for consulting an online
dictionary as mentioned before. This corresponds to Anderson’s (2003) study which indicatedthat the least frequently used online reading strategies were support strategies. The least
frequently used online reading strategy was participating in live chat with other learners ofEnglish, which is a global strategy. The reason why learners seldom live chatted with otherlearners may be because they tended to focus on the understanding of the online English
materials instead of social interaction with other readers.

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Table 2. Mean scores of bottom ten online reading strategies used by learners
Mean

The bottom ten online reading strategiesscores1.

I have a purpose in mind when I read on line. (Global strategy)

21.

I try to picture or visualize information to help remember what I read on-

3.16

line. (Problem solving strategy)33.

I critically evaluate the on-line text before choosing to use information I

3.05

read on-line. (Problem solving strategy)
22.

I critically analyze and evaluate the information presented in the on-line

2.94

text. (Global strategy)
35.

When reading on-line, I look for sites that cover both sides of an issue.

2.67(Problem solving strategy)
27.

I ask myself questions I like to have answered in the on-line text. (Support
strategy)

36.

When reading on-line, I translate from English into my native language.
I take notes while reading on-line to help me understand what I read.

2.44(Support strategy)
11.

I print out a hard copy of the on-line text then underline or circle

2.37

information to help me remember it. (Support strategy)
2.

2.65
2.63

(Support strategy)
3.

3.15

I participate in live chat with other learners of English. (Global strategy)

1.96

Online reading strategy use in terms of different proficiency levels
The responses of 72 EFL learners who have participated TOEIC test were analyzed in this section.
They were divided into the high and low proficiency level based on their scores of TOEIC.
Learners who got over 700 scores were considered as higher level learners and those who got
scores below 700 were seemed as lower proficiency learners. In this way, 55 of them werelearners of the high level and 17 of them were in the low level. The result is shown in Table 3.
Table 3. Differences between high level students and low level students

Global strategy

Problem solving
strategy

Group

N

Mean

SD

T

P

High level

55

3.66

.495

7.520

.000

Low level

17

3.11

.491

High level

55

3.67

.418

5.479

.000

Low level

17

3.11

.345

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Support strategy

Total

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High level

55

3.28

.666

Low level

17

3.07

.659

High level

55

3.56

.54

Low level

17

3.10

.49

2.010

.075

8.132

.000

As presented in Table 3, there was a significant difference of total strategy use between high level
students and low level students (p=.000). High level students tended to use more online reading
strategies than low level students, which can be expected. Also, the high proficiency group
employed more global strategies than the low proficiency group and there was a significant
difference between their mean scores of global strategies (p=.000). This finding was also found in
the previous L2 research indicating that high proficiency learners conducted more global
strategies than low proficiency learners (Huang, 1999; Mokhtari & Reichard, 2002; Shen, 2003).
As for problem solving strategies, the similar result as global strategies was found. The highproficiency group used more problem solving strategies than the low proficiency group and there
was also a significant difference between their means of problem solving strategies (p=.000).
However, there was no significant difference of support strategies between the means of support
strategies in high level learners and low level learners (p=.075). Both groups used relatively
fewer support strategies than global and problem solving strategies.
Online reading strategy use in terms of gender difference
There were 40 males and 54 females in the present study. The result indicated that there was no
significant difference of total strategy use between the male and female group. In addition, there
was no significant difference of each category of strategy use (global, problem solving andsupport strategies) between the male group and female group as well. This suggested that males
and females used the similar online reading strategies when they read online materials. The
finding corresponds to previous studies, such as Amer, Barwani & Ibrahim’s (2010) study whichinvestigated student teachers online reading strategy use and found that there was no significant
difference in terms of gender.
Table 4. Differences between males and females
Group

N

Mean

SD

T

P

male

40

3.36

.456

1.823

.088

female

54

3.44

.487

Problem solving

male

40

3.43

.360

-.245

.811

strategy

female

54

3.45

.404

Support strategy

male

40

3.16

.538

-.187

.856

female

54

3.17

.645

male

40

3.33

.454

-1.262.215

female

54

3.37

.513

Global strategy

Total

However, if we look at the individual strategy use in detail, it is suggested that females are more
active strategy user than males because more strategies used by females reached high frequency.
As shown in Table 5, the strategies with high frequency in females were more than those in males.
For example, the mean scores of top three frequently used strategies for females reached 4 points,
which means “I usually use this strategy” in the Likert scale. This indicated that females usually76

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used references, contextual cues and the strategy of guessing unknown words when they read
English online reading materials. Nevertheless, in terms of males’ strategy use, none of thestrategies’ mean scores reached 4 points.
Table 5. Top ten frequently used strategies by males and females
Male

Mean

FemaleMean

10. I try to get back on track when I
lose concentration. (Problem solving
strategy)

3.93

14. I use reference materials (e.g.
an on-line dictionary) to help me
understand what I read on-line.
(Support strategy)

4.11

14. I use reference materials (e.g. an
on-line dictionary) to help me
understand what I read on-line.
(Support strategy)

3.93

19. I use context clues to help me
better understand what I am
reading on-line. (Global strategy)

4.09

19. I use context clues to help me
better understand what I am reading
on-line. (Global strategy)

3.85

29. When I read on-line, I guess themeaning of unknown words orphrases. (Problem solving strategy)

4.04

25. I try to guess what the content of
the on-line text is about when I read.
(Global strategy)

3.78

10. I try to get back on track when I
lose
concentration.
(Problemsolving strategy)

3.89

3.73

17. I use tables, figures, andpictures in the on-line text toincrease my understanding. (Global
strategy)

3.87

24. I check my understanding when
I come across new information.
(Global strategy)

3.73

20. I paraphrase (restate ideas in
my own words) to better
understand what I read on-line.
(Support strategy)

3.85

17. I use tables, figures, and picturesin the on-line text to increase myunderstanding. (Global strategy)

3.70

25. I try to guess what the content
of the on-line text is about when I
read.(Global strategy)

3.78

20. I paraphrase (restate ideas in myown words) to better understandwhat I read on-line. (Support
strategy)

3.68

26. When on-line text becomesdifficult, I re-read it to increase myunderstanding. (Problem solving
strategy)

3.78

29. When I read on-line, I guess themeaning of unknown words orphrases. (Problem solving strategy)

3.68

4. I think about what I know tohelp me understand what I read online. (Global strategy)

3.72

31. I scan the on-line text to get abasic idea of whether it will serve
my purposes before choosing to readit. (Global strategy)

3.63

13. When reading on-line, I decide
what to read closely and what toignore. (Global strategy)

8. I read slowly and carefully tomake sure I understand what I am
reading on-line.(Problem solving
strategy)

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Discussion
The present study shows that EFL online readers tend to use more global strategies when theyread online texts, which is different from previous studies showing that EFL learners use more
problem solving strategies (Amer, Barwani & Ibrahim’s, 2010; Anderson, 2003). The possible
explanation is that there are more high proficiency learners in this study and high level students
tended to use more global strategies than low level students (Huang, 1999), which may lead tomore global strategy use in the present study. Additionally, the result shows that there is asignificant difference between high and low level learners, which is also found in previous
research (Huang, 1999; Mokhtari & Reichard, 2002; Shen, 2003). High level learners used moreglobal and problem solving strategies than low level learners but both groups employ the similar
numbers of support strategies. The possible interpretation of why the two group using similar
support strategies is that many support strategies are related to EFL learners’ first language,
including looking up an online English-Chinese dictionary and using L1 paraphrases. Most EFL
learners are accustomed to resort to their L1 as a meaning making process when they are reading
or writing (Freedman et al., 1983; Kobayashi and Rinnert, 1992), which might explain the uses of
support strategies between high and low level groups do not differ. The other finding is that there
is no significant difference between males and females but females seem to use certain strategies
with high frequency, which is also presented in Amer, Barwani & Ibrahim’s (2010) research.
This study demonstrates several findings which confirm the results in previous research and also
increase our understanding of Taiwanese EFL learners’ online reading strategy use.
Pedagogical Implications and Future Studies
The present study raises some implications for reading instruction. First, since the result of thepresent study indicates that high proficiency learners tend to use more global strategies toincrease their reading comprehension, it seems that global strategies are more efficient than theother two strategies. (Akyel & Erçetin, 2009). Teachers should therefore explicitly teach students
global strategies in their reading processes in EFL classrooms, such as using context clues,
predicting the content of the text, reading purposefully. For instance, teachers can design some
activities to ask students to predict what will happen in the content of the text, ask them to skim
the text to grasp the main idea of the text or ask them some questions before they begin to read sothat they can scan the answers for the questions when they are reading.
Additionally, teachers should pay attention to how to help students spontaneously utilize thosereading strategies when they read online English materials by raising their awareness of reading
strategy use through training before they are immersed in online reading materials. However,there are some limitations of the present study. First, the numbers of high proficiency learners
and low proficiency learners are not equal so future studies should have equal participants oflearners in different levels so that the result will be more valid. In addition, this study only
investigates learners’ perceived strategies, which may differ from their actual use of online
reading strategies so future researchers can compare whether there is a difference between
learners’ perceived strategy use and actual strategy use in order to provide more insight of EFL
learners’ strategy use.

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References
Anderson, N. J. (2003). Scrolling, Clicking, and Reading English: Online Reading Strategies in a
Second/Foreign Language. Reading Matrix: An International Online Journal, 3(3).
Amer, A., Al Barwani, T., & Ibrahim, M. (2010). Student teachers' perceived use of online
reading strategies. International Journal of Education & Development using Information &Communication Technology, 6(4).
Akyel, A., & Erçetin, G. (2009). Hypermedia reading strategies employed by advanced learnersof English. System, 37(1), 136-152.
Bereiter, C., & Bird, M. (1985). Use of Thinking Aloud in Identification and Teaching of
Reading Comprehension Strategies. Cognition and Instruction, 2(2), 131-156.
Chen, H.-J. (2003). Developing a technology-enhanced self-access reading environment. In The
proceedings of the 2003 international conference on English teaching and learning in the
Republic of China (pp. 103–116). Taipei: Crane Publishing Company.
Coiro, J. (2005). Making sense of online text. Educational Leadership, 63(2), 30–35.
Foltz, P. W. (1993). Readers’ comprehension and strategies in linear text and hypertext.
Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Colorado, Boulder.
Freedman, A., Pringle, I., Yalden, J., 1983. The writing process: three orientations. In: Freedman,
A., Pringle, I., Yalden, J. (Eds.), Learning to Write: First Language/Second Language.
Longman, London, pp. 1–47.
Huang, S.-H. (1999). A descriptive study of reading strategies used by Taiwanese EFL university
more and less proficient readers. Unpublished master’s thesis, Providence University,
Taichung, Taiwan.
Ikeda, M., & Takeuchi, O. (2006). Clarifying the differences in learning EFL reading strategies:
An analysis of portfolios. System, 34(3), 384-398.
Kobayashi, H., Rinnert, C., 1992. Eﬀects of ﬁrst language on second language writing: translation
versus direct composition. Language Learning, 42, 183–215.
Mokhtari, K., & Reichard, C. (2004). Investigating the strategic reading processes of first andsecond language readers in two different cultural contexts. System, 32(3), 379-394.
Patterson, N. (2000). Hypertext and the changing roles of readers. English Journal, 90, 74–80.
Singhal, M. (1999). The effects of reading strategy instruction on the reading comprehension,
reading process and strategy use of adult SL readers. Unpublished doctoral dissertation,
University of Arizona, Tucson.
Sheorey, R., & Mokhtari, K. (2001). Differences in the metacognitive awareness of reading
strategies among native and non-native readers. System, 29(4), 431-449.
Schmar-Dobler, E. (2003). Reading on the internet: The link between literacy and technology.
Journal of Adolescent and Adult Literacy, 47(1), 80–85.
Singhal, M. (2004). Teaching reading to adult second language learners. Mattoon, Illinois: UnitedGraphics Inc.

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Spörer, N., Brunstein, J. C., & Kieschke, U. (2009). Improving students' reading comprehension
skills: Effects of strategy instruction and reciprocal teaching. Learning and Instruction,
19(3), 272-286.

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Evaluate, Analyze, Describe (EAD): Confronting Underlying Issues ofRacism and Other Prejudices for Effective Intercultural Communication
Daniel Velasco

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Abstract
Racism and other prejudices have hindered efforts to diversify and further many fields, including
education, psychology, politics, law, and healthcare (Race for Opportunity, 2010). Although there
are many ways to combat these prejudices, intercultural communication continues to be a vital
component in assisting individuals and groups with valuing the past, understanding the present,
and preparing for the future of communication in a global society (Sadri and Flammia, 2011, p.
19). This paper provides a brief overview of pertinent research and major theories related tocommunicating with people of different cultural backgrounds, as well as useful techniques andstrategies to use when teaching in international or multinational classrooms, and working or
consulting in international or multinational companies, organizations, and educational institutions.
It also includes data collected via surveys and interviews that helps to shed light on underlying
issues of racism and discontent in Japanese and Nigerian populations within Japan, and concludes
with a description of a new approach to one of the most common intercultural communication
exercises called the E.A.D. (Evaluate, Analyze, Describe). While this exercise has proved toincrease cultural awareness and open the lines of communication between individuals fromvarious cultural and lingual backgrounds, research also shows that other strategies may benecessary to achieve desired levels of communication.
Keywords: Intercultural communication; cross-cultural communication; racism; white racialmodels; Describe, Interpret, Evaluate (D.I.E) exercise.

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Introduction
As educators, counselors, and other relevant professionals working with and managing groups ofpeople from diverse racial and cultural backgrounds, there is an inherent, although often debated,
responsibility to assuage prejudices. Discussing any type of prejudice in a learning environment,such as a classroom, an office gathering, such as an in-house workshop or retreat, or in otherprofessional settings, such as international conferences or professional development seminars, isnever an easy task, and it can be an extremely uncomfortable and painful experience for all those
involved, particularly when the person leading the activity is exposing underlying prejudicial
tension among the group. In settings where people of various national and cultural identities areworking or learning together, underlying issues, such as racism or sexism, may reveal themselves.
However, prejudices, such as racism (which “has parallel application for terms like sexism,classism, and xenophobia”), can lose their power and influence with increased cultural awareness,sensitivity, and effective intercultural communication (Baldwin et al., 2014, p. 123; pp. 128-130).
It is the goal of this paper, therefore, to support ways to increase both cultural awareness andsensitivity while enhancing communication between cultures. In order to contribute to this goal,
this paper will reflect on:Pertinent literature that will assist in understanding prejudices, specifically racism,
Acceptance (belief that all people have equal opportunities to succeed),
Relevant literature that will also assist in understanding intercultural communication;
Several continuing research studies that help reveal racial tension among different
cultural groups; andThe new intercultural communication exercise called the Evaluate, Analyze Describe(EAD).

It is possible that there will be individuals or small groups who choose to believe that prejudices,such as racism or sexism, could not possibly exist at their child’s school, their workplace orwithin their very community. Michael Brown’s death in Ferguson, Missouri, as well as otherracially charged incidents across America, has affected not only this community, but the entire
world, and has brought the issue of racism to the surface. Although, at this point in time, it is notcertain if racism played a role in the shooting of Michael Brown, the comments left by readers ofvarious MSN articles are telling of the underlying issues that permeate the world. Words todescribe the police officer, who is white, ranged from “murderer” to “racist white devil”;
however, the words used to describe the victim, who was black, ranged from “thug” to “criminal,”
and the protesters were labeled the worst—“thugs,” “welfare thieves,” “uncivilized brutes,” and,probably the worst, “monkeys” (Salter, 2104; Zagier, 2014). These comments demonstrate thatracism remains a considerable challenge to society.
It should be noted that although the E.A.D. is able to elicit a variety of underlying prejudices,
including sexism, xenophobia, bigotry, stereotypes, and issues of power and privilege, by helping
individuals discover harmful attitudes and derogatory beliefs and assisting with open, reflective
communication, this paper will focus mainly on racism, as this issue has been most prevalent inrecent news. Before delving into how to confront underlying issues of prejudice, it is important tounderstand some white race models that provided the foundation for this study and thedevelopment of the E.A.D. While these models all have the term “white” embedded in them, I
choose not to include this term when consulting, counseling individuals, families, and groups,
and teaching in educational institutions, as the models are still relevant and applicable to other
non-Caucasian cultures. People of Color Racial Identity Models do exist, but the original
intention of these models—to explain how members of groups of color adapted in unfair
environments—other models are better applied when considering a variety of cultures andintercultural communication exercises, such as the E.A.D.
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Race Models
The following three models have been classified as “white” race models, with more detailprovided for Helms’ model for explanatory purposes. However, for the purposes of this paper andthe research surrounding the intercultural communication exercise, the E.A.D., as well as taking
into account other contingencies in a culture that may lead to racial identity; the “white” has been
omitted, thus making the models applicable to any culture.
Helms’ (1984, 1995) (White) Racial Identity Development Model
Helms’ (1984, 1990) theory details the racial identity formation of White people, and Helms andPiper (1994) describe white Americans as “those Americans who self-identify or are commonly
identified as belonging exclusively to the White racial group regardless of the continental source(e.g., Europe, Asia) of that racial ancestry” (p. 126). Within this model, racial identity “develops
as we move from a lack of awareness of our own racial background to an awareness andintegration of our race into our sense of who we are” (Daniels, p. 258), and this happens in six
phases: contact, disintegration, reintegration, pseudo-independence, immersion/emersion, andautonomy (Helms, 1995).
Hardiman’s (1992) (White) Racial Identity Development Model contains stages, beginning with anaïve stage and ending with a stage that encompasses the internalizing of a nonracist identity.
 Stages: Naiveté (little or no awareness of race), Acceptance (belief that all people have equal opportunities to succeed), Resistance (denial system is destroyed, racist attitudes are acknowledged), Redefinition (biases and prejudices are confronted, and responsibility is accepted), and Internalization (nonracist identity is developed).

Rowe, et al.’s (1994) White Racial Consciousness Model consists of “types,” and moves fromavoidant types to integrative types.








Avoidant Type: Does not consider his or her racial identity; does not express concern
over racism
Dependent Type: Committed a superficial attitude toward race
Dissonant Type: Uncertainty around his/her racial consciousness and other minority
concerns; questions previously held beliefs
Dominative Type: Holds very ethnocentric beliefs
Conflict Type: Opposed to overt racism, but is opposed to programs that reduce or
eliminate racism
Reactive Type: Aware of racism and reacts to it
Integrative Type: Comfortable with their race; governed by “the reality of what will
make a difference” (Daniels, p. 261).

These models and their stages are listed here as a reference for when the E.A.D. is incorporated
into a consultation, counseling session or classroom lesson plan. Now that the race models havebeen outlined, it is important to gain a deeper understanding of intercultural communication, andhow it is applicable to a variety of business, academic, and psychological situations.
Intercultural Communication
Countless articles and books have indulged in the cliché observation regarding the world
becoming smaller. The world is, in fact, becoming easier to access, both physically and virtually,
thanks mostly to advancing technology, immigration, and globalization; however, it is deceiving

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to believe that an accessible, multicultural world equals a diverse, accepting, and communicativeone.
In an ongoing study, titled “What’s Important to You?” spanning from 2010 to 2014, I surveyed
500 people from the United States, Canada, Mexico, Brazil, El Salvador, Nicaragua, Nigeria,
Egypt, South Africa, Austria, Belgium, France, Germany, Denmark, Iran, Saudi Arabia, Russia,
Ukraine, South Korea, Japan, Taiwan, China, Thailand, the Philippines, Australia, and New
Zealand. Participants were asked to list the three things that are most important to them, with nofurther details given. The results continue to reveal 98% of responses fall into these three
categories, as illustrated in Chart 1:
Chart 1. What’s Important to You?
What's Important to You?

Family/Friends
Career
Health/Quality of Life
Other (e.g., time, material
posessions)Because the results are generally the same no matter which country one was born in, it would beeasy to hypothesize that all human beings share something fundamentally in common regardlessof race, language, and cultural and religious beliefs, and while some choose to believe that every
human is part of one race—the human race—human beings are much more complicated than that,and cultural differences need to be respected and celebrated.
If humans are different, and these cultural differences must be acknowledged and respected, thenan understanding of culture is in order. In 1871, Edward B. Tyler provided the first working
definition of culture: “Culture is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, arts, law,
morals, custom, and any other habits acquired by humans who are members of a society.”
Another definition by Kovel (1984) defines culture as “an evolving system of meaningful
relations deriving from the sum total of the activities and institutions of a society” (p. 25). To
extend these definitions, Klopf and McCroskey (2007) present two means of viewing culture—abroad version and a narrow version: the broad version includes “artifacts” (society’s
manufactured items), “sociofacts” (society’s norms and laws), and “mentifacts” (cognition andemotion); the narrow version includes a more personal experience that influences how one thinks
and behaves within that society (p. 21). From these descriptions, an image of what culture is andwhy it is so important can be formed.

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Before delving any further, though, a definition of culture usually leads to other commonly heard
terms, and it is imperative that we separate them because they are oftentimes usedinterchangeably, which is one of the missteps that leads communicators further away from
communicating effectively interculturally. The terms in question are multicultural, cross-cultural,and intercultural.
Multicultural means two or more cultures living alongside one another and while thisinvolves some levels of tolerance and superficial social interactions, communication
usually does not reach deeper depths than that.
Cross-Cultural means two or more cultures living alongside one another and while there
are attempts at reaching across cultural borders, there is a level of intentionality andcommunity building that is necessary in order to build permanent bridges between
cultures.
Intercultural means social structures and interactions are defined by understanding,
acceptance, respect, freedom, equality, diversity, and celebration.

Given these definitions, intercultural communication—“a communicative exchange between
persons of different cultures”—and the training involved has never been more in demand (Klopf
and McCroskey, 2007, p. 58). Intercultural communities should reflect social structures and dailyinteractions that are defined by understanding, acceptance, respect, freedom, equality, diversity,and celebration, and yet there are challenges to intercultural communication: cultural assumptions,prejudices, stereotypes, miscommunications, misinterpretations, and racism, to name just a few.
Strategies to overcome these challenges are self-awareness, avoiding stereotypes, honesty,
respect, inquiry, and acceptance of differences and the difficulties that natural occur incommunication.
Here is a summary of some of the notable researchers and their contributions to interculturalcommunication:









Edward T. Hall (1990): Low Context Cultures (where explicit communication isimportant; e.g. The United States of America and Australia) and High Context Cultures(where norms are understood; e.g. France and Japan).
Geert Hofstede (1991): studied interactions between national cultures (values in theworkplace are influenced by culture) and organizational cultures (collective
programming of the mind that distinguishes members of one organization from others).
Fons Trompenaars (1997): Model of National Culture Differences, which includes
individualist vs. collectivist societies.
Milton Bennett (1977): Development Model of Intercultural Sensitivity and theIntercultural Development Inventory (IDI). The IDI measures intercultural competence,with ranges from monocultural to intercultural mindset.
Banks (2004): Views on Multicultural Education that include multicultural content
integration and prejudice reduction.

This list is hardly exhaustive, but these researchers and their significant studies related tointercultural communication, race, and education, provide a backdrop for the following research
project and, ultimately, the creation of the E.A.D. This study, conducted in Japan using two
groups—Japanese and Nigerians—was conducted in order to obtain insight into possible
underlying issues of racism, and to see how an intercultural communication tool like the E.A.D.
can be applied.
Confronting Underlying Issues of Racism
Japan

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Neither a history of Japan’s racial tensions with other countries, such as China and Korea, nor thecurrent extreme right-wing views of Japan’s nationalist groups will be included because suchhistorical events, such as the Nanjing incident (Askew, 2002), or modern acts of xenophobia,
such as the attack on a Chinese tour bus (Jize, 2010), would not accurately depict Japan’s current
stance with regards to immigration and cultural diversity.
However, in order to obtain a glimpse into this current state of mind, 27 adult Japanese male and23 adult Japanese females currently living in Japan were randomly chosen to participate in a brief
survey. All participants were approached while in public, and were asked for two pieces of
information: 1) their age, and 2) their immediate and honest response to one statement: “Say the
first word that comes to mind when I say Nigerian” (the questions were asked in Japanese, buttranslated into English for this publication). Twenty-five (25) participants responded without
hesitation, “怖い” (“Kowai,”), which is Japanese for scary or I’m afraid). Eighteen (18) of thefemale participants made facial and hand gestures to indicate their fear, and while at first notofficially documented, seventeen (17) of the Japanese female participants, along with one (1)Japanese male participant, followed up their initial response with the word “やだ!”(“Yada!”),which has many translations, but most commonly is used to express the sentiment, “I don’t want[it/to do it]”); surprisingly, a large portion of the participants referred to Nigerians in Japan as “犯罪者” (“Hanzaisha”)—criminals. Table 1 shows the frequency of the words Japanese participants
used to describe their perception of Nigerians in Japan.
Table 1. Frequency of the words used by Japanese participantsFrequency of theWords
怖い (“Kowai”)
犯罪者”(“Hanzaisha”)
やだ (“Yada”) (*usedin addition to the twowords above)

Japanese
Male
Participants (n=27)
621Japanese
Female Total
Participant (n=23)
19
25
4
25

1

17

18

Kovel (1984) explores models of white racial identity development, and pointed to some startlingresearch: “The less aware subjects were of their White identity, the more likely they were to
exhibit increased levels of racism” (p. 265). While I am not suggesting the Japanese should becompared to white Anglo-Saxon Americans, I do think there is a connection between the racial
identity models and current racial beliefs with regards to a small number of immigrants inhabiting
a country like Japan where there is one dominant race. Again, the point of this survey was not to
implicate the Japanese in acts of racial profiling, but rather reveal the need to further culturalawareness, sensitivity, and acceptance on a global scale. One way this can be achieved is throughcultural education, and training people to communicate effectively with people from different
cultures.
Nigeria
After collecting the data from the Japanese participants, nineteen (19) adult Nigerian men andeleven (11) adult Nigerian woman currently living in Japan were asked for two similar pieces of
information: 1) their age, and 2) their immediate and honest response to one phrase: “Say the firstword that comes to mind when I say Japanese people” (Note: This study took place in October
2014, in Tokyo). Table 2 shows the frequency of the words Nigerian immigrants used to describe
their perception of Japanese people: ignorant, close-minded, rude, and racist.

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Table 2. Frequency of the words used by Nigerian participantsFrequency of the
Words
Ignorant
Close-minded
Rude
RacistNigerian
Male
Participants (n=29)
4
2
6
17

Nigerian
FemaleParticipant (n=21)
1
0
9
11

Total
5
2
15
28

There are many race models, and while the following are labeled “white race models,” I do notinclude “white” when I apply them to my research because I believe these models can be applied
to all races. The most notable race models include Hardiman’s (White) Racial Identity Model(1992); Helm’s (White) Racial Identity Development Model (1995); and Rowe et al.’s (1994)(White) Racial Consciousness Model (Daniels, 2011). Kovel (1984) explores models of white
racial identity development, and pointed to some startling research: “The less aware subjects wereof their White identity, the more likely they were to exhibit increased levels of racism” (p. 265).
Again, to be clear, while the Japanese should not be compared to white Anglo-Saxon Americans,
I do believe, as Kovel (1984) stresses, that there is a connection between the racial identity
models’ stages of awareness and current racial beliefs with regards to immigrants inhabiting acountry where there is one dominant race.
Again, the point of these surveys was neither to accuse the Japanese nor the Nigerian populationsof racial profiling, but reveal the need to further cultural awareness, cultural sensitivity, andcultural acceptance on a global scale, and this can be achieved, in part, through effective
intercultural communication.
Discussion of EAD in Terms of Race Models
Hardiman’s (White) Racial Identity Model (1992); Helm’s (White) Racial Identity Development
Model (1995); and Rowe et al.’s (1994) (White) Racial Consciousness Model collectively aim forindividual autonomy that brings forth a deep internalization of a nonracist identity, leading to alevel of comfort with one’s race and culture, and thereby being more accepting of others. In thenext section, there will be a closer examination of the Describe, Interpret, and Evaluate (DIE),
which is meant to “become aware of value judgments [and to] show the personal and cultural
relativity of interpretations and evaluation” (Bennett, Bennett, and Stillings, 1977). The approachtaken by the E.A.D. is in direct congruence with the goals listed in the above race models because
it attempts to facilitate open communication among individuals from diverse racial and cultural
backgrounds, uncover underlying racist or other prejudicial thoughts and beliefs, and accept
others by creating a bridge between the differences that exist—a bridge of acknowledgement,
acceptance, respect, and celebration. With this in mind, we will conclude with a detailed look at
the E.A.D. and how it can be applied in a variety of educational, psychological, and otherprofessional settings.
The E.A.D.
As stated earlier, the Describe, Interpret, and Evaluate (DIE) is one of the most common
exercises used in intercultural training. The D.I.E. exercise asks participants to “describe,interpret, and evaluate” an ambiguous object or photograph (Bennett, Bennett, & Stillings, 1977).
Finding the model and its acronym problematic, Nam & Condon (2010) suggested D.A.E.
(Describe, Analyze, Evaluate), with “analyze” providing clearer directions for participants,
compared to the previous term “interpret” (in other words, problem solving versus judging) (p.
84). However, when I applied these models to various situations—classrooms, teacher training

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sessions, business and organization consultations, and psychological counseling sessions, I foundthat the participants/clients always struggled with not judging the pictures first. While the D.A.E.
is more effective in its clarity, I found that by allowing participants to first evaluate a picture,they often expressed their true opinions about certain individuals or situations that were being
displayed.
The E.A.D. is administered as follows: Before presenting the E.A.D. model to participants,
explain that they are going to see an object, photograph or short video, or hear a scenario (e.g., acase study), and that the goal is to first evaluate or judge it, then analyze it, and finally describe itin the simplest of terms. I then show them a picture (or play the movie or read the scenario). Oneof the most common photographs I use is the following:

Sources (July 10, 2015): https://www.flickr.com/photos/cybrarian77/6284697172/sizes/o/ andhttp://www.thesociologicalcinema.com/blog/teaching-the-presentation-of-self-in-the-classroom
Interestingly enough, when I use this photograph and conduct the D.I.E. or the D.A.E., about
98% of the time no one states the obvious—that all the students are white. When I conduct theexercise using the E.A.D., not only do participant immediately realize that all the students arewhite, but racially charged adjectives, such as “privileged,” become attached to the comments.
This type of comment has led to incredibly honest discussions on race, power and privilege, andtaking steps backward to then talk about analyses and descriptions opens the doors to further
discussions and exercises that help begin to build (or in some cases repair) trust, respect, andopen communication.
I began using more ambiguous or potentially controversial photographs, and decided to let themjudge the photos first. I conducted two more research studies using the E.A.D. in two different
settings within two different fields—education and psychology. The results were remarkable: Not
only were racially charged comments made without censorship, but sexist and bigoted comments
were openly made, as well. What followed was even more amazing: The individuals/groups
began to openly discuss the roots of these comments, and worked to dispel them.
In order to measure its efficacy, in 2014, 180 university students in Japan (Japanese, Chinese,
Korean, and Brazilian, ages 18 to 21 years old) were given the E.A.D. exercise as part of an
English-language course. After completing the E.A.D. exercise, the students were given a survey
to measure its effectiveness. Out of 180 students, 87% responded “Strongly Agree” when asked if

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the E.A.D. helped them self-reflect and critically evaluate their personal beliefs and potential
biases.
The E.A.D. has also proven to be effective in the field of psychology. Between 2013 and 2014,20 Japanese, American, Canadian, and British clients who were between the ages of 29-52, andreceiving regular, weekly psychological counseling, were also given the E.A.D. exercise. Out of
20 clients, 17 responded “Strongly Agree” when asked if the E.A.D. helped them self-reflect andcritically evaluate their personal beliefs and potential biases.
Conclusion
Regardless of position or context, the E.A.D. intercultural communication exercise can help
foster better relationships among clients, students and employees of varying cultural identities. If
you are charged with improving work relations among your students or colleagues, or trying tohelp someone who is, and you suspect there is underlying racial tension or other prejudicial
beliefs, there are many approaches you can take to confront these issues, and strategies toimplement that will diffuse the situation. The goal is to confront prejudice head-on, and the
E.A.D. accomplishes this goal by not asking participants to objectively describe what they see
first, but instead, evaluate what they see; in other words, immediately answer the question, “Howdo I feel about what I see” (Nam & Condon, 2010, p. 85). By moving backwards through the
D.I.E./D.A.E. process, people are able to move forward, confronting underlying racism, sexism
or other issues that may be causing undue hardship and stress in the home, classroom orworkplace. The goals for each and every session you use the E.A.D. should be to help thoseparticipating improve their self-awareness, cultural sensitivity, and effective interculturalcommunication.
The truth is that racism and other prejudices are a part of every society, and unfortunately will befor quite some time. It should come as no surprise to anyone, for it is embedded in who we are as
racial and cultural beings, as Allport (1954) notes:
Everywhere on earth we find a condition of separateness among groups. People mate with
their own kind. They eat, play, reside in homogeneous clusters. They visit with their own
kind, and prefer to worship together. Much of this automatic cohesion is due to nothing
more than convenience. There is no need to turn to out-groups for companionship. With
plenty of people at hand to choose from, why create for ourselves the trouble of adjusting
to new languages, new food, new cultures, or to the people of a different educational level?
(p. 17)
Even though this observation was made over 60 years ago, this stark reality can still be applied tomany cultural groups and communities today, and because of this, new research on race willcontinue to grow. Therefore, this new body of research, as well as new race models that may
form, coupled with a focus on intercultural communication, would allow for further in-depth
studies using the E.A.D. A longitudinal study would also help to solidify the efficacy of the
E.A.D. in more fields, such as politics and law, but so far its use has proven to be an effective
tool to assist with opening the doors of communication, and uncovering the underlying issues ofracism and other prejudices that may be blocking them.
References
Allport, G. W. (1954). The Nature of Prejudice: 25th Anniversary Edition (1979). Berkeley:
Perseus Books Publishing, L.L.C.

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Askew, D. (2002). The Nanjing Incident: Recent Research and Trends. Electronic Journal ofContemporary
Japanese
Studies.
Retrieved
July
20,
2015,
from
http://www.japanesestudies.org.uk/articles/Askew.html.
Baldwin, J. R., Means Coleman, R. R., Gonzalez, A., and Shenoy-Packer, S. (2014). Intercultural
Communication for Everyday Life. Oxford: John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
Banks, J. A. (2004). Multicultural Education: Historical Development, Dimensions, and Practice.
In J. A. Banks & C. A. McGee Banks (eds.), Handbook of Research on Multicultural
Education (2nd Edition). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Bennett, J. M., Bennett M. J., and Stillings, K. (1977). Description, interpretation, evaluation:
Facilitators’ guidelines. Retrieved July 20, 2015, from http://www.intercultural.org/die.php.
Daniels, J. A. (2001). Conceptualizing a Case of Indirect Racism Using the White Racial Identity
Development Model. Journal of Mental Health Counseling, 23(3), 256-268.
Hall, E. T. (1990). The Hidden Dimension. New York: Anchor.
Helms, J. E. (1984). Toward a theoretical explanation of the effects of race on counseling: A
Black and White model. The Counseling Psychologist, 12(4), 153-165.
Helms, J. E. (1990). Generalizing racial identity interactions theory to groups. In J. E. Helms(Ed.), Black and White racial identity: Theory, research, and practice (pp. 177-185).
Westport, CT: Greenwood.
Helms, J. E., & Piper, R. E. (1994). Implications of racial identity theory for vocational
psychology. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 44, 124-136.
Helms (1995) from Sue, et al. (1998). Multicultural Counseling Competencies: Individual andOrganizational Development. Sage Productions. Thousand Oaks, CA.
Hofstede, G. (1991). Cultures and Organizations. London: McGraw Hill.
Jize, Q. (2010). Travel Warning Issued for Japan after bus attacked. Retrieved July 20, 2015,
http://news.asiaone.com/News/Latest%2BNews/Asia/Story/A1Story20101002from
240207.html.
Klopf, D. W., & McCroskey, J. C. (2007) Intercultural Communication Encounters. Boston, MA:
Pearson Education, Inc.
Kovel, J. (1984). White Racism: A Psychohistory. New York, NY: Columbia University Press.
Nam, K., and Condon, J. (2010). The DIE is cast: The continuing evolution of interculturalcommunication’s favorite classroom exercise. International Journal of Intercultural
Relations, 34, 81–87.
Race for Opportunity (2010). Aspiration and Frustration: Ethnic minority hope and reality inside
Britain’s
premiercareers.
Retrieved
July
20,
2015,
from
http://www.raeng.org.uk/publications/other/aspiration-frustration-final-report.
Sadri, H. A., & Flammia, M. (2011). Intercultural Communication: A New Approach toInternational Relations and Global Challenges. New York: Continuum International
Publishing Group.
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Salter, J. (2014). Signs show Ferguson trying to move on from unrest. Retrieved July 20, 2015,
fromhttp://fox11online.com/news/nation-world/signs-show-ferguson-trying-to-move-onfrom-unrest.
Trompenaars, F., & Hampden-Turner, C. (1997). Riding the Waves of Culture. London. Nicholas
Brealey.
Tyler, E. B. (1871). Primitive Culture. New York: J. P. Putnam’s Sons.
Zagier, A. S. (2014). Officer who shot Michael Brown resigns in Ferguson. Retrieved July 20,
2015, from http://www.santacruzsentinel.com/general-news/20141129/officer-who-shotmichael-brown-resigns-in-ferguson.

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A Model of Small-Group Problem-Based Learning In Pharmacy
Education: Teaching in the Clinical Environment
Jeerisuda Khumsikiew, Sisira Donsamak, and Manit Saeteaw

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Abstract
Problem-based Learning (PBL) is an alternate method of instruction that incorporates basic
elements of cognitive learning theory. Colleges of pharmacy use PBL to aid anticipated learning
outcomes and practice competencies for pharmacy student. The purpose of this study were to
implement and evaluate a model of small group PBL for 5th year pharmacy students in theclinical environment that facilitated by pharmacy instructors. A PBL model was implemented in
1-day periods each week in total of 15 weeks at clinical practice sites. PBL activities consisted ofproviding pharmaceutical care service, collecting patients based clinical data, evaluation
therapeutic regimens, developing SOAP note, peer feedback and case wrap-up sessions. In datacollection, 36 students who had participated model completed a 17-items questionnaire using 5point Likert scale (Cronbach's Alpha is 0.96) about their pharmacy student competencies at
before and after finished course. They also completed 11-items questionnaire using 5-point Likert
scale (Cronbach's Alpha is 0.87) about their satisfaction. Data of pharmacy student competencies
and satisfaction were analyzed by paired sample t-test and descriptive statistics in respectively.
From the result of this study indicated that pharmacy student's competencies have been increased
through PBL course and also statistical significant (P < 0.05) have found in every items mainly inclinical skills regarding apply didactic knowledge to direct patients care activities such as
identifying, prioritization, solving therapy-drug related problem as well as clinicalcommunication with patients or other members of interdisciplinary team. Moreover, in the part ofsatisfaction found that all of questions were scored range from high to highest level of mean score
and most of modes were 4. Overall concluded that the PBL model enhances pharmacy student
competencies and students were satisfied with PBL course.
Keywords: Pharmacy education; problem-based learning; clinical environment.

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Introduction
Problem-based Learning (PBL) is an alternate method of instruction that incorporates basic
elements of cognitive learning theory. The innovative instruction strategy of PBL is studentcentered approach that empowers self directed learning through problem solving skill
development in real world practice situations (Savery, 2006).
PBL has been increasingly and wildly used in pharmacy education since year 2000 which thestandards for curriculum of ACPE (The Accreditation Council for Pharmacy Education) has been
published and indicated that “the educational process should promote lifelong learning throughthe emphasis on active, self-directed learning and the curricula should include teaching strategies
to ensure the adeptness of critical thinking and problem-solving” (American Council on
Pharmaceutical Education, 2000, pp. 52-53). Moreover, The ACCP (American College ofClinical Pharmacy) also suggests that pharmacy educators need to place more emphasis on
preparing students for problem solving, critical thinking, ethics, communication and self-directed
learning. Because of expanding the scope of pharmacy practice, Pharmacists will be involved in
expanded patient care responsibilities. The pharmacists' role in today's health care system
requires greater problem-solving capabilities, effective thinking abilities, sound decision making
skills, and effective communication skills (ACCP, 2000, pp. 991-1020).
To comply with these suggestions, many schools and colleges of pharmacy use PBL to aid
anticipated learning outcomes and practice competencies for their pharmacy students. Students
are acquired and applied knowledge while developing problem-solving, critical-thinking, anddecision-making skills (Culbertson, Kale, & Jarvi, 1997, pp. 18-25).
PBL has been used in pharmaceutical education courses, and numerous published reports
describe the resulting experiences with this educational method. (Culbertson, Kale & Jarvi, 1997,
pp. 19–26) Several studies showed that positive impacts of PBL on the learning behavior,
knowledge, skill and attitude of students. (Hamoudi, Nagavi, & Al-Azzawi, 2010, pp. 206–219)
The results of the current meta-analysis indicate that the PBL curriculum seems to improve theacademic performance of pharmacy students when compared to the traditional method of
instruction (Galvao, Silva, Neiva, Ribeiro & Pereira, 2014, pp. 1-7).
The purpose of this study were to implement and evaluate a model of small group PBL thatincorporate to the course of the special problems in pharmacy for 5th year pharmacy students inthe clinical environment that facilitated by pharmacy instructor.
Literature Review
Overview: definition, characteristics, effectiveness of PBL
Problem-based learning (PBL) represents a major development and change in educational
practice that continues to have a large impact across subjects and multiple disciplines worldwide.
PBL has been used successfully for over 30 years and endorsed by a wide variety of national andinternational organizations such as the medical education/medical colleges (Muller, 1984),(Walton & Matthews, 1989: pp. 542-558.) the World Health Organization (WHO, 1993) the
nurse education (English National Board, 1994) as well as the pharmacy education/pharmacy
colleges (Ross, Crabtree, Theilman, Ross, Cleary, & Byrd, 2007).
In the literature, PBL has been defined and described in many ways. PBL is used to refer to many
contextualized approaches to instruction sharing that much of the learning and teaching isanchored in concrete problems (Evenson & Hmelo, 2000). This focus on concrete problems
initiating the learning process is central in most definitions of PBL. Barrows, a pioneer of PBL,

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define the concept of PBL as “the learning that results from the process of working toward theunderstanding or resolution of a problem. The problem is encountered first in the learning process
and serves as a focus or stimulus for the application of problem solving or reasoning skills, aswell as for the search for or study of information or knowledge needed to understand themechanisms responsible for the problem and how it might be resolved” (Barrows, 1986, pp. 481486).
A much-quoted definition is the one given by Albanese and Mitchell (Albanese & Mitchell, 1993,
pp. 52-81): “PBL at its most fundamental level is an instructional method characterized by theuse of patient problems as a context for students to learn problem-solving skills and acquire
knowledge about the basic and clinical sciences”. Vernon en Blake (Vernon& Blake, 1993, pp.
550-563) define PBL by its instructional design components, students’ cognitive processes andteacher’s role: “a method of learning (or teaching) that emphasizes (1) the study of clinical cases,
either real or hypothetical, (2) small discussion groups, (3) collaborative independent study, (4)hypothetico-deductive reasoning, and (5) a style of faculty direction that concentrates on groupprogress rather than imparting information.”
In general, PBL is an instructional (and curricular) learner-centered approach that empowers
learners to integrate theory and practice, apply knowledge and skills to develop a viable solution
to a defined problem (Savery, 2006, pp. 9-20).
Six essential elements of PBL consisted of (Barrows, 1996, pp. 3-13):(1) student-centered, (2) small student groups-environment, (3) tutor as a facilitator or guide, (4)authentic problems are primarily encountered in the learning sequence, before any preparation or
study has occurred, (5) the problems encountered are used as a tool to knowledge acquisition andthe problem-solving skills necessary to eventually solve the problem, and (6) new informationneeds to be acquired through self-directed learning.
Positive effects of PBL on student learning has been shown in several previous studies thatassociated with optimal learning performance, particularly in the area of knowledge retention;
integration of basic science knowledge to the solutions of clinical problems; self-directed learning
skills, and increased intrinsic interest in subject matter (Major & Palmer, 2001, pp. 4-9). Similar
with one of studies in an East Asian context where is known for its reliance on traditional
approaches to teaching and learning, the statistical analyses suggest that PBL can exert a positive
impact on instructional effectiveness especially in 3 dimensions of student competency including
action-directed learning, student engagement, assessment and feedback (Hallinger & Lu, 2011,
pp. 267-285). Corresponding with the existing evidence of using PBL in pharmacy curriculumthat it’s seems to improve the academic performance of pharmacy students when compared to the
traditional method of instruction (Galvao, Silva, Neiva, Ribeiro, & Pereira, 2014).
Design of Small-Group Problem-Based Learning model in the course of Special Problem in
Pharmacy Practice
Course description
This is the professional elective course in 3 credit hours offered to 5th year pharmacy students.
The course is designed to allow students to apply didactic knowledge to direct patient care
activities and practice theirs pharmacy knowledge in practice sites. Students will apply theirknowledge of pathophysiology, pharmacology, pharmacokinetics and pharmacotherapy to
optimize patient care in a variety of specialty settings. Students will concentrate on patient
specific pharmacotherapy, evidence based medicine, medication use evaluation and effective
communication with patients and healthcare professionals.
Course Objectives
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Upon completion of this course, students will be able to:
-

-

-

-

-

-

Review patient profile and clinical data gathering from patients and patients medical
record such as OPD card, IPD chart
Design an appropriate treatment plan and evidence-based therapeutics regimens forindividualized patientso Specify therapeutic goals for individualized patients incorporating the principlesof evidence-based medicine that integrate patient-specific data, disease andmedication-specific information, ethics, and quality of life considerationso Design a patient-centered regimen that meets the evidence-based therapeutic goals
established for a patient; integrates patient-specific information, disease and drug
information, ethical issues and quality of life issues; and considers
pharmacoeconomic principles
Design a patient-centered, evidenced-based monitoring planso Specify efficacy monitoring parameters for a therapeutic regimen that effectively
evaluates achievement of the patient-specific goalso Specify toxicity monitoring parameters for a therapeutic regimen that adverse
effects may be occurred
Recommend or communicate evidence-based therapeutic regimen and corresponding
appropriated monitoring plan to other members of the interdisciplinary team and patientsin a way that is systematic, logical, accurate, timely, and secures consensus from theteam and patient.
Practice communication skill through providing counseling to patients and caregivers,
including information on medication therapy, adverse effects, compliance, appropriateuse, handling, and medication administration
Refer patients to an appropriate health care provider when they have health care needs
that cannot be met by the pharmacist based on the patient’s acuity and the presenting
problem
Devise a plan for follow-up for a referred patient.

Educational Environment
A PBL model was implemented in 1-day periods each week in total of 15 weeks for elective
course of special problem in pharmacy practice in order to maintain compliance with theaccreditation standard.
Strategies to promote student learning outcome consisted of lecture based teaching and problem
based learning in clinical practice sites with a teacher who was a facilitator when they werepractice.
In lecture based teaching, clinical topic consisted of how to data gathering; tip and trick for
SOAP, introduction to medication use process and medication evaluation in oncology, psychiatricand community pharmacy.
In clinical practice sites rotations, students would have the opportunity to provide clinicalpharmacy services by randomly assigned 3 practice sites per student. Clinical practice sites
including acute care in internal medicine ward, oncology ward, psychiatric ward and community
pharmacy care in community pharmacy. Turning rotation to other clinical practice sites has been
performed every 3 weeks then student have a case presentation with teacher at the faculty.
The following is a list of activities that are representative of pharmacy student’s responsibilities
during the rotation including internal medicine ward and community pharmacy.

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In internal medicine ward:---

Pharmacists ward rounds with preceptor and teacher
Providing pharmaceutical care based on patients’ needs by identifying and resolving
problems in individualized patientso Review patient profile and clinical data gathering from patients and patients
medical record such as OPD card, IPD charto Review of laboratory data to monitor for appropriate dosing of drug therapy
o Evaluation of all medication regimens for appropriateness and cost-effectivenesso Identification of and resolution of any drug related problems
o Proactive involvement in selecting, modifying and monitoring drug therapy
o Provision of medication information to interdisciplinary team such as physicians,
nurses, and patientso Monitor for and report Adverse Drug Reactions
Record and report pharmacist SOAP note for individualized patients
Discussions with the preceptor and teacher about drug related problems and its solutions.
In community pharmacy:
Providing pharmaceutical care based on patients’ needs by identifying and resolving
problems in individualized patientso Clinical data gathering from patientso Differential diagnosis based on patient’s presenting signs and symptoms
o Design medication regimens for appropriateness and cost-effectivenesso Providing medication information about efficacy monitoring parameter andtoxicity monitoring parameter to patientso Advocating lifestyle changes that can improve the outcomes of medicinal therapyo Monitor for and report Adverse Drug Reactions
Record and report pharmacist SOAP note for individualized patients
Discussions with the preceptor and teacher about drug related problems and its solutions.
MethodThis research was quasi-experimental study and one group pretest-posttest design aims to study
effects of a model of small-group problem-based learning in elective course of special problem inpharmacy practice for 5th year pharmacy students.
A PBL model was implemented in 1-day periods each week in total of 15 weeks for elective
course of special problem in pharmacy. Strategies to promote student learning outcome consistedof lecture based teaching and problem based learning in clinical practice sites with a teacher who
was a facilitator when they were practice. In clinical practice sites rotations, students would havethe opportunity to provide clinical pharmacy services by randomly assigned 3 practice sites perstudent. Students would be rotated in clinical practice sites every 3 weeks after that student havea case presentation with teacher at the faculty.
Outcome has been evaluated at before and after PBL model implementation in 2 domains
including pharmacy student’s competencies and satisfaction.
Sample size was 36 students who registered in elective course of special problem in pharmacy
practice. Students were divided into 7 groups, consisted of 5 students per group.
In data collection, 36 students who had participated in the model completed a 17-items selfassessment questionnaire using 5-point Likert scale (Cronbach's Alpha is 0.96) about theirpharmacy student competencies. In addition, they also completed 11-items questionnaire using 5point Likert scale (Cronbach's Alpha is 0.87) about their satisfaction.
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The inferential statistics (Pair t-test) was used to compare mean score between before and after
finished course in the part of student's competencies. Descriptive statistic such as mean score wasused to describe student's satisfaction in various aspects. Rating scales would be scaled to haveequal intervals.
Table 1. Interpretation of mean score
Rang of mean score
4.21 - 5.00
3.41 - 4.20
2.61 - 3.40
1.81 - 2.60
1.00 - 1.80

Meaning
HightestHigh
MediumLow
LowestResults

Table 2 was shown demographic data of sample size which consisted of 36 students who
registered in elective course of special problem in pharmacy practice. There were 8 male (22.2%)
and 28 female (77.8%). Mean age and Grade Point Average (GPA) of them were 22.581.02 and3.180.48 in respectively.
Table 2. Demographic data of respondents
Characteristics

StudentsMale

8 (22.2%)

Female28 (77.8%)

Sex

Age (years)
Mean + SD

22.581.02

Grade Point Average
Mean + SD

3.180.48

Table 2 was shown pharmacy student’s competency at before and after 15 weeks of PBL model
implementation.
Table 3. Self assessment rating score in pharmacy student's competency
BeforeAfter

Mean
Differences P value

Items
1. Provide pharmaceutical care according toGood Pharmacy Practice concept.
2. Review patient profile and clinical data
gathering from patients and patient’s
medical record such as OPD card, IPD
chart.

Mean

SD

Mean

SD

2.44

0.88

3.50

0.77

1.06

< 0.05

2.22

0.64

3.42

0.69

1.20

< 0.05

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BeforeAfter

Mean
Differences P value

Items
Mean

SD

Mean

SD

3. Recommend individualized lifestylemodifications that can improve theoutcomes of medicinal therapy.

2.22

0.48

3.47

0.56

1.25

< 0.05

4. Identify and refer patients who met
referral criteria to an appropriate healthcare provider.
5. Design an appropriate pharmacologic
regimens and non- pharmacologic
treatment regimens for individualized
patients.
6. Apply didactic knowledge including
diseases and pharmacotherapy to direct
patient care activities.
7. Initial assessment of disease severity inindividualized patients.
8. Evaluation of all medication regimens in
4 domains including appropriate
indication, efficacy, safety and cost in
individualized patients.
9. Interpret and analyze medical patient’s
medical information for develop
pharmaceutical care plan.
10. Identify risk factors and the underlying
causes in the development of patient’s
diseases.
11. Identify patient’s medical problem list.

2.31

0.75

3.58

0.55

1.27

< 0.05

2.31

0.89

3.69

0.52

1.38

< 0.05

2.39

0.77

3.64

0.64

1.25

< 0.05

2.31

0.75

3.69

0.58

1.38

< 0.05

2.31

0.75

3.72

0.61

1.41

< 0.05

2.36

0.80

3.67

0.79

1.31

< 0.05

2.47

0.81

3.64

0.80

1.17

< 0.05

2.28

0.85

3.44

0.61

1.16

< 0.05

12. Prioritize patient’s problem list based on
urgency and severity of diseases.
13. Identify patient’s drug related problem.

2.33

0.89

3.61

0.77

1.28

< 0.05

2.25

0.87

3.36

0.68

1.11

< 0.05

14. Solve patient’s drug related problem inindividualized patients.
15. Communicate appropriated evidencebased therapeutic regimen throughpharmacist note on medical record toother members of the interdisciplinary
team such as physician and nurse.

2.28

0.85

3.42

0.81

1.14

< 0.05

2.14

0.83

3.50

0.77

1.36

< 0.05

16. Encourage patient’s medication
compliance.
17. Design a patient-centered, evidencedbased monitoring plan including efficacy
monitoring parameters and toxicity
monitoring parameters.

2.31

0.82

3.42

0.65

1.11

< 0.05

2.39

0.80

3.53

0.65

1.14

< 0.05

From table 3 shown that student's competencies have been increased through PBL model in all
items evaluation and also statistical significant (P < 0.05) have found in every items including
providing of pharmaceutical care according to Good Pharmacy Practice concept, recommend
individualized lifestyle modifications, clinical data gathering from patients and patient’s medical
record, identify patients who met referral criteria to an appropriate health care provider, designing
an appropriate pharmacologic regimens and non-pharmacologic treatment regimens, application
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of didactic knowledge to direct patient care activities, initial assessment of disease severity,
evaluation of all medication regimens, interpretation and analyze medical patient’s medical
information for develop pharmaceutical care plan, identify risk factors for diseases progression,
identify patient’s medical problem list, prioritization of patient’s problem list based on urgency
and severity of diseases, identify patient’s drug related problem, solve patient’s drug related
problem in individualized patients, communicate appropriated evidence-based therapeutic
regimen through pharmacist note, encourage patient’s medication compliance, designing apatient-centered, evidenced-based monitoring plan for individualized patients.
Table 4 showed student's satisfaction on various aspects after 15 weeks of PBL model
implementation.
Table 4. Student's satisfaction
Issues

Mean

SD

Mode

1. Satisfied with the role of teacher who works as theirfacilitators.
2. Satisfied with student's role that must be self direct
learning.
3. Satisfied with student's activities in PBL model.

4.22

0.54

4

3.64

0.68

3

4.00

0.79

4

4. Satisfied with an interesting PBL case which teacher
selected.
5. Satisfied with PBL case which led to knowledge
application in vertical and horizontal.
6. Satisfied with time course.

4.03

0.70

4

3.94

0.71

4

3.53

0.70

4

7. Satisfied with chance to independently pharmaceuticalpractice.
8. Satisfied with practice site.

3.89

0.82

4

3.67

0.83

3

9. Satisfied with the evaluation of this course.

3.75

0.84

4

10. Satisfied with overall quality of teaching and learning.

4.08

0.60

4

From table 4 shown thatthe most of students were satisfied with PBL model in various aspects.
All of questions were scored range from high to highest level of mean score (3.41 - 5.00) andmost of modes were 4.Students satisfied with the role of teacher who works as their facilitators inhighest level of mean score followed by high level of mean score including satisfied with overall
quality of teaching and learning, an interesting PBL case which teacher selected, activities in PBL
model, chance to independently pharmaceutical practice and the evaluation of this course inrespectively. However, there were 2 issues that modes were 3 including satisfaction with student's
role that must be self direct learning and appropriate of practice site.
Discussion
Pharmacy educators will play a significant role in developing the knowledge, skills, and abilities
needed to practice pharmaceutical care. Curriculum modifications and various instructional
strategies will have to be considered to facilitate the learning outcomes of pharmacy students
needed to practice pharmaceutical care. One such instructional strategy and/or curriculum modelis Problem-based Learning (PBL) (Fisher, 1994, pp. 183-189).

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The purpose of this study were to implement and evaluate a model of small group PBL thatincorporate to the course of the special problems in pharmacy for 5th year pharmacy students inthe clinical environment that facilitated by pharmacy instructor.PBL is an important part of thecurriculum that integrates content and prepares students to provide patient-centered care, as
indicated in the Blueprint for Pharmacy, and addressed by WHO patient safety curriculum guide.
Moreover, PBL in the clinical environment give students the opportunity to apply theirknowledge and skills with problem and case based in real world practice. Learning environmentis one in which the students feel they are freely able to express their thoughts and ideas (WHO,2011; Blueprint for Pharmacy, 2008).
The small group instructional method has multiple benefits. Active small group discussion
encourages application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation of facts and concepts. This process isessential for developing competence in clinical reasoning and critical thinking. Working in small
groups allows students to take an active role in their own education. Students learn facts andconcepts best when they use them to solve problems. Small group teaching with mixed levels oflearners also offers the opportunity to set expectations of learners at all levels and demonstrate
expectations for progressive competence in the continuum of medical education (Dennick, Exley,
1998, pp. 111-115).
PBL small group sessions in clinical environment can also complement the information presented
in lectures by allowing students time to ask questions in a non-threatening environment and to
think critically. This allows the students to detect and correct errors (their own, and sometimes
those of the facilitator) and also offers students opportunities to problem solve, make clinicaldecisions, and practice clinical skills, especially communication skills. These are also useful inpromoting student reflection, independence, and life-long learning (White & Manfred, 2010).
As pharmacy practice incorporates a greater patient care component, pharmacists will be held
responsible for identifying and solving higher order clinical problems or encounter patient careproblems that will require critical thinking skills and precise decision making abilities.
Pharmacists will be involved in the clinical treatment of patients (pharmaceutical care) that
requires more detailed communication with patients and health care providers. This expanded
professional interaction will require pharmacists to utilize effective problem solving skills.
From this study indicated that pharmacy student's competencies have been increased throughPBL course mainly in clinical skills regarding apply didactic knowledge to direct patients care
activities such as identifying, prioritization, solving therapy-drug related problem as well as
clinical communication with patients or other members of interdisciplinary team. Consistent withthe study of the potential for problem-based learning in pharmacy education, found that practicecompetencies of pharmacy students can be increased via PBL course.(Fisher, 1994) As same as
the result from meta-analysis of problem-based learning in pharmaceutical education whichfound that pharmacy student’s knowledge was improved by the PBL method. PBL students
performed better on midterm examinations (odds ratio [OR]=1.46;95%CI : 1.16,1.89) and final
examinations (OR =1.60; 95%CI:1.06,2.43) compared with students in the traditional learninggroups. However, no difference was found between the groups in the subjective evaluations.
(Galvao, Silva, Neiva, Ribeiro, & Pereira, 2014).
Moreover, the recent of meta-analyses comparing PBL to conventional classrooms indicated that
PBL was superior when it comes to long-term retention, skill development and satisfaction of
students and teachers, while traditional approaches were more effective for short-term retention
as measured by standardized board exams.(Strobel & van Barneveld, 2009, pp. 44-58) In
pharmacy and medical education of Thailand context, the one group pretest-posttest design whichstudy on PBL effectiveness found that PBL method can also increase student's competencies,

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practical skills, self direct learning skill as well as lifelong learning skills. (Chuangchum,
Pholchan, Nopkesorn, & Pannarunothai, 2011, pp. 34-40).
Another advantage of this PBL model is that teacher works as facilitators of discussion rather
than an instructor. The facilitator’s primary function is to allowing students to struggle with aproblem, providing guidance, reinforcing what is right, correcting errors and give individualized
feedback on student’s performance (White, & Manfred, 2010). Students who are challenged by
the teacher who works as facilitators are likely to progress their learning more rapidly (WHO,2011).
In the part of satisfaction, althoughthe most of students were satisfied with PBL model in high tohighest level of mean score (3.41 - 5.00) and most of modes were 4. But there were 2 issues thatmodes were 3 including satisfaction with their role that must be self direct learning andappropriate of practice site. From this result consistent with the study of Chuangchum, found thatsome students (35%) of the class were satisfied with traditional passive learning more than self
direct learning in PBL method (Chuangchum, Pholchan, Nopkesorn, & Pannarunothai, 2011, pp.
34-40). Moreover, peer feedback process between teacher and students may be limited bylimitation of area space in clinical practice sites.
Conclusion
From the result shown that pharmacy student's competencies have been increased through PBL
model in all items evaluation and also statistical significant (P < 0.05) have found in every items
including providing of pharmaceutical care according to Good Pharmacy Practice concept,
recommend individualized lifestyle modifications, clinical data gathering from patients andpatient’s medical record, identify patients who met referral criteria to an appropriate health careprovider, designing an appropriate pharmacologic regimens and non-pharmacologic treatment
regimens, application of didactic knowledge to direct patient care activities, initial assessment ofdisease severity, evaluation of all medication regimens, interpretation and analyze medical
patient’s medical information for develop pharmaceutical care plan, identify risk factors fordiseases progression, identify patient’s medical problem list, prioritization of patient’s problem
list based on urgency and severity of diseases, identify patient’s drug related problem, solve
patient’s drug related problem in individualized patients, communicate appropriated evidencebased therapeutic regimen through pharmacist note, encourage patient’s medication compliance,
designing a patient-centered, evidenced-based monitoring plan for individualized patients.
The most of students were satisfied with PBL model in various aspects. All of questions werescored range from high to highest level of mean score (3.41 - 5.00) and most of modes were 4.
Students satisfied with the role of the teacher who works as their facilitators in highest level ofmean score followed by high level of mean score including satisfied with overall quality ofteaching and learning, an interesting PBL case which teacher selected, activities in PBL model,chance to independently pharmaceutical practice and the evaluation of this course in respectively.
The implications of integrate problem-based learning in pharmacy education have 2 aspects suchas students and pharmacy educator who works as facilitators. It was implied that theimplementation of PBL can enhanced the pharmacy students’ competencies and that generally thestudents were satisfied with the PBL course. These positive outcomes occurred when the teacher
works as a facilitator of discussion in clinical environment.
However, interpretation and generalization of the result should be done with the concern of some
limitations. First, main data in this studywas “Subjective data” from student's self assessment
rating scale which difficult to verify. However, the questionaire has passed reliability test alreadybefore used. Second, outcome assessment of this study has based on perceived skill or perceived

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knowledge not based on actual knowledge which measure by score on examination. Third, thisstudy was one group pretest-posttest design which have not had control group (such as traditional
teaching group) for true comparison.

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ACCP (2000). A vision of pharmacy's future roles, responsibilities, and manpower needs in the
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Albanese, M. A., & Mitchell, S. (1993). Problem-based learning: A review of literature on
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Barrows, H.S. (1996). Problem-based learning in medicine and beyond. In L. Wilkerson, & W. H.
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Blueprint for Pharmacy (2008). The vision for pharmacy. Retrieved July 20, 2015, fromhttp://blueprintforpharmacy.ca/docs/pdfs/2011/05/11/BlueprintVision.pdf?Status=Master.
Chuangchum, P., Pholchan, T., Nopkesorn, T., Pannarunothai, S. (2011). Effects of Using an
Integrated Team-Based and Problem-Based Learning Approach for Developing Lifelong
Learning Characteristics of First Year Medical Students.South-East Asian Journal of
Medical Education. South-East Asian Journal of Medical Education, 5, 34-40.
Crisneros, R. M., Salisbury-Glennon, J. D., & Anderson-Harper H. M. (2002). Status of problembased learning research in pharmacy education: a call for future research. American Journalof Pharmaceutical Education, 66, 19-26.
Culbertson, V. L., Kale M., & Jarvi, E. J. (1997). Problem-based learning: a tutorial model incorporating pharmaceutical diagnosis. American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education,
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Dennick, R. G., & Exley, K. (1998). Teaching and learning in groups and teams. Biochemical
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Evenson, D. H., & Hmelo, C. E. (eds) (2000). Problem-Based Learning: A research perspective
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Fisher, R. C. (1994). The Potential for Problem-Based Learning in Pharmacy Education: A
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Galvao, T. F., Silva, M. T., Neiva, C. S., Ribeiro, L. M., & Pereira, M. G. (2014). Problem-Based
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Hallinger, P., & Lu, H. (2011). Implementing problem-based learning in higher education in Asia:
challenges, strategies and effect. Journal of Higher Education Policy and Management,
33(3), 267-285.
Hamoudi, N. M., Nagavi, B. G., & Al-Azzawi, A. M. J. (2010). Problem based learning and its
impact on learning behavior of pharmacy students in RAK medical and Health Sciences
University. Indian Journal of Pharmaceutical Education and Research, 44(3), 206-219.
Major, C. H., & Palmer, B. (2001). Assessing the effectiveness of problem-based learning inhigher education: Lessons from the literature. Academic Exchange Quarterly, 5(1), 4-9.
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Strobel, J. , & van Barneveld, A. (2009). When is PBL More Effective? A Meta-synthesis ofMeta-analyses Comparing PBL to Conventional Classrooms. Interdisciplinary Journal of
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Healthy Children, Healthy Minds: Creating a Brighter Future
Marcel Lebrun

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Abstract
Children struggle with life today. Being children in the 21st century is both taxing and exciting
and yet trying to cope with all of the technology and media that surrounds them. How do we as
adults provide good models? Mindfulness, exercise, focus and attention, healthy living strategies
need to play a role in shaping healthy children. Educators need to become well versed instrategies that both teach short and long term behaviors that will sustain healthy living andhealthy minds. Children are the future and what kind of adult do we want running our countries
and the world. The article provides many strategies for educators and parents to guide children in
making choices that are both empowering and allow them the flexibility to be children.
Keywords: Exercise; children; mindfulness; media; focus; attention; healthy living.

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Introduction“Education makes better minds, and knowledge of the mind can make better education.”-Daniel Willingham
What can be more important to the future of humanity than helping our next generation develop
their minds in healthy ways? This article provides a wakeup call for adults to focus our attention
on what really matters—creating healthy children with healthy minds. We must cultivate healthy
minds that are thoughtful, focused on their own and others’ mental, physical and spiritual health,as well as the health of other living creatures and of the environment locally and around theworld. We must purposefully cultivate minds that work to improve the welfare of all citizens of
the world. At the same time, we all want to see children happily playing outdoors, making
friends, eating healthy food, and having purpose, drive, motivation and exuding the qualities ofhonesty and integrity.
Instead we are currently bombarded with images of children who are dishonest and lack
integrity—who are self-absorbed, who abuse their bodies. Somewhere during the past several
decades there has been a complete shift in the moral, physical, intellectual and emotional
capabilities of American children—or at least the ones portrayed in the popular culture.
The 21st century generation of children and adolescents is riddled with psychological, behavioral
and socio-emotional problems and challenges. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
reported that prescription drug use among our nation’s children has risen steadily since 1999 andcontinues to rise. The amount of children and adolescents who are on medication, failing at
school, and in our juvenile prison system is staggering. The increase in youth violence andincarceration has increased tenfold from the 1950-60’s.
Researchers have been overwhelmed with the amount of data that has been collected on
dysfunctional children and adolescents. Failing schools have contributed to failing students. The
breakdown of the family and lack of parental support has contributed to growing numbers ofdepressed, suicidal, anxious, confused and fundamentally troubled youth. The educational andfamily systems have failed to keep up with the societal changes and failed to makeaccommodations to this ever-growing population of disenfranchised and disillusioned youth.
The purpose of this article is to regain the energy that is needed to meet the needs of all children - in America and around the world. We need an ongoing campaign for all educators, adults andcitizens to take responsibility to raise healthy, mindful children of the 21st century. The roles andresponsibilities of the present adult generation are to provide safe and healthy environments for
all children to develop healthy bodies and healthy minds, so they can contribute in positive ways
to the global community. The models adults present to children make lasting impressions during
the formative years. Children watch adult role models in the media, at home, in their communities
and at school, and try to emulate them, thus influencing their own adult later behaviors.
What are adults showing children by their behaviors? Are adults inadvertently creating ageneration of dysfunctional and egotistical youth that will only care about their own immediateneeds and not an iota about anyone else? Will American adults create a generation of selfabsorbed monsters who are focused only on their own survival, thus reverting back to the days ofthe cave man where only the strongest of the species survived? If this does occur in the next
generation, America will be a place where its citizens attempt to survive in any way they can, andour environment may not survive.
People need to be motivated to stop that wave of dysfunction and future destruction. We adults
can and must purposefully work with children to help them develop in healthy and mindful ways.

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There are solutions and interventions available to direct children and youth in the right direction.
The situation is not hopeless. The goal of this article is to help all educators and other adults who
work with children to use these strategies to shape the minds of future generations, by modeling
healthy behavior and encouraging and showing children how to be healthy and mindful, so thatthey can become positive, caring citizens of the world. The goal is to provide hands-on strategies
that can help turn the tide of problematic, ultimately self-harming behavior that is happening in
our culture to create a better place for us all to live.
Exercise: The Mind on the Move
One of the most important life lessons for children to learn for the health of their bodies andminds is the necessity of regular exercise. The evidence is consistent and powerful—Exercise isessential and one of the most important things all people can do for a healthy body and healthy
brain and mind. How much and what kind of exercise is enough? How do we know? How can we
encourage children to exercise enough for their body and brain development?
Nature of the issue and how it affects children
According to a report in Medical News Today “Less than 50% of primary school-aged boys andunder 28% of girls reach the minimum levels of exercise necessary to maintain proper health”(Fitzgerald, 2013, paragraph 1). Child and adult obesity in the U.S. is reaching epidemic
proportions. Our health care costs are rising as a result of the major physical illnesses that result.
In today’s video and computer game and television and media culture, children have become
more sedentary in their free time. Even in school, the amount of time devoted to physical activity
in physical education classes or recess has declined as greater accountability measures in the formof state testing and local, state and federal mandates have increased. In an effort to increase
instructional time, children have far less time for physical play.
In addition, sports budgets have been dismantled in schools. So what happens to children? They
spend most of their days sitting down. They get almost no exercise each day. Their bodies are notstrong. Their hearts are not strong. Their brains are not as strong as they could be. They are out of
shape and at much greater risk of childhood obesity and other health problems such as diabetes,
heart disease, and so on. Studies have found that type two diabetes in children increases their riskfor heart and kidney disease and hypertension.
Alarming rates of memory issues and Attention Deficit Hyper Activity diagnoses have leadresearchers to examine non-drug options to treatment. In a study conducted by Bucci and hiscolleagues and published in Neuroscience found that “Observations of ADHD children in
Vermont summer camps revealed that athletes or team sports players tended to display a better
response to behavioral interventions than children who were more sedentary” (Rattue, 2013).
Bucci stated in an interview in “Medical News Today” that:"The implication is that exercising during development, as your brain is growing, is changing thebrain in concert with normal developmental changes, resulting in your having more permanent
wiring of the brain in support of things like learning and memory. It seems important to[exercise] early in life" (Rattue, 2013).
Exercise can help with stabilizing moods and may be useful for adolescents as they go throughpuberty to help with the mood swings they experience. Exercise has been shown to improve
memory, improve mood, reduce stress, improve cognitive functioning, and improve overall
health. It seems preposterous that something so crucial to our health and well-being and could be

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so helpful in improving learning and memory is being shut out of our schools—ironically for thesake of learning.
Ongoing strategies to improve the issue/problem—How can we make this better?
The US Department of Agriculture recommends that children and adolescents between the agesof 6 and 17 every day should get an hour or more of “moderate or vigorous intensity aerobic
physical activity…and as a part of their 60 or more minutes children and adolescents should
include muscle-strengthening activities like climbing…at least 3 days a week.” Also three days aweek should include very vigorous activity for 60 minutes –like running (How much physicalactivity is needed, paragraph 3). The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention have the sameguidelines and suggestions. They break down the nature of the activity into the following
categories:
1. Aerobic activity (60 minutes each day)—they suggest that 3 days should be high intensity
aerobic activity
2. Muscle strengthening (at least 3 days/week and can be part of the 60 minutes per week)—
they suggest activities like push-ups, but weightlifting with weights, lunges, squats, sit ups,
etc. are also helpful
3. Bone strengthening for 3 days a week as part of the 60 minutes per day. The CDC
recommends activities like running or jump rope. Any jumping activities like trampoline play
(be careful there are many accidents on trampolines, but children if careful enjoy and can get
great exercise on them).
Children and adolescents may think they are working hard, but using a 10-point scale of“perceived exertion” may help. The goal is to try to get them to get their heart rates up to thepoint where they feel like they are working moderately hard (5-6 on a scale of 1-10 where 10 isthe absolute maximum physical exertion a child can do) to very hard 8-9 for part of the time. Thatis, children need to learn to push themselves sometimes not only for good health of their brains
and minds, but also to help them learn that they can work hard and feel a sense ofaccomplishment from hard work. This persistence and hard work will hopefully carry through tolearning and challenging tasks of their minds.
In a rare example of a clinical trial involving exercise and its impact on children and theirlearning and development, Davis and her colleagues (2011) found that their “experimental dataoffer evidence that a vigorous after school aerobic exercise program improved executivefunction…among overweight children.” They also found “changes in corresponding brain
activation patterns [that provided] partial support of a benefit to mathematics performance.”
They, like many other neuroscientists support the notion that “executive function develops inchildhood and is crucial for adaptive behavior and development” and exercise seems to improve
this development.
Our ability to control our behavior and make decisions and problem solve is based on thedevelopment of our executive function areas of the cortex. This evidence supporting the key roleof exercise in building executive function is incredibly important. We can make exercise fun andeven build it into activities such as video-gaming that they really like to do. A study in the
Journal of Pediatrics reported that there are some kinds of active video games that “may provide
an alternative type of exercise to prevent stationary behavior in children” (Fitzgerald, 2013).
In this study on active video-gaming (“exer-gaming”), participants used an active video console
and found that participants who engaged in this activity had an “increased energy expenditureequal to moderate intensity exercise” when playing “high intensity games like the 200m hurdles
on Kinect Sports.” Fitzgerald references an earlier study in Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent

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Medicine that showed that “children who played active video games burned over four times as
many calories as when they were playing an inactive game.” They also suggested that these highintensity games may end up encouraging children to be more active and receive the healthbenefits from moderate exercise.
What can you do right now?
Demand regular physical activity and high quality physical education in school. As many school
districts are cutting physical education (PE) time and recess/play time, children are getting far
less of the activity they need in a given week. As parents and teachers or other concerned
community members, lobby for more time spent in PE courses and after-school intramuralactivities and organized athletics. Children should strive toward sixty minutes of physical activity
per day. As most of their waking time is spent in schools, this is the logical place for this tohappen.
Families that play together, stay together. Encourage families to exercise together during theirtime together. Schools can organize family fun times that are active hikes, walks, times to use thegym facilities. Just MOVE—often!
Top Tips for Teachers:
1. Be a good role model and exercise yourself and share with your students what you do.
Exercise with them!
2. Encourage students to be active and get 60 minutes of cardiovascular activity every day—ask them to report back to you what they did and how hard they worked.
3. Build in some kind of movement into the classroom—either stretching breaks, jogging inplace, opportunities to walk—even walk around the halls together or outside for even 5-10
minute breaks. Students will come back more energized and their minds more focused(especially if this becomes a regular part of the school day).
Attention: The Problem of Focus
The children growing up in the media generation believe they can multi-task effectively. They
truly believe that they can listen to music, play video games while reading, talking on the phone,and doing other homework and watching television. Perhaps this is extreme, but the truth is, thebrain cannot do two complex cognitive tasks at once. It can switch in such a way that it may seem
like it can, but alas, it cannot. And in that time that it takes to switch attention from one cognitive
task (fractions of a second) to another, accidents happen and problems occur and learning is
disrupted.
As John Medina, author of “Brain Rules” wrote: “multitasking, when it comes to paying
attention, is a myth. The brain naturally focuses on concepts sequentially, one at a time. At firstthat might sound confusing; at one level the brain does multitask. You can walk and talk at thesame time. Your brain controls your heartbeat while you read a book. Pianists can play a piecewith left hand and right hand simultaneously. Surely this is multitasking. But I am talking about
the brain’s ability to pay attention. It is the resource you forcibly deploy while trying to listen to aboring lecture at school. It is the activity that collapses as your brain wanders during a tediouspresentation at work. This attentional ability is not capable of multitasking.” Why is the myth ofmulti-tasking so problematic for children (and adults)? What are some of the learning issues
associated with the myth of multi-tasking?
Nature of the Problem

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Texting and even talking on the phone especially for the novice driver is so dangerous. The brain
simply cannot refocus attention that quickly and completely, and for as those “expert drivers”
problems happen in a fraction of a second. And because the novice driver’s brain is not organized
like the more “expert” driver (whose brain has automated many aspects of driving so these are
not conscious), the novice driver must think through nearly every aspect of what he or she isdoing consciously. Medina wrote:
A good example [of dangerous multi-tasking] is driving while talking on a cell phone. Until
researchers started measuring the effects of cell-phone distractions under controlled conditions,nobody had any idea how profoundly they can impair a driver. It’s like driving drunk. Recall thatlarge fractions of a second are consumed every time the brain switches tasks. Cell-phone talkers
are a half-second slower to hit the brakes in emergencies, slower to return to normal speed after
an emergency, and more wild in their “following distance” behind the vehicle in front of them. In
a half-second, a driver going 70 mph travels 51 feet. Given that 80 percent of crashes happen
within three seconds of some kind of driver distraction, increasing your amount of task-switching
increases your risk of an accident. More than 50 percent of the visual cues spotted by attentive
drivers are missed by cell-phone talkers. Not surprisingly, they get in more wrecks than anyone
except very drunk drivers.
The same is true for school and schoolwork—although not as immediately life threatening.
Children and adolescents (and adults for that matter) who are learning new ideas, skills, concepts,
and content must think carefully and consciously about these—that is, they must devote a great
deal of cognitive effort to these. Any interference is problematic and disrupts attention on theprocess.
Turn off the competition. We’ve had many students say “but I MUST have the television onwhen I study…or music…it’s just background noise.” Here’s the problem with this statement. If
you need background noise get a sound machine or play white noise or a fan. You can also playmusic that does not have words—or music that you do not know well. However, once you know
the music or have television with dialog, your brain will flip flop back and forth between the
different verbal information—that which you are supposed to be “reading” and the words of thesong or dialog on the television or the texts coming through or the emails. The brain will retain
virtually nothing from the task that is cognitively more demanding (reading, writing,mathematics, problem solving or other school work) when multi-tasking with something that isless cognitively demanding (listening to music, watching television, texting, talking on thephone).
For effective and efficient work, the brain needs to eliminate opportunities for distraction. Can
the brain handle any distraction? How much is too much? What about those with attention
problems? How can we improve our attention? At what point are attention problems truly
problems?
Brain Function: Selective Attention
To interact effectively with the people around you, your brain must constantly process large
amounts of more or less complex information. However, it can only carry out a limited number oftasks at a time, so it needs to select the most relevant information, based on your needs at any
given moment.(Brain Center America, 2013). Certain functions governed by the brain are fairly
automatic and unconscious -- for example vital functions like breathing or highly developed skills
such as competitive running. As a result, you don't have to specifically focus on the level ofoxygen in your blood in order to activate your diaphragm and fill your lungs.

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Other functions require constant supervision. When you are reading a text or sign it means a moreor less conscious and sustained mental effort and attention. Your attention span varies dependingon the type of information you're looking for, and it relies on the proper function of much of yourbrain. Exercising your attention span by performing a variety of specifically designed exercises
promotes the proper functioning of many areas of the brain. (Brain Center America, 2013).
Your prefrontal cortex, located at the front of your brain, governs attention span and provides
additional supervision; in other words, it determines what information is to be given priority andwhich cognitive resources are needed to analyze this information and eliminate any distractions.
It does a wonderful automatic job of sorting and categorizing for you as to where you will need tofocus your attention. Human beings are not natural multi-taskers; the brain functions at optimallevel when it only does one thing at a time. Male and female alike, if you ask it to do two
somewhat complicated tasks at the same time, your performance levels for each will be reducedby half. People whom we admire for their multitasking ability are actually high-performance
individuals who can quickly and efficiently complete each of the tasks one after the other. (Brain
Center America, 2013). Generally they have very efficient and high-speed brains. Often they areexperts in one of the areas in which they are multi-tasking.
The ability to focus on some things at the expense of others is crucial for functioning in acomplicated world. But studies show there can be a downside to this focus — too much attention
to one thing may make us seemingly "blind" or "deaf" to other stimuli in the environment. We are
curious and want to try to understand and hear everything that is happening at once. The brain
tries very hard to take in what it can .Our brains recreate an internal map of the world we see
through our eyes, mapping our visual field onto specific brain cells.
Humans and our primate relatives have the ability to pay attention to objects in the visual scene
without looking at them directly (Farran et al., 2013). "Essentially, we 'see out of the corner ofour eyes,' as the old saying goes. This ability helps us detect threats, and react quickly to avoid
them, as when a car running a red light at high speed is approach from our side, (Mangun, 2013).
Even though we can see from the corner of our eye we are not able to attend to all of the stimuli
that are present within our personal bubble space, which is about 3-5 feet around us.
The problem of consciousness continues to be a subject of great debate in cognitive science.
Synthesizing decades of research, The Conscious Brain written by Jesse Prinz advances a newtheory of the psychological and neurophysiological correlates of conscious experience. Prinz's
account of consciousness makes two main claims: first consciousness always arises at a particular
stage of perceptual processing the intermediate level, and, second, consciousness depends on
attention. Attention changes the flow of information allowing perceptual information to accessmemory systems. Neurobiologically this change in flow depends on synchronized neural firing.
Neural synchrony is also implicated in the unity of consciousness and in the temporal duration ofexperience.
Prinz also explores the limits of consciousness. We have no direct experience of our thoughts, noexperience of motor commands, and no experience of a conscious self. All consciousness isperceptual, and it functions to make perceptual information available to systems that allows forflexible behavior.
Do Television and Video Games Affect Attention?
Some experts have argued that watching too many fast-paced television programs and video
games may actually increase the likelihood of attention problems. If the brain becomesaccustomed to constant stimulation by rapidly changing visual effects, it may easily become
impatient with tasks that require closer attention. Television also makes fewer demands on

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attention than do reading, studying, or playing a game. Without enough of these more challenging
activities, the brain may "get out of shape" (Human Diseases and Conditions, 2013). The brain
will typically choose the path of least resistance or cognitive strain, and if given a steady diet oftasks that require little to no cognitive strain, it will be difficult to make the brain work hard on amore cognitively challenging task.
However, the reverse may be true. Children and adults with limited attention resources may beattracted to intense stimulation and therefore may be captured by television or video games. Less
intense activities may not hold the focus of individuals with attention deficits. More research isneeded to better understand this issue.
We don't pay attention to boring things. What we pay attention to is profoundly influenced bymemory. Our previous experience predicts where we should pay attention. Culture matters too.
Whether in school or in business, these differences can greatly affect how an audience perceives agiven presentation.
We pay attention to things like emotions, threats and sex. Regardless of who you are, the brain
pays a great deal of attention to these questions: Can I eat it? Will it eat me? Can I mate with it?
Will it mate with me? Have I seen it before? The brain is not capable of multi-tasking. We cantalk and breathe, but when it comes to higher level tasks, we just can’t do it.
Driving while talking on a cell phone is like driving drunk. The brain is a sequential processor
and large fractions of a second are consumed every time the brain switches tasks. This is why
cell-phone talkers are a half-second slower to hit the brakes and get in more wrecks (Medina,2012).
Workplaces and schools actually encourage this type of multi-tasking. Walk into any office andyou’ll see people sending e-mail, answering their phones, Instant Messaging, and on MySpace—
all at the same time. Research shows your error rate goes up 50% and it takes you twice as longto do things (Medina, 2012). When you’re always online you’re always distracted. So the always
online organization is the always unproductive organization.
Ongoing Strategies
There are a variety of strategies that can be used with students, employees and family members
when it comes to attention and focus. Below you will find some suggestions. The list is not
exhaustive and it is recommended that the correct strategy be chosen for the right individual.
There are nine types of adaptations for anyone who is experiencing attention problems. These
adaptations can work in a school or professional work environment.
1. Size: Adapt the number of items that the learner/ worker is expected to learn or complete.
2. Input: Adapt the way the instruction or training is delivered to the learner.
3. Participation: Adapt the extent to which the learner/worker is actively involved in thetask.
4. Time: Adapt the time allotted and allowed for learning, task completion and/or testing.
5. Difficulty: Adapt the skill level, problem type, or the rules on how the learner/worker may
approach the work.
6. Alternate Goals: Adapt the goals or outcome expectations while using the same materials.
7. Level of Support: Increase the amount of personal assistance with a specific learner/
worker.
8. Output: Adapt how the learner/ worker can respond to instruction or training.
9. Substitute Curriculum-Content: Provide different instruction and materials to meet alearner/worker’s individual goals (Indiana University, 2010).

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There are a variety of general accommodations for students with attention/behavior problems. It
is important to remember that not all of these accommodations or strategies will work for all
students. The individual needs of each student need to be taken into consideration before theapplication of these strategies. This is but a short list of possibilities:
Literacy:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Second Set of books at home
Books on tapeInteractive CD reading programs
Hand held spell checker.

Writing:
1. Computers
2. Graph paper
3. Dictate responses
4. Pencil or pens with rubber grip
5. Form filling software
6. Key guards
7. Color coded notebooks
8. Give photocopied notes
9. Have student use highlighter
10. Outline of key points of presentation or lesson.
Groups:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Work in cooperative mixed ability groups
Peer Assistance pairings
Clear rules and expectations for group behavior
Assign job or specific responsibility
Headphones for privacy
Taped instructions
Buddy system
Five minute warning for transitions.

Presentations/ discussions/ Questioning:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Alternative methods of presentation (visual, videotape, graphs, maps, pictures)
Provide visual aids
Provide model of previous work or examples
Detail descriptions or checklist of project components
Place student near or in front of teacher or audience
Provide stimuli –reduced environments
Repeat question before answering
Provide time to process before answering questions.

When making accommodations for a child with attention issues it is imperative that the strategy
matches the age level and learning level of the student. Being aware of these simple factors canaccelerate behavior problems and power struggles. As a teacher one must use a variety of visualand auditory teaching techniques to stimulate interest and maintain focus. Teachers and parents
must use close proximity control to assist the student in focusing on the directions andunderstanding the task that is being asked of them. If the adult wants to modify the child’s

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behavior one needs to catch the student being good and/or doing the right thing. Giving
immediate praise or rewards will often shape behavior in way that allows the child to meet the
expectations.
Sometimes children and young adults have attention challenges that go beyond those that are
based on the environment. However, sometimes children have attention disorders that are nothelped by basic interventions such as increasing mindfulness and meditation. Attention Disorders
fall into 3 types: Attention Deficit Disorder, Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, and Not
Otherwise Specified Attention Disorder. Students can exhibit Predominantly Inattentive Type,
Predominantly Hyperactivity/Impulsive Type, and the combined type.
Effects of the disorder within the classroom can be seen in behavioral problems, becoming
frustrated and aggressive, experiencing failure on tests and assignments. A very large impact of
having an attention challenges is that it impairs social relations whereas the student struggles withsocial interactions because of the lack of social skills. These students are often disorganized andlose their materials frequently.
The effects of this disorder at home can be manifested by children not listening to their parents
and waging in battles over the smallest detail. Both parties become argumentative over dailychores, roles and responsibilities. Often time there is frustration on both adult and child because
the child is unable to complete even the simple tasks without supervision or support. Teachersand parents alike should be on the look-out for pervasive patterns of attention problems thatcannot seem to be managed well by typical levels of support.
Three Tips for Teachers:
1. Remember that students don’t pay attention to boring things—keep students engaged withinteresting lessons and help them see the relevance of what they are learning and makeconnections as much as possible.
2. Encourage parents to set limits on children’s interactions with television and other video
games/screens and spend more time on cognitive tasks that are challenging without these
distractions.
3. Make sure that drivers of all ages realize how dangerous it is to text, talk on the phone orengage in other cognitive tasks competing for attention and encourage them to avoid
distracted driving.
Mindfulness, meditation, and sleep
One of the best strategies we can teach our children to improve their brains and minds as well as
their safety, happiness, mental health and overall healthy development is the art of mindfulness.
One strategy that can improve mindfulness is meditation, but mindfulness goes beyond justpurposeful meditation. During meditation, the brain is still active, but quieted (at least for ourconsciousness) during sleep, and sleep is so important for brain and mind health.
The question is—how do mindfulness, meditation and sleep help children in their development?
How important are they? How might building more mindfulness and meditation into a child’s life
help their developing brains and minds? How can we create healthy sleep patterns for children?
Nature of the issue and how it affects children
When children are young, they naturally function “in the moment.” They tend not to focus on thepast (partly because they do not have much of a past) or the future (perhaps because their abstract
thinking, language and executive functioning centers are not as well developed). It is not until
these areas of the brain become well-developed that our minds pull us out of the present moment

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and focus our attention on the running language-laden monolog in our heads. This voice pulls us
into thinking about the past or the future— neither of which we can change or control. We often
dwell on the past or worry about the future—but we can do nothing to change the past and wecannot predict the future.
Mindfulness is paying close attention to what is happening and what one is experiencing in thepresent moment. Taking time to focus on what one is doing, eating, reading, saying, hearing, andso on. In mindfulness we are fully present in the present moment. The present moment is where
we live and exist, yet our older adult (and even older child) brains are rarely focused there. Whenin the present moment, children can be naturally more mindful. A keen attention to the present isan essential part of mindfulness that can contribute to success in school and at home or on theplayground or playing field. Children who are more mindful have an easier time in these spaces.
Flow is a concept that has been described and written extensively about by Mihály
Csíkszentmihályi. When in a state of “flow” we are completely single-minded in focus with ourpositive energy focused on a particular task or experience. People experience a sense of joy andpeace when in this state. Athletes discuss being in a state of flow when they lose track of time andare singularly focused on the sport they are playing. They are fully present in the moment without
any distractions of anxieties or worries. People sometimes call this experience in athletics as“being in the zone.” But the truth is, this experience can happen reading a book, doing a school
project, giving a talk, eating a great meal, spending time with friends, meditating, etc.
For flow to be achieved, Csíkszentmihályi argues that there are generally two conditions:
1. Involvement in an activity with clearly set goals and progress and structure
2. Those doing the task receive clear and immediate feedback about their performance a
good balance between one’s perception of his/her skills/abilities and the task at hand—
one must have confidence about his/her abilities (Csikszentmihalyi, Abuhamdeh, &Nakamura, 2005).
We can create opportunities for children to experience flow in their lives by helping them balance
their abilities, confidence levels with activities they enjoy, are good at and for which they can get
immediate feedback to improve their skills and performance. We hope that students can havethese kinds of experiences in school and in school-related activities. And if they cannot
experience flow in school, we hope that parents can find ways to help them achieve their flow
experience in healthy ways through arts/music /dance or other experiences outside.
As Daniel Willingham argues in his book Why Don’t Students Like School? “contrary to popularbelief, the brain is not designed for thinking. It’s designed to save you from having to think,because the brain is actually not very good at thinking.” (p. 3). As we teach children to become
more mindful, they can become more purposeful in their thinking—that is, they can become
better able to direct and control their thinking.
The notion of mindfulness is the idea that we focus on our experience of reality as it exists in thepresent moment. That we pay close attention to our experiences and what is going on around us.
We become keen observers of our emotional states and what our minds are doing. If you watch avery young child, he or she will tend to be very focused on what is going on at the present
moment. This is why they will often ask questions about what is happening to them or what they
notice “I’m hungry” or “What makes the car go?” or “Why do dogs pant?” or “This ice cream isdelicious.”
When they start to get older and more aware of past and future and their role in it, they start tofocus more on what happened in the past or what might happen in the future. Children may start
to become upset about events in the past or anxious or worried or excited about the future.
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As adults we are guilty of this past and future focus too. Our brains are so busy thinking about
what has happened or what might happen that they are seldom focused on what is currently
happening. We all know those times when we are in a “zone” and so focused on the present
moment (usually doing what we love, or times of high emotion, or intense pain).
As children age, we spend so much time encouraging them to focus on the future. With all thistime focused on the past and future, it is no wonder that as children get older, they have greaterdifficulty paying full attention to what is happening now. If children are not paying full attention
to what they are doing in the moment, they are at greater risk of accidents. They are also more
likely to have difficulty paying attention to what is happening (or what they are supposed to belearning) in the classroom.
They have greater difficulty controlling their emotions and making good decisions. They may
have sleep difficulties as well because they cannot shut their brains down enough to sleep. A tired
mind has great difficulty focusing on the present moment. It is easily distracted. Sleep is essential
for the brain and mind to function properly.
Tips for Healthy & Happy Mind
1. Meditation/Mindfulness
Research has shown the profound effects that meditation has on the mind, but how many people
actually do it on a daily basis? When you meditate, you are giving your mind time to clear,
reformat itself for all the new information that is going to be taken in the following day, or day
ahead.
2. Media
The media is very centered on pain and negativity. This fuels pessimism, and ideally it’s best to
avoid subjecting the mind to it regularly. There is no point in being stressed or worried aboutsomething you have limited control over; it’s a pointless waste of energy. Beware ofbrainwashing; all is not necessarily as it seems, and the media are great at exaggerating andbending the truth.
3. Surround yourself with people who give you opportunities to grow.
Friendships and relationships are based on love, and love is energy. When the frequencieschange, you will find that particular friends and relationships may drop away, or you don’t feel
you have anything in common with them any longer. If you continue to hold on to relationships
which no longer serve you, they sap your energy resources or distract you from focusing yourmind. Don’t be afraid to let go if you feel the time is right; you will find that new opportunities
will arise as a result. You never know who that next amazing person/teacher/friend/lover/mentor
is going to be!
4. Eat healthy
Eating healthy and staying hydrated are really important for brain function.
5. Spend your time doing something you LOVE! (And find some physical, cardio-vascular
activity that you LOVE and do it regularly)
The most important thing of all is to ensure you spend time doing a hobby or activity you love.
When we participate in doing something we love, we radiate so many positive emotions, allmagnetizing out into the universe to bring you back more joy and happiness. So many people getstuck in a rut and lose focus on what is important and brings them pleasure. Find something you

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love to do, and do it daily. Make time for it, and even better, make a career out of it! Life issupposed to be an enjoyable experience (Rushforth, 2012).
Healthy and mindful children will create a healthier society that will become more involved in
the welfare, supervision and care of their neighbors locally and globally and the environment inwhich we all live. Presently the track we are on will result in future generations that arephysically unhealthy with large portions of society fighting obesity, mentally unbalanced
individuals who are unable to connect and develop social relationships and an increase inviolence and aggression where the amount of murders and physical attacks upon others will
become the norm. Gun violence will be the solution rather than negotiation, communication andproblem solving. Is this what we really want for our children and grandchildren? Every adult who
interacts with children must become a role model for healthy patterns or actions.

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References
Brain Center America (2013). Selective Attention. Retrieved July 20, 2015, fromhttp://www.braincenteramerica.com/selectatt.php.
Csikszentmihalyi, M., Abuhamdeh, S., & Nakamura, J. (2005). "Flow", in Elliot, A. Handbook ofCompetence and Motivation, New York: The Guilford Press, pp. 598–698.
Davis, C., Tomporowski, P., & McDowell, J. (2011). Exercise Improves Executive Function andAchievement and Alters Brain Activation in Overweight Children: A Randomized
Controlled Trial. Health Psychology, 30(1), 91-98.
Briggs, F., Mangun, G. R., & Usrey, W. M. (2013). Attention enhances synaptic efficacy and thesignal-to-noise ratio in neural circuits. Nature. DOI: 10.1038/nature12276.
Fitzgerald, K. (2013). Active Video Games Act As Exercise For Children. Medical News Today:
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Indiana University (2010). Nine Types of Adaptations. Center for School and Community
Integration, Institute for the study of Developmental Disabilities.
Medina, J. (2012). Brain Rules. Pear Press.
Medina, J. (2008). Brain Rules: 12 Principles for Surviving and Thriving at Work, Home andschool. Pear Press, Seattle, WA.
Medina, J. (n.d.). Rule number 7: Sleep well, think well. Retrieved July 20, 2015, fromhttp://www.brainrules.net/sleep.
Prinz, J. J. (2012). The Conscious Brain: How Attention Engenders Experience. Oxford
University Press.
Rattue, P. (2013). Exercise Affects The Brain. Medical News Today: Health News. Retrieved July20, 2015, from http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles.
Rushforth, C. (2012). Mind Body Green. Retrieved July 20, 2015,
http://www.mindbodygreen.com/0-5589/5-Tips-for-a-Happy-Healthy-Mind.html.

fromWillingham, D. T. (2009). Why Don’t Students Like School? A Cognitive Scientist Answers
Questions about how the Mind Works and What it Means for the Classroom. John Wileyand Sons: San Francisco, CA.

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Students-Enthusiasts in Online Classes: Their Contribution To the
Educational Process
Anna Toom

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Abstract
In this work, the phenomenon of student enthusiasm was explored in a population of 47 studentsof Touro Graduate School of Education who took the author's online psychology course. The
purpose of the study was to find how students-enthusiasts differ from classmates in theircommunication style(s) reflected in group discussions on the Discussion Board (DB). The
research methodology included graphical and statistical analysis of students’ discussions. It was
found that, although the enthusiasts constituted a small part (6%) of the investigated population,
their contribution to the virtual learning environment was the greatest – they were catalyzers of
the educational process. Students-enthusiasts a) consolidated their group, transforming it from adisorganized mass without common interests to a team capable of collaboration; b) stimulated
discussions by helping their classmates to develop "a sense of community"; c) unlike others, also
competent as learners and computer users, the enthusiasts shared information with their lessknowledgeable classmates concerning various aspects of the online study. Students-enthusiasts
served as a model and support for their fellow learners and the instructor. The author concludes
that such a contribution must be appreciated and maximally used in the virtual classroom (VC)with its specifics and communicational limitations.
Keywords:teaching/learning psychology online; virtual classroom; student enthusiasm; learning
motivation; teaching motivation; communication styles.

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Introduction
Students specializing in education today are the workers of tomorrow. What kind of teachers will
the society receive? The question is not rhetorical. That professionalism and enthusiasm, whichsome instructors bring to school settings, may be observed already in their students’ years. That’s
why the study of enthusiasm in students who are current or prospective school teachers is an
important task for educational psychology.
This line of research received a new incentive in the present epoch of intensive development of
information technologies and the web-based distance education programs. The investigations ofenthusiasm in a classroom expanded to a virtual learning environment. In this work an attempt ismade to study student enthusiasm in online asynchronous classes.
Literature review: Enthusiasm in the Classroom
The word enthusiasm comes from Greek entousiasmos, Late Latin enthusiasmus, and Middle Age
French enthusiasms (Online Etymology Dictionary). It “originally referred to inspiration orpossession by the presence of God”; in modern time, however, the word actually lost its original
meaning, and is now understood rather as intense enjoyment and interest (Wikipedia).
In psychology, there is no unanimous understanding of enthusiasm. Some researchers consider itin the framework of motivational paradigm and define it as a strong motivation for achievement(Toom, 2013). Some others interpret it as an emotional condition (Frenzel, 2009). Still others see
it also as expressive behavior (Rosenshine, 1970; Kunter et al., 2008). It is likely that we are
dealing with a complicated phenomenon in which all major components of psychological
functioning interact: motivational, emotional, cognitive, and behavioral. The physiologicalcomponent is also involved – it is not by chance that the term “energy” appears in thedescriptions of enthusiasm (Metcalfe & Game, 2006). In pedagogical practice, enthusiasm istypically associated with “a motivating, energetic, passionate, and dynamic teaching style” that“engages students to participate and stimulates them to explore” (Zhang, 2014). Enthusiasm isseen as a key ingredient of effective teaching.
Exploration of enthusiasm in the classroom began in the middle of the last century, if not earlier.
By today, it has been validated that teacher enthusiasm promotes students’ development andlearning (Sanders & Gosenpud, 1986; Patrick at al., 2000; Wood, 2013, Zhang, 2014; Orosz et al.,2015). Students, who learned from enthusiastic teachers, had elevated cognitive functioning suchas attention, memory, thinking, imagination, problem solving, a better comprehension ofknowledge, and higher intrinsic learning motivation and vitality. Students of enthusiastic teachers
get a chance to also become enthusiasts, so that, if they eventually pursue their careers ineducation, they will become highly desirable and valuable specialists in any school setting.
In the last two decades, the following research findings have been made about enthusiasm in theclassroom. Two aspects of enthusiasm were found: enthusiasm for the subject/topic andenthusiasm for activity/teaching (Kunter et al., 2011). Enthusiasm as a mechanism for mediating
relationships with students and stimulating positive learning outcomes was explored (Frenzel etal., 2009). An influence of student enthusiasm on teacher enthusiasm was detected: as in manyother interactions, effects are reciprocal (Stenlund, 1995). Nonverbal expressiveness as the
manifestation of an underlying teacher enthusiasm was explored (Kunter et al.,2008).Furthermore, programs were developed to train teachers to purposely express enthusiasm
to attract the students’ attention and facilitate their learning (Tauber et al., 2007). In the studies of
instructional methodology, it was found that one of the important abilities of enthusiastic teachers

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Volume III - Issue II - Summer 2015is their “descriptive and prescriptive feedback” to students’ work in online classes (Parson, 2001).
These are only some of representative and substantial findings.
Web-based distance education programs provided advanced and objective instruments forcollecting empirical data and thus created great opportunities for various studies of the virtual
learning environment. Asynchronous discussion forums in online classes became the special
focus of attention. A series of experiments for investigating the role that the online professors
might play in their students’ learning was conducted by Australian scientists.
On large statistical samples, they showed how the quantity, timing, and nature of instructor’s
posts influenced students’ participation in online discussions; the correlates of teacher enthusiasm
in students’ perceptions were identified (Mazzolini, 2002; Mazzolini & Madison, 2003; 2005).
Other researchers found that the perceived presence of an instructor is even more important thanthe perceived presence of peers in students’ satisfaction of online courses (Swan & Shih, 2005).
The critical role of an online teacher as cheerleader or motivator as well as important issues ofassessing a variety of teachers’ and students’ activities online has been discussed in the review ofthe literature regarding asynchronous discussion forums (Andersen, 2009).
Research Methodology
In this work, the student enthusiasm was explored in online psychology classes. The research
was based on the assumption that enthusiasm is a stable characteristic of an individual which
manifests itself in various social roles and activities that one has to perform. In an online
classroom, the student enthusiasm can be identified in all aspects of the course work: inindividual as well as collective studies done collaboratively with classmates. Our purpose was toexplore how students-enthusiasts differed from the classmates in their manner of leading
discussions on the DB. The author hypothesized that enthusiasm may influence students’communication style(s).
The Blackboard, a software platform for our virtual classroom, was used as an instrument ofcollecting data about discussions and discussants: all the students’ posts submitted to the DB with
their arrival time were recorded and archived in the system. The research methodology included a)statistical analysis of the students’ posts on the discussion forums, b) topological (graphical)
representation of the students’ conversations on the topics of the course subject, c) analysis of thestructure of group communications, and d) analysis of “Help me!” messages and responses.
Group discussions: content and requirements
Participation in the group discussions was one of the major activities required for the course. Fiveforums for asynchronous discussions were created on the DB. Each of them was devoted to a
psychological or educational issue related to the course topic. The students were expected torespond to a question posted by the professor and exchange opinions about it with classmates.
This activity was mandatory.
A typical question for the group discussion consisted of the following. The students were offered
the game “Name me!” and asked to identify “Which psychological functions this game can be
helpful in developing?” In this game, which is usually played at home, players sit in a circle androll a ball to each other. Two-three year old kids, if necessary, may sit between an adult's legs.
Before rolling the ball, each player looks at and says the name of the person to whom the ball isbeing rolled. If the name is said incorrectly, the player to whom the ball is being rolled should rollit back to one who made a mistake. If the name is said correctly, the game continues.

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Requirements for each out of five course discussions included: 1. Timely submission: responses
should be posted by a due date; 2. Sufficient quality: responses were expected to be substantial,
supported by the student’s personal educational experiences and/or the references found in elibraries or e-data bases; 3. Sufficient quantity: at least two responses ought to be posted for each
discussion by every student – one response to the professor and the other to any classmate; atleast two references should be provided for each discussion forum by every student.
Participants and context
Participants were students of Touro Graduate School of Education (GSE) enrolled in the
Education and Special Education degree and certificate program. Some of them had notpreviously taught, and some were already teaching and wished to increase their expertise. The
students were assigned by the college registrar’s office at random to groups of 20-25 people inwhich they learned together throughout the semester.
The study involved 47 graduate students. All of them took the author’s online psychology course
EdPs620-Child Development and Learning in Cultural Context: 20 students – in the fall semesterof 2012, and 30 students – in the fall semester of 2013. The author was the only course designer,
developer, and instructor for her groups. 36 students from the investigated population had alreadytaken online courses before at Touro College or other educational institutions and were wellfamiliar with the Black Board platform. 11 online beginners went through a preliminary training
to receive some technology skills necessary to study online. All students of the EdPs620 online
course had the skills to use basic functions of a word processor such as Word.
Prior to this research, all participants’ data were used for the author’s other study – of learning
motivation – in which highly motivated individuals or enthusiasts were identified and their
distinguishing characteristics were found. According to the results, there were three enthusiasts in
the A-group and no enthusiasts in the B-group (Toom, 2013). The students-enthusiasts differedfrom others in their learning style: they were usually ahead of the due dates for their course workand exceed all requirements of the course. Specifically, their homework was always complete,correct, and supported by references; the discussions led by them were the most informative andinteresting in the group; their final research paper and bibliography were very rich in content, so
that, no revision was needed. The students-enthusiasts differed from classmates in quantity(intensity) of their learning motivation. In addition, they performed optional activities as well as
mandatory, that is, they differed from classmates in quality of their learning motivation as well.
The students-enthusiasts had the highest motivation in the group and, unlike others, tended togive a higher priority to knowledge and curiosity than to grades.
Data Representation and Analysis
Since the Discussion Board was the only place in our online course where students could
communicate, the analysis of group discussions appeared to be especially important for
identification and understanding the distinguishing features of students-enthusiasts. Statisticalanalysis was done for quantitative evaluation of discussions, and the graphical representation ofdata was devised as the most meaningful visualized form of students’ communication styles.
Statistical analysis of group discussions
In Table 1, main data covering discussions in both groups is provided, which allows for an easiercomparison.

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From the information offered in the Table 1 follows that, firstly, in the A-group, on average, each
student submitted twice as many posts (4.7) than in the B-group (2.6). Secondly, in the A groupthe number of participants remained constant within the semester, which means that nobody
dropped the course. While in the B-group three students stopped attending before the course
completion. This data indicates that the A-group that had enthusiasts among participants,functioned differently; it had peculiar dynamics. (At least, it is one of the most natural
explanations.)
Table 1. Post Statistics per Student and per Group Basis

Forum #
(f)
1
2
3
4
5
Average

The A-group
Number Number ofof posts students
94
20
102
20
87
20
91
20
93
20

(xf)
4.7
5.1
4.4
4.6
4.7
𝑥̅ = 4.7

The B-group
Number of
posts
71
62
63
54
55

Number of(yf)
students
25
2.8
25
2.5
24
2.6
22
2.5.
22
2.5
𝑦̅ = 2.6

Note: xf= average number of posts per student in the A-group; yf= such value in the B-group; 𝑥̅ =average number of posts per student per forum in the A-group; 𝑦̅ = such value in the B-group; xf=
average number of posts per student; yf = average number of posts per student per forum; f = IDof the forum.
In order to better understand how the A-group was different, we analyzed its discussion forums in
more detail. Discussions on the branches 1 of the forums with enthusiasts were analyzed incomparison with discussions on the branches where students-enthusiasts did not participate. Thisdata is provided in the Table 2.
Table 2. A-group: Comparative Analysis of Discussions on the Branches of the Forums, with andwithout Enthusiasts
Forum #
(f)
1
2
3
4
5
Average

The average number of postsin the branches of the forum
With enthusiasts Without enthusiasts
(af)
(bf)
11.3
3.1
12.2
3.3
9.0
1.9
10.4
2.4
11.1
2.2
𝑎=10.8𝑏=2.6

The average number of participants inthe branches of the forum
With enthusiasts Without enthusiasts
(cf)
(df)
4.5
2.3
5.6
2.7
3.3
1.9
4.2
2.6
4.2
2.0
𝑐=4.4
𝑑=2.3

Note: af= average number of posts per branch where enthusiasts participated; bf = such value forbranches where enthusiasts did not participate; cf = average number of students per branch where
enthusiasts participated; df = such value for branches where enthusiasts did not participate; 𝑎 =average number of posts per branch per forum with enthusiasts; 𝑏= such value per branch per
1

In this work, a discussion forum is present as a tree; it is natural to call its parts branches. Officially, in theBlackboard system, they are called threads.

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forum without enthusiasts; 𝑐 = average number of students per branch per forum withenthusiasts;𝑑= such value per branch per forum without enthusiasts; f = ID of the forum.
It is shown that, firstly, on average, the number of posts submitted in the branches in which
students-enthusiasts participated, was 4.2 times higher than in other branches of the same forum.
Secondly, on average, the number of participants involved in discussions on branches withclassmates-enthusiasts was almost twice higher than number of participants in other branches ofthe forum. This data indicates that students-enthusiasts definitely played a significant role in all
discussions with their classmates.
Graphical representation of group discussions
The statistical analysis showed in general terms how differently the students of the A- and Bgroups participated in discussions. In addition, for the A-group, a difference was shown between
discussions in which students-enthusiasts were involved, as well as those where they were not
involved. The graphical analysis allowed discovering the group dynamics, specifically, to find a
distinction between group communications where enthusiasts did or did not participate. If the first
approach gives quantitative insight, the second approach yields some qualitative insight.
Each discussion started with the question offered by the professor (the author). According to therequirements, each student of the group responded to the question by posting his message on theforum, that is initiated a branch of the discussion for the classmates and also participated in
discussions initiated by others.
The Figure 1 shows the discussion on the forum 1 that is very typical for the A-group. It includes
twenty branches corresponding to the number of students in the class. The branches are numbered;
the numbering reflects a sequence of students’ appearance on the branch. Each branch isrepresented as a chain of disks connected by the lines. The disks are students’ posts. They arelight if posts belong to students-enthusiasts; other students’ posts are represented by filled dark
disks.
Length of the branches corresponds to the duration of the discussion which is measured in thenumber of posts. The longer the branch, the lengthier the discussion, and the more probable that it
contains a conversation that is for some reason attractive for the participants. Remarkably, thebranches where enthusiasts participate are usually the longest on the forum; exceptions are rare(branch 4).

Figure 1. A representation of the group discussion on the forum 1 in the A-group132

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Then, a structure of communication was drawn for every branch of the forum. One of them, #16,
is represented below in Figure 2. On the top, in a horizontal line, the sequence of the disks (thatshould be read from left to right) reflects the order in which the students’ posts appeared. Lettersin the disks mean students’ encoded names. The graph represents how students who visited thisbranch interacted and exchanged their opinions.

Figure 2. A representation of the discussion on the forum 1, the branch 16
The vertices of the graph shown as disks represent the students who participated in this
discussion. The lines connecting the vertices are the edges of the graph and represent students’communication. The edge may have arrows on one or both sides which mean that communication
between students was uni- or bidirectional. The number of edges between any two vertices
indicates the number of instances of the opinion exchange. One edge shows the single opinion
exchange, while two and more edges show the multiple opinion exchange which may point to theintensity of communication between the students.
Results and Discussion
Structure of group communications with and without enthusiasts
Figure 3 represents the discussion on the branch 1 initiated by a student-enthusiast code-named А.
It is a typical course discussion in which enthusiast(s) is/are involved. Here, the structure ofcommunication has two distinctive properties. Firstly, it is centered on the student-enthusiast A.
This student attracted all the attention to her ideas as if she was a magnet. Everyone on the branch
decided to exchange messages with her. In addition, she had an even lengthier conversation withthe student code-named D. Secondly, communication on this branch was mostly bidirectional,
again due to the student A, who responded to five posts out of six that she received.

Figure 3. A representation of the discussion with an enthusiast on forum 1, branch 1
Figure 4 represents the discussion on the branch 4 which was not visited by enthusiasts. It is atypical discussion in which students-enthusiasts did not participate. There is no individual133

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capable and/or desiring to lead a conversation here, so communication is not centered. The
fraction of the cases of unidirectional communication is relatively high here: half of theparticipants received responses from classmates other than those to whom they were writing. It
appears that sometimes students declared their opinions and did not care much about what otherclassmates had thought.
Comparing these different structures of group communications, we conclude that at least in thefirst case students discussed the issue with great interest. It seems that they did not feel isolated,
although some authors point to possible feelings of isolation in online classes (Rovai, 2002; Liuet al., 2007). In our study, students rather experienced a feeling of belonging. The author of thecourse (and the current study) did not make it a goal to facilitate community building in the
online environment. No team interactions for community building purposes were intentionallyarranged; it happened naturally. When working on the DB, students developed a sense ofcommunity due to the presence of enthusiasts in their virtual classroom. Influence of enthusiasm
in the virtual classroom on development of students’ sense of community was also discovered by
Korean researchers (Koh& Kim, 2003). The phenomenon appears to be culture-independent.

Figure 4. A representation of the discussion without enthusiasts on forum 1, branch 4
Characteristics of group discussions with and without enthusiasts
A-group
The branches where students-enthusiasts were present (regardless of whether they initiated thediscussion or just participated in it) were the most attended. On average, the branches where atleast one enthusiast was present attracted twice as many students than other branches: 𝑐 ≈ 2𝑑(see Table 2). The number of participants on the branch of the forum is an important criterion of
students’ involvement into the discussion. However, the number of participants does notnecessarily determine the quality of the discussion.
The other important criterion of the productivity of the discussion is the intensity of message
exchange. In the branches 1 and 4 (see Figures 3 and 4) – one included and the other did notinclude enthusiasts – the number of participants was the same. However, the number of posts inbranches is different. In this case, the difference is not so large because the branch 4 is fairly
atypical for the discussions without enthusiasts; usually the branches without enthusiasts havesignificantly fewer posts (see Figure 2). As we showed above, the intensity of the message
exchange was, on average, more than 4 times higher on the branches with enthusiasts because
their participants were more eager to converse:𝑎 ≈ 4𝑏 (see Table 2).
The structure of group communication is yet another important formal criterion of the
productivity of the discussion, and it may explain why discussions in which enthusiasts
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Figure 3), an enthusiast united the other discussants and set a productive style of conversation –almost all messages were responded to. It was a centered, organized, and mostly bidirectional
communication. Let’s compare it with the structure of communication on the branches 4 and 16
in which enthusiasts did not participate. Although different in the number of participants, they
were very similar in their essence. They did not have a leading figure and were guided by aformal course requirement (“one response should go to the professor and at least one to anyclassmate”) rather than the actual interest in discussing the subject. This communication was notcentered, mostly unidirectional, and spontaneous.
B-groupThis group lacked enthusiasts. Here discussions were identical in their characteristics to those of
the A-group discussions in which enthusiasts did not participate. That is, they were not centered,less organized, more spontaneous, and mainly unidirectional. They were also less intensive in the
average number of posts and the average number of students involved than discussions led byenthusiasts (See Table 1).
“Help me!” messages and helping responses
In the virtual classroom, where there is no face-to-face contact, the difficulties that arise during
the educational process may be perceived more acutely than in the traditional classroom. We
analyzed the content of “Help me!” messages and helping responses submitted by other students
to those who were in need in the A-group. It was determined that 3 students-enthusiasts had sent
three times more helping responses to their classmates than all the remaining 17 students of the
A-group did. In the B-group “Help Me!” messages did not appear on the DB. Students in needsent their questions via e-mail to the instructor.
It was determined that “Help me” messages related to the following three aspects of the online
study: a) the subject under the study; b) the Blackboard, the instrument by means of which thesubject is taught/learned; c) the online course’s organization, that is, the framework within which
the education process takes place. These three aspects – academic, technological, andadministrative – are major aspects of students’ orientation in the virtual learning environment.
Such function as orientation is usually provided by the teacher in the traditional classroom. In the
online classes, it may be voluntarily assumed by the students-enthusiasts who have willingness toprovide guidance to their less knowledgeable online classmates.
A psychological portrait of the student-enthusiast
Although the students-enthusiasts constituted the small part (6%) of investigated population, theircontribution to the learning environment was the greatest. They had an inclination to lead group
discussions and skillfully stimulated them even online. They demonstrated helping behavior,
which is quite unusual in today’s competitive society. They oriented the classmates in theirvirtual classroom clarifying various aspects of the online study, although not even all instructors,
especially those belonging to older generations, so-called digital immigrants2, fully understandwhat a virtual classroom is. Each of these three qualities listed above occurs infrequently. Their
combination is truly unique. Maybe, this is precisely what identifies a pedagogical talent?

The term digital immigrant was originated by Mark Prensky in his article “Digital Natives, Digital Immigrants”
published in 2001. The term may apply to generations that were born before the spread of and/or were not exposed intheir young years to digital technology, such as computers, videogames, video cams, tablets, I-phones, Internet, andother toys and tools of the digital age. College students of today, according to this point of view, are “digital
natives”; many of them easily adjust to new virtual learning environments.

2

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In their book The Virtual Student: A Profile and Guide to Working with Online Learners, R.
Palloff and K. Pratt call an ability “to share personal details about their life, work, and othereducational experiences” a necessary characteristics of successful online learner (2003, p. 6).
According to academic achievement, most of our students appeared to be successful online
learners. However, a tendency to trust and share information with the class was contributed
primarily by students-enthusiasts. Their style to lead conversations was accepted by otherdiscussants. To a large degree, online discussions became attractive and productive for the groupdue to enthusiasts’ special style of communication.
Lack of both computer skills and face-to-face communication might “expose online learners to arisk of feeling isolated and disconnected” (Liu et al., 2007). Many researchers believe that active
and dynamic discussions between students may serve as significant support for building an online
community (Swan et al., 2000; Blanchard & Markus, 2002; Zhao et. al., 2012). Studentsenthusiasts actually acted as the support network. When enthusiasts were stimulating online
group discussions as well as orienting classmates in the virtual classroom, they helped others todevelop a sense of belonging, emotional connection, and wellbeing in the VC.
Learning motivation of students-enthusiasts quantitatively and qualitatively differed from otherstudents’ learning motivation (see Participants and Context). Their interest and desire to achievelearning goals was the highest in the group. What is even more important is that, unlike others,
they gave a higher priority to knowledge and curiosity than to grades.
A current study showed one more distinguishing feature of their motivation. It turned out thatthey could not learn productively without teaching at the same time. Teaching was their distinct
method of learning. The less knowledgeable and less experienced classmates became the objectof their pedagogical intentions. It seemed that learning motivation and teaching motivation wereunbreakably connected in their activity. Notably, their teaching was not a formal instructing.
They initiated an active exchange of opinions and stimulated dialogues with other students.
Discussions led by enthusiasts usually turned into a collaborative search for answers to thequestions stated by their professor on the DB.
From the point of view of the motivational paradigm, students-enthusiasts are over-motivatedindividuals exceeding all the course requirements and desiring to perform more and better, evenif, according to the course policy, this “more and better” is not rewarded. Enthusiasm as amotivational phenomenon is a selfless love for knowledge and chosen profession. From the pointof view of the communicational paradigm, a student-enthusiast is an informal leader uniting,consolidating classmates, and transforming the group from a disorganized mass without common
interests to a team capable of collaboration. Enthusiasm as a communicational phenomenon is aselfless tendency to share one’s expertise and help less experienced learners to explore
knowledge and chosen profession.

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Reliability and Validity of the Results
It was shown that the average number of participants and posts in the branches of the B-group
discussion forums not having enthusiasts were as low as in those branches of the A-group forums
in which enthusiasts did not participate. Similarity of the results confirms their reliability.
Upon completion of the course, the students of the A-group were invited to help their professor(the author) with the creation of a video orientation session for the future students of the same
online course. The goal of this project was to help learners, especially online beginners, orient
themselves in the course site more quickly and effectively. For all of us it was a form of volunteer
work. Eight out of 20 students of the А-group responded to professor’s e-mail message. However,
only three of them really helped – they were the same individuals who showed great enthusiasm
during the semester. It confirms the validity of the results.
Since the data was collected on the relatively small population, the general applicability of thefindings is still limited. Similar studies in the author’s courses in consecutive semesters as well asother disciplines are needed. The research is continuing.
Conclusions
The number of participants in a branch of the discussion forum, the intensity of their message
exchange, and the structure of group communication can be used as formal criteria for identifying
productivity of discussions on the DB in asynchronous online courses. Presence of studentsenthusiasts improved these indicators.
The hypothesis of a difference in communication styles between students-enthusiasts and theirclassmates has been confirmed. Students-enthusiasts became the center of each discussion where
they participated, and they involved other students in dialogues not leaving without a response
any incoming posts. They tended to orient less knowledgeable classmates in the VC, that is,
responded to every “Help me!” message and clarified various aspects of the online study.
Students-enthusiasts created a positive psychological atmosphere on the discussion forums inwhich their classmates developed a “sense of community” and avoided feeling of isolation. Thus
the students-enthusiasts may be called catalyzers of the educational process.
Students-enthusiasts served as models for others. They provided support for their classmates andthe professor. In fact, they voluntarily became the professor’s informal assistants in instructing
the class. Formally being students, they actually performed some of the teacher’s functions.
However, in spite of their competence, they still looked at the learning environment through thestudents’ eyes and might understand other students’ difficulties better than instructors. So, we
conclude that such a contribution can and must be appreciated and maximally used in a virtual
classroom with its specifics and communicational limitations.
Thus, we see reasons to expect that the features of students-enthusiasts, which were discovered inour study, manifest themselves in their own classrooms where they officially work as instructors.
It gives us a better insight into how they influence their pupils’ development, learning, and lives.
It helps to recognize teachers-enthusiasts’ exceptional role in the society.

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The Effect of Math Modeling on Student’s Emerging Understanding

Andrzej Sokolowski

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Abstract
This study investigated the effects of applying mathematical modeling on revising students’preconception of the process of optimizing area enclosed by a string of a fixed length. A group of
28 high school pre-calculus students were immersed in modeling activity that included direct
measurements, data collecting, and formulating algebraic representation for the data. The lab
conduct was enriched by scientific inquiry elements such as hypothesis stating and its verification.
While 86% of the students (N=24) falsely hypothesized that the rectangular areas enclosed by astring of a fixed length will remain constant before engaging in the lab, the subsequent tasks ofthe modeling activity prompted the students to correct their ways of thinking. The study showedthat the modeling processes provide ample means of revising students’ perception to establish
firm conceptual background for inducing a more rigorous algebraic approach to solving problems
in math classes. Suggestions for further studies follow.
Keywords: Mathematical modeling; optimization; problem solving; high school.

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Introduction
Misconceptions are defined as strongly held, stable cognitive structures that must be overcome oreliminated for students to achieve expert understanding (Hammer, 1996). Many researchers
object the term misconception because from the student’s viewpoint, the ideas are logical andinstead the terms preconception, naïve theories, and alternative framework have been proposed(Sneider & Ohadi, 1998). Since the emphasis of this study is to help students uncover, bythemselves, the mathematical underpinning of the optimization process and its correctinterpretation, the author prefers to use the term preconception whose correctness will be
attempted during the process of modeling.
Mathematical modeling (MM) has been described in many ways; for instance, Lesh and Harel(2003) defined MM as finding quantifiable patterns of a phenomenon and its generalization,
while Blum, Galbraith, Henn, and Niss (2007) defined mathematical modeling as a process of“learning mathematics so as to develop competency in applying mathematics and building
mathematical models for areas and purposes that are basically extra-mathematical” (p. 5).
Although initiated several decades ago, MM recently gained substantial popularity in mathresearch and education; in fact, in the Common Core Curriculum, MM is recognized as one of theeight fundamental standards (Porter, McMaken, Hwang, & Yang, 2011).
MM activities can be organized in many ways: by asking open-ended questions, bymathematizing given situations, by using simulations as a means of supporting context, or bysolving word problems (Haines & Crouch, 2007). Thus MM serves as an embodiment of problem
solving, and the learning methods are interwoven. A problem in mathematics is defined as asituation carrying open questions (Blum & Niss, 1991). As such, it usually follows four steps:
understanding the problem, devising a plan, carrying out the plan, and looking back (Polya, 1957).
MM offers a different perspective; it focuses learners on the process of transferring given
information presented in a real-world situation by data gathering and model formulating and thenrequires the learner to use the model to develop new knowledge or solve context-related realworld problems (Crouch & Haines, 2004). By converting problems into the process of taking
quantifiable data and modeling formulation, MM activities can “meet the individual abilities of(many) more students” than traditional teaching methods (Kaiser, 2007, p. 104). MM can be
guided by different types of inquiries, ranging from deductively situated, authentic problemmodeling activities (English & Sriraman, 2010) to inductively organized inquiries that havestudents make plausible arguments that take into account the context (Lesh & Zawojewski, 2007).
Prior Research Findings
Optimization is a field of applied mathematics whose principles and methods are used to solve
quantitative problems in mathematics and other disciplines including biology, engineering,
physics, and economics (Rardin, 1997). Optimizing is a process of making the best possible
choice from a set of candidate choices (Boyd & Vandenberghe, 2009). It consists of maximizingor minimizing a real function by systematically choosing input values from within an allowed setof computed values of the function. Optimization problems are very common in high school andundergraduate mathematics curricula, and they are an essential component of problem solving in
calculus courses (National Council of Teachers of Mathematics [NCTM], 2000). Despite thewide applicability range, the process of optimization is not often investigated in mathematics
education; in fact, a search for prior research findings using university search engines such as
ProQuest Educational Journals, Science Direct, and Google Scholar returned only several suchstudies, whose summaries follow.

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Troxell (2002) pointed out certain pitfalls in using technology while teaching optimization andsuggested relying more on analysis and validation. Poon and Wong (2011) proposed an adoptionof Polya’s (1957) problem-solving model to investigate and solve optimization problems ingeometry. They highlighted benefits of inter-disciplinary learning and investigation of multiple
solutions while working on such problems. Schuster (2004) discussed the role of combinatorial
optimization activities to solve optimization problems in high school mathematics and concluded
that such activities provide opportunities not only for mathematical modeling of real world
problems, but also for discovering, constructing, and investigating algorithms. The process of
optimizing areas enclosed by a string of a fixed length was investigated by Brijlall and Ndlovu(2013), who found out that when taught by traditional methods, students used “isolated facts andprocedures” (p. 16) while solving these problems, which showed their lack of understanding ofunderlying principles. They further suggested that “teachers needed to be aware of learners
learning conflicts so as to reinforce the new concepts they encounter” (p. 17). Ledesma (2011)
investigated how to identify a solid with a maximum volume built by cutting squares of various
side lengths from a cardboard and folding the shape. She concluded that calculus students faceddifficulties understanding the optimization process, which she considered a main obstacle insolving these problems. As a means of improving, she suggested strengthening the visualizing
process by using simulations. A similar optimization problem was investigated by Lowther(1999). Although she intended the students to find the maximum value algebraically, the students
chose to determine the answer using a method of trial and error. Lowther noted, “I was sure thatsomeone would use an algebraic approach, but no one did” (p. 764). By not formulating algebraic
function, this investigation did not help the students solve text problems, as was initially intended.
Although all of the above scholars provided valuable suggestions to improve understanding of the
optimization processes, the idea of verifying students’ preconceptions on these processes andapplying MM to provide learners with tangible experiences was not proposed within this domain.
While optimization problems can be classified as typical math problems, the process oftransferring one dimensional geometrical object (length) into two dimensional geometrical object(area) is not that apparent. This study proposes an activity where this process is made moretransparent to students.
Research Questions
While typical problems of optimization focus students’ attention on finding unique solutions due
to formulated algebraic representation that maximizes the scenario (e.g., see Demana, Waits,
Foley & Kennedy, 2008; Stewart, 2007; Sullivan & Sullivan III, 2009), an MM activity seeks todiversify the process by having students investigate possible outputs and identify a pattern before
formulating an algebraic representation. The purpose of the study reported herein was todetermine if immersing students in an MM activity would help them with understanding thealgebraic underpinning of optimization. In this line, the following research questions were
formulated:What are the students’ preconceptions on the output of area enclosed by a string of a
fixed length?

Will modeling environment help learners understand the process of optimization?

Which of the MM stages—data collecting, table generating, graph plotting, or model
formulating—have the most significant effect on understanding optimization?

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Theoretical Framework of the Treatment Design
The theoretical framework of the study was supported by constructivist learning theory thatsuggests learner’s construction of their own knowledge based on received impulses (vonGlasersfeld, 1995). This theory has been selected because constructivism is suited for activities
that focus on meaning – making, concept construction, or elucidation of alternative concepts(Fergusen, 2007) which encompass the process of finding an optimum of a quantity due to given
constrains. Minstrell and Smith (1983) have recommended several teaching methods and learning
settings for eliminating student’s misconceptions.
Experiment or experience that will allow students testing their thinking is one of learning setting.
While typical problems on optimization focus students’ attention on finding unique solutions due
to formulated algebraic representation that maximizes the scenario (e.g., see Demana, Waits,
Foley & Kennedy, 2008; Stewart, 2007; Sullivan & Sullivan III, 2009), an MM activity seeks todiversify the process; have students investigate possible outputs, identify a pattern before
formulating an algebraic representation and finding its optimum value. Considering research
recommendations and MM learning outputs, modeling was selected as framework for the activity
design.
Development of the Modeling Process
MM usually follows a cycle (e.g., see Blum & Leiss, 2007; Geiger, 2011; Lesh & Lehrer, 2003;
Yoon, Dreyfus, & Thomas, 2010). Although the MM activity in this study intended to follow ageneral modeling process in which a real-world problem was abstracted, mathematized, solved,
and evaluated, special attention was given to having students hypothesize the problem’s output
before attempting to solve it and then revise or confirm their hypotheses after eliciting andvalidating the mathematical model. It was anticipated that inserting this element of scientificinquiry (Hestens, 2013) would not only help assess the research questions but also allow thestudents to realize the importance of mathematical processes in modifying or confirming theirprior thinking. Since the activity involved quantification, the hypothesis had a twofold nature:qualitative and quantitative.
The quantitative part, called a prediction (see Figure 1), involved having students predict a
numerical output of their investigations, and the qualitative part involved having themhypothesize a general property or output of their investigations. While a typical modeling activity
is initiated by asking learners to write a problem statement (Lesh & Zawojewski, 2007), in thisstudy’s activity, the problem was formulated and the students’ initial task was to hypothesize
possible outputs. Another element of the activity design was to decide about the type of inquiry.
There were two main options to consider, deductive and inductive, which are the main reasoning
inquiries used in science, mathematics, and engineering (Prince & Felder, 2006). As deductive
inquiry characterizes the process of reasoning from a set of general premises to reach a logicallyvalid conclusion, inductive inquiry is a process of reasoning from specific observations to reach ageneral conclusion (Christou & Papageorgiou, 2007). In this activity, students were given a stringof a fixed length and asked to formulate various rectangles and search for patterns; thus, an
inductive inquiry was adopted. All of the design constraints were guided through the scheme
depicted in Figure 1.

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Real Context

Qualitative

Problem Statement

Quantitative

Hypothesis/Prediction
Data Gathering
Analysis
Model Formulation

Qualitative

Model Verification

Quantitative

Model Validation

Hypothesis Verification

Figure 1. Adopted modeling process based on Sokolowski (2015)
The real context, in this activity, will be provided by material and described scenario that will befollowed by a problem statement. Note that the multiple arrows indicate stages when students candecide to modify or revise concluded patter on algebraic model. Such established theoreticalframework satisfied also the six principles for problem-solving activities developed by Lesh and
Kelly (2000).
Context Development
The following problem was used as a contextual basis for converting into a modeling activity:“Among all the rectangles, whose perimeters are 100 ft, find the dimensions of the one with amaximum area” (Demana, Waits Foley, & Kennedy, 2007, p. 184). Converting the problem into amodeling activity required inducing all of the elements of the modeling cycle described in Figure
1 as well as considering research recommendations concerning inducing metacognitive changes
in students’ minds. For instance, Bonotto (2007) suggested that well designed MM activity (a)emphasizes the strong interactivity of the instructional techniques, and (b) eliminates ready-madesolution processes. Bearing the adopted modeling process and the recommendations, an outline of
instructional support was developed.
Methods
This study can be classified as an empirical one-group quasi-experimental (Shadish, Cook, &Campbell, 2002). Randomization of participants was not possible due to a low school population
where the study was conducted. Quasi –experimental study shares though many similarities withexperimental design.

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Participants
A group of 28 students (12 females, 16 males, Mage = 16.5 years, age range: 16-17 years) enrolled
in a pre-calculus course in a suburban high school was assigned as a treatment group. The groupof students was selected due to availability. 25% of the group constituted minorities.
Evaluation Instruments
Analysis of students’ hypotheses, assigned prior the lab conduct, along with verification of the
hypotheses, reflections, and survey were used to evaluate learners’ prior thinking and the effectsof the treatment. A content analysis (Hsieh & Shannon, 2005) that characterized a systematicclassification process of coding and identifying themes and patterns was used to evaluate students’
free responses.
Treatment, Setup, Materials, and Procedure
A physics lab was the designated site for the activity because the students could be seated ingroups, which allowed for collaboration and discussions. There were seven groups of four
students. The treatment lasted for one class period (55 minutes). Each group was given a 74 cm
long string, a Styrofoam board of 40 cm by 60 cm, four pins, a metric ruler, and a set of French
curves to sketch a smooth curve for generated data. Each student was given instructional support
in the form of a lab outline. The instructor initiated the activity by explaining that the students
would investigate the area enclosed by a string of a fixed length and pointing out the importanceof reading the problem statement and hypothesize the answer. The students were asked to state
their hypothesis individually, without discussing the context with group partners. As suggested byprevious research (Lesh & Lehrer, 2003), the instructor then took on the role of a guider,providing suggestions when questions arose rather than offering direct solutions. Although thestudents took data in groups, each student was responsible for completing the lab analysis
individually. Students then began collecting data by formulating various rectangles due toprearranged lengths (see Figure 2).

Figure 2. The process of data taking

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In order to systematize the process, the participants recorded their data in a table (see Figure 3):

Figure 3. Generated table of values
The lengths of the bases of the rectangles were prearranged. The students measured resulting
heights and computed area for each variation. The analysis of the data was initiated by generating
the area of the rectangular polygons versus height graph (see Figure 4).

Figure 4. Area versus height graphNote, in the Figure 4, the students called the height width which did not change the datainterpretation. Having the points plotted and the graph sketched, the students identified its general
algebraic structure. There pre-calculus students did not have difficulties with identifying
underpinning function as quadratic. The next stage referred to formulating the function equation
for the graph and discussing the graph properties such as the extreme value, its coordinates andinterpretation (see Figure 5).

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Figure 5. The process of formulating the area function
This student identified the height of 17 cm for which the area was a maximum and equal to 344
cm2. She further used this coordinate to compute the leading coefficient, a, of the parabola.
Once the model was developed, it underwent a twofold validation process—firstly by using theelicited function to further identify and confirm the maximum area, and secondly by usinggraphing technology to generate the graph and calculate the maximum value. After the validation
process was finalized, the students were asked to reflect on their hypotheses. Lab reflections andsurvey completions concluded the activity.
Results and Discussion
The analysis of students’ hypotheses revealed that the majority (N=24, 86%) claimed that themagnitudes of the areas enclosed by a string of a fixed perimeter would remain unchanged.
Following are examples of students’ hypotheses:•

The area will not change because the total length of the string is the same.

•

The area will not change because it is enclosed by a length that cannot change.

•

The area will not change because the length of the string as a whole never changes.

Representative responses of students who claimed that the area would change were as follows:•

The area will change because if you have a perimeter of 30 cm, then, for example, 5
cm x 10 cm = 50 cm2, 8 cm x 7 cm = 56 cm2, etc.

•

The area will change because it is dependent on its dimensions, which will change.

After the lab was completed and the model confirmed, the above-mentioned majority group of
students agreed that the area enclosed was changing and that it reached a maximum value when
the formulated polygon was a square of about 17 cm by 17 cm, and the remaining students (N=4,14%) confirmed their hypotheses.
Students were asked to answer the following reflection question after the experiment: “Describe
your learning experience while working on the lab. What did you learn?” In their responses, 54%of the students (N=15) referred to their falsely stated hypotheses and commented on revision ofthis preconception that was prompted by the lab outcomes. Specific verbal responses wereclustered and quantified into three categories, as illustrated in Table 1. Sample student responses
are provided following the table.

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Table 1. Summary of Students’ Verbal Reflections
Category

Frequency of Response /Percent

Commented on revising their hypothesis

15 (54%)

Commented on properties of heights and formulation of the maximum area

11 (39%)Made general comments

2 (7%)The majority of the students reflected on their incorrect hypotheses, indicating that the lab helped
them discover the correct process. Responses included the following:•

The lab taught me that even though something is of a fixed length, it can be made into
different shapes that will result in different areas.

•

On the lab my original hypothesis was wrong so I learned that even with the same sizeof the string there are certain shapes and dimensions that will have a larger area.

•

While working on the lab, I learned that a fixed string can have various areas
depending on its length and width.

•

I learned that even though the perimeter between two rectangles is the same, the areas
do not have to be the same. They can be different.

•

I proved my hypothesis about the string correct. I learned that the area of the stringchanges when the base length is changed.

•

I learned that if you have a fixed perimeter, then it does not mean you have a fixedarea. I never truly thought about it.

The majority of the students pointed out the interface of transitioning from one-dimensional
geometrical object (length of the string) to a two-dimensional geometrical object (area). They
noted that the product of the lengths can take different values despite a constant perimeter.
Eleven of the students (39%) described the behavior of the elicited function, focusing on the
maximum area and on the properties of the dimensions that produced the maximum area.
Responses included:•

We learned that changing bases and heights changes the area but in a pattern creatinga parabola. The area increase reaches the max and then the area begins to decrease.

•

I learned that a perfect square will have the greatest amount of area. I also learned
how functions apply to the real world.

•

It was fun and interesting working with classmates. I learned that to get the maximum
area, the length and width of the rectangle should be as close in measurement as
possible.

•

I learned that the area increases as the width and height become more similar.

•

I learned that as the width got bigger, the area would increase then reach its peak, thenslowly decrease, making a parabola.

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General comments describing the learning experience were provided by two students (7%), as
follows:•

I learned how to apply the equations in real-world situations. This helped meunderstand some of the purposes for these equations and rules.

Since mathematical modeling is organized by sequentially organized phases, the question ofinterest was what phase of the MM process had the most significant impact on changing students’
perception on the optimization process. The following multiple choice survey questions sought toprovide insight on this inquiry: “What phase of the lab convinced you the most that the areas
enclosed by a fixed length perimeter were not constant? Circle the phase that applies to you:sketching the area vs. length graph, measuring the lengths of rectangles and calculating the areas,or finding the function equation and its maximum value and generating a table of values.” Theorder of the written phases did not follow the actual order of the activity during the lab in order toreduce the chance of bias. The question was addressed to all students, even to those whose
hypotheses were correct. Their responses are summarized in Table 2.
Table 2. Summary of Modeling Phases That Affected Students’ Change of Thinking
Phase Description

Frequency of Response/Percent

Sketching area vs. length graph

3 (11%)

Measuring the lengths of the rectangles and calculating the areas

8 (28%)

Finding the function equations and the maximum area

2 (7%)

Generating a table of values

15 (54%)

The table shows that most of the students concluded the pattern and revised how the area changed
during systematizing their data in a table of values, followed by the phase of sketching area
versus length graph. It is to note, that all of the processes are part of scientific modeling (Schwarz& White, 2005). This finding further supports the process of blending scientific modeling withmathematical modeling advocated by Sokolowski (2015).
Conclusions
The results support the research hypothesis that immersing students in MM activities can help
revise their preconceptions and help them understand the underlying principle of mathematics.
The study also revealed that the tangible experiences of taking measurements and generating atable of values were the phases that altered the students’ thinking the most. Thus, the systematicway of gathering data and subsequent analysis led the students to discover an embedded principleof optimization. One can conclude that inducing elements of measurement that are typical of thescientific inquiry process (Hestenes, 2013) benefits learners in mathematics classes as well. Thisfinding further supports integrating scientific modeling with mathematical modeling in one
coherent structure advocated by Sokolowski (2015).
This study also supports the conclusion reached by other scholars (e.g., see Brijlall & Ndlovu,
2013; Ledesma, 2011) that the source of difficulties with optimization problems might notnecessarily be rooted in the mathematization of the processes but in the difficulty ofunderstanding the underlying mathematical principle. The ultimate extension of this study would
be to investigate whether the lab experience helped students with formulating the solution
processes to solve textbook problems on optimization. More specifically, another study might

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explore how to use reached conclusions to induce more rigorous mathematical apparatus to solve
typical textbook problems on optimization, or might try to determine if removing the students’
misconception is sufficient to have them succeed with problem solving. It seems that both of thevenues are worthy undertaking.

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English For the Medium of Instruction (EFMI) at a University in Hong
Kong

Paul C. Corrigan

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Abstract
English as the Medium of Instruction (EMI) is gaining ground as an internationalizing policy atuniversities in countries where English is normally used as a second language. However, EMI as
developed pedagogy in support of such a policy is yet to establish itself at many such institutions.
In a country such as the United States, on the other hand, there is already extensive experience
covering several decades on the challenges faced by International Teaching Assistants who use
English as a Second Language for their teaching. Many of the challenges they face, and thestrategies which institutions have devised to assist faculty instructors who use ESL, haverelevance for institutions which are now moving to EMI. As those institutions move towards EMI,
they may also need to develop their own language and pedagogy training for their new instructors
who use ESL. For universities which aspire to rise in the international league tables, such preservice teacher education may be essential for the fulfillment of their aspiration
As part of their pre-service teacher education, new instructors at a rising young university in
Hong Kong received basic training in English For the Medium of Instruction (EFMI), an originalterm to articulate this novel reification of a subgenre of English for Specific Purposes (ESP). New
instructors found the training helpful but insufficient and expressed a strong interest for
additional training in EFMI.
Keywords: English; medium of instruction; pedagogy; teaching assistants.

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Introduction
As China rises in the East, publically-funded universities in its Special Administrative Region(SAR) of Hong Kong are ascending in the international league tables. Four out of seven suchinstitutions are currently listed in the top 100 or so institutions in the QS World University
Rankings 2013-14 (Quacquarelli Symonds, 2013) while three of those four are also listed in the
top 100 universities of the Times Higher Education World University Rankings 2013-14 (Times
Higher Education, 2013). The ascent signifies education changes initiated in the final years ofHong Kong’s colonial period which have made research at its universities more prominent, aninterest in global rankings more pronounced, and higher education opportunities among its youth
more egalitarian. These three factors as well as the 2012 launch of the American-style, four-year
undergraduate degree with a high component of General Education courses imply that Hong
Kong has taken elements of the American system for its higher education model as its
universities rise in the global rankings. To sustain this trend, Hong Kong’s publically-funded
universities can be expected to escalate their efforts to compound research and citation output aswell as amplify measures to increase internationalization, since these aspects are found in thehandful of categories which league table organizations implicitly claim to be able to assess andrank (Times Higher Education, 2013; Quacquarelli Symonds, 2013).
The two legs of research and internationalization which support institutions’ aspirations for a risein global rankings are embodied in some degree in the Ph.D. students which these universities
recruit. Working under a supervisor, international and local Ph.D. students can contribute to theresearch agenda of departments and therefore add to the prestige of the university and support its
competition in the global rankings. They may carry out work which extends the range and thedepth of a supervisor’s own research while being trained and mentored in the research process.
Coming from an international background, such Ph.D. students can add diversity to the student
body and bring a non-local perspective to their teaching of undergraduates. Many of these Ph.D.
students receive considerations which enable them to study for the required three or four years ofa Ph.D.; this compact requires that they contribute to the research agenda of departments and to
the teaching of undergraduates. For internationalizing institutions, this teaching is increasingly
expected to be done in English, regardless of the first language of the teacher. For this kind ofteaching, the term English for the Medium of Instruction (EFMI) is suggested in order todistinguish it from EMI policy and to situate EFMI as a sub-genre of ESP.
The purpose of this paper is twofold: to present and to analyze a recent effort by an EMI
university in Hong Kong to overtly train new Ph.D. students in strategies to improve their English
while modeling methods suitable for EMI pedagogy so that they can take up teaching duties.
These Ph.D. students are similar to International Teaching Assistants (ITAs) in the United States,
so the first objective of the paper is to review the literature on ITAs in the U.S. for features that
may be pertinent to the Hong Kong situation. The second objective is to describe the measurestaken at the university in Hong Kong for diagnosing new Ph.D. students’ level of English, discuss
the training sessions which many of those Ph.D. students subsequently took to improve theirEnglish, and analyze and discuss results of a survey completed by those Ph.D. students who took
the sessions.
Review of the Literature
A shift towards English as the Medium of Instruction (EMI) in many European and Asianuniversities where English is not the usual first language of students has been discussed by Chang(2010); Brenn-White & van Rest (2012); de Graff, Koopman & Westhoff (2007); Hellekjaer(2007); Hudson (2009); Klaassen (2008); OECD (2010); Kim & Sohn (2009); Sert (2008); Tatzl(2011); Corrigan (2014); and others. Whether this shift is best attributed to changing

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Volume III - Issue II - Summer 2015demographics, economic globalization, and financial constraints on institutions or to humanistic
internationalization is less clear and has been the focus of some debate (Brandenburg and de Wit,
2011; Healey, 2008).
While pedagogical approaches like Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) are
gaining ground in primary or secondary education (e.g., de Graff et al., 2007), the shift towards
EMI in European and Asian universities has been more about policy than pedagogy (Corrigan,
2014). When English is being used at universities in, for example, Korea, The Netherlands, Japan,
Malaysia, and Germany to teach students whose native language is not English, then the term
EMI is applicable. In such cases, teachers might be non-native speakers of English. In order to
use EMI to teach at such Asian and European universities, a degree of proficiency in English isalready expected and in some institutions it is tested (e.g., Klaasen, 2008). For experienced
university faculty whose second language is English, proficiency is already likely. For example, aDutch professor with native-like proficiency in English may teach her Chinese, Italian, Greek,
and Indonesian students sociology (or another ‘content’ course, or an English language course) in
English, which is a second language for teacher and students alike, using methods and techniques
which would facilitate learning in the second language. In the higher education context, EMI as
pedagogy is here professed to include not just a command of English by the teacher but
appropriate approaches, methods and techniques as well as for teaching university students whose
first language is not English. For novice teachers whose second language is English, native
proficiency may be less likely and many novice teachers at EMI universities are likely to be Ph.D.
students.
The contribution to teaching by Masters or Ph.D. students (called Internal Teaching Assistants, or
ITAs, in the U.S.) has been the source of much research over the past thirty or forty years in the
U.S. The pioneering U.S. university experience may help Hong Kong higher education
institutions map their way through similar landscape more deftly. The robust literature on ITAs is
exemplified by Bailey’s 1984 book. She and the other contributors articulated the parameters of
the International Teaching Assistants (ITAs) situation by reviewing research conducted in the
1970s and reconnoitering the landscape at American universities in the 1980s. Bailey (1984)
noted that “both linguistic and cultural differences contribute to the difficulties faced by foreignTAs”; issues of English proficiency, cross-cultural communication, and teaching skills “raisesome debatable issues”. Kaplan (1989) further elaborated the problems which ITAs bring withthem as “pronunciation problems, some syntactic problems, some cultural problems, somepedagogical style problems.” For ITAs “found to be inadequately prepared in English or inteaching ability, there is often nothing to be done about it” but the problem can be avoided
altogether with “advance planning”.
Presumably he had in mind a certain level of general English before an ITA even arrives on
campus. Within a few years, more than 20 state legislatures had mandated oral English
proficiency (Twale et al., 1997) as a result of complaints from students and parents – i.e., voters and state universities began to institute such tests. Negative impressions of ITAs byundergraduates continued, however, with Fitch and Morgan (2003) illustrating how
undergraduates constructed the identity of ITAs “usually…in a negative light”, their own identity
as victims, education as a commodity for which they should get their money’s worth, and theuniversity as a villain. Today, universities across America normally require that ITAs
demonstrate their proficiency in English before teaching undergraduates (see, for example:
Brown University; Cornell University; Georgia State University; Oregon State University;
Temple University; University of Illinois; University of Maryland; University of Northern
Colorado; University of Texas; and University of Virginia).

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While addressing the immediate need to diagnose which ITAs need language training, limitationsof such tests have been identified and improvements to them advocated. Papajohn (1999), forexample, examined the influence of topic variation in performance testing of ITAs and observed
the “difficulty in sorting out teaching and language skills”. He suggested some changes that could
be made to testing of ITAs’ skills in teaching in English in order to reduce the effect of“presentation style” language which, being primarily one-way communication presumably bears
little resemblance to the kind of language which is needed for actual classroom interaction. Paralinguistics was also identified as a feature to take into account, as Jenkins and Paarra (2003)
found in their study of 8 ITAs. They concluded that “the least we can do now is to train both
ITAs and evaluators to understand the role of non-verbal cues in interpreting communicative
intent” which led them to modify their institution’s Oral English proficiency test rubric to include“listening comprehension and communicative competence”. Saif (2006) reported that somepositive wash back occurs when ITAs know they must take a test of spoken English, but heposited an “intricate web of different yet related factors that could enhance or interfere with atest’s effects being realized as educational change.” Gorsuch (2006) reasoned that “if ITA
development is construed as teacher education” then individual academic departments canorganize seminars alongside “native English speaking counterparts (TAs)” but if it seen as mainly
language education, a centralized program would be better. In her study of 15 ITAs who had not
performed well in a three week, pre-service intensive classroom communication skills workshop,
she reported that the ITAs “generally found … practica …a positive learning experience”.
Some researchers have looked beyond pre-service testing and training and have turned to
studying in-service, ongoing negotiation of meaning between ITA and student, with mixed results.
Pointing to the “nationwide concern that the foreign-born instructors linguistic problems
influence US higher education adversely”, Chiang (2006) noted that “problematic understanding
may arise from linguistic deficiencies” such as use and pronunciation of individual words as wellas grammar. Cultural differences were also contributors to misunderstanding, which “does notalways go unnoticed.” She concluded that training programs for ITAs tend to aim at improving
linguistic proficiency but just as important is the need for ITAs and American college students tonegotiate meaning with each other in an ongoing, interactive process. Li and others (2011), while
accepting that “ITA language use essentially functions as an ongoing reciprocal process of
meaning negotiations”, between American students and ITAs, issued caveats, however. Whennegotiation of meaning involved drawing students’ attention to mispronunciations in order tocheck for the correct pronunciation, it “may serve as an important factor that causes students toreact negatively towards their teaching” (ibid). Reinhardt (2013), using an applied genre analytic
approach pioneered by Bhatia, found in his study of office hour consultations where ITAs andtheir students had to negotiate meaning that by “developing awareness of how academic power
may be negotiated internationally” ITA’s are more likely to achieve pragmatic and professional
success.
Around the time that the university system in the US was beginning to notice and address issues
with ITAs, plans were being laid in colonial Hong Kong for the large-scale expansion of thehigher education system. Since that time the system has emerged from an elitist system withrestricted enrollment and limited international reputation to a more egalitarian system withincreasing enrolment and a flourishing international reputation. While a Cantonese-speaking,secondary school graduate fifty years ago would aspire to become an undergraduate at one of thetwo universities, today several universities have been crowned as among the world’s best in theinternational league tables. Due to matters of 1) colonial legacy (e.g., Mellor, 1992; Poon, 2002),
2) institutional EMI policies and 3) the importance as a lingua franca (e.g., Crystal, 2003; Crystal,
2006; Bolton, 2008), the role of English in each of these cases - individual and institutional carries great weight.

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Generally, publically-funded universities in Hong Kong officially use English as the Medium of
Instruction (EMI) (e.g., Hong Kong Polytechnic University1, 2014; Hong Kong University of
Science and Technology2 , 2014). Disparities between official policy and actual practice havebeen studied in Hong Kong - with Kember and others (2001), for example, referring to “the mythof English as the medium of instruction” in universities in Hong Kong - but EMI with all its
attendant problems is not a unique Hong Kong phenomenon. Rather, EMI appears to be part of a
nascent, intercontinental systemic shift in higher education (Corrigan, 2014). In contrast to theinroads EMI is making as an internationalizing policy at many higher education institutions incountries where English is normally used as a second language, however, EMI is yet to develop
as a mature pedagogy in support of such a policy at many such institutions (ibid).
While many of the problems that U.S. researchers have documented are applicable to Hong Kong,
universities in this Special Administrative Region of China face an additional triple challenge.
Many new teachers at such institutions are: 1) teaching at a tertiary institution for the first time ina socio-cultural-educational matrix different from what they previously experienced; 2) teachingin their second language; and 3) teaching students who are learning in their second language.
From the American higher education experiences with ITAs, several lessons may be extrapolated
for universities in Hong Kong to strengthen EMI teaching by Ph.D. students. The list is not meant
to be exhaustive, some universities may already be considering such measures, and the list may
change over time. At present, however, the following can be taken from the American university
experience with new Ph.D. students who are likely to become ITAs:
1. Recognize that even if Ph.D. students who are non-native speakers of English provide an
acceptable, documented level of English at a high intermediate level or better before
admission to study, it may not mean the candidate has the higher level language skills
needed to teach in EMI;
2. Require a pre-service teacher education courses for all new Ph.D. students who will
become novice teachers, focusing on the Hong Kong and institutional context andpedagogy appropriate for EMI teaching of Hong Kong undergraduates;
3. Implement accepted tests of English proficiency and communication skills with clear
descriptors of the different levels and kinds of teaching, if any, possible at that level for all
candidates who will be expected to teach and 1) do not have English as their native
language or 2) did not graduate from an EMI university;
4. Require that those who did not achieve a level for specific kinds of teaching to take acourse to improve their overall English proficiency: such a course should aim to help
candidates improve their general English if need be as well as specialist English in theirdisciplines, in addition to including strategies for learning through ongoing interaction andnegotiation of meaning with students and peers to encourage ongoing scaffolding of theirlanguage and communication skills;
5. Offer additional workshop and seminars to sustain gains which candidates have made in
the English classes;
6. Organize, in addition, practica as appropriate if candidates already have a highintermediate level of English;“28. Medium of Instruction 28.1 English is the medium of instruction (the only exceptions are for a small numberof programmes/subjects which have got special approval to be taught and examined in Chinese, due to the nature andobjectives of the programmes/subjects concerned). Chinese could only be used in small group
discussions/tutorials/practical sessions if and when necessary.”2“1. Medium of Instruction. Unless otherwise approved by the Senate for a specific course or program of study,
English is the medium of instruction and assessment at the University.”
1

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7. Implement such changes with the cooperation of departments and faculty development
units;
8. Recognize that this kind of systemic change will be long-term and implement stopgap
measures to help assure quality in the short to midterm.
MethodIn this section, the background of the university under study is presented, the interviews for new
Ph.D. students are discussed, and the content and organization of supplementary sessions is
described.
Background of the University and the Launch of the EFMI Seminars
The university is a comprehensive, publically-funded university recognized as one of the top 100
or so around the world. The university has admitted more than 200 Ph.D. students every year forthe past few years and looks set to significantly increase the number in the coming years. In
recent years anecdotal information was reported from the teachers of a pre-service teacher
education course about the low English language skills of many new Ph.D. students. Therefore,
commencing in 2013, diagnostic interviews were conducted the first two weeks to determine whoshould enroll in two, two-hour “supplementary sessions”. The supplementary sessions would
consist of strategies training so that the Ph.D. students who were deficient in their general English
could be taught how to help themselves learn English.
Interview Format
A diagnostic interview was developed. In the first part, the candidate read aloud a never-beforeseen passage in English (which they could not take away) to an imagined classroom ofundergraduate students, in order to evaluate pronunciation, stress and rhythm, intonation, andoverall intelligibility; in the second part, the candidate was engaged in unrehearsable andimpromptu speaking; in the third part, the candidate was asked to explain an object (drawn
randomly from a bag) to the imagined classroom of undergraduate students, in order to evaluateability and skill in explanation strategies in English.
Results
Results of the interview and the supplementary sessions are presented in this section.
Interviews
Of 188 candidates interviewed, 105 were requested to attend the supplementary sessions,
including four candidates who did not attend the pre-sessional diagnostic.
Supplementary Training Sessions and Survey
Two supplementary sessions of two hours each were scheduled for candidates diagnosed as
needing them, with a teacher to student ratio of about 52:1. Attendance was not formally recorded
but a rough headcount indicated some candidates did not attend the sessions. Candidates were
taught and trained in three speaking/listening strategies, as well as explanation strategies; they
were also provided with a rationale for extensive reading in English and encouraged to read a
Hong Kong English newspaper, for example, on a daily basis. The focus of the strategies was forthe students to become ongoing, autonomous learners of English. One such focus included
strategies for improving listening comprehension (i.e., input) since it is needed for correct
pronunciation (i.e., output). In many cases, the students had studied English for many years and

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believed themselves to be good at reading. The sessions therefore aimed at moving existing
competency to actual performance; i.e., help them bring knowledge of English gained throughinput like reading into use of English, and expanding the repertoire of English available. The
survey on the outcomes of the strategy sessions is presented below.
Survey on Supplementary Training Sessions[Responses: 93 - 96 per question]
1. I am from: Hong Kong (3 respondents)
 Mainland China 86 respondents)
 Other (write country name) (4 countries; 6 respondents) ]Strongly
Strongly
Agree NeutralDisagree
Agree
Disagree
2. The sessions helped me understand my strengths and weaknesses inEnglish.
3. The sessions helped to model or show me methods and techniques
which I can use in my own teaching in the future.
4. The sessions helped me strengthen my overall listening skills in
English.
5. The sessions helped me strengthen my overall speaking skills in
English. (95 responses)
6. The sessions helped me strengthen my explanation strategies inEnglish.
7. The sessions modelled examples of effective teaching techniquesand methods to improve my own teaching in English. (96
responses)
8. I feel more confident about teaching in English after taking the
supplementary sessions.
9. The sessions helped me understand about sense groups when
speaking in English.
10. The sessions helped me understand about stress, rhythm, andintonation when speaking in English.

52

38

4

0

1

53

41

3

0

0

32

50

12

2

1

36

43

14

1

1

50

35

9

1

1

49

43

3

0

1

32

43

19

1

0

46

40

6

0

1

49

35

10

1

1

11. I could use additional sessions to improve my English for teaching.

38

46

10

1

1

12. I find Strategy One (using an on-line dictionary) helpful for
pronunciation.
13. I find Strategy Two (using DVDs with English subtitles) helpful for
listening and speaking practice
14. I find Strategy Three (“Read and Look Up”) helpful for speaking insense groups.

42

43

8

0

1

42

37

14

1

0

52

32

10

1

1

Discussion of Results
Interviews
Although the diagnostic interviews were intended only to identify who should attend the
supplementary sessions, several observations were made: 1) Candidates from Hong Kong,

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Europe, North America, the Middle East, and (usually) South Asia did not need the
supplementary sessions even if they were new to HK; 2) Almost all candidates from top tieruniversities in China did not need the supplementary sessions even if they were new to HK; 3)
Candidates from all other universities in China did need the supplementary sessions if they had
been in HK less than 2 years; one year was marginal and the candidates were not ready yet at one
year.
Linguistic and cultural differences, which Bailey (1984), Kaplan (1989), and Chiang (2006)
noted in ITAs in the United States, were also observed in many of the interview candidates,
especially those from mainland China. Cultural differences were expressed by them during many
interviews regarding the amount of time devoted to work in Hong Kong, which was noticeably
more than candidates were used to, and time for reflective thinking or leisure, which was far lessthan many were used to. The lack of such time for reflection and leisure could be expected tomake adjustment more difficult not just to the Western-influenced culture of Hong Kong, but tothe educational culture of the university, which had been established during the last decade ofBritish colonial rule and maintained a globally-engaged stance. Besides the cultural differences,linguistic differences were observable in two domains: spoken Chinese and spoken English. Most
students from the mainland had difficulty expressing themselves in spoken English and theyremarked that their spoken Chinese was Mandarin rather than Cantonese, the latter being the
majority spoken first language in Hong Kong and parts of southern China.
Supplementary Training Sessions and Survey
Two, two-hour supplementary sessions were developed for students who were identified throughthe interviews as lacking English proficiency for teaching. The content covered in the sessions
included several means to help students develop their spoken English. Listening excerpt exercises
based on the American television show 60 Minutes were developed. The excerpts provided
broadcast-quality, standard American English. Around these, explicit activities related to thedevelopment of stress, rhythm, and intonation as well as how to use a dependable pronunciation
dictionary and learning to speak in sense groups were developed.
Feedback from students attending the sessions was very positive, as indicated by the survey
completed by more than 90% of the students attending the sessions. This high level of satisfaction
may be attributed in part to the materials and teaching methodology but it is also attributable tostudents’ appreciation for being provided with training which had been absent or deficient in theirprevious education and which they now recognized is essential for their careers as Ph.D. students.
Almost 90% of the students completing the survey from the supplementary sessions were fromuniversities in China where opportunities for exposure to standard spoken English were limited in
the extreme. The chances to have supplementary sessions of any sort conducted in EMI werethemselves a treasured opportunity for these students. To be able to learn some strategies for selfimprovement of English was an additional opportunity for which they seemed genuinely grateful.
While the sessions were successful in exposing students to ways for how they could improve inthose areas, it does not necessarily mean that the students would improve. During the first of thetwo supplementary sessions, they were asked to set realistic goals for practicing strategies; during
the second supplementary session, few indicated that they had fulfilled all their goals for practice.
It is inferred that the other demands on their time and resources - such as their doctoral research,
cultural and institutional adjustment, and lack of instrumental motivation – were factors
inhibiting them from spending time practicing the strategies.
As seen in the table in the previous section, the survey consisted of one question (item 1) about
the country from which they came; 13 statements (items 2-13) about the supplementary sessions

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and the effect it had on them and for which they could respond on a 5 point scale, from strongly
agree to strongly disagree; and two questions (items 14 and 15) asking them for additionalsuggestions and comments. Out of 105 students, 95 completed the survey; all came from Asia
and 90% came from mainland universities. Responses for items 2-13 indicated that the students
were very satisfied about the sessions, with satisfaction (i.e., any positive response above“neutral”) ranging from 79% to 97% on individual aspects of the course. A very high level ofsatisfaction was reported for items 2, 3, 6, 7, 10, and 14. For these items, the survey respondents
reported that they had a clearer idea of where they were strong and weak in English and that thesession provided ways to help them improve their teaching, explain things better in English, andspeak with better stress, rhythm, and intonation.
Conclusion
The paper has looked at EFMI training for new Ph.D. students, mainly from outside the Hong
Kong Special Administrative Region, who were expected to take up teaching duties at a
publically-funded university in Hong Kong in English as a Second Language (ESL) during theirprogram of Ph.D. studies. The author has also suggested the term ‘English for the Medium of
Instruction (EFMI)’ for such for teaching in ESL and in the process reified EFMI as a newsubgenre of ESP.
The kinds of issues reported in the literature which ITAs using ESL to teach at American
universities have faced are also the kinds of issues which these new instructors at the university in
Hong Kong in this study face. The implications for universities, who aspire to ascend the league
tables of best universities in the world, be they located in Hong Kong or elsewhere, aresignificant. First, English for the Medium of Instruction (EFMI) in Hong Kong’s EMI
universities is new ground whose acceptance will need to be gained but the potential for futurestudies are enormous. The same is also true for other Asian and European universities which areswitching programs and courses to EMI. Development of the EFMI concept in terms of both
functional-notional language, and EMI methods and techniques enveloped in the language, will
be needed. As of this writing, the university under study is embarking on that very path byoffering a regular university course in EFMI.
Furthermore, while needing to be customized for the higher education context in Hong Kong or
elsewhere, many good ideas can be drawn on from the U.S. experience and from what has been
done in Hong Kong, as reported in this paper. They range from studying the effects of changing
language requirements for Ph.D. admission to the establishment of language testing for Ph.D.
students in Hong Kong or elsewhere who are expected to teach, and from the design andimplementation of courses designed for English language development of Ph.D. students to theeffects of such courses on teaching. Studies of attitudes of undergraduates towards Ph.D. students
who teach, Ph.D. students’ identity formation as teachers, and other areas also hold the potential
for research. The direct effects of such research could mean better understanding of the situation
and better teaching for undergraduates, while indirectly it may facilitate or sustain a university’s
trajectory into the highly competitive top ranks of the world’s universities.

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Guide for Authors
Article structure
Abstract
A concise and factual abstract is required (maximum length of 250 words). The abstract should
state briefly the purpose of the research, the principal results and major conclusions. An abstract
is often presented separately from the article, so it must be able to stand alone. For this reason,
References should be avoided, but if essential, then cite the author(s) and year(s). Also, nonstandard or uncommon abbreviations should be avoided, but if essential they must be defined attheir first mention in the abstract itself.
Keywords
Immediately after the abstract, provide a maximum of 6 keywords.
Introduction
Present purposes of the study and provide background for your work.
Literature Review
Include a pertinent literature review with explicit international connections for relevant ideas.
Discuss the findings of published papers in the related field and highlight your contribution.
Methodology and methods
Provide sufficient detail to allow the context of the work to be thoroughly understood and/or for
the work to be reproduced. Provide sufficient detail for readers to understand how you engaged inyour inquiry. Clear descriptions of your context and participants along with strategies used tocollect and analyze data should be described.
Discussion
This section should explore the significance of the results of the work, not repeat them.
Combining your results and discussion into a single section may be suitable. Returning torelevant literature from the introduction should show how your work connects with or interrupts
already published literature.
Conclusions
The main conclusions of the study may be presented in a Conclusions section, which can include
the main findings, the implications, and limitations.
Appendices
If there is more than one appendix, they should be identified as A, B, etc.
Acknowledgements
Collate acknowledgements in a separate section at the end of the article before the references anddo not, therefore, include them on the title page, as a footnote to the title or otherwise. List here
those individuals who provided help during the research (e.g., providing language help, writing
assistance or proof reading the article, etc.).
Footnotes

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Footnotes should be used sparingly. Number them consecutively throughout the article, using
superscript Arabic numbers.
References
Citation in text
Please ensure that every reference cited in the text is also present in the reference list (and viceversa).
Reference style
Text: Citations in the text should follow the referencing style used by the American
Psychological Association (APA). Publication Manual of the American Psychological
Association, Sixth Edition, ISBN 978-1-4338-0561-5.
List: references should be arranged first alphabetically and then further sorted chronologically ifnecessary.
Reference to a journal publication:
Van der Geer, J., Hanraads, J. A. J., & Lupton, R. A. (2010). The art of writing a scientific article.
Journal of Scientific Communications, 163, 51–59.
Reference to a book:
Strunk, W., Jr., & White, E. B. (2000). The elements of style. (4th ed.). New York: Longman,(Chapter 4).
Reference to a chapter in an edited book:
Mettam, G. R., & Adams, L. B. (2009). How to prepare an electronic version of your article. In B.
S. Jones, & R. Z. Smith (Eds.), Introduction to the electronic age (pp. 281–304). New York: EPublishing Inc.
Please follow the checklist:* Times New Roman font (size 12)* Single-spacing throughout the document; paragraphs, justify.
* Double space (instead of indent) to designate a new paragraph or section* Page numbers at the bottom center of each page
* Top, bottom, and side margins 0.87" or 2.2 cm* Page that includes title, authors, their affiliations, their contact information, and the topic of thesubmission* Authors and affiliations repeated at the beginning of the body of the paper* There is no limt of words or pages, but manuscript too short or incomplete will be rejected.
IAFOR Journal of Education is following the guidelines and advices proposed by top SSCI
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