日本大学歯学部紀要 35，77‑84，2007

Student‑generated questions in L2 ―approaches to developing more complex question‑types
Sarah Moate
Abstract
This study considers how to encourage students in ESL classes to generate their own
questions in response to oral presentations by other students and short written texts,in thiscase on dental topics. The question types, average question length and questions mostcommonly employed by intermediate level and upper intermediate level groups of students
were analysed and compared. The findings may be of use for developing approaches tostudent‑generated questions in university ESL classes where the focus is on interactive
communication and learner independence which can be applied in later professional life.
Key words: referential questions, display questions, learner independence, interaction,
student‑generated, language learning environment.

Introductionʻ
Any questions?ʼ
. Hands shoot up, students vie with each other to be chosen by the students
in the group at the front,who have just given a 5 minute PowerPoint presentation on a dental
topic.The student chosen stands up and asks the question.The range of questions is from theobvious ʻ
How much does the treatment cost?ʼ
,to the more considered ʻ
You say sugar damages
the tooth enamel, is tooth‑brushing harmful?ʼ
. The students at the front confer for a moment
and then give their answer. This scene is taking place in an intermediate level first‑year
university class for dental students, during a mini‑test in L2. Questions are being generated
naturally in response to the peer‑group presentations. One problem is that there isnʼt enoughtime for all the student questions, as there are 5 groups presenting in a 55 minute slot. The
traditional image in many language learning environments is that the teacher asks the questions. However recent research has focused on students asking questions, for instance thedegree to which students are encouraged to ask questions by Graesser and Black (1985),Davis(1994), put the case that getting students to ask questions, especially effective questions, isanother way of promoting communication in L2.A strong case is put forward that encouraging
students to ask questions in ESL (English as a second language), lessons improves English
learning outcomes by Roberts (2006), who states that,ʻ
ESL lessons should be designed and implemented so that students can ask questions which
will in turn allow for the achievement of significant learning outcomesʼ
.

日本大学歯学部

英語

Nihon University School of Dentistry
1‑8‑13 Kanda‑Surugadai, Chiyoda‑ku, Tokyo 101‑8310, Japan〒 101‑8310 東京都千代田区神田駿河台１‑８‑13(受理：2007年９月 29日）

77

日本大学歯学部紀要 35，77‑84，2007

He goes onto suggest that asking questions as opposed to being asked questions gives the
ESL student a sense of control and purpose that can be projected beyond the classroom.
In 2004 at Ritsumeikan University in Kyoto,a workshop entitled UK‑Japan Young Scientists
was held,students,teachers and scientists from both countries attended.A dvd recording of theweek‑long event was distributed by the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science andTechnology, (M EXT), to all Japanese Super Science High Schools as an example of goodpractice.
The Clifton Scientific Trust,based in the UK,who supported the project suggest that young
scientists in both the UK and Japan face a common challenge, stating that,ʻ
The science education they receive is not preparing students to be the science‑literate
questioning young people the 21 century demandsʼ
.

The Study
Can generating more complex question‑types be of use to help science students make themost of their ESL experience at university?Can it help to foster the science‑literate questioning
young people required for the future? University students want to learn to question more
effectively in L2 but need a range of support in developing their cognitive skills.Questioning in
itself is important in several ways, firstly it can enable students to find an effective way ofcommunicating in a second language, secondly, it can help students to comprehend in moredetail basic information or texts being presented.Thirdly,it can encourage a sense of enquiry
through information gathering techniques which can be applied as a study‑skill later in
professional life. Fourthly, through active involvement with other learners and the materials,
thinking of a question, asking a question or actively listening and comprehending othersʼ
questions develops confidence to interact in L2. Finally, questioning as a means of learner
independence cannot be underestimated. Current ESL methodology, CLT (Communicative
Language Teaching), emphasizes real situations, rather than a conscious understanding of therules that govern the language being studied.T‑BLT (Task‑Based Language Teaching),whichdeveloped from CLT, is also based on learning through interaction in the target language,(Knight,2001; Nunan,2004).The main aims of this study were to find out how ESL university
students of dentistry generate questions in response to oral presentations by other students on
dental topics and also to a written exam text featuring a dental issue. What complexity ofquestion‑types are used and identification of the differences in intermediate and upper‑intermediate student response in both areas in L2.
In July 2007, 120 first‑year undergraduate students of Nihon University School of Dentistrygave oral presentations in English in groups of 3 or 4 on a dental topic chosen by each group.
This was assessed as a mini‑test on the course.Topics chosen varied from pediatric dentistry
to cosmetic dental techniques such as whitening. The oral presentations could take either aPowerPoint or poster format and lasted for 10 minutes followed by approximately 3 minutes
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Student‑generated questions in L2 ―for reflection time (to generate questions). 5 minutes were allowed for questions and answers
relating to the presentation. Groups presented consecutively over a 3 week period, having
prepared for the previous 4 weeks. The presentations had to include―ａ). Rhetorical questions to structure the content of the material being presented through visual
images, keywords and technical terms explained in easy‑to‑understand English.
ｂ). Evidence of original research through a survey devised and conducted by the students
consisting of questions about the dental topic aimed at their peers or other age‑groups.Results
were shown by graphs, bar or pie‑charts.
ｃ). A 5 minute Q&A (question and answer)session from the students listening to the presentation.Students were expected to formulate questions during the presentation and in a 3 minutereflection period after the presentation.These questions after the presentations were recordedby the author as part of the basis for this study.
In September 2007, the same group of students took a written exam based on a short text
about a dental topic.One of the exam questions required the students to write down 3 questions
about the text,each of which had to be at least 7 words long and employ a variety of question‑types.There were 2 texts,one,on the topic of the use of fluoridation against tooth‑decay,was
given to the group of intermediate students and the other, on the topic of the regeneration ofteeth, was given to the group of upper‑intermediate students.
The student response in generating questions to both the oral presentations and the written
text was analysed and compared.

Findings
Referential questions, genuine questions where the answer is not known by the questioner
rather than display questions where the answer is known by the questioner, were naturally
generated from both the oral presentations and written texts on dental topics.In both cases thefact that the students were encouraged to interact in language environments mimicking realsituations; in the case of the oral presentations, a situation such as at international science
conferences and in the case of the written text, a situation similar to comprehending andactively responding to academic papers on dentistry was worthwhile. The students could see
the relevance of the task and tried to develop both question length and the range of question‑types.Recent research has focused on question‑types and average length of reply,but usuallyon the interaction between teacher and student, rather than student‑generated, (Chaudron,
1998; Oʼ
Keefe, M cCarthy, Carter, 2007).
A. Questions generated in response to―Oral presentations.
These questions were from the class audience to the student groups after presentations on
dental topics.Students were allowed to use dictionaries in the reflection period before questioning.
ⅰ. The intermediate group had the least inhibitions about asking questions in front of their79日本大学歯学部紀要 35，77‑84，2007

peer‑group,in fact theywere keen to interact.The bulk of the questions were wh‑questions andthe average length of the question was 7 words,eg.ʻ
How much do dentures cost?ʼ
,ʻHow many
dentists currently work in Japan?ʼ
,ʻWhat is the most effective way of cleaning teeth?ʼ
,ʻ
Why iscranberry juice good for preventing gingivitis?ʼ
.Tag‑questions were also employed,eg.ʻ
Do youhave any cavities, if so, how many?ʼ
,ʻYou said that the treatment period for orthodontic
treatment is long, so how long is it?ʼ.
ⅱ. The upper‑intermediate group was more inhibited about asking questions in front of theirpeers and were more concerned with forming the correct grammatical structure of the question.
However by the third week of presentations there was far more confidence and less concern
with getting it right. The bulk of the questions were also wh‑questions, eg. ʻWhat are thedifferent points between home and office whitening?ʼ
,ʻ
Why can bone be re‑generated but tooth
enamel cannot?ʼ
. However more tag‑questions were employed, eg. ʻI have wisdom teeth,but I
didnʼ
t have them pulled out, what do you suggest?ʼ
,ʻYou said that there are many kinds ofartificial teeth, metallic, plastic and so on, which are the most expensive?ʼand more complex
sentence structures, sometimes using modal verbs, eg ʻIʼm interested in the magnetic attachment for dentures,does insurance apply in this case?ʼ
,ʻI think we should brush our teeth after
eating snacks or sweets, why should we brush our teeth before going to bed?ʼ
. These more
complex questions were more inquiring and reflected more depth of thinking as well as personal
opinion. The average question length in this group was 12‑14 words.
B. Questions generated in response to―Written texts.
These questions were in response to the following exam question about a short written text
on a dental issue,ʻWrite down 3 questions that you have about the article.Make each question at least 7 words
long and use a variety of question‑types (for example―tag‑questions, wh‑questions). 25
minutes were given to answer the whole paper, dictionary reference was not permitted. This
exam question is unusual as it requires students to ask questions about the text, rather thananswering questions about it.
ⅰ. The intermediate group dental issue was ʻ
Fluorideʼ(see appendix 1).The group found thistask more difficult than responding to the oral presentations.Around 3 percent of the students
either didnʼ
t answer or didnʼ
t finish answering this section. Over 80 percent of the questions
generated were wh‑questions.The average length of the written questions in this group was 8
words. The most commonly asked question was, ʻWhat effect is the use of fluoride in tooth‑paste or water to the human body?ʼ
.
Other frequently asked questions were, ʻHow many people use fluoride in toothpaste?ʼ
,ʻCan
fluoride cause cancer and osteoporosis as well as mottling of teeth?ʼ
,ʻWhich substance is in
tooth‑paste now?ʼ
,ʻ
How many people use fluoride in toothpaste?ʼ
. Around 14 percent of thewritten questions were tag‑questions, eg. ʻ
About 5 million people drink fluoridated water inEngland,what do they think about fluoride?ʼ
,ʻ
Today the effects of fluoride for the human body80

Student‑generated questions in L2 ―is unknown, do you still want to use fluoride?ʼ
.
ⅱ. The upper‑intermediate group dental issue was ʻ
Re‑generation of teethʼ(see appendix 2).
The group all answered this section fully.About 66 percent of the questions generated were wh‑questions, 30 percent were tag‑questions, 4 percent were other types. The average question
length was 15 words, which is almost double that of the intermediate group. The 2 mostcommonly asked questions were,ʻ
I understand that hair,skin and other tissues would be turned
into “tooth primordial”, but how?ʼand ʻ
How much does re‑generative dentistry cost?ʼ
. Otheroften asked questions were, eg. ʻDo teeth which are made from stem cells have a dangerous
effect on us?ʼ,ʻ
They made a tooth surrounded by bone from stem cells, why was the tooth
surrounded by bone?ʼ
. Generally questions were well formed and contained genuine curiosity
about the topic or related it to their own experience,eg.ʻ
This topic was written in 2004,but now
can they grow new teeth in adult humanʼ
s mouth?ʼ
,ʻ
New teeth will be grown in the mouth ofadult patients within a few years,are some treatments (such as dentures),going to decrease in
the future?ʼ
,ʻIs the research developed in Japan?ʼ
.
The intermediate group in this study were keen to participate in the Q&A sessions after theoral presentations., but found the written questions in response to the written text moredifficult.They seemed to find group activity more supportive and were able to generate more
complex question‑types as a result. The upper‑intermediate group initially found questioningin L2 after oral presentations quite difficult,this did change after several sessions of presentations, the need to display perfect grammatical form and fluency was gradually replaced witha desire to communicate and express what was really thought.
The written response, which was done individually, revealed thoughtful questions with avariety of question‑types and sentence structure.

Conclusion
The M inistry of Education,Culture,Science and Technology in Japan are promoting courses
and exchange forums such as the UK‑Japan Young Scientists workshop as examples of goodpractice in education which has real applications in later professional life.One aspect of this iscultivating young peopleʼ
s confidence to question through shared enquiry in L2. In the classroom providing real‑life language learning environments is key to motivating students todevelop this confidence and for students to perceive its relevance to their future. Effective
questioning in L2 in class is sometimes thought of as ʻdifficultʼby students and often depends
on earlier language education experiences and peer pressure.Initially students will also expect
the teacher to be the one asking the questions.This study,although based on a small group of
120 students, does show that referential questions, both spoken and written, can be generated
quite naturally by students if there is genuine interest in the topic and peer interaction is thenorm in class activity, in L2. Although there can be problems with grammar through thisapproach,it is valid that students are developing communicative skills and beginning to able to81

日本大学歯学部紀要 35，77‑84，2007

express what they think in L2. The need to continually provide opportunities for students togenerate questions in response to spoken, written English is vital. Providing such language
learning environments where the student is able to formulate questions independently ischallenging and several issues need to be addressed. Firstly, this study addresses two maingroups of students,intermediate and upper‑intermediate,however there is a wide range within
this band, there are both advanced and pre‑intermediate students who need more specificchallenge and support. Secondly, finding effective test materials which will allow students toformulate questions as well as answer them is vital.Allowing students to generate questions is
a new way of approaching examining, but will help to develop skills of enquiry at all levels.

Acknowledgements
The author wishes to thank the students of Nihon University,School of Dentistry,whom took
part in this study during July‑September 2007.The author also wishes to thank Professor Clive
S.Langham, Head of the English Language Department at Nihon University, School of
Dentistry for his advice.

Appendix 1 : English Test material(Intermediate level),for First Year/First Semester 2007/8.
Fluoride in water ʻrisks unknownʼ.
By Celia Hall, 05/09 /2002.
The use of fluoride in toothpaste is now so widespread that peopleʼ
s total exposure to thechemical is no longer known, leading scientists said yesterday. A report from the Medical
Research Council,commissioned by the Government,could put into question the governmentʼ
splans to change the law to encourage more fluoridation in the fight against tooth decay. The
M RC report says that fluoride toothpaste use has risen so much in 20 years that the earlier
research on its safety is out of date and needs to be done again.Anti‑fluoride campaigners say
the M RC report has failed to look at the toxic effect of other chemicals used in water
fluoridation.They claim that fluoride can cause cancer and osteoporosis as well as mottling ofteeth. The M RC recommends new research that will look for any differences in the effects offluoride on health depending on whether people live in areas with artificial fluoride in the wateror not. That includes research on osteoporosis, a disease on which there is contradictoryevidence on the effects of fluoride and into cancer,although evidence suggests that fluoride in
the water does not cause it. Dr Paul Harrison, chairman of the report working party, said :“Use of fluoride in toothpaste has become extremelywidespread and we think that has changed
the picture #.The M RC found no evidence that fluoridation damaged the immune and reproduction systems, child development, the kidneys or the gastro‑intestinal tract. About 5 million
people in England drink fluoridated water, mainly in the West Midlands and the North East.
Please read the dental article above carefully and answer the following questions―82

Student‑generated questions in L2 ―１. Write down 3 key words from the article and the meaning in English.
２. Write down 3 key points of the article. Try to use your own English,rather than directly
copying.
３. Write down 3 questions that you have about the article. Make each question at least 7
words long and use a variety of question‑types, (for example―tag‑questions, wh‑questions).
４. Write down your opinion of this topic.

Appendix 2 : English Test material (Upper Intermediate level), for First Year/First
Semester 2007/8.
Dental advance will let adults grow new teeth.
By Roger Highfield in Seattle. 15/02/2004.
The end of dentures is nigh. Dental scientists are perfecting techniques that will allow newteeth to be grown in the mouths of adult patients within a few years. Hair, skin and othertissues would be turned into “
tooth primordia”in the laboratory,then implanted into the mouth
where they would grow into teeth,the American Association for the Advancement of Science
was told yesterday. Paul Sharpe, of the Dental Institute, Kingʼs College, London, told the
Seattle conference that his team had successfully implanted a tooth from a mouse embryo into
the mouth of an adult mouse and had watched it grow. “This has never been done for any
organ,”he said.The breakthrough was part of important advances in “regenerative dentistry”.
The studies of mice showed that “
tooth rudiments”could be grown from stem cells,in the bodywhich have the ability to develop into other cell types. Prof Sharpe said teeth grew from twobasic cell types and the team had already managed to replace one of them by using stem cells
from an adult. When the second type was added from an embryo and nourished with a blood
supply, what resulted was a tooth surrounded by bone. “This is the first test where thistechnique works,”he said.The team is now trying to replace the second tooth cell type,whichforms tooth enamel, using stem cells. In parallel, the team has investigated how to use stem
cells to grow teeth in the mouth.Prof Sharpe said the tooth the team had implanted from themouse embryo contained both cell types.“We are proud to be part of this radical step forwards
in dental research,”he said. “The results we are unveiling today provide evidence that understanding and controlling the processes that form teeth is leading to a whole new approach todentistry.”
Please read the dental article above carefully and answer the following questions―
１. Write down 3 key words from the article and the meaning in English.
２. Write down the 3 key points of the article.Try to use your own English,rather than direct
copying.
３. Write down 3 questions that you have about the article. Make each question at least 7
words long and use a variety of question types, (for example―tag‑questions, wh‑ques83

日本大学歯学部紀要 35，77‑84，2007

tions).
４. Write down your opinion of the topic.
References｛Journals｝
１. Davis R S (1994)Say What?Getting Students to Ask Questions.The Language Teacher.,18(7),12‑15.
｛Books｝
２. Graesser A, Black J B (1985)The Psychology of Questions. Hillsdale NJ : Erlbaum, 221.
３. Knight P (2001)The Development of EFL Methodology in English Language Teaching in its Social
Context―A Reader. Candlin C N, M ercer N eds, Routledge, 155.
４. Nunan D (2004)Task‑Based Language Teaching. Cambridge University Press, 99.
５. Chaudron C (2 ed. 1998) Second Language Classrooms―Research on teaching and learning.
Cambridge University Press, 173‑5.
６. Oʼ
Keefe A,M cCarthy M ,Carter R (2007)From Corpus To Classroom―language use and language
teaching. Cambridge University Press, 237‑50.
｛Others｝
７. Roberts M (2006) Asking Questions in ESL Lessons Improve English Learning Outcomes andEmpower Your ESL students by Encouraging them to Ask Questions.Retrieved September 8 2007
from http://wwwesllanguageschools.suite101.com
８. Clifton Scientific Trust (2004)Science for Real.UK‑Japan Young Scientists.Retrieved September
19 2007 from http://www.clifton‑scientific.org/uk‑japan.html

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