イアン・ウィリアム・ウォーナー

73

吉備国際大学研究紀要（人文・社会科学系）
第27号，73－90，2017

英会話授業に関する考察
イアン・ウィリアム・ウォーナー
English Language Oral Communication Lessons - A Further Consideration
Ian William Warner
Abstract
Successful oral communication is dependent on how effectively a given language can be utilized in spoken
word form. Oral Communication (OC) lessons should therefore be offered, principally in order to help
students learn how to communicate well (enough) through the medium of speech in their chosen nonnative tongue. The main observable deficiency in many or most English language OC lessons and exams.
in Japan is most likely to be ‘inadequate’ / ‘insufficient’ output on the part of OC students. Many or mostJapanese English language OC students often or generally do not ‘utter enough words’ or ‘sentences’ in thetime available to them and ‘provide less information than they are, in fact, ‘able to furnish’. Therefore, amain aim of English language OC teachers in Japan must surely be to drive home to their students the vital
importance of ‘engaging’ and ‘communicating sufficiently’, and thus ‘extensively’ enough, in public. This isan even more important perquisite for ‘effective’ and ‘efficient’ OC than ‘communicating correctly’. Serious
Japanese English language OC students must try to output sufficiently and make themselves properly
understood (and thus known) in terms of their ideas, views, opinions and feelings, etc, as well as in the literal
technical sense. They must therefore, whenever necessary, try to overcome whatever failings and inhibitions
they have that work against the realisation of these objectives… and require to be assisted accordingly. This
paper firstly lists what appear to be the main English language OC lesson and exam. performance-lowering
problems, then proceeds to offer some related observations, reflections and conjectures before a shortconclusion.
Key words ：English Language Oral Communication
キーワード ：英会話授業
吉備国際大学外国語学部〒700-0931 岡山県岡山市北区奥田西町5番5号
School of Foreign Language Studies, Kibi International University
5-5, Okuda Nishi-cho, Okayama-shi, Kita-ku, Okayama-ken, Japan (700-0931)

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英会話授業に関する考察

1. Main English Language OC Lesson and Exam.
Performance Problems:
It is contended here that the main observable deficiency in

It is vital not to lose sight of the fact that realistic foreign

many or most English language OC lessons and exams. (atlanguage OC tuition is intended to help students become notleast in Japan) is most likely to be ‘inadequate’ / ‘insufficientnecessarily ‘excellent’ - let alone ‘perfect’ - foreign language

output’ on the part of OC students: Many or most OC students

speakers but ‘effective’ and ‘efficient’ ones who can makeoften or generally do not ‘utter enough words’ or ‘sentences’ inthemselves sufficiently well understood (solely ‘in’ the target

the time available to them. They often or generally ‘provide

foreign language). Since the extent of student advancement isless information than is desirable’ or even ‘acceptable’ because

what really matters vis-a-vis any course of foreign language- most importantly - they often or generally ‘provide far lessinstruction, expectations about what constitutes acceptable

information than (in the opinion of their OC teachers) theyand unacceptable OC performance must vary depending on

are, in fact, ‘able to furnish’. Japanese OC students often or

the estimated median current ability of one’s own particular

generally: a) ‘fail to output already taught words’ which they

OC students. As such, the following problems should beshould therefore ‘know very well or perfectly well’; b) ‘fail to

identified as ‘serious’ only to the extent that they make clear

output already learned and familiar words’ which they (certainly

the deficiencies or overall failure not only of students butdo) ’know very well or perfectly well’. Many or most OC

past tuition efforts and / or the defective nature of current

students often or generally under-perform in OC lessons andand planned educational initiatives. Teachers must, in the best

exams. as a direct result of failures (A) and (B). Many orinterests of their students, continuously decide whether themost OC students would often or generally thus ‘perform in amagnitude and frequency of such observed problems renders

superior fashion’ (i.e. give better performances) if they ‘‘utteredthem practically irrelevant, unimportant and thus acceptableenough words and sentences’, and thus ‘provided enough(or at least tolerable) or important and thus unacceptable /information’, using ‘already learned’ and familiar words which

intolerable. Problems need to be observed frequently enoughthey (certainly do) ‘know very well or perfectly well’.

or systematically - and be judged to be of serious enough

Based on extensive observations made in OC and non-magnitude - to warrant corrective intervention. Efforts to

OC English language lessons at junior high schools andeliminate or reduce OC problems should only be attempted

high schools in Japan in the period 2003 to 2014 and at one

once prior cost-benefit analysis indicates that i) no superior,provincial university over the past 2.5 years, the following

alternative course of action exists and ii) the chances of anlist contains what seem likely to be the main reasons for theseadequate degree of success - outcome-wise - in the time-

major shortcomings and resulting OC underperformance inframe available, appear sufficiently high. Note that in all cases,

Japan. The reasons are listed below in rough order of practical‘incorrect’ means ‘unacceptably defective’. Needless to say, it

importance, from most to least salient. The variables listed can

is a description that should only be awarded when no adequate

be treated as independent (and causal) or dependent, but in/ sufficient grounds for using more generous definitions exist

reality, presumably often, or for the most part, tend to affectand the ‘benefit-of-the-doubt’ cannot be granted.

each other.

イアン・ウィリアム・ウォーナー

7501) Lack of sufficient interest and (thus) motivation to study

practice English language Reading Comprehension andand practice English:

Listening Comprehension;

Consciously and / or subconsciously, some or many students05) Lack of sufficient motive and (thus) desire to communicate

likely lack sufficient interest and thus motivation (during andorally ‘in’ the English language:/ or after formal lesson time) to study, consider and practiceConsciously and / or subconsciously, some or many students

English Reading Comprehension, Listening Comprehension,

likely think (erroneously) that they lack sufficient motive to

Writing and / or OC, with native and non-native speaking

study, consider and practice English language OC, with native

English teachers (especially the former) either to the ‘maximum

and non-native speaking English teachers (especially thepractical extent’ or ‘adequately / sufficiently’;

former) to either the ‘maximum practical extent’ or ‘adequately

02) Lack of sufficient pleasure and / or satisfaction:/ sufficiently’. Note that such students may well believe toConsciously and / or subconsciously, some or many students

the contrary (consciously and / or subconsciously) that they

likely fail to derive ‘sufficient pleasure and satisfaction’do have at least sufficient motive to study, consider andfrom some or all of their English language learning courses

practice English language Reading Comprehension, Listening(because they are ‘difficult’ and / or ‘problematic’ in otherComprehension and Writing, etc.

ways) and activities and perform sub-optically in terms of skill06) Lack of confidence regarding communication:

development and thus overall competency as a result. ViscousSome or many students likely feel that they ‘lack sufficientspirals can ensue;

confidence’ to communicate effectively in English - both in03) Lack of sufficient motive and (thus) desire to study andwriting and via speech - with native and non-native speaking

practice the English language:

English teachers and especially strangers;

Consciously and / or subconsciously, some or many students07) Lack of confidence regarding oral communication:

likely think (erroneously or not) that they lack sufficient motive

Many or most students likely feel that they ‘lack sufficient

to study, consider and practice English language Reading

confidence’ to communicate effectively in English - via speechComprehension, Listening Comprehension, Writing and / or

- with native and non-native speaking English teachers andOC, with native and non-native speaking English teachers

especially strangers;(especially the former) either to the ‘maximum practical extent’08) Nervousness:or ‘adequately / sufficiently’;Some or many students (including even some students who ‘do04) Lack of sufficient motive and (thus) desire to communicate

not usually lack confidence’ become nervous when required‘in’ the English language:or urged to communicate orally in English - especially with

Consciously and / or subconsciously, some or many students

strangers. OC is - after all - generally likely to be considered

likely think (surely erroneously) that they lack sufficient motive

seemingly the most difficult of the four core language

to study, consider and practice English language Writing and /disciplines for reasons stated elsewhere in this paper;or OC, with native and non-native speaking English teachers09) Inadequate reading and / or listening comprehension:(especially the former) to either the ‘maximum practical extent’Some or many students have only ‘remedial’ to ‘moderate’or ‘adequately / sufficiently’. Note that such students may wellEnglish Reading and Listening Comprehension skills. Even

believe to the contrary (consciously and / or subconsciously)

advanced students run into difficulties when they attempt tothat they do have sufficient motive to study, consider andtackle complex printed text or comprehend persons who (even76

英会話授業に関する考察

if using language / vocabulary that they (the students) haveunlikely;

definitely learned and can understand), speak quickly or at13) Insufficient vocabulary:natural / normal speed and / or have unfamiliar - though not

For whatever reason(s), a large percentage of OC students have‘unclear’- voices and / or accents;

likely learned and remembered / retained (often woefully)10) Inarticulateness / Insufficient vocabulary employment:

insufficient primary vocabulary which leaves them (at best) ill-

Many students fail (often to a chronic extent) to employ

equipped to communicate informatively, articulately and thus

already learned and familiar vocabulary. Despite knowing - toeffectively;

some considerable extent how - to communicate effectively,14) ‘Passivity’ / Lack of communicative dynamism:

and being able to do so, many OC students are likely to often

Many students (including very able ones) for various reasonsor generally (appear to) find it very difficult to decide precisely

including, for example, speaking-topic ‘disinterest’, likely

what to say at any given time, especially when expected toperform too ‘passively’ in OC lessons and exams. in that they

speak / comment immediately and / or at some length, even in

tend to (prefer to) say less rather than more (or not much atconnection with relatively easy and / or familiar topics. Thisall), and are thus ‘reticent’ and / or ’insufficiently forthcoming’,

could be due, for example, to ‘lack of sufficient interest andquite possibly (in part) because they assume - after years

thus motivation’, ‘lack of confidence’, an ‘excessive desire notof language education - that their OC teacher will ‘rescue’to make even minor errors of any kind’, and / or a(n overly

them via questioning and / or not criticise or penalize them

ambitious and entirely mistaken) belief that ‘making simple,- in response - in any ultimately significant way. This can beelementary, ‘superficial’ sentences which ‘state the obvious’a serious failing as it indicates that the student in question

ought to be strenuously avoided. This problem is often highly

may well be likely to ‘underperform’ in normal two-way

apparent and easy to appraise when, for example, (evenconversation (formal and / or informal).

relatively advanced) OC students are asked to describe and15) Insufficiently ‘logical’ and / or ‘illogical’ ordering of

make (any kind of) sentences about familiar, everyday objects,

information:and do so ‘sub-optimally’ or downright ‘poorly’;

To varying frequencies and extents, many or most students11) Incorrect pronunciation:

fail to orally ‘convey information in good logical order’ toSome students ‘pronounce words incorrectly’ including words

a sufficient degree with the result that the information theythat they should already know how to pronounce ‘correctly’ (i.e.

do output is more difficult - within normal time frames - forwords which OC teachers either know for sure - or have solidinterlocutors / listeners to process, ‘put together’, understandgrounds for assuming - have been ‘adequately taught’ over an

and appreciate in overall terms. While likely a secondary or‘adequate period of time’ and which should therefore now beeven minor concern in many cases, this failing can nevertheless‘easily pronounceable’);very seriously degrade overall OC performance and is likely to12) Incorrect grammar / Grammatical error:

be considered a definite, major fault.

Many students fail to employ (the) ‘necessary and correct16) Incorrect word placement / position / order:

grammar forms’ in their sentence formulations. They makeSome students sometimes or frequently fail to make sufficient(sometimes easily avoidable, careless) grammatical errors of‘syntactic sense’ (or any sense at all) when they construct /kinds that known ‘prior teaching’ (in light of ‘median degrees

output sentences (in writing and / or) orally, owing to ‘sub-of anticipated knowledge retention’) ought to have rendered

optimal’ or ‘incorrect word positioning / ordering’ which canイアン・ウィリアム・ウォーナー

77

obviously bring about ‘incorrect overall sentence construction’or entirely precludes speech ‘dynamism’ and ’fluency’ and isif sufficiently acute;

likely to undermine or quickly destroy interlocutor / audience17) Incorrect word selection / usage:interest and attention;

Many students fail to select and use the ‘correct and / or most23) Excessive speed / pace:appropriate words’ in their spoken sentence formulations.

Some students ‘speak too quickly / rapidly’ on ‘too frequent’ aInstead, they select and use ‘less appropriate’, ‘inappropriate’basis, resulting in them becoming more ‘difficult’ and ‘trying’

and / or ‘completely wrong words’;(if not actually impossible) for their interlocutors and / or18) Word omission:

audiences to understand and ‘follow’ with ‘normal’ or - at least

Most students fail to ‘include all necessary words’ in their- ‘tolerable’ degrees of ease and comfort. Needless to say, thisspoken sentence formulations due to oversight or carelessness

failing is likely to have an adverse impact on a number of otherwhich, again, is a serious error whenever committed ‘too

critical OC performance variables, such as pronunciation;

frequently’;24) Insufficient pausing:19) Insufficient audibility;

Some (perhaps especially very advanced and competent)

Many students tend to speak far too quietly - notably instudents, fail to ‘pause’ and / or ‘hesitate sufficiently’ on ‘too

OC lesson time when required to speak ‘in front of’ theirfrequent’ a basis. This is a serious failing that conceivably often

classmates - and thus render themselves more ‘difficult’ andstems from emotional state. i.e. ‘nervousness’; ‘excitement’‘trying’ or actually ‘impossible’ for their interlocutors and / or

/ ‘elation’; ‘anger’; an understandable and healthy desire toaudiences to hear sufficiently well - and thus understand - with

communicate as much information as possible as quickly‘normal’ or - at least - ‘tolerable’ degrees of ease and comfort;

and as efficiently as possible; a(n excessive) desire to be20) Excessive audibility;

seen to speak rapidly and dynamically in order to persuade

A few students tend to speak too loudly, either on occasion oror demonstrate conclusively to others, one’s superior (real or

generally for natural, medical and / or emotional reasons;imagined) overall competency. Teachers should bear in mind21) Insufficient seriousness / Lack of seriousness;that (legitimate or misplaced) belief in the success and / or

A few or some students (most likely those with less wellsuperior quality of one’s OC performance may well bringdeveloped current OC skills and thus overall competency /about almost instantaneous feelings of elation. This can be acapability) may - for whatever reason(s) - ‘play act’ and ‘joke

serious issue as it increases the probability of ‘serious error’around’ to an excessive and problematic degree at least on

and undermines or quickly destroys interlocutor / audience

particular occasions, with the result being (as they perhaps

comprehension, interest and attention;

intend) that they waste valuable time and sometimes thereby25) Excessive pausing and hesitation:

at least partially ‘escape’ having to ‘reveal’ their actual existingSome students ‘pause’ and ‘frequently hesitate’ ‘for excessive

OC capabilities, or the dearth thereof;

lengths of time’ (with or without the employment of time-gap

22) Insufficient speed / pace:fillers), on ‘too frequent’ a basis. This is a serious failing that

Regardless of whether they tend to pause to normal andreduces or entirely precludes speech ‘dynamism’ and ‘fluency’desirable, insufficient or excessive extents, some Japaneseand is likely to undermine or quickly destroy interlocutor /English language OC students ‘speak too slowly’ on ‘tooaudience interest and attention;

frequent’ a basis. This is a clearly serious failing that reduces

26) Breathing (control) problems:

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英会話授業に関する考察

For whatever reason(s), e.g. ‘speaking too quickly’ withobviously - be stressed (ideally-speaking);‘insufficient pauses’, a few students tend to exhibit (often30) Strong accent problems:

increasingly) irregular - and OC inhibiting - breathing patterns

Japanese OC students occasionally speak ‘in’ accents of suchwhen engaged in (more likely than not, dynamic and / or

pronounced ‘strength’ and ‘thickness’ as to be ‘difficult’ (ifsomewhat excited, ’animated’, perhaps ‘emotionally charged’)interesting and not often actually impossible) for their non-foreign - but not necessarily native - oral-based communicative

Japanese interlocutors and / or audiences to understand andinteractions… something which generally negatively affects

follow with ‘normal’ or - at least - ‘tolerable’ degrees of easeactual overall foreign language OC performance, or at leastand comfort;

threatens to do so;31) Unnecessary, inadvisable use of Nihongo words in English27) Excessive (near) verbatim repetition:oral communication:

Students with currently ‘remedial’ and ‘less developed’ OC

A more soluble problem is the tendency for many students toskills… who are especially unsure - and / or lacking confidence

frequently incorporate Japanese language words and phrases- about what to say next, and secondly - exactly - how to say it,

into their English language sentence formulations. This is a

are quite likely to repeat sentences in essential if not verbatim

habitual practice that may make the speaker feel more self-

form to an ‘unacceptable’ degree. It is very important to noteassured but serves no legitimate purpose and might wellthat there is nothing automatically objectionable about an OC

engender confusion on the part of non-Japanese English

student opting, on occasion, to reiterate and confirm, providing

interlocutors / audiences.

he / she does so creatively in varying ways, with different32) Incorrect intonation:

words, sentence formulations and tenses, etc.

In extreme cases, ‘incorrect intonation’ can constitute a serious28) Insufficient concision and lucidity / verbosity:

issue: one that may be hard for students and teachers to

For many of the reasons included in this list, at least someeliminate even over an extended period of serious, relatively

students - relatively articulate ones among them - failintense practice time.

(knowingly or otherwise) to be sufficiently concise and lucid

2. Observations / Reflections / Conjectures;in their OC lesson and exam. speaking performances to an1) A few OC students are likely already to be normally or

unacceptable degree. It is useful to note that students whoalways excellent oral communicators at any given time;at any point suspect - or become well aware of - their own

2) most OC students are likely to be less than excellent orallack of concision and lucidity - or for that matter, any type ofcommunicators at any given point in time, by definition;

errors - may well therefore become more likely, henceforth,3) many or most OC students are likely to be less than goodto re-commit them and / or others besides, due to having beenoral communicators at any given point in time;

distracted and possibly unnerved.

4) at least some OC students are likely to be atrocious oral

29) Incorrect / sub-optimal word-stress(ing):

communicators at any given point in time;

Many OC students cannot and arguably need not ever dwell5) median national English language OC skills and thus

too long on correct word stressing. That said, advanced OC

overall competency / capability in Japanese junior highstudents should probably - at opportune monuments - consider

schools, high schools, colleges and universities and beyond are

how to ensure that they do not a) stress words that ought notoften ‘lower’ in comparison to other similarly advanced andbe stressed and b) fail to stress words that can and should

thus comparable non- (native) English speaking nations, such

イアン・ウィリアム・ウォーナー

79

as those comprising the European Union (E.U.).

than usual to do so;6) the number of students in a median OC class who can12) OC teachers must strive hard enough - as facilitators - toplausibly be deemed to be (actually - or on the verge oflocate, ‘unlock’, encourage, develop and nourish what is very

becoming -) good or excellent oral communicators at any given

often non-obvious or hidden potential, even when doing so istime is likely to be relatively small in anything other thanlikely to be an up-hill struggle and the amount of time that canhighly selective and / or streamed, ‘elite’ learning venues thatbe reasonably devoted to the effort is limited;tightly restrict enrollment. In other words, it will likely only13) However, realistically speaking, many or most students

amount to a small minority…

will not - for whatever presumably complex mass of reasons7) All but a minority of gifted elite, ‘high-flying’ Japanese(interrelated and / or otherwise) - make maximal or even good

English language OC students are likely to find the actual task

use of their inherent and potential ability to improve their OC

and process of trying to study, understand, learn, remember

skills and thus overall competency / capability;- and use - their chosen target foreign language effectively14) Students improve their overall OC skills and thus overall(to an adequate / sufficient extent) an extremely daunting,competency (through practice) to varying not uniform extents.

difficult, often mind-bogglingly complex, tricky, confusing,Some students are destined - for whatever presumably complex

and frustrating or actually annoying undertaking. Crucially,

mass of reasons (interrelated and / or otherwise) - to improve

however:

their OC skills and thus overall competency / capability to far8) Most OC students are likely to come to regard the actual

greater extents than are others.

task and process of trying to study, understand, learn, remember

15) The finite extent and magnitude of student OC skill andand - use - their chosen target foreign language effectively (tothus overall competency / capability improvement - throughan adequate / sufficient extent) as progressively less daunting,any given period of time - varies greatly among students.

difficult and so forth, the more they themselves (if ably assisted

Therefore, it is each individual student’s degree of real,by their tutors) manage to improve and elevate (i.e. advance)

demonstrable progress that is most salient and pressing;their own OC skills and thus overall competency / capability;16) Some students’ OC skills improve at faster rates than9) all students are able to improve their OC skills and thus

others’;overall competency / capability to some degree or other;17) Some student’s OC skills are likely to improve rapidly;10) many or most (or perhaps all) students have within them18) Some student’s OC skills are likely improve only very

the inherent potential ability to improve their OC skills andslowly and gradually;

thus overall competency / capability to very substantial or great19) Some students’ OC skills and thus overall competency /extents;

capability may increase very markedly or greatly through any11) Even currently very poor OC perf ormers withgiven period of time;comparatively low, under-developed OC skills and thus20) some students’ OC skills and thus overall competency /overall competency / capability are capable of making

capability will increase only very slightly or minimally even inexcellent OC efforts and knowledge-gains and, consequently,

the very long term;

obtaining excellent OC results… when they are - for whatever21) the rate at which each student’s OC skills and thus overall

presumably complex mass of reasons (interrelated and / orcompetency / capability improves (or deteriorates / regresses)

otherwise) - more able and willing (i.e. inclined / disposed)

is very likely to fluctuate over time (perhaps drastically /80

英会話授業に関する考察

dramatically so) due, above all to variance in the amount effort

Comprehension), with seemingly great potential long-termeach student expends, the amount of time he / she devotes, andimplications re. university-level study. Many or most students

what else he / she chooses - and has - to do in their everyday

surely may recognize this to be the case if only implicitly or

life. Part-time jobs can harm performance;

sub-consciously and may therefore be prone to develop the22) student OC skills and thus overall competency / capability

basically dubious or entirely erroneous impression that OC

usually tend to improve, atrophy and deteriorate / regress quite

skill and thus overall OC competency / ability development

slowly after their genuine and complete acquisition;is, for most persons, an always more difficult, ambitious and23) In the long run at least, students should study and practice

an ultimately less important endeavor, rightly deserving lower

what they appear to be ‘best’ at doing, which tends to be thepriority for rational reasons: something of an after-thought,

thing(s) that is / are easier or easiest and / or most satisfying forthat can be tackled, if at all, with less conviction and hopethem to do well;of major success, at a later date, (rather than in addition to -24) In the long run at least, students normally like and want toand conjunction with - Reading, Writing and Listening) as is

study and practice what they appear to be best at doing, which

optimal;tends to be the thing(s) that is / are easier or easiest and / or29) Very few or no English language OC students in themost satisfying for them to do well;great majority of Japan’s junior high schools, high schools,25) As such, it surely is not problematic for students to havecolleges and universities likely practice OC to anything near

one or more favorite, preferred - or least / less feared - corean ‘ideal’ or ‘maximum practical extent’ be it with native andforeign language discipline, be it Reading Comprehension,

non-native English language teachers, teaching assistants,

Listening Comprehension, Writing or OC. However:language coaches or - above all - strangers, because they lack26) students do not necessarily become and remain ‘good’ atthe necessary interest, desire and motivation, opportunity,

just one or more core foreign language disciplines and then(seemingly for cultural reasons), determination, energy and / ornever ‘change’. Some or many students likely become stronger

time and money to do so. Some are likely too timid and thin-- comparatively speaking - in some disciplines and than others,

skinned.

as times passes, as a result of all manner of decisions, complex30) Most junior high school, high school, high school, college

factors and interactions. Moreover:and university English language OC students additionally27) A large percentage of students experience broadly level,

fail to practice target English language OC with one anotherhorizontal-type progress / performance across all four core

to anything near an ‘ideal’ or ‘maximum practical extent’

foreign language disciplines, rather than excelling at any one

because they similarly lack the necessary interest, desire

or more. Fortunately or otherwise, they and even their teachersand motivation, confidence (seemingly for cultural reasons),

consequently find it difficult or impossible to identify a clear

determination, energy and / or time and money to do so.

single best discipline or tentatively propose any particular, hard31) Given the foregoing, a perhaps large majority of junior highand fast ranking at any given time;school, high school, college and university English language28) The great majority of junior high school and high school

OC students in Japan may well regard foreign language

English lessons likely prioritize to a probably excessive degree

OC lessons as being more difficult and (at least potentially)

Reading Comprehension and Writing skill acquisition at theless satisfying than Reading Comprehension, Listening

expense of OC skill acquisition (and, to a lesser extent, Listening

Comprehension or Writing, etc. If so, this is presumablyイアン・ウィリアム・ウォーナー

81

because OC lessons necessarily always require oral output toand more than - students from more privileged socio-economic

be near-immediate and basically spontaneously, and where thebackgrounds and some of them ii) come close to actually

main mode of information-input involved is ephemeral, real-acquiring superb non-native foreign language OC competency

time, one-off listened-to spoken words, not written / printed

e.g. almost full marks on TOEIC, TOEFL and Cambridge

data that can be analyzed, considered and digested for some

Univ. tests, etc;

(often lengthy) period of time. For these reasons, OC students35) English language OC students who have relatives who

must have as their main goal simultaneous co-development (toare to some extent conversant in English may well normallyan adequate and sufficient degree) of the skills required firstly

benefit (perhaps hugely) from the fact but:to reliably and efficiently collect, understand, and process36) It is by no means uncommon for OC students toforeign language orally communicated and written / printed

cultivate good or excellent overall OC skills and thus overall

information, and then, secondly, to orally / verbally respondcompetency / capability ‘despite’ having no close relatives who

accordingly / relevantly in a correct, adequately clear, lucid,

can boast even elementary English language understanding;succinct, concise, audible, well-paced, easy-to-understand37) The Japanese students who complete a particular English

manner, in the same target language. All this is clearly very

language OC course with the most advanced and impressive

difficult to carry-out well.

overall OC skills and thus overall competency / capability are32) In fact, many junior high school, high school, college andlikely more often than not to be those who exhibited someuniversity foreign language OC students in Japan may evenmarked aptitude and promise for at least OC at a relatively

somewhat dislike and / or fear practicing OC with native andyoung age and certainly by the time they graduated from junior/ or non-native foreign language teachers (and not necessarily

high school at the age of 15-plus years;

only during formal lesson time) due to a natural, usually strong.

38) The students who complete a particular OC course with theand perfectly understandable, yet essentially misplaced uneasemost advanced and impressive overall (teacher defined) OC

at the prospect, and a desire not to be seen to make more thanskills and thus overall competency / capability are very likely

a few minor errors (especially elementary errors) through theto be among the students who began that very same course

course of any given OC lesson or practice session, above allwith the most advanced and impressive OC skills and thus

when they are in the presence of classmates.

overall competency. Nevertheless, it is clearly the case that:33) As with education outcomes generally, the extent to39) Not all of the students who begin a particular OC course

which students of all ages and both genders excel at foreign

with the most advanced and impressive OC skills are likely tolanguage OC is - for numerous reasons - generally likely tobe among the students who complete that very same course

be to some (lesser or greater) extent, determined by studentwith the most advanced and impressive OC skills and thussocio-economic status. In sum. students from more affluent

overall competency;

and economically secure families may well be somewhat40) Students with good or excellent OC skills and thus overall

more likely to excel at foreign language OC than students whocompetency / capability are perhaps the most likely to havearen’t. Very importantly, however:similarly good or excellent reading comprehension, listening34) Many students from less affluent and humble socio-

comprehension and / or writing skills, etc. However:

economic backgrounds can and frequently do i) improve their41) Students with good or excellent OC skills and thus overall

OC skills and thus overall competency / capability as much as -competency / capability certainly do not all have similarly good

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英会話授業に関する考察

or excellent reading comprehension, listening or writing skills,47) It is easy for teachers to under-estimate and over-estimate

etc. Great speakers can be hopeless writers!

actual, really existing student OC skills and thus overall42) Some students with good or excellent OC skills havecompetency / capabilities at any given point in time, not least

far inferior and even ‘weak’ or even ‘atrocious’ reading

for the following reasons:comprehension, listening comprehension and / or writing skills,
etc. Therefore:A) OC teachers may fail to monitor actual individual OC43) It is surely wholly unreliable and thus unsound practicestudent lesson-time performance adequately / sufficiently

ever to just assume a given student’s likely Readingclosely and well enough, especially when charged with large

Comprehension, Listening Comprehension, Writing or OC

sized classes;

ability merely because one (thinks one) knows somethingB) OC teachers may (consciously and / or subconsciously andsufficient about their apparent, already demonstrated, ability

for various reasons) be - to uniform or varying degrees - tooregarding any - or even each - of the other three core language

strict and / or too lenient in their OC coursework and / or exam.

disciplines. Performance ‘in’ any one discipline surely cannot

assessments, either with all, or worst still, some or just one ofsafely be taken to indicate actual and likely performance in any

their students;

other. Performance ‘in’ any one discipline can only be soundlyC) OC teachers may (intentionally or unintentionally)

ascertained with any confidence by measuring performance indesign end-of-term OC exams. that are, in overall terms andthat very same discipline, to an adequate / sufficient extent;

in whatever ways, too ambitious and difficult and / or too44) Crucially, the students who improve their OC skills , forconservative and easy (i.e. not ambitious, challenging orwhatever reasons, most substantially within any given perioddifficult enough) in comparison with taught, term-time OCof time are likely to be among those who, for whatever reasons,lesson content;

practice OC very frequently, seriously and intensively withD) OC teachers may (intentionally or unintentionally) design

native and non-native speakers for extended - rather than brief

end-of-term OC exams. that are, in overall terms, too narrowly- periods of time. Whereas:

focused (and thus overly related) and / or too wide-ranging45) The students who improve their OC skills and thus overall(and thus insufficiently related) to taught, term-time OC lesson

competency / capability least substantially within any given

content;

period of time are likely to be among those who, for whateverE) OC teachers may - in respective bids for accuracy orreasons, in fact practice OC not at all, very infrequently or

simplicity, etc - compile and opt to use OC exam. measurement

rarely, non-seriously and non-intensively, in short rather thancriteria lists (self-designed, borrowed or composite) that arelong sessions with only non-native speakers for brief / fleeting

respectively too long or too short. The former at least risk

- rather than extended - periods of time.

being too detailed and complex to use quickly, easily and46) Regardless of current OC skill / ability level, students may

accurately / reliably, while the latter tend to be far too shortwell see their rate of progress decline and their existing skills(and thus not detailed or ‘fine-grained’ enough), with the result,atrophy or deteriorate if they fail to continue studying andin both instances, being inaccurate OC exam. measurement,

practicing reading, comprehension, listening comprehension,assessment and grading;writing and OC in unison to the current (or historic) peakF) Even the best, most rigorous and internally sound end-of-

extent and / level of effectiveness;term OC exams. are generally or frequently administered byイアン・ウィリアム・ウォーナー

83

teachers who are likely to be a) at least known to the intended

contend to be most apt, at least when dissenting judges withstudent examinees and b) generally or frequently on goodout-lying opinions are present;

and / or close terms socially with them. As such, student

K) Some OC teachers may tend to overestimate their own

examinees are likely to be less unnerved and more self-assured

ability to evaluate student OC performances with adequate- if not necessarily more overtly confident - during the actual/ sufficient accuracy ‘on the spot’, in ‘once-and-once-only’

OC examination period than they would be if examined byfashion, especially if they have chosen or agreed to use overly

strangers, something that seemingly reduces OC exam. validity

long and complex assessment criteria lists and / or excessively

to some albeit non-fatal extent;

wide assessment scales (eg. 0 to 5 points, rather than 0-3 or 4G) Even the most objective, ethically-aware and careful OC

points) and / or they must interview and assess a larger number

exam. examiners may on occasion say too little or too muchof OC students rapidly, within a relatively short period of time;

during OC exams., for example not uniformly giving suitablyL) Some OC teachers choose not to video or even audio-record

constructive prompts to a uniform extent at only acceptable

OC student lesson and / or any exam. time performances

times or interrupting the examinee’s line of thought and / orwhen the opportunity arises, usually in large part for the

speaking for ultimately minor, pointless or dubious ‘excessive’

following reasons: a) known or perceived time constraints

coaxing reasons;preclude comfortable operation of recording equipment andH) Increasing OC student familiarity with single or small/ or the editing and archiving of recorded content; b) evennumbers of native and non-native OC teacher voices andcomfortable, leisurely operation of recording equipment might

accents, etc is impossible to avoid but may further (at beston occasion distract teachers from their primary task of making

threaten to) erode OC exam. (and lesson) realism and thus

‘immediate’, ‘live’, ‘real-time’ assessments; c) teachers fear

validity;- with justification - that (necessarily visible) video and / orI) That both native and non-native foreign language OC

audio recording equipment may serve to seriously distract

teachers alike are - at least on occasion - at risk of speaking

or spook students during their OC exam. (interviews and /with excessive and essentially unrealistic - even unnatural –or presentations); and d) some teachers fundamentally doubt

clarity and precision (and perhaps concision) etc, is beyond

the benefits likely to flow from producing digital archival

doubt and threatens to be another potential reducer of overall

records, especially if very experienced and consequently

lesson, exam. and course validity, if not guarded against and /confident about the likely accuracy of their own ‘immediate’,or checked;‘live’, ‘real-time’ assessments; e) some teachers contend -J) In instances where OC students are tested, appraised andentirely plausibly - that even ‘light’, let alone ‘heavy’ scrutiny

accessed by panels of OC teachers instead of single OCof recorded video and / or audio records is potentially liable

teachers, variance in each OC teacher’s assessment decisions

and / or likely to reduce the accuracy of their own (‘one-off’,is of course inescapable yet often considerable or marked, as‘immediate’, ‘live’, ‘real-time’) assessments. Whatever thea result of e.g. differing main preoccupations, interests andmerits of that stance, it appears to be less than a compelling

concerns, priorities, tastes, preferences, interpretations andargument against recording. The fact remains that every time

opinions etc among the assessors. Resulting calculated average

they themselves refrain from making or referring to video ormarks, scores and grades may therefore differ substantiallyaudio archival records, they risk producing less rather thanfrom what one, some or even all involved assessors / judges

more accurate assessments. It is worthwhile to note that just

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英会話授業に関する考察

because one makes recordings, does not mean one has to referinflate rather than accurately reflect / signal their actual overall

to them. That said:

OC skills and competency / capability; Furthermore, effortsM) While video and / or audio recording of student OC lessonof this kind frequently lead less currently skilled students

time and / or exam. performances appears to be a useful,to attempt (with varying degrees of success) to develop

common-sense policy, it is itself not necessarily risk-free.

memorized, stock answers rather than real, fresh spontaneousSome OC teachers may - for whatever reason(s) - as a result

ones. Needless to say, this is far from ideal if not alwaysof opting to record, sometimes, usually or always neglect andwrong or disastrous; something that out not be encouraged…

downplay, if not reject outright, the very real importance ofor ignored when marking and deciding grades;‘immediate’, ‘live’, ‘real-time’ OC student lesson and / or anyQ) Students should - but often or generally - do not themselves

exam. time assessment. Excessive or exclusive dependence on

ensure that they gradually acquire and / or then retain (eg.

video and / or audio archival record content when assessing OCfrom year to year) an at least roughly accurate (i.e. elementary

student lesson and / or exam. time performance is something

or better) appreciation of the amount of progress which theythat can lead to general over-familiarly and perhaps ‘nit-picking’have actually managed to make to-date, regarding their generalwith all or - worse still - only some student performances. As

effort to improve their foreign language OC skills, and thusstated elsewhere, radical variance in the amount time spent

overall competency / capability. Students should attempt thisassessing OC students is likely a bad thing if taken beyond- and are technically free to do so - through honest, objective

certain, necessary and acceptable parameters;

self-analysis, appraisal and evaluation in response both toN) Some students (deliberately or otherwise) performtheir own (recollected) in-class, in school / college / university

altogether less competently and impressively in OC lessonsand ‘real-life’ foreign language OC experiences and - above

than they are currently (consciously) able, for social and / orall - their exam. score results, plus tutor-supplied feedback‘group’ psychological reasons that can affect outlook or at least

information of all kinds. That said, it is very likely the casebehavior;that a large percentage of OC students in Japan (even atO) Some students perform altogether less competently anduniversity level) tend for the most part to feel very vague andimpressively in OC exams. than their lesson-time performances

uncertain about the extent of their OC progress at any given

indicate will likely be the case, as a result of them becoming

point in time. The same can surely be said about the otheradversely affected by unusually elevated or high levels of

three core disciplines but students may well feel more ‘at sea’

nervous tension / stress… stress which may or may not be fully

regarding OC if they come to view it - erroneously - as being aor even at all OC-related.

somewhat less tangible, less comprehendible art;P) Some students perform altogether more competently andimpressively in OC exams. than their lesson-time performances48) Only a small minority of students opt to sit best-available,

indicate will likely be the case (even when the OC exams. arepremium quality, OC examinations such as Eiken Speaking

no easier or harder than the preceding coursework), because(Levels 1-3), TOEIC (Listening and Speaking) or TOEFL

they prepare for exams. so effectively that (as they hope) they

‘regularly’ (eg. at least once every 12-18 months) or evenare then able - come exam. day - to perform more competently‘occasionally’ because they frequently view the majority ofand impressively than has usually been the case and thereby

these tests (misguidedly or shortsightedly or not) as being a)secure (higher than normal) marks and grades that serve totoo expensive; b) too difficult (and thus unlikely to enableイアン・ウィリアム・ウォーナー

85

them to score highly); c) too nerve-wracking and stressful; d)overall, log-term course motivation, effort and performance;

too potentially disturbing and disheartening in terms of final,54) Overseas study and travel experiences, if nothing else,

overall score results; e) too demanding and or inconvenient,plausibly drive home to Japanese foreign language students theeffort and / or time-wise (i.e. when one considers what anfact that foreign languages really are real, vital things that are

optimal amount of preparation and revision time is likely toof truly profound utility to millions of persons and thus of greatamount to); and f) insufficiently informative regarding (limited)utility to all their practitioners, etc.

post exam. feedback data that - were it more comprehensive -55) Some students are in any given period of time more or

would shed greater light on examinee’s probable strengths andless receptive to teacher instruction, advice and criticism than

weaknesses. Thus:

others, owing to variation in their current and potential ability,49) A least some students (and perhaps a majority) are likely

the current degree of their interest, focus, motivation, patienceto generally or frequently under-estimate their current OC skill

and satisfaction, etc they feel;and thus overall competency / capability at any given point in56) Of seemingly central importance, ‘personality type’

time;clearly appears to have far more significant and seemingly50) At the same time, at least some students generally or

major impact on how well foreign language OC students

frequently over-estimate their current OC skill and thus overall

advance / progress… than on how well students of Reading

competency / capability at any given point in time, if only as aComprehension, Listening Comprehension and Writing fare.

result of wishful thinking and lack of concrete data;

The most austere and aloof people may be superb listeners

51) Statistically speaking, foreign language OC skills and thus

and very eloquent, thoughtful and vibrant writers, etc. In

overall competency / capability are of course likely to advanceany case, naturally chatty or chattier students with naturally

more rapidly and to greater overall extents outside one’s own

more relaxed and self-assured, lively and extrovert, outgoing

country (in states where the target language is the native

personalities are more likely to already possess, develop andlanguage) rather than inside, including for both teenage andpublically exhibit / signal an enthusiastically constructive,

mature students. Therefore:

proactive attitude towards OC practice than are less chatty or52) Statistically speaking - students who have spent evendistinctly reticent students with less self-assured, less lively,

just very short periods of time overseas may be more likely

less extrovert, less outgoing personalities. The latter are lessto have superior foreign language OC skills and thus overall

likely - or simply unlikely – to generally or even ever adopt - orcompetency / capability than students who have never left theirat least publically exhibit / signal - an enthusiastically proactive

native land. Even if / when this is not the case:and constructive attitude towards OC practice. In the worst,

53) Statistically speaking, students (certainly the more remotely

most problematic cases, extremely shy, self-aware and bashful

located ones) who have spent even just very short periods ofstudents may well, for psychological reasons, as-a-rule try,time overseas may be more likely to view English language

or rather feel compelled, to minimize and avoid OC practice,learning, including - perhaps above all OC - as a vital or atregardless of place, time circumstance and interlocutor identity.

least very advantageous (rather than just an extremely difficult

Whereas:and ambitious) undertaking - and thus a necessary, wise, and

57) Regardless of current OC skill level, jovial, more care-freeadvisable activity - compared to students who have not yet

students who more often than not enjoy and even initiate ‘a

travelled overseas… with obvious potential implications forgood chat’ and ‘a laugh’ with their OC teachers outside lesson

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英会話授業に関する考察

times likely tend to be more far more predisposed to view thefrom this problem both in regard to Writing and OC while

prospect and actual experience of entering jnto and maintaining

others encounter and suffer from it in only in regard to Writing

OC practice conversation - including or especially with nativeor OC.

target foreign language speakers - as being worthwhile and a60) Also as noted above, a second - more ‘respectable’ - failingpotentially fun activity, not a somewhat terrifying, onerous andexperienced by many or most English language OC students/ or trying chore that preferably ought not be carried out more,

in Japan appears to an authentic ‘lack of precision’ and / oror much more, than is absolutely necessary;‘creativity’, seemingly produced by the onset of a ‘deer in58) Probably all OC students (above a certain age andheadlights’ type ‘speaker’s block’. This lack of creativity isconsequent degree of maturity) are surely likely to perform far

certainly not confined to less currently (cap)able OC students

better vis-à-vis foreign language OC advancement when they

with lower OC skills and thus overall competency / ability.

are able to study alone or (to a lesser extent) in pairs, as well as

On the contrary, it can adversely affect the performance ofin small groups and full-size class groupings totaling between

all foreign language OC students, including the normally

15-35 persons. This is because the said students are far more

non-reticent and some of the most skilled, accomplished andlikely to a) feel more obliged to do just that and less able toenthusiastic of speakers, even though such persons are theshirk doing so; b) be (at least) less distracted and thus (at least)

least likely to be affected or harmed seriously as result, (given

more focused…; c) be (at least) less inhibited about doing

their greater confidence, desire to be understood and superiorso, given the absence (or far reduced salience) of real and / or‘recovery’ capabilities). Despite having learned and still

imagined peer-pressure(s); d) be impressed with the closer,

knowing at least an adequate / sufficient corpus of vocabulary,less formal, more immediate, dynamic, intensive, customized

and possessing an at least ‘acceptable’ capacity for correct

and longer-duration of two-way student-teacher OC exchanges

grammar, accurate pronunciation and sentence construction /that such ‘private’ or ‘small scale’ meetings immediately permit

formulation, many or most Japanese OC students neverthelessand tend to constantly foster. One-to-one OC teacher-student

still often fail too to identify, select and / or employ (obviously)practice meetings should surely be a mandatory weekly event

ideal or suitable words… including when they are entirely

whenever feasible.

unlikely to be feeling in any way confused, intellectually over-59) As described above, one major problem encountered byloaded, worried, shy, embarrassed, bored, distracted, physicallymany if not most English language OC students in Japan

uncomfortable, tired or unhappy, etc… or deliberately

appears to be authentic ‘lack of articulateness’ stemming‘coasting’ performance-wise for ‘social modesty’ reasons. At

from insufficient vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation and /root, excessive consideration and / or confusion over optimalor sentence construction / formulation knowledge / ability.

word selection, and (perhaps) more importantly, an excessive

These common fundamental shortcomings frequently result

concern to avoid ‘stating the obvious’ appear to be plausible,

in delayed output (oral or oral and written), incorrectly

credible explanations;constructed / formulated and sometimes nonsensical or garbled61) A third, already discussed problem encountered by many

sentences, and a consequent tendency for students to err on theor most Japanese OC students is ‘insufficient’ listening

side of caution and favor playing-safe by relying excessively

competency. Affected students too frequently misunderstandon simple, short and too often formulaic sentences, and theor fail to understand exactly what their interlocutor(s) actuallyeasier or easiest of tenses. Some students encounter and suffersay, tell and ask them;イアン・ウィリアム・ウォーナー

8762) OC student class-room ‘audiences’ need as far as possible

they are expected to communicate extensively in free, normal,

to listen attentively to student speakers in order to practice theirnatural, unscripted fashion for relatively extended periods oflistening comprehension, formulate ideas, decide responses

time, which may be a relatively alien and unnerving experience.

and be otherwise ready to engage with them, principally

However, it is important not to lose sight of the fact that thisthrough questioning at the appropriate time(s). Yet all too

problem is frequently not solely a foreign language, OC-onlyoften, some OC students (including advanced ones) give

phenomenon. It is often a more general problem observable

at least the impression of being insufficiently interested orin many, most or all subject lessons, and thus seems to arise

uninterested in what some, most or, in the worst cases, all of

from a general lack of awakened interest, motivation, drive andtheir classmates have to say in the target language, when eachstamina, etc.

student is required to make a presentation, give a talk, offer

63) Healthy attentive, interested, motivated, engaged andtheir opinions, respond, question, summarize, discuss, debate

initially good natured student OC audiences can, on occasion,or provide opinions, one by one in pairs or small groups.

quickly become overly excited, noisy, rowdy, boisterous,

Such students - assuming they have normal attention spans

excessively critical forums (unless prevented). This can then- either do not understand what their classmates are saying

cause shyer, more introverted OC students with or without

sufficiently well to maintain their interest - and recoil whenevercurrently less advanced OC skills (who may already suffer

they conclude as much - or, alternatively, feel that they dofrom some degree of social exclusion / ostracization) tounderstand fully or well-enough, but sooner or later findvariously panic, ‘clam-up’ or at least become (more) distracted,

listening to and communicating with their peers in the target

hesitant, confused, embarrassed and reticent… and thus morelanguage too demanding or tedious, and thus tiring or boring.

likely to curtail their speaking, especially if interrupted to an

Either way, the problem surely arises when students are simply

extent that they themselves regard as excessive, unhelpful andnot sufficiently motivated (leaving aside the unclear role ofinconsiderate;interpersonal ‘manners’) to bother to listen attentively and try64) OC class students - like students generally but perhaps moreto understand what is being said for the required period of timeso, given the nature of OC study and practice - are susceptible(which, of course, should never be too longer than necessary).

to sudden and sometimes drastic mood swings / changes beThis is a serious, potentially contagious problem which needs tothey (justified or not), e.g. from illation to depression andbe constantly watched for and strongly discouraged wheneverexcitement to boredom and from good to bad, and vice-versa,

observed, since it can become an ever more pronounced, evenwhich can affect and indeed alter or even transform overall

habitual, default tendency if not resisted and at least ‘contained'

lesson atmosphere for the better or worse, with real impact onby those afflicted. Students (and teachers) who fail to try

individual student OC performance and academic well-being.

to avoid and resist this kind of premature ‘switching off’,

Small student minorities and mere single students are able, on

disengagement and withdrawal do so at their own peril. Most

occasion, to affect and shape (i.e. improve or harm / degrade)

commonly, OC students who fail to concentrate sufficiently on

the overall atmosphere in any given classroom during any given

what their peers have to say when they are asked to formallylesson by influencing the thoughts, impressions, attitudes, andaddress their classmates collectively, may be suffering frombehavior of classmates. The behavior of any one student can bewhat amounts in large measure to a form of OC lesson-specificinfectious and consequently engender convergent, like behavior

embarrassment and / or fear, generated by the realization thatamong some or all of those exposed to it. Single students can

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英会話授業に関する考察

act as virtual opinion leaders and (wise or misguided) arbiters

language OC teachers in Japan must surely be to drive homeas regards whether a particular OC activity is interesting,to their OC students the vital importance of ‘engaging’ andmotivating, fun, beneficial, valid and thus worthwhile for the‘communicating dynamically’ and ‘extensively’ / ‘sufficiently’

majority of students or class as a whole. While overall student

enough, in public. This is an even more important perquisite

conduct and self-control in Japan likely tends to be excellent,for ‘effective’ and ‘efficient’ OC than ‘communicatingcomparatively speaking, many students can, and are likely, atcorrectly’. Serious English language OC students in Japan must

least on occasion, of course, to be ‘moody’ (i.e. negative about

be constantly urged to initiate, enrich via appropriate input,

their opportunities and need to study) and therefore to transitionand prolong conversation exchanges that will otherwise likely(often rapidly) from being ‘satisfactorily’ constructive ‘good’ or

be too short, basic, one-sided, baron, and lacking in utility.

even ‘excellent’ workers to the exact opposite (and back again).

Serious Japanese OC students must try to output sufficiently,

Some students are frequently moody while others are rarely

make themselves properly understood (and thus known) in

so. Some may perhaps be fairly predictable in this regard

terms of their ideas, views, opinions and feelings, etc as well(assuming one gets to know them well enough), while others

as in the literal technical sense. They must therefore, wheneverwill remain wholly unpredictable. Needless to say, there arenecessary, try to overcome whatever inhibitions they havecountless reasons why student mood and frame-of-mind canthat work against the realisation of these objectives… Andvary in an instant between being more and less compatible andthey require to be assisted accordingly. However, teachers

conducive with effective study, practice and learning. Common

can do no more than maximally encourage and assist students

reasons for the onset of unfavorable and adverse mood, frame-in their own, personal efforts to acquire, retain and improveof-mind and attitude include feeling sleepy, tired, hungry, sick,to the maximum extent possible, their range and depth of

dissatisfied, dismayed and dejected, unintelligent, lacking,knowledge, understanding and skills (of all kinds), and to thenhopeless, angry, worried and socially alienated. Some students

use them as efficiently and effectively as they can, as often

generally respond favorably when urged, criticized, cautioned

as possible. Teachers cannot ‘make’ or ‘ensure’ that students

or reprimanded while others don’t. The former are more likely

do these things. Each student is a unique, free individual,

to somewhat or markedly amend or positively transform their

who constantly thinks and acts as he sees fit, for fundamental

behavior. The latter are more likely to continue roughly in their

historic ‘biologically’ and / or ‘environmentally’ determinedpresent vain or - in the worst scenario - ‘up the ante’.

reasons that together dictate personal psychology, personality,
mentality, outlook, dispositions and preferences, etc and

3. Principal Conclusions:collectively ‘produce’ specific aptitude. Rather, teachers must

The main observable deficiency in many or most English

at all times attempt to honestly share their own knowledge,

language OC lessons and exams. in Japan is most likely to beunderstanding and expertise with their students in ways most‘inadequate’ / ‘insufficient output’ on the part of OC students.

likely to successfully initiate, sustain and otherwise facilitate

Many or most OC students often or generally do not ‘utter

ongoing student self-discovery and self-enlightenment (which,enough words’ or ‘sentences’ in the time available to them.

of course, can and should always be an educational undertaking

They often or generally ‘provide less information than they

for teachers as well).

are, in fact, ‘able to furnish’. Therefore, a main aim of English

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89

References
Warner, I.W. (2016). English Language Speaking / Oral Communication Lessons: Inhibiting Factors and Practical Solutions, Journalof KIBI International University Humanities and Social Sciences (26), 145-162.
http://ci.nii.ac.jp/naid/120005745234