the iafor

journal of
education
Volume 7 – Issue 1 – Summer 2019
Editor: Yvonne Masters

ISSN: 2187-0594

iafor
IAFOR Journal of Education
Volume 7 – Issue 1 – Summer 2019

IAFOR Publications

The International Academic ForumIAFOR Journal of Education
EditorYvonne Masters, Australia
Associate Editors
Lynda Leavitt, Lindonwood University, USA
Massoud Moslehpour, Asia University, Taiwan
Raimond Selke, Goethe-Institut Jakarta, Indonesia

Published by The International Academic Forum (IAFOR), Japan
IAFOR Publications, Sakae 1-16-26-201, Naka-ward, Aichi, Japan 460-0008

Executive Editor: Joseph Haldane
Managing Editor: Elena Mishieva
Publications Manager: Nick Potts

IAFOR Journal of Education
Volume 7 – Issue 1 – Summer 2019
Published June 1, 2019

IAFOR Publications © Copyright 2019
ISSN: 2187-0594
ije.iafor.org

IAFOR Journal of Education
Volume 7 – Issue 1 – Summer 2019
Edited by Yvonne Masters

Table of Contents
From the Editor
Yvonne Masters

1

Notes on Contributors

3

Quantitative and Verbal Aptitudes as Predictors of Senior
Secondary School Students’ Performance in Economics
Innocent Uche Anazia

7

In-Service Teacher Training and Professional Development ofPrimary School Teachers in Uganda
Jackson Nzarirwehi
Faith Atuhumuze

19

The Effects of Student Success Workshops on Undergraduate
Hispanic STEM Students on the U.S.-Mexico Border
J. Elizabeth Casey
Runchang Lin
Selina V. Mireles
Rohitha Goonatilake

37

Exploring the Relationship between Science Content Knowledge andScience Teaching Self-Efficacy among Elementary Teachers
Amy Catalano
Lauren Asselta
Alana Durkin

57

Internationalization and English as a Medium of Instruction in
Mongolian Higher Education
Sainbayar Gundsambuu

71Transfer of Learning and Teaching: A Review of Transfer Theories andEffective Instructional Practices
Shiva Hajian

93

A Proposed Typology of Knowledge Sharing within Communities of Teachers:
A Comparative Case Study Focusing on England and Macedonia
James Underwood
Majda Joshevska

113

Reviewers

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From the Editor
Dear Readers,This is the first of two issues for 2019 and it marks a new advance for the IAFOR Journal of
Education: we are now indexed in Scopus. This means that the journal now has far reachingindexing being indexed with DOAJ, ERIC, EBSCO Discovery Service, Education Source,
MIAR, TROVE, SHERPA/RoMEO, WorldCat and Google Scholar. Many people have been
instrumental in bringing the journal to this level and I would like to thank Dr Joseph Haldane,
CEO of IAFOR and Executive Editor; Dr Elena Mishieva, Publications Coordinator andManaging Editor; Nick Potts, Publications Manager; Dr Bernard Montoneri, former Editor;
and Clare Midgley, former Publications Manager.
In this issue, we again demonstrate the multiplicity of fields that mark education. Within thisissue there are papers on quantitative and verbal aptitudes as predictors of success; in-service
teacher training and professional development; student success workshops for Hispanic
students; science teaching, internationalization of higher education in Mongolia; learningtransfer; and a model of knowledge sharing between teachers. We are sure that you will findfood for thought and reflection, and the possibility of application in your own fields.
Just as the fields are diverse, our authors also come from several countries, demonstrating theinternational and intercultural nature of our journal. In this issue there are authors from
Nigeria, Uganda, the United States, Mongolia/Japan, Canada, Macedonia, and the United
Kingdom.
No issue of a journal moves to publication without the dedication of many people. I would
like to thank my Associate Editors, Lynda Leavitt, Massoud Moslehpour and Raimond Selke,
who support me in my role. I also thank the many reviewers who offer their service to theprofession by volunteering to review the many articles submitted for each issue, providing
constructive feedback to authors. These people are the backbone of the journal. Thanks also
go to Elena Mishieva and Nick Potts who take the files and produce a finished product. Theirwork behind the scenes is invaluable.
We hope that you enjoy this issue of the IAFOR Journal of Education and consider sharing
your own research and experiences in the journal. The next issue is due to be published on
December 1, 2019.
Yvonne Masters
Editor, IAFOR Journal of Education
ije.iafor.org

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Notes on Contributors
Article 1: Quantitative and Verbal Aptitudes as Predictors of Senior Secondary SchoolStudents’ Performance in Economics
Mr Innocent Uche Anazia holds a Bachelor of Science (Education) in Economics &Statistics from the University of Benin, Nigeria. He also holds an M.Ed in Measurement &Evaluation from the University of Benin. His research interests include Educational
assessment and measurement; Program evaluation; and Education policy and equity.
Email: innocentanazia@yahoo.com
Article 2: In-Service Teacher Training and Professional Development of Primary
School Teachers in Uganda
Dr Jackson Nzarirwehi holds a PhD in Education Management and Administration. He is aDistrict Education Officer and a University Lecturer specializing in teacher education
management and research methodology. His research interests include pedagogicalknowledge, teacher training and instruction, and learners’ attainment of education.
Email: nzarirwehijackson@gmail.com
Faith Atuhumuze holds a Master of Statistics and is a doctoral student of sociodemography.
Her research interests include education, rural demography, population dynamics, andmigration among others. These diverse subjects are harmonized by her passion and expertisein data analytics.
Email: atuhumuzefaith@gmail.com
Article 3: The Effects of Student Success Workshops on Undergraduate Hispanic
STEM Students on the U.S.-Mexico Border
Dr J. Elizabeth Casey earned a PhD in Curriculum and Instruction from Clemson University
in Clemson, South Carolina. She is an Associate Professor of Special Education at the
University of Texas Permian Basin in Odessa, Texas. Her areas of expertise include
metacognitive strategy instruction with English learners and utilizing floor-robots to enhanceelementary students’ knowledge of programming. She has published over 15 articles in peer
reviewed journals. She was recently awarded a federal grant in the amount of $150,000.
Email: casey_j@utpb.edu
Dr Runchang Lin has a PhD in Mathematics from Wayne State University, Detroit, MI. He
is a Professor of Mathematics at Texas A&M International University, in Laredo, TX. His
fields of expertise are Numerical Mathematics and Mathematics Education. He has publishedmore than 30 articles in numerical analysis and mathematics education in peer reviewed
journals and proceedings. Dr Lin is PI on the NSF grant ($999,000.00) that partially
supported this component of the overall study.
Email: rlin@tamiu.edu
Dr Selina Vásquez Mireles received her PhD from The University of Texas at Austin in
Mathematics Education and has been active in the field for over 30 years. She is Dean of
Mathematics and Business at Blinn College. Her primary research interests focus on effective
strategies for STEM field learning through and with Mathematics especially for3

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underrepresented, underserved, and underprepared mathematics students. She has publishedover 25 peer-reviewed manuscripts, presented at more than 100 international, national, andstate conferences, and has proposed and been awarded over 35 federal, state, and local grants
with a procurement of over $15 million. She is a leader in the creation of several instructional
design models including the developmental mathematics – college mathematics co-requisitemodel (FOCUS). She has developed new programs including a mathematics education
doctoral program and co-chaired the committee that authored the Mathematics College andCareer Readiness Standards.
Dr Rohitha Goonatilake, Professor of Mathematics, received his PhD in Applied
Mathematics from Kent State University, in Kent, OH in Fall 1997, masters in the areas ofapplied mathematics, mathematics, and actuarial sciences, and a bachelor’s inmathematics/science. He has completed about 20 years of service for Texas A&M
International University. Dr Goonatilake was a recipient of the Scholar of the Year Award in2006 and the University Honors Faculty of the Year in 2013. He was a PI for more than four
major program-funded grants and Co-PI for more than 12 different program grants.
Email: harag@tamiu.edu
Article 4: Exploring the Relationship between Science Content Knowledge and Science
Teaching Self-Efficacy among Elementary Teachers
Dr Amy Catalano is Director of Elementary and Secondary Science Education at Hofstra
University, and is an Associate Professor in the Teaching, Learning and Technology
Department. Her research focuses on girls in STEM education, distance education, water
quality, and psychometric evaluation of tests and measures. She has published four books and16 peer reviewed articles. She works closely with undergraduate students learning to teachscience, and advises research methods for both master’s theses and doctoral students.
Email: amy.catalano@hofstra.edu.
Ms Lauren Asselta is a graduate of Hofstra University with a Bachelor of Arts and Masterof Arts degrees with distinction in Early Childhood and Elementary Education and STEM.
She currently teaches math and ELA in 5th grade. Here research focuses on addressing
misconceptions of physical science concepts among elementary school children through theuse of the engineering design process.
Email: laurenasselta27@aol.com
Ms Alana Durkin is a graduate from Hofstra University with a Bachelor of Arts degree anda Master of Arts degree with distinction in Early Childhood and Childhood Education with a
specialization in STEM, respectively. She is a New York certified teacher in Early Childhood
and Childhood Education. She currently works as an early childhood assistant teacher. Her
research focuses on facilitating collaboration among young children through STEM.
Email: alanad416@gmail.com
Article 5: Internationalization and English as a Medium of Instruction in Mongolian
Higher Education
Mr Sainbayar Gundsambuu is currently a PhD student in the Graduate School of Human
Sciences at Osaka University, Japan. He has been employed with the National University ofMongolia, since 2009, where he is a lecturer in the British and American Studies Department.

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His research interests are English as a medium of instruction, internationalization of higher
education, higher education policy, as well as translation studies and American culture
studies.
Email: sgundsam@fulbrightmail.org
Article 6: Transfer of Learning and Teaching: A Review of Transfer Theories andEffective Instructional Practices
Ms Shiva Hajian is a doctoral candidate at the Department of Educational Psychology,
University of Simon Fraser, Vancouver, Canada. Her research interests are in applying theprinciples of cognitive science to education, with current projects on effective cognitive andmetacognitive scaffolding in simulation-based inquiry learning, the role of analogicalreasoning in learning scientific concepts, and facilitating discovery learning transfer throughmultiple representations.
Email: shajianm@sfu.ca
Article 7: A Proposed Typology of Knowledge Sharing within Communities ofTeachers: A Comparative Case Study Focusing on England and Macedonia
Ms Majda Joshevska, MPhil, is a Programme Manager at the “Foundation for Education
and Cultural Intitiatives, Step by Step” – North Macedonia. In this role she leads professional
development programmes for teachers. Her professional and research interests include:
models of continuous professional development, teacher leadership based learning
communities, social-emotional learning, and inclusion of people with disabilities within
education systems and society.
Dr James Underwood is a Principal Lecturer in the Faculty of Education and Humanities at
the University of Northampton, UK. His professional and research interests include: teachers’
continuing professional development, teacher led research for school improvement,
professional communities, non-positional leadership, qualitative and auto-ethnographic
research methods, mentoring, and using the arts to achieve change in schools andcommunities.
Email: james.underwood@northampton.ac.uk

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Quantitative and Verbal Aptitudes as Predictors of Senior Secondary School Students’
Performance in Economics
Innocent Uche Anazia
University of Benin, Nigeria

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Abstract
This study examined the predictive power of quantitative and verbal aptitudes on theperformance of senior secondary school students in Economics. The study arose from the poor
performance of students in the Senior School Certificate Examination and the General Certificate
in Education Economics. The study adopted descriptive survey research design. Multistage
sampling technique was employed in selecting a total of three hundred and thirty seniorsecondary two Economics students from ten schools comprising of five private and five publicschools. Data were gathered with three test instruments, namely the Economics Achievement
Test, the Quantitative Aptitude Test and the Verbal Aptitude Test. The reliability coefficient wasestablished using Pearson Product Moment correlation coefficient and was found to be 0.86 forthe first test, 0.81 for the second and 0.93 for the last. Data were analyzed using ANOVA andmultiple regression of the SPSS. The findings revealed that quantitative and verbal aptitudes
have predictive power on the performance of senior secondary school students in Economics.
However, quantitative aptitude has more predictive power (B = 0.339) than verbal aptitude (B =0.206). Based on the findings, it is recommended that school authorities should provide learningmaterials that will promote the acquisition of quantitative and verbal skills; teachers should use
appropriate teaching methods and promote high-order thinking and logical reasoning in thestudents; and government should recruit adequate and qualified teachers to teach Economics,
quantitative and verbal related subjects.
Keywords: quantitative aptitude, verbal aptitude, predictor, economics performance.

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Introduction
The essence of schooling is to provide learners the opportunity of acquiring requisite
education and training that will enable them to adjust meaningfully in the society andcontribute to the development of the nation. Education is a means for national transformation.
Coetzee (2011) noted that the success of a nation’s educational system is measured by theacademic achievement of the students. Dambudzo (2009) opined that a lot of emphasis has
been placed by the society on the academic achievement of its citizens for the past couple ofdecades (as cited in Coetzee, 2011). In fact, academic excellence remains the major index
used to evaluate the quality of education offered in schools.
Ascertaining the academic achievement of students involves the determination of the extent
to which they have benefitted from exposure to instruction and other academic tasks. This isdone using different methods or techniques. The results from this measurement are useful indecision making.
The academic achievement of senior secondary school students is an important factor that
determines their future academic pursuit. In Nigeria, the Senior School Certificate
Examination (SSCE) – which is conducted by the West African Examinations Council(WAEC), National Examination Council (NECO) and National Business and TechnicalExaminations Board (NABTEB) – is a prerequisite for entry into a tertiary institution. To beconsidered eligible for tertiary education, candidates are expected to obtain at least credit
grades in five subjects (especially for university admission) in the SSCE. Economics is one of
the subjects offered in this examination. According to the National Open University of
Nigeria (2006), Economics was first taken in the West African School Certificate
Examination as a school subject in 1967. It further stated that the teaching of Economics aspart of the Nigerian school curriculum probably started in 1966, after most other subjects had
been introduced. Since the introduction of the subject in secondary schools, there has been an
astronomical increase in the number of schools that teach it and the number of students thatenroll for the examination. Economics is among the most popular subjects in secondary
schools (National Open University of Nigeria, 2006).
The importance of Economics in any nation cannot be over-emphasized. It seeks to allocate
scarce resources towards the satisfaction of unlimited wants. In other words, it seeks toaddress economic problems facing our society (Anyanwuocha, 2006). The economic changes
in the world today require people who can cope with varying situations and adapt to harsheconomic realities. With increasing economic problems, particularly in developing countries
like Nigeria, the task is for citizens to be equipped with the skills that will enable them tomove out of these situations and contribute to the development of appropriate policies aimed
at mitigating the effects of these challenges. Adu, Galloway and Olabisi (2014) noted thatknowledge from the study of Economics could provide solutions to economic problems. The
teaching of the subject should reflect on development issues that occupy the minds of policy
makers and business people considering that it deals with real-world economic systems(Ongeri, 2009). Therefore, Economic literacy helps to build better citizens who will emerge
as good managers of their own resources and that of the nation. Besides, as a commercial
subject, Economics is important to secondary school students desirous of studyingcommercial disciplines in the university and other tertiary institutions.
Economics has been witnessing poor performance in recent years, particularly in public
examinations in Nigeria. An analysis conducted by Adu, Ojelabi and Hammed (2009) on the9

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West African Senior School Certificate Examination (WASSCE) May/June and Nov/Dec
Economics from 1996 – 2005 revealed a sharp decline in performance. Alade, Nwadingwe
and Igbinosa (2014) lamented that this poor performance has been an issue of great concern
to the government, parents and well-meaning Nigerians. Although researchers have been
examining factors responsible for this anomaly, not much attention has been paid to likely
contributory factors, particularly verbal aptitude.
The need to investigate these variables (quantitative and verbal aptitudes) as likely factors
influencing performance in Economics became necessary based on the assertion of
Anyawuchi (2010) that Economics problems could be solved using three approaches which
are quantitative, graphical and theoretical (as cited in Mawak and Wakdos, 2017). The
theoretical approach has to do with the use of verbal language. It therefore means that toexcel in Economics examination, candidates should demonstrate numerical and verbal
abilities as well as mastery of the subject knowledge. Quantitative and verbal skills come intoplay because candidates are expected to answer computational questions, as well as present
answers in a logical and analytical manner. Also, candidates are expected to use appropriate
terms, draw relationships between concepts, and interpret information/data clearly. Cohen
and Cohn (1994) argue that Economics students must present their economic arguments in a
logical sequence using verbal and graphical forms (as cited in Nguyen & Trimarchi, 2010).
This is in addition to the use of numerical language because the subject involves deductive
and abstract reasoning (National Open University of Nigeria, 2006).
Quantitative aptitude refers to the ability to solve numerical problems (Adu et al, 2009). It
means applying numerical and problem-solving skills in dealing with calculative tasks. This
aptitude is needed by Economics students when responding to tasks or questions that have to
do with mathematical and graphical presentation and analysis. Colander (2000) noted that
introductory Economics is often perceived by students as being boring because they are notfamiliar with mathematical concepts (as cited in Ongeri, 2009). Similarly, Adu et al (2009)
stated that the introduction of mathematical elements into the new Economics syllabus has
posed serious problem for senior secondary school students due to their poor attitude towards
mathematics. A lot of students have a phobia for figures which impacts negatively on theirlearning outcomes in Economics (Ayeni & Olasunkanmi, 2015).
Verbal aptitude encompasses the ability of a student to spell words correctly, use correct
grammar, understand word meanings, understand word relationships and interpret detailed
written information. Andrew, Cobb and Giampietro (2005) noted that verbal ability (oraptitude) is when a person is skilled at putting ideas into words, both in oral and written
forms. Verbal aptitude facilitates the interpretation of information in a logical and analyticalmanner. Such ability helps in organizing words coherently (Andrew et al, 2005).
Some of the reasons why students fail examinations could be due to the inability to frame
responses to questions and spell words correctly. Obe (1996) listed weakness incomprehension and the inability of students to express themselves, among others, as factors
responsible for mass failure in examinations (as cited in Adeyimi & Adeyimi, 2014).
Economics requires verbal skills as students are expected to analyze their answers, spell
relevant terminologies correctly, understand concepts, give detailed explanation, among
others.
The chief examiners’ reports of the WAEC on candidates’ performance in Economics tend tohighlight the importance of quantitative skills (Eleje & Esomonu, 2018) and also verbal

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skills. For instance, the reports for 2010 and 2012 May/June Economics pointed out thefollowing weaknesses of the candidates:••••

Poor grammatical expression: candidates could not express themselves in simple,
clear and correct language;
Scanty explanation: they merely listed the points without explaining them;
Poor knowledge of drawing graphs and inability to carry out simple calculations;
The use of wrong terminologies.

Adegbile and Alabi (2007) state that students’ grades to a large extent, are associated withverbal ability. Lamenting on the poor language skill possessed by black South Africans,
Stephen, Welman and Jordan (2004) reported a study conducted by Stanley (1998) at a
tertiary institution in South Africa which showed that over 90% of black students lacked
comprehension skills for successful completion of their courses. The success of students in an
examination is greatly dependent on the ability to comprehend the examination questions andprovide the required answers. Iyamu (2005) stated that most research on school improvement
and academic achievement in Nigeria have not given adequate attention to verbal ability as afactor that most likely affect students’ performance.
Information from this study is vital in shaping the teaching and learning of Economics at thesecondary school level. Understanding the influence of quantitative and verbal aptitudes
could help teachers in designing their lessons by using appropriate teaching methodologies
that would simplify concepts considering the abstract nature of the subject and encourage
students to develop higher-order thinking skills. Schools and the government could utilize
findings from this study to invest more in academic tasks that would promote the acquisitionof quantitative and verbal skills by the students.
Literature Review
Investigations into the factors affecting performance of students have dominated research inrecent times. This is because the goals of learning or education can only be achieved whenlearners are doing well as evidenced by the level of their academic achievement. Efforts areconstantly being made by researchers and educators to examine multiple-variables that
influence performance in Economics. Studies have attributed performance in the subject toparents, schools, teachers, learning materials and students’ characteristics such as emotional
intelligence, interest, curiosity and aptitude.
Adesoji and Oginni (2012) in their study noted that students’ aptitude is a factor responsible
for poor performance. They lamented that studies have not paid adequate attention to
students’ aptitude while concentration has been on teachers, schools and the learning
environment as variables responsible for this poor performance. Adeyemo (2010)
recommended that the development of students’ abilities (aptitudes) should be of great
importance as it shows a high and positive significance in problem solving which also relates
to effective learning and bring about high achievement. However, the aptitudes of interest in
this study are quantitative and verbal aptitudes.
Adu et al (2009) argued that no student will do well in Economics without quantitative ability(or aptitude). In their study, which sought to determine the correlation between quantitative
ability and achievement in secondary school Economics in Oyo State, Nigeria, they

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Volume 7 – Issue 1 – Summer 2019concluded that any student who possesses good quantitative ability would perform better in
any Economics examination.
Schuhmann, McGoldrick and Burrus (2005) conducted a study to determine the correlation
between quantitative literacy and economic literacy of university students. Their findings
showed that quantitative literacy is a very important determinant of economic literacy. They
concluded that the ability to perform quantitative tasks would result in higher economic
knowledge. Students without basic quantitative skills may find it difficult to understand andinterpret economic concepts. Quantitative ability implies that students are able to separate
concepts in its constituent parts (Eleje et al, 2018) and relate abstract concepts to various
phenomena.
Bray and Spaulding (2014) reported a study conducted by Stock, Siedgried and Finegan(2011) on the predictive validity of the Graduate Record Examination (GRE) scores on
Economics Ph.D. The findings revealed that GRE–Quantitative (or GRE-Q) scores showed
the probability of completing the programme. It therefore means that GRE-Q has morepredictive power in determining success of doctoral students in Economics than GRE-verbal(or GRE-V). However, Mitchell, et al (1994) asserted that measures of verbal ability should
predict, to some degree of accuracy, relevant performance criteria (as cited in Adegbile &Alabi, 2007). A study conducted by Rothstein, Paunonen, Rush and King (1994) in Sujata(2005) showed that verbal reasoning and numerical ability had significant influence on theacademic achievement of students in various academic programmes.
Corengia, Pita, Mesurado and Centeno (2013) carried out a study to analyze whether
educational aptitudes can predict academic performance and attrition among undergraduate
students. The Differential Aptitude Test (DAT) was employed as a measure of educational
aptitudes. The result showed that verbal reasoning and numerical ability were among theindependent variables that related significantly to academic performance of the students in
Business (Accounting and Business Economics). From their study, they noted that the reason
why verbal reasoning was one of the best predictors of academic performance could be that it
evaluates the basic reasoning issues of learning process. Oliver (2008) maintained that
Economics students require four cognitive skills (knowledge, comprehension, application andanalysis) in order to perform well in the subject (as cited in Wyk, 2012). These cognitive
skills promote critical thinking and reasoning ability.
Most of the available studies (Schuhmann et al, 2005; Stock et al, 2011, as cited in Bray &Spaulding, 2011; Rothstein et al, 1994, as cited in Sujata, 2005; Corengia et al, 2013) on
quantitative and verbal aptitudes (or abilities) are based on university achievement in
Economics in developed countries. With regards to Nigeria, there are limited studies on theinfluence of quantitative ability or aptitude on performance in Economics and no study on theinfluence of verbal aptitude was found in the literature. Some researchers who examinedverbal variable in other subjects or areas made generalizations regarding its effect onacademic performance. Therefore, this study sought to address these gaps. It is expected that
this study can add to the limited empirical findings and provide a springboard for futurestudies in Nigeria, with regards to verbal aptitude.

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Purpose of the Study
The main purpose of the study was to examine the predictive power of quantitative andverbal aptitudes on the performance of senior secondary school students in Economics.
Research Questions
1. Does quantitative aptitude significantly predict the performance of senior secondary
school students in Economics?
2. Does verbal aptitude significantly predict the performance of senior secondary school
students in Economics?
3. Does the combined effect of quantitative and verbal aptitudes significantly predict theperformance of senior secondary school students in Economics?
Methodology
The population of the study comprised senior secondary two (SS2) Economics students in
Oshodi-Isolo Local Government Area of Lagos State, Nigeria. This included both public andprivate school students. The study adopted descriptive survey research design. Multistage
sampling technique was employed in selecting a total of 330 senior secondary two
Economics students from 10 schools comprising five private and five public schools. Data
was gathered with three test instruments namely the Economics Achievement Test (EAT), theQuantitative Aptitude Test (QAT) and the Verbal Aptitude Test (VAT). The reliability
coefficient of the instruments was established using the Pearson Product Moment correlation
coefficient and was found to be 0.86 for EAT, 0.81 for QAT and 0.93 for VAT respectively.
Data was analyzed using ANOVA and multiple regression of the SPSS.
Results
Table 1 shows an F-value of 72.451 and a p-value of 0.000. This finding indicates thatquantitative aptitude significantly predicts the performance of senior secondary school
students in Economics and this has answered research question number one.
Table 1: ANOVA of quantitative aptitude as a predictor of performance of senior secondary
school students in Economics
Model1

Regression
Residual
Total

Sum ofSquares
2790.118
12631.336
15421.455

Df
1
328
329

Mean
Square2790.118
38.510F

Sig.

72.451.000(a)Table 2 shows an F-value of 45.113 and a p-value of 0.000. This finding indicates that verbal
aptitude also significantly predicts the performance of senior secondary school students in
Economics and this has answered research question number two.

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Table 2: ANOVA of verbal aptitude as a predictor of performance of senior secondary school
students in Economics
Model1

Sum ofSquares1864.601
13556.853
15421.455

Regression
Residual
Total

Df
1
328
329

Mean
Square1864.601
41.332F

Sig.

45.113.000(a)Table 3 shows an F-value of 45.041 and a p-value of 0.000. This finding indicates that the
combined effect of quantitative and verbal aptitudes significantly predicts the performance ofsenior secondary school students in Economics and this has answered research question
number three. The table shows R2 values of 0.216, indicating that 21.6% of the variance inthe achievement of senior secondary school students in Economics is accounted for by the
combined effect of the two variables.
Table 3: ANOVA, model summary and coefficients of the multiple regression analysis of the
combined effect of quantitative and verbal aptitudes in predicting performance of seniorsecondary school students in Economics
Model1

Sum ofSquares
3330.734
12090.721
15421.455

Regression
Residual
Total
Model

R

1

.465(a)Model

1(Constant)verbalaptitudequantitative
aptitude

df
2
327
329

R Square.216

Mean
Square1665.367
36.975Adjusted R
Square
.211

F

Sig.

45.041.000(a)Std. Error of theEstimate
6.081

Unstandardized Standardized
Coefficients
Coefficients
Std.
B
Beta
Error
7.750 1.550

5.001

Std.
Error
.000

.239

.063

.206

3.824

.000

.352

.056

.339

6.297

.000

T
B

Sig.

From the table, quantitative aptitude (B = 0.339) has more predictive power on the academic
performance of senior secondary school students in Economics than verbal aptitude (B =0.206).

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Discussion
The result of the analysis in table one revealed that quantitative aptitude predicts theperformance of senior secondary school students in Economics. This finding agrees with thefindings of Adu et al, (2009); Schuhmann et al, (2005); Stock et al, 2011, as cited in Bray et
al, 2014) and Corengia et al, (2013) that reported that quantitative aptitude or ability
influences academic performance in Economics. As Adu et al (2009) noted from their study,
no student can perform well in Economics without good quantitative ability. Similarly,
Schuhmann et al (2005) maintained that higher economic knowledge is dependent on thepossession of quantitative skills. Economics is taught using quantitative language and so thisfinding demonstrates the importance of quantitative skills in facilitating learning outcomes.
The result of the analysis in table two showed that verbal aptitude predicts the performance ofsenior secondary school students in Economics. This finding is in line with the findings ofRothstein et al (1994), as cited in Sujata (2005) which showed that verbal reasoning
significantly influenced academic achievements in various undergraduate programmes andalso those of Corengia, et al (2013) which showed that verbal ability significantly predictedperformance in Business Economics. As asserted by Mitchell, et al (1994), as cited in
Adegbile, et al (2007), verbal ability should have some level of predictive power on academic
performance.
The result of the analysis in table three showed the significant combined effect of quantitativeand verbal aptitudes in predicting the performance of senior secondary school students in
Economics. This finding agrees with the findings of Rothstein, et al (1994), as cited in Sujata(2005) and Corengia, et al (2013) which revealed that verbal reasoning and numerical ability
had significant influence on the academic achievement of students in various undergraduate
programmes, including Business Economics. However, the finding from this study showedthat quantitative aptitude has more predictive ability than verbal aptitude. The study
conducted by Stock, et al (2011), as cited in Bray, et al (2014) revealed that GRE –Quantitative (GRE – Q) scores showed the probability of completing PhD Economics
programme, meaning that GRE-Q has more predictive power than GRE-verbal (or GRE-V) atthat level of studies. The predictive ability of verbal aptitude in the study of Stock, et al(2011), as cited in Bray, et al (2014) appears to be in contrast with the study of Corengia, etal (2012) where it was reported that verbal reasoning was among the best predictors ofachievement in undergraduate Economics. It should be noted that the study carried out by
Stock, et al (2011), as cited in Bray, et al (2014) focused on PhD studies in Economics wheremuch of the contents cover quantitative and graphical topics, requiring greater quantitativeskills. The same can be said of undergraduate programmes in Economics when comparedwith secondary school Economics. It is therefore quite surprising that verbal aptitude has alower predictive ability in this study compared to quantitative aptitude considering that few
quantitative topics are covered in Economics at the secondary school level in Nigeria. Mostof the tasks in Economics at this level of education are theoretical – more of writing thancalculation. More empirical findings are needed as to which variable has more predictive
power at the secondary school level. Regardless of the fact that the predictive ability ofverbal aptitude is not as strong as that of quantitative aptitude in this study, an improvementin verbal aptitude or skill will contribute towards the performance of students in Economics.
As Adegbile, et al (2007) noted, students’ grades to a large extent are associated with verbal
ability. Going by the assertion of Oliver (2008) that Economics students require four
cognitive skills (knowledge, comprehension, application and analysis) in order to perform

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Volume 7 – Issue 1 – Summer 2019well in the subject (as cited in Wyk, 2012), achievement outcomes will improve if these
cognitive skills are properly applied as they are related to verbal aptitude.
Recommendations
From the findings of the study, the recommendations are as follows:
School authorities should provide learning materials that will help improve quantitative andverbal skills of students.
Students should be encouraged to be more liberal in their learning by availing themselves ofevery opportunity to sharpen their reasoning, verbal and numerical (quantitative) skills. They
should read widely, consult materials on these variables, and pay attention to the learning ofEnglish and Mathematics as well as other subjects.
Teachers should encourage learners to develop higher-order thinking skills by presenting
questions and tasks that demand logical and critical reasoning. They should also explore allareas that will help students to sharpen their verbal and quantitative skills. Apart from having
a mastery of the subject matter, it is necessary that they simplify concepts, especiallymathematical and graphical topics, by utilizing different instructional methodologies andusing appropriate teaching aids.
The government should ensure that adequate and well qualified teachers are employed toteach Economics, and quantitative and verbal related subjects. Some researchers havesuggested the introduction of critical thinking as a subject in senior secondary schools. If thisis done, it will enhance the learning of students in quantitative subjects.
Conclusion
This study was necessitated by the growing concern over the poor performance of secondary
school students in Economics, especially in public examinations as reported from previous
studies and the limited empirical findings on the variables investigated in Nigeria. There is
scarcely any study on the verbal variable as it pertains to performance in Economics to thebest of the researcher’s knowledge. Findings from the study have revealed that quantitativeand verbal aptitudes predict performance in Economics at the senior secondary school.
Economics is a subject that utilizes mathematical, graphical and theoretical or abstract
languages in examining and explaining concepts which makes the subject appear to bedifficult for many students. This is why the teaching and learning of the subject should be
simplified and students encouraged to develop quantitative and verbal skills. The study
therefore concludes that possession of these aptitudes or skills by students will enhance theirperformance in the subject. Considering the effects of these variables on Economics, it isnecessary for more empirical studies to be made available in Nigeria using a larger sample
size.

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References
Adegbile, J. A., & Alabi, O. F. (2007). Effects of verbal ability on second language writers’
achievement in essay writing in English language. International Journal of Africanand American Studies, 6(1), 174–182. https:// doi.org/10.1.1.531.8781
Adesoji, F. A., & Oginni, A. M. (2012). Students’ aptitude indices as predictors of learning
outcomes in chemistry. British Journal of Arts and Social Sciences, 8(2). Retrieved
from http://www.bjournal.co.uk/BJASS.aspx
Adeyemi, A. M., & Adeyemi, S. B. (2014). Personal factors as predictors of students’
academic achievement in colleges of education in South Western Nigeria.
Educational Research and Reviews, 9(4), 97–109.
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Adeyemo, S. A. (2010). Students’ ability level and their competence in problem-solving taskin Physics. International Journal of Educational Research and Technology, 1(2), 35–
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Adu, E. O., Galloway, G., & Olabisi, O. (2014). Teachers’ characteristics and students’attitude towards economics in secondary schools: Students’ perspectives.
Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences, 5(6), 455. https//doi.org/
10.5901/mjss.2014.v5n16p455
Adu, E. O., Ogelabi, S. A., & Hammel, A. (2009). Quantitative ability as correlates ofstudents’ academic achievement in secondary school economics in Oyo State. African
Research Review, 3(2), 322 –333. https://doi.org/10.4314/afrrev.v3i2.43633
Alade, O. M., Nwadingwe, I. P., & Igbinosa, V. (2014). Socio-economic status and gender as
predictors of students’ academic achievement in economics. Journal of Education andPractice, 5(9), 96–110. https://doi.org/10.7176/JEP
Andrew, M. D., Cobb, C. D., & Giampietro, P. J. (2005). Verbal ability and teacher
effectiveness. Journal of Teacher Education, 56(4), 343–354.
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Anyanwuocha, R. A. I. (2006). Fundamentals of economics for senior secondary schools(12th ed.). Onitsha: Africana First Publishers Ltd.
Ayeni, A. O., & Olasunkanmi, O. S. (2015). Relationship between student learning factors
and their learning outcome in senior secondary school economics in Osun State public
secondary schools, Nigeria. Journal of Emerging Trends in Educational Research andPolicy Studies, 6(2), 159–168.
Bray, O. R., & Spaulding, L. S. (2014). Examining the predictive validity of GRE scores on
doctoral education: Students’ success and methodology choices in the dissertation
process. Journal College Student Retention: Research, theory and practice, 16(2),203–217. https://doi.org/10.2190/CS.16.2.cCoetzee, L. R. (2011). The relationship between students’ academic self-concept, motivation
and academic achievement at the university of the Free State (Unpublished Master’s
thesis). University of the Free State, South Africa. Retrieved fromhttp://uir.unisa.ac.za/bitstream/handle/10500/4346/ dissertation_Coetzee_1.pdf
Corengia, A., Pita, M., Mesurado, B., & Centeno, A. (2013). Predicting academic
performance and attrition in undergraduate students. Liberabit. Revista de Psicología,
19(1), 101–112. Available at http://www.redalyc.org/articulo.oa?id=68627456009

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Eleje, L. I., & Esomonu, N. P. M. (2018). Test of achievement in quantitative economics forsecondary schools: Constructing and validation using item response theory. Asian
Journal of Education and Training, 4(1), 18–28.
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Iyamu, E. O. S. (2005). Relationship between verbal ability and students’ achievement insecondary school social studies in Southern Nigeria. Language of India, 5(2).
Retrieved from http://www.languageinindia.com/feb2005/verbalabilitynigeria1.html
Mawak, J. J., & Wakdos, B. G. (2017). Mathematics ability and achievement in quantitative
aspect of economics among senior secondary school students in Jos North Area
Directorate, Plateau State, Nigeria. International Journal of Educational Benchmark(IJEB), 8(1).
National Open University of Nigeria (2006). EDU 726, economics methods. Retrieved fromhttp://www.nou.edu.ng/NOUN_OCL/pdf/EDU/EDU%20726%20ECONOMICS%20
METHODS.pdf
Nguyen, T. T., & Trimarchi, A. (2010). Active learning in introductory economics: Do
MyEconlab and Aplia make any difference? International Journal for the Scholarshipof Teaching and Learning, 4(1), Article 10.
https://doi.org/10.20429/ijsotl.2010.040110
Ongeri, J. D. (2009). Poor student evaluation of teaching in economics: A critical survey ofthe literature. Australasian Journal of Economics Education, 6 (2), 1–24.
Schuhmann, P. W., McGoldrick, K., & Burrus, R. T. (2005). Student quantitative literacy:
Importance measurement and correlation with economic literacy. The American
Economist, 49(1), 49–65. https://doi.org/10.1177/056943450504900104
Stephen, D. F., Welman, J. C., & Jordaan, W. J. (2004). English Language proficiency as anindicator of academic performance at tertiary institution. SA Journal of Human
Resources Management, 2(3), 42–53. https://doi.org/10.4102/sajhrm.v2i3.48
Sujata, K. (2005). Influence of aptitude and personality profile on academic achievement ofundergraduate students of UAS, Dharwad (Unpublished Master’s thesis). Universityof Agricultural Science, Dhward. Wyk, M. M. (2012). Available at
http://krishikosh.egranth.ac.in/handle/1/81589
Wyk, M. M. (2012). Measuring students’ attitude to economic education: A factorial analysis
approach. Journal of Social Science, 31(1), 27–42.
https://doi.org/10.1080/09718923.2012.11893012
Corresponding author: Innocent Uche Anazia
Contact email: innocentanazia@yahoo.com

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In-Service Teacher Training and Professional Development of Primary School Teachersin Uganda
Jackson Nzarirwehi
Kampala International University, Uganda
Faith Atuhumuze
Makerere University, Uganda

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Abstract
In 1994, Uganda’s Ministry of Education and Sports introduced Teacher Development
Management Systems, with the sole aim of supporting and enhancing professional
development of teachers through in-service teacher training. Though the training has
increasingly motivated teachers into upgrading their academic qualifications, research has notestablished the effect of the training on professional development of teachers and loopholes,
assumptions and misconceptions still persist two decades after the inception of the Teacher
Management Systems. Using primary data collected in 2016 from the southwestern Uganda
districts of Bushenyi, Rukungiri and Sheema, this study attempts to examine this issue. Key
informant interviews and questionnaires were used to collect data from a sample of 610
primary teachers and education stakeholders selected for the study. Findings show that inservice teacher training has a significant effect on teachers, particularly on their academic
qualifications, performance, and professionalism. However, these benefits can only berealized when the training is properly planned, implemented and continually evaluated, and in
the presence of certain resources and incentives. To this end, the study recommends a reviewof teacher training approaches and a revamp of school environments to facilitate the teachinglearning process.
Keywords: teacher, in-service teacher training, Uganda, professional development, education

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Introduction
In-service teacher training is globally practiced with the belief that it fosters professional
development of teachers. Specifically, the training has been adopted to promote continuous
improvement of teaching staff, eliminate differences within the background preparation ofteachers, keep the teaching profession abreast of new knowledge, enable realization ofcreative innovations, and facilitate teachers to tackle responsibilities associated with thechanging learning environment (Osamwonyi, 2016; Sheth, 2004). According to Bramley(1991), in-service training is the systematic development of attitudes, knowledge, skills, andbehavior patterns required by teachers to perform adequately at their given task or job.
In Uganda, education sector reforms such as in-service teacher training were reignited in
1987 to revive the education system, which had collapsed due to political turmoil. The
Education Policy Review Commission (EPRC) was appointed to assess the education sector
and give recommendations towards policy restoration and improvement. Key indicators ofquality of education in Uganda such as cohort survival rates, pupil/teacher ratios and teacher
attrition had worsened to an extent where the existent education system could not fulfill
anticipated objectives (Eilor, 2003). The acknowledgement of a failed system instigated theinception of Teacher Development Management Systems (TDMS) in 1994 to reinforce theteaching workforce. TDMS was implemented with a single main objective of improving
quality and equity in provision of primary education through improved school management
and quality of instruction (teaching). Through implementation of a number of in-service
strategies and activities, TDMS sought to equip head teachers and teachers with the necessary
skills, with an ultimate goal of fostering effectiveness (Ministry of Education and Sports,2010). This work presents an analysis of the effect of in-service teacher training on
professional development, including attitudes, practices and professional grounding ofprimary teachers in Uganda.
Literature Review
Emphasis is placed on the role of education and teacher training agency towards national,social and economic development. This calls for continuous development and improvementof professional competence of education stakeholders. In-service teacher training is pursued
with the primary goal of ensuring continued improvement in the capacity of academic
institutions and the entire education system (European Union, 2013). In-service teacher
training is thus defined as a central component of professional development of teachers thathas been adopted by policy makers and education departments to orient teachers and equipthem with skills aimed at enhancing the quality of education. On the other hand, professional
development is a recurring process instigated by changes in knowledge, beliefs, and attitudes
among teachers and other education service sector workers towards improving learning
outcomes (Cooper, 2004; Sparks & Richardson, 1998).
Rapid technology advancements in the contemporary world imply that teachers’ stock ofknowledge and pedagogical skills becomes obsolete in a short time. This calls for constantupgrading to keep up with modern trends and knowledge (Wesch, 2009). Yet, newexperiences demand new and specifically tailored approaches with regard to teaching
methods, which justifies the need for teachers to be exposed to in-service training programsfrom time to time. This depicts in-service teacher training as a continuous, never ending
process focused on acquiring and maintaining knowledge. Simply put, the training

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continually equips teachers with new pedagogical skills towards a country’s bid to shift theeducation system towards an outcome-based one (Okiror, Hayward, & Winterbottom, 2017).
Traditional professional development approaches fail to foster changes necessary forinclusive learning (Nishimura, 2014), which calls for in-service techniques that prepareteachers to adopt varied teaching methods, use improved technology and integrate newknowledge, and experiences into classroom practices (Sabri, 1997). Evidence suggests thatthese enable in-service teachers to teach in inclusive classrooms with relative ease (Sokal &Sharma, 2014). Some of these acclaimed techniques include observation by facilitators,
teacher collaboration and co-teaching, and participatory action research (Morales, 2016;
Villa, Thousand, & Nevin, 2013). Online techniques have also been pursued (Cavanagh,2013), but the level of success depends on whether the teachers are familiar with technology,
self-motivated, and disciplined (P. Vu, Cao, L. Vu, & Cepero, 2014). In alternative evidence,
the introduction of technological advancement does not necessarily guarantee application inteaching practice (Sabzian & Gilakjani, 2013). Nevertheless, all arguments for in-service
teacher training and technological and knowledge advancement fall to a few problematic
assumptions. First, by ignoring the final consumer of knowledge, the learner, these studies
assume that learners will automatically adjust to the ever-changing techniques and easily
absorb new knowledge offered by trained teachers. Second, they seem to suggest teachers’
learning processes as linear paths towards an ever-shifting optimum knowledge. Third,
without a definitive measure of knowledge attributable to technology advancements,
evaluation of the training becomes a gamble of assumptions.
In practice, in-service teacher training is recognized as an essential part of the overall processof teacher education, which can be achieved through attending events such as lectures, films,
exhibitions, conferences, seminars, and workshops in which practical solutions to current
difficulties are introduced and materials required for implementing these solutions produced(Alkuş & Olgan, 2014; Osamwonyi, 2016). These events also provide platforms throughwhich teachers are introduced to new developments and teaching materials to help them intheir work, such as new curricular, new methods and innovations, and specific equipment.
But the question remains of how these programs are implemented with regard to method andapproach and if there is a methodology in place to facilitate the transfer of acquired
knowledge from teacher to learner. In a study of in-service teacher training in Nigeria, Amadi(2013) notes that although in-service training has been embraced to counter the inadequacies
of pre-service training, it still fails to adequately prepare teachers for the continued changes
in teaching techniques and materials. The study attributes continued poor performance ofschools to teacher training programs, which are conducted using approaches that are notpractical and as a result coerce teachers into “just listening” but not putting into practice thenovel teaching methods learned. In-service teacher training in most developing countries,
Uganda included, fall victim to such shortcomings whereby teachers are not equipped withtransferable and hands-on pedagogical skills. The developing world “train the teacher, train
the nation” mentality has culminated in negligence and rigid governments who have washedtheir hands of all responsibility, beyond the teacher, to facilitate the teaching-learning
process. Yet, scholarship on in-service teacher training has found that effectiveness of the
training can only be achieved with proper planning and implementation (Zaslow, 2014). This
involves among others: pre-training analysis; trainer introduction; orientation of trainees on
expectations and benefits of the program; laying emphasis on the need to master content
knowledge and garner authentic experiences; and creating and maintaining a stable feedback
process between training and application of experiences through reflection and evaluation(Dunst, Bruder, & Hamby, 2015; Ficarra & Quinn, 2014).

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Generally, in-service teacher training should motivate teacher professionalism in selfevaluation of strengths and weaknesses, and knowledge and pedagogical skills. In-service
teacher training is therefore a capacity building task that stimulates organizational growth anddevelopment (Omar, 2014). The training engenders change in human behavior, attitudes,
knowledge, skills, and capabilities focused on cultivating professional etiquette required byteachers to perform adequately at given tasks (Guskey, 2014; Kabadayi, 2016). Some studies
have, however, found little effect of in-service teacher training on benefits such as content
knowledge and skills, and observed a lack of systematic evaluation processes (B. Boyle,
While, & T. Boyle, 2004; Lehiste, 2015; Newton, 2013). All these studies point to a difficulty
in measuring the impact of in-service teacher training on professional development in definite
terms, which poses a challenge for evaluation. To counter this, qualitative approaches havebeen pursued where, for instance, a change in knowledge may be characterized by having afirm grasp on job requirements and increased ability to make the right decisions in selecting
the most appropriate procedure in accomplishing given tasks while a change in skills
encompasses ability to communicate, and increased capacity to perform simple proceduresand physically grounded actions. However, we note that studies do not agree on definitions of
the different factors of professional development. For instance, while Kabadayi (2016)
defines it to include teacher roles, and professional and practical knowledge, Dunst et al.
(2015) include both teacher and learner experiences. From these studies, we observe
contradictions not just on definition but also categorization of variables. For instance,
knowledge has been categorized along pedagogical, practical, and content knowledge among
others for some studies while others just leave it general. These challenges leave a lot ofroom for ambiguity and assumption and facilitate a broad and unstable spectrum along which
professional development must be measured.
Another challenge for in-service teacher training is that the role of trainers is not clearly
defined which implies that training requirements are not properly addressed (Council of theEuropean Union, 2009; O’Dwyer & Atlı, 2015). For in-service training to be effective,“backward planning” must be emphasized to ensure that in-service training exactly matches
teacher and learner needs and addresses the intended objectives (Bayar, 2014; Guskey, 2014).
To truly appreciate the impact of in-service training on professional development, learners
must be brought to center stage of evaluation processes (Earley & Porritt, 2014). The
intention of in-service teacher training has always been to enhance professional and personal
development of teachers to provide its benefits to the students they teach, their classes andschools where they serve (Mahmood, 1999). The ultimate goal here is to improve theteaching-learning process and establish systems that absorb various changes that concern
education. According to Zaman (2004), teacher development is fundamental to the quality ofthe education system and as such demands urgent, careful and continued attention to improveand maintain the quality. The consequent staff development boosts instruction capacity andteacher competence by increasing their command of their academic subject (Borg, 2018;
Glickman, 1990; Ololube, 2005). Teacher competence encompasses not just teacher
knowledge and skills but also their motivation, attitudes, and social behavior (Zlatić, Bjekić,
Marinković, & Bojović, 2014). This variable thus also falls victim to the same problem of
immeasurability. To appreciate the impact of in-service training, different studies have had todevise different metrics to measure variables. Yet, these variables rarely conform to suchlinear binaries.
In more quantifiable terms, in-service teacher training programs significantly advanceteachers careers and aid unqualified teachers in their upgrading to qualified teacher status(Hersey & Blanchard, 1988; Junaid & Maka, 2015; Morrison, 1993; National Staff

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Development Council, 2007). Upgrading teachers’ education enables them to rectify thefaults, superficiality, duplication, and irrelevance of life in schools in relation to real society(Mbiti, 1990). According to his findings, training programs must engage in the search for theunderlying factors associated with complex issues in present society to enable developmentof a realistic system. Some of these factors may take the form of curriculum, school
infrastructure, scholastic materials and funding among others. We hypothesize that if thesefactors were unified across academic institutions, it would enable transferability of teacher
skills as well as development of an inclusive in-service teacher training program acrosstraining institutions. Yet, that is not always the case due to resource constraints and varied
accessibility options available to different institutions and schools.
Generally, in-service teacher training gives teachers adequate groundwork on the needs oflearners and provides them with a well-integrated general education, professional training andacademic orientation (Kabadayi, 2016; Ololube, 2005). At its core, it aids teachers in
obtaining a good grasp of the curriculum (Viirpalu & Mikser, 2014). In their study on
performance of science teachers in secondary schools, Shakoor, Ghumman, and Mahmood(2013) found that by raising awareness of curricular changes to teachers, in-service teacher
training led to better planning of content and delivery and improved the effectiveness of
implementation of curricula. By increasing confidence and motivation of teachers, in-service
teacher training improves their career prospects as well as their professional identity (JuYoun, 2011). This concurs with findings by Yadav and Bhardwaj (2013) that confidence
instilled by in-service teacher training program facilitates planning and preparation towards
effective teaching. These skills lead to the building of a human resource pool that is dedicatedand committed to teaching and positively influencing the overall delivery in the education
system.
Data and Methods
In this analysis, we use primary data collected from a sample of 610 primary school teachers
in the districts of Bushenyi, Rukungiri and Sheema. The study met the moral and ethicalstandards of research by observing maximum confidentiality of the respondents’ identities.
Anonymity was maintained by coding the questionnaires instead of putting individuals’
names. Subject participation in the study was voluntary and verbal consent was sought fromparticipants prior to involvement in the study. Participants were informed about what it meant
to be involved in the study, what was expected of them, the objectives of the study and theirright to decline participation.
The study applied a descriptive research design to obtain the required data. Questionnaires
and key informant interviews were used in data collection. The research instruments werepilot tested to ensure their validity. Triangulation of the two methods with secondary sources
also addressed validity concerns by enabling double-checking and countering inconsistencies
in the tools.
Data analysis was done in three parts. First, a descriptive analysis was done to compare thecharacteristics of teachers across selected demographic and socioeconomic backgrounds
including district, sex, qualification, number of years in service and age. Second, predictorsof in-service teacher training were established using the binary logistic regression. Third,
teachers’ perception of the effect of in-service teacher training on professional development
were investigated using a Likert scale of 11 criteria namely:24

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1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

It enables teachers to acquire new skills and knowledge
It enables teachers to provide quality education to learners
It enables teachers to upgrade their academic qualification
It enables teachers to acquire promotion
It enables teachers to play a key role in the proper implementation of various
education policies and programs
6. It broadens and deepens teachers’ own knowledge, increases on their competence,
reliability, and responsibility
7. In-service trained teachers become more professional by mastering the content
8. In-service trained teachers become more professional by getting motivated on the job
9. In-service trained teachers have a good command of their academic subjects and ably
meet the needs of learners
10. Teachers who have had in-service teacher training are good performers in school
11. In-service trained head teachers are better administrators than those taught throughother programs‘1’ represents the lowest rank (strongly disagree) and ‘4’ the highest rank (strongly agree).
First, the Cronbach’s alpha test was used to measure reliability and internal consistency of thescale. Results show an alpha of 0.773, which indicated that the scale had a good reliability
and consistently measured the effect of in-service teacher training on professional
development. The test further showed that removal of any variable reduces the Cronbach’s
alpha, which was an indicator that there was no redundancy and the variables were welldefined. The median was then used to infer on each of the criteria. Further, the MannWhitney U test was used to understand whether the status of in-service teacher training of
respondent had any significant effect on ranking of the different criteria at 5% level ofsignificance. The Mann-Whitney U test was selected as the most appropriate test given thatthe data was ordinal and did not assume a normal distribution.
In conducting the study, the researchers encountered certain limitations including: lack of cooperation from some respondents who refused to answer the questions, some respondents
asked to be paid to participate so their perceptions are missing here, and difficulty inrecruiting experienced research assistants which increased the training and supervision costs.
Results and Discussion
Table 1 presents the distribution of respondents by background characteristics. Bushenyi
district had the highest number of respondents with 36.1% while Sheema district had the least
with 30.2%. Males constituted the largest proportion of respondents with 68.4% whilefemales constituted only 31.6%. The results also show that majority of the respondents were
Diploma holders (72.3%) followed by 16.4% Grade III holders and 11% graduates leaving
only 0.3% with postgraduate qualifications. Results further show that majority of the
respondents (84.4%) had ever attended in-service training leaving only 15.6% who had not.
Finally, most of the respondents (27.5%) had 11-15 years of service followed by 21.8% with
16-20 years of service and only 12.5% with 1–5 years.
Table 1: Distribution of background characteristics of respondents
Characteristic

Frequency (n)Percent (%)

220

36.1

District
Bushenyi

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Characteristic

Frequency (n)Percent (%)

Rukungiri
Sheema

184
206

30.2
33.8

Male
FemaleQualification
Grade III
DiplomaBachelor
PhD
In-service teacher training
Yes
No
Number of years in service
1-5 yrs.
6-10 yrs.
11-15 yrs
16-20 yrs.
20+ yrs.
Total

417
193

68.4
31.6

100
441
67
2

16.4
72.3
11.0
0.3

515
95

84.4
15.6

76
112
168
133
121
610

12.5
18.4
27.5
21.8
19.8
100.0

Sex

Table 2 presents the descriptive statistics for selected indicator variables. The findings showthat there are significant differences in status of in-service training by number of years ofservice. The category of persons with 16-20 years of service had the largest proportion ofteachers with in-service training (93.98%) followed by those with 20+ years of service with85.95%. With regard to the category of qualification, diploma holders had the highest
proportion of teachers with in-service training (87.53%) while postgraduate holders had none.
The relationship between in-service teacher training and district was also examined, but there
was no significant difference at 5% though the relationship was significant at 10%. The effectof sex on in-service teacher training was also found not to be significant.
Table 2: Descriptive statistics for selected indicator variables (N=2,364)
Variable/category
District
Bushenyi
Rukungiri
SheemaSex
Male
FemaleYears of Service
1-5yrs6-10yrs
11-15yrs
16-20yrs
20+yrs
Qualification
Grade III
DiplomaBachelors
Postgraduate

In-service teacher training status of teacher (%)
Yes
No
χ2
p-value
81.82
82.07
89.32

18.18
17.93
10.68

5.671

0.059

85.37
82.38

14.63
17.62

0.896

0.344

73.68
82.14
82.14
93.98
85.95

26.32
17.86
17.86
6.02
14.05

17.236

0.002

74.00
87.53
82.09
0.00

26.00
12.47
17.91
100.0022.616

0.000

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Table 3 shows the odds of a teacher having in-service training as opposed to not having thetraining. The findings show that the odds of a teacher with a diploma or a bachelors or post
graduate degree having in-service teacher training were significantly higher than those of a
Grade III teacher with respective p-values less than 0.05. Findings also show that teacherswith 6-10 years of service were significantly less likely to have in-service teacher training
than teachers with 1-5 years of service (OR=0.247, p<0.05). The other categories showed nosignificant difference from teachers in the 1-5yrs category. Results further show that a unit
increase in age is associated with a 4.6% reduction in the odds of a teacher having in-service
teacher training (p<0.05) meaning that younger people had a higher likelihood of having inservice training. Finally, results show that teachers in Rukungiri were significantly less likely
to have in-service teacher training than teachers in Bushenyi with (OR=0.528, p<0.05).
Table 3: Binary logistic regression predicting the odds of a teacher’s in-service training
outcomes (base category=no in-service training)
Variable

OR

S.E.

p-value

1.000
1.465

0.260

0.142

1.000
32.72775.55550.039
0.954

1.114
1.126
1.132
0.024

0.002
0.000
0.001
0.046

1.000
0.247
0.504
0.559
2.041

0.538
0.475
0.385
0.462

0.009
0.150
0.131
0.123

1.000
0.528
0.610

0.295
0.312

0.030
0.114

Sex
Male†
FemaleQualification
Grade III†
DiplomaBachelors
Post Graduate
Age
Years of Service
1-5yrs†6-10yrs
11-15yrs
16-20yrs
20+yrsDistrict
Bushenyi†
Rukungiri
SheemaOR= Odds Ratio; S.E. = standard error; †= Reference Category
Perception of the Effect of In-Service Teacher Training on Professional Development
The results in Table 4 show that upgrading teachers’ academic qualifications was the mostconsidered criterion of effect of in-service teacher training with 70.89% of respondents
expressing strong agreement that in-service teacher training enables teachers to upgrade theiracademic qualifications, followed by enabling teachers to acquire promotion (69.64%),
enabling teachers acquire new skills and knowledge (63.17%), and broadening and deepening
teachers’ knowledge which increases their competence, reliability, and responsibility(46.50%). The other criteria, though considered strongly agreeable by less than 50% of
respondents, were still considered agreeable with respective medians of 3. Specifically,
results show that 56.57% of respondents expressed agreement that in-service teacher training
enables teachers to become more professional by motivating them on the job followed by, indescending order: enabling teachers to have a good command of their academic subjects andably meet the needs of learners (56.35%), enabling teachers to provide quality education tolearners (55.37%), enabling teachers to become professional by mastering the content(53.13%), enabling teachers to play a key role in the proper implementation of various

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IAFOR Journal of Education

Volume 7 – Issue 1 – Summer 2019education policies and programs (51.99%), improving the performance of teachers (49.5%)
and enabling head teachers to become better administrators with 41.78%.
The finding that in-service teacher training had its largest influence on upgrading teachers’
academic qualifications concurs with Mbiti (1990) who underlined the role played by inservice teacher training in upgrading teachers’ education which in turn enables teachers
rectify the faults, superficiality, duplication and irrelevance of classroom settings in relation
to real life society. Further, findings show that in-service teacher training enables teachers to
pursue promotion opportunities in support to Morrison’s (1993) findings that teachers train to
upgrade and qualify for higher positions. The findings that in-service teacher training
motivates teachers on their job, and instigates a change in teachers’ behavior, attitudes, andcapabilities all focused on cultivating professional etiquette required to perform adequately
resonate with conclusions arrived at by Hersey and Blanchard (1988), Ololube (2005) andJunaid and Maka (2015).
Table 4: Perception of effect of in-service teacher training on professional development
Effect of in-service training on
professional development ofteachers
It enables teachers acquire newskills and knowledge
ii. It enables teachers provide quality
education to learners
iii. It enables teachers upgrade theiracademic qualification
iv. It enables teachers to acquire
promotionv. It enables teachers to play a key rolein the proper implementation ofvarious education policies andprograms
vi. It broadens and deepens teachers’
own knowledge, increases on theircompetence, reliability andresponsibilityvii. In-service trained teachers become
more professional by mastering thecontent
viii. In-service trained teachers become
more professional by getting
motivated on the job
ix. In-service trained teachers have agood command of their academic
subjects and ably meet the needs oflearners
x. Teachers who have had in-service
teacher training are good performers
in school
xi. In-service trained head teachers are
better administrators than thosetaught through other programs

Strongly
disagreeDisagree

Agree

Strongly
agreeMedian

0.67

2.00

34.17

63.17

4

2.68

6.54

55.37

35.40

3

0.66

3.29

25.16

70.89

4

0.99

4.95

24.42

69.64

4

1.49

9.93

51.99

36.59

3

1.83

6.67

45.00

46.50

3

5.26

13.32

53.13

28.29

3

7.48

20.44

56.57

15.51

3

1.84

13.04

56.35

28.76

3

6.11

21.12

49.50

23.27

3

7.72

23.83

41.78

26.68

3

i.

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Findings from the interviews show that in-service trained teachers are better teachers as far asprovision of education is concerned. A head teacher was quick to note that they are better andmore sociable (Field Interview No. 2) while another said that in-service trained teachers areserious at their work, especially if they are in positions of responsibility (Field Interview No.
3). “Those who are serious at work provide quality education and are good administrators,”
observed one district education officer (Field Interview No. 9). Another education officer
noted that when in-service trained teachers are promoted in administrative positions, they are
motivated to even improve their teaching abilities and to provide a good example for otherteachers as well as learners (Field Interview No. 7). This in turn increases their level ofprofessionalism (Field Interview No. 5). Professionalism is also measured in terms of
qualification for promotion. One inspector of schools asserted that in-service teacher training
provides opportunity for teachers to further their education, which is key in acquiringpromotion (Field Interview No. 6). Another school leader noted that in fact, the ability of ateacher to use different teaching techniques gives them a competitive edge when applying for
promotion (Field Interview No. 2). An education officer confirmed this saying that “whenlooking for teachers to hold positions of responsibility, those with better qualifications takefirst priority” (Field Interview No. 9).
With regard to teaching technique, one inspector of schools observed that in-service trainedteachers teach better because they teach their subjects of specialization (Field Interview No.
6). Since teachers individually select these subjects during the in-service teacher training, itshows that they take joy in both learning and teaching them, which facilitates a better
teaching-learning environment (Field Interview No. 8). One school head, however, asserted
that in-service trained teachers only become better teachers if they strictly apply the gained
knowledge and skills (Field Interview No. 1). With regard to learners’ experiences, a headteacher observed that in his school, pupils had better relationships with in-service trainedteachers and were more sociable during their classes (Field Interview No. 10). “They (inservice trained teachers) encourage pupils to build teams and you find that their pupils easily
make groups to enable their academic work,” said another head teacher of the pupils inclasses taught by in-service trained teachers (Field Interview No. 12).
A head teacher in Sheema and another in Bushenyi noted that in-service trained teachers who
are talented at co-curricular activities are always eager to assist pupils in various games (Field
Interview No. 11 and Field Interview No. 13). In-service trained teachers also give theirpupils free time to socialize and make groups that help them play different games dependingon the likes of the group (Field Interview No. 18). Some head teachers in Sheema andRukungiri reported that in-service trained teachers not only help with games but also withother skills such as music and scouting (Field Interview No. 16), handiwork like making
carpets, baskets, and table cloths (Field Interview No. 2) and other outside class activities likegardening and compound cleaning (Field Interview No. 17).
Though the effect of in-service teacher training on professional development is colored withapproval, our study also found, through key informant interviews, that not all in-service
trained teachers provide good education and their professional development is suspect as
discussed in the subsequent section.
Most head teachers expressed disappointment in the professional discipline of in-service
trained teachers noting their inability to yield to leadership. One head teacher noted that whenteachers upgrade to the same level of qualification, they become undisciplined (Field
Interview No. 1). This train of thought was further supported by two officials in Rukungiri

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who both observed lack of discipline cases among in-service trained teachers, mostly in cases
where the teachers became more or equally as qualified as their head teachers (Field
Interview No. 5 and Field Interview No. 8). Some such cases, as observed by one headteacher, involve in-service trained teachers refusing to teach infant classes which they
initially taught before the training (Field Interview No. 2). This was attributed to theintroduction of thematic curriculum, which emphasizes teaching infants in vernacular.
“However, in-service trained teachers often show resentment towards this method with apreference to use the English language in teaching,” he added. Another head teacher
contributed to the arguments saying that in some instances, an unhealthy competition and inothers disrespect for authority have been instigated between teachers and their supervisors(Field Interview No. 6).
Another school head teacher observed that most teachers would, after the training, demand
immediate promotion (Field Interview No. 4) and salary increment and when not granted,
they “simply become stubborn and indisciplined” (Field Interview No. 3). An official in one
education department said that after getting better qualifications, teachers feel that theyshould be promoted on the job even when vacant positions are not available at the moment(Field Interview No. 7). One head teacher expressed similar sentiments saying that in-service
trained teachers develop a superiority complex and often overlook other teachers especiallythose without training (Field Interview No. 2). This resentment was often aggravated whentrained and untrained teachers still earn the same salary. A district official expressed that after
in-service teacher training, most teachers start a pursuit of transition from classroom work toschool administration (Field Interview No. 18). Accordingly, this stifles the fulfillment ofprofessional ethics such as preparation of schemes of work and lesson plans, which renders
in-service trained teachers inefficient. Another officer in Bushenyi seemed to agree sayingthat in-service trained teachers, after graduation, tend to abandon actual teaching inpreference for administrative positions (Field Interview No. 16).
Some key informants expressed disappointment in the education system stating that it seems
in-service teacher training is not a priority for the education ministry and teachers have totake individual initiatives to pursue the course. One official pointed out that teachers were notgiven time off to participate in the training and often found themselves in a fix whereby they
had to teach and study all at the same time (Field Interview No. 14). He explained that thetwo programs were done concurrently which left teachers no time to complete the syllabus.
One head teacher added that in-service trained teachers at times used classroom time to attend
to their studies, hold discussions, answer assignments and so on, leaving them little time tostick to actual teaching (Field Interview No. 15). Another head teacher pointed out that when
he was attending the training some years prior to the study, he always found himself stuckwith duties to perform such as preparing schemes of work, eight lesson plans per day andgeneral school administration in addition to the training (Field Interview No. 10). According
to him, the pressure to perform both responsibilities was overpowering, he always foundhimself underperforming at one of them.
Some respondents questioned the ministry of education on the way in-service training isorganized. One official noted that teachers are, during the training, exposed to many
innovations. However, when they go back to their schools, they do not practice what they
have been taught because it does not blend into the stipulated school syllabus. This interface
in the application of acquired knowledge stifles the morale of trained teachers who cannot
realize the impact of their training (Field Interview No. 17). A head teacher in the same
district contributed to the discussion saying that the ministry imposes many changes in the30

IAFOR Journal of Education

Volume 7 – Issue 1 – Summer 2019syllabus which teachers must implement yet they are not sensitized on proper application
procedures (Field Interview No. 11). Another official in the education department added thatin-service teacher training is designed on a syllabus that is not consistent with the one
available in schools, yet nothing has been done to enhance coherence (Field Interview No.
13). Further, schools are not equipped with sufficient resources in the form of scholastic
materials, incentives and a favorable learning environment to accommodate in-service
graduates’ skills.
These sentiments all point to a weakness within Uganda’s education system in failing toharmonize its policies to benefit both teachers and learners. As such, the majority of teachers
have pursued in-service teacher training not to improve their teaching abilities and learners’
attainment of education but rather for promotion purposes and to qualify for salary increment.
Inferential Analysis
The Mann-Whitney U test was used to discover the impact of respondent’s status of inservice training on their perception of effect of in-service teacher training on professional
development. We tested the null that in-service teacher training status of respondent had no
significant effect on ranking of criteria for effect of in-service teacher training on professional
development.
Table 4: Perception of effect of in-service teacher training on professional development by
respondent’s status of training

Mann-Whitney U
Wilcoxon WZ
p-value

In-service teacher training
enables teachers acquire newskills and knowledge
20501
24687
-2.0740.038

In-service teacher training
enables teachers upgrade
their academic qualification
21231
25791
-2.517
0.012

Findings show that teachers without in-service teacher training ranked “In-service teacher
training enables teachers to acquire new skills and knowledge” and “In-service teacher
training enables teachers to upgrade their academic qualification” less favorably than inservice trained teachers with p-values less than 0.05. Other criteria did not show significant
difference.
Conclusion
The relevance of in-service teacher training on professional development of teachers cannot
be overemphasized. Our study shows that in-service teacher training has its largest influence
on upgrading teachers’ academic qualifications and improving their attitude towards their job.
In-service teacher training also plays a big role in equipping, broadening and deepening
teachers’ knowledge and skills, which in turn fosters an increase in teachers’ competence,
reliability, and responsibility. Further, the training equips head teachers and teachers alikewith the administrative skills necessary to enable proper implementation of various education
policies and programs. Generally, in-service trained teachers are more professionallygrounded than untrained teachers thus in-service teacher training aids the building of a31

IAFOR Journal of Education

Volume 7 – Issue 1 – Summer 2019qualified teaching workforce, whose effect on the teaching-learning environment instigates areform in the education system.
Whereas in-service teacher training has been hailed for stimulating professional development,
our study finds that not all in-service trained teachers provide good education. This is due toresource constraints such as insufficient instructional materials and teachers’ accommodationand personal behavior challenges such as stubbornness, disobedience to leadership andalcoholism among others. Beyond in-service training, a teacher’s performance is a reflection,
to a larger extent, of the context within which he or she is working. To this end, the study
recommends that learning environments within education institutions be made more
conducive for the teaching-learning process.
Our findings further provide evidence that in-service teacher training has actually not realized
its core objective on the ultimate beneficiary, the learner and has rather been pursued only asa means towards promotion and consequent salary increment. With this in mind, werecommend proper sensitization of teachers on the importance of the training and its effect onlearners’ attainment of education. The training approach must also be reviewed and revised toinclude a pre-training needs analysis, and training and post-training evaluation to assess theimpact of the training in teaching-learning processes.

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Corresponding author: Faith Atuhumuze
Contact email: atuhumuzefaith@gmail.com

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The Effects of Student Success Workshops on Undergraduate Hispanic STEM Students
on the U.S.-Mexico Border
J. Elizabeth Casey
The University of Texas Permian Basin, USA
Runchang Lin
Texas A&M International University, USA
Selina V. Mireles
The University of Texas Permian Basin, USA
Rohitha Goonatilake
Texas A&M International University, USA

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Abstract
The goal of the College of Arts & Sciences Community-aid (CASC-aid) project, a National
Science Foundation grant funded study (2016-2021), is to develop, implement, and evaluate a
program that fosters a community of academic success for Hispanic STEM students. This
Hispanic Serving Institute continues to provide a variety of supports to safeguard success for
Hispanic CASC-aid scholars through effective communication. Along with scholarships,
Project CASC-aid delivers mentoring and intervention strategies related to non-cognitive
behavioral practices to ensure scholars are motivated and empowered, and to support thepostsecondary educational success of Hispanic students (Blackwell, Trzesniewski, & Dweck,2007). Embedded within the research is a Formative Experiment (Reinking & Bradley,2008), which allowed researchers to gather data on one facet of the project. CASC-aid
scholars responded to surveys after Student Success Workshops held across the 2017-2019
academic years. Analysis of results demonstrated that workshops were effective in supporting
students’ long-term goals, career major decisions, and overall knowledge of a wider STEM
field.
Keywords: Hispanic, undergraduate, STEM, supports, workshops

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Introduction
Hispanic students are often disproportionately underprepared, underrepresented, andunderserved in science, technology, engineering, and mathematical (STEM) fields. Data froma variety of sources indicate that Hispanic students are often far below their whitecounterparts in reading and STEM areas on national and international assessments (DeSilver,
2017; NAEP, 2017). Likewise, a report in New Scientist, citing the United States Departmentof Education, revealed that: “Hispanics occupy only 2% of the STEM workforce in the
United States. Additionally, only 10% of college and university degrees awarded in the
STEM field are given to Hispanics” (2016, para. 4). The goal of the College of Arts &Sciences Community-aid (CASC-aid) project, a National Science Foundation (NSF) grant
funded study, is to develop, implement, and evaluate a program that fosters a community ofacademic success for Hispanic students majoring in a STEM field. Students selected forinclusion as CASC-aid scholars receive academic and student mentoring services during
mathematics courses. The purpose of this project is to support Hispanic students with avariety of interventions to ensure they can successfully navigate towards an undergraduate
degree in a STEM field.
Project CASC-aid provides scholars by: (a) enhancing the first courses in the mathematics
sequence, to include college algebra and calculus 1-3; (b) incorporating Learning Support incoursework, which is an alternative to traditional recitation in that learners engage in realworld applications and anticipate common misconceptions; (c) offering professor-led
Community Tutoring for scholars; (d) providing Success Workshops that cultivate mentoringand yield research and service learning opportunities; and, (e) providing extensive
educational experiences, events, and resources (e.g., career guidance, advising, and field
trips) to all participants. In this manuscript, researchers will describe the findings of one of
the support mechanisms put into place to enhance CASC-aid students’ awareness of career
trajectories available post-graduation. Success Workshops allow for communication andconnections between CASC-aid student scholars, faculty, and invited speakers across a rangeof topics directly related to career paths.
The project team designed these provisions to support and foster a community of Hispanic
STEM students as they enter and exit college, completing an undergraduate degree in a
STEM field. Many CASC-aid scholars are first generation college students, thus it is vital toensure they receive effective communication about support opportunities available to them.
Project CASC-aid scholars all receive sustained attention beyond that provided by theuniversity, and key in this is the inclusion of communication at all levels to build acommunity of practice for scholars (Lave & Wenger, 1991; Tinto & Goodsell-Love, 1998).
The first author and co-principal investigator (co-PI) developed a survey instrument to assess
the effectiveness of Success Workshops in supporting students in the CASC-aid program.
The second author and Principal Investigator (PI) invited guest speakers/scholars working in
STEM fields to make presentations in a series of lectures across three semesters between the
2017-2019 academic years. The project team collected data on students’ perceptions of theseworkshops after multiple presentations. Likewise, the PI developed Success Workshops toinclude presenters who are intellectuals in their respective fields. Results from data analysis
revealed that the workshops had a positive impact on CASC-aid scholars’ major, job
knowledge, job prospects, and career fields. Likewise, respondents demonstrated a highdegree of belief in the workshops and Project CASC-aid in supporting their needs as STEM
students.

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Area of Concern
The percentage of Hispanic students graduating with college degrees from undergraduate
programs is lower than their white counterparts for a variety of reasons (Baylor, 2016; Kao &Thompson, 2003; Viadero & Johnston, 2000), but when considering minority students’attainment of a STEM undergraduate degree, there is cause for concern (Carpi, Ronan,
Falconer, & Lents, 2017; ed.gov, 2012; Leonard, 2016). In a report on Hispanics and STEM
education, it was determined that “Hispanic students are more likely to be taught science byteachers who did not major in that field or by inexperienced teachers” (Crisp & Nora, 2012,p. 5). Based on empirical data, Hispanic students along the South Texas border region aredisproportionately underprepared, underrepresented, and underserved in STEM fields. This
under-preparation begins early in students’ educational endeavors in K-12 settings. Recent
data from NAEP (2017) indicated that from “1992 through 2017, the average reading score
for White 8th-graders was higher than the scores of their Black and Hispanic peers” (p.7) The
Committee on STEM Education noted that on international mathematics and scienceassessments, “Hispanic U.S. eighth graders had scores equivalent to those of students incountries ranked in the bottom third of the 45 countries that participated in the 8th grade
science assessment” (2013, p.2), while white U.S. eighth graders ranked fourth behind
Singapore, Chinese Taipei, and Korea.
Hispanic students entering college are already behind their white, college bound peers. As
noted previously, Hispanic students lag behind their eighth-grade peers across the globe oninternational science assessments (Committee on STEM Education). Furthermore, on the2015 Program for International Student Assessment, in science and reading, U.S. 15-yearolds ranked 24th, and in math, U.S. 15-year-olds ranked 39th (DeSilver, 2017). Thus, it isessential to ensure that positive outcomes at the college level are possible for minorities andfemales, two underrepresented groups in STEM careers; and these outcomes include
undergraduate graduation from a STEM field. In addition to under-preparation, Baylor (2016)noted 21% of black students and 16% of Hispanic students have an undergraduate degree,
while 43% of their white peers have graduate from college. Likewise, some universities haveclosed door policies for minorities (Baylor, 2016). These factors all pose additional barriersfor Hispanic students seeking a STEM degree.
Along with under-preparation in K-12 schooling, acquiring an undergraduate degree, andpotential difficulty getting into college, there are other general roadblocks to STEM retention
and completion for Hispanic students in undergraduate bachelor’s programs. One roadblockincludes mathematics. Researchers have demonstrated that mathematics attainment is acornerstone to college access, degree completion, and specifically to successful STEM
pursuit (Kredell, 2017; uschamberfoundation.org). Likewise, a strong academic mathprogram through completion of higher-level math in high school is important to success incollege (Adelman, 2006). McCormick and Lucas (2011) noted that mathematics preparation
at the high school level plays a prominent role in students’ “hopes and dreams for a college
degree” (p. 1). However, researchers are unsure of the added benefit pre-Calculus and otherdevelopmental math courses at the college level have on students’ later success in collegelevel Calculus (Bressoud, 2016). Additionally, girls’ self-efficacy in math is a strong
predictor of declaring a STEM major (Brookshire, 2017).
In addition, an important barrier to enhanced college graduation rates from underrepresented
students in STEM fields is a lack of college knowledge (Brooks-Terry, 1988; Horn & Nuñez,
2000; Ishanti & DesJardins, 2002; Ishanti, 2006; Moschetti & Hudley, 2014). There is a highcorrelation between low socioeconomic status and college graduation, and this has led

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Volume 7 – Issue 1 – Summer 2019researchers to extend beyond content knowledge in search of obstacles to college graduation(Estep, 2016; Rheinschmidt & Mendoza-Denton, 2014). One common area identified was the
misunderstanding of college readiness. Conley (2007) defines college readiness as consistingof four concentric ideas: (a) key cognitive strategies, (b) key content, (c) academic behaviors,and (d) contextual skills and awareness. This underscores the idea that students need morethan content knowledge to be successful in college. Research conducted through theAmerican College Testing (ACT) agency revealed that underserved students, that is, first
generation college students, often fail to achieve benchmarks, and this can lead to“progressively lower college and career readiness rates” 2018, p. 9). In addition, there is anaffective component related to a student’s STEM college identity and high-achieving highschool STEM students do not identify with: (a) feelings of low self-confidence and/or selfefficacy, (b) a lack time management and test taking skills, or, (c) ideas of low motivationand determination (Huguenin, 2014). This is often not the case for their underpreparedminority counterparts.
Hispanic students may lack college knowledge, but they may also lack an understanding of
job opportunities that align with specific STEM degrees. The Student Success workshops
provided through Project CASC-aid may support student understanding and learning, as wellas fill a knowledge gap for scholars.
Potential Solution: Supports for CASC-aid Scholars
In our ever-changing technological society, there is a growing need for a substantive call toincreasing the number of Hispanic and other minority students graduating fromundergraduate STEM programs. Multiple studies have determined that undergraduate
research opportunities can support and increase retention of minority students in STEM
majors (Carpi & Lents, 2013; Junge, Quinones, Kakietek, Teodorescu, & Marsteller, 2010;
Kardash, 2000; Nagda, Gregerman, Jonides, von Hippel, & Lerner, 1998). However, not allcolleges and universities offer research opportunities at the undergraduate level. Thus, it isimperative to provide interventions that ensure Hispanic and other minority students are
successful in completing undergraduate degrees, particularly STEM degrees.
Notably, a Report from the Committee on STEM Education National Science andTechnology Council (2013), and the follow-up progress report from the Office of Scienceand Technology Policy (OSTP, 2016), highlighted the following need: “Increase the numberof underrepresented groups that graduate with STEM degrees in the next 10 years andimprove women’s participation in areas of STEM where they are significantly
underrepresented” (2016, p. 12). As new technologies advance daily, it is important tosupport Hispanic STEM students in graduating with an undergraduate STEM degree,
particularly female students.
Additionally, the House of Representatives (H.R.) Bill 2653: STEM Opportunities Act(2017) noted that “In 2015, underrepresented minority groups comprised 39 percent of thecollege-age population of the United States, but only 17 percent of students earning
bachelor’s degrees in STEM fields” (p. 3, lines 1-4). The STEM Opportunities Act (II.c.1)
aims to increase “implementation or expansion of innovative, research-based approaches tobroaden participation of underrepresented minority groups in STEM fields” (p. 32, lines 6-9).
Project CASC-aid is an innovative, NSF grant funded study that aims to increase
underrepresented students into STEM fields. The Student Success Workshops are just one
support provided for Hispanic students, many of whom are first-generation college students;

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and these workshops showcased an invited speaker to provide information about different
career choices students might consider upon graduation.
Project CASC-aid.
This project addresses two general issues interfering with our nation’s STEM progress. First,
the project team developed multiple elements to support Hispanic students toward a college
degree in a STEM field, including a variety of success mechanisms, one of which is theaforementioned Student Success Workshops. The outcomes of the Student SuccessWorkshops will be addressed in this paper. However, there are a host of other supports
provided to CASC-aid scholars. To address support for students’ lack of college knowledge,
student mentoring is key.
Enriquez (2011) noted that first-generation Hispanic college students need to know aboutcollege readiness and attainability. Presently, first-generation college students remain far
behind their peers in college readiness (act.org, 2016; NAEP, 2016; Viadero & Johnston,2000). Hispanic students face many barriers when considering college, including difficulties
in: (a) navigating through college applications, (b) filling out financial aid packets, and (c)overcoming cultural barriers. Individuals who have lived those experiences can best addressthese complications. The South Texas borderland region is rich in mentoring potential.
Successful college graduates who reside in the area can often be the best mentors for firstgeneration college students (Enriquez, 2011). CASC-aid experts in the field have enlisted a
network of mentors who will guide students into post-secondary, academic success.
Next, a strategic directive at retaining students was also key for Project CASC-aid. Retention
strategies for CASC-aid scholars are holistic and layered. Primarily, the project will build
community among and across each cohort of scholars. Research on Residential Colleges
supports the potential success of the College Algebra Course (Tinto, 2012). And, thisparticular aspect has been proven successful under the direction of the third author/co-PI in
2011, with a central Texas high school group. In addition, cohorts will be defined by themathematics courses, as enrollment in a CASC-aid mathematics course is a requirement ofscholars. Other aspects of Project CASC-aid rely on Communities of Practice (Lave &Wenger, 1991) that are built by Community Tutoring and Success Workshops. All CASC-aid
scholars, regardless of which mathematics course they are in, will be able to attend
Community Tutoring, which includes regularly scheduled tutoring time facilitated by the PI
and fourth-author/co-PI.
Finally, the project team designed the Student Success Workshops to support college
knowledge (Conley, 2007) and STEM job knowledge for CASC-aid scholars. Examples ofworkshop topics supplying students with college knowledge included: (a) “Building andWriting a Resume”; (b) “Understanding the GRE”; and, (c) “Panel: Hispanics in STEM
Professions”. University and CASC-aid representatives were on hand to provide updates onadvising, internships, and financial aid deadlines to further support scholars. To enhance
students’ job knowledge in STEM fields, the PI invited STEM Researchers/Intellectuals intheir respective fields to present career opportunities that students may be unaware of as along-term job goal. These workshops focused on a variety of strategies to support scholars,
and all workshops included mentoring activities and opportunities.
The elements of Project CASC-aid have cultivated a positive, synergistic STEM community
with clear lines of communication to ensure CASC-aid scholars are supported in all

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Volume 7 – Issue 1 – Summer 2019endeavors they undertake. Communication is a key function of this project, and it isnecessary to ensure CASC-aids scholars receive full benefit of the supports available to them.
Literature Review
In a search of the ERIC (EBSCO) database using the keywords Hispanic, undergraduate,
STEM, and supports, 14 articles were retrieved. The number dropped to seven articles when acriterion for peer reviewed manuscripts was entered. Of those seven, several articles
described successful programs with targeted interventions to retain Hispanic students towarddegree completion. First, Carpi, Ronan, Falconer, Boyd, and Lents (2013) described a seriesof targeted supports for retaining students at Hispanic Serving Institutions (HSIs). Supports
included: (a) a math and science resource center; (b) paced science courses; (c) faculty
development seminars; (d) math/science curricular alignment; and, (e) department student
science awards. Efforts led to increased graduation rates for Hispanic students in Forensic
Science (Carpi et al., 2013).
Slovacek, Whittinghill, Flenoury, and Wiseman (2012) examined “programs funded by the
National Institutes of Health Minority Opportunities in Research (MORE)” (p. 199) anddetermined that students supported by the MORE program graduated more quickly withhigher GPAs, and many more entered a graduate program. Slovacek et al. (2012) reviewed
eight years of student data from participants in MORE and non-MORE schools, comparing
several models, including Tinto’s (1975) and Swail’s (2003) Model. Students in the MORE
program were highly successful. In their discussion, Slovacek et al. (2012) noted that “resultsof the study then lend credence to the hypothesis that an institution, through a range ofinterventions aimed at supporting different aspects of the student experience, can have adramatic impact on the outcomes of students traditionally underrepresented in the scienceswith respect to graduation and the pursuit of advanced degrees” (p. 213).
Notably, a phenomenological case study by Sriram and Diaz (2016) collected data on 13
minority students’ perceptions of their STEM identity as part of a Living-Learning program
while attending a predominantly white university. Students’ responses were positive andstudents felt that they were part of a family. Surprisingly, “all participants agreed that theyfelt more of a minority as a STEM major on campus as a whole than they did as a student ofcolor” (Sriram & Diaz, 2016, p.14). Authors suggested more qualitative research to delve intominority students’ as STEM majors. Flower (2014) described how HSI’s support students in
STEM areas. Likewise, Jackson, Starobin, and Laanan (2013) noted that women andunderrepresented minorities must have support from colleges and universities to be
successful in STEM areas, a traditionally white, male field.
Minority students often need support to be successful in college; and when considering firstgeneration Hispanic students majoring in a STEM field, support mechanisms to ensure
successful degree completion is vital. Project CASC-aid provides multiple supports forscholars, and the Student Success Workshops provided a layer of support to ensure students
were familiar with a variety of options, post-graduation, for career fields.
MethodWith Internal Review Board (IRB) approval, the PI and co-PIs conducted an exploratory
study from October, 2017 through October, 2018 utilizing a formative experiment (Reinking& Bradley, 2008) to determine the effects of Student Success Workshops on CASC-aid

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Volume 7 – Issue 1 – Summer 2019scholars’ awareness of prospective jobs, post-graduation. Formative experiments align withdesign-based research (Van den Akker, Gravemeijer, McKenney, & Nieveen, 2006). The firstauthor/co-PI selected a framework outlined by Reinking and Bradley (2008) that included six
components to guide the project team toward achieving the selected goal of increasing
CASC-aid scholars’ knowledge of jobs in STEM fields prior to graduation through SuccessWorkshops. The project team followed these six components when beginning this exploratory
study:(1) select an important goal undergirded with theory and prior research;(2) identify research and theory to assist with achieving the goal;(3) collect data on aspects that enhance and/or diminish achievement of the goal;(4) modify the intervention to make it more appealing to all stakeholders;(5) anticipate positive and negative changes that the intervention produces; and,(6) identify changes that have occurred as a result of the intervention.
The goal identified in this formative experiment was to increase STEM majors’
understanding of career opportunities, post-graduation, through Student Success Workshops.
Unlike other methodologies, which identify a research question or hypothesis, a formative
experiment sets a desired goal that if achieved, will have consequential validity (Gravemeijer& Cobb, 2006). It was important to the project team that future job prospects were clearlyand effectively articulated to CASC-aid scholars while still enrolled in college. In thismanner, students might choose to: (a) streamline a degree; (b) change a major fromengineering to math, or math to science, and other; and/or, (c) intern with a professor or
employer in an area that interests them as a future job.
To determine the effectiveness of the Student Success Workshops geared toward job
knowledge, the first author developed a Likert survey (Figure 1) consisting of 18 questions.
Students had five options when responding to survey statements: strongly agree (SA), agree(A), neutral (N), disagree (D), and strongly disagree (SD). After analysis of survey
instruments, it was determined that the Student Success Workshops were well-received byscholars and are an effective support for students as they move closer toward their goal of
graduating with an undergraduate degree in a STEM field.

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Figure 1: Researcher-developed survey instrument
Participants and Setting
Across 2017-2019 academic years, CASC-aid scholars attended multiple Success Workshops
to hear guest speakers describe their STEM research and/or area of expertise. CASC-aid
scholars attended workshops on campus in rooms where they regularly attend STEM classes.
The number of participants attending each of the workshop varied in size, with a range from
6 participants to 32 participants. Student participants’ gender, major, class standing, andanticipated graduation date varied with each workshop (Table 1).
Table 1: Information on workshop participants
Date
Participants in
attendance
Male
FemaleFreshman
Sophomore
JuniorSeniorEngineeringMathScience
Hispanic
participation

October,
2017
32

November,
2017
14

January,
201816

February,
2018
12

October
3, 2018
6

October 18,
2018
8

80%
20%
0%
6%
19%
75%
81%
12%
6%
100%

78%
22%
7%
29%
43%
21%
64%
14.3%
21.4%
100%

80%
20%
0%
18%
32%
50%
75%
25%
0%
93.8%

75%
25%
0%
0%
30%
70%
63.6%
36.4%
0%
91.7%

66.7%
33.3%
0%
16.7%
0%
83.3%
100%
0%
0%
100%

50%
50%
0%
25%
12.5%
62.5%
50%
50%
0%
100%

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The six Student Success Workshops were entitled: (1) "System Dynamics Simulation
Modeling"; (2) "Drilling Optimization and Drill Stem Vibration Modeling"; (3) "Vectorborne
Diseases and Prevalence in South Texas Region"; (4) "The Action of the Kauffman Bracket
Skein Algebra of the Torus on the Skein Module of the 3-twist Knot Complement"; (5)“Current Memory Technology Trends; and, (6) “Weak Galerkin Finite Element Method with
Mixed Boundary Conditions”. Sessions lasted approximately one hour and included aquestion and answer session at the end to support effective communication for scholars.
Students filled out Likert-scale surveys based on their experience with the speakers and/or
content of workshop.
At all workshops, 100% of students identified as Hispanic/Latino except for the third andfourth workshops, with one student identifying as Asian/Pacific Islander at each session.
Materials and Procedure
The PI and co-PIs working on this project are committed to ensuring that scholars attainmaximum benefit from all supports provided through Project CASC-aid and the survey
instrument developed by the first author was an attempt to better understand whether
information provided by invited speakers at Student Success Workshops was helpful andmeaningful for scholars as they move forward in the program. The PI/second author wanted
to ensure students learned about a variety of career fields that might be unfamiliar at thisstage in their academic careers and the first author/co-PI wanted to determine if scholars
were, in fact, unfamiliar with a potential career option. CASC-aid scholars received
information, handouts, and contacts to further support effective communication. At the end ofeach workshop, scholars received a survey to fill out. All surveys were anonymous, and no
identifying markers to match a particular student with the information he/she provided wasavailable during analysis of data. The first author was not present at workshops or when
students filled out surveys. The PI handed out and collected all surveys, and subsequently
sent them to the co-PI after they had been completed. Surveys were developed by the firstauthor, and validity and reliability of the survey instrument is ongoing. Controlling variables
such as location, length or workshop, and presentation style of workshops is one component
used to increase validity. Increasing randomization of sample of CASC-aid participants isdone through changing the time of the workshop to ensure participants’ schedules don’tinterfere with their ability to participate in workshop.
Results
After data analysis from six sets of surveys, researchers determined that Student SuccessWorkshops provided an effective support to build job knowledge for CASC-aid scholars.
Responses to survey items were positive (Table 2), although there was some confusion
among scholars as to whether the workshops were mandatory.
Table 2: Student-participants’ responses to survey items one, two, and three
Survey Question One: This workshop was beneficial.
Strongly
Agree
Neither
Disagree
Agree
Agree nor
DisagreeWorkshop One: System Dynamics
29%
39%
19%
9%
Simulation ModelingWorkshop Two: Drilling
57%
36%
0%
0%
Optimization and Drill Stem
Vibration Modeling

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Strongly
Disagree
3%
7%

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Workshop Three: Vectorborne
50%
31%
0%
0%
Diseases and Prevalence in South
Texas Region
Workshop Four: The Action of the
25%
33.3%
33.3%
0%
Kauffman Bracket Skein Algebra of
the Torus on the Skein Module ofthe 3-twist Knot Complement
Workshop Five: Current Memory
50%
50%
0%
0%
Technology Trends
Workshop Six: Weak Galerkin
50%
37.5%
12.5%
0%
Finite Element Method with Mixed
Boundary Conditions
Survey Question Two: The speaker was motivating
Strongly
Agree
Neither
Disagree
Agree
Agree nor
DisagreeWorkshop One: System Dynamics
34%
19%
31%
13%
Simulation ModelingWorkshop Two: Drilling
36%
50%
7%
7%
Optimization and Drill Stem
Vibration ModelingWorkshop Three: Vectorborne
25%
56%
12%
6%
Diseases and Prevalence in South
Texas Region
Workshop Four: The Action of the
50%
16.7%
33.3%
0%
Kauffman Bracket Skein Algebra of
the Torus on the Skein Module ofthe 3-twist Knot Complement
Workshop Five: Current Memory
66.7%
33.3%
0%
0%
Technology Trends
Workshop Six: Weak Galerkin
25%
50%
25%
0%
Finite Element Method with Mixed
Boundary Conditions
Survey Question Three: I learned about a new career option
Strongly
Agree
Neither
Disagree
Agree
Agree nor
DisagreeWorkshop One: System Dynamics
16%
34%
25%
20%
Simulation ModelingWorkshop Two: Drilling
29%
64%
0%
0%
Optimization and Drill Stem
Vibration ModelingWorkshop Three: Vectorborne
12%
25%
31%
19%
Diseases and Prevalence in South
Texas Region
Workshop Four: The Action of the
16.7%
41.7%
25%
8/3%
Kauffman Bracket Skein Algebra of
the Torus on the Skein Module ofthe 3-twist Knot Complement
Workshop Five: Current Memory
33.3%
33.3%
33.3%
0%
Technology Trends
Workshop Six: Weak Galerkin
25%
12.5%
50%
0%
Finite Element Method with Mixed
Boundary Conditions

47

19%
8.3%

0%
0%

Strongly
Disagree
3%
7%
0%
0%

0%
0%

Strongly
Disagree
6%
7%
13%
8.3%

0%
12.5%

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Survey results based on question one demonstrate that most students believed workshops
were beneficial, with more than half of scholars selecting agree or strongly agree across all
speakers. The second, third, and fifth workshops had the highest percent of students being
motivated by the speaker. As a result, the PI and co-PIs would recommend speakers withknowledge on Drilling Optimization, Vectorborne Diseases, and Technology Trends as more
beneficial for STEM students. The third item, “I learned about a new career option” provided
an immediate response for the research team. This survey item, in particular, will aid the
project team in identifying STEM scholars to speak at workshops.
When students’ responses on the first three questions were compared, the most successful
workshop in terms of guest speaker was the second workshop, in which students wereintroduced to “Drilling Optimization and Drill Stem Vibration Modeling”. Likewise, thesecond workshop introduced 93% of CASC-aid scholars to a new career option. This study
took place in south Texas, and oil is a big industry in the state so this guest speakereffectively communicated potential career options to students that they may not have beenaware of and/or considering. However, question eight, “After this workshop, I am thinking
about other career options”, provided mixed results. Students across all six workshops wereconsidering other career options after listening to invited speakers (Figures 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, & 7);
but, it was after the fourth and fifth workshops that the largest percentage of students
attending the presentation were considering a career change.

Figures 2 and 3: Students considered a career path change-Workshops one and two.

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Figures 4 and 5: Students considered a career path change -Workshops three and four.

Figures 6 and 7: Students considered a career path change-Workshops five and six.

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Questions five through seven (Figure 1) were developed to determine students’ beliefs about
supports CASC-aid scholars received from workshops. Students’ responses on statements
five through seven were higher for some workshops. For example, for the statement “I wantmore workshops like this one”, workshops two and five received the strongest number ofstudents selecting A or SA: 56.3%, 92.8%, 87.6%, 54.6%, 100%, & 62.5% with scores acrossall six workshops mostly positive respectively. On the statement “other CASC-aid scholars
would benefit from workshops”, students again responded SA or A in moderate to highpercentages: 75%, 78.5%, 81.3%, 58.3%. 83.4%, & 62.5%. Finally, on the statement“workshops support my learning as a STEM student”, students who selected A or SA washigh across all six workshops respectively: 81.3%, 78.6%, 75.1%, 91.7%, 100%, & 100%.
Students selected A or SA that the “CASC-aid program is supportive” (90%, 78.6%, 100%,
83.4%, 100%, & 100%) and that they are “being prepared for a career in a STEM field as a
CASC-aid scholar” (65.7%, 50%, 93.6%, 91.6%, 100%, & 87.5%) across the six workshops
respectively. Notably, after workshop two, half of students did not believe they were being
prepared for a STEM career; this might be explained because the guest speaker and topic
were new for the majority of students. Furthermore, students may have felt underpreparedafter listening to a speaker talk about a career with which they were unfamiliar. Students mayneed additional support to ensure they feel they are being prepared for a career in a STEM
field, especially if speakers are presenting new and possibly challenging career options that
overwhelm undergraduate students.
Discussion and Recommendations
The use of Student Success Workshops to support Hispanic students majoring in a STEM
area at the undergraduate level demonstrated a positive effect on student participants’learning. This formative experiment (Reinking and Bradley, 2008) was an exploratory study
that is part of a larger research study to determine the effectiveness of interventions provided
by Project CASC-aid to support Hispanic students majoring in STEM fields. During successworkshops, students: (a) learned new information, (b) considered new career options they
were unfamiliar with prior to invited speakers, and (c) received effective communication andsupports from researchers/intellectuals in STEM career fields.
Recommendations include replication of Student Success Workshops to add to theknowledge base. More qualitative data would be beneficial; and data should include
interviews with students before they have attended any workshops, and interviews after they
have attended three or more workshops. Interviews might provide more relevant data about
students’ responses to workshops and benefits they believed they received by attending.
Similarly, students might provide researchers with their thoughts on drawbacks of theworkshops or provide input for future speakers/topics. Overall, the workshops were seen tobe beneficial.
Conclusions
Analysis of results were encouraging, but there are several limitations in this study. First, thesurvey instrument itself is a limitation. The instrument was developed by the first author andmultiple CASC-aid scholars were taking the survey on one, two, or more occasions. A second
limitation was time involved. This data was collected via researcher-developed surveys, andalthough data collection and analysis took place over twelve months, the cumulative time
students spent in workshops was approximately six hours. A third limitation was the50

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Volume 7 – Issue 1 – Summer 2019difference in the number of students attending and/or taking the survey after each workshop.
The first workshop was heavily attended. Several of the other workshops were not so wellattended. Nevertheless, collecting data on students’ attitude toward speakers and topics isrelevant. Overall, results demonstrated a level of success that was desired; and the positive
outcomes brought about by the workshops as demonstrated by students’ responses on the
instrument is important. Students felt that they were being supported by the workshops.
Likewise, data analysis determined that multiple students were exposed to career choices thatthey were unfamiliar with prior to listening to invited speakers.
For this investigation, students’ responses to the developed Likert survey provided the project
team with vital information in planning for future workshops, including: (a) guest speakers’
area of expertise, (b) when to offer workshops, and (c) supporting students’ long-term career
choices. Furthermore, the goal of this formative experiment, to “Increase STEM majors’
understanding of career opportunities, post-graduation, through Student Success Workshops”
was achieved; and many of the workshops provided CASC-aid scholars with new knowledge
for a potential career choice. Furthermore, the developed survey instrument provided
information that will guide the project team in selecting speakers for future workshops.
Although these workshops were one of multiple, on-going support mechanisms provided to
Hispanic students majoring in a STEM field, results demonstrated that the Student SuccessWorkshops were largely successful. PI and co-PIs on Project CASC-aid will continue togather data from all support services to ascertain which supports are most beneficial in
supporting first-generation, Hispanic students in completing an undergraduate degree in a
STEM field. This is especially important for this student population. Overall, it is vital toidentify speakers for success workshops who will effectively communicate and engage
college students considering career options post-graduation from a STEM field.

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Carpi, A., Ronan, D. M., Falconer, H. M., Boyd, H. H., and Lents, N. L. (2013).
Development and implementation of targeted STEM retention strategies at a
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https://doi.org/10.1177/1538192713486279
Carpi, A., Ronan, D. M., Falconer, H. M., & Lents, N. H. (2017). Cultivating minority
scientists: Undergraduate research increases self-efficacy and career ambitions forunderrepresented students in STEM. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 54(2),169–194. https://doi.org/10.1002/tea.21341
Conley, D. T. (2007). Redefining college readiness. Eugene, OR: Educational Policy
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Crisp, G., & Nora, A. (2012). Overview of Hispanics in science, mathematics, engineeringand technology (STEM): K-16 representation, preparation and participation.
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Enriquez, L. (2011). “Because we feel the pressure and we also feel the support”: Examining
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Educational Review, 81(3), 476–500.
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Estep, T. M. (2016). The graduation gap and socioeconomic status: Using stereotype threat to
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Flower, A. M. (2014). Building an academic community: Minority serving institutions andhow they influence students pursuing undergraduate degrees in STEM. Multicultural
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House of Representatives Bill. (2017). STEM Opportunities Act of 2017. Retrieved fromhttps://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/BILLS-115hr2653ih/pdf/BILLS-115hr2653ih.pdf.
Huguenin, J. M. (2014). Determinants of school efficiency: The case of primary schools in
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Jackson, D. L., Starobin, S. S., & Laanan, F. S. (2013). The shared experiences: Facilitating
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Lave, J., & Wenger, E. (1991). Situated learning: Legitimate peripheral participation.
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U.S. Chamber of Commerce Foundation. (2017). Math is Foundational to 21st Century
Success. Retrieved from https://www.uschamberfoundation.org/blog/post/mathfoundational-21st-century-success.
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Corresponding author: J. Elizabeth Casey
Contact email: casey_j@utpb.edu

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Exploring the Relationship between Science Content Knowledge and Science Teaching
Self-Efficacy among Elementary Teachers
Amy Catalano
Hofstra University, USA
Lauren Asselta
Hofstra University, USA
Alana Durkin
Hofstra University, USA

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Abstract
Elementary school teachers are commonly known to have low self-efficacy in mathematics
and science. Previously conducted research on science teaching self-efficacy and content
knowledge has often focused on whether methods courses, professional development or otherinterventions improve both self-efficacy and content knowledge among elementary teachers.
This study investigated whether teachers’ knowledge of science content influenced theirlevels of self-efficacy, and compared teachers’ who were in a STEM education graduate
degree program to teachers and students in a regular elementary teaching program. The
participants of this study were 82 in-service and 27 pre-service elementary teachers inaffiliation with a large northeastern university. The participants completed a science selfefficacy survey (STEBI-B) and a science content knowledge survey called the Science
Beliefs Tests. The results of this study found that pre-service teachers had a higher selfefficacy score in comparison to in-service teachers. Most participants were able to answer alittle more than half of the Science Beliefs questions correctly. Additionally, there was anegative relationship between one’s belief that they could teach science effectively and their
Science Beliefs score, meaning that the more science self-efficacy they possessed, the lower
their science knowledge. It is important that teachers become aware of their lack of content
knowledge in order to remedy the insufficiency, and to avoid passing along misconceptions
to their students. If teachers believe that they have high self-efficacy, they may not be awarethat they must continually improve their science content knowledge. Accordingly, teachers
can benefit from continued education in topic areas where they scored the lowest.
Keywords: Elementary teachers, science teaching, self-efficacy,
misconceptions about science, pedagogical content knowledge

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Introduction
Self-efficacy is a person’s confidence in his or her ability to complete tasks to the highest
potential to attain certain goals (Bandura, 1997). In the field of education, educators havecertain beliefs about their abilities and skills as teachers, which can affect their successes inteaching. Many factors can influence a teacher’s self-efficacy such as training, preparation,and studying at a higher education level before they begin teaching in a classroom., However
knowledge of science among elementary schools is notoriously low and self-efficacy forteaching the subject may be low as well. This study sought to investigate the relationshipbetween science teaching self-efficacy (STSE) and science content knowledge among bothpre-service and in-service elementary school teachers. This study also examined whether agraduate program intended to train elementary teachers to be science specialists improved
science teaching self-efficacy and content knowledge.
If teachers are educated properly in science content and science teaching methods, they will
have high levels of scientific literacy and scientific knowledge which will allow for highlevels of self-efficacy (Al Sultan, Henson, & Fadde 2018). The research on the STSE ofelementary teachers is vast and wide. Some of research indicates that a teachers’ self-efficacy
is not related to their content knowledge, although it is an important factor in defining
expectations of their students. Teachers with high levels of self-efficacy tend to make use ofhighly effective teaching strategies, are usually more dedicated to the profession of teaching,
and are less likely to burn out (Woolfolk, Hoy & Davis, 2006; Zee & Kooman, 2016). In asynthesis of 40 years of self-efficacy research, Zee and Koomen (2016) reported that teacher
self-efficacy in general is positively related to student achievement, teacher well-being andclassroom quality (e.g., a supportive environment), among other variables. Many of thestudies reviewed below have shown that interventions to increase science knowledge andself-efficacy have been shown to be effective. Accordingly, this study sought to investigate
the relationship between science content knowledge and STSE among pre-service and inservice elementary teachers. The authors hypothesized that with more years of experience, inservice teachers would likely have more science content knowledge and higher STSE thanpre-service teachers. Lastly, we sought to determine whether students who graduated from amaster’s degree program specifically designed to train elementary teachers to be STEM
specialists, with an emphasis on engineering design, had higher STSE or science content
knowledge than teachers and students in a regular elementary education program. The
implications for this research can inform program development and professional development
for teachers.
Science Teaching Self-Efficacy of Pre-Service Teachers
Many studies have examined the impact of methods courses, professional development, extra
science courses, or other science learning experiences on STSE of pre-service teachers(Avery & Meyer, 2012; Bergman & Morphew, 2015; Lumpe, Czerniak, Haney, &Beltyukova, 2012). For example, Morrell and Carroll (2003) administered the STEBI-B (usedin most of the studies of STSE in this literature review) to students before they engaged in the
aforementioned interventions and after. No changes in their STSE during the science courses
or students’ teaching were found, however significant gains were demonstrated for students
in the science methods course likely due to the design of the course. Similarly, Settlage,
Southerland, Smith, and Ceglie (2009) also found high levels of STSE, but given thatstudents already possessed high confidence in their abilities, the authors found that students
did not modify their instructional practices over time. Menon and Sadler (2017) suggest thatstudents benefit the most by taking science courses with inquiry based teaching strategies,

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although low STSE students benefit from proper pacing of the courses. Similarly, throughethnographic research, Jung and Tonso (2006) found that pre-service teachers responded
positively to non-threatening, hands-on experiences providing implications for course designfor the future. Knaggs and Sondergeld (2015) note that positive impacts from theseinterventions are likely due to modelling the instructor’s method of teaching.
In order to understand and resolve public issues, society needs to be scientifically literate.
This means that individuals need to be informed and develop a scientific background.
Science teachers play an essential role in educating society about how the world works. Al
Sultan et al (2018) argued that pre-service teachers enter the teaching field with low selfefficacy beliefs. In their study, 49 pre-service elementary teachers in an introductory or
advanced science methods course completed a survey assessing their scientific background.
They also completed the Test of Basic Scientific Literacy (TBSL), Science Teaching Efficacy
Belief Instrument (STEBI-B), and Beliefs about Teaching (BAT) as further assessment. Al
Sultan et al found that pre-service elementary teachers had satisfactory scientific literacy
levels and in both methods classes, the participants demonstrated higher self-efficacy inteaching biology and lower self-efficacy in teaching physics. The authors also found apositive relationship between scientific literacy and self-efficacy in advanced pre-service
elementary teachers because of the amount of exposure to scientific courses.
Science is often not a priority in elementary classroom instruction, although with the
adoption of the Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS) in most of the United States,
increased focus on teaching science through inquiry will need to be integrated into thecurriculum. Accordingly, Grinell and Rabin (2017) developed a study with the goal tomotivate 59 pre-service elementary teachers in a science methods course to spend asignificant amount of time teaching science in their future classrooms, even if they havedemonstrated low STSE. The findings from their study indicated that helping pre-service
teachers find the connections between science knowledge and ethics helps shape their beliefs
in a way that can motivate them to improve their level of science knowledge. By improving
their knowledge of science, they can teach their students more often and more effectively. At
the end of the semester, almost every participant was better able to discuss the ethics andequity in the context of science teaching. As noted previously, many pre-service elementary
education teachers have low levels of proficiency and interest in science, which can lead to a
failure to make science a priority in the curriculum (Cervato & Kerton, 2017). Interventions
such as requiring extra science courses in the pre-service teacher curriculum, participating inauthentic science experiences using inquiry based activities (Avery & Meyer, 2012), andproviding supportive settings in which the pre-service teacher is provided consistent andconstructive feedback can improve self-efficacy and science knowledge (Knoblauch & Hoy,2008).
In-Service Teachers’ Science Self-Efficacy
In-service teachers have more work experience in the field, but that does not mean they are
comfortable when it comes to teaching science topics. Lumpe et al (2012) investigatedwhether there was an effect on elementary students who are educated by confident teachers
who believe in their own abilities. The researchers also investigated whether a summer
professional development program, focusing on science content knowledge, for 450
elementary science teachers would affect their beliefs about teaching. During the school year,
teachers were provided with support to help with professional development and science
content. Both teachers and principals received additional professional development. The
researchers measured the teachers’ knowledge of science concepts before and after the60

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program. They then compared the teachers’ knowledge to that of 580 fourth graders and1,369 sixth graders, using the Ohio state achievement test for science. The results showedthat the program increased the positive beliefs the science teachers had about their own
teaching. The researchers also found that teacher STSE and at the number of professional
development hours they attended contributed to student achievement.
Unsurprisingly, in-service teachers can also benefit positively from an increase in exposure tocontent-specific knowledge. Swackhamer, Koellner, Basile, and Kimbrough (2009)
researched the effects of content-specific courses in math and science over a five-year period
on 277 teachers’ self-efficacy. At the end of each course, the teachers were asked to complete
a self-efficacy survey (STEBI- B), although only 88 teachers completed the survey. The
results showed that the mean scores of teachers who took more than four of the courses had asignificantly higher Science Teaching Outcome Expectancy (STOE) and levels of efficacy
than the teachers who took fewer than four of the courses. STOE describes the general factorsthat teachers believe will impact student science ability. The teachers initially had low STSE
due to their perceived low level of content knowledge. While the literature on in-service andpre-service teacher science self-efficacy is large, few studies compare the STSE of in-service
to that of pre-service teachers, nor have any studies compared the relationship between STSE
and science content knowledge among these two groups.
Science Misconceptions and Content Knowledge Among Teachers
Research has suggested that students hold many misconceptions when it comes to science
concepts and content (e.g., Bar, Brosh, & Sneider, 2016; Tompo, Ahmad, & Muris al, 2016).
Educators, elementary teachers in particular, often focus on those misconceptions to guidetheir teachings. However, research suggests that educators also hold science misconceptions,and these misconceptions negatively impact their teaching. Several studies have shown thatteachers and students tend to hold the same misconceptions and that they are mostly in thephysical sciences (Burgoon, Heddle, & Duran, 2011; Bursal, 2012; Stein, Larabee & Barman,
2008).
Similar to the present study, Kirik (2013) examined the relationship between STSE,
participation in extracurricular activities, science content knowledge, number of science andmethods courses taken, as well as classroom management and efficacy beliefs. Seventy-one
secondary science education majors and 262 pre-service elementary teachers participated in
the study. The results indicated that there was a small significant relationship between
science knowledge and outcome expectancy. Both groups had positive STSE, althoughsecondary science majors had higher STSE than elementary majors.
Although studies have investigated the impact of different types of interventions on bothcontent knowledge and STSE, none have assessed both constructs among both pre-service
and inservice teachers. Many of the interventions were methods courses taken by all
elementary education teachers, or were one-time programs offered over a period of time. This
study extends the previously conducted research by examining a longer term intervention: agraduate degree intended to train elementary teachers to be STEM specialists. The authors
hypothesize that teachers in (or have graduated from) the STEM graduate program possess
greater STSE and content knowledge over other in-service teachers.

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Methods
This study sought to answer the following research questions:• To what extent is there a relationship between STSE and science content knowledge?
• Is there a difference in both constructs among pre-service and in-service teachers?
• Is there a difference in both constructs among teachers training to be science/STEM
specialists and those who are non-specialists?
Participants
After receiving Institutional Review Board approval to conduct this study, in-service and preservice elementary teachers were emailed an invitation to participate in the study which
included a link to a science self-efficacy survey and science content knowledge survey.
Participants included undergraduate pre-service teachers enrolled in a teacher education
program at a large private university on Long Island, NY, and in-service teachers enrolled in
graduate programs in the same university. Some participants had recently graduated from thegraduate program, which is a master’s degree in elementary STEM education in which
students are trained to be STEM specialists. Additionally, elementary teachers in partner
districts with the university were invited to participate in the study.
Measures
In order to measure STSE, the STEBI-B was administered. The STEBI-B is one the mostfrequently used measures of STSE. It is relatively brief and has demonstrated reliability andconstruct validity consistently. The STEBI-B was developed by Riggs and Enochs (1990) to
assess the science teaching self-efficacy of pre-service teachers. Because we administered thesurvey to both pre-service and in-service teachers, we chose the STEBI-B as opposed to the
STEBI-A which was intended for in-service teachers only. The STEBI-B includes 23 itemson two subscales: Personal Science Teaching Efficacy Belief (PSTE) and Science Teaching
Outcome Expectancy (STOE). The PSTE primarily assesses the degree to which participants
believe that they, as educators, can impact student achievement in science, whereas the STOE
demonstrates participants’ beliefs about the general factors that might impact a student’s
science achievement. Items were answered using a 5-point Likert scale from strongly agree tostrongly disagree. Two items in particular tend to cross-load onto both factors and to exhibit
low loadings. Bleicher (2004) revised the wording of the scale, although as reported below
those two items still proved problematic in this study as well. Those two items are “The low
science achievement of some students cannot generally be blamed on their teachers” and“Increased effort in science teaching produces little change in some students’ scienceachievement” (Bleicher, 2004, p. 391). Riggs and Enoch (1990) reported an internalconsistency reliability, using Cronbach’s alpha (CA), with a score of .76, while Bleicher(2004) found a CA of .72.
The Science Beliefs Test was administered to assess the science content knowledge ofteachers. The Science Beliefs Test was developed by Larrabee, Stein, and Barman (2006).
The test was intended to be administered via computer and includes a 44 item true/false test
that was constructed based on common misconceptions that teachers, and people in general,
have about life science, earth science and physical science concepts. The items on the test
reflect knowledge that the average adult should possess about science concepts. The original
version of the test asks participants to explain their answers so that the researchers could
determine whether participants actually understood the concept being tested. For this study,
we only asked participants to mark whether they believed a statement to be true or false.

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Larrabee et al determined the internal consistency reliability, using Kuder-Richardson, to be avalue of .77. They also determined test-retest reliability was .776. We report our own
reliability statistics for both measures below. The online version of the Science Beliefs Tests
may be found here https://www2.oakland.edu/secure/sbquiz/.
We also added additional questions about whether participants were pre-service, in-service,secondary or elementary level, in the STEM MA graduate program (the program at our
institution in which elementary teachers are trained to be science specialists) or whether they
were employed as science specialists. We also asked about the highest educational levelattained. After data were collected and coded, they were analyzed using SPSS v. 23.
Results
Participants
A total of 144 participants took the survey, although only 109 of those surveys werecompleted. The 35 participants who did not complete the surveys, did not complete the
Science Beliefs portion of the survey. Of the 109 participants, 82 were in-service teachers,
while 27 were pre-service. Of the 82 in-service teachers 28 had been trained as STEM
specialists. We did not ask participants about their gender or ethnicity. Because most of theparticipants were graduates of our institution’s program, we were aware that at least 90
percent of participants were white females. Eight participants were special educationteachers, and 13 were employed as elementary STEM specialists.
Reliability and Validity of the Measures
The full STEBI-B demonstrated a reliability of a CA of .856, while the subscale STOE had a
CA of .685, and the PSTE had a CA of .896. These values show that the scale demonstrated
good reliability. Principal components analysis using varimax rotation revealed six factors
demonstrating eigenvalues greater than 1, with the entire model explaining 64.5 percent of
the variance. When forcing the items into two factors (representing the two subscales), all of
the items, other than 10 and 13, loaded onto the two appropriate factors explaining 39.5
percent of the variance. However, items 10 and 13 loaded at .258, which is below the .5
cutoff. These two items had been noted as problematic previously by Riggs and Enochs(1990).
Science Teaching Self-Efficacy Scores
STSE total and subscale scores were computed for each group. Comparisons among groups
were also calculated. The mean STSE total score was 48.48 (standard deviation of 9.14). As
can be seen in Table 1, there were few differences among groups in STSE total scores
between STEM MA students and non-STEM MA students. Pre-service teachers (n = 27) did
demonstrate higher STSE scores than in-service teachers trending significant where p = .06, F= 3.459 (1, 282.7). In general, when considering the different range of scores for each
subscale, participants STOE (with a range of 0-65) scores were lower than their PSTE (arange of 0-50) scores. The average STOE score for all participants was 23.97; for the PSTE
the mean was 24.58.

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Table 1: Mean total and subscale scores on STSE and Science Beliefs for all groups.

STSE
mean
Total
Score
STOE
PSTE
Science
Beliefs
Total
Life
SciencePhysicalScienceEarth
ScienceRange
of scores
possible

Pre-service(n = 27)

In-service(n=82)STEM
MA(n= 81)
49.29

NonSTEM
MA (n=
28)
48.29

0-115

51.34

47.55

0-65
0-50
0-44

24.59
26.58
24.74

0-11

Total
(n =
109)
48.48

23.77
23.88
25.04

24.10
25.07
25.04

23.93
24.34
24.93

23.97
24.58
24.99

6.81

6.76

7.00

6.70

6.78

0-16

9.93

10.13

10.18

10.01

10.1

0-14

7.67

7.85

7.68

7.85

7.80

When looking at the differences between participants on their current teaching status: preservice teacher, in-service general elementary, and in-service STEM elementary teacher,those employed as STEM elementary teachers scored significantly lower than general
education teachers on the STEBI-B, at the p< .05 level. STEM elementary teachers had amean score of 41.23, while general education teachers had a mean score of 49.10. When
compared to pre-service teachers, STEM elementary teachers scored significantly lower at
the p < .001 level, where pre-service teachers had a mean score of 51.34.
Science Beliefs Test scores
The mean raw score on the Science Beliefs Test was 24.99 out of 44. When converted to apercentage, the mean total score was 56.73%. There were no significant differences between
pre-service and in-service teachers on the Science Beliefs test or any of its subscales. The
same is true for STEM MA students as compared to non-STEM MA students. There werealso no differences between STEM teachers, general education teachers on the Science
Beliefs Test. Students tended to get a little more than half of the questions correct on all of
the subscales.
Students tended answer life science questions correctly more often with a percentage of 62
correct. In the physical sciences, on average they scored 59 percent correct, although students
in the STEM MA program scored higher at 64 percent. Students scored the lowest on the
Earth science questions at an average of 49 percent correct for all participants. (See Table 2).

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Table 2: Scores on Science Beliefs converted to percentage correct for all groups.

Science
Beliefs
Total
Life
SciencePhysicalScienceEarth
ScienceRange
of scores
possible

Pre-service(n = 27)

In-service(n=82)STEM
MA(n= 81)

Total
(n =
109)

57%

NonSTEM
MA (n=
28)
57%

0-44

54%

57%

0-11

61%

61%

64%

61%

62%

0-17

58%

60%

64%

59%

59%

0-16

48%

49%

48%

49%

49%

57%

Analysis of responses to individual Science Beliefs Test items showed that on many items
half of the respondents answered the questions correctly. For example, question two states“Plants use oxygen.” Only 50 percent of participants indicated that this statement was true.
Another trend that we noted was that a large majority of the participants (75 percent) chosethe incorrect answer to the question 1 which stated that “The only essential constituents thatplants need in order to grow are: water, light and nutrients from the soil or medium in which
they exist.” The correct answer to this question is false, because plants also need air, as atleast half of the participants indicated in their answer to question 2. In another example,
question 13 states, “An astronaut is standing on the moon with a baseball in his/her hand.
When the baseball is released, it will fall to the moon’s surface.” Only 29.13 percent ofparticipants accurately responded that this statement was true.
We also sought to determine whether there was a relationship between science content
knowledge and STSE. A Pearson’s Product Moment correlation showed a negative,
moderate, significant relationship between STSE and total Science Beliefs score was r = .281 p<.01. Further analysis shows that the Science Beliefs scores was, negatively related to
the PSTE subscale r = -.297. Overall, these results suggest that the higher a participant’sscience teaching self-efficacy, the lower their content knowledge.
Discussion
This study sought to determine whether, and to what extent, there is a relationship between
science content knowledge (as measured by the Science Beliefs Test; Larrabee et al, 2006)
and science self-efficacy. We also sought to determine if there were differences on thesemeasures between in-service and pre-service teachers, as well as between graduate students(who are in-service teachers) training to be science specialists (in the STEM MA program)and those not in the STEM MA program. We found that there were differences between preservice and in-service teachers on the STSE scores. Results were not significant at the p < .05
level, but they were trending towards significance at p = .06. There was very little differenceon science content knowledge between any of the groups we studied. However, we did find asignificant negative relationship between STSE and science content knowledge, particularly
for one subscale of the STEBI-B. These results indicate that as Personal Science Teaching
Efficacy beliefs go up, science content knowledge goes down, meaning that teachers whobelieve they are able to teach science effectively tended to have lower science content

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Volume 7 – Issue 1 – Summer 2019knowledge. These results indicate that elementary school teachers and those training to beteachers have low content knowledge. They carry the same misconceptions as that of thegeneral public. Further, it is problematic when teachers believe they are effective scienceteachers but have low content knowledge. Although research notes that teacher self-efficacy
is positively related to student achievement (Zee & Koomen, 2016), other researchers notedthat teachers with high self-efficacy may be resistant to changing instructional practices
because they already have confidence in their pedagogical efficacy (Tschannen-Moran, Hoy,
& Hoy, 1998). Most relevant to this study, research conducted by Settlage et al, (2009) of
pre-service teachers found that the participants already had high self-efficacy at the pre-test.
Since they lacked uncertainty in their teaching abilities they were not open to expanding theirknowledge to improve their pedagogical practices. It is important to note that Riggs andEnoch (1990) did not indicate a cut-off score by which to determine whether a participant hadhigh or low STSE. Given that the maximum score one can attain is 115 and that the meanscore was 48, we can surmise that the respondents in this study had average STSE.
One positive explanation for the high STSE scores of the pre-service teachers, is that preservice teachers have been found to become more interested in science through methods
courses, which increases confidence in students’ ability to teach science topics (Grinell &Rabin, 2017; Menon & Sadler, 2017). By adding additional science courses to pre-service
teachers’ education programs, pre-service teachers have been found to increase theirscientific knowledge and STSE (Avery & Meyer, 2012).
In-service teachers can also benefit from continued teacher training (Lumpe et al, 2012;
Swackhamer et al, 2009). One explanation for why in-service teachers had lower STSE isthat in-service teachers may be more aware of the subjects they are not the strongest inteaching because of their years of experience. In-service teachers can increase their STSE byparticipating in more continued teacher training that will provide them with more hours of
exposure to the scientific content knowledge that they may not know as well as othersubjects.
As reported in the literature, it is not uncommon for in-service elementary school teachers tohave low content knowledge is science. Interestingly, our results showed that elementary
STEM teachers (that is elementary teachers who only teach science) had significantly lower
STSE even though their science content knowledge was on par with the other groups. Theirlow STSE may be due to the fact that they are “in the trenches” teaching science every day
and are aware of their lack of content knowledge, thus propagating low STSE.
Additionally, although we found few difference in respondents’ knowledge about life
science, Earth science and physical science, other researchers found that most teachers had
the highest self-efficacy in teaching biology and the lowest self-efficacy in teaching physics(Al Sultan et al, 2018). Similarly, Burgoon et al (2011) found that students and teachers havethe most misconceptions in the physical sciences. In this study, however, participants scoredlowest in Earth science concepts.
At the institution in which this study took place, elementary school teachers (both pre-service
and in-service) may participate in a program where they train to be science specialists in the
STEM MA program. They take additional science and math methods courses, engineering
design courses, and often science content courses. Surprisingly, there were no differences
between those who were in this program and those who were not studying to be science66

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specialists. One explanation for these results are the uneven group sizes. There were only 28
students in the STEM program.
Limitations
The most significant limitation to this study was the sample size. A sample of 109
participants does not make this research generalizable to other groups of elementary teachers.
This limitation is a common issue among studies of STSE and science content knowledge.
Our sample strategies had mixed results, while all participants who were invited to take thesurvey who were students at the institution (all pre-service teachers and all in-service STEM
MA students) participated, there was a low return rate for the in-service teachers invited who
were not at the institution. Many participants chose not to complete the surveys likely
because they were very long. Future research should employ a random sampling strategy andincentive programs to encourage participation.
There are also ethical issues to consider in the development of this research that are related to
the limitations. Because elementary school teachers are known to have low self-efficacy inscience and mathematics, it may have been uncomfortable to take a 44 question test on thesubject and not receive the correct answers once the survey was completed and submitted.
Additionally, it would be helpful for teachers to be aware of the topics in which they could
improve knowledge. Given that there is a negative relationship between knowledge ofscience and confidence, it would be beneficial to both the teacher-participants and theircurrent and future students if teachers are provided with the results of the research. Theseissues can be remedied by offering professional development to teachers who participated in
the study.
Implications and Recommendations
Self-efficacy levels of teachers can affect their ability to be effective in the classroom.
Teachers can work towards improving their levels of self-efficacy by allowing themselves tocontinue to learn through content-specific and inquiry-based courses. Although in-service
teachers have more years of teaching than pre-service teachers, in-service teachers need justas much continued education in order to be more successful in the classroom. Universities do,and should continue to develop programs for pre-service teachers that will provide them withmore learning experiences in science-based courses so that future teachers can increase theirlevels of self-efficacy which will lead to their future students to also be more successful inthe learning process. Further, relationships between universities and schools can facilitate theimprovement of teachers’ self-efficacy (Petersen & Treagust, 2014). Future research should
expand efforts to collect larger samples of elementary teachers and to connect teacher
knowledge to student knowledge. Further, research investigating interventions for improving
elementary science content knowledge are needed.
Conclusion
It is important for pre-service teachers to be motivated to take on the responsibility ofproviding their students with quality science instruction. When teachers do not have highself-efficacy about their ability to teach science, they are less likely to want to dedicate
instructional time to science. Teachers can be motivated to have higher self-efficacy inscience if they are able to understand ethical issues that probe their interest and create adesire to share the knowledge and importance to their students.

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References
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Flores, I. M. (2012). Science exploratoriums: Connecting pre-service teachers, practicing
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Grinell, S., & Rabin, C. (2017). Caring enough to teach science: Helping pre-service teachers
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Knaggs, C. M., & Sondergeld, T. A. (2015). Science as a learner and as a teacher: measuring
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Menon, D. D, & Sadler, T. D. (2018). Sources of science teaching self-efficacy forelementary teachers in science content courses. International Journal Science &Mathematics Education, 16(5), 835–855. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10763-017-9813-7
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Petersen, J. E., & Treagust, D. F. (2014). School and university partnerships: The role ofteacher education institutions and primary schools in the development of preservice
teachers’ science teaching efficacy. Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 39(9),153–167. https://doi.org/10.14221/ajte.2014v39n9.2
Riggs, I. M., & Enochs, L. G. (1990). Toward the development of an elementary teacher’sscience teaching efficacy belief instrument. Science Education, 74(6), 625–637.
https://doi.org/10.1002/sce.3730740605
Settlage, J., Southerland, S. A., Smith, L. K., & Ceglie, R. (2009). Constructing a doubt-freeteaching self: Self-efficacy, teacher identity, and science instruction within diverse
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1–11. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03173666
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Quarterly, 36(2), 63–78. Retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/stable/23479252
Tompo, B., Ahmad, A., & Muris, M. (2016). The development of discovery-inquiry learningmodel to reduce the science misconceptions of junior high school students.
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https://doi.org/10.2307/1170754

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Zee, M., & Koomen, H. M. (2016). Teacher self-efficacy and its effects on classroom
processes, studentacademic adjustment, and teacher well-being: A synthesis of 40
years of research. Review of Educational research, 86(4), 981–1015.
Corresponding author: Amy Catalano
Contact email: Amy.Catalano@Hofstra.edu

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Internationalization and English as a Medium of Instruction in Mongolian
Higher Education
Sainbayar Gundsambuu
Osaka University, Japan
National University of Mongolia, Mongolia

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Abstract
In the growing global trend of internationalization, Mongolian universities plan to increase
courses and programs in English in order to improve their competitiveness and ultimately to
become internationally visible, at least in Asia. This study discusses the current process ofinternationalization at Mongolian universities and explores the rationales of implementing
English as a Medium of Instruction (EMI) at Mongolian universities. The analysis focuses on
how the top-down national-level policies to internationalize the higher education sector
influence both national and private universities, and what drives universities to adopt EMI
policies. This paper intends to answer these questions through document analysis and an
online survey at two private universities in Mongolia. Forty faculty members participated in
the survey. All data went through the qualitative document analysis, “describing, classifying
and connecting” (Coffey & Atkinson, 1996) to portray a comprehensive picture of theinternationalization of higher education and the concept of EMI in Mongolia. The findings
revealed that the Mongolian government is the key player in internationalization at thenational level by making policies, taking initiatives, and encouraging national universities.
However, the process of internationalization is much slower at private universities. The two
private universities in Mongolia implement EMI for the following four reasons, 1) increasing
the employability of domestic graduates, 2) promotion of international collaboration, 3)
generating more income, and 4) increasing domestic and international profile. The faculty
members of the two leading private universities understood that the introduction of EMI attheir universities aimed to equip their graduates with English language skills to operate
globally and to improve their universities’ international profile.
Keywords: English as a medium of instruction, faculty development, international
collaboration, internationalization of higher education

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Introduction
Internationalization of higher education (IoHE) is not a homogeneous concept but more of a
global concept of interrelated dimensions (Hudzik, 2015). Moreover, there is no agreed-upondefinition for IoHE. IoHE has many aspects including organized cross-border mobility ofstudents and faculty, foreign language learning, internationalization of curricula, cross-border
institutional partnerships in joint research, joint degrees, and branch campuses. Early on,
Soderqvist (2002) defined IoHE asa change process from a national higher education institution to aninternational higher education institution leading to the inclusion of aninternational dimension in all aspects of its holistic management in order toenhance the quality of teaching and learning and to achieve the desiredcompetencies (p.29).
However, the most widely used definition is the one put forth by Knight (2003),“Internationalization is the process of integrating an international, intercultural or global
dimension into the purpose, functions or delivery of post-secondary education” (p.2).
According to Knight (2004), IoHE has two main spheres of action, “internationalization athome” and “internationalization abroad”. “Internationalization at home” applies strategies
and approaches designed to utilize an international dimension into the home campus by
including global and comparative perspectives in the curriculum or recruiting international
students, scholars, and faculty and leveraging their presence on campus. “Internationalization
abroad” encourages an institution to send students to study abroad, set up a branch campus
overseas, or engage in an inter-institutional partnership (Altbach, Reisberg, & Rumbley,2009).
Rationales for Internationalization
Rationales for internationalization (Knight & de Wit, 1997; Knight, 2003, and de Wit, 2000)
are categorized into four groups; academic, social/cultural, political, and economic.
According to Knight & de Wit (1997), rationales can be described as motivations forinternationalization and different rationales imply different means and end tointernationalization (de Wit, 2000). In addition to the four categories, Knight (2004) added a
new category, “branding” and developing an international reputation, particularly throughrankings.
Political rationales for internationalization are rooted in the development process of nationstates, and the dominance of European models of higher education in colonies in theAmericas, Africa, and Asia (de Wit, 2000). This political rationale was changed when the
United States of America gained international power after the Second World War.
Universities in the United States started to develop area studies, foreign language training,and study abroad when federal funding supported them. To maintain and expand its
influence, America expanded educational and international exchanges (for example,
Fulbright). As de Wit (2000) emphasized, the political rationale after the Cold War changed
from the political to the economic.
Economic rationales for internationalization have been the driving force for cooperation andexchange in research, technology, and education development programs (de Wit 2000).
Economic rationales are pursued due to the increasing global labour force, joint international
research and development projects for international competency, and marketing of higher

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Volume 7 – Issue 1 – Summer 2019education on the international market. As Wächter (1999) noted, universities around theworld compete to strengthen their income base through the provision of education services toforeign customers. Anglophone countries like the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, New
Zealand, and the United States of America gain more advantage in it. In addition, thesecountries gain more experience in international marketing strategies to recruit international
students through national organizations such as Australia’s International Development
Program, the Institute of International Education in the USA, and the New Zealand Education
Trust. However, other countries focus on international activities such as the opening of
distance education programs (van der Wende, 1997) and creation of offshore campuses toattract international students in order to find alternative sources of income (Wächter, 1999).
As for cultural and social rationales, national cultural identity, intercultural understanding,citizenship development, and social and community development are considered (Knight,
2004). These rationales place more emphasis on understanding foreign languages andcultures, on preserving the national culture, and on respecting diversity throughinternationalization.
According to Knight (2004), academic rationales focus on the integration of an international
dimension into research, teaching and academic standards, institution building, andenhancement of the institution’s profile, status, and quality. According to Qiang (2003), there
is an assumption that integrating the international dimension into teaching, research, andservice enhances the quality of a higher education system. The notion of enhancing thequality of education is linked to the idea that internationalization serves as a positive change
for institutional building.
Higher education institutions (HEIs) are giving high importance to branding for a strong
international reputation (Knight, 2004). Institutions and companies are competing for themarket of recruitment of international fee-paying students, offering for-profit education andprograms, selling education services like language testing and accreditation. For branding,institutions strive for accreditation from national and international accreditation bodies.
Education providers strive for creating an international reputation and name brand for theirown institution to place the institution in a higher position for competitive advantage (Knight,
2004).
To clarify the categories of the five rationales above, Knight (2004) distinguished therationales between the national and institutional level. At the national level, rationales thatdrive internationalization in higher education include human resource development, strategic
alliances, commercial trade, nation building, and social/structural development, while
institutional-level rationales cover international profile and reputation, student and staff
development, income generation, strategic alliances, and research and knowledge production(see Knight, 2004).
In her study, Knight (2003) distinguished institutional rationales for internationalization at
the institutional level (See Table 1). Here, Knight (2003) listed the rationales by the level ofimportance and emphasized that the top four rationales relate to the academic rationales while
the rest relate more to the economic, political, and social/cultural aspects ofinternationalization.

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Table 1: Rationales for internationalization at the international level
Institutional Level Rationales for Internationalization
Mobility and Exchanges for Students
7International and Interculturaland Teachers
Understanding
2
Teaching and Research Collaboration
8
Promotion and Profile of Institution
3
Academic Standards and Quality
9
Diversify Source of Faculty andStudents
4
Research Projects
10 Regional Issues and Integration
5
Co-operation and Development
11 International Student Recruitment
Assistance6
Curriculum Development
12 Diversify Income Generation
Source: Knight (2003)
1

For this study, it is important to understand the rationales for internationalization as one of
the reasons or motivations for internationalization includes the implementation of EMI. Thus,
this study will examine the rationales for implementing EMI from the perspectives of staff
and faculty members of private universities through an online survey to determine therationales and policies for adoption of EMI at the institutional level.
English as a Medium of Instruction
IoHE has become a priority for many education systems in many countries where English is
not the national language. This is closely connected to the use of English (Yonezawa &Shimmi, 2015). One of the reasons for this is that, as a lingua franca, the use of English
represents how non-Anglophone countries try to enter the competitive arena of global higher
education and the economic marketplace (Stigger, 2018, p.4). As Coleman (2006) claimed,
the reasons for the HEIs to introduce programs and courses taught through EMI are split into
seven categories: content and language integrated learning, internationalization, student
exchanges, teaching and research materials, staff mobility, graduate employability, and themarket for international students. In other words, foreign language learning in itself is not thereason why institutions adopt EMI.
EMI is one trend in IoHE across many non-Anglophone countries as countries shift fromtheir focus from teaching English to teaching academic subjects in English (Graddol, 1997;
Deaden, 2014). EMI is defined as “The use of the English language to teach academic
subjects in countries or jurisdictions where the first language of the majority of the
population is not English” (Dearden, 2015; p.2). EMI is a growing global phenomenon in allphases of higher education, and more and more universities are in a rush to offer both
graduate and undergraduate programs through EMI (Macaro et al., 2018). By offeringcourses in English, an institution is able to attract international students and faculty members,
and this brings opportunities for its own students and teachers to participate in international
scientific research (Graddol, 1997).
Higher Education System in Mongolia
Before reviewing the process of IoHE and the concept of EMI, it is important to understandthe higher education system of the country. Thus, a brief introduction to the higher education
system in Mongolia is provided.

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Mongolia is a landlocked country with 1.5 million square kilometers of land area, a total
population of 3.1 million and a gross domestic product per capita of $7,800 as of 2016
(Mongolian Statistical Information Service, 2016). The total number of students studying at
tertiary school amounted to 157,138 (58% female) in the academic year of 2016-2017. As of
2017, 95 HEIs, including a high percentage of private institutions (78%), national (18%), anda small percentage of branch schools of foreign universities (4%), are operating in Mongolia(Ministry of Education, Culture, Sciences, and Sports, 2017a). The branch schools of foreign
universities include three from the Russian Federation and one from Singapore.
The history of Mongolian higher education is rooted in the National University of Mongolia,
which was established in 1942 with three faculties: medical, pedagogical, and veterinary(Gantsog & Altantsetseg, 2003). Since then, several faculties were developed: physics,
mathematics, natural sciences, social sciences, economics, law, and languages and literature.
After Mongolia transferred to a free market economy system in the 1990s, the government
ceased most of its funding for national universities, only covering utility costs. This resulted
in the introduction of a student fee structure in 1993 (Gantsog & Altantsetseg, 2003).
Moreover, the government of Mongolia made a policy of “cost sharing” to shift a greater
portion of the burden of payment to individuals and transfer public expenditure on education
to student loans. The government also legalized the establishment of private universities andbranch schools of foreign HEIs.
Literature Review
The literature review explores the process of IoHE at both national and institutional levels
and the concept of EMI in Mongolia.
Internationalization of Higher Education
Despite a handful of studies that discussed the early internationalization initiatives in
Mongolia, little is known of current strategies and activities towards internationalization at
national and institutional levels. Previous studies focused on the impact of globalization onhigher education (Gantsog & Altantsetseg, 2003; Sodnomtseren, 2006), educational
expansion in higher education (Agvaantseren & Hoon, 2013), or a strategy forinternationalization in one national institution (Jargalmaa, 2015).
At the national level, the Mongolian Sustainable Development Vision 2030, enacted by the
Mongolian Parliament in 2016, set an ambitious goal to have at least four Mongolian national
universities recognized internationally for research in STEM fields. It indicated,
Build a science and technology cluster and park in accordance with priority
development areas, and ensure that no less than four Mongolian universities
are ranked among Asian top universities (Partnership for Action on Green
Economy, 2017, p.28).
Although there is no assessment information of Mongolian HEIs in the popular ranking
systems, such as Times Higher Education’s World University Rankings, Academic Rankingof World Universities, and QS World University Rankings, Mongolian national universities
are focusing more on research and publications. As Hu (2017) reports, the proportion of
online scientific papers from Mongolia reached 315 in 2016 but dropped to 252 in 2017. Thisshows that the number of papers produced per year remains low and there is much to do to
produce more papers. Hence, two measures are urgent. The government needs to add more

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Volume 7 – Issue 1 – Summer 2019budget for research and development, and national universities should offer more reward toprominent faculties and researchers.
Mongolian HEIs are also changing their fundamental missions, hoping to become
international universities. According to Altbach, Reisberg, and Rumbley (2009), at theinstitutional level, a large number of universities around the world aim to produce “global
citizens” with “global competencies” by adopting extended missions underinternationalization. Mission statements of a number of Mongolian HEIs highlighted thatthey aim to become “global”, that is, an internationally recognized university. Table 2
compares excerpts of mission statements from several major national and private HEIs that
aim to become research-oriented and leading institutions in Asia and the world.
Table 2: Comparison of HEIs mission statements
Type

Name

Excerpt from Mission Statements

1

National

National University ofMongolia

2

National

National University of
Medical Sciences

3

National

4

National

5

National

6

Private7

Private8

Private9

PrivateNational University ofLife Sciences
Mongolian University of
Science and Technology
National University of
Education
Ikh Zasag International
University
University of the
Humanities
University of Financeand Economics
Otgontenger University“…to become a national model research university whichmeets world standards* and provides pillars for
Mongolia’s development.”“…to become a national leading and one of top 100
medical universities* in the west coastal area of the
Pacific Ocean.”“…to become a leading global university*…”10

Private11

Private12

PrivateMongolia International
University
Mongolian Royal
AcademyMongolian National
University“…to become one of Asia’s top universities*.”“…to become a competitive institution* among Asianuniversities of education.”“…be a modern global university* of technology andinnovation.”“…to become a reputable and leading university inAsia*… ”“…to become a leading research university* recognizedin the region…”“…to become a research university that satisfies
international standards…”“…to educate and develop leaders in Mongolia andthroughout Central Asia*...”“…to be a university that provides world-classeducation*…”“…to become a university that leads in Mongolia, Asia,
and Europe through research and teaching*.”

Source: Websites of each institution (translated by the author) *Emphasis is made by theauthorMission statements show that becoming recognized in the region, improving research,technology, and innovation, and integrating into international standards are the main goals set
by these universities.
Within the initiatives and policies of IoHE, the government of Mongolia, in cooperation with
its national universities, strives to build a comprehensive university campus outside thecapital city, Ulaanbaatar (Government of Mongolia, 2010a). The goal of the policy is tointegrate the national educational system into international dimensions and support thetransformation of national and private universities to a campus model. The government of77

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Mongolia believes that building up a comprehensive campus will lay a solid infrastructurebase for adapting the national universities’ strategic development goals and improving
teaching and research quality. The comprehensive campus development plan will also allow
the integration of educational resources among the national universities. In addition, national
universities will be able to share resources, develop interdisciplinary research, and pursue acoordinated external relations strategy.
With the goal to improve the quality of higher education through internationalization, thegovernment merged national universities from 42 to 16 in 2010 (Government of Mongolia,
2010b). The private HEIs also started to merge voluntarily following the government policy.
The number of private institutions, which amounted to 129 in 2004, reduced to 79 in 2014
and subsequently to 74 in 2017. Another example is the policy on curriculum. The
government passed an order to follow the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization’s International Standard Classification of Education. Accordingly, 817 fields ofstudies were reduced to 181 in 2014 (MES, 2014).
In addition, external assessment and accreditation have become necessary to improve thequality and status of higher education in Mongolia. Currently, 74 universities qualified fornational accreditation (Mongolian National Council for Education Accreditation, 2017). The
accreditation of HEIs was voluntary-based until 2016 when the government made it
mandatory for all types of HEIs to undergo accreditation (Legal Info System, 2017). In recent
years, international accreditation started to play an important role in Mongolia. The
Accreditation Council for Business Schools and Programs has accredited 13 institutions andis processing 8 more, while the Accreditation Agency for Degree Programs in Engineering,
Informatics, Natural Sciences, and Mathematics has accredited several programs at national
universities.
English as a Medium of Instruction in Mongolia
The Mongolian education system had the policy to teach only Russian as a foreign language
when the country had close ties with the former Soviet Union. During the socialist period, it
was mandatory for all students, regardless of their fields, to learn Russian for 3-4 years
continuously and take a state examination in Russian. This was changed when the English
language department opened at the National University of Mongolia in 1956. In the 1990s,
when Mongolia expanded its foreign relations with other countries, it needed more
professionals who were able to communicate in English. Therefore, more HEIs started tooffer English courses. However, there were not enough English language teachers. In 19901995, with the support from United Nations Development Program and Overseas
Development Administration-British Overseas Development Agency, a specialized English
language institute was founded to retrain hundreds of Russian language teachers as English
language teachers (Altan-Od & Khongorzul, 2012).
English is not the second official foreign language in Mongolia. However, the documents on
the English language in the past two decades show that English is treated as the second main
foreign language of Mongolia. In 1997, the Minister of Enlightenment (Ministry of
Enlightenment, 1997) passed an order to teach English as a foreign language from theacademic year of 1997-1998 in all levels of education institutions. Later, the order by the
MECS (2006) indicated that the main foreign language in bachelor’s level programs would
be English.

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The term, EMI, was first used officially in the Comprehensive National Development
Strategy of Mongolia, which was based on the Millennium Development Goals (World Bank,
2008). The strategic objective 2 in Education Development Policy indicates the government
will “…provide financial support to high schools, vocational schools, and universities which
use English as the medium of instruction” (World Bank, 2008, p. 19). Moreover, thisdocument addressed the importance of English, pointed out the goal of making the English
language a major foreign language in Mongolia, and set a goal to have civil servants becompetent in English by 2021. Prior to this official document, in its resolution on English
language education, the government of Mongolia (2001) announced the need to teach EMI
courses such as international relations, economics, journalism, tourism, medicine, andtechnology. The National Program on English Education (Government of Mongolia, 2008)highlighted the importance of “creat[ing] a system/mechanism pushing the need and use ofEnglish as the main tool for education, for communication, information access, andbusiness…” (p.5).
Despite a handful of private universities, opportunities to earn academic degrees in English
are limited. Examples include the Mongolia International University that has offeredundergraduate degree programs entirely in English since its establishment in 2002. Anotherinstitution is the Royal International University, which opened its doors offering business
degree programs entirely in English in 2010. At the graduate level, opportunities to gain
degrees in English are available in joint and dual degree programs (mostly Master’s degree)at major national and private universities.
Based on the literature review, this study explores the driving factors of internationalization.
In addition, rationales of EMI in HEIs are discovered through an online survey for faculty
members at two private universities. Therefore, the study attempts to answer two researchquestions before the discussion and conclusion:
1. What are the driving factors of Mongolian higher education institutions to pursue
internationalization?
2. What are the rationales of Mongolian universities to adopt policies for English as a
Medium of Instruction?
Methodology
The study draws on Knight’s (2004) model of IoHE, “internationalization abroad andinternationalization at home” and Soderqvist’s (2000) concept of internationalization as apathway to increase quality and competencies of higher education institutions as an
overarching framework to explore IoHE in Mongolia. All data related to Mongolian higher
education, reforms, internationalization policy, and English language policy went through thequalitative document analysis, “describing, classifying and connecting” (Coffey andAtkinson, 1996; p.8) to portray a comprehensive picture of the IoHE and the concept of EMI
in Mongolia.
Document Analysis
Following the qualitative document analysis methods (Coffey and Atkinson, 1996), an arrayof documents was collected from public and academic sources. The collected documents
covered policy documents related to Mongolian higher education since the 1990s, including:• higher education laws, government orders, amendments, and legislation;

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Volume 7 – Issue 1 – Summer 2019• websites of 10 national universities and 18 private institutions (as of 2017);• official reports by the World Bank, Asian Development Bank, and Open Society
Institute;• selected online newspaper articles at three main newspapers (Daily News, Unuudur,
and Zuunii Medee);• articles written in both Mongolian and English.
Most documents were available in Mongolian, which was not an issue as the author of thispaper was born in Mongolia. In addition, the researcher used his insider perspectives working
in the higher education sector in Mongolia in the last 14 years. However, it should be notedthat the collected documents lacked recent studies and articles related to the topic in thisstudy.
First, the collected documents were read closely to apply topic codes. These topic codes
described the main segments of the documents. During the qualitative document analysis, theemphasis was given to official evidence relating to the strategies and approaches forinternationalization and EMI policy at the national level. After completing the initial coding
process, the coded data were reviewed again and coded segments that reflected similar
concepts were grouped into larger categories. After all coded data had been categorized, thecategories were reexamined to identify major themes in a relationship with the IoHE in the
Mongolian context and the questions of the study. As a result, six dimensions were identified,
three of which are presented in this report due to their coverage.
Documents from 28 national and private universities were collected to understand their EMI
policies and the implication of EMI in their strategic plans, mission statements, and public
identity. It should be noted that there is little available data on EMI in Mongolia. The author
has estimated that there are about 385 courses taught in English, identified through his privatecontacts with the 28 universities’ academic affairs offices. However, it was not possible toidentify the exact number of degree programs and courses in English in the Mongolian HEIs.
The reasons include unresponsiveness when reaching out to the universities’ academic affairs
offices and inaccessibility of information from the university websites.
Online Survey
Based on documentary evidence, an online survey was conducted with faculty members whoteach EMI courses at two leading private universities in Mongolia. The survey was developed
based on the objectives and the related literature, and the survey was conducted at the two
universities in Ulaanbaatar, the capital of Mongolia. Purposive sampling (Patton, 2002) wasused to select these universities. As Patton (1990) emphasized, purposeful sampling lies inselecting information-rich cases for study in depth. From the information-rich cases, one canlearn a great deal about issues of central importance to the purpose of the research. From the
17 strategies for purposefully selecting information-rich cases by Patton (1990), the third
strategy, maximum variation sampling was used to select the two universities for the survey.
This strategy aims at capturing and describing the central theme or principal outcomes thatcut across a great deal of participants or program variation. Moreover, document analysis
revealed that these two universities have more EMI degree programs than other private
universities. National universities were excluded due to this reason.
The survey aimed to analyze the rationales for adopting the EMI policy and examine its
implementation in two private universities. To provide rich data about the implementation ofEMI, the survey targeted the two private universities that EMI earlier and have implemented

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Volume 7 – Issue 1 – Summer 2019it most aggressively among Mongolian HEIs. The survey was originally distributed to 25
faculty members in University A and 30 faculty members in University B. Twenty faculty
members from each university who are teaching EMI courses participated in the survey (seeTable 3).
Table 3: Demographic characteristics of the respondents-

Characteristics
Faculty members qualification
Doctoral degree
Doctoral candidates
Master’s Degree-

Teaching experience
Below 3 years
Above 3 years
5 years and more
10 years and more

Number
40
8
11
21
12
6
6
16

The survey had 18 questions: five questions on respondents’ personal information such as
history/experience of teaching courses in English, the experience of teaching overseas, sevenyes-no and multiple-choice questions; four five-level Likert-scale; and two open-ended
questions. The online questionnaires that were designed in English in the google forms weresent to the faculty members in January 2018. The questionnaire was closed in February 2018.
The gender of the survey respondents was 25 females and 15 males. The majority of the
respondents’ nationality was Mongolian (24 faculty members) while the rest were American(5), Bangladeshi (2), Korean (7), and Chinese (2). To ensure that respondents in the survey
provided honest answers, the survey was conducted anonymously and it did not request
names and other private information that may reveal their identities.
Data Results
Main Dimensions of Internationalization
The document analysis identified six main dimensions of the internationalization process at
HEIs: (1) Administrative leadership and structure; (2) Faculty development; (3)Internationalized curriculum development; (4) Student mobility; (5) Distance Education’ and(6) International partnership and collaboration. This section explores three dimensions (2, 4,
and 6) in the internationalization processes of Mongolian HEIs in global and local contexts,
their actions and strategies, and underlying motivations.
Faculty Development
The role of faculty members is vital in the institutional internationalization process. Hiring
new faculty members or re-training existing faculty members is central to the success ofapproaches to internationalization and maintenance of quality standards. The Mongolian
government action plan of 2008-2012 (Legal Info System, 2018, p. 5) indicated in the section
under education, “…faculty development program will be implemented in HEIs”, and“…Young researchers and scholars will be supported” in order to improve higher education
quality. In addition, the Roadmap for Higher Education Reform sets goals for faculty
development for 2010-2021 to increase the number of higher education faculty members witha PhD by at least 50 per cent (MECSS, 2017b). Currently, 2034 of 6917 (29%) full-time
faculty members have a PhD (MECSS, 2017a).

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Since the 1990s, faculties in HEIs had scarce opportunities and resources to develop theirskills and knowledge. Although international philanthropic organizations such as the OpenSociety Institute offered short-term exchange programs for faculties across all HEIs, faculties
still lacked language skills to benefit from international training. However, this is changing
and national universities are now focusing more on faculty development in order to increase
their quality and visibility.
According to the categories of faculty development developed by Fink (2013, p. 2), Mongolia
belongs to the first level of faculty development, “little or no faculty development activity”.
Main national universities are striving to offer more faculty development opportunities, thus,
aiming for the second level, and “a substantial minority of institutions offering faculty
development activity where participation is voluntary” Fink (2013, p. 2).
Despite these initiatives, the majority of HEIs still do not have a comprehensive plan forfaculty development and faculty members spend little time for self-development due to aheavy workload (Narankhuu & Batkhishig, 2015). As Itgel, Oyungoo, Sumyasuren & OtgonErdene, (2018) concluded in their study, most of the faculty members (67%) at national
universities viewed developing academic research and foreign language skills as the top
priority in faculty development. This means that faculty members feel disadvantaged inparticipating in and conducting high-quality academic research in a foreign language, mainly
in English.
Student Mobility
Mongolia hosted 1,520 inbound international students in 2017 (MECSS, 2017a). Of these,
56% were studying at the bachelor’s level, 33% at the master’s level and 11% at the PhD
level. The geographical origin of incoming students reveals that the largest number ofstudents are from China (969), Russia (182), and South Korea (132), representing 84% of allinternational students. Compared to the last five years, the number of international students
increased by 0.7% (It was 1,098 in 2012) (MECSS, 2017a). In addition, the “EBI”
government-funded short-term scholarship (initiated by the former President Elbegdorj in2017) encourages inbound student mobility. The purpose of the program is to support foreign
young researchers and scholars conducting research in Mongolian studies. Currently, nineresearchers from eight countries received this scholarship in 2017 (Ministry of Foreign
Affairs, 2017).
In regards to outgoing mobility, the government of Mongolia promotes study abroad
programs with the aim to prepare domestic students for international careers and develop
future high-level human resources. In 2014, the government commenced the Higher
Engineering Education Development Project in cooperation with the Japan International
Cooperation Agency to prepare 1,000 Mongolian engineering students in Japan by 2023.
Currently, 400 students, faculty members, and researchers have received the scholarship(Munkhtulga, 2018). Between 1997 and 2017, 2,076 students received Mongolian
government and intergovernmental scholarships.
The number of outbound Mongolian students has been stable during the past decade, with
only some minor fluctuations. The most popular destination countries included the UnitedStates of America, China, Russia, Japan, Korea, and Taiwan. Numerous foreign governmentfunded scholarships have a great impact on the outbound mobility of Mongolian students.

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The popular scholarships are from the United States of America, Japan, China, the United
Kingdom, Australia, Russia, Germany, Hungary, and South Korea.
International Partnership and Collaboration
For HEIs worldwide, building relationships with counterparts abroad is seen as a key aspectof strategies for internationalization. A great number of HEIs around the world are eager toestablish joint and dual degree programs and other types of partnerships with foreign
institutions (especially in highly developed countries).
With regard to internationalization abroad, Mongolian HEIs experience international
partnership and collaboration in two ways: joint/dual degree programs including student
exchanges and research and academic collaboration. The foreign partner schools in Asia,
especially from Japan, South Korea, China, and Taiwan weigh higher than other regions.
Examples show that 146 of 220 foreign partners with National University of Mongolia arefrom Asia, 83 of 137 at Mongolian University of Science and Technology, 47 of 70 at
National University of Education and the list goes on. Student exchange programs are fundedby an array of institutions from private companies (e.g. Mitsubishi Scholarship) and national
institutions (e.g. Mongolia-Namyangju Education Promotion Scholarship) to the government(e.g. Erasmus Mundus program).
Dual degree programs have become attractive for students interested in getting aninternational degree but have limited resources to complete full four years abroad. Thus,
institutions offer such programs to attract more students, which require increased English
language exposure, training, and quality in order to prepare students for partner institutions.
In Mongolia, joint and dual degree programs mostly in business studies have been
experiencing considerable growth over the past decade. About 40 joint/dual degree programs
were offered at national universities as of 2017. Most of the programs are taught in English;
thus, it requires students to have advanced English skills. The tuition fee for these programs
is much higher, compared to the domestic average.
Research and academic collaboration is an excellent way to not only accelerate theinternationalization progress, but also enhance the institutional quality and improve theperformance of partners. HEIs in Mongolia benefit from participating in effective research
and academic collaborations with others, both within and outside the country. In 1974-2016,
the government of Mongolia funded 4235 research projects (23.5% in natural science, 23.5%
in technology, 22.8% in medical science, 17.8% in social science, and 12.4% in agriculturalscience) (MFST, 2016). However, joint projects make up a small percentage – 18% in social
science, 12% in natural science, 2% in medical science, 2% in the agriculture, and 2% intechnology. In 2016, $3.1 million was allotted to HEIs for 164 research projects (MFST,
2016). Unfortunately, Mongolian HEIs have not yet released any accurate data regarding
their academic collaboration with foreign institutions.
Online Survey
The main aim of the survey was to analyze the EMI practice in two private universities and toinvestigate internal and external factors that influence the adoption of EMI policy at theinstitutional level from the perspectives of faculty members. This survey involved two
institutions that started offering EMI courses earlier, in a more extensive way, andimplementing EMI more aggressively than other Mongolian universities (see Table 4).

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To interpret the survey results, I explored documents related to EMI courses and programs,
including materials from each university’s website. The survey asked faculty members about
their students, internal and external factors for implementing EMI practice at their university,
challenges, and recommendations and suggestions for the improvement and efficacy of EMI
courses.
Table 4: Profile of the universities
Basic information
Type of institution

University A
PrivateUniversity B
PrivateApprox. # of undergraduate students

4000

1000

Approx. total # of international undergraduate students

70

150

12 (programs)

13 (programs)# of undergraduate EMI

What are the internal and external factors for implementing EMI programs? Thissection explored the internal and external factors for implementing EMI courses at the two
universities (see Table 5). The participants were asked to rank the three most importantinternal and external factors. In regards to internal factors, the majority of the universities’
faculty members perceive that EMI programs are offered in order to improve their students’English proficiency and to prepare global citizens. This idea is connected to the notion of
preparing global leaders who can be actively engaged in international activities throughEnglish. Faculties at University A ranked “Increase the ranking of the university” as one of
the main factors driving EMI policy while University B chose “Create an international
environment for the students”.
Table 5: Comparison of internal and external factors
University A
Improve English skills of domestic
students (20)*Prepare global citizens (18)*Internal Factors

External Factors

Increase the ranking of theuniversity (18)*Student exchange programs (20)*International collaborations (20)*Domestic university ranking (18)*

University B
Improve English skills ofdomestic students (20)*Create an international
environment for students (20)*Prepare global citizens (20)*Student exchange programs (20)*International collaborations (20)*Domestic university ranking (20)** Number of faculty members agreed
As for external factors, all respondents from both University A and University B believe thatstudent exchange programs and international collaborations are the primary reasons for their
universities to implement EMI courses. This pattern confirms the result of the document
analysis that University A is actively engaged in international collaboration with foreign
partner universities through various exchange degree programs. For University B, it seems
the student exchange programs and international collaborations play a crucial role in theimplementation of EMI. In Mongolia, most of the student exchange programs in HEIs are run
in English, hence EMI is seen as one of the external factors in the development of student
exchange programs at these universities through international collaboration. Interestingly, the84

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Volume 7 – Issue 1 – Summer 2019answers of the respondents of the two universities display that their universities place muchemphasis on English education to raise their domestic university ranking, which is the third
factor for implementing EMI.
Challenges. It is clear that there are many challenges that hinder successful implementationof EMI. To gain a better understanding of these challenges, respondents were asked to choose
the four most important challenges from the following key challenges.
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

Student dissatisfaction;
Limited English proficiency of students;
Outside pressure;
Structural challenge;
Cultural challenge;
Increase in workload;
Linguistic difficulties;
Intercultural problems.

Table 6 presents the list of challenges by the level of importance as determined by the
number of respondents who ranked the challenges as most important.
Table 6: Comparison of challenges
University A

University B

Increase in workload (16)*Linguistic difficulties (14)*Outside pressure (16)*Structural challenge (14)*Structural challenge (14)*Cultural challenge (14)*Linguistic difficulties (14)*Limited English proficiency of students (14)**Number of agreed respondents
The challenges that the faculty members from these universities selected are similar to resultsthat have been found by many researchers (see Airey, Lauridsen, Räsänen, Salö, & Schwack,
2015; Chapple 2015; He & Chiang, 2016; Doiz, Lasagabaster & Sierra, 2011; and Galloway,
Kriukow, & Numajiri, 2017).
Recommendations and Suggestions
The survey had two open-ended questions. The purpose was to find out more about faculty
experiences in EMI followed by a request to give their recommendations for those who aregoing to teach EMI courses, and universities that are planning to offer EMI courses. The
answers showed that University A’s faculty members focused more on the preparation ofclasses, pedagogical training, and language issues while University B’s faculty members gave
more emphasis on collaborative ties between departments, and practical advice of whatchanges and challenges to expect.
In terms of recommendations for universities, University A’s faculty members advised that auniversity planning to offer EMI courses should provide their teachers with pedagogicaltraining, course materials, and a good working environment. University B’s faculty members
recommended pedagogical training for faculty members, preparation of quality curriculums,
and emphasis on English language proficiency of prospective students. It seems that85

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pedagogical training or a workshop is important to the faculty members in order to work
successfully in the EMI context and as well as the curricula along with course materials.
Discussion and Conclusion
This study attempted to explore the IoHE in Mongolia, current strategies and approaches tointernationalization at the national and institutional levels, the concept of EMI policy and its
implementation in HEIs in Mongolia. This study addressed two research questions:
1. What are the driving factors for Mongolian higher education institutions to pursue
internationalization?
2. What are the rationales of Mongolian universities to adopt policies for English as a
Medium of Instruction?
In terms of the first question, the key findings of this research show that at the national level,
the world university ranking causes the government to push its national universities to pursue
internationalization. In the bigger picture, the Mongolian government perceives the IoHE as away to integrate international dimensions into higher education (Knight, 2003) in order toimprove the quality of higher education (Soderqvist, 2002). These two reasons are the key
drivers of internationalization.
At the institutional level, national universities put a greater emphasis on rankings, research
output to journals with high impact factor, international collaboration and delivery of courses
in English. On the other hand, private institutions are increasingly applying for international
accreditations to compete for high-tuition paying domestic students. These two phenomena
are moving the IoHE in Mongolia forward by integrating international dimensions into higher
education.
Although the government of Mongolia makes progress through strategic actions and projects
in the higher education sector, Mongolia’s internationalization efforts are still dispersed andmanaged in an ad-hoc fashion. At the national level, higher education policies and laws are
not stable and they are constantly changed. Consequently, the internationalization process is
becoming slow. As expected in the Roadmap for Higher Education Reform 2010-2021(MECS, 2010), Mongolia’s first ambitious priority is to have four universities to beinternationally visible at least in Asia by 2021. However, the plan is way behind the schedule.
The Mongolian government should consider actions to intensify faculty development on asubstantial scale for the development of scientific research in the country. The government
should also grant full autonomy to national universities and increase its investment in thecoordination of international initiatives. The document analysis of the discourse of IoHE in
Mongolia presented the following key challenges:● Institutional autonomy and short-term leadership. When the government of Mongolia
appoints rectors for limited terms, national universities face difficulties withautonomy and short-term leadership to maintain the continuity of vision forinternationalization and sustaining strategic actions over extended periods.
● Insufficient funding. Funding and grants are unstable and insufficient for theinternationalization process to go forward. This surely relies on the country’s
economic capacity and it will likely have long-term consequences for Mongolia’sinternationalization agenda and outcomes.

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Volume 7 – Issue 1 – Summer 2019● Quality assurance. Before 2016, HEIs were not required to go for accreditation. The
only incentive for it was the government’s financial support in the form of student
loans only to accredited HEIs. The negative results of not being accredited may
include a loss of funding, students, and even bankruptcy. Now there is a hope that the
mandatory accreditation will benefit all HEIs and their stakeholders.
The Mongolian government is the key player in IoHE by making policies, taking initiatives,and encouraging national universities. However, the process of internationalization is muchslower in private HEIs. More in-depth research and particularly qualitative research of acomparative nature are clearly needed in order to gain greater insights into how the IoHE is
implemented at national and institutional levels.
In terms of the second research question, it is clear that more private rather than national
institutions utilize the forms of international delivery through joint and dual degree programs
as Deschamps and Lee (2015) claimed. The forms of joint and dual degree programs in
Mongolia support Mongolian domestic students to study abroad rather than calling forinternational students. The medium of instruction in the courses offered in the joint and dual
degree programs is mainly English. The country will remain disadvantaged if the number ofprograms in English is not leveraged because this is crucial to many aspects ofinternationalization. While many foreign institutions implement EMI to attract international
students, this does not seem to be a practice at Mongolian HEIs.
As Macaro et al. (2018) concluded, the rationales for adopting EMI in a broader global
context include:
1. a perceived need to internationalize the university;
2. the need to attract foreign students due to the decreasing number of domestic students;
3. national cuts in HE investment;
4. the need for national HEIs to compete with private ones; and5. the importance of English in academic research publications.
By comparison, in terms of the second research question, in the Mongolian context, thedocument analysis identified that HEIs in Mongolia implement EMI for the following four
reasons:
1. increasing the employability of domestic graduates;
2. promoting international collaboration;
3. generating more income; and4. increasing domestic and international profile.
These four reasons are interrelated. When national universities strive to increase theirinternational profile by offering EMI courses and joint/dual degree programs in English,
private universities promote international collaboration via joint and dual degree EMI
programs to generate more income. Both national and private universities pay much attention
to the employment ratio of their graduates due to the increasing demands of international anddomestic business organizations to hire graduates who will be able to work internationally.
English language knowledge is one of the main requirements for employment. To someextent, the survey findings show similar results as the document analysis identified. The
faculty members of the two leading private institutions perceived that the introduction of EMI
at their universities intends to improve their graduates’ English language skills to operate

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Volume 7 – Issue 1 – Summer 2019globally as well as to sharpen their university’s international profile. As noted, this survey
was conducted for the first time in the Mongolian context.
Due to time constraints, a more in-depth study including interviews with the faculty members
and administrators of EMI programs should be done to have a more complete view of the
EMI in Mongolia. In addition, a comparison of data from more private universities would
have been valuable.

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Corresponding author: Sainbayar Gunsambuu
Contact email: sgundsam@fulbrightmail.org

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Transfer of Learning and Teaching: A Review of Transfer Theories and Effective
Instructional Practices
Shiva Hajian
Simon Fraser University, Canada

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Abstract
One of the primary goals of education is to ensure that learners can apply their acquired
knowledge in various ways and under different circumstances. However, this expected“transfer” does not always occur and, therefore, the acquired knowledge cannot be flexibly
employed in different contexts. One way to minimize this problem is to understand howtransfer occurs and what learning conditions can improve this process. This review paper
provides major theoretical perspectives and pedagogical practices to explore the mosteffective ways to optimize knowledge acquisition and transfer. The results of the comparisonof the selected theories indicated that transfer was a multi-dimensional process that could
occur at any stage of learning and could be enhanced through coaching, scaffolding,interacting, assessing and reflecting in situated learning environments.
Keywords: transfer of learning and teaching, situated learning

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Many researchers have defined transfer as the productive application of prior learning andexperiences in novel contexts (Gass & Selinker, 1983; Gick & Holyoak, 1987; Roediger,
2007). While the definition of a “novel context” may initially appear ambiguous, mosttransfer studies consider a novel context as a situation that is potentially different from theoriginal situation in which learning has already taken place (McDaniel, 2007). Thus, applying
knowledge to a different domain, aligning it with a new goal and being assessed differently,
can all be considered as novel contexts (Barnett & Ceci, 2002; Pan & Richard, 2018).
A large body of research indicates that students often find transferring knowledge tosituations other than the one in which it was learned highly challenging (Gilbert et al., 2011).
Therefore, many educators and researchers have attempted to identify the factors that
influence later acquisition of knowledge by examining the cognitive and metacognitive
processes that occur during the learning process. The result has been a vast amount ofliterature with various perspectives towards learning and instructional practices along withlarge variability among findings (Blume, Ford, Baldwin, & Huang, 2010). Therefore, the goalof this article is to review some of these theories to identify the consistent factors thatfacilitate knowledge transfer and provide examples of the instructional strategies that can
provide optimal opportunities for learners to apply their acquired knowledge and expertise.
Since discussing all theories from transfer literature is beyond the scope of this review, only a
few traditional and contemporary theoretical perspectives will be provided and discussed.
These theories begin with the traditional cognitive theories of transfer and end with more
contemporary learning transfer theories. However, the selected instructional practices will
predominantly be based on social constructivist approaches to learning such as situatedlearning theory. The reason for this choice is the extensive employment of contextual andinquiry learning methods in science and technology research and the presence of empiricalevidence for successful application of these methods (Aparicio-Ting, Slater, & Kurz, 2019;
Potvin, Hasni, & Sye, 2017). At the end, some of the advantages and disadvantages of thestated theories will be discussed and several pedagogical suggestions will be provided.
Theoretical Models of Transfer
Theory of Identical Elements
Learning transfer has become a significant research topic in educational psychology since
Thorndike and Woodworth developed the theory of identical elements in 1901 (Schunk,
2004; Singley & Anderson, 1989). According to this theory, learning can be transferred fromone activity to another (e.g., training to performance) if the two activities are highly similarand share many common elements. The level of transfer is also determined by the level ofsimilarity between the original context of the training and the target context of theperformance. Thorndike conducted a study on 8,564 high school students and noticed that theart and science courses taken by the students had very little effect on their problem-solving
skills. For example, subjects such as math, physics, chemistry, Latin and French had very
little effect on strategic thinking and problem-solving skills. While the challenging practicesof learning sciences had helped students develop general learning skills and intellectual
abilities, it had not helped them develop efficient problem-solving abilities required to tackle
real life problems. He therefore emphasized the significance of the relationship between thecontent taught in school and the demands of real-life skills. Identical elements theory
challenged the traditional view of teacher-centered pedagogy and became one of thepioneers of active learning theories. This view of learning was followed by Dewey’s
pragmatic view of learning and his idea of inquiry learning classrooms. According to this95

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view, classrooms need to represent real life situations and provide opportunities for students
to flexibly participate in distinct learning activities and in distinct social contexts (Dewey,
1938; Gutek, 2014; Williams, 2017).
Theory of Low and High Road Transfer
In 1989, Perkins and Salomon developed the integrative theory of “low and high roadtransfer”. According to this theory, there are two different, but connected, underlying
mechanisms for transfer, namely, low road and high road. Low road transfer usually occurs
when the target and original activities share a countless number of features. For example, aperson who is driving a small truck for the first time usually finds the experience very similar
to the experience of driving a sedan car. Driving the truck is the same habitual experience
although it seems like a different task (Perkins & Salomon, 1989; Perkins & Salomon, 1992).
These reflexive behaviours or automatic responses in similar activities are the result of
countless hours of practice. However, high road transfer occurs as a result of mindful
abstraction of general principles among different events in different contexts and a deliberate
search for connections among their structures. For example, a person who takes a C++
programming course and is assigned a game development project at the end of the semesterneeds to ensure that he or she knows the programming language well and then deliberately
search for the connections between what has been learned and what needs to be designed in anovel context. Similarly, learning Newton’s Laws in a Physics course and applying them tobuilding an aircraft model needs flexible adaptations of underlying principles to a completely
new environment. High road transfer demands time for exploration, discovery, flexible
adaptation of skills, and asking questions such as what the problems are, what principles need
to be applied and how the final outcomes need to be assessed. In practice the low and highroad theory has offered two ways for learners to increase their chance of applying theirknowledge in different situations flexibly: effective practice and mindful abstraction ofknowledge (Perkins & Salomon, 1988, 1989, 1992).
This theory leads to two broad instructional strategies in fostering transfer: “hugging andbridging” (Perkins & Salomon, 1992, p.10). Hugging is an instructional strategy that directly
guides and engages the learner in the desired target performance and therefore promotes
reflexive transfer. For example, a teacher might give students sample exam questions rather
than just explaining how some particular strategies may help them succeed in the exam.
Similarly, a university job counselor might encourage students to engage in mock interviews
rather than just providing them with some general rules of effective job interviews. This way
the learning experience hugs the target performance and optimizes the likelihood of
automatic performance in similar situations (low road transfer). On the other hand, bridging
employs the high road to transfer. This instructional strategy encourages intentional
abstraction of the general rules by searching for possible connections among various
experiences or examples and applying them to unknown cases. For example, an instructor
who prompts students to adopt an exam strategy based on their previous experiences createsan opportunity for students to analyze and reflect on their strengths and weaknesses andcreate a general strategic plan for their future exams. To maximize high road transfer,
instructional designers need to create generic skills that can be used in various situations andnot uniquely applicable to their original context (Winn, 1993).
Theory of Analogy and Abstraction
Abstraction is one of the most fundamental principles of many cognitive theories of transfer.
As Skemp (1986) defines it, abstraction is “an activity by which we become aware ofsimilarities among our experiences” (p. 21). By identifying the underlying principles of96

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actions, thoughts, perceptions, and operations we can facilitate the transfer of knowledge tocontexts that are fundamentally dissimilar from those that are initially encountered (Gick &Holyoack, 1980; Hayes & Simon, 1977).
There is ample evidence that understanding of the world is based on abstraction rather thansuperficial comprehension of various systems and their relationships. This is particularly truein understanding and discovery of underlying scientific principles. For example, in a biology
course the goal is to understand the genetic laws behind multiple generations of pea plants
and not the particular properties of the plants in isolation. Similarly, in physics the goal is tofind out the fundamental principles of conservation of energy and not watch what happens toa particular spring when it is weighted down (Chi, Feltovich, & Glaser, 1981). In fact, theprogress of science and mathematics is mostly due to the deep conceptual principles sharedby the phenomena that may look dissimilar on the surface but which are defined in terms of
the same categories or models (Goldstone &Sakamoto, 2003) such as the underlying
principles of Golden Ratio in nature or the Fibonacci pattern in reproduction.
One effective mechanism for abstraction is analogy (Gentner & Hoyos, 2017; Hajian, 2018).
Although analogical transfer may seem intuitive and natural, it is based on complex
mechanisms that need to be employed for extraction of commonalities among various casesand discarding the unrelated information (Gentner, 1983; Gick & Holyoak, 1983; Hummel &Holyoak, 2003). For example, when a person knows how to solve a linear equation withunknown variables added together, it is highly possible that the person also knows how tosolve the linear equations with different operations (e.g., subtraction, multiplication, anddivision) using analogical comparison. Analogy and reasoning can lead to efficient problemsolving strategies which are based on four components of retrieval of information, mapping
structures, transferring solutions, and generalization (Gentner, 1997; McFate & Forbus,2016). Among all these components, it seems that retrieval and access to the source analogue
is the most challenging process. And therefore, it can be performed successfully if explicit
scaffolding such as hints and cues are provided for finding a suitable source for analogy(Gentner et al., 1994; Holyoak & Koh, 1987; Schmid, Wirth, & Polkehn, 2003). Evidenceshows that many university students often fail to employ structurally similar analogies
spontaneously (Gick & Holyock, 1980; Hayes & Simon, 1977) although using this strategy
can greatly facilitate the process of creation of new schemas (Gentner & Hoyos, 2017). Given
the critical role of structural similarity and mapping in schema formation and successfultransfer (Holyoak & Koh, 1987; Reed, 1989; Salomon & Perkins, 1989), it is important toinclude analogy as a supportive mechanism of instruction and knowledge assimilation (Chi,Slotta, & De Leeuw, 1994). Additionally, analogies can be employed as exploratory andcreative tools for solving complex relational problems (Duit, 1991; Glynn, Britton, SemrudClikeman, & Muth, 1989). For example, a novice looking at a chessboard in the middle of thegame becomes overwhelmed by the huge amount of information required to be processed
whereas a chess expert can very quickly recognize the structural similarities among various
positions and relations and work with manageable meaningful structural pieces (Chase &Simon, 1973).
Given the power of analogical comparison in knowledge transfer, along with many otherrobust cognitive mechanisms of transfer, such as self-explanation (Chi et al., 1994; RittleJohnson, 2006; VanLehn & Jones, 1992) and test-enhancement strategy (Pan & Richard,
2018; Roediger & Butler, 2011), how can educators incorporate these mechanisms in
instruction to promote expert learning? A number of studies addressed this question in the
1980s and indicated that the possible solution was learning in similar contextual97

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various situations plays a higher significant role in determining whether transfer can actuallyoccur (Day & Goldstone, 2011).This view criticized the cognitive learning models employedin schools as decontextualized and individualized pedagogical models that led to independent
possession of knowledge by the learner (Wilson & Myers, 2000). The idea that concepts are
abstract, self-sufficient, and separate from the context does not support the idea that learning
is an active and engaging process (Bonwell & Eison, 1991; Brown et al., 1996). Furthermore,acquiring abstract knowledge does not guarantee transferrable knowledge – this is similar to asituation when a person has quality tools but is unable to use them. The gap created between
knowing and doing prevents learners from using their knowledge within an appropriate
context (Bransford et al., 2000; Brown, Collins, & Duguid, 1989).
Situated Learning Theory
Although some of the major transfer theories developed simultaneously, it was the theory of“situated learning” (Lave, 1988) that integrated most of the separate branches of investigation
into a more complete theory of learning and transfer. In this view, learning and cognition are
situated and developed through purposeful authentic activities in social contexts. Therefore,
learning and transfer occur when learners are given an opportunity to “observe and practicein situ” (Brown et al., 1989, p.34).
This theory is founded on the principle that knowledge is constructed if the learner becomesan active participant of a highly connected community in which knowledge and culture areintegrated. Learning should also be an unintentional process rather than a deliberate one – aprocess that can take place through “legitimate peripheral participation” (Lave & Wenger,
1991).
What Lave (1988) observed in her work with apprentice tailors is a good example of howlearning can occur as a social phenomenon and how novices become experts throughlegitimate peripheral participation (LPP). She noticed that newcomers to the community ofprofessional tailors began their jobs by doing lots of trivial tasks such as running errands,
preparing the materials for the tailors and cleaning the workspace. Then, they helped themasters by finishing the details of the clothes and gradually helped them more and more withadvanced jobs until they became experts themselves. Lave argues that the trivial looking jobs
performed at the initial stage of learning are not trivial at all as they provide an opportunity
for novices to familiarize themselves with the fundamental knowledge required for that
community. The small responsibilities progressively change to more advanced activities suchas cutting, sewing, and designing (Lave & Wenger, 1991). Therefore, it is mostly throughparticipation within a community of practice that learning and transfer can gradually occur.
This is similar to the foreign language learning process which is only possible throughapplication of words and grammar “within” society and not just memorization of isolated
words from the dictionary. For example, in the study conducted by Preston et al (2015), it
was shown how context-aware systems could help learners keep track of their progress
during an activity and how this strategy allows them to take language learning to a level
beyond the traditional environment of the classroom.
Lave and Wenger define community of practice as members of the same group, with sharedinterests, goals, and passions participating in a sociocultural practice on the regular basis.
Cognition is developed in this type of practice (Chaiklin and Lave, 1996; Lave, 1988) andnovices can become experts through moving from peripheral participation to the central roleof the community with more expertise (Lave, 1988; Chaiklin & Lave, 1996). The idea of98

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cognition in practice supports the significance of the instructional cognitive apprenticeshipmodel in learning and transfer of complex skills (Brown et al., 1989). It is important to knowthat the concept of “participation” does not only refer to informal or unplanned activities.
Participation can also be an arranged activity in formal lessons, laboratory experiments,
scientific conversations and workshops within the same community (Wenger, 1999).
The role of cognitive apprenticeship in learning has been demonstrated for various skills suchas mathematics, reading and writing (Brown et al., 1989), genetics (Charney et al., 2007),
chemistry education (Stwart & Lagowski, 2003), learning clinical skills (Wooley & Jarvis,
2007) and web-based problem solving (Kuo, Hwang, Chen, & Chen, 2012). All these studies
provide evidence that learners need to immerse themselves in authentic learning
environments and gain expertise through participation in the community of practice (Brown
et al. 1989; Greeno & Moore, 1993; Herrington and Oliver, 2000; Lave, 1988). For example,
in the study conducted by Preston et al (2015), it was shown how context-aware systems
could help learners keep track of their progress during an activity and how this strategy
allows them to take language learning to a level beyond the traditional environment of theclassroom.
Instructional Practices
One of the most efficient ways to assist learners to adapt to the demands of novel situations isto provide them with appropriate knowledge and skills that are necessary to confront andsolve complex real-life problems (Brown & Duguid, 1993). One effective practical way toimplement this idea is to design a pedagogical environment that can provide an authentic
environment and authentic activities so novices can have access to expert performance,
scaffolding at critical times, sufficient support for collaborative construction of knowledge,
and monitoring within the learning environment (Herrington & Oliver, 1995, 2000).
Although it is difficult to implement a program that integrates all of the above factors, it has
been shown that pedagogical models such as problem-based learning (PBL), community ofpractice (CoP), cognitive apprentice (CA) and game based learning (GBL) can integratemany components of the situated learning theories such as collaboration, coaching, practice,problem solving and reflection. There is ample evidence that these models can be
implemented successfully in educational practices and make significant changes in student
learning and transfer abilities.
Problem Based Learning (PBL)
PBL is founded on four principles of “constructive, self-directed, collaborative andcontextual learning” (Dolmans, De Grave, Wolfhagen, & Van Der Vleuten, 2005, p.732). In
PBL both learning and teaching are problem driven. The ill-structure problems used in PBL
allow learners to create connections between theory and practice to develop the required
ability to handle complex challenges of real-life situations (Hung, 2013; Savery, 2015).
Reflection is one of the most critical components of PBL as learners constantly need tomonitor their conceptual and procedural understanding for effective learning and adaptive
problem-solving strategies. This monitoring process allows refinement of knowledge andsupports learners in discovering the underlying structural relations between concepts andcategories (Hung, Jonassen, & Liu, 2008; Jonassen & Hung, 2012). Self-directed learning(SDL) is another crucial component of PBL that is fundamental to the development of fartransfer ability. SDL requires reasoning skills and analytical approach towards the issues that99

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arise in the process of learning and application. These skills allow the learner to develop
cognitive flexibility and decision-making ability required for tackling unanticipated novel
problems (Nerali, Telang, Telang, & Chakravarthy, 2016; Stolper et al., 2011). PBL has
successfully been implemented in many science courses such as physics (Celik, Onder, &Silay, 2011), mathematics (Ronis, 2007) and medical education (Barrows, 2000).
Communities of Practice (CoP)
Communities of practice are shaped by individuals who have highly similar concerns orinterests and are willing to encounter challenges related to their shared interests or concerns
through collaboration and interaction together. What makes a community of practiceproductive and functional is an effective leadership. A leader (coach or tutor) facilitatescollaboration and fosters participation during the process of learning (Schwarz, 2002). For
example, in the community of practice of the classroom, the teacher takes a leadership
position by facilitating the actions and decisions of a group of students (Shields, 2003;
Wenger, 2000). This collaboration can also occur in a virtual context such as a multiuser
online discussion board or a virtual lab. Although the physical presence is missing in theseenvironments, communities of practice can still be formed in a highly dynamic manner. A
good example of promoting CoP in an online classroom is assigning group projects that canbe performed in collaborative documents such as Google Docs. Using online sharing
document software, learners can discuss their ideas in real-time, evaluate their work together,
edit the document as a team and generate new goals and ideas for their future collaborative
projects. In fact, virtual environments may contain a variety of unique features that cannot befound in physical CoP environments.
Cognitive Apprenticeship (CA)
Cognitive apprenticeship is strongly based on “modeling, coaching, and fading” (Brown etal., 1989, p.39). An expert coach (e.g., a professor) begins to promote learning throughmaking his or her tacit knowledge explicit and model the required strategies in an authentic
activity for students (Brown et al., 1989). Students use the provided knowledge, manipulate it
and discover their own way of managing knowledge. For example, graduate students learn
how to do proper research by working on an authentic research project with their supervisors
as opposed to learning the principles of research from the books and practicing the learned
principles at the library. The supervisor monitors the resources used by the students, guides
them through the process of research and provides them with the opportunities they need totackle authentic complex research problems. The professor also provides coaching andscaffolding along the way if required. In fact, monitoring and providing feedback are highly
pivotal to this process. Unlike the traditional apprenticeship system that is only focused on
concrete physical skills, cognitive apprenticeship emphasizes on all the cognitive andmetacognitive processes that are involved to achieve mastery of the field. As Brown et al.
(1989) argue this model is founded on “learning-through-guided-experience on cognitive andmetacognitive skills and processes” (p. 457).
Many studies have provided evidence on the role of this model in improving student learningtransfer in different areas. For example, in the study conducted by Wedelin and Adawi(2014), in a mathematical modelling course, those who worked with supervision in a
cognitive apprenticeship environment (e.g., in pairs of an expert and a novice) demonstrated
significant changes in their mathematical thinking and modeling in real work projects. The
students also considered the course as one of the most productive and creative courses takenin their entire program.

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Similarly, in another experiment conducted by Chiu, Chou, and Liu (2002), the results
indicated that grade 10 students who learned chemical equilibrium in a cognitive
apprenticeship context gained better understanding of this phenomenon compared to thecontrol group. They also managed to solve more challenging problems than the control
group.
Teaching in a cognitive apprenticeship environment is highly successful in preparing students
for confronting complex problems in the workplace or any authentic context as this
instructional practice is based on modeling, coaching, scaffolding, discovery, articulation,and reflection (Schoenfeld, 1985). Therefore, the implementation of this educational model ishighly recommended in promoting learning transfer and problem solving in science andengineering. One of the challenges of implementing this model is the requirement of a small
teacher to learner ratio, which may not be possible in large classes or groups.
Game Based Learning (GBL) and Simulations
Educational games and simulations can also provide pedagogical contexts in which learning
can effectively take place under particular pedagogical conditions (Clark, Tanner-Smith, &Killingsworth, 2016). These interactive environments allow learners to check theirunderstanding of the real-world phenomena through observing, modelling, comparing,
testing, and reasoning. For example, simulations can provide immersive model-based
environments that allow learners to simplify or challenge the concepts or the principles they
are learning (e.g., the principle of conservation energy or principles of chemical equilibrium)and expose themselves to various dimensions of the learned principles (e.g., the multiple
ways a formula or a concept can be applied). Additionally, the embedded features of thesimulation allow repetitive practice along with real-time feedback on the user’s learning
progress in the environment (Dede, 2012). For instance, the immersive game of Spore(“Spore TM”, 2018) provides an opportunity for learners to repeatedly design creatures that
can transform through numerous stages of evolution and develop into new varieties. Despitesome scientific imprecision, players can directly observe their creatures and their effects on
the ecosystem. This interaction with the system allows players to constantly apply what they
have learned about evolution and continuously modify their designs to ensure what has beenlearned is valid and applicable.
SimCity TM (“Electronic Arts”, 2018) is another simulation that has been used for engaging
learners to build cities that can continuously evolve. Interestingly, this simulation shows theuser how the choices they make in the game can have dramatic consequences on the life ofpeople, businesses, and natural resources. Incorporating such simulations in the curriculum
provides a great opportunity for students to assess the functionality of their constructed cities
in comparison to the similar designs in the real world. It also allows them to analyze theeffects of their construction on the health of the ecosystem, environment, economy, the futureof agriculture, and many other challenges of today’s modern world. In fact, in the recent
study conducted in an urban geography course, the university students who used SimCity toconstruct their own cities had a greater opportunity to apply the theories they had learned tosupport their urban structures. They also needed to use urban geography principles tocritically evaluate the rationale behind their constructed system in the SimCity compared to a
counterpart design in the real-world. This activity greatly advanced students’ creativity,
originality, and imagination and resulted in multiple interesting cities with unique designs.
The findings demonstrated that an immersive educational environment can be a highly
effective tool for promoting learning transfer in geography and civil engineering education(Kim & Shin, 2015).

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Immersive technologies can greatly help educators implement pedagogical approaches thatare aligned with the situated-constructive learning theories. Well-designed simulations andgames provide immersive environments with appropriate tools, content, feedback, andscaffolds that are necessary for meaningful cognitive and metacognitive learning and transfer.
In such environments learners can explore, observe, question, and learn through peer
coaching and legitimate peripheral participation (Dunleavy, Dede, & Mitchell, 2009). That isprobably why one of the fundamental goals of educational researchers is to develop thepedagogical games that can create the same level of motivation, engagement and passion
produced by some popular commercial video games (Lu et al., 2016; Young et al., 2012).
Discussion
Defining transfer and finding its underlying mechanisms is a challenging task. Researchers
are still trying to understand the challenges that learners encounter when they try to extend
their knowledge from one context to the other. Most traditional assumptions about transfer
are primarily founded on the idea that educating people through instruction, guidance andpractice in a particular context can help them gain mastery of a particular task of a domain
and this mastery is all that is needed to utilize knowledge in practice. While the modern
constructivist theories of learning do not underestimate the role of instruction and practice,they view learning as a whole, integrative process in which learners are actively engaged in
the process of their own learning while they receive appropriate instruction, guidance,
feedback and opportunities through social interaction and involvement in authentic
experiences. Therefore, learning is not merely defined in terms of the cognitive processes that
individuals are engaged in. It is also about how individuals evolve in this process and change(Lave & Wenger, 1989; Singley & Anderson, 1989).
This paper reviewed some of the prominent learning and transfer theories such as the theoryof identical elements, low and high road transfer, analogy as well as the situated learningtheory. While each theory employs effective cognitive and metacognitive strategies such ascomparison, assessment, reflection, and generalization, which can significantly improvelearning and transfer, each approach has also some limitations that need to be consideredwhen these approaches are implemented in practice.
For example, while the ultimate goal of the identical theory of transfer has been to improvestudents’ application of knowledge through providing similar tasks in similar contexts (withshared elements and features), this theory was criticized years ago by Hendrickson andSchroeder (1941) when they empirically indicated that the ability of formulization of generalprinciples (e.g., the principle of water refraction) was more effective than the presence ofhighly similar tasks in transfer of training. It was also noted that other factors such asindividual differences such as the habit of verifying a judgment or the ability to generalize aprinciple for oneself highly influenced the amount of skills and knowledge transferred.
Early research on knowledge transfer was mostly directed by the theories that were focusedon the resemblance between “conditions of learning and conditions of transfer” (Bransford etal., 2000, p.51) – a difference that was addressed and questioned by later theories. However,are learning and transfer truly different? In answer to the question, Perkins and Salomon(1992) argued that there is no solid line between learning and transfer. However, transfer
becomes interesting when it occurs beyond the original context of learning and is notconsidered ordinary learning anymore – a phenomenon that they called “the hoped-fortransfer” or desired transfer. For example, a student may indicate very good vocabulary skills

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on the English test (ordinary learning) but not in daily speech (the desired transfer). The
student may be quite comfortable with solving the problems on the worksheet (ordinary
learning) but not similar questions in an authentic problem-solving context (the desiredtransfer). The idea of ordinary versus desired transfer can also be explained in terms of“near” and “far” transfer (Kassai, Futo, Demetrovics, & Takacs, 2019; Perkins & Salomon,
1992). Near transfer refers to application of the same knowledge in vastly similar contexts.
For example, when students encounter problems similar to what they have previously
practiced in their homework or when a mechanic fixes an engine which is similar to the older
designs of the same model, the transfer is near. On the contrary, far transfer is about utilizing
knowledge in remote and dissimilar contexts. For example, a chess player might apply basic
strategic principles of the game such as center control to investment practices or to sports
games or an engineer may apply the trigonometric principles to a modern design. It should be
noted that the definition of near and far in this context is highly intuitive and, therefore, there
is no specific measurement to determine how far or close the events are.
It is important to know that transfer does not always convey a positive concept although bytransfer we usually mean learning in one context and improvement in performance in someother context. Negative transfer may also occur when learning in one context negatively
influences one’s performance in another context (Chen & Daehler, 1989; Cormier &Hagman, 2014; Perkins & Salomon, 1992). For example, when speakers of one language findit easier to learn related foreign languages, the transfer is positive. However, if differences inpronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar create confusion for the learner and hinder theirlearning process, then the transfer is considered negative. While negative transfer can be areal and problematic issue in learning, it does not seem as significant as positive transfer in
education. This is mainly because negative transfer can usually be problematic in the earlystages of learning a new domain and learners often correct their misconceptions when theygain experience in their field of study. Therefore, the main focus of transfer research is toknow when, where, and how the desired positive transfer occurs.
Similarly, in applying transfer strategies such as analogical encoding, one needs to be awareof the potential challenges that may arise later. Empirical research indicates that analogicalencoding – which occurs through comparison among similar examples and cases – can behighly effective in formation of new concepts, producing general rules, and promoting
problem solving strategies (Gentner et al., 2003; Gick & Holyoack, 1983; Hajian, 2018).
However, comparison may also lead to overgeneralization and incorrect conservation ofvariables due to the application of the intuitive rule of “same A – same B” (Ronan, 2018;
Stavy & Tirosh, 2000). For example, as Ronen (2012) argues, when two rectangles with thesame area (but different lengths and widths) are turned into two cylinders, they end up withthe same area but different volume. However, many learners conserve both area and volume
under this transformation (as cited in Ronen, 2018).
One way to confront this challenge is to stimulate students’ awareness to their intuitive
incorrect responses and challenge their reasoning by employing appropriate prompts andscaffolding at appropriate stages of learning (Hajian, 2018; Lazonder & Harmsen, 2016;
Ronan 2018). For example, it is highly effective to prompt students to explain why and how
they have abstracted a general rule and what evidence they can provide to support theirjustification (Hajian, 2018; Holyoak & Thagard, 1996; Hoyos & Gentner, 2017).
There is no doubt that each reviewed theory has its own complexity and challenges in
implementation and practice. These challenges are mainly due to factors such as the level of103

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Volume 7 – Issue 1 – Summer 2019learner motivation, engagement, attention and prior knowledge. Therefore, novice learners
and expert learners may take advantage from the same training in different ways as theassociation between learning and transfer also depends on the level of knowledge andexpertise that learners have previously acquired in the field (Gentner et al., 2003; Hajian,
2018; Kalyuga, Chandler, Tuovinen, & Sweller, 2001).
Transfer is an active, dynamic process and not the final product of some sequential steps inlearning or a passive end-product approach. This paper provided some practical educationalmodels such as problem-based learning, communities of practice, cognitive apprenticeship,
and game-based learning to indicate that it is possible to efficiently promote learning transfer
in a relatively authentic context – in situ learning. However, there are still many questions
that need to be addressed in future studies. For example, do all skills need to be acquired
within a social context to ensure their successful application? How is situated learning
implemented in online courses and materials? What kinds of instructional support are
required to be provided for learners with different prior knowledge and self-regulatory
behaviours? And, how can in-situ learning model be employed in our traditional school
system, considering a big volume of material needs to be covered in a relatively short periodof time?
In conclusion, learning transfer is a multi-dimensional process that occurs at any stage oflearning and can be enhanced through coaching, scaffolding, interacting, assessing andreflecting in authentic contexts. Therefore, if learning transfer fails, the entire learning systemneeds to be questioned simply because many things might have gone wrong and there are noquick-fix strategies to solve the problem.

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Corresponding author: Shiva Hajian
Contact email: shajianm@sfu.ca

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A Proposed Typology of Knowledge Sharing within Communities of Teachers: A
Comparative Case Study Focusing on England and Macedonia
James Underwood,
University of Northampton, UK
Majda Joshevska
Foundation for Education and Cultural Initiatives (Step by Step), Macedonia

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Abstract
This article is a case study of the knowledge that is exchanged by teachers when they are
engaged in professional communities that extend beyond the workplace, includinginternationally. The participants in this study were all teachers from England and Macedonia.
The data collection method was via interview. This data was thematically coded and used tobuild towards the development of a typography of the different forms of knowledge that may
be shared by teachers within such communities. In the first half of this article different waysof defining the professional knowledge of teachers, as presented in a range of research, areexplored and critiqued. The second half then explores the different forms of knowledge thatthe participants in this study perceived themselves to have shared as members ofcommunities of teachers that extend beyond the workplace. Via this study it was found thatthe participants consistently problematised the possibility of directly transferring specificpedagogic strategies. However, stories about teaching were seen by all to be useful vehicles
for enabling affirmation and for co-constructing professional purpose. It is argued that both ofthese outcomes are forms of professional knowledge in their own right. These findings havepotential implications for policy and practice as they indicate that it may be significant for
those organisations that support such networking opportunities to value and understand thesignificance of those forms of professional knowledge that are less concrete than theexchanging of specific classroom strategies alone.
Keywords: professional communities, professional knowledge, extended professionalism,
communities of practice, pedagogical knowledge, knowledge sharing, implicit knowledge

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In many countries, there are a wide range of initiatives that link teachers from different
schools within the same country. There are similarly a large number of initiatives that build
communities of teachers from different countries. These may be arranged and funded bygovernments, local and national, or by non-governmental organisations. These organisingbodies at some stage usually evaluate the success of these initiatives. The reasons variousorganisations have for supporting and promoting such community building is often describedin terms of improving teachers’ knowledge and expertise and in terms of sharing practice(Frost, 2015; British Council, 2018). These often become the success criteria that such
communities are judged by.
However, a frequent criticism is that although engagement in extended communities is often
a positive personal experience for teachers, they are sometimes not as effective at transferring
practice as is hoped for. Often, this has particularly been the conclusion reached by research
into the success of international initiatives (Oyewole, 2016). Another criticism, with thebuilding of international communities specifically, is that when the countries involved differ
in terms of economic development, levels of investment in education, or perceived teacher
status, the relationship between community members is inevitably an unequal one. The
potential for inequality is most often demonstrated by an expectation from those from themore developed country that they will have much to teach and less to learn (Steiner-Khamsi,2014).
Both authors are professionally engaged in developing extended and international
communities of teachers. Through this role we have found that current models of teacher
knowledge do not fit neatly when trying to understand these communities and especiallywhen trying to evaluate their success. Some models emphasise the importance of theindividual school (Frost, 2015), while others are culturally specific (Shulman (2013). Thesemodels do not enable a full understanding of knowledge transfer when the teachers in thesecountries teach very different subject knowledge and when the curriculum emphasises
different aspects of student and teacher knowledge and expertise (Schulman, 2013).
Therefore, in this paper we explore the different forms of knowledge that the participatingteachers perceived that they had shared and the value that they placed on these. This is within
the specific context of knowledge sharing within extended and international communities.
Literature Review
Professional knowledge in many professions is defined by a shared specialist language(Stickney, 2012). However, if professional knowledge is defined in this way, then thispresents problems if trying to understand the distinct knowledge of teachers (Frost, 2013).
Teachers certainly build a canon of knowledge and skills through their career. However, thisis framed in language that is familiar language to most people (Taber, 2009), simply because
most people have a deep familiarity with the language of teachers and of schools (Ball,
2006). In comparison, in the medical and legal professions the status of having distinct
professional knowledge, defined by distinct language and enforced by unique social codes, iseasier to attain (Hui & Stickley, 2007).
Other potentially more valid models of teachers’ knowledge identify and describe typologies
that define the different forms of knowledge that teachers may acquire. Shulman (2013) built
and refined a widely used typology of knowledge that defines teaching knowledge in terms ofpedagogical, subject content, and contextual knowledge. This way of identifying different
forms of knowledge is significant because it distinguishes between potentially mechanistic

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Volume 7 – Issue 1 – Summer 2019acts of classroom strategy and a deeper knowledge of practice, the latter of which enables
innovation and responsiveness. It also distinguishes between the factual content knowledge ofteachers and a simple knowledge of strategies, both of which can be easily shared, and thetacit knowledge of how to teach well in this context, which is much harder to share withothers.
This tacit knowledge, a “wisdom of practice” (Shulman, 2013), is a form of knowledge that isharder to transfer than either subject content knowledge or the mechanistic knowledge ofindividual classroom acts or strategies (Dogan, Pringle, & Mesa, 2016). However, with
Shulman’s model, the primacy given to subject content and contextual knowledge means thatit cannot be used as a conceptual tool on its own for understanding the knowledge exchanged
by teachers engaging in extended communities that reach beyond a single education system.
This is because of the lack of content similarity and the differing curriculums in different
contexts. This is exacerbated further if the community is very diverse such as an international
community.
Another alternative way of understanding how teachers build and define the professional
knowledge they possess, which has been widely used in theory building over the past twenty
years, is by reference to arts and crafts traditions (Shimahara, 1998; Lupton, 2013). These
analogies link teaching to other highly skilled roles that historically often lay at the heart ofcommunities. This way of understanding teachers’ professional knowledge, especially withreference to craft traditions, has had a deep influence on teacher training in England andWales in recent years, which has progressively moved towards a way of training which isakin to an apprenticeship model.
One argument for using this analogy to understand teachers’ professional knowledge is basedon acknowledging that once formal qualifications to enter the profession have been
completed, further professional knowledge is almost entirely gained via experience (Hord &Sommers, 2008; Oancea, 2014). Teachers in professional practice understand situations via
the context and interpretation of previous similar experiences (Taber, 2009). These specificexperiences are just as inaccessible to others as professional knowledge in other contexts.
However, teachers’ knowledge is more idiographic, likely to be expressed in less specialist
language and the process of gaining it is done in the real world setting of the teacher’sclassroom (Nyman, 2014). This knowledge is still highly specialised though and can only beaccumulated by deeply committed professionals over an extended period of time (ParkerKatz & Bay, 2008).
Art and craft analogies are useful tools for understanding the types of knowledge thatteachers may possess and share. This is because, with these analogies, a distinction can bemade between teaching as craft and teaching as art, whilst defining teaching knowledge is aunion of both types of knowledge (Lupton, 2013). Craft involves the accumulation of a broad
set of skills, whilst art is the utilisation of these in innovative and unique ways by any given
teacher. According to these analogies just as an experienced carpenter will make each piecein a distinct and unique way, but based on prior experience of having dealt with a similar
challenge before, so will a teacher when designing lessons and teaching strategies (BlackHawkins & Florian, 2012). As each challenge is resolved, the store of accumulated expertiseand depth of knowledge is extended (van Velzen, 2012).
Artists are interested in other artists’ work because of the creative discourse that is enabled byseeing and discussing it, not because they intend to replicate it entirely. Therefore, whereas in116

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Volume 7 – Issue 1 – Summer 2019other professional fields an exact equivalent case may inform the way to address the next, inteaching the myriad range of similar classroom experiences informs later decisions. However,this knowledge is used far more flexibly than it might be in other contexts. A different setting
is not simply advantageous or disadvantageous, but leads to different but equally valid
decisions being made (Gun, 2014).
Another distinct approach to understanding the knowledge of teachers is the teacher
leadership perspective as promulgated by Frost (2014; 2015) and others involved in theInternational Teacher Leadership Initiative. “Teacher Leadership” is used as a term byvarious writers. However, two aspects of the teacher leadership approach that Frost (2015)
propounds are distinct from other conceptual models. These are the importance of the coconstruction of knowledge by teachers, and the importance of knowledge validation by
fellow professionals (Creaby, 2013; Frost, 2014), albeit acknowledging that the idea of coconstruction is implicitly present in models that use arts as an analogy.
According to this teacher leadership perspective, for knowledge to be relevant to teachers it
must be co-constructed as a community (Bolat, 2013). The distinction between coconstruction as opposed to simply sharing is important as it is through co-construction thatteachers are able to be creative and to exercise leadership (Steel, 2014). Through this process,knowledge is shared through the stories teachers tell and it is then developed in innovative
ways as a community. This then facilitates the process of building a positive professional
identity and self-efficacy among teachers (Frost, 2014), which in turn facilitates the enablingof embedded, long lasting changes in practice or underpinning viewpoints on education (Hill,2014).
For this professional knowledge to be of value it therefore undergoes a process of“knowledge validation” (Frost, 2013, p.17) with the teachers in the role of expert practitioner
and expert audience. The knowledge that is co-constructed and then validated in the dialogueof teachers may on occasion be specific knowledge relating to classroom strategies but it may
also be knowledge of how to exercise leadership, knowledge of purpose, or knowledge of
one’s own professional significance (Hill, 2014; Frost, 2013). The emphasis in the context of
this teacher leadership approach is on teachers being empowered to innovate. Through theconfidence that this builds teachers then develop belief in themselves as leaders of change.
The significance of emphasising the co-construction of knowledge rather than the directtransfer of practice has implications when teachers work together across national borders(Underwood & Kowalczuk-Walędziak, 2018). It reduces the risk of strategies being rejected
because of an unquestioning acceptance of approaches brought in from other countries,
especially wealthier ones (Ramahi, 2015). Ramahi (2015), in the context of Palestine, writes
about how the building of collective knowledge as opposed to only individual reflective
knowledge enables forms of knowledge other than classroom practice to be exchanged byteachers. This, in her experience, includes knowledge of: personal agency; approaches toleading change; and of teachers’ own role as experts.
To some extent these interlinking definitions of professional knowledge would also beappropriate when defining experienced professionals in any profession including the
traditional professions of law and medicine, which were placed in opposition to these models
at the start of this section. However, it may be more significant for teachers than for those inother professions (Kuper & D’Eon, 2011; Frost, 2014). This knowledge of teachers, which
once a teacher is qualified is largely built experientially, is different from the more proceduralknowledge of other professions and therefore is worth understanding in a distinct way (Eraut,

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Volume 7 – Issue 1 – Summer 20192007; Frost, 2015).
The purpose of this study reported here was to explore the types of knowledge that teachers
engaged in extended and international communities shared, and the value that they put onthese different forms of knowledge. Two research questions underpinned this study:••

What types of knowledge do teachers engaged in extended communities exchange?
In what ways do teachers value these different types of knowledge?
MethodThe overall design for this study divides into two stages (Newby, 2014). First, there was a
preparatory stage which involved an exploration into literature in this field. This first stage
built an initial conceptual understanding that would be used to guide the analysis of
documents and the interviews. In the second stage, ten interviews with two different groupsof teachers were conducted. Interviews were firstly conducted five teachers currently
teaching in schools in England, who were all engaged in communities that extend beyond
their workplace. For all of them, this involved working with teachers, and others in education,from the Balkans including Macedonia, via “the International Teacher Leadership initiative”.
The second group was five teachers teaching in schools in Macedonia who were members ofsimilar communities that extended beyond their own workplace and in some, but not allcases, communities with an international dimension.
The participants from both countries were all teachers within the state system in either
England or Macedonia. The five Macedonian teachers all taught in schools that had cohortsof children aged from 7 to 14. The teachers from England were all secondary school teachers(teaching children aged 11 to 16). All had taught for at least one year and none had taught for
more than ten. The teachers from England were one English teacher, two humanities teachers,
one science teacher, and one dance teacher. Due to the age of the children the Macedonian
teachers did not have a subject specialism.
All could be described as “extended professionals” (Hoyle, 2008, p.287) in that they were
proactive professionals, constantly seeking professional development opportunities within
their schools, their country and beyond to make systematic and purposeful interventions intheir teaching practice in order to improve it. In this way they also demonstrate a high level of“professionality” (Evans, 2008, p.24).
The participants were involved in a range of communities from formally structured projects
to online communities that they had created for themselves. The one commonality thesecommunities all had was that they extended beyond the school workplace. They were all also
involved in at least one community that was part of the larger, UK based “International
Teacher Leadership initiative”. However, in no case was this the only extended communitythat they belonged to and the participants referred to a range of the communities in which
they were involved in their interviews.
The “International Teacher Leadership initiative” provided gatekeeper access to theparticipants. It is a project that started at the University of Cambridge in 2011 and is now a
fully independent initiative. It involves all the countries that have emerged from the former
Yugoslavia, plus the UK, Turkey, Portugal and Palestine. The participants’ involvement
ranged from being central to the governance of this initiative, to being a teacher involved in118

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Volume 7 – Issue 1 – Summer 2019local initiatives inspired by it in England or Macedonia. In all cases though it meant that it
might be expected that the participants would have a shared perspective on the ideals of“teacher leadership” that this project puts forward (Frost, 2015). However, this study does not
focus exclusively on this project, but rather on the knowledge shared within a range ofcommunities these teachers were involved with, whether formally or informally structured.
Interviews were used because the aims and goals of communities of teachers that stretch
beyond the workplace, articulated in the literature of the organisations that promoteinternational networking, tend to be strong, clear, and hard to disagree with. This includes the
documents produced via the “International Teacher Leadership initiative”. They variously
combine an emphasis on the importance of: democratic participation; enabling civic society;empowering teachers; and on building global communities of education professionals (British
Council, 2016; Frost, 2008). These are all values and ideals that any teacher engaged ininternational networking via formal projects would be likely to concur with. We therefore
decided to use interview because such deep data would reveal subtle differences in viewpoint
and perception (Robson & McCartan, 2016).
The participants were interviewed in private. The interviews were held in English althoughboth authors were present for the interviews with the Macedonian teachers (one of the authors
speaks both English and Macedonian fluently). The same simple interview schedule was usedwith all the participants from both countries and consisted of four open questions, which
would then enable a further discussion. These questions asked the teachers to describe thecommunities that they had been involved in, their reasons for joining, the knowledge thatthey had shared within the community, and what they valued most about community
membership. From this starting point further discussion emerged. The shortest interview
lasted 40 minutes, the longest lasted 70 minutes.
All the interviews were transcribed verbatim. They were then:• carefully read by both authors with initial codes written in the margin by hand;• extracts with identical or related codes were grouped together in tables;• the codes were then reduced and categories identified; and• these became the categories that shaped the writing of the second half of this article.
Findings and Discussion
This section is a discussion of the forms of knowledge that were exchanged by theparticipants, when they were engaging in communities beyond the workplace. We also
discuss the value the participants put upon the different forms of knowledge that were sharedand on the process of sharing.
Knowledge of Strategies and PracticeAll of the participants acknowledged the possibility that specific classroom strategies may beexchanged by meeting other teachers through a community that functions beyond theworkplace. This reflects Shulman’s model of knowledge sharing, which describes how
specific strategies are the simplest and most transferable form of knowledge that teachers
share (Shulman, 2013). For the participants this included within international communities
that they had been engaged with. However, none of the participants, from either England or
Macedonia, felt that the learning of concrete strategies had been particularly significant forthem. Therefore, an apparent tension regarding rejecting the simple and mechanistic learning

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Volume 7 – Issue 1 – Summer 2019of teaching strategies, whilst maintaining the goal of achieving concrete change throughdialogue with other teachers, was present in all the interviews.
The participants were very interested in how others taught and consistently described how
hearing stories about teaching was a vital and stimulating aspect of engaging with teachers
from other countries. This closely matches Frost’s (2015) and Ramahi’s (2015) description ofknowledge being present in the discourse of teachers. However, the participants wereconfident in their own skills as teachers and lesson designers, enjoyed the process of lesson
design, and were consistently looking for sources of inspiration rather than strategies thatthey could simply transfer. They were also interested in current trends and developments as
expressed by the teaching of others. This again fits closely with Frost’s (2014) teacher
leadership model, which describes how experienced teachers perceive themselves as creativeand individualistic and therefore seek forms of knowledge other than the direct copying ofstrategies. This is illustrated below by this quotation from one of the teachers from England.
I kind of just wanted to find out more about it. Colleagues have been abroad
before and found it really interesting to hear about teaching in other countries
but particularly the obstacles to teaching and how we take it for granted overhere. I saw this as a form of professional development, a chance for
involvement in something. I expected it to have some kind of influence on myteaching but that isn’t the same as learning teaching strategies, it was
something less direct that I expected to gain. The vast majority of your time isspent in your classroom by yourself and you are the identity in your classroom.
The activities, the lessons have your stamp on them. My lessons have the stampof other individuals who inspire me. Although I think you could come into mylesson and see a Ms xxxxx lesson, there are other ideas that have fed into thatparticular lessons and yes that is what I expected or at least hoped for (Asecondary school geography teacher from England, engaged projects withteachers from the Balkans).
The knowledge that all the participants sought to build through engagement, in the morediverse communities of teachers that they belonged to, included and emphasised knowledgeof the thought processes of other teachers when designing approaches to teaching; knowledgeof the working culture that enabled or inhibited this, and a deeper understanding of theinteraction between the wider community that they belonged to and the design of innovative
lessons. All of these in turn were linked to improvements in teaching within their own schools
and classrooms but in a more nuanced way than the simple importing of strategies. The
participants saw the dialogue that international engagement, specifically, could bring about
between teachers from different countries as ideally being critical, discursive and coconstructed. They also thought that it was important that such discussions would be
empowering for the teachers engaged in them.
There was an initiative seven years ago, we were in that initiative, and theytaught us that it is great to share your ideas and that was the aim of thatworkshop and they taught us how to film, to record our classes and to shareand that is great, really inspiring, but it was the doing of it that inspired me, tobe honest I didn’t then copy a lot of lessons but I made friends, interesting
people I still talk about teaching with (teacher from Macedonia: engaged in apan-Macedonian project).

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The quotation above is illustrative of how a perception of teaching as an individualistic or
idiographic profession was expressed in all the interviews. It was also consistently
emphasised that an individualistic approach to lesson design could potentially be positive andenabling. It could even promote greater self-efficacy than dependence on the strategies ofothers. However, for this to be the case it was seen as important that these teachers still
identified as members of a community, thus fitting with E. Wenger-Trayner and B. WengerTrayner’s (2015) model of a community of practice. This emphasis on individuality andcreativity did not negate the possibility of community membership, as long as the expectation
was that the knowledge shared would not simply be mechanistic know-how.
Within several of the interviews, as the quotation below illustrates, there was also explicit
reference to the idea of teachers’ shared knowledge being similar to knowledge in the arts.
According to this analogy it may be expected that techniques, approaches and perspectives
are shared in order to then enable personal innovation (Lupton, 2013; Oancea, 2014). This
may indicate that this is an analogy that these teachers were already familiar with. However,even if this is the case, it is clearly one that resonates.
Solutions are found more quickly if you can undertake reflection with othercolleagues but the final design of a lesson needs to be something personal …….
You get involved in designing a lesson, it is like an artist or a writer does
(teacher from England: secondary science teacher: engaged with projects in
Europe).
All of the participants saw the process of lesson design as highly personal and individual.
One participant in particular was very active in presenting her ideas to others via the internet
and had built a community beyond the workplace where she was a leader and innovator,presenting her practice to others. However, even in this case, an appreciation of the role ofothers was still present. She acknowledged that she was often inspired by ideas from others
within and beyond this community. In keeping with the analogy that lesson design is similar
to the process of being an artist (Lupton, 2013), she never used these in their entirety without
modifying and developing them further.
I never use the internet for ideas, because I record my lessons and I picture
them. I publish them. So I need to always be creative (teacher fromMacedonia: engaged extensively in online, international communities ofteachers).
It was interesting that this emphasis on independence and creativity was still the case eventhough both countries, England and Macedonia, had seen political pressures emerge since2010 in terms of an expectation of improving the teaching in the respective country via directinternational borrowing. In England this has been diffuse and sporadic with various initiatives
using China, Finland, Singapore and others as a potential model being promulgated (Frost,2015). In Macedonia this has been more focused and concrete, specifically the national
curriculum and assessment processes were, at the time these interviews were conducted,
being re-designed by Cambridge International Examinations, with teaching towards thishaving already begun with children aged up to eleven (Joshevska & Kirandziska, 2017).
Teachers in Macedonia at this time were also having to undergo a large-scale government led
assessment of their teaching and subject knowledge as part of this development.
On the few occasions where learning specific teaching strategies were mentioned, all the121

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interviewees stated that it would be likely that teachers working in England would have more
specific strategies to give to others and less to learn. However, these strategies were not thoseof classroom practice but rather were leadership strategies promulgated by the International
Teacher Leadership initiative that they were involved in (Frost, 2013). This therefore
reflected the greater depth of embedding of this specific initiative in England rather than aperception that education in England was superior in any more general sense. Contrary to apossible expectation that classroom strategies may be imported from the West (SteinerKhamsi, 2014; Oyewole, 2016) all of the Macedonian participants perceived there to be no
significant difference in quality or approach to teaching between the two nations.
Knowledge of Purpose
Eight of the ten interviewees, from both England and Macedonia, used the phrase “moral
purpose” in their interviews. This is language used by writers, who identify themselves as
writing in the tradition of teacher leadership (Frost, 2015). This may therefore come from theparticipants’ involvement in communities that define themselves in this way. However, to theparticipants it was clearly a meaningful term even when defining other communities that they
belonged to. When expanding upon it, a common understanding emerged that linked thisclosely to ideas of collective-efficacy and empowerment in a similar way to that expressed by
E. Wenger-Trayner and B. Wenger-Trayner, (2015). For all the teachers the experience oftravelling, when this was possible, was connected to an ambition to work with fellow teacherswith similar approaches and values. Indeed, what particularly impressed the teachers fromEngland about those with whom they had worked from Macedonia was their ambitions
regarding and focus on improving the education system of Macedonia. These conversations
where the teachers were able to find a commonality of moral purpose were particularly
valued as a distinct positive that came from being part of this community.
Maybe different experiences and examples are going to inspire them because I
think that philosophy is not inspiring teachers who are just listening to a lot of
philosophy. I want to convince them that if I can do it, you can do it also
(teacher from Macedonia: involved in pan-Macedonian projects).
There are so many involved and dear to me. The initiative gels people together
but the individual relationship is more significant still. We synchronised aboutteacher leadership around having the same values, realising how important
what we are doing was, but I definitely feel like I belong to a community ofteachers that are seeking for an impact and a change in education (teacher
from England: a secondary school dance teacher, involved in projects with theBalkans).
This was also connected for the participants to the establishing of democracy in The Balkans
and the rebuilding of civic society. It was the fact that this initiative was working with thesecountries that drew some of the teachers from England to choose to become involved at an
early stage. As regards their role as leaders of civic change, the perceptions of the
Macedonian teachers were distinct from the teachers from England and also morehomogenous. Some of the teachers from England did not perceive themselves as having awider civic role beyond their school, while others saw this as a strong feature of their identity
as teachers and educational leaders, to the extent that they perceived this role as a global one.
We work with little kids we create in some way the future citizens. So we teachinteraction in group cooperation, in groups that is the first way how to be a

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great citizen. What I am trying to achieve is that, I try to teach children to
become good human beings (teacher from Macedonia: primarily engage inprojects in the Balkans).
As this quotation above exemplifies the teachers from Macedonia all perceived themselves as
having a role in terms of building civic society. This was also articulated in documents
produced by Macedonian writers, linked to the “International Teacher Leadership initiative”(Joshevska & Kirandziska, 2017). In all cases this was primarily linked to and focused on thelocal community. The Macedonian participants saw themselves as having a leadership role interms of building social cohesion. However, they saw this as being even more closely linked
to teaching than the teachers from England did, with both being an aspect of a common
process.
Knowledge that Affirms
For all the teachers, recognition of their expertise by other teachers was significant to them.
They emphasised a recognition of the unique skills set innovative teachers have, their role inbuilding civic society, and the importance of resisting becoming mechanistic as regards
approaches to teaching. The interviewees strongly identified with the communities beyond
the workplace that they belonged to as ones that they took considerable pride in being part of.
One form of knowledge that they therefore perceived as being shared when working withother teachers, was knowledge of themselves as professionals and of their shared collective
efficacy. This is a form of knowledge that has been previously described by E. WengerTrayner and B. Wenger-Trayner (2015). One thing that was consistently welcomed was theopportunity to demonstrate expertise to a knowledgeable audience outside their own schools
and to have this expertise recognised, something also noted by Frost (2013) when describing
such communities. Thus, one of the gains of working on initiatives with other teachers in thisway was the process of being affirmed and of affirming others.
So one of the things we also do in the component is that we set up networking
meetings in one school for several schools that are joined. They have a chance
to show off, to celebrate their success, something that is very lacking in theteaching profession in general or in Macedonia specifically (teacher fromMacedonia involved in projects across Macedonia and with England).
Teachers from both countries saw themselves as being engaged in a conversation between
equals. However, both groups of participants identified that this was particularly possible
because they identified with the commonality of being teachers and experts in education.
From this therefore emerges the fourth type of knowledge that was shared within thiscommunity, which was, “knowledge that affirms”. This is the knowledge that one is a skilled
professional that can only be gained from the critique of other fellow professionals.
Thus, although distinct, knowledge that affirms, also relates to the other three types ofknowledge identified above. All the interviewees described how stories about teachingprovided the opportunity to demonstrate expertise to a knowledgeable audience outside theschool they usually work in and to have this expertise recognised. To the participants thestories that teachers tell are not simply informative but are more purposeful and inspiring thanother types of discussion on pedagogy or practice. All the participants also understood theimportance of being prepared to move flexibly between the role of expert and expertaudience.

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Based on these findings a typology of knowledge is presented in the diagram below. This
diagram was designed by the first author and first presented in a doctoral thesis in 2017
(Underwood, 2017). The four types of knowledge illustrated by the four arrows that emerge
are: knowledge of strategies, knowledge of practice, knowledge of purpose and knowledge
that affirms. The distinction between the first two of these is that knowledge of strategies,
refers to specific classroom-based actions which are both mechanistic and relatively easilytransferred; while, knowledge of practice, is a term to describe perspectives on andapproaches to teaching and lesson design rather than specific teaching strategies. In the
middle of this diagram is a box that represents: communities that are personally significant,and in which knowledge is co-constructed. The arrow at the bottom of the diagram, shows
how this knowledge is shared via community engagement but also creates community
identity and cohesion. It is these forms of knowledge that need to be understood if those thatcreate, support and fund such projects are to be able to evaluate them effectively.
Community characteristics

soughtThe knowledge createdInternational
communities,
potentially coconstructing
knowledge

The co-creation of knowledge, creates community
identity and cohesion

Figure 1: Types of knowledge generated within extended communities of teachers,(Underwood, 2017)124

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Volume 7 – Issue 1 – Summer 2019Conclusion
The high regard these teachers put upon the experience of being able to network with fellow
professionals suggests that there is value in government, local and national, supporting suchprocesses. Teachers clearly described how being involved in diverse communities, includinginternational communities, had improved their classroom practice and professional
confidence. These are all aspects of teachers’ professionalism that any school or country
would want to develop. However, none of the participants placed any particular significanceon the sharing of specific teaching strategies. Instead they stressed the importance of hearing
about strategies for designing lessons and for exercising leadership as well as the coconstruction of moral purpose. This know-why knowledge was seen to exist in the same
discourse as knowledge about teaching strategies but was given far greater primacy. Indeed,stories of know-how for these teachers were largely seen as a vehicle for these other deeper
forms of knowledge. Therefore, we would recommend that when such communities areevaluated, by those that lead or fund them, that the value of different types of knowledge isunderstood, with credence given to sharing knowledge other than the direct transfer ofclassroom strategies

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Corresponding author: James Underwood
Contact email: james.underwood@northampton.ac.uk

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Reviewers | IAFOR Journal of Education Volume 7 – Issue 1
The editorial team would like to thank the following reviewers for their contributions topeer review for this issue of the journal. Their dedication and assistance are greatly
appreciated.
Akihiro Saito
Alaster Douglas
Alice Hanbidge
Andrew Leichsenring
Anna Toom
Caroline Dacwag
Christiana Hammond
Christina Belcher
Consorcia Tan
Cornelius Riordan
Denise de Souza
Elaine Huber
Essam Mansour
Habsah Hussin
Heloisa Delgado
Ilana Ronen

Ivy Chia
Jahan Ara
Jillian Marchant
Jin Lee
Kyle WhitfieldLuisa Daniele
Lynda Leavitt
Mai Zaki
Meliha Simsek
Pearl Subban
Raimond Selke
Raymond Datuon
Richard Mather
Shaher Elayyan
Tania Fonseca

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journal of education

ISSN: 2187-0594