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A Cross-cultural Study of Women’s Status in Society
劉セン（Stephen Richmond ゼミ）

1．Introduction
Traditionally, Chinese believe the world is

had more authority because of their superior
physical strength. Because many Asian cultures
are deeply patriarchal societies, in order to show

made up of two parts：yin and yang. Yin istheir authority, men have created social rules andcommonly expressed in the culture as femalelaws, and this has lead to serious consequences

and yang as male. When yin and yang are infor women. Even in contemporary society, thosebalance, it is said, the world can continue inproblems still deeply affect women’s daily life,

peace. From a long time ago, in most Asiansuch as the problems of access to education andcountries, all people lived in a kind of social

work, the problems with marriage and the crimemodel where men did farm work and women

aimed at women. Furthermore, those problems

engaged in spinning and weaving. Whenalso lead to deep influences on society. The

the countries were in war, men fought toimbalance in gender ratio in some countries makeprotect their countries’safety, while women

marriage a difficulty. Additionally, crime towards

gave medical treatment to men. As nations

women and victimization of women only brings

across Asia developed their government, artssociety into an unstable situation. Today more

and technology, men held many of the mostthan ever we must talk about the problems Asian

important positions in society. This is perhaps

women are facing.

why many famous people with contributions tosociety are men.
However, this does not mean that Asian
women have had little achievements in history.

2．Education & Work
2．Access to educationThere have been a number of famous female

Most people devote a great deal of their life

leader across the continent. In China, Wu Zetianto their education. In most countries and areas,（624-705） was the only Empress in Chinesechildren have to finish nine years of compulsory

history. In South-east Asia Jayadevi was theeducation regardless of gender. Depending on

queen regnant of the Chenal Kingdom and thethe career they choose, students go to the highpredecessor polity of the Khmer Empire fromschools or technical school as their need. But a681 to 713. In the arts, Murasaki Shikibu（978-great number of girls, especially girls in poor1014）from Japan wrote“The Tale of Genji”,

or low education level areas, are not allowed

which is known as the world’s first novel. Rani

to finish even their compulsory education.

of Jhansi（1835-1858）from India, was the leader

According to UNESCAP（the United Nationsof the Indian Rebellion.
Not only the women above, but also other

Economic and Social Commission for Asia andthe Pacific）, there are 7.81 million people who

famous women in history and their achievements

are illiterate in the world today. Sixty-four

are treasures of the glorious tapestry of Asian

percent of these are women, and sixty-sevenhistory and culture. Across history, men havepercent of these women are living in the Asia-

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Pacific region. In Western Asia and Northernover the same period.

Asia, among people between 15 and 24 years
old, 16% of men are illiterate, while the rate ofilliterate women is 26%.

2.2 Work opportunities
However, even if girls are able to get a good

Furthermore, in areas with war, it is eveneducation, it is still hard for them to find a good

more difficult for children to access education.

job. Because of the disruption to availability due

Based on the statistics from UNICEF（Unitedto the duties of marriage and pregnancy, someNations International Children’s Emergency

companies prefer to employ male staff, or femaleFund）, there are now over 25 million children

staff with high abilities. Although there are

who cannot go to school. This is disproportionate

laws protecting women’s rights to find jobs, theto gender ; over 65% of this number is made up

discrimination is still existing. In a recent caseof girls. Many girls who quit school are asked toin China, a college graduate prosecuted Beijing

work early for their families. However, because

Juren Education Company for discrimination.

of their low degree, often they cannot find

It is a rare case in which women protected

good work, also they cannot get good salaries.

their rights to work. And in some places, when

Although some people can get high wages

the companies are in recession, even highly-

because they have special skills after graduating

educated women are at more risk of losing theirfrom a technical school, most girls quit school

job than men. In Turkey for example, because ofand have no chance to learn skills to ensure athe failed coup in 2016, more than 25 thousand

decent lifestyle. There is also a large discrepancy

women lost their jobs. They also are not allowedin wages by gender in Asian societies. Forto find a new job, which means they lost their

example, in China, people do not need higheconomic independence. Also in 2016, 4.6% ofdegree to become a waiter or waitress. At theMalaysian women with college degree lost theirpresent time, waitresses’hourly wages are two-jobs, higher than 3.8% of men who also did.

third of same level waiters, only 3.71 Chinese

In some Arab countries, the number of wellYuan（around 0.56 US. dollars）per hour. On

educated women is more than 23%. Furthermore,

top of this, because of their low education andin company structures in many cultures, women

low salaries, it is hard for these girls to find

are more difficult to promote, which meansa partner for a decent marriage. All of these

women find it hard to put themselves into thefactors combine to create a vicious circle ofhigher levels of management. According topoverty and lack of access to education.

the China Women’s Research Network, theOn the other hand, in richer and more

percentage of junior clerks who are women isdeveloped countries and areas, most girls

over 64.9%, at the middle-level it is around 39%,

are able to gain access to higher education.

while the at management-level the percentage is

According to the Information Office of thelower than 24%.

State Council in China, for example, the rate of
women with a university degree is 52.1%, with
graduate degree is 51.6%, and with doctor’s
degree is 36.9%. According to the State Statistics

3．Marriage & Family
3.1 Attitudes towards marriage

Bureau of China, in 2015, the percent of womenThough divided by language there are many

completing higher education is around 47.3%, acultural similarities between Asian countries,

rate 17% higher than in 1990. This figure has

and the view of marriage and family is one ofrisen along with China’s rapid economic growththem. In ancient societies, men were the first109A Cross-cultural Study of Women’s Status in Societylabor force and ancestral lines continued throughwomen’s educational background, or what kindthem. So, it is commonly thought in Asia is theof special skills the women have. They just wantmost important way to expand a family is toa young and fertile daughter in law, in order tohave more sons. This means that even thoughhave a baby boy sooner. Can this model create

thousands of years have passed, there are stillfamilies who will be happy? Some of themlots of people who believe the most importantendure their terrible marriage for the sake ofthing for women is marry a man. Depending

their children, but that may make the marriage

on the traditional thought of the elders, manyeven worse.

women are pressured by their families to haveboys, especially by their husbands’families.

3.2 Familial duties

However, nowadays, because of greater access

Many people would agree that marriage is one

to education, increased abilities and moreof the most important things in a person’s life.

open mindsets, more and more well-educatedA marriage which includes a loving relationshipwomen are subscribing to a non-marriage

is not only play a positive role for an individual,

doctrine. A recent article says there are more

but also produces good effects around them. In

than 200 million young Chinese women are

Asian society, women always play an important

willing to go through life unmarried. However,part in families. Because of the traditional small-in some instances higher levels of educationpeasant economy of many Asian societies,

do not translate to higher rates of marriage.

which means men work outside of the houseAccording to data from the Korean Healthand women do house work inside, still many

Research Institute, in 2016, 70.1% of women whopeople believe it is the duty for women to do

graduated from college got married, a figure

housework and take care of their families. Datalower than women who graduated from highfrom the Institute for Women’s Policy in Korea

school（79.5%）, while the number of married

showed that 47.5% of men agreed it is fair towomen with a postgraduate degree was lower

partake in housework with their wives, butthan 50%.

there are 16.4% of them actually did. Although

On the other hand, traditional forms ofthe concept is accepted by more people, it ismarriage remain popular in some Asian

still a concept in most people’s mind. In ordersocieties. Many traditional elders in China worry

to have a better life, an increasing number ofabout their children’s marriage, and many ofwomen still work after marriage. This is whythem still today ask their children to go throughit is difficult for women to keep a good balance

an arranged marriage. There are still many

between work and family.

conditions for marriage partners, such as age,As people know, in Japanese society, men whowork type, salary and property. In China, inwork outside and women who quit their work

almost every city there are places called“dating

to take good care of their families has been acorners”.The parents take their children’s data,very common family model. Actually, there isin place of their children, to find a prospective

a large number of Japanese housewives who

son or daughter. The young people are like

regret quitting their job. According to data fromgoods in the grocery stores to be picked by

the Japanese Government, in 2013 the numberstrangers. This is an unfriendly and cruel wayof households in which both husband and wife

for women to be made into commodities. The

are working was over 10.5 million, almost double

most important condition for women is age.

of the number of the same in 1980. Still there

Many elders usually do not care about theare many housewives believe they should not110quit their jobs. Data from Recruit Works inareas, there is an imbalance in the sex ratio, dueJapan shows that more than 40% of housewives

to the reasons discussed earlier in the paper.  Inregret quitting their job. Although a number ofChina for example, there are over 32 million men

women do not quit their job, but take time off

who cannot find a marriage partner. Theresafor pregnancy, childbirth and childrearing, they

Hesketh from University College London has

still have many difficulties when they returncalculated that over 10% to 20% of young men

to work. So, some housewives choose to doin China and India cannot find a wife（Hesketh,temporary work to earn money to have more2013）. This is why some single men are forced

income. However, because of their job status,

to“buy”their wives from different areas or

they cannot get the same welfare as the regularcountries. Based on statistics from the Ministry

employees do, so it is difficult to protect theirof Public Security of China, the rate of womenrights.

trafficking from Southeast Asian countries is
now rising. In China’s Hebei Province alone, in

4．Crime & Violence
4.1 Violence against women2009 the police rescued 109 women traffickedfrom Vietnam or Burma. In the entire nationof China, the number from January to OctoberViolence against women is another enormous

2013 was over 50,000. Many of these wives areproblem in contemporary society, and Asia isbought and sold through illegal dealings. Thisno exception. The United Nations Declaration

figure shows how social imbalances and trends

on the Elimination of Violence Against Womencan lead to international crime, not to mention

states clearly that‘violence against women is

the suffering and exploitation of women.

a manifestation of historically unequal power
relations between men and women’and‘violence

4.3 Honor killings

against women is one of the crucial social

Furthermore, in some Muslim societies there

mechanisms by which women are forced into

exists a special kind of violence against womena subordinate position compared with men.’

known as“honor killing.”Wikipedia defines honor

Fortunately, society is beginning to bring issueskilling（or shame killing）as‘the homicide of aof violence against women to public attention.

member of a family, due to the perpetrators’

In January, 2017, women in Turkey held abelief that the victim has brought shame ordemonstration for violence against and killing

dishonor upon the family, or has violated thewomen in the nation’s biggest city, Istanbul. In

principles of a community or a religion.’This is

the same year on September 12, Indians held

usually for reasons such as refusing to enter ana protest rally for the famous Indian femalearranged marriage, being in a relationship that isreporter, Gauri Lankesh, who was killed by adisapproved by their family, having sex outside

person who felt dissatisfaction towards Gauri,marriage, becoming the victim of rape, dressing

who worked to condemning violence. Although

in ways which are deemed inappropriate,

there are many women present at such protests

engaging in non-heterosexual relations orfor their rights, violence against women remains

renouncing a faith. According to United Nations

a serious problem all over the world.

data, more than 5,000 women worldwide die
yearly through honor killings. But this number is

4.2 Human trafficking

the cases which are on record, which indicates

On the other hand, women trafficking is athat the real number may be far more startling.

common problem in Asia. In many countries andThe official data from Pakistan shows there were111
A Cross-cultural Study of Women’s Status in Society

4,101 women who died due to honor killing fromnot allowed to remarry, and also, they havethe period 1998 to 2003. Even though women’difficulty in to find a job. In some cases, theirs rights are gaining ground across Pakistan inparents do not accept them back home. In India,

recent years, there are still about 1,000 womenand indeed in many Asian societies, when awho killed in this way every year. Although thewoman loses her economic power, they may also

Parliament of Pakistan has passed a bill whichlose their ability to live on an equal footing with

provides killers in such cases will face at leasta man.

25 years of custody, it has produced very little
discouraging effect.

Although there are still many social issues
affecting the lives of Asian women, there
are instances of improving situations. Malala

5．Conclusions

Yousafzai is an activist from Pakistan who
received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1997 when

The problems discussed above have negativeshe was 17, as the youngest winner in theeffects not only on women themselves, but

history of the prize. She is a passionate feminist

also cause lots of problems for wider society.

and strives for women to have access toSince women find it hard to be promoted toeducation. Although she is just a student, evenmanagement level, more and more people haveafter being intimidated countless times andcome to believe that it is more important for aalmost killed when she was shot by the Taliban,

woman to marry a rich man rather than finding

she still devotes herself to access to educationa good job, a sad social trend that even womenfor girls and women. In my opinion, there areare beginning to agree with. A study by thelots of problems that cannot be solved perhaps

Shanghai Women’s Federation showed that indue to the poor economic condition of some

2000, 30% of Chinese men and 37.3% of women

Asian countries. However, I still believe things

are agreed with the statement that‘it is more

can be changed. The path of reform might beimportant to marry a wealthy man rather thanhard, sometimes it involves pain and the loss offind employment’, By 2010 the number of men

life. We should believe that based on the efforts

who agreed with this statement rose to 40%,of international organizations and enthusiastic

while the number of women who agreed was

like-minded people from all over the world, the48%. This trend may make it hard to confirm

world will increasingly pay close attention to thewomen’s real ability and value. In China, there

issues faced by women, and we will take steps

are more and more young men who subscribe

toward real gender quality.

to traditional gender roles, and believe the mainrole of a women should be to run the family. In2010, 61% of men agreed with this statement, aReferences

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